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Jorge Guillén Álvarez (; 18 January 18936 February 1984) was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of '27, a university teacher, a scholar and a literary critic. In 1957-1958, he delivered the Charles Eliot Norton lectures at Harvard University, which were published in 1961 under the title Language and Poetry: Some Poets of Spain. The final lecture was a tribute to his colleagues in the Generation of '27. In 1983, he was named Hijo Predilecto de Andalucía. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature four times. ==Biography== Jorge Guillén was born in Valladolid where he spent his childhood and adolescence. From 1909 to 1911 he lived in Switzerland. He studied at the universities of Madrid – lodging in the Residencia de Estudiantes – and Granada, where he took his licenciatura in philosophy in 1913.Connell p 168 His life paralleled that of his friend Pedro Salinas, whom he succeeded as a Spanish lector at the Collège de Sorbonne in the University of Paris from 1917 to 1923. While in Paris, he met and, in 1921, married Germaine Cahen. They had two children, a son Claudio born in 1924 who became a noted critic and scholar of comparative literature, and a daughter Teresa who married the Harvard professor Stephen Gilman. He took his doctorate at the University of Madrid in 1924 with a dissertation on Góngora's notoriously difficult and, at that time, neglected long poem Polifemo.Havard p 18 This was also the period when his first poems were starting to be published in España and La pluma.Connell p 168 He was appointed to the chair of Spanish Literature at the University of Murcia from 1925 to 1929, where, with Juan Guerrero Ruiz and José Ballester Nicolás, he founded and edited a literary magazine called Verso y Prosa. He continued to visit the Residencia de Estudiantes although his academic responsibilities limited his attendance to vacations. This allowed him to make the acquaintance of the younger members of the Generation – such as Rafael Alberti and Federico García Lorca. He became a regular correspondent of the latter and, on the occasion of a visit by Lorca to the Arts Club of Valladolid in April 1926, Guillén delivered an introduction to a poetry reading which was a considered and sympathetic appraisal of a man whom he considered to be already a poetic genius, although he had only published one collection.Gibson p 162 He also participated in the Tercentenary celebrations in honour of Góngora. The volume of Octavas that he was supposed to edit, however, was never completed but he did give a reading of some of his own poems at an event in Seville with great success.Alberti p 254 He became the lector at Oxford University from 1929 to 1931, and was appointed to a professorship at the University of Seville in 1932. On 8 March 1933, he was present at the premiere in Madrid of García Lorca's play Bodas de sangre.Gibson p348 In August 1933, he was able to attend performances at the Magdalena Palace in Santander by the travelling theatre company La Barraca that Lorca led.Gibson p359 On 12 July 1936 he was present at a party in Madrid that took place just before García Lorca departed to Granada for the last time before his murder. It was there that Lorca read his new play La Casa de Bernarda Alba for the last time.Gibson p442 On the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 he was back in Valladolid and was briefly imprisoned in Pamplona for political reasons.Havard p 67 He returned to his post in Seville and continued there until July 1938, when he decided to go into exile in the USA together with his wife and two teenage children. Apart from the turmoil in Spain itself, the fact that his wife was Jewish might have caused him concern.Havard p 67 He joined Salinas at Wellesley College and stayed there as the Professor of Spanish from 1941 to his retirement in 1957.Jorge Guillen Is Dead at 91; A Spanish Poet and Teacher - New York Times He retired to Italy. In 1958 in Florence he married Irene Mochi-Sismondi, his first wife having died in 1947. He continued to give lectures at Harvard, Princeton and Puerto Rico, and for a spell was Mellon Professor of Spanish at the University of Pittsburgh, until he broke his hip in a fall in 1970. In 1976 he moved to the city of Málaga. In 1976, he was awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize, the most prestigious prize for Spanish-language writers, and in 1977 the Premio Internacional Alfonso Reyes. He died in Málaga in 1984, aged 91 and was buried there in the Anglican Cemetery of Saint George. ==Analysis of his work== ===Cántico=== ====1928 edition==== Although a glimpse at the collected poems of Guillén suggests that he was a prolific poet, he was slow to get started. He only seems to have started writing poems when he was in Paris in 1919 when he was already 25. Over the next 10 years he published quite frequently in the small magazines of the day and began to build a name for himself amongst the members of his generation, including Dámaso Alonso and Federico García Lorca.Havard p 11 As early as 1923 Pedro Salinas urged him to publish a collection but he would not be hurried. Two of his key character traits are revealed by this long gestation period: his quest for perfection and an innate reserve. He was in fact the last of the major figures of the generation to gather together a collection, the first instalment of Cántico- at this stage a collection of 75 poems – which was published by the Revista de Occidente (a journal edited by Ortega y Gasset) in 1928. He was by this time 35. Correspondence with García Lorca shows just how painstaking he was, spending months polishing, revising and correcting poems that he had already written and published, to a point where they were practically unrecognisable from the way they had first appeared in public.Havard p 11 Clarity and coherence were his major objectives but he also seemed to wish to avoid obvious self- revelation and any hint of sentimentality. Lorca's reaction in a postcard to Guillén written on 27 December 1928 captures the elements that dominate most critical responses to the latter's poetry: an opposition between the jubilant, physical celebration of reality that his poems try to capture and, on the other hand, its extreme technical purity, which can seem cold and overly intellectual.Havard p 9 During his time in Paris, Guillén had come under the influence of Paul Valéry. Valéry was closely associated with the ideal of pure poetry and Guillén later recalled him saying that "Pure poetry is what is left after the elimination of everything that is not poetry."Havard p 18 He was also inspired by Valéry's belief that a poet should only write one book – Un, qui est le bon et le seul de son êtreValéry Oeuvres vol 1 pp 1560-61 \- a remark that makes sense of Guillén's career, both of the accretive process that led ultimately to the finished Cántico, and also of the impulse that led him to combine all his published poetry into one collection Aire nuestro in 1968. He also translated four of Valéry's poems, including the celebrated "Le Cimetière marin," into Spanish. However, in Language and Poetry, he also recorded a debt to the poetic rigour of Góngora, showing that he could trace this concern for stylistic purity back much further than Valéry. Even in his earliest poems, such as "Gran silencio", the language is impersonal; the poet does not make any appearance in the poem. His poems offer an ecstatic reaction to the geometrical forms or the objects they describe but this is a generic reaction not Guillén's personal response. He is like an aesthetician or philosopher presenting things for the reader's edification. In "La salida", the only verbs that occur are infinitives. This means that what is described has no specific agent or time, again helping Guillén to become anonymous and guard against sentimentality.Havard p 14 Like Valéry, he also writes poems that reflect upon poetry itself, for example "El ruiseñor" and "La rosa", both written in Guillén's favourite form, the décima, typically a stanza of 10 octosyllabic lines rhyming ABBAACCDDC, although he used many variations, such as a rhyme scheme borrowed from the French dizain, ABABCCDEED. However, although Valéry, > read and reread with great devotion by the Castilian poet, was a model of > exemplary elevation of subject matter and of exemplary rigor of > style,Guillen L and P p 208 Guillén concludes by saying that Cántico > can be defined negatively as the antithesis of Valéry's Charmes.Guillen L > and P p 208 Guillén stresses a determination to treat poetry as creation, a poem as a world in quintessence.Guillen L and P p 208 For Valéry, poetry is a process of self-discovery, an exercise in consciousness, working out what it means to be an individual poet exploring reality. Guillén accepts reality for what it is and he wants to show what he has in common with other humans in the timeless experience of being.Havard p 25 It is a phenomenology that derives from Ortega y Gasset as exemplified in his work Meditaciones del Quijote. ====1936 edition==== The next edition of Cántico contained 125 poems. It was published by Cruz y Raya – a journal edited by José Bergamín – in 1936. While many members of his generation had suffered some form of crisis towards the end of the 1920s – amongst them Alberti, Garcia Lorca, Aleixandre, Cernuda – there were no signs of personal upheaval or radical change in Guillén's approach to poetry. Instead there is a deepening of the approach to reality contained in the first edition. Reality is potentially perfect. All it requires is the active participation of an onlooker to raise it to its full potencyHavard p 39 as explained by Ortega in the Meditaciones. There is stylistic development as well in that some of the new poems are lengthy; "Salvación de la primavera" amounts to 55 quatrains (220 lines) and "Más allá", which eventually became the very first book in the collection, consists of 50 quatrains. There are also more medium-length poems of around 40-50 lines, such as "Viento saltado" and "El desterrado", most of which were written or started during Guillén's period of residence at Oxford. The collection is grouped into 5 sections, frequently book-ended by these longer poems, so that it has a more formally pleasing shape. The versification is also more varied; there are many more romances (octosyllabic lines with assonance in the even-numbered lines); Guillén starts to write sonnets; he introduces longer lines and also the assonantal quatrains of the longer poems. The longer poems are inevitably less abstract and impersonal but they do not show any real break with his approach to poetry. In place of the concentrated focus on one object or small group of objects, the longer poems have scope for a more comprehensive assessment of exterior reality. Instead of flashes of ecstasy, the pursuit of plenitude and essence is an ongoing quest. The poetry continues to avoid anecdotal narrative but the greater circumstantial and temporal definition of the longer poems gives this edition an enhanced awareness of human contact with the real world.Havard p 41 There is in addition a far more detailed examination of big themes such as love – "Salvación de la primavera" – and death – "Muerte a lo lejos" – although the poet takes a very detached view of death. It will happen one day and until then, he can enjoy life in the present. Some of the new poems have epigraphs from Walt Whitman, such as "El desterrado". He might have come across Whitman during his time in France but his interest seems to have been consolidated during his Oxford period.Havard p 42 There are overlaps between Whitman's poetry and the thinking of Ortega as enshrined in his famous formula Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia from the Meditaciones, in other words I am the sum of my individual self and the things that surround me/that I perceive. This is perhaps explained most fully in "Viento saltado", which he began in Oxford in 1931.Havard p 51 It is a clear example of one of Guillén's stylistic characteristics, the use of exclamations. Everything in the poem is an exclamation as he displays an almost childlike delight at being buffeted by a blustery wind. ====1945 edition==== A lot happened in Guillén's life before he published the next edition of Cántico in Mexico in 1945. By now the book had more than doubled in size, to 270 poems. A reader would expect events such as the mysterious death of his friend García Lorca, the Spanish Civil War, exile to the USA and the Second World War to have an effect on Guillén's poetry. Exile in particular seems to have hit him hard because he did not speak very good English and he remained very attached to his Spanish background.Havard p 68 But biographical references in his poems remain elusive. There is in this edition an increase in the number of poems that deal with pain and death. He also oscillates between extremes in a new and different way; some poems are stridently affirmative of his values while others are far more meditative and tranquil than hitherto. There are poems that deal with simple domestic pleasures, such as the home, family life, friendship and parenthood, which do not have any counterpart in the earlier editions. There are stylistic innovations. In Language and Poetry, one of the lectures is about the prosaic language of the mediaeval poet Gonzalo de Berceo, whom Guillén admired for his humility and faith. In the poem "Equilibrio", there is a plainness of syntax, compared with earlier poems, that seems to suggest that he is trying to emulate this. There are poems which suggest that Guillén feels that he is now living in an alien environment, such as "Vida urbana".Havard p 84 There is also the emergence of the theme of pain and suffering. Sometimes pain prevents the realization of plenitude, as in "Muchas gracias, adiós"; sometimes awareness of pain and death can help to remind the poet of the importance of fighting for life. Although there are very few autobiographical references in Cántico, in this edition it is tempting to see references to the protracted illness and frequent hospital visits of his wife before her death in 1947, as well as the poet's own bouts of ill health. In "Su persona", he argues that loneliness is not to be defeated by turning to memories of shared joys, because they are merely phantasms. Instead, you have to face reality and find the good that exists there. In this edition, Guillén acknowledges that reality has a dark side but affirms that it can be resisted and must be resisted.Havard p 90 ====1950 the final edition==== The completed version contained 334 poems and was published in Buenos Aires. Amongst the new poems are ten very long ones that exemplify Guillén's search for clarity and cohesion. "A vista de hombre", for example, was begun in a New York hotel and deals with a view of an unnamed metropolis from a skyscraper. It develops the poet's thoughts on his relationship with the mass of people living and working in this city until it closes with the poet retiring to his bed. Unlike García Lorca in Poeta en Nueva York or countless other poets, the city is not inhuman, cold, abstract. The emphasis is on the mass of humanity it holds.Havard p 93 The city is a mix of good and evil, man's heroic endeavours and barbarity – a reality that has to be embraced in totality even when you cannot understand it. The poet is both an isolated individual in a hotel room and a member of this society. Others of the new poems also echo this theme, showing that Guillén does not want to reject modern urban life but instead to find a way of incorporating it into his affirmative scheme. Although various poems evoke Murcia, Oxford and Manhattan, "Luz natal" contains the only place name in the whole of Cántico, el cerro de San Cristóbal, a hill outside Valladolid which he visited in 1949 to see his sick father. It is a meditation on the significance of this place, from which he began his journey towards reality and from which he still takes his bearings. It adds a new dimension to Guillén's poetry – history. The protagonist is also a product of history and he has to come to terms with the good and the bad sides of his culture's history, just as he has to accept the good and bad of the reality that faces him.Havard p 106 In this final edition, Guillén completes his task of showing that human life is charged with structure and meaning which we need to explore in all its fullness.Havard p 118 A passage from Language and Poetry seems to sum up his poetics in this collection: :Reality is depicted in the poem, but not described in its external likeness. Reality, not realism. And feeling, without which there is no poetry, has no need of gesticulation. …..This restraint in the displaying of emotions retains their vehemence, and indeed doubles their intensity. But for ears that hear not, harmonies such as these are almost confused with silence. That is why some of these poets were tried and found wanting for their coldness, even though they were dedicated to declaring their enthusiasm for the world, their fervour for life, their love for love.Guillen L and P p 205 : ===Clamor=== It was seven years before Guillén published another collection of poems, Maremágnum in 1957. This was the start of his second portmanteau collection, Clamor. The other two constituent parts were Que van a dar en la mar (a quotation from Jorge Manrique's Coplas por la muerte de su padre) in 1960 and A la altura de las circunstancias in 1963. It is not clear when he started work on these collections. The long gap between the final edition of Cántico and the first volume of Clamor suggest that the bulk of the work was done in the 1950s especially in view of the number of poems that were added to the two later editions of Cántico. This collection is almost the antithesis of Cántico. The continued optimism and delight in life that the poet had shown despite the upheavals in his personal life and the turmoil of world events must have begun to seem an inadequate response. So there are poems such as "Los intranquilos" which use much simpler, less distanced language and convey a sense of unease, dissatisfaction, uncertainty. In this poem, the only escape from all this is into the oblivion offered by drink or the television.Connell p 171 In Cántico, there were many poems about awakening and how wonderful it is to return into consciousness. In Clamor, dawn brings a desire to sink back into sleep and find oblivion. "Del trascurso" compares with "Muerte a lo lejos" from Cántico and not just because both poems are sonnets. In the earlier poem, death was somewhere in the future and life was to be enjoyed. In the later poem, the poet looks back to his past where the good memories are. He then clings to the present but cannot avoid the sense of a future that is shrinking every day. In "Viviendo", the poet is in the city, walking in the twilight surrounded by the hum of traffic. The poet feels part of a machine that is slowly ticking away time. He reaches the realization that the individual can die without the machine either slowing or stopping, regardless of whether the individual has completed his part of the work of that machine. As time goes by, the sight of tables on a café terrace remind him that there is after all a human component to this machine. The conclusion that emerges is again resignation to the inevitability of death but there is no sense of consolation, merely an unconvincing stoicism of a man journeying from nothingness to nothingness.Connell p 172 It is a very different feel to "A vista de hombre". In "Modo paterno", lacking any definite faith in God or an afterlife, the poet tells himself that something of his will be saved and projected into the future by his children. This belief acts as a counterbalance to the sadness and pessimism of most of the collection. ===Homenaje=== It seems that this collection, although published in 1967, gathers together poems written between 1949–66, so it overlaps with the final stages of the writing of Cántico as well as with Clamor. It contains much occasional poetry, recording Guillén's readings, his friends, places visited, favourite painters etc. It also contains translations of French, Italian, German, English and Portuguese poetry. However, there are also more personal reflections. "Al márgen de un Cántico", for example, shows his response to critics who had accused him of writing in abstractions – such as Juan Ramón Jiménez among others. "Historia inconclusa" recalls some of the writers who have meant most to him, including a subtle tribute to García Lorca. And there are also poems which show a new-found resignation or acceptance of life, free from the ambiguities and uncertainties of "Viviendo".Connell p 172 Guillén gave the title Aire nuestro to the compilation of his three great poetry books prior to 1968. He would later publish Y otros poemas (1973) and Final (1982). ==Guillén and Salinas== These two poets have often been compared to each other.Morris To some extent this is because they were good friends and slightly older than most of the other leading members of their generation, as well as sharing similar career-paths, but they also seemed to share a similar approach to poetry. Their poems often have a rarefied quality and tend not to deal with "particulars", readily identifiable people and places. However, they did differ in many respects as exemplified by the titles they gave to their published lectures on Spanish poetry. At Johns Hopkins, Salinas published a collection called Reality and the Poet in Spanish Poetry, whereas Guillén's Norton lectures were called Language and Poetry. Both devoted single lectures to Góngora and San Juan de la Cruz and the comparisons between them are instructive. Salinas seems to want to show us the poetic reality behind or beyond appearances, to educate us into how to see whereas Guillén gives us an account of the thoughts and sense-impressions going through his own mind: the reader is a viewer of this process not a participant in it.Connell p 168 Vicente Aleixandre recalled visiting Salinas and finding him at his desk with his daughter on one knee and his son on the other and stretching out a hand clutching a pen to shake hands with his visitor. Although he was also devoted to his family, Guillén probably worked in a secluded study. ==Poetic work== *Cántico (75 poems), M., Revista de Occidente, 1928 *Cántico (125 poems), M., Cruz y Raya, 1936 *Cántico (270 poems), México, Litoral, 1945 *Cántico (334 poems), Bs. As., Sudamericana, 1950 *Huerto de Melibea, M., Ínsula, 1954 *Del amanecer y el despertar, Valladolid, 1956 *Clamor. Maremagnun, Bs. As., Sudamericana, 1957 *Lugar de Lázaro, Málaga, Col. A quien conmigo va, 1957 *Clamor... Que van a dar en la mar, Bs. As., Sudamericana, 1960 *Historia Natural, Palma de Mallorca, Papeles de Sons Armadans, 1960 *Las tentaciones de Antonio, Florencia/Santander, Graf. Hermanos Bedia, 1962 *Según las horas, Puerto Rico, Editorial Universitaria, 1962 *Clamor. A la altura de las circunstancias, Bs. As., Sudamericana, 1963 *Homenaje. Reunión de vidas, Milán, All'Insegna del Pesce d'oro, 1967 *Aire nuestro: Cántico, Clamor, Homenaje, Milán, All'Insegna del Pesce d'oro, 1968 *Guirnalda civil, Cambridge, Halty Eferguson, 1970 *Al margen, M., Visor, 1972 *Y otros poemas, Bs. As., Muchnik, 1973 *Convivencia, M., Turner, 1975 *Final, B., Barral, 1981 *La expresión, Ferrol, Sociedad de Cultura Valle-Inclán, 1981 *Horses in the Air and Other Poems, 1999 == Popular culture == * Giannina Braschi's Spanglish novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998) features a debate about the creators versus the masters of Spanish and Latin American poetry. The debate discusses Jorge Guillén along with Vicente Aleixandre, Vicente Huidobro, Luis Cernuda, Alberti, Pedro Salinas, as the great masters. * Eduardo Chillida created the monument entitled Homage to Jorge Guillén, which stands outside National Sculpture Museum in Valladolid, Spain. * Luis Santiago Pardo created a monument called Jorge Guillén and Childhood in Poniente Gardens in 1998. * The Spanish government has issued postage stamps featuring his portraits in 1993. ==See also== *Miguel de Cervantes Prize *Pedro Salinas *Juan Ramón Jiménez *Spanish poetry ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * *(Library of Congress Catalog Card Number) * ==External links== * The Jorge Guillén Foundation * Poetry of Jorge Guillén Category:1893 births Category:1984 deaths Category:People from Valladolid Category:Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in the United States Category:Burials in the Province of Málaga Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris Category:Academic staff of the University of Murcia Category:Wellesley College faculty Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Premio Cervantes winners Category:Generation of '27 Category:Spanish male poets Category:20th-century Spanish poets Category:20th-century Spanish male writers
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The Asian Badminton Championships is a tournament organized by the Badminton Asia Confederation to crown the best badminton players in Asia. There were two championships in 1976, one of them was unofficial/invitational. Further editions of Invitation Asian championships were held in 1977, 1978 and 1988. Below is the list of the individual medalists at the Badminton Asia Championships since 1962. ==Men's singles== Year Host City Gold Silver Bronze 1962 Kuala Lumpur Teh Kew San Billy Ng Johnny Tjoa 1962 Kuala Lumpur Teh Kew San Billy Ng Yew Cheng Hoe 1965 Lucknow Dinesh Khanna Sangob Rattanusorn Suresh Goel 1965 Lucknow Dinesh Khanna Sangob Rattanusorn Tan Yee Khan 1969 Manila Muljadi Punch Gunalan Dinesh Khanna 1969 Manila Muljadi Punch Gunalan Sangob Rattanusorn 1971 Jakarta Tan Aik Mong Junji Honma Bandid Jaiyen 1971 Jakarta Tan Aik Mong Junji Honma San Myint 1976 Hyderabad Hou Jiachang Liem Swie King Luan Jin 1976 Hyderabad Hou Jiachang Liem Swie King Prakash Padukone 1976 (I) Bangkok Iie Sumirat Hou Jiachang Tang Xianhu 1977 Hong Kong Yu Yaodong Luan Jin Lin Shiquan 1978 Peking Yu Yaodong Chen Tianlung Luan Jin 1980 Bangkok Han Jian Chen Changjie Li Zhifeng 1980 Bangkok Han Jian Chen Changjie Yang Kesen 1983 Calcutta Chen Changjie Eddy Kurniawan Park Joo-bong 1983 Calcutta Chen Changjie Eddy Kurniawan Zhao Jianhua 1985 Kuala Lumpur Zhao Jianhua Yang Yang Misbun Sidek 1988 Bandar Lampung Xiong Guobao Foo Kok Keong Liu Zhiheng 1988 Bandar Lampung Xiong Guobao Foo Kok Keong Ardy Wiranata 1991 Kuala Lumpur Rashid Sidek Foo Kok Keong Eddy Kurniawan 1991 Kuala Lumpur Rashid Sidek Foo Kok Keong Wu Wenkai 1992 Kuala Lumpur Rashid Sidek Foo Kok Keong Fung Permadi 1992 Kuala Lumpur Rashid Sidek Foo Kok Keong Joko Suprianto 1994 Shanghai Foo Kok Keong Liu Jun Marleve Mainaky 1994 Shanghai Foo Kok Keong Liu Jun Park Sung-woo 1995 Beijing Park Sung-woo Sun Jun Dong Jiong 1995 Beijing Park Sung-woo Sun Jun Ge Cheng 1996 Surabaya Jeffer Rosobin Luo Yigang Dwi Aryanto 1996 Surabaya Jeffer Rosobin Luo Yigang A. K. Johannes 1997 Kuala Lumpur Sun Jun Hendrawan Hermawan Susanto 1997 Kuala Lumpur Sun Jun Hendrawan Ardy Wiranata 1998 Bangkok Chen Gang Marleve Mainaky Taufik Hidayat 1998 Bangkok Chen Gang Marleve Mainaky Luo Yigang 1999 Kuala Lumpur Chen Hong Ong Ewe Hock Fung Permadi 1999 Kuala Lumpur Chen Hong Ong Ewe Hock Marleve Mainaky 2000 Jakarta Taufik Hidayat Rony Agustinus Pullela Gopichand 2000 Jakarta Taufik Hidayat Rony Agustinus Marleve Mainaky 2001 Manila Xia Xuanze Lin Dan Shon Seung-mo 2001 Manila Xia Xuanze Lin Dan Indra Wijaya 2002 Bangkok Sony Dwi Kuncoro Taufik Hidayat Chen Hong 2002 Bangkok Sony Dwi Kuncoro Taufik Hidayat Xia Xuanze 2003 Jakarta Sony Dwi Kuncoro Taufik Hidayat Agus Hariyanto 2003 Jakarta Sony Dwi Kuncoro Taufik Hidayat Ng Wei 2004 Kuala Lumpur Taufik Hidayat Sony Dwi Kuncoro Park Tae-sang 2004 Kuala Lumpur Taufik Hidayat Sony Dwi Kuncoro Shon Seung-mo 2005 Hyderabad Sony Dwi Kuncoro Kuan Beng Hong Lee Hyun-il 2005 Hyderabad Sony Dwi Kuncoro Kuan Beng Hong Ng Wei 2006 Johor Bahru Lee Chong Wei Boonsak Ponsana Chen Yu 2006 Johor Bahru Lee Chong Wei Boonsak Ponsana Park Sung-hwan 2007 Johor Bahru Taufik Hidayat Chen Hong Anup Sridhar 2007 Johor Bahru Taufik Hidayat Chen Hong Yeoh Kay Bin 2008 Johor Bahru Park Sung-hwan Chen Jin Sony Dwi Kuncoro 2008 Johor Bahru Park Sung-hwan Chen Jin Lin Dan 2009 Suwon Bao Chunlai Chen Long Du Pengyu 2009 Suwon Bao Chunlai Chen Long Sho Sasaki 2010 New Delhi Lin Dan Wang Zhengming Boonsak Ponsana 2010 New Delhi Lin Dan Wang Zhengming Kenichi Tago 2011 Chengdu Lin Dan Bao Chunlai Chen Long 2011 Chengdu Lin Dan Bao Chunlai Du Pengyu 2012 Qingdao Chen Jin Du Pengyu Chen Long 2012 Qingdao Chen Jin Du Pengyu Lin Dan 2013 Taipei Du Pengyu Chen Long Chong Wei Feng 2013 Taipei Du Pengyu Chen Long Wang Zhengming 2014 Gimcheon Lin Dan Sho Sasaki Hwang Jong-soo 2014 Gimcheon Lin Dan Sho Sasaki Liu Kai 2015 Wuhan Lin Dan Tian Houwei Chen Long 2015 Wuhan Lin Dan Tian Houwei Wang Zhengming 2016 Wuhan Lee Chong Wei Chen Long Lin Dan 2016 Wuhan Lee Chong Wei Chen Long Tian Houwei 2017 Wuhan Chen Long Lin Dan Lee Chong Wei 2017 Wuhan Chen Long Lin Dan Shi Yuqi 2018 Wuhan Kento Momota Chen Long Lee Chong Wei 2018 Wuhan Kento Momota Chen Long Prannoy Kumar 2019 Wuhan Kento Momota Shi Yuqi Chou Tien-chen 2019 Wuhan Kento Momota Shi Yuqi Nguyễn Tiến Minh 2020 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2021 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2022 Manila Lee Zii Jia Jonatan Christie Chico Aura Dwi Wardoyo 2022 Manila Lee Zii Jia Jonatan Christie Weng Hongyang 2023 Dubai Anthony Sinisuka Ginting Loh Kean Yew Lu Guangzu 2023 Dubai Anthony Sinisuka Ginting Loh Kean Yew Kanta Tsuneyama ==Women's singles== Year Host City Gold Silver Bronze 1962 Kuala Lumpur Minarni Sumol Chanklum Goei Giok Nio 1962 Kuala Lumpur Minarni Sumol Chanklum Ogn Hwat Nio 1965 Lucknow Angela Bairstow Ursula Smith 1965 Lucknow Angela Bairstow Ursula Smith Meena Shah 1969 Manila Pang Yuet Mui Ma Than Ngwe Lee Young-soon 1969 Manila Pang Yuet Mui Ma Than Ngwe 1971 Jakarta Utami Dewi Yoon Im-soon Sylvia Ng 1971 Jakarta Utami Dewi Yoon Im-soon Taty Sumirah 1976 Hyderabad Liang Qiuxia Liu Xia Saori Kondo 1976 Hyderabad Liang Qiuxia Liu Xia Li Fang 1976 (I) Bangkok Liang Qiuxia Verawaty Wiharjo Chen Yuniang 1977 Hong Kong Liang Qiuxia Liu Xia Saori Kondo 1978 Peking Liu Xia Zhang Ailing Xu Jung 1980 Bangkok Song Youping Sang Yanquin Chen Ruizhen 1980 Bangkok Song Youping Sang Yanquin Li Lingwei 1983 Calcutta Yoo Sang-hee Kim Yun-ja Fan Ming 1983 Calcutta Yoo Sang-hee Kim Yun-ja Guan Weizhen 1985 Kuala Lumpur Zheng Yuli Qian Ping Shi Wen 1988 Bandar Lampung Tang Jiuhong Huang Hua Shi Wen 1988 Bandar Lampung Tang Jiuhong Huang Hua Susi Susanti 1991 Kuala Lumpur Yuliani Santosa Shim Eun-jung Chen Ying 1991 Kuala Lumpur Yuliani Santosa Shim Eun-jung Lee Heung-soon 1992 Kuala Lumpur Ye Zhaoying Zhou Lei Somharuthai Jaroensiri 1992 Kuala Lumpur Ye Zhaoying Zhou Lei Ra Kyung-min 1994 Shanghai Ye Zhaoying Liu Yuhong Kim Ji-hyun 1994 Shanghai Ye Zhaoying Liu Yuhong Sun Jian 1995 Beijing Ye Zhaoying Yao Yan Bang Soo-hyun 1995 Beijing Ye Zhaoying Yao Yan Wang Chen 1996 Surabaya Gong Zhichao Lee Joo-hyun Ika Heny 1996 Surabaya Gong Zhichao Lee Joo-hyun Pornsawan Plungwech 1997 Kuala Lumpur Yao Yan Yu Hua Lidya Djaelawijaya 1997 Kuala Lumpur Yao Yan Yu Hua Wu Huimin 1998 Bangkok Ye Zhaoying Gong Zhichao Dai Yun 1998 Bangkok Ye Zhaoying Gong Zhichao Gong Ruina 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ye Zhaoying Zhang Ning Dai Yun 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ye Zhaoying Zhang Ning Gong Zhichao 2000 Jakarta Xie Xingfang Ellen Angelina Fumi Iwawaki 2000 Jakarta Xie Xingfang Ellen Angelina Lee Kyung-won 2001 Manila Zhang Ning Wang Chen Dong Fang 2001 Manila Zhang Ning Wang Chen Ling Wan Ting 2002 Bangkok Zhou Mi Zhang Ning Wang Chen 2002 Bangkok Zhou Mi Zhang Ning Xiao Luxi 2003 Jakarta Wang Chen Silvi Antarini Dai Yun 2003 Jakarta Wang Chen Silvi Antarini Ling Wan Ting 2004 Kuala Lumpur Jun Jae-youn Wang Chen Kaori Mori 2004 Kuala Lumpur Jun Jae-youn Wang Chen Kanako Yonekura 2005 Hyderabad Wang Chen Kaori Mori Cheng Shao-chieh 2005 Hyderabad Wang Chen Kaori Mori Eriko Hirose 2006 Johor Bahru Wang Chen Kaori Mori Chen Li 2006 Johor Bahru Wang Chen Kaori Mori Jiang Yanjiao 2007 Johor Bahru Jiang Yanjiao Lu Lan Wang Chen 2007 Johor Bahru Jiang Yanjiao Lu Lan Wong Mew Choo 2008 Johor Bahru Jiang Yanjiao Wang Lin Wang Chen 2008 Johor Bahru Jiang Yanjiao Wang Lin Yip Pui Yin 2009 Suwon Zhu Lin Xie Xingfang Wang Lin 2009 Suwon Zhu Lin Xie Xingfang Wang Yihan 2010 New Delhi Li Xuerui Liu Xin Saina Nehwal 2010 New Delhi Li Xuerui Liu Xin Zhou Mi 2011 Chengdu Wang Yihan Lu Lan Cheng Shao-chieh 2011 Chengdu Wang Yihan Lu Lan Jiang Yanjiao 2012 Qingdao Li Xuerui Wang Yihan Chen Xiaojia 2012 Qingdao Li Xuerui Wang Yihan Wang Shixian 2013 Taipei Wang Yihan Li Xuerui Eriko Hirose 2013 Taipei Wang Yihan Li Xuerui Sayaka Takahashi 2014 Gimcheon Sung Ji-hyun Wang Shixian P. V. Sindhu 2014 Gimcheon Sung Ji-hyun Wang Shixian Sayaka Takahashi 2015 Wuhan Ratchanok Intanon Li Xuerui Tai Tzu-ying 2015 Wuhan Ratchanok Intanon Li Xuerui Wang Yihan 2016 Wuhan Wang Yihan Li Xuerui Saina Nehwal 2016 Wuhan Wang Yihan Li Xuerui Sung Ji-hyun 2017 Wuhan Tai Tzu-ying Akane Yamaguchi He Bingjiao 2017 Wuhan Tai Tzu-ying Akane Yamaguchi Lee Jang-mi 2018 Wuhan Tai Tzu-ying Chen Yufei Saina Nehwal 2018 Wuhan Tai Tzu-ying Chen Yufei Sung Ji- hyun 2019 Wuhan Akane Yamaguchi He Bingjiao Cai Yanyan 2019 Wuhan Akane Yamaguchi He Bingjiao Chen Yufei 2020 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2021 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2022 Manila Wang Zhiyi Akane Yamaguchi P. V. Sindhu 2022 Manila Wang Zhiyi Akane Yamaguchi An Se-young 2023 Dubai Tai Tzu-ying An Se-young Akane Yamaguchi 2023 Dubai Tai Tzu-ying An Se- young Chen Yufei ==Men's doubles== Year Host City Gold Silver Bronze 1962 Kuala Lumpur Ng Boon Bee Tan Yee Khan Lim Say Hup Teh Kew San Sanguan Anandhanonda Sangob Rattanusorn 1962 Kuala Lumpur Ng Boon Bee Tan Yee Khan Lim Say Hup Teh Kew San Liem Tjeng Kiang Tjap Han Tiong 1965 Lucknow Narong Bhornchima Chavalert Chumkum Temshakdi Mahakonok Tan Yee Khan Koo Man For Wong Fai Hung 1965 Lucknow Narong Bhornchima Chavalert Chumkum Temshakdi Mahakonok Tan Yee Khan Sangob Rattanusorn Tuly Ulao 1969 Manila Punch Gunalan Ng Boon Bee Yukinori Hori Ippei Kojima Indratno Mintarja 1969 Manila Punch Gunalan Ng Boon Bee Yukinori Hori Ippei Kojima 1971 Jakarta Indra Gunawan Nara Sudjana Tata Budiman Tjun Tjun Ade Chandra Christian Hadinata 1971 Jakarta Indra Gunawan Nara Sudjana Tata Budiman Tjun Tjun Dipu Ghosh Raman Ghosh 1976 Hyderabad Ade Chandra Tjun Tjun Sun Zhian Yao Ximing 1976 Hyderabad Ade Chandra Tjun Tjun Sun Zhian Yao Ximing 1976 (I) Bangkok Ade Chandra Christian Hadinata Luan Jin Tang Xianhu Bandid Jaiyen Pichai Kongsiritaworn 1977 Hong Kong Tjun Tjun Johan Wahjudi Ade Chandra Christian Hadinata Sun Zhian Yao Ximing 1978 Peking Lin Shihchuan Tang Xianhu Syed Modi Prakash Padukone Javed Iqbal Tariq Wadood 1980 Bangkok Li Zhifeng Yang Kesen Bandid Jaiyen Preecha Sopajaree Sawei Chanseorasmee Sarit Pisudchaikul 1980 Bangkok Li Zhifeng Yang Kesen Bandid Jaiyen Preecha Sopajaree Chen Changjie Wang Yueping 1983 Calcutta He Shangquan Jiang Guoliang Sung Han-kook Yoo Byung-hwan Hadibowo Hafid Yusuf 1983 Calcutta He Shangquan Jiang Guoliang Sung Han-kook Yoo Byung-hwan Sun Zhian Zhao Jianhua 1985 Kuala Lumpur Kim Moon-soo Park Joo-bong Jalani Sidek Razif Sidek Zhang Qiang Zhou Jincan 1988 Bandar Lampung Zhang Qiang Zhou Jincan Lee Sang-bok Park Joo-bong Aryono Miranat Joko Suprianto 1988 Bandar Lampung Zhang Qiang Zhou Jincan Lee Sang-bok Park Joo-bong Komchan Promsarin Siripong Siripool 1991 Kuala Lumpur Kim Moon-soo Park Joo-bong Chen Hongyong Chen Kang Cheah Soon Kit Soo Beng Kiang 1991 Kuala Lumpur Kim Moon-soo Park Joo-bong Chen Hongyong Chen Kang Richard Mainaky Ricky Subagja 1992 Kuala Lumpur Jalani Sidek Razif Sidek Huang Zhanzhong Zheng Yumin Ger Shin-ming Yang Shih-jeng 1992 Kuala Lumpur Jalani Sidek Razif Sidek Huang Zhanzhong Zheng Yumin Ong Ewe Chye Rahman Sidek 1994 Shanghai Chen Hongyong Chen Kang Tan Kim Her Yap Kim Hock Huang Zhanzhong Jiang Xin 1994 Shanghai Chen Hongyong Chen Kang Tan Kim Her Yap Kim Hock Jalani Sidek Razif Sidek 1995 Beijing Cheah Soon Kit Yap Kim Hock Huang Zhanzhong Jiang Xin Ade Sutrisna Candra Wijaya 1995 Beijing Cheah Soon Kit Yap Kim Hock Huang Zhanzhong Jiang Xin Pramote Teerawiwatana Sakrapee Thongsari 1996 Surabaya Ade Sutrisna Candra Wijaya Ha Tae-kwon Kang Kyung-jin Sigit Budiarto Dicky Purwotjugiono 1996 Surabaya Ade Sutrisna Candra Wijaya Ha Tae-kwon Kang Kyung-jin Cun Cun Haryono Ade Lukas 1997 Kuala Lumpur Antonius Ariantho Denny Kantono Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Chew Choon Eng Lee Chee Leong 1997 Kuala Lumpur Antonius Ariantho Denny Kantono Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Eng Hian Hermono Yuwono 1998 Bangkok Ha Tae-kwon Kang Kyung-jin Zhang Jun Zhang Wei Tony Gunawan Halim Haryanto 1998 Bangkok Ha Tae-kwon Kang Kyung-jin Zhang Jun Zhang Wei Eng Hian Flandy Limpele 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ha Tae-kwon Kim Dong-moon Zhang Jun Zhang Wei Cheah Soon Kit Yap Kim Hock 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ha Tae-kwon Kim Dong-moon Zhang Jun Zhang Wei Tesana Panvisvas Pramote Teerawiwatana 2000 Jakarta Tony Gunawan Rexy Mainaky Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Antonius Ariantho Candra Wijaya 2000 Jakarta Tony Gunawan Rexy Mainaky Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Luluk Hadiyanto Imam Sodikin 2001 Manila Tri Kusharjanto Bambang Suprianto Tony Gunawan Candra Wijaya Cheng Rui Wang Wei 2001 Manila Tri Kusharjanto Bambang Suprianto Tony Gunawan Candra Wijaya Hendra Aprida Gunawan Alvent Yulianto 2002 Bangkok Ha Tae-kwon Kim Dong-moon Sigit Budiarto Candra Wijaya Halim Haryanto Tri Kusharjanto 2002 Bangkok Ha Tae-kwon Kim Dong-moon Sigit Budiarto Candra Wijaya Tesana Panvisvas Pramote Teerawiwatana 2003 Jakarta Lee Dong-soo Yoo Yong-sung Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Luluk Hadiyanto Alvent Yulianto 2003 Jakarta Lee Dong-soo Yoo Yong-sung Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Eng Hian Flandy Limpele 2004 Kuala Lumpur Sigit Budiarto Tri Kusharjanto Halim Haryanto Candra Wijaya Chan Chong Ming Chew Choon Eng 2004 Kuala Lumpur Sigit Budiarto Tri Kusharjanto Halim Haryanto Candra Wijaya Eng Hian Flandy Limpele 2005 Hyderabad Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Jung Jae-sung Lee Jae-jin Hendra Aprida Gunawan Joko Riyadi 2005 Hyderabad Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Jung Jae-sung Lee Jae-jin Ong Soon Hock Tan Bin Shen 2006 Johor Bahru Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Hoon Thien How Tan Boon Heong Luluk Hadiyanto Alvent Yulianto 2006 Johor Bahru Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Hoon Thien How Tan Boon Heong Hwang Ji-man Jung Tae-keuk 2007 Johor Bahru Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Koo Kien Keat Tan Boon Heong Mohd Zakry Abdul Latif Mohd Fairuzizuan Mohd Tazari 2007 Johor Bahru Choong Tan Fook Lee Wan Wah Koo Kien Keat Tan Boon Heong Hu Chung-shien Tsai Chia-hsin 2008 Johor Bahru Jung Jae-sung Lee Yong-dae Nova Widianto Candra Wijaya Hwang Ji-man Lee Jae-jin 2008 Johor Bahru Jung Jae-sung Lee Yong-dae Nova Widianto Candra Wijaya Koo Kien Keat Tan Boon Heong 2009 Suwon Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Ko Sung-hyun Yoo Yeon-seong Chai Biao Liu Xiaolong 2009 Suwon Markis Kido Hendra Setiawan Ko Sung-hyun Yoo Yeon-seong Han Sang-hoon Hwang Ji-man 2010 New Delhi Cho Gun-woo Yoo Yeon-seong Chen Hung-ling Lin Yu-lang Fang Chieh-min Lee Sheng-mu 2010 New Delhi Cho Gun-woo Yoo Yeon-seong Chen Hung-ling Lin Yu-lang Han Sang-hoon Hwang Ji-man 2011 Chengdu Cai Yun Fu Haifeng Hirokatsu Hashimoto Noriyasu Hirata Chai Biao Guo Zhendong 2011 Chengdu Cai Yun Fu Haifeng Hirokatsu Hashimoto Noriyasu Hirata Xu Chen Zhang Nan 2012 Qingdao Kim Gi-jung Kim Sa-rang Hiroyuki Endo Kenichi Hayakawa Chai Biao Guo Zhendong 2012 Qingdao Kim Gi-jung Kim Sa-rang Hiroyuki Endo Kenichi Hayakawa Hong Wei Shen Ye 2013 Taipei Ko Sung-hyun Lee Yong-dae Kim Gi-jung Kim Sa-rang Goh V Shem Lim Khim Wah 2013 Taipei Ko Sung-hyun Lee Yong-dae Kim Gi-jung Kim Sa-rang Hiroyuki Endo Kenichi Hayakawa 2014 Gimcheon Shin Baek-cheol Yoo Yeon-seong Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Chen Zhuofu Shi Longfei 2014 Gimcheon Shin Baek-cheol Yoo Yeon-seong Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Maneepong Jongjit Nipitphon Puangpuapech 2015 Wuhan Lee Yong-dae Yoo Yeon-seong Mohammad Ahsan Hendra Setiawan Cai Yun Lu Kai 2015 Wuhan Lee Yong-dae Yoo Yeon-seong Mohammad Ahsan Hendra Setiawan Kim Gi-jung Kim Sa-rang 2016 Wuhan Lee Yong-dae Yoo Yeon-seong Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Fu Haifeng Zhang Nan 2016 Wuhan Lee Yong-dae Yoo Yeon-seong Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Takeshi Kamura Keigo Sonoda 2017 Wuhan Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Huang Kaixiang Wang Yilyu Chai Biao Hong Wei 2017 Wuhan Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Huang Kaixiang Wang Yilyu Takeshi Kamura Keigo Sonoda 2018 Wuhan Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Takeshi Kamura Keigo Sonoda Huang Kaixiang Wang Yilyu 2018 Wuhan Li Junhui Liu Yuchen Takeshi Kamura Keigo Sonoda Liu Cheng Zhang Nan 2019 Wuhan Hiroyuki Endo Yuta Watanabe Marcus Fernaldi Gideon Kevin Sanjaya Sukamuljo Takeshi Kamura Keigo Sonoda 2019 Wuhan Hiroyuki Endo Yuta Watanabe Marcus Fernaldi Gideon Kevin Sanjaya Sukamuljo Kang Min-hyuk Kim Won-ho 2020 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2021 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2022 Manila Pramudya Kusumawardana Yeremia Rambitan Aaron Chia Soh Wooi Yik Goh Sze Fei Nur Izzuddin 2022 Manila Pramudya Kusumawardana Yeremia Rambitan Aaron Chia Soh Wooi Yik Fajar Alfian Muhammad Rian Ardianto 2023 Dubai Satwiksairaj Rankireddy Chirag Shetty Ong Yew Sin Teo Ee Yi Takuro Hoki Yugo Kobayashi 2023 Dubai Satwiksairaj Rankireddy Chirag Shetty Ong Yew Sin Teo Ee Yi Lee Yang Wang Chi-lin ==Women's doubles== Year Host City Gold Silver Bronze 1962 Kuala Lumpur Happy Herowati Corry Kawilarang Sumol Chanklum Pankae Phongarn Wiwiek Dwi Kaeksi Minarni 1962 Kuala Lumpur Happy Herowati Corry Kawilarang Sumol Chanklum Pankae Phongarn Jean Moey Ng Mei Ling 1965 Lucknow Angela Bairstow Ursula Smith Rosalind Singha Ang Teoh Siew Yong Sumol Chanklum Boopha Kaenthong 1965 Lucknow Angela Bairstow Ursula Smith Rosalind Singha Ang Teoh Siew Yong Lucky Dharmasena Neelanthi Kannangara 1969 Manila Kang Young-sin Lee Young-soon Cynder Ho Pang Yuet Mui Khin Hyin Ma Than Ngwe 1969 Manila Kang Young-sin Lee Young-soon Cynder Ho Pang Yuet Mui Lily Tan Mary Tan 1971 Jakarta Retno Kustijah Intan Nurtjahja Regina Masli Poppy Tumengkol 1971 Jakarta Retno Kustijah Intan Nurtjahja Regina Masli Poppy Tumengkol 1976 Hyderabad Regina Masli Theresia Widiastuti He Cuiling Liang Qiuxia 1976 Hyderabad Regina Masli Theresia Widiastuti He Cuiling Liang Qiuxia 1976 (I) Bangkok Rosalind Singha Ang Sylvia Ng Thongkam Kingmanee Sirisriro Patama Fu Chune Liang Qiuxia 1977 Hong Kong Liang Qiuxia Liu Xia Atsuko Tokuda Mikiko Takada Rosalind Singha Ang Sylvia Ng 1978 Peking Thongkam Kingmanee Sirisriro Patama Xu Jung Yu Chianghung 1980 Bangkok Li Lingwei Sang Yanquin Jutatip Banjongsilp Suleeporn Jittariyakul Chen Ruizhen Song Youping 1980 Bangkok Li Lingwei Sang Yanquin Jutatip Banjongsilp Suleeporn Jittariyakul Phanwad Jinasuyanont Kanitta Mansamuth 1983 Calcutta Fan Ming Guan Weizhen Kim Bok-sun Park Hyun-suk Chung Myung-hee Yoo Sang-hee 1983 Calcutta Fan Ming Guan Weizhen Kim Bok-sun Park Hyun-suk Lu Qing Song Youping 1985 Kuala Lumpur Kim Yun-ja Yoo Sang-hee Chung So-young Hwang Hye-young Qian Ping Zheng Yuli 1988 Bandar Lampung Verawaty Fajrin Yanti Kusmiati Chung Myung-hee Hwang Hye-young Lee Heung-soon Lee Young-suk 1988 Bandar Lampung Verawaty Fajrin Yanti Kusmiati Chung Myung-hee Hwang Hye-young Sun Xiaoqing Zhou Lei 1991 Kuala Lumpur Chung So-young Hwang Hye-young Gil Young-ah Shim Eun-jung Liu Yuhong Wu Wenjing 1991 Kuala Lumpur Chung So-young Hwang Hye-young Gil Young-ah Shim Eun-jung Pan Li Wu Yuhong 1992 Kuala Lumpur Pan Li Wu Yuhong Ladawan Mulasartsatorn Piyathip Sansaniyakulvilai Yoshiko Iwata Fujimi Tamura 1992 Kuala Lumpur Pan Li Wu Yuhong Ladawan Mulasartsatorn Piyathip Sansaniyakulvilai Tan Lee Wai Tan Sui Hoon 1994 Shanghai Ge Fei Gu Jun Chen Ying Wu Yuhong Jang Hye-ock Shim Eun-jung 1994 Shanghai Ge Fei Gu Jun Chen Ying Wu Yuhong Peng Xingyong Zhang Jin 1995 Beijing Ge Fei Gu Jun Qin Yiyuan Tang Yongshu Eliza Nathanael Zelin Resiana 1995 Beijing Ge Fei Gu Jun Qin Yiyuan Tang Yongshu Peng Xingyong Zhang Jin 1996 Surabaya Finarsih Eliza Nathanael Indarti Issolina Deyana Lomban Chung Jae-hee Park Soo-yun 1996 Surabaya Finarsih Eliza Nathanael Indarti Issolina Deyana Lomban Hisako Mizui Yasuko Mizui 1997 Kuala Lumpur Huang Nanyan Liu Zhong Liu Lu Qian Hong Chen Li-chin Tsai Hui-min 1997 Kuala Lumpur Huang Nanyan Liu Zhong Liu Lu Qian Hong Etty Tantri Cynthia Tuwankotta 1998 Bangkok Ge Fei Gu Jun Qin Yiyuan Tang Hetian Chung Jae-hee Yim Kyung-jin 1998 Bangkok Ge Fei Gu Jun Qin Yiyuan Tang Hetian Deyana Lomban Eliza Nathanael 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ge Fei Gu Jun Chung Jae-hee Ra Kyung-min Sujitra Ekmongkolpaisarn Saralee Thungthongkam 1999 Kuala Lumpur Ge Fei Gu Jun Chung Jae-hee Ra Kyung-min Etty Tantri Cynthia Tuwankotta 2000 Jakarta Lee Hyo-jung Yim Kyung-jin Etty Tantri Minarti Timur Chung Jae-hee Lee Kyung-won 2000 Jakarta Lee Hyo-jung Yim Kyung-jin Etty Tantri Minarti Timur Diah Novita Rosie Riani 2001 Manila Gao Ling Huang Sui Deyana Lomban Vita Marissa Eny Erlangga Jo Novita 2001 Manila Gao Ling Huang Sui Deyana Lomban Vita Marissa Zhang Yawen Zhao Tingting 2002 Bangkok Yang Wei Zhang Jiewen Gao Ling Huang Sui Sathinee Chankrachangwong Saralee Thungthongkam 2002 Bangkok Yang Wei Zhang Jiewen Gao Ling Huang Sui Wei Yili Zhao Tingting 2003 Jakarta Lee Kyung-won Ra Kyung-min Hwang Yu-mi Lee Hyo-jung Aki Akao Tomomi Matsuda 2003 Jakarta Lee Kyung-won Ra Kyung-min Hwang Yu-mi Lee Hyo-jung Jo Novita Lita Nurlita 2004 Kuala Lumpur Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Du Jing Yu Yang Sathinee Chankrachangwong Saralee Thungthongkam 2004 Kuala Lumpur Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Du Jing Yu Yang Chin Eei Hui Wong Pei Tty 2005 Hyderabad Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Kumiko Ogura Reiko Shiota Jo Novita Greysia Polii 2005 Hyderabad Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Kumiko Ogura Reiko Shiota Lita Nurlita Natalia Christine Poluakan 2006 Johor Bahru Du Jing Yu Yang Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin Lim Pek Siah Joanne Quay 2006 Johor Bahru Du Jing Yu Yang Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin Pan Pan Tian Qing 2007 Johor Bahru Yang Wei Zhao Tingting Cheng Shu Zhao Yunlei Duanganong Aroonkesorn Kunchala Voravichitchaikul 2007 Johor Bahru Yang Wei Zhao Tingting Cheng Shu Zhao Yunlei Kumiko Ogura Reiko Shiota 2008 Johor Bahru Yang Wei Zhang Jiewen Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won 2008 Johor Bahru Yang Wei Zhang Jiewen Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin Vita Marissa Liliyana Natsir 2009 Suwon Ma Jin Wang Xiaoli Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin 2009 Suwon Ma Jin Wang Xiaoli Lee Hyo-jung Lee Kyung-won Yang Wei Zhang Jiewen 2010 New Delhi Pan Pan Tian Qing Vivian Hoo Kah Mun Woon Khe Wei Savitree Amitrapai Vacharaporn Munkit 2010 New Delhi Pan Pan Tian Qing Vivian Hoo Kah Mun Woon Khe Wei Cheng Wen-hsing Chien Yu-chin 2011 Chengdu Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Tian Qing Zhao Yunlei Bao Yixin Zhong Qianxin 2011 Chengdu Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Tian Qing Zhao Yunlei Ha Jung-eun Kim Min-jung 2012 Qingdao Tian Qing Zhao Yunlei Bao Yixin Zhong Qianxin Cheng Shu Pan Pan 2012 Qingdao Tian Qing Zhao Yunlei Bao Yixin Zhong Qianxin Shizuka Matsuo Mami Naito 2013 Taipei Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Ma Jin Tang Jinhua Go Ah-ra Yoo Chae-ran 2013 Taipei Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Ma Jin Tang Jinhua Gebby Ristiyani Imawan Tiara Rosalia Nuraidah 2014 Gimcheon Luo Ying Luo Yu Jung Kyung-eun Kim Ha-na Jwala Gutta Ashwini Ponnappa 2014 Gimcheon Luo Ying Luo Yu Jung Kyung-eun Kim Ha-na Xia Huan Zhong Qianxin 2015 Wuhan Ma Jin Tang Yuanting Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Luo Ying Luo Yu 2015 Wuhan Ma Jin Tang Yuanting Wang Xiaoli Yu Yang Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi 2016 Wuhan Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Naoko Fukuman Kurumi Yonao Chang Ye-na Lee So-hee 2016 Wuhan Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Naoko Fukuman Kurumi Yonao Nitya Krishinda Maheswari Greysia Polii 2017 Wuhan Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Kim Hye-rin Yoo Chae-ran Chang Ye-na Lee So-hee 2017 Wuhan Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Kim Hye-rin Yoo Chae-ran Huang Dongping Li Yinhui 2018 Wuhan Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Della Destiara Haris Rizki Amelia Pradipta 2018 Wuhan Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota Misaki Matsutomo Ayaka Takahashi Kim So-yeong Kong Hee-yong 2019 Wuhan Chen Qingchen Jia Yifan Mayu Matsumoto Wakana Nagahara Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota 2019 Wuhan Chen Qingchen Jia Yifan Mayu Matsumoto Wakana Nagahara Della Destiara Haris Rizki Amelia Pradipta 2020 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2021 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2022 Manila Chen Qingchen Jia Yifan Rin Iwanaga Kie Nakanishi Du Yue Li Wenmei 2022 Manila Chen Qingchen Jia Yifan Rin Iwanaga Kie Nakanishi Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota 2023 Dubai Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota Baek Ha-na Lee So-hee Jongkolphan Kititharakul Rawinda Prajongjai 2023 Dubai Yuki Fukushima Sayaka Hirota Baek Ha-na Lee So-hee Mayu Matsumoto Wakana Nagahara ==Mixed doubles== Year Host City Gold Silver Bronze 1962 Kuala Lumpur Lim Say Hup Ng Mei Ling Chuchart Vatanatham Prathin Pattabongse Chavalert Chumkum Pankae Phongarn 1962 Kuala Lumpur Lim Say Hup Ng Mei Ling Chuchart Vatanatham Prathin Pattabongse Kho Han Tjiang Corry Kawilarang 1965 Lucknow Tan Yee Khan Angela Bairstow Chavalert Chumkum Ursula Smith Owen Roncon Sarojini Apte 1965 Lucknow Tan Yee Khan Angela Bairstow Chavalert Chumkum Ursula Smith A. I. Sheikh Achala Karnik 1971 Jakarta Christian Hadinata Retno Kustijah Indra Gunawan Intan Nurtjahja 1971 Jakarta Christian Hadinata Retno Kustijah Indra Gunawan Intan Nurtjahja 1976 Hyderabad Fang Kaixiang He Cuiling Shoichi Toganoo Etsuko Toganoo 1976 Hyderabad Fang Kaixiang He Cuiling Shoichi Toganoo Etsuko Toganoo 1983 Calcutta Park Joo-bong Kim Yun-ja Hafid Yusuf Ruth Damyanti Jutatip Banjongsilp Preecha Sopajaree 1983 Calcutta Park Joo-bong Kim Yun-ja Hafid Yusuf Ruth Damyanti Hadibowo Maria Fransisca 1991 Kuala Lumpur Park Joo-bong Chung Myung-hee Lee Sang-bok Chung So-young Tan Kim Her Tan Sui Hoon 1991 Kuala Lumpur Park Joo-bong Chung Myung-hee Lee Sang-bok Chung So-young Yu Yong Wu Yuhong 1992 Kuala Lumpur Joko Mardianto Sri Untari Chan Siu Kwong Chung Hoi Yuk Nunung Mudijanto S. Herawati 1992 Kuala Lumpur Joko Mardianto Sri Untari Chan Siu Kwong Chung Hoi Yuk Tan Kim Her Tan Sui Hoon 1994 Shanghai Chen Xingtong Sun Man Liu Jianjun Wang Xiaoyuan Sandiarto Sri Untari 1994 Shanghai Chen Xingtong Sun Man Liu Jianjun Wang Xiaoyuan Yoo Yong-sung Jang Hye-ock 1995 Beijing Liu Yong Ge Fei Zhang Jin Jiang Xin Kim Dong-moon Kim Shin-young 1995 Beijing Liu Yong Ge Fei Zhang Jin Jiang Xin Sandiarto Sri Untari 1996 Surabaya Tri Kusharjanto Lili Tampi Kang Kyung-jin Kim Mee-hyang Ha Tae-kwon Kim Shin-young 1996 Surabaya Tri Kusharjanto Lili Tampi Kang Kyung-jin Kim Mee-hyang Flandy Limpele Rosalina Riseu 1997 Kuala Lumpur Zhang Jun Liu Lu Yang Ming Qian Hong Wahyu Agung Rosalina Riseu 1997 Kuala Lumpur Zhang Jun Liu Lu Yang Ming Qian Hong Sandiarto Finarsih 1998 Bangkok Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Sun Jun Ge Fei Chen Gang Tang Hetian 1998 Bangkok Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Sun Jun Ge Fei Bambang Suprianto Zelin Resiana 1999 Kuala Lumpur Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Liu Yong Ge Fei Tri Kusharjanto Zelin Resiana 1999 Kuala Lumpur Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Liu Yong Ge Fei Bambang Suprianto Minarti Timur 2000 Jakarta Bambang Suprianto Minarti Timur Wahyu Agung Emma Ermawati Tri Kusharjanto Vita Marissa 2000 Jakarta Bambang Suprianto Minarti Timur Wahyu Agung Emma Ermawati Santoso Sugiharjo Eny Widiowati 2001 Manila Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Bambang Suprianto Minarti Timur Tony Gunawan Vita Marissa 2001 Manila Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Bambang Suprianto Minarti Timur Tri Kusharjanto Emma Ermawati 2002 Bangkok Zhang Jun Gao Ling Khunakorn Sudhisodhi Saralee Thungthongkam Tri Kusharjanto Emma Ermawati 2002 Bangkok Zhang Jun Gao Ling Khunakorn Sudhisodhi Saralee Thungthongkam Wang Wei Zhao Tingting 2003 Jakarta Nova Widianto Vita Marissa Anggun Nugroho Eny Widiowati Kim Yong-hyun Lee Hyo-jung 2003 Jakarta Nova Widianto Vita Marissa Anggun Nugroho Eny Widiowati Liu Kwok Wa Koon Wai Chee 2004 Kuala Lumpur Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Nova Widianto Vita Marissa 2004 Kuala Lumpur Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Xie Zhongbo Yu Yang 2005 Hyderabad Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Lee Jae-jin Lee Hyo-jung Albertus Susanto Njoto Li Wing Mui 2005 Hyderabad Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Lee Jae-jin Lee Hyo-jung Muhammad Rijal Endang Nursugianti 2006 Johor Bahru Nova Widianto Liliyana Natsir Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Hendri Saputra Li Yujia 2006 Johor Bahru Nova Widianto Liliyana Natsir Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam Zhang Wei Yu Yang 2007 Johor Bahru He Hanbin Yu Yang Xu Chen Zhao Tingting Devin Lahardi Fitriawan Lita Nurlita 2007 Johor Bahru He Hanbin Yu Yang Xu Chen Zhao Tingting Mohd Fairuzizuan Mohd Tazari Wong Pei Tty 2008 Johor Bahru Flandy Limpele Vita Marissa Nova Widianto Liliyana Natsir Fang Chieh-min Cheng Wen-hsing 2008 Johor Bahru Flandy Limpele Vita Marissa Nova Widianto Liliyana Natsir He Hanbin Yu Yang 2009 Suwon Lee Yong-dae Lee Hyo-jung Yoo Yeon-seong Kim Min-jung Noriyasu Hirata Miyuki Maeda 2009 Suwon Lee Yong-dae Lee Hyo-jung Yoo Yeon-seong Kim Min-jung Tao Jiaming Ma Jin 2010 New Delhi Chan Peng Soon Goh Liu Ying Yoo Yeon-seong Kim Min-jung Devin Lahardi Fitriawan Liliyana Natsir 2010 New Delhi Chan Peng Soon Goh Liu Ying Yoo Yeon-seong Kim Min-jung Qiu Zihan Tian Qing 2011 Chengdu Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Xu Chen Ma Jin Hong Wei Pan Pan 2011 Chengdu Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Xu Chen Ma Jin Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam 2012 Qingdao Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Xu Chen Ma Jin Kang Ji-wook Eom Hye-won 2012 Qingdao Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Xu Chen Ma Jin Kim Sa-rang Choi Hye-in 2013 Taipei Ko Sung-hyun Kim Ha-na Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Fran Kurniawan Shendy Puspa Irawati 2013 Taipei Ko Sung-hyun Kim Ha-na Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah 2014 Gimcheon Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah Shin Baek-cheol Chang Ye-na Sudket Prapakamol Saralee Thungthongkam 2014 Gimcheon Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah Shin Baek-cheol Chang Ye-na Zhang Wen Xia Huan 2015 Wuhan Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah Kenichi Hayakawa Misaki Matsutomo 2015 Wuhan Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah Xu Chen Ma Jin 2016 Wuhan Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Ko Sung-hyun Kim Ha-na 2016 Wuhan Zhang Nan Zhao Yunlei Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Shin Baek-cheol Chae Yoo-jung 2017 Wuhan Lu Kai Huang Yaqiong Dechapol Puavaranukroh Sapsiree Taerattanachai Lee Chun Hei Chau Hoi Wah 2017 Wuhan Lu Kai Huang Yaqiong Dechapol Puavaranukroh Sapsiree Taerattanachai Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping 2018 Wuhan Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Zhang Nan Li Yinhui 2018 Wuhan Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping Tontowi Ahmad Liliyana Natsir Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong 2019 Wuhan Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping He Jiting Du Yue Dechapol Puavaranukroh Sapsiree Taerattanachai 2019 Wuhan Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping He Jiting Du Yue Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong 2020 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2021 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2022 Manila Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping Praveen Jordan Melati Daeva Oktavianti 2022 Manila Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong Wang Yilyu Huang Dongping Yuta Watanabe Arisa Higashino 2023 Dubai Jiang Zhenbang Wei Yaxin Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong Goh Soon Huat Shevon Jemie Lai 2023 Dubai Jiang Zhenbang Wei Yaxin Zheng Siwei Huang Yaqiong Dejan Ferdinansyah Gloria Emanuelle Widjaja ==References== * bernd-volker-brahms.de !
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The Thing is a 1982 American science fiction horror film directed by John Carpenter from a screenplay by Bill Lancaster. Based on the 1938 John W. Campbell Jr. novella Who Goes There?, it tells the story of a group of American researchers in Antarctica who encounter the eponymous "Thing", an extraterrestrial life-form that assimilates, then imitates, other organisms. The group is overcome by paranoia and conflict as they learn that they can no longer trust each other and that any of them could be the Thing. The film stars Kurt Russell as the team's helicopter pilot R.J. MacReady, with A. Wilford Brimley, T. K. Carter, David Clennon, Keith David, Richard Dysart, Charles Hallahan, Peter Maloney, Richard Masur, Donald Moffat, Joel Polis, and Thomas G. Waites in supporting roles. Production began in the mid-1970s as a faithful adaptation of the novella, following 1951's The Thing from Another World. The Thing went through several directors and writers, each with different ideas on how to approach the story. Filming lasted roughly twelve weeks, beginning in August 1981, and took place on refrigerated sets in Los Angeles as well as in Juneau, Alaska, and Stewart, British Columbia. Of the film's $15million budget, $1.5million was spent on Rob Bottin's creature effects, a mixture of chemicals, food products, rubber, and mechanical parts turned by his large team into an alien capable of taking on any form. The Thing was released in 1982 to negative reviews that described it as "instant junk" and "a wretched excess". Critics both praised the special effects achievements and criticized their visual repulsiveness, while others found the characterization poorly realized. The film grossed $19.6million during its theatrical run. Many reasons have been cited for its failure to impress audiences: competition from films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which offered an optimistic take on alien visitation; a summer that had been filled with successful science fiction and fantasy films; and an audience living through a recession, diametrically opposed to The Things nihilistic and bleak tone. The film found an audience when released on home video and television. In the subsequent years, it has been reappraised as one of the best science fiction and horror films ever made and has gained a cult following. Filmmakers have noted its influence on their work, and it has been referred to in other media such as television and video games. The Thing has spawned a variety of merchandiseincluding a 1982 novelization, "haunted house" attractions, board gamesand sequels in comic books, a video game of the same title, and a 2011 prequel film of the same title. ==Plot== In Antarctica, a Norwegian helicopter pursues a sled dog to an American research station. The Americans witness the passenger accidentally blow up the helicopter and himself. The pilot fires a rifle and shouts at the Americans, but they cannot understand him and he is shot dead in self-defense by station commander, Garry. The American helicopter pilot, R.J. MacReady, and Dr. Copper leave to investigate the Norwegian base. Among the charred ruins and frozen corpses, they find the burnt corpse of a malformed humanoid, which they transfer to the American station. Their biologist, Blair, autopsies the remains and finds a normal set of human organs. Clark kennels the sled dog, and it soon metamorphoses and absorbs several of the station dogs. This disturbance alerts the team, and Childs uses a flamethrower to incinerate the creature. Blair autopsies the Dog-Thing and surmises it is an organism that can perfectly imitate other life-forms. Data recovered from the Norwegian base leads the Americans to a large excavation site containing a partially buried alien spacecraft, which Norris estimates has been buried for over a hundred thousand years, and a smaller, human-sized dig site. Blair grows paranoid after running a computer simulation that indicates the creature could assimilate all life on Earth in a matter of years. The station implements controls to reduce the risk of assimilation. The remains of the malformed humanoid assimilate an isolated Bennings, but Windows interrupts the process and MacReady burns the Bennings- Thing. The team also imprisons Blair in a tool shed after he sabotages all the vehicles, kills the remaining sled dogs, and destroys the radio to prevent escape. Copper suggests testing for infection by comparing the crew's blood against uncontaminated blood held in storage, but after learning the blood stores have been destroyed, the men lose faith in Garry's leadership, and MacReady takes command. He, Windows and Nauls find Fuchs's burnt corpse and surmise he committed suicide to avoid assimilation. Windows returns to base while MacReady and Nauls investigate MacReady's shack. During their return, Nauls abandons MacReady in a snowstorm, believing he has been assimilated after finding his torn clothes in the shack. The team debates whether to allow MacReady inside, but he breaks in and holds the group at bay with dynamite. During the encounter, Norris appears to suffer a heart attack. As Copper attempts to defibrillate Norris, his chest transforms into a large mouth and bites off Copper's arms, killing him. MacReady incinerates the Norris-Thing, but its head detaches and attempts to escape before also being burnt. MacReady hypothesizes that the Norris-Thing demonstrated that every part of the Thing is an individual life-form with its own survival instinct. He proposes testing blood samples from each survivor with a heated piece of wire and has each man restrained, but is forced to kill Clark after he lunges at MacReady with a scalpel. Everyone passes the test except Palmer, whose blood recoils from the heat. Exposed, the Palmer-Thing transforms, breaks free of its bonds, and infects Windows, forcing MacReady to incinerate them both. Childs is left on guard while the others go to test Blair, but they find that he has escaped, and has been using vehicle components to assemble a small flying saucer, which they destroy. Upon their return, Childs is missing, and the power generator is destroyed, leaving the men without heat. MacReady speculates that, with no escape left, the Thing intends to return to hibernation until a rescue team arrives. MacReady, Garry, and Nauls agree that the Thing cannot be allowed to escape and set explosives to destroy the station, but the Blair-Thing kills Garry, and Nauls disappears. The Blair-Thing transforms into an enormous creature and breaks the detonator, but MacReady triggers the explosives with a stick of dynamite, destroying the station. Childs returns as MacReady sits by the burning remnants, saying he got lost in the storm while pursuing Blair. Exhausted and slowly freezing to death, they acknowledge the futility of their distrust and share a bottle of Scotch whisky. ==Cast== * Kurt Russell as R.J. MacReady, the helicopter pilot * A. Wilford Brimley as Blair, the senior biologist * T. K. Carter as Nauls, the cook * David Clennon as Palmer, the assistant mechanic * Keith David as Childs, the chief mechanic * Richard Dysart as Dr. Copper, the physician * Charles Hallahan as Norris, the geologist * Peter Maloney as George Bennings, the meteorologist * Richard Masur as Clark, the dog handler * Joel Polis as Fuchs, the assistant biologist * Donald Moffat as Garry, the station commander * Thomas Waites as Windows, the radio operator The Thing also features Norbert Weisser as one of the Norwegians, and an uncredited dog, Jed, as the Dog-Thing. The only female presence in the film is the voice of MacReady's chess computer, voiced by Carpenter's then-wife, Adrienne Barbeau. Producer David Foster, associate producer Larry Franco, and writer Bill Lancaster, along with other members of the crew, make a cameo appearance in a recovered photograph of the Norwegian team. Camera operator Ray Stella stood in for the shots where needles were used to take blood, telling Carpenter that he could do it all day. Franco also played the Norwegian wielding a rifle and hanging out of the helicopter during the opening sequence. Stunt Coordinator Dick Warlock also made a number of cameos in the film, most notably in an off-screen appearance as the shadow on the wall during the scene where the Dog-Thing enters one of the researcher's living quarters. Clennon was originally intended to be in the scene, but due to his shadow being easily identifiable Carpenter decided to use Warlock instead. Warlock also played Palmer-Thing and stood in for Brimley in a few scenes that involved Blair. ==Production== ===Development=== Development of the film began in the mid-1970s when David Foster and fellow producer Lawrence Turman suggested to Universal Pictures an adaptation of the 1938 John W. Campbell novella Who Goes There?. It had been loosely adapted once before in Howard Hawks's and Christian Nyby's 1951 film The Thing from Another World, but Foster and Turman wanted to develop a project that stuck more closely to the source material. Screenwriters Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins held the rights to make an adaptation, but passed on the opportunity to make a new film, so Universal obtained the rights from them. In 1976, Wilbur Stark had purchased the remake rights to 23 RKO Pictures films, including The Thing from Another World, from three Wall Street financiers who did not know what to do with them, in exchange for a return when the films were produced. Universal in turn acquired the rights to remake the film from Stark, resulting in him being given an executive producer credit on all print advertisements, posters, television commercials, and studio press material. John Carpenter was first approached about the project in 1976 by co-producer and friend Stuart Cohen, but Carpenter was mainly an independent film director, so Universal chose The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) director Tobe Hooper as they already had him under contract. The producers were ultimately unhappy with Hooper and his writing partner Kim Henkel's concept. After several more failed pitches by different writers, and attempts to bring on other directors, such as John Landis, the project was put on hold. Even so, the success of Ridley Scott's 1979 science fiction horror film Alien helped revitalize the project, at which point Carpenter became loosely attached following his success with his influential slasher film Halloween (1978). Carpenter was reluctant to join the project, for he thought Hawks's adaptation would be difficult to surpass, although he considered the film's monster to be unnotable. Cohen suggested that he read the original novella. Carpenter found the "creepiness" of the imitations conducted by the creature, and the questions it raised, interesting. He drew parallels between the novella and Agatha Christie's mystery novel And Then There Were None (1939), and noted that the story of Who Goes There? was "timely" for him, meaning he could make it "true to [his] day" as Hawks had in his time. Carpenter, a fan of Hawks's adaptation, paid homage to it in Halloween, and he watched The Thing from Another World several times for inspiration before filming began. Carpenter and cinematographer Dean Cundey first worked together on Halloween, and The Thing was their first big- budget project for a major film studio. After securing the writer and crew, the film was stalled again when Carpenter nearly quit, believing that a passion project of his, El Diablo (1990), was on the verge of being made by EMI Films. The producers discussed various replacements including Walter Hill, Sam Peckinpah and Michael Ritchie, but the development of El Diablo was not as imminent as Carpenter believed, and he remained with The Thing. Universal initially set a budget of $10million, with $200,000 for "creature effects", which at the time was more than the studio had ever allocated to a monster film. Filming was scheduled to be completed within 98 days. Universal's production studios estimated that it would require at least $17million before marketing and other costs, as the plan involved more set construction, including external sets and a large set piece for the original scripted death of Bennings, which was estimated to cost $1.5million alone. As storyboarding and designs were finalized, the crew estimated they would need at least $750,000 for creature effects, a figure Universal executives agreed to after seeing the number of workers employed under Rob Bottin, the special make-up effects designer. Larry Franco was responsible for making the budget work for the film; he cut the filming schedule by a third, eliminated the exterior sets for on-site shooting, and removed Bennings's more extravagant death scene. Cohen suggested reusing the destroyed American camp as the ruined Norwegian camp, saving a further $250,000. When filming began in August, The Thing had a budget of $11.4million, and indirect costs brought it to $14million. The effects budget ran over, eventually totaling $1.5million, forcing the elimination of some scenes, including Nauls's confrontation of a creature dubbed the "box Thing". By the end of production, Carpenter had to make a personal appeal to executive Ned Tanen for $100,000 to complete a simplified version of the Blair-Thing. The final cost was $12.4million, and overhead costs brought it to $15million. ===Writing=== Several writers developed drafts for The Thing before Carpenter became involved, including Logan's Run (1967) writer William F. Nolan, novelist David Wiltse, and Hooper and Henkel, whose draft was set at least partially underwater, and which Cohen described as a Moby-Dick-like story in which "The Captain" did battle with a large, non- shapeshifting creature. As Carpenter said in a 2014 interview, "they were just trying to make it work". The writers left before Carpenter joined the project. He said the scripts were "awful", as they changed the story into something it was not, and ignored the chameleon-like aspect of the Thing. Carpenter did not want to write the project himself, after recently completing work on Escape from New York (1981), and having struggled to complete a screenplay for The Philadelphia Experiment (1984). He was wary of taking on writing duties, preferring to let someone else do it. Once Carpenter was confirmed as the director, several writers were asked to script The Thing, including Richard Matheson, Nigel Kneale, and Deric Washburn. Bill Lancaster initially met with Turman, Foster and Cohen in 1977, but he was given the impression that they wanted to closely replicate The Thing from Another World, and he did not want to remake the film. In August 1979, Lancaster was contacted again. By this time he had read the original Who Goes There? novella, and Carpenter had become involved in the project. Lancaster was hired to write the script after describing his vision for the film, and his intention to stick closely to the original story, to Carpenter, who was a fan of Lancaster's work on The Bad News Bears (1976). Lancaster conceived several key scenes in the film, including the Norris-Thing biting Dr. Copper, and the use of blood tests to identify the Thing, which Carpenter cited as the reason he wanted to work on the film. Lancaster said he found some difficulty in translating Who Goes There? to film, as it features very little action. He also made some significant changes to the story, such as reducing the number of characters from 37 to 12. Lancaster said that 37 was excessive and would be difficult for audiences to follow, leaving little screen time for characterization. He also opted to alter the story's structure, choosing to open his in the middle of the action, instead of using a flashback as in the novella. Several characters were modernized for contemporary audiences; MacReady, originally a meteorologist, became a tough loner described in the script as "35. Helicopter pilot. Likes chess. Hates the cold. The pay is good." Lancaster aimed to create an ensemble piece where one person emerged as the hero, instead of having a Doc Savage-type hero from the start. Lancaster wrote thirty to forty pages but struggled with the film's second act, and it took him several months to complete the script. After it was finished, Lancaster and Carpenter spent a weekend in northern California refining the script, each having different takes on how a character should sound, and comparing their ideas for scenes. Lancaster's script opted to keep the creature largely concealed throughout the film, and it was Bottin who convinced Carpenter to make it more visible to have a greater impact on the audience. Lancaster's original ending had both MacReady and Childs turn into the Thing. In the spring, the characters are rescued by helicopter, greeting their saviors with "Hey, which way to a hot meal?". Carpenter thought this ending was too shallow. In total, Lancaster completed four drafts of the screenplay. The novella concludes with the humans clearly victorious, but concerned that birds they see flying toward the mainland may have been infected by the Thing. Carpenter opted to end the film with the survivors slowly freezing to death to save humanity from infection, believing this to be the ultimate heroic act. Lancaster wrote this ending, which eschews a The Twilight Zone-style twist or the destruction of the monster, as he wanted to instead have an ambiguous moment between the pair, of trust and mistrust, fear and relief. ===Casting=== Kurt Russell was involved in the production before being cast, helping Carpenter develop his ideas. Russell was the last actor to be cast, in June 1981, by which point second unit filming was starting in Juneau, Alaska. Carpenter had worked with Russell twice before but wanted to keep his options open. Discussions with the studio involved using actors Christopher Walken, Jeff Bridges, or Nick Nolte, who were either unavailable or declined, and Sam Shepard, who showed interest but was never pursued. Tom Atkins and Jack Thompson were strong early and late contenders for the role of MacReady, but the decision was made to go with Russell. In part, Carpenter cited the practicality of choosing someone he had found reliable before, and who would not balk at the difficult filming conditions. It took Russell about a year to grow his hair and beard out for the role. At various points, the producers met with Brian Dennehy, Kris Kristofferson, John Heard, Ed Harris, Tom Berenger, Jack Thompson, Scott Glenn, Fred Ward, Peter Coyote, Tom Atkins, and Tim McIntire. Some passed on the idea of starring in a monster film, while Dennehy became the choice to play Copper. Each actor was to be paid $50,000, but after the more-established Russell was cast, his salary increased to $400,000. Geoffrey Holder, Carl Weathers, and Bernie Casey were considered for the role of Childs, and Carpenter also looked at Isaac Hayes, having worked with him on Escape from New York. Ernie Hudson was the front-runner and was almost cast until they met with Keith David. The Thing was David's first significant film role, and coming from a theater background, he had to learn on set how to hold himself back and not show every emotion his character was feeling, with guidance from Richard Masur and Donald Moffat in particular. Masur and David discussed their characters in rehearsals and decided that they would not like each other. For Blair, the team chose the then-unknown Wilford Brimley, as they wanted an everyman whose absence would not be questioned by the audience until the appropriate time. The intent with the character was to have him become infected early in the film but offscreen, so that his status would be unknown to the audience, concealing his intentions. Carpenter wanted to cast Donald Pleasence, but it was decided that he was too recognizable to accommodate the role. T. K. Carter was cast as Nauls, but comedian Franklyn Ajaye also came in to read for the role. Instead, he delivered a lengthy speech about the character being a stereotype, after which the meeting ended. Bottin lobbied hard to play Palmer, but it was deemed impossible for him to do so alongside his existing duties. As the character has some comedic moments, Universal brought in comedians Jay Leno, Garry Shandling, and Charles Fleischer, among others, but opted to go with actor David Clennon, who was better suited to play the dramatic elements. Clennon had read for the Bennings character, but he preferred the option of playing Palmer's "blue-collar stoner" to a "white collar science man". Powers Boothe, Lee Van Cleef, Jerry Orbach, and Kevin Conway were considered for the role of Garry, and Richard Mulligan was also considered when the production experimented with the idea of making the character closer to MacReady in age. Masur also read for Garry, but he asked to play Clark instead, as he liked the character's dialogue and was also a fan of dogs. Masur worked daily with the wolfdog Jed and his handler, Clint Rowe, during rehearsals, as Rowe was familiarizing Jed with the sounds and smells of people. This helped Masur's and Jed's performance onscreen, as the dog would stand next to him without looking for his handler. Masur described his character as one uninterested in people, but who loves working with dogs. He went to a survivalist store and bought a flip knife for his character, and used it in a confrontation with David's character. Masur turned down a role in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial to play Clark. William Daniels and Dennehy were both interested in playing Dr. Copper, and it was a last-second decision by Carpenter to go with Richard Dysart. In early drafts, Windows was called Sanchez, and later Sanders. The name Windows came when the actor for the role, Thomas Waites, was in a costume fitting and tried on a large pair of dark glasses, which the character wears in the film. Russell described the all-male story as interesting since the men had no one to posture for without women. Anita Dann served as casting director. ===Filming=== The Thing was storyboarded extensively by Mike Ploog and Mentor Huebner before filming began. Their work was so detailed that many of the film's shots replicate the image layout completely. Cundey pushed for the use of anamorphic format aspect ratio, believing that it allowed for placing several actors in an environment, and making use of the scenic vistas available, while still creating a sense of confinement within the image. It also enabled the use of negative space around the actors to imply something may be lurking just offscreen. Principal photography began on August 24, 1981, in Juneau, Alaska. Filming lasted about twelve weeks. Carpenter insisted on two weeks of rehearsals before filming as he wanted to see how scenes would play out. This was unusual at the time because of the expense involved. Filming then moved to the Universal lot, where the outside heat was over . The internal sets were climate-controlled to to facilitate their work. The team considered building the sets inside an existing refrigerated structure but were unable to find one large enough. Instead, they collected as many portable air conditioners as they could, closed off the stage, and used humidifiers and misters to add moisture to the air. After watching a roughly assembled cut of filming to date, Carpenter was unhappy that the film seemed to feature too many scenes of men standing around talking. He rewrote some already completed scenes to take place outdoors to be shot on location when principal photography moved to Stewart, British Columbia. Carpenter was determined to use authentic locations instead of studio sets, and his successes on Halloween and The Fog (1980) gave him the credibility to take on the much bigger-budget production of The Thing. A film scout located an area just outside Stewart, along the Canadian coast, which offered the project both ease of access and scenic value during the day. On December 2, 1981, roughly 100 American and Canadian crew members moved to the area to begin filming. During the journey there, the crew bus slid in the snow toward the unprotected edge of the road, nearly sending it down a embankment. Some of the crew stayed in the small mining town during filming, while others lived on residential barges on the Portland Canal. They would make the drive up a small, winding road to the filming location in Alaska where the exterior outpost sets were built. The sets had been built in Alaska during the summer, atop a rocky area overlooking a glacier, in preparation for snow to fall and cover them. They were used for both interior and exterior filming, meaning they could not be heated above freezing inside to ensure there was always snow on the roof. Outside, the temperature was so low that the camera lenses would freeze and break. The crew had to leave the cameras in the freezing temperatures, as keeping them inside in the warmth resulted in foggy lenses that took hours to clear. Filming, greatly dependent on the weather, took three weeks to complete, with heavy snow making it impossible to film on some days. Rigging the explosives necessary to destroy the set in the film's finale required 8 hours. Keith David broke his hand in a car accident the day before he was to begin shooting. David attended filming the next day, but when Carpenter and Franco saw his swollen hand, they sent him to the hospital where it was punctured with two pins. He returned wearing a surgical glove beneath a black glove that was painted to resemble his complexion. His left hand is not seen for the first half of the film. Carpenter filmed the Norwegian camp scenes after the end scenes, using the damaged American base as a stand-in for the charred Norwegian camp. The explosive destruction of the base required the camera assistants to stand inside the set with the explosives, which were activated remotely. The assistants then had to run to a safe distance while seven cameras captured the base's destruction. Filmed when the heavy use of special effects was rare, the actors had to adapt to having Carpenter describe to them what their characters were looking at, as the effects would not be added until post-production. There were some puppets used to create the impression of what was happening in the scene, but in other cases, the cast would be looking at a wall or an object marked with an X. Art director John J. Lloyd oversaw the design and construction of all the sets, as there were no existing locations used in the film. Cundey suggested that the sets should have ceilings and pipes seen on camera to make the spaces seem more claustrophobic. ===Post-production=== Several scenes in the script were omitted from the film, sometimes because there was too much dialogue that slowed the pace and undermined the suspense. Carpenter blamed some of the issues on his directorial method, noting that several scenes appeared to be repeating events or information. Another scene featuring a snowmobile chase pursuing dogs was removed from the shooting script as it would have been too expensive to film. One scene present in the film, but not the script, features a monologue by MacReady. Carpenter added this partly to establish what was happening in the story and because he wanted to highlight Russell's heroic character after taking over the camp. Carpenter said that Lancaster's experience writing ensemble pieces did not emphasize single characters. Since Halloween, several horror films had replicated many of the scare elements of that film, something Carpenter wanted to move away from for The Thing. He removed scenes from Lancaster's script that had been filmed, such as a body suddenly falling into view at the Norwegian camp, which he felt were too clichéd. Approximately three minutes of scenes were filmed from Lancaster's script that elaborated on the characters' backgrounds. A scene with MacReady absentmindedly inflating a blow-up doll while watching the Norwegian tapes was filmed but was not used in the finished film. The doll would later appear as a jump scare with Nauls. Other scenes featured expanded or alternate deaths for various characters. In the finished film, Fuchs's charred bones are discovered, revealing he has died offscreen, but an alternate take sees his corpse impaled on a wall with a shovel. Nauls was scripted to appear in the finale as a partly assimilated mass of tentacles, but in the film, he simply disappears. Carpenter struggled with a method of conveying to the audience what assimilation by the creature actually meant. Lancaster's original set piece of Bennings's death had him pulled beneath a sheet of ice by the Thing, before resurfacing in different areas in various stages of assimilation. The scene called for a set to be built on one of Universal's largest stages, with sophisticated hydraulics, dogs, and flamethrowers, but it was deemed too costly to produce. A scene was filmed with Bennings being murdered by an unknown assailant, but it was felt that assimilation, leading to his death, was not explained enough. Short on time, and with no interior sets remaining, a small set was built, Maloney was covered with K-Y Jelly, orange dye, and rubber tentacles. Monster gloves for a different creature were repurposed to demonstrate partial assimilation. Carpenter filmed multiple endings for The Thing, including a "happier" ending because editor Todd Ramsay thought that the bleak, nihilistic conclusion would not test well with audiences. In the alternate take, MacReady is rescued and given a blood test that proves he is not infected. Carpenter said that stylistically this ending would have been "cheesy". Editor Verna Fields was tasked with reworking the ending to add clarity and resolution. It was finally decided to create an entirely new scene, which omitted the suspicion of Childs being infected by removing him completely, leaving MacReady alone. This new ending tested only slightly better with audiences than the original, and the production team agreed to the studio's request to use it. It was set to go to print for theaters when the producers, Carpenter, and executive Helena Hacker decided that the film was better left with ambiguity instead of nothing at all. Carpenter gave his approval to restore the ambiguous ending, but a scream was inserted over the outpost explosion to posit the monster's death. Universal executive Sidney Sheinberg disliked the ending's nihilism and, according to Carpenter, said, "Think about how the audience will react if we see the [Thing] die with a giant orchestra playing". Carpenter later noted that both the original ending and the ending without Childs tested poorly with audiences, which he interpreted as the film simply not being heroic enough. ===Music=== Ennio Morricone composed the film's score, as Carpenter wanted The Thing to have a European musical approach. Carpenter flew to Rome to speak with Morricone to convince him to take the job. By the time Morricone flew to Los Angeles to record the score, he had already developed a tape filled with an array of synthesizer music because he was unsure what type of score Carpenter wanted. Morricone wrote complete separate orchestral and synthesizer scores and a combined score, which he knew was Carpenter's preference. Carpenter picked a piece, closely resembling his own scores, that became the main theme used throughout the film. He also played the score from Escape from New York for Morricone as an example. Morricone made several more attempts, bringing the score closer to Carpenter's own style of music. In total, Morricone produced a score of approximately one hour that remained largely unused but was later released as part of the film's soundtrack. Carpenter and his longtime collaborator Alan Howarth separately developed some synth-styled pieces used in the film. In 2012, Morricone recalled: > I've asked [Carpenter], as he was preparing some electronic music with an > assistant to edit on the film, "Why did you call me, if you want to do it on > your own?" He surprised me, he said"I got married to your music. This is why > I've called you."... Then when he showed me the film, later when I wrote the > music, we didn't exchange ideas. He ran away, nearly ashamed of showing it > to me. I wrote the music on my own without his advice. Naturally, as I had > become quite clever since 1982, I've written several scores relating to my > life. And I had written one, which was electronic music. And [Carpenter] > took the electronic score. Carpenter said: > [Morricone] did all the orchestrations and recorded for me 20 minutes of > music I could use wherever I wished but without seeing any footage. I cut > his music into the film and realized that there were places, mostly scenes > of tension, in which his music would not work... I secretly ran off and > recorded in a couple of days a few pieces to use. My pieces were very simple > electronic piecesit was almost tones. It was not really music at all but > just background sounds, something today you might even consider as sound > effects. ==Design== ===Creature effects=== The Things special effects were largely designed by Bottin, who had previously worked with Carpenter on The Fog (1980). When Bottin joined the project in mid-1981, pre-production was in progress, but no design had been settled on for the alien. Artist Dale Kuipers had created some preliminary paintings of the creature's look, but he left the project after being hospitalized following a traffic accident before he could develop them further with Bottin. Carpenter conceived the Thing as a single creature, but Bottin suggested that it should be constantly changing and able to look like anything. Carpenter initially considered Bottin's description of his ideas as "too weird", and had him work with Ploog to sketch them instead. As part of the Thing's design, it was agreed anyone assimilated by it would be a perfect imitation and would not know they were the Thing. The actors spent hours during rehearsals discussing whether they would know they were the Thing when taken over. Clennon said that it did not matter, because everyone acted, looked and smelled exactly the same before (or after) being taken over. At its peak, Bottin had a 35-person crew of artists and technicians, and he found it difficult to work with so many people. To help manage the team, he hired Erik Jensen, a special effects line producer who he had worked with on The Howling (1981), to be in charge of the special make-up effects unit. Bottin's crew also included mechanical aspect supervisor Dave Kelsey, make-up aspect coordinator Ken Diaz, moldmaker Gunnar Ferdinansen, and Bottin's longtime friend Margaret Beserra, who managed painting and hair work. In designing the Thing's different forms, Bottin explained that the creature had been all over the galaxy. This allowed it to call on different attributes as necessary, such as stomachs that transform into giant mouths and spider legs sprouting from heads. Bottin said the pressure he experienced caused him to dream about working on designs, some of which he would take note of after waking. One abandoned idea included a series of dead baby monsters, which was deemed "too gross". Bottin admitted he had no idea how his designs would be implemented practically, but Carpenter did not reject them. Carpenter said, "What I didn't want to end up with in this movie was a guy in a suit... I grew up as a kid watching science-fiction monster movies, and it was always a guy in a suit." According to Cundey, Bottin was very sensitive about his designs, and worried about the film showing too many of them. At one point, as a preemptive move against any censorship, Bottin suggested making the creature's violent transformations and the appearance of the internal organs more fantastical using colors. The decision was made to tone down the color of the blood and viscera, although much of the filming had been completed by that point. The creature effects used a variety of materials including mayonnaise, creamed corn, microwaved bubble gum, and K-Y Jelly. During filming, then-21-year-old Bottin was hospitalized for exhaustion, double pneumonia, and a bleeding ulcer, caused by his extensive workload. Bottin himself explained he would "hoard the work", opting to be directly involved in many of the complicated tasks. His dedication to the project saw him spend over a year living on the Universal lot. Bottin said he did not take a day off during that time and slept on the sets or in locker rooms. To take some pressure off his crew, Bottin enlisted the aid of special effects creator Stan Winston to complete some of the designs, primarily the Dog-Thing. With insufficient time to create a sophisticated mechanical creature, Winston opted to create a hand puppet. A cast was made of makeup artist Lance Anderson's arm and head, around which the Dog-Thing was sculpted in oil-based clay. The final foam-latex puppet, worn by Anderson, featured radio-controlled eyes and cable-controlled legs, and was operated from below a raised set on which the kennel was built. Slime from the puppet would leak onto Anderson during the two days it took to film the scene, and he had to wear a helmet to protect himself from the explosive squibs simulating gunfire. Anderson pulled the tentacles into the Dog-Thing and reverse motion was used to create the effect of them slithering from its body. Winston refused to be credited for his work, insisting that Bottin deserved sole credit; Winston was given a "thank you" in the credits instead. thumb|The Norris-Thing. False arms were attached to a double amputee, allowing them to be "bitten off" by the chest mouth.|alt=A Caucasian male lies on a table seemingly unconscious. His torso is opened from chest to stomach in the formation of a mouth with sharp teeth along the edges. A doctor attempting to revive him has both his hands inside the exposed, empty cavity. In the "chest chomp" scene, Dr. Copper attempts to revive Norris with a defibrillator. Revealing himself as the Thing, Norris-Thing's chest transforms into a large mouth that severs Copper's arms. Bottin accomplished this scene by recruiting a double amputee and fitting him with prosthetic arms filled with wax bones, rubber veins and Jell-O. The arms were then placed into the practical "stomach mouth" where the mechanical jaws clamped down on them, at which point the actor pulled away, severing the false arms. The effect of the Norris-Thing's head detaching from the body to save itself took many months of testing before Bottin was satisfied enough to film it. The scene involved a fire effect, but the crew were unaware that fumes from the rubber foam chemicals inside the puppet were flammable. The fire ignited the fumes, creating a large fireball that engulfed the puppet. It suffered only minimal damage after the fire had been put out, and the crew successfully filmed the scene. Stop-motion expert Randall William Cook developed a sequence for the end of the film where MacReady is confronted by the gigantic Blair-Thing. Cook created a miniature model of the set and filmed wide-angle shots of the monster in stop motion, but Carpenter was not convinced by the effect and used only a few seconds of it. It took fifty people to operate the actual Blair-Thing puppet. The production intended to use a camera centrifugea rotating drum with a fixed camera platformfor the Palmer-Thing scene, allowing him to seem to run straight up the wall and across the ceiling. Again, the cost was too high and the idea abandoned for a stuntman falling into frame onto a floor made to look like the outpost's ceiling. Stuntman Anthony Cecere stood in for the Palmer- Thing after MacReady sets it on fire and it crashes through the outpost wall. ===Visuals and lighting=== Cundey worked with Bottin to determine the appropriate lighting for each creature. He wanted to show off Bottin's work because of its details, but he was conscious that showing too much would reveal its artificial nature, breaking the illusion. Each encounter with the creature was planned for areas where they could justify using a series of small lights to highlight the particular creature-model's surface and textures. Cundey would illuminate the area behind the creature to detail its overall shape. He worked with Panavision and a few other companies to develop a camera capable of automatically adjusting light exposure at different film speeds. He wanted to try filming the creature at fast and slow speeds thinking this would create a more interesting visual effect, but they were unable to accomplish this at the time. For the rest of the set, Cundey created a contrast by lighting the interiors with warmer lights hung overhead in conical shades so that they could still control the lighting and have darkened areas on set. The outside was constantly bathed in a cold, blue light that Cundey had discovered being used on airport runways. The reflective surface of the snow and the blue light helped create the impression of coldness. The team also made use of the flamethrowers and magenta-hued flares used by the actors to create dynamic lighting. The team originally wanted to shoot the film in black and white, but Universal was reluctant as it could affect their ability to sell the television rights for the film. Instead, Cundey suggested muting the colors as much as possible. The inside of the sets were painted in neutral colors such as gray, and many of the props were also painted gray, while the costumes were a mix of somber browns, blues, and grays. They relied on the lighting to add color. Albert Whitlock provided matte-painted backdrops, including the scene in which the Americans discover the giant alien spaceship buried in the ice. A scene where MacReady walks up to a hole in the ice where the alien had been buried was filmed at Universal, while the surrounding area, including the alien spaceship, helicopter, and snow, were all painted. Carpenter's friend John Wash, who developed the opening computer simulation for Escape from New York, designed the computer program showing how the Thing assimilates other organisms. Model maker Susan Turner built the alien ship approaching Earth in the pre-credits sequence, which featured 144 strobing lights. Drew Struzan designed the film's poster. He completed it in 24 hours, based only on a briefing, knowing little about the film. ==Release== The lack of information about the film's special effects drew the attention of film exhibitors in early 1982. They wanted reassurance that The Thing was a first- rate production capable of attracting audiences. Cohen and Foster, with a specially employed editor and Universal's archive of music, put together a 20-minute showreel emphasizing action and suspense. They used available footage, including alternate and extended scenes not in the finished film, but avoided revealing the special effects as much as possible. The reaction from the exclusively male exhibitors was generally positive, and Universal executive Robert Rehme told Cohen that the studio was counting on The Things success, as they expected E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial to appeal only to children. While finalizing the film, Universal sent Carpenter a demographic study showing that the audience appeal of horror films had declined by seventy percent over the previous six months. Carpenter considered this a suggestion that he lower his expectations of the film's performance. After one market research screening, Carpenter queried the audience on their thoughts, and one audience member asked, "Well what happened in the very end? Which one was the Thing...?" When Carpenter responded that it was up to their imagination, the audience member responded, "Oh, God. I hate that." After returning from a screening of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, the audience's silence at a The Thing trailer caused Foster to remark, "We're dead". The response to public pre- screenings of The Thing resulted in the studio changing the somber, black-and- white advertising approved by the producers to a color image of a person with a glowing face. The tagline was also changed from "Man is the warmest place to hide"written by Stephen Frankfort, who wrote the Alien tagline, "In space, no one can hear you scream"to "The ultimate in alien terror", trying to capitalize on Aliens audience. Carpenter attempted to make a last-minute change of the film's title to Who Goes There?, to no avail. The week before its release, Carpenter promoted the film with clips on Late Night with David Letterman. In 1981, horror magazine Fangoria held a contest encouraging readers to submit drawings of what the Thing would look like. Winners were rewarded with a trip to Universal Studios. On its opening day, a special screening was held at the Hollywood Pacific Theatre, presided over by Elvira, Mistress of the Dark, with free admission for those in costume as monsters. ===Box office=== The Thing was released in the United States on June 25, 1982. During its opening weekend, the film earned $3.1million from 840 theatersan average of $3,699 per theaterfinishing as the number eight film of the weekend behind supernatural horror Poltergeist ($4.1million), which was in its fourth weekend of release, and ahead of action film Megaforce ($2.3million). It dropped out of the top10 grossing films after three weeks, and ended its run earning a total of $19.6million against its $15million budget, making it only the 42nd highest-grossing film of 1982. It was not a box office failure, nor was it a hit. ==Reception== ===Critical reception=== The film received negative reviews on its release, and hostility for its cynical, anti- authoritarian tone and graphic special effects. Some reviewers were dismissive of the film, calling it the "quintessential moron movie of the 80's", "instant junk", and a "wretched excess". Starlogs Alan Spencer called it a "cold and sterile" horror movie attempting to cash in on the genre audience, against the "optimism of E.T., the reassuring return of Star Trek II, the technical perfection of Tron, and the sheer integrity of Blade Runner". The plot was criticized as "boring", and undermined by the special effects. The Los Angeles Timess Linda Gross said that The Thing was "bereft, despairing, and nihilistic", and lacking in feeling, meaning the characters' deaths did not matter. Spencer said it featured sloppy continuity, lacked pacing, and was devoid of warmth or humanity. David Ansen of Newsweek felt the film confused the use of effects with creating suspense, and that it lacked drama by "sacrificing everything at the altar of gore". The Chicago Readers Dave Kehr considered the dialogue to be banal and interchangeable, making the characters seem and sound alike. The Washington Posts Gary Arnold said it was a witty touch to open with the Thing having already overcome the Norwegian base, defeating the type of traps seen in the 1951 version, while New Yorks David Denby lamented that the Thing's threat is shown only externally, without focusing on what it is like for someone who thinks they have been taken over. Roger Ebert considered the film to be scary, but offering nothing original beyond the special effects, while The New York Timess Vincent Canby said it was entertaining only if the viewer needed to see spider-legged heads and dog autopsies. Reviews of the actors' performances were generally positive, while criticizing the depictions of the characters they portrayed. Ebert said they lacked characterization, offering basic stereotypes that existed just to be killed, and Spencer called the characters bland even though the actors do the best they can with the material. Times Richard Schickel singled Russell out as the "stalwart" hero, where other characters were not as strongly or wittily characterized, and Variety said that Russell's heroic status was undercut by the "suicidal" attitude adopted toward the film's finale. Other reviews criticized implausibilities such as characters wandering off alone. Kehr did not like that the men did not band together against the Thing, and several reviews noted a lack of camaraderie and romance, which Arnold said reduced any interest beyond the special effects. The film's special effects were simultaneously lauded and lambasted for being technically brilliant but visually repulsive and excessive. Cinefantastique wrote that the Thing "may be the most unloved monster in movie history... but it's also the most incredible display of special effects makeup in at least a decade." Reviews called Bottin's work "genius", noting the designs were novel, unforgettable, "colorfully horrific", and called him a "master of the macabre". Arnold said that the "chest chomp" scene demonstrated "appalling creativity" and the subsequent severed head scene was "madly macabre", comparing them to Aliens chest burster and severed head scenes. Variety called it "the most vividly gruesome horror film to ever stalk the screens". Conversely, Denby called them more disgusting than frightening and lamented that the trend of horror films to open the human body more and more bordered on obscenity. Spencer said that Bottin's care and pride in his craft were shown in the effects, but both they and Schickel found them to be overwhelming and "squandered" without strong characters and story. Even so, Canby said that the effects were too "phony looking to be disgusting". Canby and Arnold said the creature's lack of a single, discernible shape was to its detriment, and hiding it inside humans made it hard to follow. Arnold said that the 1951 version was less versatile but easier to keep in focus. Gross and Spencer praised the film's technical achievements, particularly Cundey's "frostbitten" cinematography, the sound, editing, and Morricone's score. Spencer was critical of Carpenter's direction, saying it was his "futile" attempt to give the audience what he thinks they want and that Carpenter was not meant to direct science fiction, but was instead suited to direct "traffic accidents, train wrecks, and public floggings". Ansen said that "atrocity for atrocity's sake" was ill-becoming of Carpenter. The Thing was often compared to similar films, particularly Alien, Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1978), and The Thing from Another World. Ebert and Denby said that The Thing seemed derivative compared to those films, which had portrayed the story in a better way. Variety called it inferior to the 1951 version. Arnold considered The Thing as the result of Alien raising the requirement for horrific spectacle. The Thing from Another World actor Kenneth Tobey and director Christian Nyby also criticized the film. Nyby said, "If you want blood, go to the slaughterhouse... All in all, it's a terrific commercial for J&B; Scotch". Tobey singled out the visual effects, saying they "were so explicit that they actually destroyed how you were supposed to feel about the characters... They became almost a movie in themselves, and were a little too horrifying." In Phil Hardy's 1984 book Science Fiction, a reviewer described the film as a "surprising failure" and called it "Carpenter's most unsatisfying film to date". The review noted that the narrative "seems little more than an excuse for the various set-pieces of special effects and Russell's hero is no more than a cypher compared to Tobey's rounded character in Howard Hawks' The Thing". Clennon said that introductory scenes for the characters, omitted from the film, made it hard for audiences to connect with them, robbing it of some of the broader appeal of Alien. ===Accolades=== The Thing received nominations from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films for Best Horror Film and Best Special Effects, but lost to Poltergeist and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, respectively. The film was nominated at the Razzie Awards for Worst Musical Score. ==Post-release== ===Performance analysis and aftermath=== In a 1999 interview, Carpenter said audiences rejected The Thing for its nihilistic, depressing viewpoint at a time when the United States was in the midst of a recession. When it opened, it was competing against the critically and commercially successful E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ($619million), a family-friendly film released two weeks earlier that offered a more optimistic take on alien visitation. Carpenter described it as the complete opposite of his film. The Thing opened on the same day as the science fiction film Blade Runner, which debuted as the number two film that weekend with a take of $6.1million and went on to earn $33.8million. It was also regarded as a critical and commercial failure at the time. Others blamed an oversaturation of science fiction and fantasy films released that year, including Conan the Barbarian ($130million), Poltergeist ($121.7million), Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan ($97million), Mad Max 2 ($34.5million), and Tron ($33million). Some analysts blamed Universal's poor marketing, which did not compete with the deluge of promotion for prominent films released that summer. Another factor was the R rating it was given, restricting the audience to those over the age of 17 unless accompanied by an adult. In contrast, Poltergeist, another horror film, received a PG rating, allowing families and younger children to view it. The impact on Carpenter was immediatehe lost the job of directing the 1984 science fiction horror film Firestarter because of The Things poor performance. His previous success had gained him a multiple-film contract at Universal, but the studio opted to buy him out of it instead. He continued making films afterward but lost confidence, and did not openly talk about The Things failure until a 1985 interview with Starlog, where he said, "I was called 'a pornographer of violence'... I had no idea it would be received that way... The Thing was just too strong for that time. I knew it was going to be strong, but I didn't think it would be too strong... I didn't take the public's taste into consideration." Shortly after its release, Wilbur Stark sued Universal for $43million for "slander, breach of contract, fraud and deceit", alleging he incurred a financial loss by Universal failing to credit him properly in its marketing and by showing his name during the end credits, a less prestigious position. Stark also said that he "contributed greatly to the [screenplay]". David Foster responded that Stark was not involved with the film's production in any way, and received proper credit in all materials. Stark later sued for a further $15million over Foster's comments. The outcome of the lawsuits is unknown. ===Home media=== While The Thing was not initially successful, it was able to find new audiences and appreciation on home video, and later on television. Sidney Sheinberg edited a version of the film for network television broadcast, which added narration and a different ending, where the Thing imitates a dog and escapes the ruined camp. Carpenter disowned this version, and theorized that Sheinberg had been mad at him for not taking his creative ideas on board for the theatrical cut. The Thing was released on DVD in 1998 and featured additional content, such as The Thing: Terror Takes Shapea detailed documentary on the production, deleted and alternate scenes, and commentary by Carpenter and Russell. An HD DVD version followed in 2006 containing the same features, and a Blu-ray version in 2008 featuring just the Carpenter and Russell commentary, and some behind-the-scenes videos available via picture-in-picture during the film. A 2016 Blu-ray release featured a 2K resolution restoration of the film, overseen by Dean Cundey. As well as including previous features such as the commentary and Terror Takes Shape, it added interviews with the cast and crew, and segments that focus on the music, writing, editing, Ploog's artwork, an interview with Alan Dean Foster, who wrote the film's novelization, and the television broadcast version of The Thing that runs fifteen minutes shorter than the theatrical cut. A 4K resolution restoration was released in 2017 on Blu-ray, initially as a United Kingdom exclusive with a limited run of eight thousand units. The restoration was created using the original film negative, and was overseen by Carpenter and Cundey. A 4KUltra HD Blu-ray was released in September 2021. MCA released the soundtrack for The Thing in 1982. Varèse Sarabande re-released it in 1991 on compact disc and Compact Cassette. These versions eventually ceased being manufactured. In 2011, Howarth and Larry Hopkins restored Morricone's score using updated digital techniques and arranged each track in the order it appears in the film. The album also includes tracks composed by Carpenter and Howarth for the film. A remastered version of the score was released on vinyl on February 23, 2017; a deluxe edition included an exclusive interview with Carpenter. In May 2020, an extended play (EP), Lost Cues: The Thing, was released. The EP contains Carpenter's contributions to The Things score; he re-recorded the music because the original masterings were lost. ===Other media=== A novelization of the film was published by Alan Dean Foster in 1982. It is based on an earlier draft of the script and features some differences from the finished film. A scene in which MacReady, Bennings, and Childs chase infected dogs out into the snow is included, and Nauls's disappearance is explained: Cornered by the Blair-Thing, he chooses suicide over assimilation. In 2000, McFarlane Toys released two "Movie Maniacs" figures: the Blair-Thing and the Norris-Thing, including its spider-legged, disembodied head. SOTA Toys released a set featuring a MacReady figure and the Dog-Thing based on the film's kennel scene, as well as a bust of the Norris-Thing's spider-head. In 2017, Mondo and the Project Raygun division of USAopoly released The Thing: Infection at Outpost 31, a board game. Players take on the role of characters from the film or the Thing, each aiming to defeat the other through subterfuge and sabotage. ==Thematic analysis== The central theme of The Thing concerns paranoia and mistrust. Fundamentally, the film is about the erosion of trust in a small community, instigated by different forms of paranoia caused by the possibility of someone not being who they say they are, or that your best friend may be your enemy. It represents the distrust that humans always have for somebody else and the fear of betrayal by those we know and, ultimately, our bodies. The theme remains timely because the subject of paranoia adapts to the age. The Thing focuses on being unable to trust one's peers, but this can be interpreted as distrust of entire institutions. Developed in an era of cold-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, the film refers to the threat of nuclear annihilation by mutually assured destruction. Diaboliques Daniel Clarkson Fisher notes that MacReady destroys the chess computer after being checkmate, and similarly vows to destroy the Thing, even at the expense of the team. The Cold War-style isolationism hurts the group, while a lack of trust destroys it. Screen Rants Michael Edward Taylor draws allusions between The Thing and the accusatory Red Scares and McCarthyism, as the film conveys an anti-communist fear of infection of civilized areas that will lead to assimilation and imitation. Slant Magazines John Lingsan said the men display a level of post-Vietnam War (1955–1975) "fatigued counterculturalism"the rejection of conventional social norms, each defined by their own eccentricities. The Atlantics Noah Berlatsky said that unlike typical horror genre films, women are excluded, allowing the Thing to be identified as a fear of not being a man, or being homosexual. Vices Patrick Marlborough considered The Thing to be a "scathing examination" of manliness, noting that identifying the Thing requires intimacy, confession, and empathy to out the creature, but "male frailty" prevents this as an option. Trapped by pride and stunted emotional growth, the men are unable to confront the truth out of fear of embarrassment or exposure. Berlatsky noted that MacReady avoids emotional attachments and is the most paranoid, allowing him to be the hero. This detachment works against him in the finale, which leaves MacReady locked in a futile mistrust with Childs, each not really knowing the other. Nerdist's Kyle Anderson and Strange Horizonss Orrin Grey analyzed The Thing as an example of author H. P. Lovecraft's cosmic horror. Anderson's analysis includes the idea of cosmic horror in large part coming "from the fear of being overtaken," connecting it to Lovecraft's xenophobia and Blair's character arc of becoming what he most fears. In contrast, Anderson compares Blair to MacReady, who represents a more traditional Hollywood film protagonist. Grey describes the creature as fear of the loss of self, using Blair's character as an example. Discussing The Thing in the context of the first of three films in Carpenter's "Apocalypse Trilogy", Grey states the threat the monster poses to the world "is less disconcerting than the threat posed to the individual concept of self." The Thing never speaks or gives a motive for its actions, and ruthlessly pursues its goal. Den of Geeks Mark Harrison and Ryan Lambie said that the essence of humanity is free will, which is stripped away by the Thing, possibly without the individual being aware that they have been taken over. In a 1982 interview, when given the option to describe The Thing as "pro-science" like Who Goes There? or "anti-science" like The Thing from Another World, Carpenter chose "pro-human", stating, "It's better to be a human being than an imitation, or let ourselves be taken over by this creature who's not necessarily evil, but whose nature it is to simply imitate, like a chameleon." Further allusions have been drawn between the blood-test scene and the epidemic of HIV at the time, which could be identified only by a blood test. Since its release, many theories have been developed to attempt to answer the film's ambiguous ending shared by MacReady and Childs. Several suggest that Childs was infected, citing Dean Cundey's statement that he deliberately provided a subtle illumination to the eyes of uninfected characters, something absent from Childs. Similarly, others have noted a lack of visible breath from the character in the frigid air. While both aspects are present in MacReady, their absence in Childs has been explained as a technical issue with the filming. During production, Carpenter considered having MacReady be infected, and an alternate ending showed MacReady having been rescued and definitively tested as uninfected. Russell has said that analyzing the scene for clues is "missing the point". He continued, "[Carpenter] and I worked on the ending of that movie together a long time. We were both bringing the audience right back to square one. At the end of the day, that was the position these people were in. They just didn't know anything... They didn't know if they knew who they were... I love that, over the years, that movie has gotten its due because people were able to get past the horrificness of the monster... to see what the movie was about, which was paranoia." However, Carpenter has teased, "Now, I do know, in the end, who the Thing is, but I cannot tell you." ==Legacy== ===Critical reassessment=== In the years following its release, critics and fans have reevaluated The Thing as a milestone of the horror genre. A prescient review by Peter Nicholls in 1992 called The Thing "a bleak, memorable film [that] may yet be seen as a classic". It has been called one of the best films directed by Carpenter. John Kenneth Muir called it "Carpenter's most accomplished and underrated directorial effort", and critic Matt Zoller Seitz said it "is one of the greatest and most elegantly constructed B-movies ever made". Trace Thurman described it as one of the best films ever, and in 2008, Empire magazine selected it as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, at number 289, calling it "a peerless masterpiece of relentless suspense, retina-wrecking visual excess and outright, nihilistic terror". It is now considered to be one of the greatest horror films ever made, and a classic of the genre. Several publications have called it one of the best films of 1982, including Filmsite.org, Film.com, and Entertainment Weekly. Muir called it "the best science fiction-horror film of 1982, an incredibly competitive year, and perhaps even the best genre motion picture of the decade". Complex named it the ninth-best of the decade, calling it the "greatest genre remake of all time". Numerous publications have ranked it as one of the best science fiction films, including number four by IGN (2016); number12 by Thrillist (2018); number17 by GamesRadar+ (2018); number 31 by Paste (2018); number 32 by Esquire (2015) and Popular Mechanics (2017); and number 76 by Rotten Tomatoes (2017) based on its average review score. Similarly, The Thing has appeared on several lists of the top horror films, including number one by The Boston Globe; number two by Bloody Disgusting (2018); number four by Empire (2016); and number six by Time Out (2016). Empire listed its poster as the 43rd best film poster ever. In 2016, the British Film Institute named it one of ten great films about aliens visiting Earth. It was voted the ninth best horror film of all time in a Rolling Stone readers poll, and is considered one of the best examples of body horror. GamesRadar+ listed its ending as one of the 25 best of all time. Contemporary review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 83% of 75 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.40/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Grimmer and more terrifying than the 1950s take, John Carpenter's The Thing is a tense sci-fi thriller rife with compelling tension and some remarkable make-up effects." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100 based on 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". In a 2011 interview, Carpenter remarked that it was perhaps his favorite film from his own filmography. He lamented that it took a long time for The Thing to find a wider audience, saying, "If The Thing had been a hit, my career would have been different. I wouldn't have had to make the choices that I made. But I needed a job. I'm not saying I hate the movies I did. I loved making Christine (1983) and Starman (1984) and Big Trouble in Little China (1986), all those films. But my career would have been different." ===Cultural influence=== The film has had a significant impact on popular culture, and by 1998, The Thing was already considered a cult classic. It is listed in the film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, which says "one of the most influential horror movies of the 1980s, much imitated but rarely bettered... It is one of the first films to unflinchingly show the rupture and warp of flesh and bone into grotesque tableaus of surreal beauty, forever raising the bar of cinematic horror." It has been referred to in a variety of media, from television (including The X-Files, Futurama, and Stranger Things) to games (Resident Evil 4, Tomb Raider III, Icewind Dale: Rime of the Frostmaiden, and Among Us), and films (The Faculty, Slither, The Mist). Several filmmakers have spoken of their appreciation for The Thing or cited its influence on their own work, including Guillermo del Toro, James DeMonaco, J. J. Abrams, Neill Blomkamp, David Robert Mitchell, Rob Hardy, Steven S. DeKnight, and Quentin Tarantino. In 2011, The New York Times asked prominent horror filmmakers what film they had found the scariest. Two, John Sayles and Edgar Wright, cited The Thing. The 2015 Tarantino film The Hateful Eight takes numerous cues from The Thing, from featuring Russell in a starring role, to replicating themes of paranoia and mistrust between characters restricted to a single location, and even duplicating certain angles and layouts used by Carpenter and Cundey. Pieces of Morricone's unused score for The Thing were repurposed for The Hateful Eight. Tarantino also cited The Thing as an inspiration for his 1992 film Reservoir Dogs. The film is screened annually in February to mark the beginning of winter at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. In January 2010, Clarkesworld Magazine published "The Things", a short story by Peter Watts told from the Thing's point of view; it is unable to understand why humans are hostile toward it and horrified to learn that they do not shapeshift. The story received a 2011 Hugo Award nomination. In 2017, a 400-page art book was released featuring art inspired by The Thing, with contributions from 350 artists, a foreword by director Eli Roth, and an afterword by Carpenter. The 2007 Halloween Horror Nights event at Universal Studios in Orlando, Florida, featured "The Thing: Assimilation", a haunted attraction based on the film. The attraction included MacReady and Childs, both held in stasis, the Blair- Thing and the outpost kennel. ==Sequels== Dark Horse Comics published four comic book sequels starring MacReady, beginning in December 1991 with the two- part The Thing from Another World by Chuck Pfarrer, which is set 24 hours after the film. Pfarrer was reported to have pitched his comic tale to Universal as a sequel in the early 1990s. This was followed by the four-part The Thing from Another World: Climate of Fear in July 1992, the four-part The Thing from Another World: Eternal Vows in December 1993, and The Thing from Another World: Questionable Research. In 1999, Carpenter said that no serious discussions had taken place for a sequel, but he would be interested in basing one on Pfarrer's adaptation, calling the story a worthy sequel. A 2002 video game of the same name was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox to generally favorable reviews. The game's plot follows a team of U.S. soldiers investigating the aftermath of the film's events. In 2005, the Syfy channel planned a four-hour miniseries sequel produced by Frank Darabont and written by David Leslie Johnson-McGoldrick. The story followed a Russian team who recover the corpses of MacReady and Childs, as well as remnants of the Thing. The story moves forward 23 years, where the Thing escapes in New Mexico, and follows the attempts at containment. The project never proceeded, and Universal opted to continue with a feature film sequel. A prequel film, also titled The Thing, was released in October 2011 to a $31million worldwide box office gross and mixed reviews. The story follows the events after the Norwegian team discovers the Thing. In 2020, Universal Studios and Blumhouse Productions announced the development of a remake of Carpenter's The Thing. The remake was described as incorporating elements of The Thing from Another World and The Thing, as well as the novella Who Goes There? and its expanded version Frozen Hell, which features several additional chapters. Although released years apart, and unrelated in terms of plot, characters, crew, or even production studios, Carpenter considers The Thing to be the first installment in his "Apocalypse Trilogy", a series of films based around cosmic horror, entities unknown to man, that are threats to both human life and the sense of self. The Thing was followed by Prince of Darkness in 1987, and In the Mouth of Madness in 1994. All three films are heavily influenced by Carpenter's appreciation for the works of Lovecraft. ==References== ===Notes=== ===Citations=== ===Works cited=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * * * * * * The Thing at theofficialjohncarpenter.com *Who Goes There? by John W. Campbell, the novella on which The Thing is based Category:1980s monster movies Category:1980s science fiction horror films Category:1982 horror films Category:Survival films Category:Alien invasions in films Category:American body horror films Category:American monster movies Category:American science fiction horror films Category:Fictional amorphous creatures Category:Fictional parasites and parasitoids Category:Films about alcoholism Category:Films about extraterrestrial life Category:Films about shapeshifting Category:Films adapted into comics Category:Films based on science fiction novels Category:Films based on science fiction short stories Category:Films directed by John Carpenter Category:Films scored by Ennio Morricone Category:Films set in 1982 Category:Films set in Antarctica Category:Films shot in Alaska Category:Films shot in British Columbia Category:Films using stop-motion animation Category:The Thing (franchise) Category:Universal Pictures films Category:1980s English-language films Category:1980s American films
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The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation is the debut full-length album by American metalcore band Poison the Well. It was released on December 14, 1999. Influential in the early popularization of metalcore around the turn of the 21st century, the album was the band's first on Trustkill Records and is now recognized as a landmark album in the genre due to its quality and influence. The album was the band's first release to appear on CMJ's charts, reaching number 9 on the Loud Rock chart in May 2000. It had sold 30,000 copies by 2002. Thehe release received numerous reissues on various formats over the years through such record labels as Good Life Recordings, Roadrunner Records, Shock Records and Rise Records and was digitally remastered in 2012. In promotion of the album, Poison the Well toured the United States several times between December 1999 and September 2001 and also performed a handful of shows in Canada and Belgium. The bands that accompanied Poison the Well on these tours include Stretch Arm Strong, Twelve Tribes, This Day Forward, Brother's Keeper, NORA, Martyr A.D., Candiria, Origin, Cryptopsy, Codeseven, Love Lost but Not Forgotten, Cataract, Curl Up and Die, Eighteen Visions, Unearth, God Forbid and From Autumn to Ashes. Poison the Well also performed at notable festivals like CMJ MusicFest Marathon, in Manhattan, New York, Hellfest in Syracuse, New York (in both 2000 and 2001), Krazy Fest in Louisville, Kentucky, Gainesvillefest in Gainesville, Florida, Monster Fest in Burlington, Vermont, Mixed Messages in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Board Festival in Boston, Massachusetts, Fantasy Festival in Miami, Florida and Good Life Summer Festival in Waregem, Belgium. The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation's recording session and following promotional tours featured a great deal of member changes for Poison the Well. The album was recorded with vocalist Jeffrey Moreira, bassist Alan Landsman, drummer Christopher Hornbrook and guitarists Ryan Primack and Derek Miller. Former vocalists Duane Hosein and Aryeh Lehrer were both invited to provide backing vocals on a song. Primack quit immediately after the recording was completed and was briefly replaced by José Martinez. During the ensuing tours, Landsman was replaced by a slew of bassists including Michael Gordillo, Javier Van Huss, Albert and finally Iano Dovi, the last of which remained with the band to record their follow-up Tear from the Red. Miller was unable to consistently tour due to school obligations and was periodically substituted by Michael Peters and Matthew Tackett. Moreira also suffered a pneumothorax on the final promotional tour, leading Francis Mark to sing at several shows. == Recording == Poison the Well recorded the album from October 2–10, 1999, with producer Jeremy Staska at Studio 13 in Deerfield Beach, Florida. The album was recorded with vocalist Jeffrey Moreira, bassist Alan Landsman, drummer Christopher Hornbrook and guitarists Ryan Primack and Derek Miller. The band invited former vocalists Duane Hosein and Aryeh Lehrer to provide backing vocals on the song "Not Within Arms Length", the lyrics of which had been written by Hosein before he left the band in 1998. Immediately after the recording session, lead guitarist Primack quit the band (for the second time) and was replaced by José Martinez. The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation was initially scheduled to be released solely by Good Life Recordings but the band gained the attention of New Jersey-based record label Trustkill Records, who quickly signed them to a three-release deal (two albums plus one extended play) less than a week after the record was completed. Good Life Recordings retained permission to release the 12" vinyl version of the album, while Trustkill Records released the compact disc version on December 14, 1999. Primack returned in time for the album release show on December 11, 1999 at Club Q in Davie, Florida, where the band performed with Where Fear and Weapons Meet, Brethren, Red Roses for a Blue Lady, 32/40 and Cho. The band had received the discs from Trustkill Records in time for the release show, but not the artwork or jewel cases. So the band photocopied a special insert labeled the "CD Release Show" edition which was limited to 50 copies. == Release and packaging == Trustkill Records released the compact disc edition on December 14, 1999, under the catalog number TK27. The artwork and layout was designed by Converge vocalist Jacob Bannon through his graphic design company Atomic! Information Design. The original compact disc release from December 1999 did not feature a barcode on the back cover. It was not until a March 2002 repress that Trustkill Records began adding a barcode to the upper left corner of the back artwork and also on a sealant sticker on the top spine of the jewel case. Good Life Recordings issued a 12" vinyl version in March 2000 under the catalog number GL052. The vinyl pressing was available on a choice of blue vinyl (limited to 300 copies) and black vinyl (limited to 1000 copies). The blue vinyl was repressed in late 2001 (also limited to 300 copies) at the same time as a repress of Distance Only Makes the Heart Grow Fonder; the second pressing was slightly darker than the first. In August 2004, Trustkill Records signed a deal with Roadrunner Records for a selection of their releases to be reissued in foreign markets such as the United Kingdom and Europe. Through this licensing deal, Poison the Well's The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation was finally made available locally for those regions. The album was re-released in France, Germany and the Netherlands on October 11, 2004 and in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2004 under catalog number RR8222. In early 2007, Trustkill Records signed a deal with Shock Records for a selection of their past releases to be distributed in Australasia. Through this distribution deal, The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation was finally made available locally in Australia and New Zealand. The distribution deal originally had Trustkill Records ship a container of already-pressed compact discs to Shock Records for retail marketing through their chain of stores. These American-made compact discs were released to the Australasia market on June 2, 2007 and were identical to the ones sold in the United States. After quickly selling out of the American-made discs, Shock Records began repressing the release directly in Australia as part of the label's series 2 CDs For The Price Of 1. The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation and Tear from the Red were each pressed in separate jewel cases, baring no barcodes on their back covers and both using the same catalog number TK24103. The two jewel cases were packaged together in a slipcase which contained the barcode for retail stores and the catalog number TK24103. The double-disc release was sold as a single unit starting on February 16, 2008. Shock Records simultaneously released seven other packages as part of their 2 CDs For The Price Of 1 series, for Trustkill Records' Terror, Hopesfall, Throwdown, Walls of Jericho, Most Precious Blood and Bleeding Through. On March 25, 2008, Trustkill Records re-released The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation and Tear from the Red in a special double-LP gatefold packaging under catalog number TK110. Each side of the gatefold cover featured the front artwork of each album (The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation on the front and Tear from the Red on the back). The release was pressed on a choice of blue and red vinyl (limited to 331 copies), white and yellow vinyl (limited to 336 copies), and white and pink vinyl (limited to 661 copies). Trustkill Records simultaneously re-released two other double-LP packages from its past roster: Throwdown's Haymaker / Vendetta and Walls of Jericho's With Devils Amongst Us All / All Hail the Dead. In 2011, Sumerian Records attempted to purchase a license to reissue The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation and Tear from the Red from Trustkill Records but was unsuccessful. On May 4, 2012, it was revealed that Rise Records had secured the rights to the reissues and would be releasing them in the summer of 2012. Unlike Trustkill Records' 2008 gatefold vinyl repress, Rise Records went to the extent of having all of the audio content remastered and designing a new artwork and layout. The two albums were digitally remastered by Will Putney at The Machine Shop in Hoboken, New Jersey, while the artwork was adapted by merging the two releases' original artworks together. After some delay, Rise Records reissued the 19-song, double-release compilation The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation / Tear from the Red on November 20, 2012 as catalog number RR176. The set was offered in a single compact disc edition packaged in a digipak, a double-LP edition packaged in a gatefold sleeve and digitally through streaming and downloading. The double LP was originally offered on a choice of transparent blue swirl and transparent red swirl (limited to 500 copies), or clear (limited to 1500 copies) vinyl color. A second pressing was done on blue and red starburst colored vinyl (limited to 1000 copies). Rise Records also printed limited edition t-shirts, hoodies and posters in promotion of the reissue. On January 18, 2020, Poison the Well performed a 20th Anniversary concert in celebration of their debut album The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation. The event took place at the El Rey Theater in Los Angeles, California where the band performed a selection of eight songs from their past releases, followed by The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation in its entirety. The band also re-pressed their debut album on limited edition transparent blue and marbled blue colored vinyl, featuring a revised layout, an expanded commemorative booklet and new liner notes designed by Touché Amoré guitarist Nick Steinhardt. Several mistakes were made while designing the commemorative booklet, such as writing that the album had originally been released on December 14, 2000 (a whole year later than it actually was) and using low-resolution pictures and flyers directly from Instagram and Discogs, at times from shows that were played on tours outside the promotion of the album (shows from before the album was released or from tours promoting later releases). Steinhardt also designed exclusive t-shirts, long sleeve shirts and hoodies for sale at the 20th Anniversary show and as bundles for online orders. The band had anticipated having the vinyl ready in time for their concert but due to pressing plant delays, it was only released on February 21, 2020. == Promotion == Poison the Well toured vigorously in 2000 to promote their debut album. The band embarked on a local Florida tour with Red Roses for a Blue Lady in late October 1999, followed by an East Coast United States tour with Stretch Arm Strong from December 1999 to January 2000. They also played at festivals like Fantasy Festival in Miami, Florida, Mixed Messages in Minneapolis, Minnesota and Hellfest in Syracuse, New York The band's Hellfest 2K performance was professionally filmed and three songs ("Slice Paper Wrists", "Nerdy" and "Artist's Rendering of Me") were used on Trustkill Records' VHS and DVD Hellfest Syracuse, NY - Summer 2000: The Official Documentary, released on June 12, 2001. The home video also included interviews with Poison the Well and a live performance by metalcore band NORA with whom Primack had played in place of their absent guitarist. The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation was sent in to CMJ in February 2000 and was added to the Loud Rock chart in late April 2000. It reached number 9 on the Loud Rock chart in May 2000. The band also toured with Twelve Tribes, who was promoting its new extended play Instruments, which featured guest vocals from Moreira on the song "Milk And Mice Pocketknife". The Broken Hearts and Broken Vans - Summer Tour 2000 trip took them across the entire United States, from the Southeast, up the Northeast through the Midwest, covering Central and Southern America, and finally the Westcoast, from June to August 2000. This Day Forward briefly joined the tour for one of the legs. During this tour, Poison the Well opened their shows by performing a snippet of a Metallica cover of "...And Justice for All". Poison the Well and Twelve Tribes were scheduled to play a few Canadian dates as part of the tour at the end of June 2000 but due to lack of paperwork, they were denied entry. Rhythm guitarist Miller was unable to participate in the summer tour so former Twelve Tribes bassist Matthew Tackett filled in during those three months. One highlight event, a radio show performed on June 26 in Boston, Massachusetts, was recorded; two songs from that broadcast were later used as bonus tracks on Undecided Records' re-issue of Distance Only Makes the Heart Grow Fonder in 2001. Bassist Landsman was kicked out of the band in September 2000 and was replaced by Michael Gordillo who continued to tour with the band in promotion of The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation. On October 20, 2000, Poison the Well performed at the Downtime in Manhattan, New York. The performance was part of CMJ MusicFest Marathon and also featured E.Town Concrete, Diecast, Drowningman, Vision of Disorder, Embodyment, Boiler Room, Colepitz and Lyna. Prior to playing the CMJ event, the band conducted an exclusive live interview on Seton Hall University's radio station WSOU in South Orange, New Jersey. In November 2000, Poison the Well toured the East Coast with fellow Trustkill Records roster artists Brother's Keeper and NORA. As rhythm guitarist Miller was obligated to finish his school semester, guitarist Michael Peters took his place for the first leg of the tour. The tour passed through Florida for a show at Gainesvillefest in December 2000, where Miller returned, and picked up again with Martyr joining for Southern, Midwest and Canadian dates through January 2001. Poison the Well was however denied entry into Canada, for the second time, again to due lack of necessary paperwork; the band quickly booked replacement shows in the Midwest. Poison the Well continued touring for most of 2001 in promotion of The Opposite of December... A Season of Separation. They performed at the Board Festival in Boston, Massachusetts, Hellfest in East Syracuse, New York, Monster Fest in Burlington, Vermont and Krazy Fest 4 in Louisville, Kentucky They were also scheduled to play the New England Metal and Hardcore Festival in Worcester, Massachusetts, but had to cancel due to touring conflicts as the band was due to be on the west coast at that time Poison the Well had also booked an Asian tour for March 2001, with dates in China and Japan, but due to trouble with the booking agency, the entire trip was cancelled. In February 2001, Gordillo departed; a month later he was replaced by California-based bassist Javier Van Huss, formerly of the bands Enewetak, Eighteen Visions, Throwdown, Breakneck, Bleeding Through and Wrench. From mid-March to mid-April 2001, Poison the Well toured with Candiria, Origin and Cryptopsy. The month-long The Pain Cometh Tour took the bands across the entire United States from the Northeast, through the Midwest, the South, Central, the Westcoast and the Northwest. Van Huss left Poison the Well immediately after the tour and the band dropped him off in Orange County, California before making their way back home to Florida. Van Huss went on to play in the bands The Mistake, Black Knot, Extricate, Forwarned and Hurricanrana. Albert joined as Poison the Well's new bassist. From May through June 2001, Poison the Well mainly played local shows and weekend trips along the east coast with bands like Until the End (which had since then also kicked out vocalist Landsman) and Glasseater. From late June to early July 2001, the band embarked on a mini-tour with Codeseven and Love Lost but Not Forgotten, followed by a few dates with Cataract, Curl Up and Die and Eighteen Visions surrounding their appearance at Hellfest 2001. In late July 2001, the band played three shows in Belgium, their first time performing in Europe. Poison the Well headlined both nights of the Good Life Summer Festival in Waregem, Belgium, followed by a single show in Koksijde, Belgium The band had originally hopped to do a full European tour but due to previous engagements, notably playing Krazy Fest 4 at the end of July, they were only able to commit to three dates, doing so as a personal favor to Good Life Recordings owner Edward Verhaeghe, who had already released two of their releases. Albert left Poison the Well at the end of July 2001 after performing at Krazy Fest. Bassist Iano Dovi, formerly of the band Pintsize, joined in August 2001, just in time for a two-week tour with Unearth, God Forbid and Martyr AD across Canada, the Northeast and the Midwest. The tour started out positively, with Trustkill Records ensuring that all of the bands had the proper paperwork to enter Canada legally. After playing their second show in Canada, at Salle X in Montreal, Quebec, Poison the Well's van was broken into and all of their guitars, basses and parts of the drums were stolen. Moreira was so distraught by the theft that he engaged in a screaming fit in the parking lot of Salle X, damaging his throat, which worsened into pneumonia over the next two weeks on the road. After regrouping, the band made arrangements with members of the other bands on the tour to borrow their equipment each night to play shows. Before the band could drive out of Montreal, their van's transmission died and Poison the Well was forced to stay behind while Unearth, God Forbid and Martyr AD played the rest of the Canadian dates. Poison the Well was only able to rejoin the tour four days later in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. Starting on September 2, 2001, From Autumn to Ashes joined the tour. That night, the bands performed at CBGB's for From Autumn to Ashes' Too Bad You're Beautiful album-release show. By the end of the tour, Moreira's voice was nearly extinct so From Autumn to Ashes' Francis Mark filled in, supported by members from the touring bands and local opening acts like Ken Susi from Unearth, Joe Sudrovic from From A Second Story Window, Benjamin Perri from From Autumn to Ashes and Charles Johnson from Martyr AD. Upon returning home on September 6, 2001, Moreira was rushed to the hospital where he was treated for a collapsed lung, motivating him to quit smoking cigarettes. == Reception == === Accolades === Year Nominator Accolade Result 2002 Revolver "Top 69 Hard Rock Albums of All Time" #50 2018 Kerrang! Magazine "The 21 Best US Metalcore Albums of All Time" #4 2018 Loudwire "25 Best Metalcore Albums of All Time" #2 2019 Brooklyn Vegan "15 '90s Metalcore Albums That Still Resonate Today" #15 * Noise Creep Poison the Well's Ryan Primack Flattered by The Opposite of December being considered a landmark album. * Punktastic "Back on Deck: Poison the Well – 'The Opposite of December'". * Kill The Music "Retrospective: Poison The Well - The Opposite of December". ==Track listing== Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. ==Personnel== Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. ;Poison the Well *Jeffrey Moreira – lead vocals *Ryan Primack – lead guitar *Derek Miller – rhythm guitar *Alan Landsman – bass guitar *Christopher Hornbrook – drums ;Guest musicians *Duane Hosein – backing vocals on "Not Within Arms Length" *Aryeh Lehrer – backing vocals on "Not Within Arms Length" ;Production *Ryan Joseph Shaughnessy – live photography *Jacob Bannon – art direction and design at Atomic! Information Design *Jeremy Staska – recording engineer, mixer and producer at Studio 13 *Poison the Well – co-producer *Ryan Joseph Shaughnessy – live photography *Jacob Bannon – art direction and design at Atomic! Information Design *Nick Steinhardt – art direction and design at Smog Design (20th Anniversary reissue) ==References== Category:1999 debut albums Category:Albums produced by Jeremy Staska Category:Albums with cover art by Jacob Bannon Category:Good Life Recordings albums Category:Poison the Well (band) albums Category:Roadrunner Records albums Category:Rise Records albums Category:Trustkill Records albums
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Luděk Sekyra (born 8 February 1964) is a Czech entrepreneur and philanthropist. He is the owner of the Sekyra Group, which has operated on the Czech real estate market since 1996 and focuses on the residential and commercial sectors.Cyprus-based companies controlled by Sekyra have stakes in several major real estate development projects in Prague including Smíchov City, Rohan City, and Žižkov City. Luděk Sekyra is the founder and chairman of the board of the Sekyra Foundation.Consolidated accounting statements of SEKYRA GROUP REAL ESTATE N.V. for 2010, published at justice.czAnnual report of DEJVICE-CENTER, a.s. for 2013 Forbes magazine included Luděk Sekyra to the list of billionaires, which makes him 36th richest Czech with an estimated net worth of 11.7 billion Czech koruna, which is approximately 472 million USD. == Career == Born in Český Krumlov, after graduation from a secondary school in Kaplice he was admitted to Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague.Krystyna Wanatowiczová, Jana Klímová, Sekyrovy zářezy, Mladá fronta DNES, 9. října 2008, page 6 He became an official of Socialist Youth Union and a member of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. On 13 November 1989 communist daily Rudé právo printed on its front page a group photo of Socialist Youth Union officials including Sekyra.Rudé právo, Československá mládež je jednoznačně pro přestavbu, 13 November 1989, front page, photographer Eman Uher From 1987 to 1990, he worked as a teacher at the Charles University Faculty of Law and studied theory of state and politics and legal theory. After the Velvet Revolution he became a partner in the law office of professor Milan Bakeš, where he focused on restitutions of real estate seized by the communists after coup d'état in 1948. In July 1992 Sekyra co-founded a real estate agency and gradually became involved as developer and investor in several real estate projects, including refurbishments of pre-fabricated paneláks.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 46683852, Krumlovská realitní a investiční kancelář, s.r.o.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 60466481, EPISTEME, s.r.o.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 25687590, ČM PROJEKT s.r.o.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 63998611, Sekyra Group, a.s.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 25059688, České nemovitosti a.s. In April 1999 he named his real-estate development company SEKYRA Group. Following the dampened construction after Global financial crisis of 2007 - 2008, Sekyra restarted several large projects in 2014, gained first rubber stamps and approvals for Rohanský Island in Prague and for the resumption of its Prague-Modřany project. The group has built the headquarters for companies such as Česká spořitelna, Nestlé, T-Mobile and Skanska. The Sekyra Group has also built or renovated about 7,000 flats. Fifteen years ago the Sekyra Group entered the public buildings segment with a project for the Czech National Technical Library. Upon completion in 2009, the library won the award for Building of the Year and the Best of Realty jury prize. In 2007 Sekyra transferred his share in Sekyra Group a.s. to Netherlands-based company SEKYRA GROUP REAL ESTATE N.V. (SGRE).Annual reports of Sekyra Group a.s. 2006-2007 (auditor Valda Audit, s.r.o., published at justice.cz) At the end of December 2007 Luděk Sekyra controlled Curaçao- based company CEE Holdings N.V., which had a 95% stake in SGRE.Annual report of SEKYRA GROUP REAL ESTATE N.V. for 2007 (auditor KPMG, Qualified Opinion, published at justice.cz)Annual report of Rezidence Korunní, s.r.o. for 2009, auditor Danuše Peková Sekyra's companies have contracts to develop major real- estate projects in the country's capital, Prague. These include Rohan Island, Smíchov Railway Station, Žižkov Railway Station, Victory Square in Dejvice and Litochleby Square in Opatov. ===Current Projects=== The Sekyra Group's current projects include new neighborhoods in central locations of Prague: the areas of the Smíchov train station (Smíchov City), Rohan Island (Rohan City), the Žižkov train station (Žižkov City), Vítězné Náměstí in Dejvice, and more near the main road of Opatov in Prague's Jižní Město. Smíchov City is the largest project in the modern history of Prague. The project will include almost 400,000 m2 of residential, administrative, commercial, and public space including a kilometer-long pedestrian boulevard that will serve as the focal point of the entire project. There will also be a school and extensive green space. After the project is completed, in 12 years, 12,000 people are expected to live or work there. Total investment will reach 20 billion CZK. Construction began on September 30, 2020. The new neighborhood of Rohan City is located at the borders of Karlín, Invalidovna, and Libeň in the vicinity of the city's historic center. The project will include more than 350 thousand square meters of residential, administrative, and commercial space, as well as a public school. The project's focal point will be a kilometer-long promenade along the riverbank, which will be connected to a recreational island. The overall design of the project saw contributions from world-famous Danish urban designer Jan Gehl and architect Eva Jiřičná. The residential neighborhood of Žižkov City will offer 3,000 apartments on the location of the former freight railway station. At the same time, the historical station building will be revitalized in collaboration with the city of Prague, giving it a predominantly public function including the National Film Archive. == Charity and political philosophy == Luděk Sekyra is a long-time active philanthropist. He helped create the Centre for Philosophy, Ethics, and Religion at Charles University, and in September 2018, he founded the Sekyra Foundation whose first members of the board (chaired by L. Sekyra) are Jiří Pehe, Michael Žantovský, Jiřina Šiklová, Tomáš Halík, Daniel Kroupa, and Martin Palouš. Members of its international board are for example Mark Thompson, Grzegor Ekiert, Alexander Görlach and Karolina Wigura. The goal of the foundation is to support the development of civil society, liberal democracy, and critical thinking. In 2021 an Oxford professorship in moral philosophy has renamed for Sekyra and White's Professorship of Moral Philosophy in recognition of the Sekyra Foundation's £2.8 million donation. === Cooperation with the University of Oxford === The foundation has established long-term collaborations with Harvard and Oxford Universities, the Václav Havel Library, the Czech Center of the International PEN Club, and the Centre for Philosophy, Ethics, and Religion at the Charles University Faculty of Arts. The foundation focuses on the development of critical and philosophical thinking, on the support of academic institutions and educational projects, including the publication of works by important thinkers. The foundation's mission is also to strive for intergenerational dialogue in the context of responsibility for the future of the planet. Sekyra has long worked with Oxford University and is a member of Harris Manchester College's Board of Regents and a Foundation Fellow. Luděk Sekyra cooperates with Oxford University on a long-term basis. In 2011, Sekyra became one of the 36 members of Harris Manchester College's board.Haris Manchester College, Foundation Fellows, 2015-01-29 On November 6, 2014, University of Oxford hosted a series of events called Velvet Day as a commemoration of 25th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution in the Czech Republic and its former president, Václav Havel. Among the main events were Havel's Place instalment and its revelation in the University park and inauguration of Sekyra House student center at the university and became a member of its Vice Chancellor Circle. Oxford's Velvet Day celebration included the naming of a lecture hall in Sekyra House in honor of Czech theologian and priest Tomáš Halík and the unveiling of Havel's Place in the university's main park. Luděk Sekyra's primary academic interests are moral and political philosophy. His essays have been published by Hospodářské noviny, and Lidové noviny. On November 6, 2014, University of Oxford hosted a series of events called Velvet Day as a commemoration of 25th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution in the Czech Republic and its former president, Václav Havel.Havel's Place at the University Parks. University of Oxford. [online]. 13-11-2014. Available online. Among the main events were Havel's Place instalment and its revelation in the University park, and also the inauguration of the student centre Sekyra House, sponsored by Luděk Sekyra.Sametový den na Oxfordu: Havel dostal lavičku, Halík posluchárnu. Ceskatelevize.cz. 6-11-2014. Available online One of its lecture halls was named after the Czech theologian and priest Tomáš Halík. === Sekyra and White's Professor of Moral Philosophy === In 2021 a prestigious Oxford professorship in moral philosophy has been endowed following a £2.8 million donation from Luděk Sekyras foundation. The White's Chair of Moral Philosophy was Oxford's first professorial post in philosophy when it was established 400 years ago. It has become the Sekyra and White's Professorship of Moral Philosophy in recognition of the Sekyra Foundation's gift. === The Czech Center of the International PEN Club === The Sekyra Foundation supported the Czech PEN Club in 2020 and also supports it in 2021. The Czech Center of the International PEN Club is part of the independent PEN world community with headquarters in London. They associate around twenty thousand creators - people who are figuratively reigning with a pen (PEN - Playwrights, Poets, Essayists, Novelists). === Václav Havel Library === Through the Sekyra Foundation Sekyra cooperates with the Václav Havel Library, which spreads and protects the intellectual, literary, and political legacy of one of the greatest figures“ figure of modern Czech history – writer, playwright, thinker, fighter for human rights, and Czechoslovak and Czech President Václav Havel. For the general public, the Václav Havel Library offers a number of seminars, author readings, debates, concerts, and theatre performances. The Library also organizes a conference in honor of the Laureate of the Václav Havel Human Rights Prize, in which the Foundation will participate. Sekyra Foundation is supporting the library since 2016. === Central European Forum === The Foundation regularly supports the annual Central European Forum, which takes place each year in Bratislava. The Forum connects contemporary social scientists, writers, journalists, artists, and young civic leaders from Europe and the rest of the world with the general public. The debates are focused on topics such as democracy and the most challenging aspects of freedom. Sekyra is supporting the Forum since 2018. Through his holding, Sekyra is also one of the main sponsors of the Czech Christian Academy.Czech Christian Academy. Partneři, sponzoři, date of access 2015-02-16. Available online During the 2018 Czech presidential election he supported Jiří Drahoš. === Kultura Liberalna === In 2019 Sekyra The Foundation initiated its cooperation with Kultura Liberalna, a Polish NGO and liberal think tank. Its mission is to create a better Europe by renewing liberalism and stressing the importance of the rule of law, pluralism, and freedom and dignity for every individual. The Foundation supported a Conference titled “Two Visions of Europe: What Sources of Hope for the Future?”, Part of the Cracking Borders, Rising Walls series, which brings together a set of panelists from the ranks of academia and international media and encouraging the broader public to participate in the discussions as well. == Awards == In 2005, Luděk Sekyra was named Personality of the Year in the Best of Realty competition and received an award from the Association for Real Estate Market Development. For the National Library of Technology building in Prague, his company received several major awards in 2009, including an award from the Mayor of Prague “The Building of the Year”, an award from the State Environmental Fund of the Czech Republic for infrastructure, and other awards for the graphic design as well as the architectural and technical solution. == Controversies == In 2007, Luděk Sekyra, together with the businessman Roman Janoušek, who has been under investigation regarding allegations of tender-rigging and bribery, spent a holiday in Sardinia, Italy. An invoice from the time demonstrates that Sekyra fully covered the expenses for the trip. In 2000 Sekyra's SPV company "Středoevropská stavební" (StS) acquired major Czech construction company IPS.Commercial register at justice.cz, identification number (IČ) 25794213, S.P.I. Holdings, a.s. Sekyra secretly joined forces with infamous entrepreneur and lobbyist František Mrázek, often referred to as the "Godfather of Czech Organized Crime", and who was at the time wiretapped by the police. The police also got court-approval to wiretap Sekyra and found out that Ivan Langer, a vice-chairman of the parliament and vice-chairman of ODS, is secretly lobbying on StS' behalf. StS made the highest bid for IPS and on 29 February 2000 got a CZK 2,2 bn loan from Investiční a poštovní banka (IPB). However, the loan was just for one month, not the nine years originally discussed.Pavel Matocha, István Lékó, Bakala kontra Sekyra, EURO 47/2008, page 32 On 28 March IPB decided not to prolong the loan, however, it did not immediately seize the IPS shares pledged as collateral and on 13 April 2000 Luděk Sekyra became chairman of the board of directors of IPS.Jana Frančíková, Prodej stavebních firem se nedaří, Mladá Fronta DNES, 14 April 2000, page 13 On 16 June 2000 IPB went into forced administrationMartin Jašminský, Vláda tvrdě zakročila v IPB, Mladá fronta DNES, 17 June 2000, front page and StS was forced to transfer the shares to its rival Skanska. On 20 July 2000 Skanska replaced statutory bodies of IPS.ČTK, Skanska ovládla dozorčí radu IPS, Mladá fronta DNES, 21 July 2000, page 12 ==References== Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:Real estate and property developers Category:People from Český Krumlov Category:Czech businesspeople Category:Czechoslovak communists
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Rajon Pierre Rondo (, born February 22, 1986) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). A point guard, Rondo played two years of college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats before being drafted 21st overall by the Phoenix Suns in the 2006 NBA draft and subsequently traded to the Celtics in a draft-day trade. Rondo is a two-time NBA champion, four-time NBA All-Star, has earned four NBA All-Defensive Team honors including two First Team honors, and was named to the All-NBA Third Team in 2012. During his time in Boston, Rondo helped the Celtics advance to the NBA Finals in 2008 and 2010, winning a championship in 2008 as the team's starting point guard. Rondo is known to be a versatile facilitator in the NBA, leading the league in assists three times and in steals once; he also ranks fourth in Celtics history in assists and third in steals. Rondo has sometimes been described as a "stat-sheet stuffer", ranking 13th in NBA history for triple-doubles with 32 in the regular season, and fifth in NBA history for triple-doubles with 10 in the playoffs. After seasons with the Celtics, Rondo was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in December 2014. Following a tumultuous five-month stint he turned into a journeyman, joining the Sacramento Kings, Chicago Bulls, New Orleans Pelicans, Los Angeles Lakers (two stints), Atlanta Hawks, Los Angeles Clippers, Cleveland Cavaliers over the next years. With the Lakers, he won a second championship in 2020. ==Early life== Rondo was born on February 22, 1986, in Louisville, Kentucky. He has three siblings.Springer, Shira, No catching Rondo , The Boston Globe, May 17, 2009, accessed July 20, 2009. He had little contact with his father, who left his family when he was seven years old. To support the family, his mother worked the third shift at Philip Morris USA, a tobacco company. Rondo was first interested in football, before his mother steered him towards basketball because she felt that the sport would be less punishing on his skinny frame. After Rondo became serious about basketball, he attended Louisville's Eastern High School for three years. During his junior year at Eastern High School, he averaged 27.9 points, 10.0 rebounds and 7.5 assists which earned him a spot on the All-State honors and was named the 7th Region Player of the Year. He transferred to Virginia's Oak Hill Academy for his senior year where he averaged 21.0 points per game (ppg), 3.0 rebounds per game (rpg) and 12.0 assists per game (apg) and finished the 2003–04 season with a 38–0 record. In his senior year at Oak Hill Academy, Rondo broke Jeff McInnis's single-season school record of 303 assists, while averaging a double-double. There, he included two efforts of 27 assists and a single-game school record of 31, merely four away from the all-time national record. He also had a 55-point game in high-school, second highest all-time in Oak Hill Academy, surpassed only by Calvin Duncan with 61. Rondo was named to the McDonald's All-American Team in 2004 and scored a total of 14 points, 4 assists and 4 rebounds in the all-star game.2004 McDonald's All-American Team He also participated in the 2004 Jordan Brand Capital Classic game, logging 12 points, 5 assists and 4 steals.2004 Jordan Brand Classic Box Score Rondo was also named a second-team Parade All-American. He ended his career as Oak Hill Academy's all-time assists leader in a single season with 494 assists, surpassing McInnis. ==College career== Rondo committed to Kentucky over hometown Louisville. Rondo, along with All-Americans Joe Crawford and Randolph Morris, gave coach Tubby Smith and Kentucky the top-rated recruiting class for 2004 according to Rivals.com. Rondo led Kentucky to several wins including victories against Louisville, South Carolina and Central Florida, but Kentucky failed to advance to the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament in either Rondo's freshman or sophomore seasons. He was named to the SEC All-Freshmen Team. He set a Kentucky record for most steals in single-season, with a total of 87 steals in his freshman year and made at least one steal in every game. He finished his freshman year at Kentucky averaging 8.1 points, 2.9 rebounds, 3.5 assists and 2.6 steals."Rajon Rondo – Kentucky Wildcats – College Basketball ". Rivals.com, accessed July 13, 2009 In his sophomore year he had a career- high 12 assists against Ole Miss, despite playing just 23 minutes, and 25 points against Louisville. Rondo also set another Kentucky record for most rebounds in a game by a guard, with 19 rebounds in an early season loss to Iowa. He was not known for being a shooter, however, going 18–66 from the three-point line with a 57.1 percent free throw average. He averaged 11.2 points, 6.1 rebounds, 4.9 assists and 2.1 steals per game in his sophomore year. Rondo was also named to the U.S. men's national under-21 basketball team, which traveled to Argentina for the 2005 FIBA Under-21 World Championship. He averaged 11.0 points and 4.5 assists in the eight-game tournament, garnering much attention from NBA scouts. The U.S. men's national under-21 basketball team won the gold medal at the Global Games held in Texas in late July. ==Professional career== ===Boston Celtics (2006–2014)=== ====2006 NBA draft==== Following the 2005–06 NCAA season, Rondo announced he would forgo his final two seasons at Kentucky and enter the NBA draft. Rondo was drafted 21st overall by the Phoenix Suns in the 2006 NBA draft. Phoenix then traded him to the Boston Celtics along with Brian Grant for the Cleveland Cavaliers' first-round draft pick in the 2007 NBA draft and cash considerations. He was the first point guard to be chosen in the draft.Lexington Herald-Leader (June 29, 2006). "The Phoenix Suns took former Kentucky point guard Rajon Rondo with..." Access My Library Retrieved on June 20, 2009. In another draft-day deal, the Celtics acquired Sebastian Telfair from the Portland Trail Blazers, finally uniting the backcourt Rick Pitino had envisioned at Louisville. He was signed by the Boston Celtics on July 4, 2006.West Invites Competition at Point ====2006–07 season: Rookie year==== During his rookie season in the NBA, Rondo played a supporting role and would split time with Sebastian Telfair and Delonte West. Rondo only started in 25 games that season due to his initial backup role to Telfair. He made his NBA regular season debut on November 1, 2006, in a home loss against the New Orleans Hornets.Associated Press. (November 1, 2006). "NO/Oklahoma City Hornets vs. Boston Celtics Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. In his rookie season, he lacked on his jump shot which resulted in him slashing to the basket for a teardrop or layup. While coming off the bench, he managed to score a career-high 23 points against the Toronto Raptors, and record his first career double-double in a road losing effort against the Washington Wizards."NBA.com: Celtics at Wizards Boxscore ". NBA.com. July 13, 2009. In his first career start, he matched his career-high against the Los Angeles Clippers, though the line-ups were constantly being shuffled between Telfair and Rondo at the point guard. After officially becoming a starter, he began to receive more playing time (career-high 47 minutes of playing time) that led to an improvement in production (career-high 14 rebounds against the San Antonio Spurs,Associated Press. (March 17, 2007). "Boston Celtics vs. San Antonio Spurs Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 14, 2009. and a career-high 7 steals against the Indiana Pacers). As the mid-season approached, his numbers began to increase, which earned him an NBA All-Rookie Second Team selection. He finished the season with an average of 6.4 ppg and 3.8 apg,Rajon Rondo Info Page – Career Stats and Totals , nba.com, accessed July 20, 2009. ranking in the top ten in the NBA in steals (128) and also ranking in the top ten among rookies in several other categories, including first in steals, second in assists and sixth in minutes. In the end, however, the Celtics finished the season with a 24–58 win–loss record and failed to qualify for the playoffs. ====2007–08 season: First championship==== thumb|right|Rondo in May 2008 After Telfair and West were traded during the off-season of the 2007–08 season, Rondo secured a spot in the starting lineup, starting in every game. Surrounded by All-Stars Kevin Garnett, Paul Pierce and Ray Allen, he quickly became a steady, consistent player. In his 77 games played, he averaged 10.6 points per game (ppg), 5.1 assists per game (apg) and 4.2 rebounds per game (rpg). His role as a playmaker reflected in him leading the team in assists and steals. In a game against the New Jersey Nets, Rondo suffered a lower back injury late in the third quarter, forcing him to miss the next four games.Associated Press. (January 11, 2008). "Boston Celtics vs. New Jersey Nets Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. He made his successful return from injury and to the starting lineup in a road win against the New York Knicks.Associated Press. (January 21, 2008). "Boston Celtics vs. New York Knicks Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. A week later, he matched his career-high against the Miami Heat,Associated Press. (January 29, 2008). "Boston Celtics vs. Miami Heat Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. and then scored a career-high 24 points in a home game against the Los Angeles Clippers the following month.Associated Press. (February 6, 2008). "Los Angeles Clippers vs. Boston Celtics Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. During the All-Star break, he was selected to play on the Sophomore Team in the T-Mobile Rookie Challenge and Youth Jam. Following the All-Star weekend, Rondo recorded a career-high 16 assists in a home victory against the Charlotte Bobcats.Associated Press. (February 29, 2008). "Charlotte Bobcats vs. Boston Celtics Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 18, 2009. Despite his solid rookie year, there was much speculation about Boston needing a veteran point guard. In March, they signed veteran point guard Sam Cassell as a free agent to serve as a backup. The Celtics' best single-season improvement in NBA history earned them the number one seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. Following the regular season, Rondo finished in the top five for the NBA Most Improved Player voting. Rondo made his playoff debut on April 20, 2008, against the Atlanta Hawks and finished the game with 15 points, 9 assists and 2 steals. The Celtics closed out the series in seven games, went on to defeat Cleveland in the next round, and then beat the Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals. In the NBA Finals, facing the Los Angeles Lakers, Rondo recorded two strong performances, including a career-high 16 assists in Game 2. In Game 3, however, Rondo left the court in the third quarter after rolling his ankle. The ankle injury was considered a "non-factor," and Rondo eventually made his return in Game 4. In Game 6, the point guard posted a playoffs career-high 6 steals as the Celtics defeated the Lakers 4–2, giving Rondo his first NBA championship ring. After the game Lakers head coach Phil Jackson called Rondo the "star" of Game 6. ====2008–09 season: Breakthrough==== thumb|right|Rondo in December 2008 In his third NBA campaign, the Celtics began the season with the best starting record in NBA history and also set a franchise record with a nineteen-game winning streak.Associated Press (December 25, 2008). "Boston Celtics vs. Los Angeles Lakers Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. Rondo's numbers increased from his previous season performance; however, he was criticized for his shooting. He recorded his first career triple-double along with a career-high in assists (16 points, 13 rebounds and 17 assists), against the Indiana Pacers.Associated Press. Rondo's triple-double lifts Celts to 10th straight win , ESPN, December 3, 2008, accessed May 25, 2010. In a home win against the New York Knicks, Rondo led the team to tie a franchise record with 18 straight wins. However, after the winning streak was snapped, the team struggled as they lost seven out of their next nine games.Associated Press (January 9, 2009), Boston Celtics vs. Cleveland Cavaliers Recap , ESPN.com, accessed July 21, 2009. Rondo—matched up with one of the league's quicker guards, Tony Parker—recorded 16 assists in a losing effort against the Spurs, one short of his season-high.Associated Press (February 8, 2009), San Antonio Spurs vs. Boston Celtics Recap , ESPN.com, accessed July 12, 2009. Less than a week later against the Mavericks, he recorded his second career triple-double (19 points, 15 rebounds and 14 assists),Associated Press (February 12, 2009). "Boston Celtics vs. Dallas Mavericks Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on July 12, 2009. and then recorded a career-high 32 points against the Phoenix Suns on his 23rd birthday.Associated Press (February 22, 2009), Boston Celtics vs. Phoenix Suns Recap , ESPN.com, accessed May 9, 2009. He became the first NBA athlete to sign an endorsement contract with Red Bull on April 17, 2009.Red Bull Steals Rondo He finished the season ranking fifth in the NBA in assists (8.2) and steals (1.9).NBA – Statistics , sports.yahoo.com, accessed July 21, 2009. The team finished the season as the second seed in the Eastern Conference, although they entered the playoffs without their injured All-Star power forward Kevin Garnett. In the playoffs match-up against the Chicago Bulls, despite putting up a playoff career-high 29 points in Game 1, the Celtics lost in overtime.Associated Press (April 18, 2009). Boston Celtics vs. Chicago Bulls Recap , ESPN, accessed July 21, 2009. Boston won the next two games and in Games 2 and 4, Rondo recorded triple-doublesAssociated Press (April 20, 2009). Chicago Bulls vs. Boston Celtics Recap , ESPN.com, accessed July 22, 2009. and became the first Celtic player with two triple-doubles in the same series since Larry Bird in 1986. He also became the first player with multiple triple-doubles in the same playoff series since Jason Kidd had three triple-doubles in the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals.Associated Press (April 20, 2009). Boston Celtics vs. Chicago Bulls Recap , ESPN.com, accessed May 9, 2009. In Game 6, he recorded a career-high 19 assists without a turnover, tying an NBA playoffs record. In the next round against the Orlando Magic, the Celtics lost the first game before Rondo's triple-double performance in Game 2 helped secure a home win. His third triple-double of the postseason tied Larry Bird's franchise record and also became the first to do that since Jason Kidd had four.Associated Press (May 6, 2009). "Orlando Magic vs. Boston Celtics Recap ". ESPN. Retrieved on May 9, 2009. However, the Celtics were defeated in seven games in the Eastern Conference Semifinals.Associated Press (May 17, 2009), Orlando Magic vs. Boston Celtics Recap , ESPN, accessed July 24, 2009. During the postseason, Rondo nearly averaged a triple double with 16.9 points, 9.7 rebounds and 9.8 assists."NBA.com : Rajon Rondo Info Page ". NBA.com. Retrieved on July 13, 2009. ====2009–10 season: First All-Star selection==== During the 2009–10 season, Rondo averaged career highs in points (13.7), assists (9.8) and steals (2.3) and became the first Celtic to lead the league in steals.Associated Press. NBA.com – All Star Player Profiles – Rajon Rondo , nba.com, April 12, 2010, accessed April 15, 2010. On November 2, 2009, Rondo signed a five-year extension with the Celtics worth a guaranteed $55 million.J. Spears, Marc. Celtics give Rondo $55 million extension , sports.yahoo.com, November 2, 2009, accessed May 25, 2010. In a road victory against the Orlando Magic on Christmas day, Rondo recorded 17 points, 13 rebounds and 8 assists, two assists shy of a triple double.Associated Press (December 25, 2009). Boston Celtics vs. Orlando Magic Recap , ESPN.com, accessed May 17, 2009. Three days later, Rondo scored 30 points with 15 assists in a road loss to the Golden State Warriors.Associated Press (December 28, 2009). Boston Celtics vs. Golden State Warriors Recap , ESPN, accessed May 17, 2009. On January 10, 2010, Rondo recorded his third regular-season career triple-double, with 22 points, 13 assists and 10 rebounds against the Toronto Raptors.Associated Press (January 10, 2010). Boston Celtics vs. Toronto Raptors Recap , ESPN.com, accessed May 17, 2009. On January 28, 2010, he received his first NBA All-Star selection as a reserve on the Eastern Conference squad for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game.Forsberg, Chris (January 29, 2010). Rondo, Pierce named All-Star reserves , ESPN, accessed February 10, 2010. He also competed in the 2010 H-O-R-S-E contest but lost in the finals to Kevin Durant.Schuhmann, John. Cool-hand Durant repeats in H.O.R.S.E. competition , nba.com, February 13, 2010, accessed May 25, 2010. Rondo recorded his fourth regular-season career triple-double against the Denver Nuggets on March 24, 2010, with 11 points, 15 assists and 11 rebounds.Dzen, Gary (March 24, 2010). Nuggets at Celtics game updates , Boston.com, accessed March 25, 2010. Two days later against the Sacramento Kings, Rondo entered the game tied with Rick Fox for a franchise record of most steals in a single- season (167), eventually establishing the record with a second-quarter steal from Sean May.Forsberg, Chris (March 26, 2010). Rondo among Celtics' elite , ESPN, accessed March 26, 2010. In a game against the Houston Rockets on April 2, 2010, he broke Bob Cousy's franchise record for most assists in a single- season.Forsberg, Chris (April 3, 2010). Rondo shatters Cousy's mark , ESPN, accessed April 7, 2010. In the 2010 NBA Playoffs, the Celtics defeated the Miami Heat in five games and faced the Cleveland Cavaliers in the second round. In Game 2, Rondo dished out 19 assists tying his career-high and also tying a franchise record for most assists in a playoff game.Forsberg, Chris (May 4, 2010). Postgame notes: Rondo looks like MVP , ESPN, accessed May 10, 2010. In Game 4, he recorded his fourth postseason triple-double along with a playoff career-high 29 points and 18 rebounds.Schuhmann, John, (May 9, 2010). Rondo turns in one of playoff's greatest games , nba.com, accessed May 10, 2010. He joined Wilt Chamberlain and Oscar Robertson as the only other player in NBA history to have 29 points, 18 rebounds and 13 assists in a playoff game.Broussard, Chris, (May 9, 2010). The unofficial leader of the Celtics , ESPN, accessed October 20, 2021. The Celtics eventually defeated the Cavaliers and the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Finals in six games. In the Finals, the Celtics once again faced the Los Angeles Lakers, a team they previously beat in 2008. In Game 2, Rondo recorded his second triple-double of the postseason (19 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists),Kriegel, Mark. Rondo is real reason Celtics win Game 2 , foxsports.com, June 7, 2010, accessed June 19, 2010. however, despite Rondo's performance, the Celtics succumbed to the Lakers in seven games.May, Peter. In the end, Celtics ran out of gas , ESPN, June 18, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. ====2010–11 season: Surging popularity==== In the first game of the 2010–11 season, Rondo put up 17 assists, which tied with Oscar Robertson for the third-most assists in a season opener.Associated Press. Miami Heat vs. Boston Celtics – Recap . ESPN, October 26, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. In the third game of the season, he dished out a career-high 24 assists along with a triple-double (10 points and 10 rebounds) against the New York Knicks.Forsberg, Chris. Impressive night for Rajon Rondo , ESPN, October 20, 2021, accessed October 30, 2010. It tied him with Isiah Thomas as the only players in NBA history to have at least 24 assists in a triple-double.Lynch, Mike. Rondo's triple-double is one for the ages , ESPN, October 30, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. His total of 50 assists through the first three games of the season tied John Stockton's NBA record for most assists in the first 3 games of the season. In the next game against the Detroit Pistons, he finished the game with 17 assists for a total of 67 assists, which is the most assists in the team's first four games in NBA history.Associated Press. Boston Celtics vs. Detroit Pistons – Recap . ESPN, November 2, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. With a 15 assists effort the following day, Rondo again set a record for most assists through the first five games.Lynch, Mike. Happy feet? , ESPN, November 4, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. Rondo's season also began with injuries. He played through plantar fasciitis in his feet.Forsberg, Chris. Doc Rivers relying on Boston Celtics starters more than he'd like , ESPN, November 30, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. He missed three games in November due to a strained left hamstring.McCluskey, Jack. Boston Celtics' Rajon Rondo returns vs. Toronto Raptors after missing 3 games with hamstring strain , ESPN, November 26, 2010, accessed October 20, 2021. He sprained his left ankle in a win against the New York Knicks on December 15, 2010, and missed the next seven games.Forsberg, Chris. Paul Pierce, Rajon Rondo ready to go for Boston Celtics against Minnesota Timberwolves , ESPN, January 3, 2011, accessed October 20, 2021. On April 22, in the third game of the first-round playoff series against the New York Knicks, Rondo had a triple-double with 20 assists.Rajon Rondo has triple- double as Celtics blow out Knicks, take 3–0 lead , ESPN, April 22, 2011, accessed October 20, 2021. Rondo set a Celtics franchise record for most assists in a playoff game. He was also tied with LeBron James with 6 career triple-doubles in the playoffs until James reached his seventh further on in the playoffs during Game 4 of the Finals. Rondo had the third best selling jersey in the league during the 2010–11 season, behind only James and Kobe Bryant.Haberstroh, Tom. LeBron passes Kobe for No.1 in jersey sales , ESPN, April 13, 2011, accessed October 20, 2021. ====2011–12 season: All-NBA selection ==== 200px|thumbnail|left|Rondo in December 2011 On February 21, 2012, Rondo was named an injury replacement for Joe Johnson on the Eastern Conference roster at the 2012 NBA All-Star Game.Associated Press. Rajon Rondo replaces Joe Johnson , ESPN, February 23, 2012, accessed October 20, 2021. With 18 points, 17 rebounds, and 20 assists against the Knicks on March 4, he joined Wilt Chamberlain, Magic Johnson, and Jason Kidd as the only players to have at least 15 points, rebounds, and assists in the same game.New York Post. Knicks lose to Celtics; Rondo outplays Lin, Davis , nypost.com, March 4, 2012, accessed October 20, 2021. In a win against the Heat on April 1, Rondo registered another triple-double (16 points, 14 assists and 11 rebounds).Forsberg, Chris. Rajon Rondo shines under spotlight , ESPN, April 2, 2012, accessed October 20, 2021. Rondo closed out the regular season with 24 consecutive games of 10 or more assists. This is not only a Celtics franchise record, but is also the longest streak the NBA has seen since John Stockton logged a streak of 29 such games in 1992. This streak was still considered active and resumed at the beginning of the 2012–13 regular season.ESPN. Paul Pierce sprains toe in Celtics' win over Bucks , ESPN, April 26, 2012, accessed November 15, 2015. Rondo posted his sixth triple-double of the season (with 20 assists) in an overtime win against the Hawks on April 11.Associated Press. Atlanta Hawks vs. Boston Celtics – Recap – April 11, 2012 , ESPN, April 11, 2012, accessed April 13, 2012. He had his first triple double of the 2012 playoffs against the same team on May 4,NBA Playoffs: Rajon Rondo's triple- double helps Celtics to overtime victory over Hawks another on May 13 in the first game of the second round against the 76ers,Yahoo! Sports. Philadelphia at Boston (box score) and a third on May 26 in the last game of that round, helping the Celtics advance to the Eastern Conference finals.Yahoo! Sports. Philadelphia at Boston (box score) He joined Larry Bird as the only Celtics players to record a triple-double in a Game 7.ESPN Stats & Information (May 26, 2012). Rondo triples his pleasure, seals Celtics win , ESPN (TrueHoop), accessed May 27, 2012. In Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Finals, Rondo scored a career-high 44 points while grabbing 8 rebounds and adding 10 assists.ESPN Stats & Information (May 31, 2012). Heat spoil Rondo's record- breaking night , ESPN (TrueHoop), accessed May 31, 2012. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Rondo is the only player in NBA history with 44 points, 10 assists, and 8 rebounds in a playoff game. On June 6, 2012, Rondo passed Bob Cousy for having 39 playoff games of 10 or more assists, making him the Celtics' all-time leader in that area. Rondo recorded another triple double in the seventh game of the Eastern Conference Finals, but the Celtics lost to the Miami Heat, ending their playoff run. This tenth playoff triple-double tied Rondo for third (with fellow Celtic Larry Bird) among NBA career leaders. ====2012–13 season: Season-ending injury ==== 200px|thumbnail|right|Rondo in January 2013 Rondo began the season with 24 consecutive games of 10+ assists. He continued that streak, and recorded his 37th game with 10+ assists against the Orlando Magic on November 25, 2012, matching John Stockton's longest streak. Only Magic Johnson had a longer streak (46 games). The streak ended the next game against the Brooklyn Nets, when he was ejected for fighting with Kris Humphries after Humphries fouled Rondo's teammate Kevin Garnett. Humphries was also ejected, along with Brooklyn's Gerald Wallace, who was accused of escalating the incident. Rondo only recorded three assists before he was ejected. Rondo was voted the starting point guard spot for the 2013 NBA All-Star Game, but on January 27, 2013, during a game with the Miami Heat, it was revealed that Rondo had torn his ACL and would miss the remainder of the season.Celtics' Rondo out for season with torn ACL Rondo still led the NBA in assists in the season. ====2013–14 season: Comeback ==== On January 15, 2014, Rondo was assigned to the Maine Red Claws of the NBA D-League for training and rehab purposes. Later that day, he was recalled by the Celtics. On January 17, 2014, Rondo made his season debut with the Celtics, nearly a year after tearing his ACL. In 19 minutes of game time, he recorded 8 points, 4 assists and 2 rebounds in a 104–107 loss to the Los Angeles Lakers. Upon his return, he was named the 15th captain in Boston Celtics history. On February 2, 2014, in a 96–89 win over the Magic, Rondo recorded his first double-double since his injury (19 points, 10 assists). On April 4, 2014, Rondo recorded his first triple-double of the season with 11 points, 11 rebounds and 16 assists, in a 102–111 loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. ====2014–15 season: Final year in Boston==== On September 26, 2014, Rondo was ruled out for six to eight weeks after undergoing surgery to repair a broken left hand. The injury was a result of a fall at his home the night before. After missing the entire preseason, Rondo returned for the regular season opener on October 29 and recorded 13 points, 12 assists and seven rebounds in 30 minutes to help the Celtics beat the Brooklyn Nets 121–105. On November 5, he recorded 13 points, 10 rebounds and 15 assists against the Toronto Raptors. On December 2, he recorded 19 assists and 12 rebounds against the Atlanta Hawks. On December 7, he recorded 13 points, 13 rebounds and 11 assists against the Washington Wizards. On December 10, he recorded 12 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists against the Charlotte Hornets. On December 17, in his final game as a Celtic, Rondo recorded 13 points, 15 assists and seven rebounds in a 109–92 win over the Orlando Magic. ===Dallas Mavericks (2014–2015)=== On December 18, 2014, Rondo was traded, along with Dwight Powell, to the Dallas Mavericks in exchange for Jae Crowder, Jameer Nelson, Brandan Wright, a 2015 first-round pick and a 2016 second-round pick. He made his debut for the Mavericks two days later, scoring six points on 3-for-11 shooting to go with nine assists and seven rebounds in a 99–93 win over the San Antonio Spurs. In his return to Boston on January 2, 2015, Rondo scored a career-high 15 first-quarter points, finishing with a season-best 29 to lead Dallas to a 119–101 victory. Rondo also had a career- high five 3-pointers and finished with six rebounds and five assists. Throughout January however, cracks began to appear in the relationship between Rondo and the Mavericks. Rondo struggled to fit in the Mavericks' system, and he often butted heads with head coach Rick Carlisle. While there were no reported issues off the court, Rondo's lack of chemistry with his teammates was noticeable throughout the season. And while the Mavericks' defense slightly improved with the acquisition of Rondo, their offense took a noticeable step backward, dropping from the best in the league to fourth in points per game by late February. In late April, Rondo and the Mavericks mutually agreed to part ways following a tumultuous end to the season. Rondo was benched after Game 2 of the Mavericks' first-round playoff series against the Houston Rockets and didn't play again as Dallas was eliminated in five games. The team claimed that a back injury had sidelined Rondo indefinitely, but reports later surfaced that that was simply to "save face" after the two sides decided to part ways. His teammates also reportedly opted not to give him a playoff share. ===Sacramento Kings (2015–2016)=== On July 13, 2015, Rondo signed a one-year, $10 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. He made his debut for the Kings in their season opener on October 28, 2015, recording four points, seven rebounds and four assists in a 111–104 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. Two days later, he recorded 21 points and eight assists in a 132–114 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On November 13, he recorded his third triple-double in four games and 25th of his career with 23 points, 10 rebounds and 14 assists in a 111–109 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On November 18, he recorded his fourth triple-double of the season with 12 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists in a 103–97 loss to the Atlanta Hawks. On November 23, he recorded 14 points and a franchise-high 20 assists in a 127–122 overtime loss to the Charlotte Hornets. On November 27, he had 16 points and 16 assists in a 101–91 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. He became the first player since 1977–78 to have 16 points, 16 assists and no turnovers in a game. Rondo was ejected from the Kings' December 3 game against the Boston Celtics by Bill Kennedy, and in response, Rondo called Kennedy a "faggot". Kennedy publicly came out as gay just over a week later, and Rondo was suspended by the NBA for one game without pay on December 14. After posting two statements on Twitter that were widely panned as not being apologetic, Rondo issued a more contrite apology on December 15. On January 23, 2016, Rondo recorded his fifth triple-double of the season with 11 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists in a 108–97 win over the Indiana Pacers. Two days later, he had 20 assists and 10 rebounds in a 129–128 double-overtime loss to the Hornets, thus recording 10 or more assists in 12 straight games, a Sacramento record. The streak ended at 14 games. On February 19, he recorded a near triple-double with a then season-high 24 points, 10 rebounds, nine assists and five steals in a 116–110 win over the Denver Nuggets. On February 29, Rondo had 11 points, 12 assists and nine rebounds in a 131–116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. He reached double figures in assists for the 39th time in 2015–16, tying a Sacramento record established by Reggie Theus in 1985–86. On March 25, he had 12 assists against the Phoenix Suns and passed Theus' record. On April 5, he recorded his sixth triple-double of the season with a season-high 27 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 115–107 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers, setting a Kings franchise record for triple-doubles in a season. ===Chicago Bulls (2016–2017)=== On July 7, 2016, Rondo signed a two- year, $28 million contract with the Chicago Bulls. He made his debut for the Bulls in their season opener on October 27, recording 4 points, 6 rebounds, 9 assists and 2 steals in a 105–99 win over the Boston Celtics. On November 10, he had a then season-best game with 16 points and 12 assists in a 98–95 win over the Miami Heat. On December 2, he recorded his first triple-double of the season with 15 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds in a 111–105 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. Three days later, he was suspended by the Bulls for one game for conduct detrimental to the team. On January 10, 2017, Rondo scored 12 points against the Washington Wizards in his first game since December 30. In that December 30 game, he posted a plus-minus rating of minus-20 during 11 first-half minutes in Chicago's 111–101 loss to the Indiana Pacers. He was subsequently removed from coach Fred Hoiberg's rotation for five games before being reinserted following injuries to Dwyane Wade and Jimmy Butler. On March 13, 2017, he scored a season-high 20 points and had six assists and seven rebounds in his first start since December 30 as the Bulls beat the Charlotte Hornets 115–109. He bested that mark on March 21, scoring 24 points in a 122–120 overtime loss to the Toronto Raptors. On April 1, he had a season-high 25 points and added 11 rebounds in a 106–104 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On April 21, Rondo was ruled out indefinitely after breaking his right thumb in Game 2 of the Bulls' first-round playoff series against the Celtics. While the Bulls went up 2–0 in the series with Rondo, they never found their rhythm over the final four games without Rondo; as a result, they lost to the Celtics in six games. On June 30, 2017, he was waived by the Bulls. ===New Orleans Pelicans (2017–2018)=== On July 19, 2017, Rondo signed a one-year, $3.3 million contract with the New Orleans Pelicans. On October 8, 2017, he was diagnosed with a sports hernia. Two days later, he underwent surgery and was ruled out for four to six weeks. He made his debut for the Pelicans on November 13, 2017, against the Atlanta Hawks, recording two points and two assists in about five minutes in the first half. He made his first start of the season two days later, recording four points and eight assists in 14 minutes in a 125–116 loss to the Toronto Raptors. On December 10, 2017, he recorded 13 points and 18 assists in a 131–124 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. On December 27, 2017, he set a franchise record with a career-high 25 assists in a 128–113 win over the Brooklyn Nets. He broke Chris Paul's mark with his 22nd assist and became just the seventh player in NBA history to reach 25 assists in a game, joining Scott Skiles, John Stockton, Jason Kidd, Kevin Johnson, Nate McMillan and Isiah Thomas. On January 8, 2018, Rondo had 12 points and 15 assists in a 112–109 win over the Detroit Pistons. He had nine of his assists in the first quarter, tying a franchise record. On February 10, 2018, he recorded 25 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 138–128 double overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets. In the Pelicans' regular season finale on April 11, 2018, Rondo had 19 points and 14 assists in a 122–98 win over the San Antonio Spurs. In Game 1 of the Pelicans' first-round playoff series against the Portland Trail Blazers, Rondo tied a franchise record with 17 assists to go with eight rebounds and six points in a 97–95 win. In Game 2, Rondo had 16 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 111–102 win. In Game 4, Rondo had 16 assists, as the Pelicans completed a first-round sweep of the Trail Blazers with a 131–123 victory. In the second round against the Golden State Warriors, Rondo had 21 assists in Game 3, the Pelicans' only win before being eliminated in five games. ===Los Angeles Lakers (2018–2020)=== ====2018–19 season: Missing playoffs==== On July 6, 2018, Rondo signed a one-year, $9 million contract with the Los Angeles Lakers, who expected him to mentor and compete with second-year point guard Lonzo Ball. In his debut for the Lakers in their season opener on October 18, Rondo recorded 13 points and 11 assists in a 128–119 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers. Two days later, in a game against the Houston Rockets, Rondo and Chris Paul got into a fist fight over a shove by Brandon Ingram delivered to James Harden. The conflict, worsened due to Paul's claim that Rondo spat on him, resulted in Rondo receiving a three-game suspension. After breaking his right hand in a 126–117 win over the Trail Blazers on November 14, Rondo was ruled out for four to five weeks. In his return game on December 21 after missing 17 games, Rondo had eight points and nine assists off the bench in a 112–104 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 25 against the Golden State Warriors, after just three games back from his hand injury, Rondo suffered a sprain to his right ring finger. He underwent surgery three days later and was subsequently ruled out for an estimated four to five weeks. He returned to action on January 24, 2019, after missing 14 games, recording 15 points, 13 assists and six rebounds in a 120–105 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. On February 7, he hit a 20-foot jumper as time expired in Boston to lift the Lakers to a 129–128 win over the Celtics, as he finished with 17 points and 10 assists. It was his first career go-ahead field goal in the final 10 seconds of the fourth quarter or overtime. On March 4, Rondo moved to 11th place in triple-doubles in NBA history, while also becoming the second player (the other being Mark Jackson) to record a triple-double with five different teams, when he recorded his 32nd triple-double with a season-high 24 points, 10 rebounds and 12 assists as the Lakers lost 113–105 to the Clippers. On March 29, he had 17 assists and five steals in a 123–115 win over the Charlotte Hornets, becoming the first Lakers' player with at least 17 assists and five steals since Magic Johnson in December 1989. ====2019–20 season: Second championship==== On July 8, 2019, Rondo re-signed with the Lakers, and went on to play an integral part in the team's 2020 NBA Finals series win, his first in 12 years and becoming the second player in NBA history, after Clyde Lovellette, to win a championship with both the Boston Celtics and the Lakers, with Rondo being the first to win with Los Angeles as Lovellette won with Minneapolis Lakers. Rondo's 105 assists in the 2020 NBA playoffs are the most by a bench player in a single postseason since the 1971 playoffs, surpassing Manu Ginóbili's 95 assists in 2014. ===Atlanta Hawks (2020–2021)=== On November 23, 2020, Rondo signed a multi-year deal with the Atlanta Hawks. On December 28, 2020, Rondo made his Hawks debut, putting up 12 points and eight assists in a 128–120 win against the Detroit Pistons. ===Los Angeles Clippers (2021)=== On March 25, 2021, Rondo was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Lou Williams, two second-round draft picks and cash considerations. On April 4, he made his debut in a 104–86 win over his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers, and recorded two points and three assists in 13 minutes. On April 8, he recorded 15 points and nine assists, both season highs, off the bench in a 113–103 win over the Phoenix Suns. On August 16, 2021, Rondo was traded, alongside Daniel Oturu, Patrick Beverley and a second- round draft pick to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Eric Bledsoe. Twelve days later, he agreed to a buyout and was waived. ===Return to the Lakers (2021–2022)=== On August 31, 2021, Rondo signed a one-year deal to return to the Lakers. ===Cleveland Cavaliers (2022)=== On January 3, 2022, the Lakers traded Rondo to the Cleveland Cavaliers as part of a three-team deal that also included the New York Knicks. He made his debut for the Cavaliers on January 7, recording 11 points, 5 rebounds, and 3 assists in a 114–101 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. ==Career statistics== ===NBA=== ====Regular season==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 78 || 25 || 23.5 || .418 || .207 || .647 || 3.7 || 3.8 || 1.6 || .1 || 6.4 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | 77 || 77 || 29.9 || .492 || .263 || .611 || 4.2 || 5.1 || 1.7 || .2 || 10.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | 80 || 80 || 33.0 || .505 || .313 || .642 || 5.2 || 8.2 || 1.9 || .1 || 11.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | 81 || 81 || 36.6 || .508 || .213 || .621 || 4.4 || 9.8 || style="background:#cfecec;"|2.3* || .1 || 13.7 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 68 || 68 || 37.2 || .475 || .233 || .568 || 4.4 || 11.2 || 2.3 || .2 || 10.6 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 53 || 53 || 36.9 || .448 || .238 || .597 || 4.8 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.7* || 1.8 || .1 || 11.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 38 || 38 || 37.4 || .484 || .240 || .645 || 5.6 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.1* || 1.8 || .2 || 13.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | 30 || 30 || 33.3 || .403 || .289 || .627 || 5.5 || 9.8 || 1.3 || .1 || 11.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | 22 || 22 || 31.8 || .405 || .250 || .333 || 7.5 || 10.8 || 1.7 || .1 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Dallas | 46 || 46 || 28.7 || .436 || .352 || .452 || 4.5 || 6.5 || 1.2 || .1 || 9.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"|Sacramento | 72 || 72 || 35.2 || .454 || .365 || .580 || 6.0 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.7* || 2.0 || .1 || 11.9 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Chicago | 69 || 42 || 26.7 || .408 || .376 || .600 || 5.1 || 6.7 || 1.4 || .2 || 7.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 65 || 63 || 26.2 || .468 || .333 || .543 || 4.0 || 8.2 || 1.1 || .2 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 46 || 29 || 29.8 || .405 || .359 || .639 || 5.3 || 8.0 || 1.2 || .2 || 9.2 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| | style="text-align:left;""|L.A. Lakers | 48 || 3 || 20.5 || .418 || .328 || .659 || 3.0 || 5.0 || .8 || .0 || 7.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Atlanta | 27 || 2 || 14.9 || .400 || .378 || .500 || 2.0 || 3.5 || .7 || .1 || 3.9 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers | 18 || 1 || 20.4 || .486 || .432 || 1.000 || 3.1 || 5.8 || 1.0 || .1 || 7.6 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 18 || 0 || 16.1 || .324 || .267 || .500 || 2.7 || 3.7 || .7 || .3 || 3.1 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland | 21 || 1 || 19.4 || .429 || .397 || .750 || 2.8 || 4.9 || .9 || .0 || 6.2 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 957 || 733 || 29.9 || .456 || .324 || .611 || 4.5 || 7.9 || 1.6 || .1 || 9.8 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star | 3 || 0 || 18.7 || .545 || .000 || .000 || 1.7 || 7.0 || .3 || .0 || 4.0 ====Play-in==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2022 | style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland | 2 || 0 || 20.6 || .273 || .143 || || 2.5 || 5.5 || .5 || .0 || 3.5 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career | 2 || 0 || 20.6 || .273 || .143 || || 2.5 || 5.5 || .5 || .0 || 3.5 ====Playoffs==== |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|2008 | style="text- align:left;"|Boston | style="background:#E0CEF2; width:3em"|26 || style="background:#E0CEF2; width:3em"|26 || 32.0 || .407 || .250 || .691 || 4.1 || 6.6 || 1.7 || .3 || 10.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2009 | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 14 || 14 || 41.2 || .417 || .250 || .657 || 9.7 || 9.8 || 2.5 || .2 || 16.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2010 | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 24 || 24 || 40.6 || .463 || .375 || .596 || 5.6 || 9.3 || 1.9 || .1 || 15.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2011 | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 9 || 9 || 38.3 || .477 || .000 || .632 || 5.4 || 9.6 || 1.1 || .0 || 14.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2012 | style="text-align:left;"|Boston | 19 || 19 || 42.6 || .468 || .267 || .696 || 6.7 || 11.9 || 2.4 || .1 || 17.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2015 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 2 || 2 || 18.6 || .450 || .500 || .000 || 1.0 || 3.0 || .0 || .0 || 9.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2017 | style="text-align:left;"|Chicago | 2 || 2 || 33.7 || .423 || .000 || .500 || 8.5 || 10.0 || 3.5 || .5 || 11.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2018 | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 9 || 9 || 33.6 || .413 || .421 || .643 || 7.6 || 12.2 || 1.4 || .2 || 10.3 |- |style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|2020 |style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 16 || 0 || 24.7 || .455 || .400 || .684 || 4.3 || 6.6 || 1.4 || .1 || 8.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2021 | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers | 13 || 0 || 16.9 || .340 || .393 || .667 || 2.6 || 3.8 || .4 || .2 || 4.2 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 134 || 105 || 34.0 || .440 || .330 || .649 || 5.6 || 8.5 || 1.7 || .2 || 12.5 ===College=== |- | style="text-align:left;"|2004–05 | style="text- align:left;"|Kentucky | 34 || 34 || 25.1 || .510 || .303 || .583 || 2.9 || 3.5 || 2.6 || .2 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2005–06 | style="text- align:left;"|Kentucky | 34 || 28 || 31.0 || .482 || .273 || .571 || 6.1 || 4.9 || 2.0 || .1 || 11.2 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 68 || 62 || 28.1 || .493 || .283 || .577 || 4.5 || 4.2 || 2.3 || .2 || 9.6 ==Awards and honors== thumb|200px|right|Rondo during the Celtics' 2008 championship parade * 2-time NBA champion: 2008, 2020 * 4-time NBA All-Star: 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 * All-NBA Team: ** Third Team: 2012 * 4-time NBA All-Defensive: ** First Team: 2010, 2011 ** Second Team: 2009, 2012 * NBA All-Rookie selection: ** Second team: 2007 ==Records== NBA regular season: * 2010: most steals (189), most steals per game (2.3) * 2012: most assists per game (11.7), most triple-doubles (6) * 2013: most assists per game (11.1), most triple-doubles (5) * 2016: most assists per game (11.7), most assists (839) NBA playoffs: * 2008: most assists (172), most steals (45) * 2009: most assists (127), most triple-doubles (3) * 2010: most triple-doubles (2), most steals (46) * 2011: most triple-doubles (1) * 2012: most assists (227), most assists per game (11.9), most triple-doubles (4) Boston Celtics: * Most assists in a single season: 794 (2009–10) * Most steals in a single season: 189 (2009–10) * Most assists in a playoff game: 20 (2010–11) * Most assists per game (season): 11.7 (2011–12) New Orleans Pelicans: * Most assists in a game: 25 (2017–18) * Most assists in a playoff game: 21 (2017–18) ==See also== * List of National Basketball Association annual steals leaders * List of National Basketball Association annual assists leaders * List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders * List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders * List of National Basketball Association career triple-double leaders * List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders * List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders * List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders * List of National Basketball Association career playoff triple-double leaders * List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game ==References== ==External links== * Kentucky Wildcats bio Category:1986 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century African- American people Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople Category:African-American basketball players Category:American men's basketball players Category:Atlanta Hawks players Category:Basketball players from Louisville, Kentucky Category:Boston Celtics players Category:Chicago Bulls players Category:Cleveland Cavaliers players Category:Dallas Mavericks players Category:Eastern High School (Louisville, Kentucky) alumni Category:Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball players Category:Los Angeles Clippers players Category:Los Angeles Lakers players Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars Category:New Orleans Pelicans players Category:Parade High School All- Americans (boys' basketball) Category:Phoenix Suns draft picks Category:Point guards Category:Sacramento Kings players
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{{Infobox comics team and title |image = |imagesize = |caption = Cover of X-Statix TPB Volume 1 Art by Mike Allred |publisher = Marvel Comics |debuthead = |debut = X-Force #116 |debutmo = July |debutyr = 2001 |debuthead# = |debut# = |debutmo# = |debutyr# = |creators = Peter Milligan (writer) Mike Allred (artist) |group = y |type = Team |business = |organisation = |organization = y |team = y |base = |owners = |employees = |members = Anarchist Bloke Coach Dead Girl Doop Spike Freeman El Guapo Henrietta Hunter Mysterious Fan Boy Lacuna Orphan/Mr. Sensitive Phat Saint Anna Spike U-Go Girl Venus Dee Milo Vivisector |fullroster = List of members |cvr_image = |cvr_caption = |schedule = Monthly |ongoing = y |Superhero = y |pub_series = |1stishhead = |1stishyr = 2002 |1stishmo = September |endishyr = 2004 |endishmo = October |issues = 26 |main_char_team = |writers = |artists = |pencillers = |inkers = |letterers = |colorists = |editors = |creative_team_month = |creative_team_year = |creators_series = |TPB = X-Force: Famous, Mutant & Mortal |ISBN = 0-7851-1023-2 |TPB1 = Good Omens |ISBN1 = 0-7851-1059-3 |TPB2 = Good Guys & Bad Guys |ISBN2 = 0-7851-1139-5 |TPB3 = Back From the Dead |ISBN3 = 0-7851-1140-9 |TPB4 = X-Statix vs. The Avengers |ISBN4 = 0-7851-1537-4 |TPB5 = X-Statix Presents: Dead Girl |ISBN5 = 0-7851-2031-9 |cat = teams |subcat = Marvel Comics |altcat = |hero = y |villain = |sortkey = X-Statix |addpubcat1 = X-Men titles }} X-Statix are a team of mutant superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The team was specifically designed to be media superstars. The team, created by Peter Milligan and Mike Allred, first appears in X-Force #116 and originally assumed the moniker X-Force, taking the name of the more traditional superhero team, who appear in #117 (June 2001) claiming to be "the real X-Force". ==Publication history== In 2001, the X-Men family of titles were being revamped by the newly appointed Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Joe Quesada. The aim was to make the titles more critically and commercially successful. Former Vertigo editor Axel Alonso hired writer Peter Milligan, best known for his surreal, post-modernist comics such as Rogan Gosh and Shade, the Changing Man, and Madman artist Mike Allred, as the new creative team for X-Force, starting with issue #116. Prior to Milligan and Allred's first issue, X-Force sold well,CBGXtra.com – Comics Sales Charts but had not been the critical success Quesada wanted. Milligan and Allred completely revamped the series, designing a team more akin to popstars or reality TV contestants than the gritty, violent paramilitary group originally portrayed in the series. The title was laced with Milligan's satirical take on the superhero team as well as general cynicism toward the entire genre. Milligan wrote that he saw the characters' super powers as "vehicles for exploring our celebrity and fame-obsessed society." "My mutants all have agents, negotiate fees for image rights, open megastores and live the dream. People die in my comic. We even have a character called Dead Girl." Milligan and Allred would regularly play with killing off the title characters: In their first issue, they wiped out the entire team, with only two exceptions. This dramatic revision of the series was not universally accepted. Many readers wanted "their" X-Force back, a complaint Milligan later parodied in the pages of the title. Alonso described the series as "a hostile takeover of the X-Men paradigm." However, the title was receiving mainstream media coverage in titles like Rolling Stone. X-Force #116 was the first Marvel Comics title since The Amazing Spider-Man #96–98 in 1971 to not have the Comics Code Authority (CCA) approval seal, due to the violence depicted in the issue. The CCA, which governed the content of American comic books, rejected the issue, requiring that changes be made. Instead, Marvel simply stopped submitting comics to the CCA. X-Force was canceled with issue #129 in 2002 and renamed X-Statix; it restarted with a new issue #1. X-Statix carried on the same themes as X-Force, but with an increasingly satirical tone. Milligan planned to deploy Princess Diana as a character in a story-arc beginning in X-Statix #13: she was slated to return from the dead as a mutant superhero. However, when news of this leaked out to the media, a series of objections followed, most notably from the British tabloid newspaper The Daily Mail. Retrieved September 3, 2009. A spokesperson for the British royal family called the planned story "appalling." Milligan responded to the controversy, writing in the British daily newspaper The Guardian that Diana fit in well with X-Statix as someone "famous for being famous" and that he would like to write a story where David Beckham joined the team, if he could convince Marvel to let him. On July 10, 2003, Marvel announced that they would remove Princess Diana from the story, replacing her with a fictional pop star named Henrietta Hunter. Although sales of the title during this time were moderate, they soon began to decline drastically. After a story-arc that pitted X-Statix against The Avengers, low sales prompted the title's cancellation with issue #26, published in 2004. In the last issue Milligan and Allred killed off the entire team, serving up one last parody of the superhero genre, while tying up the remaining plot threads. In 2006, Marvel Comics published the five-issue miniseries X-Statix Presents: Dead Girl, which featured Dead Girl teaming up with Doctor Strange to combat a group of villains who have returned from the dead. The series is written by Milligan, with covers by Allred. The storyline (which features the returns of the Anarchist, the Orphan, and U-Go Girl) parodies the manner in which creators in the industry handle death in comic books, with popular characters often brought back from the dead. In 2019, Giant Sized X-Statix was published and written by Peter Milligan and Mike Allred the original creators of X-Statix. The title showcased a new version of the team consisting of the new U Go-Girl, Doop, Vivisector, Mister Sensitive, The A, and Phatty as well as a new team the X-Cellent with its members being Zeitgeist, Hurt John, Mirror Girl, and Uno and alumni/former members of X-Force like Plazm, the Anarchist, La Nuit, Battering Ram, and Gin Genie. In 2020, The X-Cellent was announced as a successor to X-Statix. ==Members== X-Statix is a team of colorfully dressed and emotionally immature young mutants. They are assembled and marketed as superstars, first by the mysterious Coach, and later by media mogul Spike Freeman. ===Team=== *Anarchist, the team's self-proclaimed "token" Black Canadian, whose acidic sweat enables him to fire energy bolts *Bloke, a mutant with the ability to change the color of his skin, like a chameleon *Dead Girl, a mixture of ghost and zombie. Her civilian name has never been fully revealed, but she admitted after some cajoling that her first name is/was "Moonbeam". Dead Girl's mutant gene allows her to return to semi-life after dying; she is also able to become intangible and communicate with other dead people. *Doop, a green, floating spheroid creature of unknown origin, who speaks in a "language" all his own (represented in text by a special font), and serves as the team's cameraman *El Guapo, a sexy male mutant with a sentient flying skateboard *Henrietta Hunter, a female pop star who is inexplicably reanimated with enhanced physical abilities and empathy (This character was originally written as Diana, Princess of Wales, but Marvel decided to rewrite her when news of this plan caused controversy.) *Mysterious Fan Boy, the self-proclaimed greatest fan of the X-Statix team. He is placed on the team so that his reality-warping powers and unstable personality can be monitored and controlled. *Orphan, a.k.a. Mister Sensitive, the team's de facto leader, and a mutant with purple skin and two antennae protruding from his forehead. He possesses heightened senses, superhuman speed, and the ability to levitate *Phat, a gay white man who can harden, soften, and increase the size of any part of his body by expanding his subcutaneous fat layer *Saint Anna, an Irish-Argentinian mutant with the ability to levitate and control the motion of objects as well as physically and mentally heal others *Spike, an African American character who is capable of extending thin spikes from his body or launching them as projectiles *U-Go Girl, a blue-skinned, redheaded, narcoleptic teleporter who was once romantically linked to Zeitgeist and then to Orphan *Venus Dee Milo, whose body was made entirely of crackling red energy that allowed her to teleport, project concussive blasts of energy, and heal minor wounds *Vivisector, a bookish, gay scholar who can transform himself into a wolf-like creature with enhanced senses, speed, agility, and razor-sharp fangs and claws ===Mentors=== *Coach, the manipulative mentor of the team while it was still operating as X-Force. He has only one arm and red eyes. Coach has the second X-Force team eradicated in order to start a new one. *Spike Freeman, an amoral, thrill-seeking billionaire, he assists the team by auditioning new members, and by managing its public relations ===Allies=== *Lacuna, a young girl named Woodstock who seeks to join the team, she has the power of time manipulation *Professor X, the mentor of the X-Men who assists X-Statix on some occasions. He constructs special suits to accommodate Orphan and Venus Dee Milo's mutations. *Wolverine, an old friend of Doop's who helps Orphan take down Coach and his back-up team *O-Force, a mutant superhero team ===X-Force=== In Milligan and Allred's first issue of X-Force, nearly the entire team is killed off in an incident called the Boyz R Us Massacre. This precursory team, of which only U-Go Girl, Doop, and Anarchist survive, also included: *Battering Ram, who has superhuman strength and durability as well as a thick skull which sported two ram-like horns and purple skin. *Gin Genie, who can direct seismic energy from her body if she had consumed alcohol *La Nuit, a Frenchman who can generate a cloak of dark energy around him that disperses light and controls objects. *Plazm, a living, lighter-than-air, liquid man who can control metabolic functions upon contact with another or through a spray from his hands *Sluk, who has a face composed of tentacles. *Zeitgeist, the team leader, who can vomit acidic ooze from his mouth. He conspires with Coach to have his teammates killed, but is caught in the crossfire and killed as well. He previously had a one-night stand with U-Go Girl. ==Collected editions== X-Statix's appearances have been collected into the following trade paperbacks: *X-Force: Famous, Mutant & Mortal (hardcover, 288 pages, July 2003, ) collects: ** Volume 1: New Beginnings (collects X-Force #116–120, 128 pages, November 2001, ) ** Volume 2: Final Chapter (collects X-Force #121–129, 224 pages, November 2002, ) *X-Statix: ** Volume 1: Good Omens (collects X-Statix #1–5, Marvel, 2002, ) ** Volume 2: Good Guys & Bad Guys (collects X-Statix #6–10, Wolverine/Doop #1–2 and X-Men Unlimited #41, Marvel, 2003, ) ** Volume 3: Back From the Dead (collects X-Statix #11–18, Marvel, 2004, ) ** Volume 4: X-Statix vs. The Avengers (collects X-Statix #19–26, Marvel, 2004, ) *X-Statix Presents: Dead Girl (collects 5-issue limited series, Marvel, 2006, ) The entire run of X-Statix is collected in a hardcover Marvel Omnibus, which collects: X-Force #116–129; Brotherhood #9; X-Statix #1–26; Dead Girl #1–5; Wolverine/Doop #1–2; and material from X-Men Unlimited #41; I ♥ Marvel: My Mutant Heart and Nation X #4. (Marvel, 2011, ) ==Reception== Despite receiving condemnation from the British royal family, X-Statix received critical acclaim, if not high popularity among readers. In naming X-Statix as one of "5 Marvel Properties That, Even After ‘Guardians of the Galaxy,’ Are Still Too Weird for the Big Screen", IndieWire wrote that X-Statix "viciously deconstructed every phony bit of comic-book artifice", put "fame-whoring media culture on trial", and confronted issues of race, class, and sexuality. IGN wrote that the frequency with which characters were killed off "lent the book an air of danger and unpredictability rare to mainstream superhero titles." In 2012, Entertainment Weekly included X-Statix in a list of "15 Comic Books We Want to See as Movies", saying that the work "has never looked more timely." Previously, in 2003, the magazine had given the series an A rating, calling it a "razor-sharp media critique with hyperbolic dialogue." Fumettologica praised the subtlety of the metatextuality in its satire, mentioning the character Anarchist's fear that people won't support adding a second African American to the team. ==In other media== * Phat appears in X-Men: The Last Stand, portrayed by Via Saleaumua in his "large mode" and Richard Yee in his "small mode". This version is a member of the Omegas. He joins the Brotherhood of Mutants in opposing a mutant cure, only to be killed by Iceman. * Zeitgeist appears in Deadpool 2, portrayed by Bill Skarsgård. Deadpool and Weasel recruit him into X-Force. However, Zeitgeist is killed on their first mission after crosswinds blow him into a woodchipper. Fellow teammate Peter attempts to save him, but Zeitgeist vomits blood that disintegrates Peter's arm, killing him as well. During Deadpool's travels through time near the end of the film, Peter is the only X-Force member saved. ==Notes== ==References== * ==External links== * The X-Titles revamp as discussed in The Comics Journal No. 262 Category:2001 comics debuts Category:Comics by Peter Milligan Category:Characters created by Peter Milligan Category:Characters created by Mike Allred Category:Defunct American comics Category:X-Men supporting characters
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The United Arab Emirates Air Force (UAEAF) () is the air force of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), part of the United Arab Emirates Armed Forces. Its predecessor was established in 1968, when the Emirates were still under British rule. Since then, it has undergone a continual reorganisation and expansion in terms of both capability and numbers of aircraft. Currently, the UAEAF has around 4,000 personnel and operates approximately 552 fixed wing and rotorcraft. ==History== The UAEAF's history starts in May 1968, with the formation of an Air Wing of the Abu Dhabi Defence Force (ADDF) under British rule. Its key roles being to provide both a transport service and a ground attack support capability for ADDF land forces. Major investment in the early 1970s assured an expansion in terms of capabilities, quality and quantity of aircraft.AirForces Monthly, p. 60. It also led to the renaming of the Air Wing to the ADDF Air Force in 1972. Training and instruction was provided by the Pakistan Air Force. During the 1973 Arab-Israel War (6-25 October 1973), the ADDF Air Force's Caribous served as air ambulances in Jordan. The Emirate of Dubai maintained its own air component, the Dubai Defence Force Air Wing, until 1999, when the two were effectively merged to become what is now the United Arab Emirates Air Force. Although the integration of the two independent forces has been complete, a small degree of autonomy exists at the operational command level, with the Western Air Command being headquartered in Abu Dhabi and the Central Air Command in Dubai. Since the 1980s, a combination of regional instability and high oil prices has resulted in an ambitious modernisation of the UAEAF, with the goal of attaining a level of capability matching the highest NATO standards. In the 1991 Gulf War, the UAE helped other countries by carrying out airstrikes against Iraqi forces. In 2014, the UAE Air Force along with the Egyptian Air Force carried out airstrikes in Libya against Islamist factions in Tripoli. In September 2014, UAE Air Force aircraft joined in US-led air strikes against terrorist targets in Syria and Iraq that later became known as Operation Inherent Resolve. These operations were suspended after a Jordanian pilot was captured by Islamic State militants in late December 2014; pending improvements in US search and rescue capabilities in the region. In 2015, UAE Air Force dropped bombs on ISIS targets in Syria. One of them was Major Mariyam Al Mansouri, the first female UAE Air Force pilot. The UAE military is also part of the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. ==Personnel and training== The UAEAF consists of about 4,000 personnel. In the 1970s and 80s, the UAEAF was instructed by Pakistan Air Force pilots on Dassault Mirage 5s, the backbone of the UAEAF at the time. Even today, many of the personnel are ex-Pakistan Air Force officers and technicians. Most of the flying instructors at Al Ain are from Pakistan, training pilots using Grob G 115, Pilatus PC-7, Aermacchi MB-339, and BAE Hawk 63 aircraft. A few officers of No. 12 Squadron (Hawk 102) at Al Minhad Air Base, are also from the Pakistan Air Force. Some of these officers are on deputation (active service), but most are on civilian contracts with the Air Force Headquarters in Abu Dhabi. Numerous officers of other nationalities have also trained UAE pilots, among them Pakistanis, Moroccans, Canadians, Jordanians, and South Africans. Women have started training as pilots. The first batch consisted of engineers given approval for flight training. So far, only three women have become actual fighter pilots and one a transport pilot. One woman pilot was grounded due to an ejection from a training flight in a Hawk 63. Instructors at Al Dhafra Air Base are now mainly from the US, as the UAEAF has retired its Mirage 5s in favour of F-16s. Currently there are five main air bases operational, split between the Western and Central Air Command. The Joint Aviation Command has its own airbase and operates a wide range of helicopters. Candidates apply to the Khalifa bin Zayed Air College, which is located at the Al Ain International Airport in Al Ain. They first go through a rigorous schedule of academics (Basic Level: Military Sciences), fitness and officer training. Those who are selected as cadets then start the second phase of academics: Flight Sciences (Aeronautical Science). Cadets who pass the assessment period of the second phase are designated aviation cadets and start flight training. The first aircraft cadets get to fly is the Grob G115 TA. Those who qualify then go on to fly the Pilatus PC-7. On this aircraft, they learn the basics of flying, take-off and landing techniques and procedures followed by a bit of aerobatics. Following the Primary Flying Course is the Basic Flight Course, piloting the Hawk 63. Graduates are graded and assigned accordingly to one of three options: the Advanced Strike course at Minhad on the Hawk 102 aircraft, transport aircraft, and helicopters. At Minhad, the new pilots learn Basic Fighters Manoeuvres, drop bombs and learn to fly cross- country to a neighbouring country, commonly Bahrain or Kuwait. Upon completion of the Advanced Strike course, officers are selected either for the F-16 (Block 60) or the Dassault Mirage 2000-9, both at Al Dhafra AB. A few pilots are selected to learn to fly the F-16 with the United States Air Force's 162d Fighter Wing in Tucson, Arizona. ==Overview== 2007 marked the culmination of the largest procurement programmes ever undertaken by the UAE Air Force, with the final deliveries of the 80 F-16E/F Block 60 "Desert Falcons" and approximately 60 upgraded Mirage 2000-9, giving the air force a considerable multirole capability. These two investments represented a total expenditure of around $10 billion, with additional money spent on infrastructure and logistics. A $6.4 billion contract with Lockheed Martin for the supply and support of the 80 F-16s was signed in March 2000, while a $3.4 billion deal for the purchase of 30 new Mirage 2000-9 and retrofitting of the 33 older UAE Mirage 2000s was signed earlier in 1998.AirForces Monthly, p. 61. Missiles were also purchased: 160 AGM-88 HARMs, 1,000 or more AGM-65 Mavericks, about 500 AIM-120 AMRAAMs, 270 AIM-9 Sidewinders and 52 AGM-84 Harpoons. In November 2017, the United Arab Emirates Armed Forces announced their intention to sign a contract with Dassault Aviation for the upgrade of its Mirage 2000-9 aircraft. French newspaper La Tribune reported the modernization would cost roughly €300 million. After a competition between the BAE Hawk, KAI T-50 Golden Eagle and Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master, the UAEAF announced the acquisition of 48 trainer and light attack aircraft, with the first deliveries to take place in 2012. The other training types that are thought to be near replacement are the 30 Pilatus PC-7s and five Aermacchi MB-339s serving with the Air Academy at Al Ain.AirForces Monthly, p. 62. The MB-339 is also in use with the UAEAF flight display team, Al Fursan. The UAEAF has operated 20 IAR 330 Puma helicopters since the late 1970s. These have been recently upgraded to the IAR-330SM standard by IAR Ghimbav in Romania in cooperation with Eurocopter. These aircraft, supplemented by a further ten ex-South African Air Force reworked SA-330s, are expected to remain in service for at least 15 years.AirForces Monthly, p. 63. Although no replacement for the Puma fleet is required in the immediate future, the force will be supplemented by 26 Sikorsky UH-60M Battlehawks, with 390 AGM-114N Hellfire II missiles. 30 AH-64A Apache helicopters were modernised as well, to the AH-64D Longbow standard, and a dozen Eurocopter Fennecs were recently acquired for special forces use. The most important facility of the UAEAF is the Al Dhafra Air Base, with almost the entire fighter aircraft fleet located there. However, in order to prevent all of the air defence and strike assets being located at a single base, a $1 billion, completely new facility has been constructed deep in the Abu Dhabi desert, near the border corner with Saudi Arabia and Oman, near Al Gharbia, housing at least one Mirage 2000 unit. Al-Safran is believed to have opened between around 2008. It is 3,000 m long and has aircraft parking nearly the same size as in Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar. A 4,000 m runway at Al-Safran Air Base was built around 2008. ===Structure=== As of 2008, the structure of the United Arab Emirates Air Force is as follows: ====Western Air Command - HQ at Abu Dhabi==== *Fighter Wing - Al Dhafra Air Base **1st Shaheen Squadron - F-16E/F Block 60 Desert Falcon **2nd Shaheen Squadron - F-16E/F Desert Falcon **3rd Shaheen Squadron - F-16E/F Desert Falcon **71st Fighter Squadron - Mirage 2000-9EAD/DAD **76th Fighter Squadron - Mirage 2000-9EAD/DAD **86th Fighter Squadron - Mirage 2000-9EAD/DAD (Al Safran Air Base) *Transport Wing - Al Bateen Air Base **C-130 Squadron - C-130H Hercules **CASA Squadron - CN-235M-110 **Puma Squadron - IAR-330SM Puma **6th Squadron - AB.412HP/SP, Bell-214B **Naval Squadron - AS.332B/M Super Puma, AS.565SB Panther ====Central Air Command - HQ at Dubai==== *Al Minhad Air Base (helicopter base) **102nd CAS Squadron - BAE Hawk Mk.102 **Transport Squadron - C-130H-30, L-100-30 Hercules **Special electronic missions Squadron Saab 340 AEW&C; **Air-to-air refueling Squadron Airbus A330 MRTT *Dubai International Airport (transport aircraft) ==== Joint Aviation Command (JAC) - HQ at Abu Dhabi ==== *Group 10 (Assault) - Al Dhafra Air Base **AH-64D Apache *Group 18 (Special Operations) - Sas Al Nakheel Air Base **UH-60M, CH-47F *Group 21 (Navy) - Sas Al Nakheel Air Base **AS332B1, AS332M1, AS565MB, AS565SB *Group 22 (COIN and Reconnaissance) - Al Ain/Camp Hazza **Cessna 208B, DHC-6-300, DHC-6-400, Thrush S2R-T660 *Group 23 (Observation, Training) - Sas Al Nakheel Air Base **AS550C3 *Group 25 (Assault)- Sas Al Nakheel Air Base **CH-47F *Group 26 (Assault) - Al Minhad Air Base, Sas Al Nakheel Air Base **UH-60L **UH-60M *Group 28 (Observation and Reconnaissance) - Al Ain/Camp Hazza **Bell407GX ===Commanders=== *Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan *Mohamed Al Qamzi *Ibrahim Nasser Mohammed Al Alawi ==Equipment== === Aircraft === thumb|right|An F-16E on take-off thumb|right|A Lockheed C-130H Hercules thumb|right|An AW139 on lift off Aircraft Origin Type Variant In service Notes Combat aircraft IOMAX Archangel United States COIN / attack UAE AA 20 Dassault Mirage 2000 France multirole 9/EAD/RAD 59 15 9/DAD variants provide training Dassault Rafale France multirole F4 80 on order F-16 Fighting Falcon United States multirole E Block 60 56 AWACS Bombardier Global Express Canada AEW&C; GlobalEye AEW 3 2 on order Reconnaissance Bombardier Global Express Canada reconnaissance / ISTAR 6000 2 Maritime patrol Bombardier Dash 8 Canada maritime patrol MPA-D8 2 Bombardier Challenger 600 Canada maritime patrol Challenger 650 2 Tanker Airbus A330 MRTT Europe aerial refueling / transport KC-30A 3 2 on order Transport King Air United States utility 350 5 three 90 variants provide training Quest Kodiak United States utility 100 1 DHC-6 Twin Otter Canada utility 1 PAC P-750 New Zealand light utility 1 Boeing C-17 United States heavy transport 8 Piaggio P.180 Italy VIP transport 2 CASA CN-235 Spain transport 9 C-130 Hercules United States transport C-130H/L-100 8 Helicopters Bell 412 United States utility / SAR 4 Eurocopter AS350 France utility / trainer 3 AgustaWestland AW139 Italy utility / VIP transport 8 Trainer aircraft F-16 Fighting Falcon United States jet trainer F Block 60 22 Bell 407 United States trainer / utility 14 BAE Hawk United Kingdom jet trainer Hawk 61/63/102 12 Grob G 115 Germany light trainer 12 Pilatus PC-7 Switzerland advanced trainer 31 Pilatus PC-21 Switzerland advanced trainer 25 Aermacchi MB-339 Italy jet trainer 12 UAV Denel Dynamics Seeker South Africa surveillance Seeker II 11 MQ-1 Predator United States Unmanned combat aerial vehicle Predator XP Wing Loong II China MALE UCAV Baykar Bayraktar TB2 Turkey MALE UCAV ===Joint Air Command=== Aircraft Origin Type Variant In service Notes Reconnaissance Cessna 208 United States surveillance / utility 8 DHC-6 Twin Otter Canada surveillance / utility 3 STOL capable aircraft Transport DHC-6 Twin Otter Canada transport / utility 7 STOL capable aircraft Helicopters Bell 407 United States light utility 29 AH-64 Apache United States attack AH-64D/E 30 10 on order CH-47 Chinook United States transport / utility CH-47C/F 28 12 obtained from Libya UH-60 Black Hawk United States utility UH-60L/M 80 Eurocopter AS565 France utility / SAR 12 Eurocopter AS350 France utility / rotorcraft trainer 15 AgustaWestland AW139 Italy utility / SAR 6 === Retired === Previous aircraft operated by the Air Force were the Dassault Mirage 5, Boeing 707, Aeritalia G.222, CASA C-212, SF.260T, Alouette III, SA 342 Gazelle, Bölkow Bo 105, Bell 206 & Bell 214 helicopter. === Future equipment === Future programs include the Next-Generation Fighter, request for proposals has been sent to Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II and Sukhoi Su-57. On 3 December 2021 it was announced that the UAE had signed an order for 80 Rafale F4s. ==See also== *United Arab Emirates Armed Forces *Khalifa bin Zayed Air College == Further reading == * The Evolution of the Armed Forces of the United Arab Emirates by Athol Yates ==References== *Yates, Athol (2020). The Evolution of the Armed Forces of the United Arab Emirates. Warwick: Helion & Company. *"Force Report: UAE Air Force & Air Defence", AirForces Monthly magazine, January 2008 issue. ==External links== *UAE Air Force Order of Battle *The Evolution of the Armed Forces of the United Arab Emirates by Athol Yates Category:1968 establishments in the Trucial States Category:Military units and formations established in 1968
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This is a list of board wargames by historical genre (and some subgenres) showing their publication history. All games can be presumed to have been published in English unless another language is noted. == Historical == *The Art of Siege (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Combined Arms (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #46, 1974) === Ancient === Name Publisher Year Notes 300 Spartans Zvezda 2003 Acre Simulations Publications, Inc. 1978 Alexander at Tyre Thunderhaven Game Co. 1993 Alexander the Great Guidon Games 1971 Avalon Hill 1974 Ancients Good Industries 1990 3W 1992 Games Publications Group 1999 Assyrian Wars Udo Grebe Gamedesign 2005 Armageddon: Tactical Combat, 3000-500 BC Simulations Publications, Inc. 1972 S&T;, #34. Battles of the Ancient World: Marathon & Granicus Decision Games 2003 S&T;, #214. Caesar: Epic Battle at Alesia Avalon Hill 1976 Centurion: Tactical Warfare, 100 BC-600 AD Simulations Publications, Inc. 1971 S&T; #25 Chandragupta GMT Games 2008 Chariot Simulations Publications, Inc. 1975 Chariot Lords Clash of Arms 1999 Commands & Colors: Ancients GMT Games 2006 Conquest of the Empire Citadel Games 1981? Milton Bradley 1984 Eagle Games 2005 The Conquerors Simulations Publications, Inc. 1977 The Conquerors: Alexander the Great GMT Games 2006 Day of the Chariot: Kadesh LPS, Inc. 2008 AtO #21 Eagles Game Designers' Workshop 1973 Caesar's Legions Avalon Hill 1975 Epic of the Peloponnesian War Clash of Arms 2006 Fading Legions Avalanche Press 2002 Gladiator Avalon Hill 1981 Go Tell the Spartans LPS, Inc. 2003 AtO #6 The Great Battles of Alexander the Great GMT Games 1991 1995 Deluxe Edition Hannibal Histo Games 1969 Hannibal Aulic Council 1983 Hannibal: Rome vs. Carthage Avalon Hill 1996 Valley Games 2007 Hannibal: The Italian Campaign 219-206 BC Simulations Canada 1983 Hannibal: The Second Punic War Decision Games 1991 S&T; #141 Hannibal at Bay Avalanche Press 2000 Hegemon LPS, Inc. 2002 AtO #1 Hellenes: Campaigns of the Peloponnesian War GMT Games 2009 I am Spartacus XTR Corp 1992 Command #15 Iliad: The Siege of Troy Conflict Games Game Designers' Workshop 1978 Jewish War Khyber Pass Games 2000 Kadesh XTR Corp 1991 Command #7 Legion Simulations Publications, Inc. 1975 Pax Romana GMT Games 2006 The Peloponnesian War Simulations Canada 1977 The Peloponnesian War Victory Games 1991 Phalanx Simulations Publications, Inc. 1971 Phalanx Society of Ancients 1993 Slingshot #165 The Republic of Rome Valley Games 1990 Queen of the Celts Avalanche Press 2007 Spartan Simulations Publications, Inc. 1975 SPQR GMT Games 1992 Oriflam Successors Decision Games 1993 S&T; #161 Successors Avalon Hill 1997 GMT Games 2008 The Sword of Rome GMT Games 2004 Trireme Battleline Publications 1979 Avalon Hill 1980 Troy Chaosium 1977 Tyre Simulations Publications, Inc. 1978 War Galley GMT Games 1997 Xenophon: 10,000 Against Persia Decision Games 2000 S&T; #203 === Early Middle Ages === *Belisarius: The Byzantine Empire Strikes (Decision Games – S&T; #210, 2002) *Byzantium (Warfrog, 2005) *Dark Ages: Tactical Warfare, 500-1300 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1971) *Norseman: Viking Kingdoms of the North Sea (Simulations Canada, 1985) *Viking (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Viking Raiders (Standard Games, 1987; Eurogames, ) *Vikingatid (Trollspel, 1998 ) === Middle Ages === *Agincourt (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *The Black Prince: The Battle of Navarette, 1367 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Conquistador (SPI – S&T; #58, 1976, Avalon Hill, 1983) *Cry Havoc (Standard Games, 1981) *The Crusades (SPI – S&T; #70, 1978) *Empires of the Middle Ages (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1980, Decision Games, 2004?) *Granada: The Fall of Moslem Spain (Avalanche Press, 2003) *The Golden Horde (Excalibre Games, 1978) *Hammer of the Scots (Columbia Games, 2003) *The Legend of Robin Hood (Operational Studies Group, 1979; Avalon Hill, 1980) *Scotland the Brave (Avalanche Press, 1998) *Renaissance of Infantry (SPI – S&T; #22, 1970) *Yeoman (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) === Early modern === *1776 (Avalon Hill, 1974) *The Alamo (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1981; Decision Games, ?) *Alma (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *The American Revolution 1775–1783 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *Arcola (Operational Studies Group, 1979) – Battle for Italy (Avalon Hill, 1981) *Armada: The War With Spain 1585–1604 (SPI – S&T; #72, 1979) *Balaclava (SPI, 1978) *Battle of Guilford Courthouse (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *The Battle of Lobositz (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *The Battle of Saratoga (Oldenburg Grenadiers, 1976) *The Battle of the Alma (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978; Kokusai-Tsushin – Command #38, 2001 ) *Breitenfeld (SPI – S&T; #55, 1976) *The Campaigns of Frederick the Great (3W, 1993) *La Carga de la Brigada Ligera (NAC, 1987 ) *Close Action (Clash of Arms, 1997) *Crimean War Battles (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978; Decision Games – S&T; #201, 2000) *The English Civil War (Ariel Productions Ltd, Ironside Games, Philmar; 1978) *Fighting Sail: Sea Combat in the Age of Canvas and Shot 1775–1815 (SPI – S&T; #85, 1981) *Frederick the Great (SPI – S&T; #49, 1975; Avalon Hill, 1982) *Friedrich (Histogame, 2004 ; Simmons Games, 2005) *Frigate: Sea War in the Age of Sail (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1974) *Geronimo (Avalon Hill, 1995) *Gunslinger (Avalon Hill, 1982) *Kingmaker (PhilMar Ltd., 1974; Avalon Hill, 1976) *Kolin 1757: Frederick's First Defeat (Clash of Arms, 1994) *Leuthen: Frederick's Greatest Victory (Clash of Arms, 1997) *Machiavelli (Battleline Publications, 1977; Avalon Hill, 1983) *A Mighty Fortress (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *Musket & Pike (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Quebec 1759 (Gamma Two Games, 1972; Avalon Hill, 1977?; Columbia Games, ?) *Samurai (Battleline Publications, 1979; Avalon Hill, 1980) *Saratoga (GMT Games, 1998) *Saratoga: 1777 (Rand Game Associates, 1974; Gamut of Games, ?) *Shogun (Milton Bradley, 1986) – Samurai Swords (Milton Bradley, 1995) *Shogun (Queen Games, 2006) *The Siege of Constantinople (SPI – S&T; #66, 1978) *Soldier Kings (Avalanche Press, 2002) *Soldier Raj (Avalanche Press, 2004) *Thirty Years War: Europe in Agony, 1618–1648 (GMT Games, 2001) *Wallenstein (Queen Games, 2002) *War of 1812 (Gamma Two Games, 1973; Avalon Hill, 1977?; Columbia Games, ?) *Washington's War (GMT Games, 2010) *Wooden Ships and Iron Men (Battleline Publications, 1974; Avalon Hill, 1975) *We the People (Avalon Hill, 1994) === Napoleonic era === *Game of War (Guy Debord), 1965 *1809: Napoleon's Danube Campaign (Victory Games, 1984) *1812: The Campaign of Napoleon in Russia (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *1815: The Waterloo Campaign (Game Designers' Workshop, 1982) *Austerlitz: Battle of the Three Emperors (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *La Bataille d'Albuera-Espagnol (Clash of Arms, 1984) *La Bataille d'Auerstaedt (Marshal Enterprises, 1978; Clash of Arms, 1991; AGEMA, 1977 ) *La Bataille d'Austerlitz (Marshal Enterprises, 1980) *La Bataille d'Espagnol-Talavera (Marshal Enterprises, 1979; Clash of Arms, 1995) *La Bataille d'Orthez (Clash of Arms, 2000) *La Bataille de Corunna-Espagnol (Clash of Arms, 1995) *La Bataille de Deutsch Wagram (Marshal Enterprises, 1981) *La Bataille de la Moscowa (Martial Enterprises, 1975; Game Designers' Workshop, 1977, Clash of Arms, 2011) *La Bataille de Ligny (Clash of Arms, 1991) *La Bataille de Lützen (Clash of Arms, 1999) *La Bataille de Mont Saint Jean (Clash of Arms, 1993) *La Bataille de Preusisch Eylau (Marshal Enterprises, 1978; Clash of Arms, 1990) *La Bataille des Quatre bras (Clash of Arms, 1991) *La Bataille de Dresde (Clash of Arms, 2015) *Battles of the Hundred Days (Operational Studies Group, 1979) – Hundred Days Battles (Avalon Hill, 1983) *Bonaparte at Marengo (Simmons Games, 2005) *Borodino: Napoleon in Russia (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #32, 1972) *Dresden (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #75, 1979) *Empires in Arms (Australian Design Group, 1983; Avalon Hill, 1985) *Eylau: Napoleon's Winter Battle, 1807 (Game Designers' Workshop, 1980) *La Patrie en Danger (Operational Studies Group, 2014) *Napoleon (Gamma Two Games, 1974; Avalon Hill, 1977; Columbia Games ?) *Napoleon Against Russia (Operational Studies Group, 2015) *Napoleon at Bay (Avalon Hill, 1983) *Napoleon at Leipzig (Operational Studies Group, 1979; Clash of Arms, 1988, 2013) *Napoleon at War: Four Battles (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Napoleon at Waterloo (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1971) *Napoleon in Europe (Eagle Games, 2001) *Napoleon in the Desert (Avalanche Press, 2002) *Napoleon on the Danube (Avalanche Press, 2005) *Napoleon Retreats (Operational Studies Group, 2019) *Napoleon's Art of War (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #75, 1979) *Napoleon's Last Battles (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976; TSR, Inc., 1984) *Napoleon's Last Gamble (Operational Studies Group, 2016) *Napoleon's Quagmire (Operational Studies Group, 2017) *Napoleon's Resurgence (Operational Studies Group, 2018) *Ney vs. Wellington (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #74, 1979) *Preussisch-Eylau (Avalanche Press, 1999) *Soldier Emperor (Avalanche Press, 2003) *The Struggle of Nations (Avalon Hill, 1982) *The Coming Storm (Operational Studies Group, 2010) *The Last Success (Operational Studies Group, 2012) *Toulon, 1793 (Legion Wargames, 2014) *War and Peace (Avalon Hill, 1980) *Waterloo (Avalon Hill, 1962) *Wellington (GMT Games, 2005) *Wellington's Victory: Battle of Waterloo (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976; TSR, Inc., 1983) === American Civil War === : ==== Skirmish ==== *Devil's Den (Operational Studies Group, 1980, Avalon Hill, 1985) ==== Tactical ==== *Antietam: The Bloodiest Day (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Battle Cry (Avalon Hill, 2000) *The Battles of Bull Run (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Blue and Gray (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975; TSR, Inc., 1983; Overlord Games, ?; Decision Games, 1995) *Blue and Gray II (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *Cedar Mountain: The Prelude to Bull Run (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #86, 1981) *Cemetery Hill (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Chancellorsville (Avalon Hill, 1961) *Chickamauga & Chattanooga (Avalanche Press, 2003) *Fury in the West (Battleline Publications, 1977; Avalon Hill, 1979) *Gettysburg (Avalon Hill, 1958) *Gettysburg 1863 (Avalanche Press, 2002) *Lee vs. Meade: The Battle of Gettysburg (Rand Game Associates, 1974; Gamut of Games, ?) *Seven Days Battles (Battleline Publications, 1973) *Stonewall: The Battle of Kernstown (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #67, 1978) *Thunder on South Mountain (Blue Guidon, 2000) ==== Grand Tactical ==== *Bloody April: The Battle of Shiloh, 1862 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Terrible Swift Sword (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976; TSR, Inc., 1986) ==== Operational ==== *Atlanta (Guidon Games, 1973) *Drive on Washington (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1980) *Lee vs. Grant (Victory Games, 1988) – Wilderness Campaign, an ancestor of the Avalon Hill "Stonewall Jackson's Way" series *Mosby's Raiders (Victory Games, 1985) *Objective: Atlanta (Battleline Publications, 1977) *Shenandoah (Battleline Publications, 1975) **Stonewall Jackson's Way (Avalon Hill, 1992) – Cedar Mountain to Second Bull Run **Here Come the Rebels (Avalon Hill, 1993; Multi-Man Publishing, ?) – Antietam Campaign **Roads to Gettysburg (Avalon Hill, 1993; Multi-Man Publishing, ?) – Gettysburg Campaign **Stonewall in the Valley (Avalon Hill, 1995) – Shenandoah Campaign **Stonewall's Last Battle (Avalon Hill, 1996) – Chancellorsville Campaign **On To Richmond (Avalon Hill, 1997; Multi-Man Publishing, ?) – McClellan's Peninsula Campaign **Grant Takes Command (Avalon Hill, 2001) – Wilderness Campaign **Battle Above the Clouds (Multi-Man Publishing, 2011) – Chickamauga/Chattanooga ==== Strategic ==== Name Publisher Year Notes Bobby Lee Columbia Games 1993 Sam Grant Columbia Games 1997 ==== Grand Strategy ==== *The American Civil War 1861–1865 (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #43, 1974) *The American Civil War 1861–1865 (TSR, Inc. – S&T; #93, 1983) *Battle Cry (Milton Bradley, 1961) *Civil War (Avalon Hill, 1961) *The Civil War 1861–1865 (Victory Games, 1983) *A House Divided (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981; Phalanx Games, 2001) *For the People (Avalon Hill, 1998; GMT Games, 2000) *The U.S. Civil War (GMT Games, 2015) *War Between the States (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) === 19th Century/Industrial warfare === *Diplomacy (self-published, 1959; Games Research, 1961; Avalon Hill, 1976). *1898: The Spanish–American War (Avalanche Press, 2000) *1904–1905: The Russo-Japanese War (Avalanche Press, 1999) *Chaco (Game Designers' Workshop, 1973) *Custer's Last Stand (Battleline Publications, 1976) *Pax Brittanica (game) (Victory Games, 1985) *Red Sun Rising (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *Rifle & Saber (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Viva España (Battleline Publications, 1977) === World War I === *1914 (Avalon Hill, 1968) *1918 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1970) *Aces High (World Wide Wargames). *Blue Max (Game Designers' Workshop, 1983) – Les Ailes de la Gloire (Oriflam, ? ) *Brusilov Offensive (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *Cruiser Warfare (Avalanche Press, 2004) *Fatal Alliances: The Great War (Compass Games), 2016 *Fight in the Skies (Guidon Games, 1972; TSR, 1975) – Dawn Patrol (TSR, 1982) *Flying Circus (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *Great War at Sea: The Mediterranean (Avalanche Press, 1996) *Great War at Sea: The North and Baltic Seas – Jutland (Avalanche Press, 1998) *The Guns of August (Avalon Hill, 1981) *Infantry Attacks: Imperial Twilight (Avalanche Press, 2006) *Jutland (Avalon Hill, 1967) *The Kaiser's Battle (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #83, 1980; Decision Games, ?) *Knights of the Air (Avalon Hill, 1987) *Paths of Glory (GMT Games, 1999) *Pursuit of Glory (GMT Games, 2008) *The Marne: Home Before the Leaves Fall (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *Richthofen's War (Avalon Hill, 1972) *Soldiers (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *The Strand War Game (The Strand Magazine, 1915) *They Shall Not Pass: The Battle of Verdun, 1916 (Avalanche Press, 2006) *To the Green Fields Beyond (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *Trenchfoot: Bullets & Bayonets in the Great War (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *Verdun (Conflict Games, 1972; Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *Verdun 1916 (Histoire & Collections – Vae Victis #46, 2002 ) *Wings (Yaquinto Publications, 1981; Excalibre Games, 1993) *World War I (SPI – S&T; #51, 1975; Excalibre Games, ?; Decision Games, 1994) === World War II === ==== Tactical wargames ==== *B-17, Queen of the Skies (Avalon Hill, 1983) *Advanced Squad Leader (Avalon Hill, 1985; Multi-Man Publishing, 2001) *Ambush! (Victory Games, 1983) *Commando (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Conflict of Heroes (Academy Games, 2008) *Memoir '44 (Days of Wonder, 2004) *Panzer 44 (SPI, 1975) *Panzer Leader (Avalon Hill, 1974) *PanzerBlitz (Avalon Hill, 1970) *Patton's Best (Avalon Hill, 1987) *Sniper (SPI, 1973) *Squad Leader (Avalon Hill, 1977) *Storm Over Arnhem (Avalon Hill, 1982) *Tank Battle (Milton Bradley, 1975) * Tide of Iron (Fantasy Flight Games, 2007; Re-print 1A Games,1A Games 2014) *Tobruk (Avalon Hill, 1975) *Dreadnought: Surface Combat In The Battleship Era, 1906–45 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) ==== Operational ==== ===== European Theatre ===== Name Publisher Year Notes EuroFront Columbia Games 1995 Triumph and Tragedy GMT Games 2015 ====== Eastern Front ====== *EastFront (Columbia Games, 1991) *Evropa (Game Designers' Workshop, 1973) – Fire in the East (Game Designers' Workshop, 1984) *Turning Point: Stalingrad (Avalon Hill, 1989) *Von Manstein: Battles for the Ukraine 1941–1944 (Rand Games, 1975) *War in the East (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1974) *Winter War (Ad Technos, 1986 ) *Winter War: The Russo-Finnish Conflict November 1939-March 1940 (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #33, 1972) *A Winter War (Game Research/Design, 1994) ====== Western Front ====== *Alsace 1945 (Avalanche Press, 2005) *America Triumphant: Battle of the Bulge (Avalanche Press, 2003) *Anzio (Avalon Hill, 1969) *Anzio Beachhead (SPI – S&T; #20, 1969; 3W – S&T; #134, 1990) *The Ardennes Offensive (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Arnhem (Panzerfaust Publications – Panzerfaust #?, 1972) *Arnhem (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *Arnhem 1944 (Histoire & Collections – Vae Victis #13, 1997 ) *Arnhem and Operation Market-Garden (Spartan International – Spartan International Vol 3. No. 5, 1971) *Arnhem Bridge (Attactix Adventure Games, 1982) *Atlantic Wall (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *Avalanche: The Invasion of Italy (Avalanche Press, 1994) *Avalanche: The Salerno Landings (Game Designers' Workshop, 1976) *Axis & Allies: D-Day (Avalon Hill, 2004) *Bastogne (SPI – S&T; #20, 1969) *Bastogne or Bust (Terran Games, 1995) *Bastogne: The Desperate Defense, December 1944 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976; Fresno Gaming Association, 1992) *Bastogne: Crossroads of Death (Pacific Rim Publishing, 1991) *Battle for the Ardennes (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *Battle of the Bulge (Avalon Hill, 1965) *The Big Red One (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1980) *Bitter Woods: The Battle of the Bulge (Avalon Hill, 1998; Multi-Man Publishing, ?, L2 Design Group, 2003) *Breakout & Pursuit (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1972) *Breakout: Normandy (Avalon Hill, 1993) *'Bulge': The Battle for the Ardennes (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1980) *Cobra (SPI – S&T; #65, 1977; TSR, Inc., 1984) *D-Day: The Great Crusade (Moments in History, 2004) *Dark December (Operational Studies Group, 1979) *France 1944 (Victory Games, 1986) *Foxhole, (Diffraction Entertainment, Ltd., 2010) *Hell's Highway (Victory Games, 1983) *Highway to the Reich (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *The Italian Campaign: Salerno (Decision Games – S&T; #150, 1992) *Liberty Roads (Hexasim, 2009) *The Longest Day (Avalon Hill, 1980) *Major Battles and Campaigns of General George S. Patton (Research Games, 1973) *Memoir '44 (Days of Wonder, 2004) *Monty's Gamble: Market Garden (Multi-Man Publishing, 2003) *Normandy: The Invasion of Europe 1944 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1969) *Normandy Campaign: From Beachhead to Breakout (Game Designers' Workshop, 1983) *Omaha Beachhead (Victory Games, 1987) *Operation Grenade (SPI – S&T; #84, 1981) *Operation Market-Garden (Third Millennia, 1973) *Operation Market-Garden: Descent into Hell (Game Designers' Workshop, 1985) *Overlord (Conflict Games, 1973; Game Designers' Workshop, ?) *Patton's Third Army (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #78, 1980; Hobby Japan, ? ) *Salerno (Third Millennia, 1972) *Salerno: Operation Avalanche (West End Games, 1977) *Second Front (Game Research/Design, 1994) *Wacht am Rhein (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *War in the West (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *WestFront (Columbia Games, 1992) ====== Other campaigns ====== *1940 (Game Designers' Workshop, 1980) *Battle for Germany (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #50, 1975; Decision Games, 1994) *The Battle of Britain (Gamescience, 1968) *Bismarck (Avalanche Press, 2005) *Bitter Victory: The Invasion of Sicily, 1943 (Avalanche Press, 2006) *Case White (Game Designers' Workshop, 1977) – First to Fight (Game Research/Design, 1991) *Dunkirk: The Battle of France (Guidon Games, 1971) *Eagle Day (Histo Games, 1973) *The Fall of France (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *France 1940 (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #27, 1971; Avalon Hill, 1972) *Invasion of Sicily (Panzerfaust Publications – Panzerfaust Magazine #57?, 1972) *London's Burning (Avalon Hill, 1995) *Marita-Merkur (Game Designers' Workshop, 1979) – Balkan Front (Game Research/Design, 1990) *Narvik (Game Designers' Workshop, 1974) – Storm Over Scandinavia (Game Research/Design, 1998) *Strange Defeat: The Fall of France, 1940 (Avalanche Press, 2006) *Their Finest Hour (Game Designers' Workshop, 1976) ===== Mediterranean Theatre and North African campaign ===== *Air Assault on Crete (Avalon Hill, 1977) *Bloody Kasserine (Game Designers' Workshop, 1992) *Bomb Alley (Avalanche Press, 2002) *The Campaign for North Africa (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *Crete (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #18, 1969) *Descent on Crete (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) *The Desert Fox (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #87, 1981) *El Alamein: Battles in North Africa (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Fall of Tobruk (Conflict Games, 1975; Cool Stuff Unlimited, 2004) *Gazala: 1942 (Avalanche Press, 2002) *Island of Death: The Invasion of Malta, 1942 (Avalanche Press, 2006) *Kasserine (GMT Games, 2001) *Kasserine Pass (Conflict Games, 1973; Game Designers' Workshop, ?) *Operation Crusader (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *Panzer Armee Afrika (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973; Avalon Hill, 1982) *Race for Tunis (Game Designers' Workshop, 1992) *Rommel in the Desert (Columbia Games, 1982) *Torch (Game Designers' Workshop, 1985) *Western Desert (Game Designers' Workshop, 1982) – War in the Desert (Game Research/Design, 1995) ===== Pacific and Asia ===== *1942 (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *Battle for Midway (Game Designers' Workshop, 1976) *Carrier (Victory Games, 1990) *Coral Sea (Game Designers' Workshop, 1974) *Eastern Fleet (Avalanche Press, 2001) *The Fast Carriers (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *Flat Top (Battleline Publications, 1977; Avalon Hill, 1981) *Guadalcanal (Avalon Hill, 1966) *Guadalcanal (Avalon Hill, 1992) *Indian Ocean Adventure (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *Leyte Gulf (Avalanche Press, 2005) *McArthur's Return: Leyte 1944 (Avalanche Press, 1994) *Midway (Avalon Hill, 1964) *Midway (Sho-Kikaku, 1986 ) *Midway (Avalon Hill, 1991) *Midway (Avalanche Press, 2002) *Operation Cannibal (Avalanche Press, 1996) *Operation Olympic (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #45, 1974) *SOPAC (Avalanche Press, 1999) *Strike South (Avalanche Press, 2005) *War of Resistance, China Theater 1937–1941 (Game Research/Design, 1998) ==== Strategic ==== ===== Europe ===== *Trial of Strength (Panther Games, 1985) *Advanced Third Reich (Avalon Hill, 1992) *Axis & Allies: Europe (Avalon Hill, 2000) *D-Day (Avalon Hill, 1961) *Defiant Russia: 1941 (Avalanche Press, 2004) *Europe Engulfed (GMT Games, 2002) – Winner of the Charles S. Roberts Award *Fortress Europa (Avalon Hill, 1980) *Hitler's War (Metagaming Concepts, 1981; Avalon Hill, 1984) *Luftwaffe (Avalon Hill, 1971) *Red Vengeance (Avalanche Press, 2005) *Rise and Decline of the Third Reich (Avalon Hill, 1974; Avalanche Press, 2001) *Russia Besieged (L2 Design Group, 2004) *The Russian Campaign (Jedko Games, 1975; Avalon Hill, 1976; L2 Design Group, 2003) *Russian Front (Avalon Hill, 1985) *Stalingrad (Avalon Hill, 1963) *War at Sea (Jedko Games, 1975; Avalon Hill, 1976; L2 Design Group, 2007) *War in Europe (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976; Decision Games, 1999) *World War II: European Theater of Operations (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) ===== Mediterranean & north Africa ===== *Afrika Korps (Avalon Hill, 1964) ===== Pacific ===== *Axis & Allies: Pacific (Avalon Hill, 2001) *Empire of the Rising Sun (Avalon Hill, 1995) *The Great Pacific War (Avalanche Press, 2003) *Pacific War (Victory Games, 1985) *U.S.N. (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #29, 1971) *Victory in the Pacific (Avalon Hill, 1977) *War in the Pacific (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1978) ==== Grand Strategy (Global) ==== *Axis & Allies (Nova Games, 1981; Milton Bradley, 1984; Avalon Hill, 2004) *Global War (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *World in Flames (Australian Design Group, 1985) === Modern === *Central America: The United States' Backyard War (Victory Games, 1987) *Ici, c'est la France!: The Algerian insurgency 1954–62 (Legion Wargames, 2009) *Twilight Struggle (GMT Games, 2005) *War on Terror (TerrorBull Games, 2006) ==== Tactical ==== *Air Superiority (Game Designers' Workshop, 1987) *Air War (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977; TSR, Inc., 1983) *Chicago, Chicago! (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #21, 1970) *City-Fight (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Flight Leader (Avalon Hill, 1986) *MechWar 2 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Patrol! (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Raid: Commando Operations in the 20th Century (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #64, 1977) *Ranger (Omega Games, 1984) *The Sands of War (Game Designers' Workshop, 1991) *Sniper! (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973; TSR, Inc., 1986) *Sniper!: Special Forces (TSR, Inc., 1988) *Tank! (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #44, 1974) *Warfighter 101: Movement to Contact (BayonetGames, 2005) *Warfighter 101: The Guards (BayonetGames, 2006) *Warfighter Series: Maneuver Warrior (BayonetGames, 2006) ==== Arab–Israeli wars ==== *A Guerra do Yom Kippur, (Abril Editora, 1981 ) *Across Suez (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1980; Hobby Japan, 1983 ; Decision Games, 1995) *The Arab-Israeli Wars (Avalon Hill, 1977) *Bar-Lev (Conflict Games, 1974; Game Designers' Workshop, 1977) *The Battle for Jerusalem (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *Beirut '82: Arab Stalingrad (Decision Games – S&T; #126, 1989) *Born to Battle: Peace for Galilee, Suez 73 (Perry Moore, 1991) *Chinese Farm (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975; Hobby Japan, 1986 ) *Crisis: Sinai 1973 (GMT Games, 1995) *Fast Attack Boats (Yaquinto Publications, 1980) *The First Arab-Israeli War (Decision Games – S&T; #185, 1997; Kokusai Tsuushinsha – Command Japan #22, 1998 ) *Flashpoint: Golan (Victory Games, 1991) *Golan (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Gunfight in the Valley of Tears, October 9, 1973 (Perry Moore, 2003) *IDF (Avalon Hill, 1993) *Jerusalem (Simulations Design Corporation, 1975; Mayfair Games, 1982; Cool Stuff Unlimited, 2007) *The Last Bliztkrieg 1982 (Perry Moore, 1999) *Middle East '48 (Fantasy Games Unlimited – Wargaming #4, 1979) *Middle East Battles: Suez '56 & El Arish '67 (Decision Games – S&T; #226, 2005) *No Middle Ground (Microgame Design Group, 2003) *October War: Tactical Armored Combat in the Yom Kippur Conflict (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #61, 1977) *Operation Badr (West End Games, 1983) *Operation Kadesh (Udo Grebe Gamedesign – Command & Strategy #3, 2005) *Operation Shock Troop (Decision Games – S&T; #168, 1994) *Sinai '56 (Wargaming Enterprises, 1969) *Sinai: The Arab-Israeli Wars '56, '67 and '73 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1973) *Suez '73 (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *Suez to Golan (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Valley of Tears: The 7th Brigade Stands Defiant (Armchair General, Vol.3 #2, 2006) *Yom Kippur (International Team, 1984 ; Eurogames, 1989 ) *Yom Kippur (The Gamers, 1995; Oriflam, 1995 ; Kokusai Tsuushinsha – Command Japan #65, 2005 ) *Yom Kippur (Ludopress – Alea #3, 2001 ) *Yom Kippour 1973 (Histoire & Collections – Vae Vicitis #39, 2001 ) ==== Korean War ==== *Korea: The Mobile War 1950–51 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1970) ==== Vietnam War ==== *Citadel: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu (Game Designers' Workshop, 1977) *Dien Bien Phu (SDC – Conflict #6, 1973; Flying Buffalo, 1977?) *Diên Biên Phu (Jeux Descartes, 1980 ) *Dien Bien Phu 1954 (Histoire & Collections – Vae Victis - #33, 2000 ) *Grunt (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #26, 1971) *Hue (SDC – Conflict #6, 1973) – Battle for Hue (Simulations Design Corporation, 1977) – Hue (Mayfair Games, 1982) *Platoon (Avalon Hill, 1986) *Search & Destroy: Tactical Combat Vietnam 1965–1966 (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Viet Nam (Gamescience – Phillip Orbanes, Designer, 1965) *Year of the Rat (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #35, 1972) ==== Contemporary World War III ==== *1985: Under an Iron Sky (Thin Red Line Games, 2018) *1985: Deadly Northern Lights (Thin Red Line Games, 2020) *1985: Sacred Oil (Thin Red Line Games, 2021) *2nd Fleet (Victory Games, 1986) *3rd Fleet (Victory Games, 1990) *5th Fleet (Victory Games, 1989) *6th Fleet (Victory Games, 1985) *7th Fleet (Victory Games, 1987) *Aegean Strike: Land, Air and Sea Combat in the Eastern Mediterranean (Victory Games, 1986) *Air & Armor: The Game of Battlefield Command in the Next War (West End Games, 1986) *Air Cav: Helicopter Warfare in the Eighties (West End Games, 1985) *Air Cobra: 1975–1988 Modern Tactical Airmobile Warfare (Operational Studies Group, 1980) *AirLand Battle: Corps Operational Command in Europe (Omega Games, 1988) *Assault: Tactical Combat in Europe: 1985 (Game Designers' Workshop, 1983) *BAOR: The Thin Red Line in the 1980s – Central Front Series, Volume 3 (SPI – S&T; #88, 1981) *Battlefield: Europe (Game Designers' Workshop, 1990) *Berlin '85: The Enemy at the Gates (SPI – S&T; #79, 1980) *Boots & Saddles: Air Cavalry in the '80s (Game Designers' Workshop, 1984) *Bundeswehr: An Assault Series Module (Game Designers' Workshop, 1986) *Bundeswehr: Northern Germany, late 1970s (SPI, 1977) *Central Command: Superpower Confrontation in the Straits of Hormuz (TSR – S&T; #98, 1984) *The China War (SPI – S&T; #76, 1979) *CityFight: Modern Combat in the Urban Environment (SPI, 1979) *Cold War Battles: Budapest '56 & Angola '87 (Decision Games – S&T; #235, 2006) *Cold War Battles 2: Kabul '79 & Pentomic Wurzburg (Decision Games – S&T; #263, 2010) *Corps Command: Dawn's Early Light (Lock 'N' Load Publishing, LLC, 2010) *Cuban Missile Crisis: The Threshold of Nuclear War (Microgame Design Group, 2002) *Dark Passage: The Invasion of Pakistan (Swedish Game Production, 1981) *Donau Front: Ardennes of the 1990s – Central Front Series, Volume 5 (3W – S&T; #131, 1989) *Drive on Frankfurt (Pacific Rim Publishing – CounterAttack #4, 1981) *East and West (International Team, 1987) *The East is Red: The Sino-Soviet War (SPI – S&T; #42, 1974) *FEBA (Forward Edge of the Battle Area) (Close Simulations, 1983) *Fifth Corps – Central Front Series, Volume 1 (SPI – S&T; #82, 1980) *Firefight (SPI, 1976; TSR, Inc., 1983) *Firepower (Avalon Hill, 1984) *Fire Team: Modern Squad Level Command (West End Games, 1987) *First Strike (Schutze Games, 2008) *Fulda Gap (SPI, 1977) *Group of Soviet Forces, Germany (Decision Games – S&T; #223, 2003) *Gulf Strike: Land, Air and Sea Combat in the Persian Gulf (Victory Games, 1983) *Harpoon: Modern Naval Wargame Rules (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *High Tide: The Cold War, 1980–1989 (Clash of Arms Games, 2003) *Hof Gap: The Nurnberg Pincer – Central Front Series, Volume 2 (SPI, 1980) *The Hunt for Red October (TSR, Inc., 1988) *Light Division: Flashpoint in the Gulf! (3W, 1989) *MBT (Avalon Hill, 1989) *Main Battle Area (Omega Games, 1985) *Mechwar '77 (SPI, 1975) *Mechwar 2 (SPI, 1979) *Mission: Grenada – Operation Urgent Fury (Close Simulations, 1985) *Mukden: Sino-Soviet Combat in the 70's (SPI, 1975) *NATO Division Commander (SPI, 1979) *NATO: Operational Combat in Europe in the 1970s (SPI, 1973) *NATO: The Next War in Europe (Victory Games, 1984) *The Next War: Modern Conflict in Europe (SPI, 1978) *NORAD: Strategic Game of Air Warfare (Simulations Design Corporation – Conflict #4, 1973) *Nordkapp: World War III in the Arctic Circle (TSR – S&T; #94, 1983) *North German Plain: Ardennes of the 1990s – Central Front Series, Volume 4 (3W – S&T; #117, 1988) *Objective Moscow (SPI, 1978) *Oil War: American Intervention in the Persian Gulf (SPI – S&T; #52, 1975) *Operation Whirlwind: The Soviet Invasion of Hungary 1956 (Microgame Design Group, 2002) *RDF (Rapid Deployment Force): Global Cavalry for the 80's (TSR – S&T; #91, 1983) *Red Christmas (Thunderhaven Game Company, 1992) *Red Star/White Star: Tactical Combat in Western Europe in the 1970s (SPI, 1972) *The Red Storm: NATO versus the Warsaw Pact (Yaquinto Games, 1983) *Red Storm Rising (TSR, Inc., 1989) *Revolt in the East: Warsaw Pact Rebellion in the 1970s (SPI – S&T; #56, 1976) *Seapower & the State: A Strategic Study of World War Three at Sea, 1984–1994 (Simulations Canada, 1982) *Superpowers at War: Operations in Western Europe (TSR – S&T; #100, 1985) *Tac Air: The Game of Modern Air-Land Battles in Germany (Avalon Hill, 1987) *Task Force: Naval Tactics and Operations in the 1980s (SPI, 1981) *Team Yankee (Game Designers' Workshop, 1987) *The Third World War: Arctic Front (Game Designers' Workshop, 1985) *The Third World War: Battle for Germany (Game Designers' Workshop, 1984) *The Third World War: Persian Gulf (Game Designers' Workshop, 1986) *The Third World War: Southern Front (Game Designers' Workshop, 1984) *Twilight Struggle: The Cold War, 1945–1989 (GMT Games, 2005) *Ultimatum: A Game of Nuclear Confrontation (Yaquinto Games, 1979) *Warplan Dropshot (Schutze Games, 2002) *World at War: Blood and Bridges (Lock 'N' Load Publishing, LLC, 2008) *World at War: Death of 1st Panzer (Lock 'N' Load Publishing, LLC, 2008) *World at War: Eisenbach Gap (Lock 'N' Load Publishing, LLC, 2007) *World War 3 (SPI, 1975) *Wurzburg: Soviet-American Combat in the 70's (SPI, 1975) *Yugoslavia: The Battles for Zagreb, 1979 (SPI, 1977) == Fictional == === Alternate history === *Crimson Skies (FASA, 1998) *Dixie (Simulations Publications, Inc. – S&T; #54, 1976) *Fortress America (Milton Bradley, 1986) *Amerika (Historical Board Gaming) 2015 === Science fiction === *Alpha Omega (Battleline Publications, 1977; Avalon Hill, 1980) *Amoeba Wars (Avalon Hill, 1981) *Asteroid Zero-Four (Task Force Games, 1979) *The Awful Green Things from Outer Space (TSR, Inc. – Dragon Magazine #28 1979; Steve Jackson Games, 1990) *Azhanti High Lightning (Game Designers' Workshop, 1980) *BattleFleet Mars (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *BattleTech (FASA, 1984) *Battlerider (Game Designers' Workshop) *Buck Rogers – Battle for the 25th Century (TSR, Inc., 1988) *Car Wars (Steve Jackson Games, 1981) *The Company War (Mayfair Games, 1983) *Cosmic Encounter (Eon Games, 1977; West End Games, 1986, Mayfair Games, 1991; Avalon Hill, 2000) *The Creature That Ate Sheboygan (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979) *Dark Nebula: Battles for the Stars (Game Designers' Workshop, 1980) *Federation and Empire (Task Force Games, 1986; Amarillo Design Bureau, 2000) *Federation Commander: Klingon Border (Amarillo Design Bureau, 2005) *Federation Commander: Romulan Border (Amarillo Design Bureau, 2006) *Fifth Frontier War (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *Freedom in the Galaxy (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1979; Avalon Hill, 1981) *Gammarauders (TSR, Inc., 1987) *G.E.V. (Metagaming Concepts, 1978; Steve Jackson Games, 1980?) *Godsfire (Metagaming Concepts, 1979) *High Frontier (Sierra Madre Games), 2010) *Imperium (Game Designers' Workshop, 1977) – Imperium, 3rd Millennium (Avalanche Press, 2001) *Invasion America (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1976) *Invasion: Earth (Game Designers' Workshop, 1981) *Kill Ball (Travesty Games, 2010) *Mayday (Game Designers' Workshop, 1978) *Ogre (Metagaming Concepts, 1977; Steve Jackson Games, 1980?) *Renegade Legion: Centurion (FASA, 1988) *Renegade Legion: Interceptor (FASA, 1987) *Renegade Legion: Leviathan (FASA, 1989) *Renegade Legion: Prefect (FASA, 1992) *Rift Trooper (Attack Wargaming Association, 1976) *Risk 2210 A.D. (Avalon Hill, 2001) *Sky Galleons of Mars (Game Designers' Workshop, 1988) *Star Cruiser (Game Designers' Workshop) *Star Fleet Battles (Task Force Games, 1979; Amarillo Design Bureau, 1999) *Star Wars – The Queen's Gambit (Avalon Hill, 2000) *Star Wars Tactics (VASSAL Engine, 2009) *Starfire (Task Force Games, 1979) – Galactic Starfire (Starfire Design Studio, 2000) *Starfleet Wars (Superior Models, Inc., 1978) *StarForce: Alpha Centauri (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1974) *Starship: The Game of Space Contact (Fantasy Games Unlimited, 1975) *Starship & Empire (R-Squared Games, 1976) *Starship Troopers (Avalon Hill, 1976) *StarSoldier (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *Stellar Conquest (Metagaming, 1975; Avalon Hill, 1984) *Triplanetary (Game Designers' Workshop, 1973) *Traveller Book 2 Starships (Game Designers' Workshop) *Traveller Book 5 High Guard (Game Designers' Workshop) *Twilight Imperium (Fantasy Flight Games, 2005) *The War of the Worlds II (Rand Game Associates, 1974) *WarpWar (Metagaming Concepts, 1977) *World War IV: One World, One King (Ziggurat Games, 2009) === Fantasy === *Albion: Land of Faerie (SPI – Ares #11, 1981) *Arena of Death (SPI – Ares #4, 1980) *Barbarian Kings (SPI – Ares #3, 1980) *Battle Masters (Milton Bradley, 1992) *The Battle of Helm's Deep (Fact & Fantasy Games, 1974) *BattleLore (Days of Wonder, 2006) *Dark Emperor (Avalon Hill, 1985) *Divine Right (TSR, Inc., 1979; Right Stuf International, 2002) *DragonRage (Dwarfstar Games, 1982; Flatlined Games, 2011) *A Game of Thrones (Fantasy Flight Games, 2003) *Gondor: The Siege of Minas Tirith (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *Greyhawk Wars (TSR, Inc., 1991) *Kings & Things (West End Games, 1986) *Lankhmar (TSR, Inc., 1976) *Risk Godstorm (Avalon Hill, 2004) *Sauron (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *The Siege of Minas Tirith (Fact and Fantasy Games, 1975) *Sorcerer (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Titan (Gorgonstar, 1980; Avalon Hill, 1982) *Warangel (Self published, 2001) *War of the Ring (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1977) *White Bear and Red Moon (Chaosium, 1975) – Dragon Pass (Chaosium, 1980; Avalon Hill, 1984) *Wizard's Quest (Avalon Hill, 1979) === Abstract/generic === *Attack! (Eagle Games, 2003) *Blitzkrieg (Avalon Hill, 1965) *Castle Risk (Parker Brothers, 1986) *Conquest (self published, 1972; Bütehorn, 1975 ; Hexagames, 1983 ) *Farlander (Revaler, 2002) *Feudal (3M, 1967; Avalon Hill, 1976) *Insurgency (Battleline Publications, 1979) *Kriegspiel (Avalon Hill, 1970) *Pizza Wars (Heathen Thorn Enterprises, 1988) *Risk (Parker Brothers, 1959) *Strategy I (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1971) *Strike Force One (Simulations Publications, Inc., 1975) *Summit (Milton Bradley, 1961) *Supremacy (Supremacy Games, 1984) *Tactics (self published, 1953) – Tactics I (Avalon Hill, 1983) *Tactics II (Avalon Hill, 1958) *TEG: Plan Táctico y Estratégico de la Guerra (New Yetem, 1976 ) *Warlord (Gibsons Games, 1978) – Apocalypse (Games Workshop, 1980) == See also == *List of miniature wargames == References == == External links == * Board Game Geek * Web-Grognards * iSimulacrum.com Wargame Database Board wargames
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In signal processing, multidimensional discrete convolution refers to the mathematical operation between two functions f and g on an n-dimensional lattice that produces a third function, also of n-dimensions. Multidimensional discrete convolution is the discrete analog of the multidimensional convolution of functions on Euclidean space. It is also a special case of convolution on groups when the group is the group of n-tuples of integers. ==Definition== ===Problem statement and basics=== Similar to the one- dimensional case, an asterisk is used to represent the convolution operation. The number of dimensions in the given operation is reflected in the number of asterisks. For example, an M-dimensional convolution would be written with M asterisks. The following represents a M-dimensional convolution of discrete signals: y(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)* \overset{M}{\cdots} *h(n_1,n_2,...,n_M) For discrete-valued signals, this convolution can be directly computed via the following: \sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty}...\sum_{k_M=-\infty}^{\infty} h(k_1,k_2,...,k_M)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2,...,n_M-k_M) The resulting output region of support of a discrete multidimensional convolution will be determined based on the size and regions of support of the two input signals.thumb|475px|Visualization of Convolution between two Simple Two- Dimensional Signals|none Listed are several properties of the two-dimensional convolution operator. Note that these can also be extended for signals of N-dimensions. Commutative Property: x ** h = h ** x Associate Property: (x**h)**g = x**(h**g) Distributive Property: x**(h+g) = (x**h) + (x**g) These properties are seen in use in the figure below. Given some input x(n_1, n_2) that goes into a filter with impulse response h(n_1, n_2) and then another filter with impulse response g(n_1, n_2), the output is given by y(n_1, n_2). Assume that the output of the first filter is given by w(n_1, n_2), this means that: w = x ** h Further, that intermediate function is then convolved with the impulse response of the second filter, and thus the output can be represented by: y = w ** g = (x**h)**g Using the associative property, this can be rewritten as follows: y = x**(h**g) meaning that the equivalent impulse response for a cascaded system is given by: h_{eq} = h**g none|thumb|272x272px|Both figures represent cascaded systems. Note that the order of the filters does not affect the output. A similar analysis can be done on a set of parallel systems illustrated below. none|thumb|A system with a set of parallel filters. In this case, it is clear that: y = (x**h)+(x**g) Using the distributive law, it is demonstrated that: y = x**(h+g) This means that in the case of a parallel system, the equivalent impulse response is provided by: h_{eq} = h+g The equivalent impulse responses in both cascaded systems and parallel systems can be generalized to systems with N-number of filters. ===Motivation and applications=== Convolution in one dimension was a powerful discovery that allowed the input and output of a linear shift- invariant (LSI) system (see LTI system theory) to be easily compared so long as the impulse response of the filter system was known. This notion carries over to multidimensional convolution as well, as simply knowing the impulse response of a multidimensional filter too allows for a direct comparison to be made between the input and output of a system. This is profound since several of the signals that are transferred in the digital world today are of multiple dimensions including images and videos. Similar to the one-dimensional convolution, the multidimensional convolution allows the computation of the output of an LSI system for a given input signal. For example, consider an image that is sent over some wireless network subject to electro-optical noise. Possible noise sources include errors in channel transmission, the analog to digital converter, and the image sensor. Usually noise caused by the channel or sensor creates spatially-independent, high-frequency signal components that translates to arbitrary light and dark spots on the actual image. In order to rid the image data of the high-frequency spectral content, it can be multiplied by the frequency response of a low-pass filter, which based on the convolution theorem, is equivalent to convolving the signal in the time/spatial domain by the impulse response of the low-pass filter. Several impulse responses that do so are shown below. none|thumb|311x311px|Impulse Responses of Typical Multidimensional Low Pass Filters In addition to filtering out spectral content, the multidimensional convolution can implement edge detection and smoothing. This once again is wholly dependent on the values of the impulse response that is used to convolve with the input image. Typical impulse responses for edge detection are illustrated below. none|thumb|Typical Impulse Responses for Edge Detection 500px|thumb|Original image (left) and image after passing through edge- detecting filter (right)|none In addition to image processing, multidimensional convolution can be implemented to enable a variety of other applications. Since filters are widespread in digital communication systems, any system that must transmit multidimensional data is assisted by filtering techniques It is used in real-time video processing, neural network analysis, digital geophysical data analysis, and much more. One typical distortion that occurs during image and video capture or transmission applications is blur that is caused by a low-pass filtering process. The introduced blur can be modeled using Gaussian low-pass filtering. 500px|thumb|Original image (left) and blurred image (right) performed using Gaussian convolution|none ==Row- column decomposition with separable signals== ===Separable signals=== A signal is said to be separable if it can be written as the product of multiple one- dimensional signals. Mathematically, this is expressed as the following: x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M) = x(n_1)x(n_2)...x(n_M) Some readily recognizable separable signals include the unit step function, and the dirac-delta impulse function. u(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=u(n_1)u(n_2)...u(n_M) (unit step function) \delta(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=\delta(n_1)\delta(n_2)...\delta(n_M) (dirac-delta impulse function) Convolution is a linear operation. It then follows that the multidimensional convolution of separable signals can be expressed as the product of many one-dimensional convolutions. For example, consider the case where x and h are both separable functions. x(n_1,n_2)**h(n_1,n_2)=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h(k_1,k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2) By applying the properties of separability, this can then be rewritten as the following: x(n_1,n_2)**h(n_1,n_2)=\bigg(\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} h(k_1)x(n_1-k_1)\bigg)\bigg(\sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty}h(k_2)x(n_2-k_2)\bigg) It is readily seen then that this reduces to the product of one-dimensional convolutions: x(n_1,n_2)**h(n_1,n_2)=\bigg[x(n_1)*h(n_1)\bigg]\bigg[x(n_2)*h(n_2)\bigg] This conclusion can then be extended to the convolution of two separable M-dimensional signals as follows: x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)* \overset{M}{\cdots} *h(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=\bigg[x(n_1)*h(n_1)\bigg]\bigg[x(n_2)*h(n_2)\bigg]...\bigg[x(n_M)*h(n_M)\bigg] So, when the two signals are separable, the multidimensional convolution can be computed by computing n_M one-dimensional convolutions. ===Row-column decomposition=== The row-column method can be applied when one of the signals in the convolution is separable. The method exploits the properties of separability in order to achieve a method of calculating the convolution of two multidimensional signals that is more computationally efficient than direct computation of each sample (given that one of the signals are separable). The following shows the mathematical reasoning behind the row- column decomposition approach (typically h(n_1,n_2) is the separable signal): \begin{align} y(n_1,n_2)&=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h(k_1,k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2)\\\ &=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h_1(k_1)h_2(k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2)\\\ &=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty}h_1(k_1)\Bigg[ \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h_2(k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2)\Bigg] \end{align} The value of \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h_2(k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2) can now be re-used when evaluating other y values with a shared value of n_2: \begin{align} y(n_1+\delta,n_2)&=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty}h_1(k_1)\Bigg[ \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h_2(k_2)x(n_1-[k_1-\delta],n_2-k_2)\Bigg]\\\ &=\sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty}h_1(k_1+\delta)\Bigg[ \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} h_2(k_2)x(n_1-k_1,n_2-k_2)\Bigg] \end{align} Thus, the resulting convolution can be effectively calculated by first performing the convolution operation on all of the rows of x(n_1,n_2), and then on all of its columns. This approach can be further optimized by taking into account how memory is accessed within a computer processor. A processor will load in the signal data needed for the given operation. For modern processors, data will be loaded from memory into the processors cache, which has faster access times than memory. The cache itself is partitioned into lines. When a cache line is loaded from memory, multiple data operands are loaded at once. Consider the optimized case where a row of signal data can fit entirely within the processor's cache. This particular processor would be able to access the data row-wise efficiently, but not column-wise since different data operands in the same column would lie on different cache lines. In order to take advantage of the way in which memory is accessed, it is more efficient to transpose the data set and then access it row-wise rather than attempt to access it column-wise. The algorithm then becomes: # Separate the separable two-dimensional signal h(n_1,n_2) into two one-dimensional signals h_1(n_1) and h_2(n_2) # Perform row-wise convolution on the horizontal components of the signal x(n_1,n_2) using h_1(n_1) to obtain g(n_1,n_2) # Transpose the vertical components of the signal g(n_1,n_2) resulting from Step 2. # Perform row-wise convolution on the transposed vertical components of g(n_1,n_2) to get the desired output y(n_1,n_2) ===Computational speedup from row-column decomposition=== Examine the case where an image of size X\times Y is being passed through a separable filter of size J\times K. The image itself is not separable. If the result is calculated using the direct convolution approach without exploiting the separability of the filter, this will require approximately XYJK multiplications and additions. If the separability of the filter is taken into account, the filtering can be performed in two steps. The first step will have XYJ multiplications and additions and the second step will have XYK, resulting in a total of XYJ+XYK or XY(J+K) multiplications and additions. A comparison of the computational complexity between direct and separable convolution is given in the following image: thumb|400px|Number of computations passing a 10 x 10 Image through a filter of size J x K where J = K varies in size from 1 to 10|none ==Circular convolution of discrete-valued multidimensional signals== The premise behind the circular convolution approach on multidimensional signals is to develop a relation between the Convolution theorem and the Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) that can be used to calculate the convolution between two finite-extent, discrete-valued signals. ===Convolution theorem in multiple dimensions=== For one-dimensional signals, the Convolution Theorem states that the Fourier transform of the convolution between two signals is equal to the product of the Fourier Transforms of those two signals. Thus, convolution in the time domain is equal to multiplication in the frequency domain. Mathematically, this principle is expressed via the following:y(n)=h(n)*x(n)\longleftrightarrow Y(\omega)=H(\omega)X(\omega)This principle is directly extendable to dealing with signals of multiple dimensions.y(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=h(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)*\overset{M}{\cdots}*x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M) \longleftrightarrow Y(\omega_1,\omega_2,...,\omega_M)=H(\omega_1,\omega_2,...,\omega_M)X(\omega_1,\omega_2,...,\omega_M) This property is readily extended to the usage with the Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) as follows (note that linear convolution is replaced with circular convolution where \otimes is used to denote the circular convolution operation of size N): y(n)=h(n)\otimes x(n)\longleftrightarrow Y(k)=H(k)X(k) When dealing with signals of multiple dimensions:y(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=h(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)\otimes\overset{M}{\cdots}\otimes x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M) \longleftrightarrow Y(k_1,k_2,...,k_M)=H(k_1,k_2,...,k_M)X(k_1,k_2,...,k_M)The circular convolutions here will be of size N_1, N_2,...,N_M. ===Circular convolution approach=== The motivation behind using the circular convolution approach is that it is based on the DFT. The premise behind circular convolution is to take the DFTs of the input signals, multiply them together, and then take the inverse DFT. Care must be taken such that a large enough DFT is used such that aliasing does not occur. The DFT is numerically computable when dealing with signals of finite-extent. One advantage this approach has is that since it requires taking the DFT and inverse DFT, it is possible to utilize efficient algorithms such as the Fast Fourier transform (FFT). Circular convolution can also be computed in the time/spatial domain and not only in the frequency domain. thumb|600px|Block diagram of circular convolution with 2 M-dimensional signals|none ===Choosing DFT size to avoid aliasing=== Consider the following case where two finite-extent signals x and h are taken. For both signals, there is a corresponding DFT as follows: x(n_1,n_2)\longleftrightarrow X(k_1,k_2) and h(n_1,n_2) \longleftrightarrow H(k_1,k_2) The region of support of x(n_1,n_2) is 0 \leq n_1 \leq P_1-1 and 0 \leq n_2 \leq P_2-1 and the region of support of h(n_1,n_2) is 0 \leq n_1 \leq Q_1-1 and 0 \leq n_2 \leq Q_2-1. The linear convolution of these two signals would be given as:y_{linear}(n_1,n_2)=\sum_{m_1} \sum_{m_2}h(m_1,m_2)x(n_1-m_1,n_2-m_2)Given the regions of support of x(n_1,n_2) and h(n_1,n_2), the region of support of y_{linear}(n_1,n_2) will then be given as the following: 0\leq n_1 \leq P_1 + Q_1 - 10\leq n_2 \leq P_2 + Q_2-1Based on the regions of support of the two signals, a DFT of size N_1\times N_2 must be used where N_1 \geq \max(P_1,Q_1) and N_2 \geq \max(P_2,Q_2) since the same size DFT must be used on both signals. In the event where a DFT size larger than the extent of a signal is needed, the signal is zero-padded until it reaches the required length. After multiplying the DFTs and taking the inverse DFT on the result, the resulting circular convolution is then given by: y_{circular}(n_1,n_2)=\sum_{r_1}\sum_{r_2}\Bigg[\sum_{m_1=0}^{Q_1-1} \sum_{m_2=0}^{Q_2-1}h(m_1,m_2)x(n_1-m_1-r_1N_1,n_2-m_2-r_2N_2)\Bigg] for (n_1,n_2) \in R_{N_1N_2} R_{N_1N_2}\triangleq \\{(n_1,n_2):0\leq n_1 \leq N_1-1, 0 \leq n_2 \leq N_2 -1\\} The result will be that y_{circular}(n_1,n_2) will be a spatially aliased version of the linear convolution result y_{linear}(n_1,n_2). This can be expressed as the following: y_{circular}(n_1,n_2)=\sum_{r_1} \sum_{r_2} y_{linear}(n_1-r_1N_1, n_2-r_2N_2){\mathrm{\,\,\,for\,\,\,}}(n_1,n_2) \in R_{N_1N_2} Then, in order to avoid aliasing between the spatially aliased replicas, N_1 and N_2 must be chosen to satisfy the following conditions: N_1 \geq P_1+Q_1-1 N_2 \geq P_2+Q_2-1 If these conditions are satisfied, then the results of the circular convolution will equal that of the linear convolution (taking the main period of the circular convolution as the region of support). That is: y_{circular}(n_1,n_2)=y_{linear}(n_1,n_2) for (n_1,n_2) \in R_{N_1N_2} ===Summary of procedure using DFTs=== The Convolution theorem and circular convolution can thus be used in the following manner to achieve a result that is equal to performing the linear convolution: # Choose N_1 and N_2 to satisfy N_1 \geq P_1+Q_1-1 and N_2 \geq P_2+Q_2-1 # Zero pad the signals h(n_1,n_2) and x(n_1,n_2) such that they are both N_1\times N_2 in size # Compute the DFTs of both h(n_1,n_2) and x(n_1,n_2) # Multiple the results of the DFTs to obtain Y(k_1,k_2)=H(k_1,k_2)X(k_1,k_2) # The result of the IDFT of Y(k_1,k_2) will then be equal to the result of performing linear convolution on the two signals ==Overlap and add== Another method to perform multidimensional convolution is the overlap and add approach. This method helps reduce the computational complexity often associated with multidimensional convolutions due to the vast amounts of data inherent in modern-day digital systems. For sake of brevity, the two-dimensional case is used as an example, but the same concepts can be extended to multiple dimensions. Consider a two-dimensional convolution using a direct computation: y(n_1, n_2) = \sum_{k_1=-\infty}^{\infty} \sum_{k_2=-\infty}^{\infty} x(n_1 - k_1, n_2 - k_2)h(k_1, k_2) Assuming that the output signal y(n_1, n_2) has N nonzero coefficients, and the impulse response has M nonzero samples, this direct computation would need MN multiplies and MN - 1 adds in order to compute. Using an FFT instead, the frequency response of the filter and the Fourier transform of the input would have to be stored in memory. Massive amounts of computations and excessive use of memory storage space pose a problematic issue as more dimensions are added. This is where the overlap and add convolution method comes in. ===Decomposition into smaller convolution blocks=== Instead of performing convolution on the blocks of information in their entirety, the information can be broken up into smaller blocks of dimensions L_1xL_2 resulting in smaller FFTs, less computational complexity, and less storage needed. This can be expressed mathematically as follows: x(n_1, n_2) = \sum_{i=1}^{P_1} \sum_{j=1}^{P_2}x_{ij}(n_1, n_2) where x(n_1, n_2) represents the N_1xN_2 input signal, which is a summation of P_1P_2 block segments, with P_1 = N_1/L_1 and P_2 = N_2/L_2 . To produce the output signal, a two-dimensional convolution is performed: y(n_1,n_2) = x(n_1, n_2) ** h(n_1, n_2) Substituting in for x(n_1, n_2) results in the following: y(n_1,n_2) = \sum_{i=1}^{P_1} \sum_{j=1}^{P_2}x_{ij}(n_1, n_2)** h(n_1, n_2) This convolution adds more complexity than doing a direct convolution; however, since it is integrated with an FFT fast convolution, overlap-add performs faster and is a more memory-efficient method, making it practical for large sets of multidimensional data. ===Breakdown of procedure=== Let h(n_1, n_2) be of size M_1 \times M_2: # Break input x(n_1, n_2) into non-overlapping blocks of dimensions L_1 \times L_2. # Zero pad h(n_1, n_2) such that it has dimensions (L_1 + M_1 - 1) \times (L_2 + M_2 - 1). # Use DFT to get H(k_1, k_2). # For each input block: ## Zero pad x_{ij}(n_1, n_2) to be of dimensions (L_1 + M_1 - 1) \times (L_2 + M_2 - 1). ## Take discrete Fourier transform of each block to give X_{ij}(k_1, k_2). ## Multiply to get Y_{ij}(k_1, k_2) = X_{ij}(k_1, k_2)H(k_1,k_2). ## Take inverse discrete Fourier transform of Y_{ij}(k_1, k_2) to get y_{ij}(n_1, n_2). # Find y(n_1, n_2) by overlap and adding the last (M_1 - 1)\times (M_2 - 1) samples of y_{ij}(n_1, n_2) with the first (M_1 - 1) \times(M_2 - 1) samples of y_{i+1,j+1}(n_1, n_2) to get the result. ===Pictorial method of operation=== In order to visualize the overlap- add method more clearly, the following illustrations examine the method graphically. Assume that the input x(n_1, n_2) has a square region support of length N in both vertical and horizontal directions as shown in the figure below. It is then broken up into four smaller segments in such a way that it is now composed of four smaller squares. Each block of the aggregate signal has dimensions (N/2) \times (N/2). thumb|Decomposed Input Signal|noneThen, each component is convolved with the impulse response of the filter. Note that an advantage for an implementation such as this can be visualized here since each of these convolutions can be parallelized on a computer, as long as the computer has sufficient memory and resources to store and compute simultaneously. In the figure below, the first graph on the left represents the convolution corresponding to the component of the input x_{0,0} with the corresponding impulse response h(n_1,n_2). To the right of that, the input x_{1,0} is then convolved with the impulse response h(n_1,n_2). thumb|387x387px|Individual Component Convolution with Impulse Response|noneleft|thumb|255x255px|Convolution of each Component with the Overlap Portions HighlightedThe same process is done for the other two inputs respectively, and they are accumulated together in order to form the convolution. This is depicted to the left. Assume that the filter impulse response h(n_1,n_2) has a region of support of (N/8) in both dimensions. This entails that each convolution convolves signals with dimensions (N/2) \times (N/8) in both n_1 and n_2 directions, which leads to overlap (highlighted in blue) since the length of each individual convolution is equivalent to: (N/2) +(N/8) -1 = (5/8)N-1 in both directions. The lighter blue portion correlates to the overlap between two adjacent convolutions, whereas the darker blue portion correlates to overlap between all four convolutions. All of these overlap portions are added together in addition to the convolutions in order to form the combined convolution y(n_1,n_2). ==Overlap and save== The overlap and save method, just like the overlap and add method, is also used to reduce the computational complexity associated with discrete-time convolutions. This method, coupled with the FFT, allows for massive amounts of data to be filtered through a digital system while minimizing the necessary memory space used for computations on massive arrays of data. ===Comparison to overlap and add=== The overlap and save method is very similar to the overlap and add methods with a few notable exceptions. The overlap-add method involves a linear convolution of discrete-time signals, whereas the overlap-save method involves the principle of circular convolution. In addition, the overlap and save method only uses a one-time zero padding of the impulse response, while the overlap-add method involves a zero-padding for every convolution on each input component. Instead of using zero padding to prevent time-domain aliasing like its overlap-add counterpart, overlap-save simply discards all points of aliasing, and saves the previous data in one block to be copied into the convolution for the next block. In one dimension, the performance and storage metric differences between the two methods is minimal. However, in the multidimensional convolution case, the overlap-save method is preferred over the overlap-add method in terms of speed and storage abilities. Just as in the overlap and add case, the procedure invokes the two-dimensional case but can easily be extended to all multidimensional procedures. ===Breakdown of procedure=== Let h(n_1, n_2) be of size M_1 \times M_2 : # Insert (M_1 - 1) columns and (M_2 - 1) rows of zeroes at the beginning of the input signal x(n_1,n_2) in both dimensions. # Split the corresponding signal into overlapping segments of dimensions (L_1 + M_1 - 1)\times(L_2 + M_2 - 1) in which each two-dimensional block will overlap by (M_1 - 1) \times (M_2 - 1). # Zero pad h(n_1, n_2) such that it has dimensions (L_1 + M_1 - 1)\times(L_2 + M_2 - 1). # Use DFT to get H(k_1, k_2). # For each input block: ## Take discrete Fourier transform of each block to give X_{ij}(k_1, k_2). ## Multiply to get Y_{ij}(k_1, k_2) = X_{ij}(k_1, k_2)H(k_1,k_2). ## Take inverse discrete Fourier transform of Y_{ij}(k_1, k_2) to get y_{ij}(n_1, n_2). ## Get rid of the first (M_1 - 1)\times(M_2 - 1) for each output block y_{ij}(n_1, n_2). # Find y(n_1, n_2) by attaching the last (L_1\times L_2) samples for each output block y_{ij}(n_1, n_2). ==The helix transform== Similar to row-column decomposition, the helix transform computes the multidimensional convolution by incorporating one-dimensional convolutional properties and operators. Instead of using the separability of signals, however, it maps the Cartesian coordinate space to a helical coordinate space allowing for a mapping from a multidimensional space to a one-dimensional space. ===Multidimensional convolution with one-dimensional convolution methods=== To understand the helix transform, it is useful to first understand how a multidimensional convolution can be broken down into a one-dimensional convolution. Assume that the two signals to be convolved are X_{M \times N} and Y_{K \times L}, which results in an output Z_{(M - K + 1)\times(N - L + 1)}. This is expressed as follows: Z(i,j) = \sum_{m=0}^{M-1}\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}X(m,n)Y(i-m, j-n) Next, two matrices are created that zero pad each input in both dimensions such that each input has equivalent dimensions, i.e. \mathbf{X'} = \begin{bmatrix} X & 0 \\\ 0 & 0 \\\ \end{bmatrix} and \mathbf{Y'} = \begin{bmatrix} Y & 0 \\\ 0 & 0 \\\ \end{bmatrix} where each of the input matrices are now of dimensions (M+K-1)\times(N+L-1). It is then possible to implement column-wise lexicographic ordering in order to convert the modified matrices into vectors, X and Y. In order to minimize the number of unimportant samples in each vector, each vector is truncated after the last sample in the original matrices X and Y respectively. Given this, the length of vector X and Y are given by: l_{X} = (M+K-1)\times(N-1) \+ M l_{Y} =(M+K-1)\times(L-1) \+ K The length of the convolution of these two vectors, Z, can be derived and shown to be: l_{Z} = l_{Y} +l_{X} = (M+K-1)\times(N+L-1) This vector length is equivalent to the dimensions of the original matrix output Z, making converting back to a matrix a direct transformation. Thus, the vector, Z, is converted back to matrix form, which produces the output of the two- dimensional discrete convolution. ===Filtering on a helix=== When working on a two-dimensional Cartesian mesh, a Fourier transform along either axes will result in the two-dimensional plane becoming a cylinder as the end of each column or row attaches to its respective top forming a cylinder. Filtering on a helix behaves in a similar fashion, except in this case, the bottom of each column attaches to the top of the next column, resulting in a helical mesh. This is illustrated below. The darkened tiles represent the filter coefficients. none|thumb|480x480px|Transformation from a 2D Cartesian Filtering Plane to a Helix Filter.If this helical structure is then sliced and unwound into a one-dimensional strip, the same filter coefficients on the 2-d Cartesian plane will match up with the same input data, resulting in an equivalent filtering scheme. This ensures that a two-dimensional convolution will be able to be performed by a one-dimensional convolution operator as the 2D filter has been unwound to a 1D filter with gaps of zeroes separating the filter coefficients. none|thumb|189x189px|One-Dimensional Filtering Strip after being Unwound. Assuming that some-low pass two-dimensional filter was used, such as: 0 -1 0 -1 4 -1 0 -1 0 Then, once the two-dimensional space was converted into a helix, the one-dimensional filter would look as follows: h(n) = -1, 0, ... , 0, -1, 4, -1, 0, ..., 0, -1, 0, ... Notice in the one- dimensional filter that there are no leading zeroes as illustrated in the one- dimensional filtering strip after being unwound. The entire one-dimensional strip could have been convolved with; however, it is less computationally expensive to simply ignore the leading zeroes. In addition, none of these backside zero values will need to be stored in memory, preserving precious memory resources. ===Applications=== Helix transformations to implement recursive filters via convolution are used in various areas of signal processing. Although frequency domain Fourier analysis is effective when systems are stationary, with constant coefficients and periodically-sampled data, it becomes more difficult in unstable systems. The helix transform enables three-dimensional post-stack migration processes that can process data for three-dimensional variations in velocity. In addition, it can be applied to assist with the problem of implicit three-dimensional wavefield extrapolation. Other applications include helpful algorithms in seismic data regularization, prediction error filters, and noise attenuation in geophysical digital systems. ==Gaussian convolution== One application of multidimensional convolution that is used within signal and image processing is Gaussian convolution. This refers to convolving an input signal with the Gaussian distribution function. thumb|300px|2D Gaussian Visualization where \mu_1=\mu_2=0 and \sigma_1=\sigma_2=1 The Gaussian distribution sampled at discrete values in one dimension is given by the following (assuming \mu=0):G(n)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma^2}}e^{-\frac{n^2}{2\sigma^2}}This is readily extended to a signal of M dimensions (assuming \sigma stays constant for all dimensions and \mu_1=\mu_2=...=\mu_M=0):G(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=\frac{1}{(2\pi)^{M/2}\sigma^M}e^{-\frac{({n_1}^2+{n_2}^2+...+{n_M}^2)}{2\sigma^2}}One important property to recognize is that the M dimensional signal is separable such that:G(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=G(n_1)G(n_2)...G(n_M)Then, Gaussian convolution with discrete-valued signals can be expressed as the following: y(n)=x(n)*G(n) y(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)=x(n_1,n_2,...,n_M)*...*G(n_1,n_2,...,n_M) ===Approximation by FIR filter=== Gaussian convolution can be effectively approximated via implementation of a Finite impulse response (FIR) filter. The filter will be designed with truncated versions of the Gaussian. For a two-dimensional filter, the transfer function of such a filter would be defined as the following: H(z_1,z_2)=\frac{1}{s(r_1,r_2)} \sum_{n_1=-r_1}^{r_1}\sum_{n_2=-r_2}^{r_2}G(n_1,n_2){z_1}^{-n_1}{z_2}^{-n_2} where s(r_1,r_2)=\sum_{n_1=-r_1}^{r_1}\sum_{n_2=-r_2}^{r_2}G(n_1,n_2) Choosing lower values for r_1 and r_2 will result in performing less computations, but will yield a less accurate approximation while choosing higher values will yield a more accurate approximation, but will require a greater number of computations. ===Approximation by box filter=== Another method for approximating Gaussian convolution is via recursive passes through a box filter. For approximating one-dimensional convolution, this filter is defined as the following: H(z)=\frac{1}{2r+1} \frac{z^r-z^{-r-1}}{1-z^-1} Typically, recursive passes 3, 4, or 5 times are performed in order to obtain an accurate approximation. A suggested method for computing r is then given as the following: \sigma^2=\frac{1}{12}K((2r+1)^2-1) where K is the number of recursive passes through the filter. Then, since the Gaussian distribution is separable across different dimensions, it follows that recursive passes through one-dimensional filters (isolating each dimension separately) will thus yield an approximation of the multidimensional Gaussian convolution. That is, M-dimensional Gaussian convolution could be approximated via recursive passes through the following one-dimensional filters: H(z_1)=\frac{1}{2r_1+1} \frac{{z_1}^{r_1}-{z_1}^{-r_1-1}}{1-{z_1}^-1} H(z_2)=\frac{1}{2r_2+1} \frac{{z_2}^{r_2}-{z_2}^{-r_2-1}}{1-{z_2}^-1} \vdots H(z_M)=\frac{1}{2r_M+1} \frac{{z_M}^{r_M}-{z_M}^{-r_M-1}}{1-{z_M}^-1} ===Applications=== Gaussian convolutions are used extensively in signal and image processing. For example, image-blurring can be accomplished with Gaussian convolution where the \sigma parameter will control the strength of the blurring. Higher values would thus correspond to a more blurry end result. It is also commonly used in Computer vision applications such as Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) feature detection. ==See also== * Convolution * Kernel (image processing) * Signal processing ==References== Category:Multidimensional signal processing
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VA-52 was an Attack Squadron of the U.S. Navy. It was established as U.S. Navy Reserve Fighter Squadron VF-884 on 1 November 1949, and called to active duty on 20 July 1950. It was redesignated VF-144 on 4 February 1953, and VA-52 on 23 February 1959. The squadron was nicknamed the Bitter Birds from about 1951–1953, and the Knightriders from about 1960 onward. Its insignia evolved through several versions and variations from 1951 to the 1980s. VA-52 was decommissioned on 31 March 1995. ==History== === 1950s === On 20 July 1950, VF-884 (the previous name of VA-52) was called to active duty as a result of the Korean War. On the 28th, the squadron reported for active duty at NAS San Diego. In the later part of March 1951, VF-884 aircraft conducted their first combat operations, flying close air support missions along Korea’s eastern coast from . VF-884's first Commanding Officer, LCDR. G. F. Carmichael, died after parachuting from his F4U which had been hit by enemy ground fire on 24 May 1951. Later, on 4 October 1951, LT. E. F. Johnson was attacked and shot down by enemy MiG-15 aircraft. This was the first VF-884 and CVG-101 aircraft shot down by enemy aircraft. LCDR. Bowen, VF-884's third Commanding Officer, was listed as missing in action when his aircraft crashed near Pyongyang, North Korea on November 8, 1951. thumb|F4U-4 Corsairs from VF-884 over , in 1951.|leftOn 4 February 1953: VF-884 was redesignated VF-144 during its second combat tour in Korea aboard . In this change, the reserve squadron number was replaced by an active squadron number. On 21 February 1953: VF-144 completed the last line period of its second combat tour in Korea. Its primary missions had been close air support of ground troops, interdiction of enemy main supply routes, and the destruction of military supplies, vehicles and troops. On 18 August 1958, the squadron returned to NAS Miramar following 's first major deployment. The cruise took the squadron from Virginia to California, via Cape Horn, transferring Ranger from the Atlantic Fleet to the Pacific Fleet. The squadron's mission was changed to attack and it was redesignated VA-52 on 23 February 1959. === 1960s === From 13 July to 1 August 1964, VA-52 aircraft participated in Yankee Team operations in South Vietnam and Laos, involving aerial reconnaissance to detect Communist military presence and operations. Other missions included weather reconnaissance and Search and Rescue. Between the 2nd and 4 August 1964, during a Desoto Patrol mission (intelligence collection missions begun in 1962), was attacked by three motor torpedo boats off the coast of North Vietnam. Following this incident the squadron flew 44 sorties in support of the destroyers on the Desoto Patrol. On the 4th of August, During the night, two destroyers on Desoto Patrol, and USS Maddox, believing themselves under attack by North Vietnamese motor torpedo boats, called for air support. Several A-1H Skyraiders from the squadron, along with several F-8 Crusaders, were launched from . Commander George H. Edmondson and Lieutenant Jere A. Barton reported gun flashes and bursts of light at their altitude which they felt came from enemy antiaircraft fire. Following this, on 5 August 1964, four VA-52 A-1Hs, piloted by Commander L. T. McAdams, Lieutenant Commander L. E. Brumbach and Lieutenant (jg)s R. E. Moore and P. A. Carter, participated in Operation Pierce Arrow, retaliatory strikes against North Vietnam. Along with other aircraft from CVG-5, they struck the Vinh oil storage facilities and destroyed about ninety percent of the complex. The four aircraft returned with no battle damage. Between 6–29 October 1964: The squadron conducted rescue combat air patrol missions in support of "Yankee Team" operations.thumb|A VA-52 A-1H Skyraider in 1966.On 7 February 1966, LTJG. Harvey M. Browne was awarded the Silver Star for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity during rescue missions in the Republic of Vietnam. On 13 April 1966, CDR. John C. Mape was killed in action, becoming the third VA-52 commanding officer to be lost in combat action. The squadron soon completed its second combat tour of duty in Vietnam on the 21st of April, having participated in Operation Rolling Thunder, designed to interdict the enemy's lines of communication into Laos and South Vietnam. On 9 March 1967, CDR. John F. Wanamaker received the Silver Star for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity during operations against North Vietnam. VA-52 completed its last day of line operations during its 1967 and third combat tour to Vietnamon April 27. During this deployment, squadron operations included rescue combat air patrol missions, coastal reconnaissance, Operation Steel Tiger missions and Operation Sea Dragon operations. Steel Tiger involved concentrated strikes in southern Laos. Sea Dragon involved spotting for naval gunfire support against waterborne cargo and coastal radar and gun battery sites. On 7 September 1968: VA-52 deployed aboard . This was the first A-6 Intruder deployment aboard a . === 1970s === From 8 December 1970 to 23 June 1971, VA-52's main emphasis was on operations in Laos against the enemy's lines of communication and their transportation networks. On 23 November 1971, CDR. Lennart R. Salo became the first Naval Flight Officer to command an A-6 Intruder squadron. VA-52 commenced line operations from Yankee Station a few days earlier than scheduled on 3 April 1972, as a result of the North Vietnamese invasion on 30 March. During this line period heavy air raids were conducted against North Vietnam. These were the first major heavy air raids into North Vietnam since October 1968 and became known as Operation Freedom Train. On 16 April 1972, VA-52 conducted strikes in the Haiphong, Vinh, and Thanh Hoa as part of Operation Freedom Porch. VA-52's Intruders took part in Operation Pocket Money, the mining of Haiphong harbor, on 9 May 1970. VA-52's Intruders actually took part in the diversionary attack at Phu Qui railroad yard while aircraft from Coral Sea conducted the actual mining. On 10 May 1972: Operation Linebacker operations began and involved concentrated air strikes against targets in North Vietnam above the 20th parallel north. During these operations VA-52's aircraft flew armed reconnaissance, Alpha strikes (large coordinated attacks), mine seeding operations, tanker operations, and Standard ARM sorties (use of anti-radiation missiles to destroy missile radar sites). From 1 June until 27 June 1972, VA-52 flew special single aircraft night missions designated Sneaky Pete as part of Operation Linebacker operations. VA-52 once again deployed with CVW-11 aboard on 23 November 1972, this time as part of the first CV concept air wing on the West Coast. VA-52's Intruders were equipped with new ASW electronic equipment, the Multi-Channel Jezebel Relay pods. Between July 24 and 28 1979, VA-52 and other elements of CVW-15 participated in search and assistance operations to aid Vietnamese boat people. A total of 114 people were rescued through the efforts of the air wing and Kitty Hawk. These operations continued during August. On 27 October 1979, South Korea’s President Park Chung Hee was assassinated and Kitty Hawk immediately departed the Philippine Sea for the southwest coast of Korea, where they remained until 4 November. While in port at Naval Station Subic Bay in the Philippines and preparing to return home from a seven-month WESTPAC deployment, Kitty Hawk and its battle group (to include CVW-15 and VA-52) were indefinitely extended on deployment on 18 November 1979 in response to the Iran hostage crisis and directed to proceed to the Indian Ocean via the Straits of Malacca and Diego Garcia. Between 3 December 1979 and 23 January 1980, After the assault on the American Embassy in Tehran and the Iran hostage crisis; Kitty Hawk entered the Indian Ocean and operated in the Arabian Sea throughout this period. It was during this period on 29 December 1979, while conducting operations off Kitty Hawk, the squadron's commanding officer, CDR. Walter D. Williams, and one of the squadron's department heads, Lieutenant Commander Bruce Miller, were lost at sea/bodies recovered following a cold catapult shot off the bow in KA-6D Intruder, NL-521 (BuNo 152632). === 1980s === thumb|right|An A-6E Intruder from VA-52, in 1981.On 8 February 1980, after brief port calls at NAVSTA Subic Bay and NAVBASE Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Kitty Hawk returns to its homeport of NAS North Island in San Diego, California and VA-52 returns to its home station of NAS Whidbey Island, Washington. On 19 May 1981, while transiting the South China Sea VA-52 aircraft spotted a small boat with 47 Vietnamese refugees on board and reported their location for rescue operations. USS Carl Vinson CVN-70, with CVW-15 and VA-52, were kept on station in the Sea of Japan between 10 and 12 October 1983, after the attempted assassination of South Korea's president. Between 14 and 31 August 1986, VA-52 participated in the first carrier operations in the Bering Sea since World War II. Most of the squadron's 400 hours and 200 sorties were made under adverse weather conditions. From 20 January to 31 January 1987, VA-52 conducted its second period of operations in the Northern Pacific and Bering Sea. At one point the most effective means of clearing snow and ice from Carl Vinson's flight deck was the jet exhaust from the squadron's aircraft. On 23 September 1987, during night operations off Carl Vinson the squadron's Commanding Officer, CDR. Lloyd D. Sledge, was lost at sea. In August 1988, the squadron flew sorties in support of Operation Earnest Will, the escorting of reflagged Kuwait tankers in the Persian Gulf. VA-52 received the Systems Weapons Integration Program (SWIP) upgrade of the A-6E TRAM Intruder in March 1989. === 1990s === In 1991, the squadron became the first Pacific Fleet Intruder squadron to use night-vision goggles on the A-6 Intruder. That same year, CVW-15 moved back to Kitty Hawk On 3 November 1992, VA-52 and CVW-15 deployed aboard the Kitty Hawk for their 1992-1993 Deployment. Relieving the Ranger on 18 December as part of JTF Somalia, VA-52 along VFA-27 and VFA-97 (which flew the F/A-18A) undertook Close Air Support and Reconnaissance as part of Operation Restore Hope. This included sending two of the squadron's Intruders to support USMC and Belgian paratroopers during an assault on Kisamayu on 20 December 1992. On 27 December 1992, as a result of the shooting down of a MiG-25 of the Iraqi Air Force in the No-Fly Zone, the Kitty Hawk, VA-52 and CVW-15 were redirected to the Persian Gulf to take part in Operation Southern Watch. On the evening of January 13, 1993, eight A-6E SWIP Intruders from VA-52 loaded with Paveway bombs attacked Iraqi Air Defence sites in Southern Iraq along with 110 other aircraft, 35 of them from CVW-15. During the strike, CMDR. Rick Hess from VA-52 was among one of four of the Kitty Hawk's pilots who reported seeing Iraqi SAMs. On January 19, 1993, VA-52 destroyed targets in Iraq in retaliation for AAA fire. In 1994, VA-52 deployed on its last WESTPAC deployment. During the deployment, it was diverted from going to the Persian Gulf, with the carrier instead being diverted to the Korean Peninsula during a crisis revolving around tensions between the two countries. On March 31, 1995, VA-52 Knightriders was disestablished. ==Home port assignments== The squadron was assigned to these home ports, effective on the dates shown: * NAS Olathe – 1 Nov 1949 * NAS San Diego – 28 Jul 1950 * NAS Miramar – Mar 1953 * NAS Moffett Field – 15 Jan 1962 * NAS Alameda – 29 Aug 1963 * NAS Whidbey Island – 1 Jul 1967 ==Aircraft assignment== The squadron first received the following aircraft in the months shown: * F8F-1 Bearcat – The squadron was not assigned aircraft before its call to active duty. Pilots trained in and flew F8F-1s that were assigned to the air station where the squadron was home ported. * F4U-4 Corsair – 1 Aug 1950 * F9F-5 Panther – Apr 1953 * F9F-4 Panther and F9F-6 Cougar – The squadron operated a few of these models in the mid-1950s. * F9F-8B Cougar – Apr 1956 * F9F-8 Cougar – Aug 1956 * AD-5 Skyraider – Dec 1958 * AD-6 Skyraider – Dec 1958 (AD-6 designation was changed to A-1H in 1962.) * AD-7 Skyraider – Mar 1959 (AD-7 designation was changed to A-1J in 1962.) * A-6A Intruder – 10 Nov 1967 * A-6B Intruder – Oct 1970 * KA-6D Intruder – 3rd quarter 1971 * A-6E Intruder – Jul 1974 * A-6E TRAM Intruder - 1982 * A-6E SWIP Intruder - Mar 1989 (First to Pacific fleet squadron to receive night vision versions in 1991) ==See also== * Attack aircraft * History of the United States Navy * List of inactive United States Navy aircraft squadrons ==References== Category:Attack squadrons of the United States Navy Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1995
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The Woodhead Tunnels are three parallel trans-Pennine long railway tunnels on the Woodhead Line, a former major rail link from Manchester to Sheffield in Northern England. The western portals of the tunnels are at Woodhead in Derbyshire and the eastern portals are at Dunford Bridge, near Penistone, South Yorkshire. The first tunnel, Woodhead 1 was constructed by the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway. Work on the tunnel commenced in 1837. It was designed by the railway engineer Charles Vignoles, who was later substituted by the civil engineer Joseph Locke. When opened in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels and the first trans-Pennine tunnel. Woodhead 2 was completed in 1853. Both tunnels were difficult to maintain because of their narrowness and heavy traffic, estimated to be around 250 trains per day in either direction. As both tunnels were too narrow to allow for electrification, it was decided to construct a third tunnel in the 1950s. Woodhead 3 opened in 1953, almost 100 years after Woodhead 2. Although the Hope Valley line was recommended for closure in the Beeching Report, instead, the government decided to cease passenger services on the Woodhead line, allegedly due to the high cost of upgrading and modernising the route. In 1970, the last passenger services ran through the tunnel but the line continued to host freight trains. The last train passed through the tunnels in 1981 when the line was closed. The tunnels are maintained and now used for other purposes. They are owned by National Grid plc, which used Woodhead 1 and 2 to carry power cables and, in 2008, controversially installed cables in Woodhead 3, which would create difficulties in reinstating rail services and was resisted by a sizeable campaign. ==History== ===Woodhead 1=== thumb|The western portals of Woodhead 1 & 2 in the background, with Woodhead 3 under construction in the foreground, 1953 The first Woodhead Tunnel, also referred to as the south tunnel, was undertaken by the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway (SA&MR;) company. Work commenced as soon as the line had obtained its act of incorporation in Parliament in 1837 and work on the tunnel commenced in October 1838, although its design was not finalised until April 1839. Charles Vignoles was appointed engineer by the SA&MR.; He surveyed the route between Sheffield and Manchester, recognising the necessity of the Woodhead Tunnel. Vignoles was responsible for the tunnel's design and specification and was involved in other activities for the company, including fundraising. His decision to use his own resources to purchase shares under an alleged understanding that he would not have to pay the full price led to controversy; he resigned from his position in 1838. The line of the railway was marked over the ridge and five vertical shafts were sunk. From the shaft bases, a horizontal drift was driven along the line. Although sufficient land had been purchased for the construction of a pair of tunnels, it was decided that only one would be built. The tunnel's bore passed through ground largely composed of Millstone Grit interspersed with argillaceous shale and softer sandstone on a gradient of 1 in 201, rising toward the east. Wires were suspended down each shaft from which the centre line was determined by means of a theodolite. The accuracy was such that the drifts lined up with less than three inches of error. After Vignoles withdrew, the civil engineer Joseph Locke took over as a consultant and re-evaluated the project. The estimated costs were doubled from the £98,467 figure produced by Vignoles to around £200,000 and contractors were provided with new, highly detailed specifications. Locke supervised the construction and prepared contingencies. Soon after taking over, he reported that the amount of water being encountered required more powerful pumps. Although the number of people employed reached 1,500, generally there were around 400 in the tunnel because of limited space in which to work. It was estimated that around 157 tons of gunpowder were consumed during blasting, while over 8 million tons of water were pumped out during construction. The first tunnel was completed during 1845. When completed, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at . It was the first trans-Pennine railway tunnel to be built, preceding the Standedge and Totley Tunnels which are slightly longer. The tunnel had cost roughly £200,000 () to build. The human cost was high: 30 people lost their lives, 200 workers were maimed and 450 suffered some form of injury in the harsh working conditions. Woodhead 1 is in worse condition than Woodhead 2; it has suffered several collapses and is unsuitable for cabling or transport purposes. ===Woodhead 2=== thumb|A coal train emerging from Woodhead Tunnel, in April 1950 The second bore, also referred to as the north tunnel, was undertaken by the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. Its construction was speeded up by the decision to construct 25 side access connections from Woodhead 1, in anticipation of a second bore. Although more care was exercised during its construction, in regards to safety conditions, an outbreak of cholera amongst the workforce, in 1849, resulted in 28 deaths. In January 1852, a bulge was discovered in the tunnel wall in the centre section and had to be rebuilt. Later that year, Woodhead 2 was completed. Soon after opening, the twin tunnels saw heavy use by steam trains, an average of 250 trains per day in each direction. Traffic had a huge effect on the economy of the route well into the 1950s. The tunnels acquired a negative reputation. It was claimed that they provided a poor operating environment and were difficult to maintain, partially caused by the level of traffic. Train crews described the tunnels as "hell holes" because of their narrow bores, which were claustrophobic and sooty. The decision to electrify the route during the 1950s was partially made to eliminate the emissions produced by steam and diesel traction. The tunnels were too narrow to accommodate the overhead line equipment (OLE) necessary for the route's electrification and it was decided to close both tunnels in 1953, after the completion of the larger Woodhead 3 tunnel. Since 1963, Woodhead 2 has been used by National Grid plc to carry the trans-Pennine 400 kV electricity link under the Peak District National Park. A narrow gauge railway has been built inside the tunnel for service engineers. In January 2008, work started to transfer the electric cable from the north tunnel to Woodhead 3. ===Woodhead 3=== thumb|The eastern portal of Woodhead 3 shortly before opening in 1954 thumb|A train about to enter the western portal of Woodhead 3, shortly before closure in 1981 Woodhead 3 was substantially longer than the other two, at . It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route, a project commonly known as the Manchester–Sheffield–Wath electrification. The line was electrified at 1,500 V DC. It was designed by Sir William Halcrow & Partners. Its height of was dictated by the requirements of the Ministry of Transport. Woodhead 3's construction was not without challenge. Two roof collapses occurred in 1951, both around the same area. To resolve this weakness, a series of ribbed arches were installed in this section. Reinforced concrete lining, of minimum thickness, was installed throughout the tunnel and an adjacent bypass tunnel was built to improve access and ventilation. The new bore is separated from the nearest tunnel by . This close proximity was advantageous as it proved convenient during track laying. The old tunnels presented an operational benefit, as water continued to seep into Woodhead 3's predecessors, the water content of the surrounding rock was lowered, resulting in less infiltration into the new tunnel. Work on the new tunnel was completed in 1953. Woodhead 3 was officially opened by transport minister Alan Lennox- Boyd on 3 June 1954. It had cost £4.3 million (). Six people lost their lives during the work. In the 1960s, a proposal was made to close the tunnel to railway traffic and use it to carry a section of a Manchester to Sheffield motorway through the Pennines. Only a short section of the M67 motorway was built, within Greater Manchester, and Woodhead 3 was never used by road traffic. During 1970, the final passenger services ran through the tunnel. The last train was run in July 1981. During 2007, National Grid plc, the owners of the tunnels, proposed moving electricity cables from the older tunnels to Woodhead 3. This sparked controversy as Woodhead 3 would no longer be available for reuse by railway traffic in the future. Protest groups advocated for it to be reserved to facilitate any such reopening. ==Location of portals== Woodhead entrance 0 Air vent 1 1.13 miles Air vent 2 2.35 miles Dunford Bridge entrance 3 miles ==Proposals to re-open the tunnel for rail traffic== In 1999, the prospective Central Railway released a proposal to the Woodhead Tunnel as part of a scheme to link Liverpool and London with a new large-gauge freight line along the trackbed of the Great Central Main Line. In 2002, the Trans-Pennine Rail Group, composed of county councils, unitary authorities, passenger transport executives (PTE) and the Peak District National Park Authority provided evidence to the Transport Select Committee that identified interest from bidders for the Trans-Pennine rail franchise in reopening the Woodhead route. In 2007 the Trans-Pennine Rail Group was dissolved and its responsibilities transferred to the Northern Way and the North West Rail Campaign. In July 2003, the Greater Manchester Branch of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, presented evidence to a parliamentary select committee, stating that Arriva had an interest in reopening the Woodhead Line as part of a bid for the Trans-Pennine rail franchise. In 2006, 'Translink' proposed that the tunnel be reopened as a route for rail freight. The proposal was supported by groups who were opposing the construction of the proposed Longdendale Bypass, a £180 million scheme for avoiding Mottram in Longdendale, Hollingworth and Tintwistle. The tunnel was an alternative means of handling some of the traffic and reducing the need for the bypass. The Victorian tunnels, rebored to a broader diameter akin to that of the Channel Tunnel, were envisioned as a key component of the main east–west route of the High Speed UK, an alternative to High Speed 2 and High Speed 3. ==Current situation== Woodhead 1 is in poor condition and unused. For several decades, Woodhead 2 has carried electrical cables for the National Grid which by the early 2000s were coming to the end of their operational life. The National Grid proposed installing new cables in Woodhead 3 which would prevent its restoration for rail traffic. The older tunnels are unsuitable for rail traffic, because of their poor state of repair. In July 2007, the Peak District National Park expressed concern at the plans to place cables in Woodhead 3, observing that it could not be used for rail traffic. In September 2007, the Government Office for the East Midlands indicated that it was unlikely that the route would be used for rail traffic again, and declined to intervene. On 4 December 2007, 57 MPs signed an early day motion in the Commons, brought by Manchester Blackley MP Graham Stringer, expressing concern at laying cables in a tunnel that was viable for rail traffic. On 18 December, a written answer in the Commons stated that laying cables in the tunnel would not preclude opening the route to rail traffic. On 23 January 2008, the Department for Transport said that only the older tunnels, which were in poor condition, would be available. In December 2007, the Campaign for Better Transport (UK) campaigned to keep Woodhead 3 available for rail traffic. In 8 January 2008, the "Northern Way", a collaboration between three Northern Regional Development Agencies: Yorkshire Forward, Northwest Regional Development Agency and One NorthEast, called for the government to ensure the potential reuse of Woodhead Tunnels for rail use in the future. The Northern Way had previously published claims that the tunnel's economic benefit could be as much as £10 billion nationally, of which £3.5 billion had been forecast to occur in the North. On 15 January 2008, around one hundred protesters gathered at the end of the Woodhead Tunnel, protesting against its planned reuse in carrying electricity cables. Around this time, a campaign group, originally named "Save the Woodhead Tunnel", was established; it was renamed "Re-open the Woodhead Tunnel" the following year. On 24 January 2008, preparatory work on the tunnel commenced, although this did not end the objections. In January 2012, during a debate in parliament, Angela Smith MP called for the reopening of the Woodhead route, but was informed that the line was not a priority as part of the Northern Hub because of capacity available on the Hope Valley line. In 2012, Balfour Beatty fitted new electricity cables through the tunnel which were individually laid in concrete and sand insulated ducts at the tunnel exit for connection to the first pylon. Old galvanised steelwork over the River Etherow was removed. The tunnel has a flat concrete floor and concrete-finished walls and ceiling. The cables run down both sides of the tunnel attached to metal framework. Six cables run along each wall, each about in diameter with thick insulation and other ducting and cables run along the floor. At the western end, the old concrete and tarmac platforms still stand. In November 2013, it was decided to seal the Victorian tunnels, following a decision not to purchase them from the National Grid. Transport Minister Stephen Hammond, said a new tunnel would be a better option if the route should ever be used again for rail traffic, and that the Hope Valley route had the capacity to accommodate foreseeable growth. ==See also== *Longdendale *Woodhead Line *Longdendale Bypass *M67 motorway *Manchester–Sheffield–Wath electric railway *Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway ==References== ===Citations=== == Sources == * Bain, Simon (1986) Railroaded! (Battle for Woodhead Pass), London, Faber and Faber. * Dow, G., (1959) Great Central, Volume One: The Progenitors (1813–1863) , Shepperton: Ian Allan Ltd. == Further reading == * * ==External links== ===Heritage=== * The Don Valley Railway Line * The woodheadsite – has good history section * Woodhead Station on Subterranea Britannica * National on film – Woodhead Line video of train going through tunnel in 1969 from the BBC 'Nation on Film'. * Railways of Britain – Woodhead * Chris Davies MEP speaking on the future of the tunnel Category:Trans-Pennine Railway tunnels Category:Tunnels completed in 1845 Category:Tunnels in Derbyshire Category:Tunnels in South Yorkshire Category:Rail transport in Derbyshire Category:Rail transport in South Yorkshire Category:History of Derbyshire Category:History of South Yorkshire Category:Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway Category:Peak District Category:Woodhead Line Category:Transport in Derbyshire Category:Transport in South Yorkshire
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thumb| under sail, Antarctic Ocean, c. 1915, by Frank Hurley The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917 is considered to be the last major expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Conceived by Sir Ernest Shackleton, the expedition was an attempt to make the first land crossing of the Antarctic continent. After Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition in 1911, this crossing remained, in Shackleton's words, the "one great main object of Antarctic journeyings".Shackleton 1919, p. xi. Shackleton's expedition failed to accomplish this objective, but became recognized instead as an epic feat of endurance. Shackleton had served in the Antarctic on the Discovery expedition of 1901–1904, and had led the Nimrod expedition of 1907–1909. In this new venture he proposed to sail to the Weddell Sea and to land a shore party near Vahsel Bay, in preparation for a transcontinental march via the South Pole to the Ross Sea. A supporting group, the Ross Sea party, would meanwhile establish camp in McMurdo Sound, and from there lay a series of supply depots across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. These depots would be essential for the transcontinental party's survival, as the group would not be able to carry enough provisions for the entire crossing. The expedition required two ships: under Shackleton for the Weddell Sea party, and , under Aeneas Mackintosh, for the Ross Sea party. Endurance became beset—trapped in the ice of the Weddell Sea—before it was able to reach Vahsel Bay. It drifted northward, held in the pack ice, throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915. Eventually the ice crushed the ship, and it sank, stranding its complement of 28 men on the ice. After months spent in makeshift camps as the ice continued its northwards drift, the party used lifeboats that had been salvaged from the ship to reach the inhospitable, uninhabited Elephant Island. Shackleton and five other members of the group then made an open-boat journey in the , and were able to reach South Georgia. From there, Shackleton was eventually able to arrange a rescue of the men who had remained on Elephant Island and to bring them home without loss of life. The remarkably preserved wreck of Endurance was found on the seafloor in 2022. On the other side of the continent, the Ross Sea party overcame great hardships to fulfill its mission. Aurora was blown from her moorings during a gale and was unable to return, leaving the shore party stranded without proper supplies or equipment. Although the depots were still able to be laid, three people died before the party was eventually rescued. == Preparations == === Origin === upright=1.35|thumb|alt=Outline of Antarctica coast, with different lines indicating the various journeys made by ships and land parties during the expedition| Despite the public acclaim that had greeted Ernest Shackleton's achievements after the Nimrod Expedition in 1907–1909, the explorer was unsettled, becoming—in the words of British skiing pioneer Sir Harry Brittain—"a bit of a floating gent".Huntford 1975, p. 348. By 1912, his future Antarctic plans depended on the results of Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova Expedition, which had left Cardiff in July 1910, and on the concurrent Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen. The news of Amundsen's conquest of the South Pole reached Shackleton on 11 March 1912, to which he responded: "The discovery of the South Pole will not be the end of Antarctic exploration".Huntford 1975, p. 50. The next work, he said, would be "a transcontinental journey from sea to sea, crossing the pole".Huntford 1975, p. 350. He was aware that others were in the field pursuing this objective. On 11 December 1911, a German expedition under Wilhelm Filchner had sailed from South Georgia, intending to penetrate deep into the Weddell Sea and establishing a base from which he would cross the continent to the Ross Sea.Murphy pp. 87–102. In late 1912 Filchner returned to South Georgia, having failed to land and set up his base. However, his reports of possible landing sites in Vahsel Bay, at around 78° latitude, were noted by Shackleton, and incorporated into his developing expedition plans.Shackleton 1919, p. 2. News of the deaths of Scott and his companions on their return from the South Pole reached London in February 1913. Against this gloomy background Shackleton initiated preparations for his proposed journey.Smith 2015, p. 252. He solicited financial and practical support from, among others, Tryggve Gran of Scott's expedition, and the former Prime Minister Lord Rosebery, but received no help from either. Gran was evasive, and Rosebery blunt: "I have never been able to care one farthing about the Poles". Shackleton got support, however, from William Speirs Bruce, leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition of 1902–1904, who had harboured plans for an Antarctic crossing since 1908 but had abandoned the project for lack of funds. Bruce generously allowed Shackleton to adopt his plans,Huntford 1975, p. 367. although the eventual scheme announced by Shackleton owed little to Bruce. On 29 December 1913, having acquired his first promises of financial backing—a £10,000 grant from the British government—Shackleton made his plans public in a letter to The Times.Huntford 1975, pp. 362–363. === Shackleton's plan === Shackleton called his new expedition the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, because he felt that "not only the people of these islands, but our kinsmen in all the lands under the Union Jack will be willing to assist towards the carrying out of the ... programme of exploration."Fisher 1957, p. 298. To arouse the interest of the general public, he issued a detailed programme early in 1914. The expedition was to consist of two parties and two ships. The Weddell Sea party would travel aboard Endurance and continue to the Vahsel Bay area, where 14 men would land, of whom six, under Shackleton, would form the transcontinental party. This group, with 69 dogs, two motor sledges, and equipment "embodying everything that the experience of the leader and his expert advisers can suggest",Shackleton 1919, pp. xii–xv. would undertake the journey to the Ross Sea. The remaining eight shore party members would carry out scientific work, three going to Graham Land, three to Enderby Land and two remaining at base camp. The Ross Sea party would set up its base in McMurdo Sound, on the opposite side of the continent. After landing they would lay depots on the route of the transcontinental party as far as the Beardmore Glacier, hopefully meeting that party there and assisting it home. They would also make geological and other observations. === Finances === Shackleton estimated that he would need £50,000 (current value £) to carry out the simplest version of his plan.Fisher 1957, pp. 306–307. He did not believe in appeals to the public: "(they) cause endless book-keeping worries".Huntford 1975, pp. 355–358. His chosen method of fundraising was to solicit contributions from wealthy backers, and he had begun this process early in 1913 with little initial success. The first significant encouragement came in December 1913, when the British government offered him £10,000, provided he could raise an equivalent amount from private sources. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS), from which he had expected nothing, gave him £1,000—according to Huntford, Shackleton, in a grand gesture, advised them that he would only need to take up half of this sum.Huntford 1975, p. 369. Lord Rosebery, who had previously expressed his lack of interest in polar expeditions, gave £50. In February 1914, The New York Times reported that playwright J. M. Barrie—a close friend of Scott, who had become Shackleton's rival late in his career—had confidentially donated $50,000 (about £10,000). With time running out, contributions were eventually secured during the first half of 1914. Dudley Docker of the Birmingham Small Arms Company gave £10,000, wealthy tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb-Wills gave a "generous" sum (the amount was not revealed),Huntford 1975, pp. 375–377. and, in June, Scottish industrialist Sir James Key Caird donated £24,000 (current value £). Shackleton informed the Morning Post that "this magnificent gift relieves me of all anxiety". Shackleton now had the money to proceed. He acquired, for £14,000 (current value £),Fisher 1957, p. 306.Shackleton 1919, p. xv. a 300-ton barquentine called Polaris, which had been built for the Belgian explorer Adrien de Gerlache for an expedition to Spitsbergen. This scheme had collapsed and the ship became available.Huntford 1975, p. 370. Shackleton changed her name to , reflecting his family motto, "By endurance we conquer". For a further £3,200 (current value £), he acquired Douglas Mawson's expedition ship , which was lying in Hobart, Tasmania. This would act as the Ross Sea party's vessel. How much money Shackleton raised to meet the total costs of the expedition (later estimated by the Daily Mail to be around £80,000) is uncertain, since the size of the Stancomb-Wills donation is not known. Money was a constant problem for Shackleton, who as an economy measure halved the funding allocated to the Ross Sea party, a fact which the party's commander Aeneas Mackintosh only discovered when he arrived in Australia to take up his duties.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 34–35. Mackintosh was forced to haggle and plead for money and supplies to make his part of the expedition viable.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 41–48. Shackleton had, however, realised the revenue-earning potential of the expedition. He sold the exclusive newspaper rights to the Daily Chronicle, and formed the Imperial Trans Antarctic Film Syndicate to take advantage of the film rights.Alexander 1998, p. 10. == Personnel == According to legend, Shackleton posted an advertisement in a London paper, stating: "Men wanted for hazardous journey. Low wages, bitter cold, long hours of complete darkness. Safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in event of success." Searches for the original advertisement have proved unsuccessful, and the story is generally regarded as apocryphal.Smith 2015, p. 256.Shackleton Probably Never Took Out an Ad Seeking Men for a Hazardous Journey (Smithsonian Magazine) Shackleton received more than 5,000 applications for places on the expedition, including a letter from "three sporty girls" who suggested that if their feminine garb was inconvenient they would "just love to don masculine attire."Fisher 1957, p. 308. Eventually the crews for the two arms of the expedition were trimmed down to 28 apiece, including William Bakewell, who joined the ship in Buenos Aires; his friend Perce Blackborow, who stowed away when his application was turned down;Huntford 1975, pp. 383–384. and several last-minute appointments made to the Ross Sea party in Australia.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 50–53. A temporary crewman was Sir Daniel Gooch, grandson of the renowned railway pioneer Daniel Gooch, who stepped in to help Shackleton as a dog handler at the last moment and signed up for an able seaman's pay.Smith 2015, p. 266. Gooch agreed to sail with Endurance as far as South Georgia.Fisher 1957, p. 315. As his second-in-command, Shackleton chose Frank Wild, who had been with him on both the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions, and was one of the Farthest South party in 1909.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 21–22. Wild had just returned from Mawson's Australasian Antarctic Expedition. To captain Endurance Shackleton had wanted John King Davis, who had commanded Aurora during the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Davis refused, thinking the enterprise was "foredoomed", so the appointment went to Frank Worsley, who claimed to have applied to the expedition after learning of it in a dream.Huntford 1975, pp. 364–365. Tom Crean, who had been awarded the Albert Medal for saving the life of Lieutenant Edward Evans on the Terra Nova Expedition, took leave from the Royal Navy to sign on as Endurances second officer; another experienced Antarctic hand, Alfred Cheetham, became third officer.Fisher 1957, p. 310. Two Nimrod veterans were assigned to the Ross Sea party: Mackintosh, who commanded it, and Ernest Joyce. Shackleton had hoped that Aurora would be staffed by a naval crew, and had asked the Admiralty for officers and men, but was turned down.Huntford 1975, pp. 370–371. After pressing his case, Shackleton was given one officer from the Royal Marines, Captain Thomas Orde-Lees, who was Superintendent of Physical Training at the Marines training depot.Huntford 1975, p. 372. The scientific staff of six accompanying Endurance comprised the two surgeons, Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy; a geologist, James Wordie; a biologist, Robert Clark; a physicist, Reginald W. James; and Leonard Hussey, a meteorologist who would eventually edit Shackleton's expedition account South. The visual record of the expedition was the responsibility of its photographer Frank Hurley and its artist George Marston.Fisher 1957, pp. 311–314. The final composition of the Ross Sea party was hurried. Some who left Britain for Australia to join Aurora resigned before it departed for the Ross Sea, and a full complement of crew was in doubt until the last minute.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 48–53. Within the party only Mackintosh and Joyce had any previous Antarctic experience; Mackintosh had lost an eye as the result of an accident during the Nimrod expedition and had gone home early. == Expedition == === Weddell Sea party === ==== Voyage through the ice ==== thumb|upright=1.55|alt= Men with digging tools removing ice surrounding the ship's hull, creating an icy pool of water|Crew members working to free the ship from the ice Endurance, without Shackleton (who was detained in England by expedition business), left Plymouth on 8 August 1914, heading first for Buenos Aires. Here Shackleton, who had travelled on a faster ship, rejoined the expedition. Hurley also came on board, together with Bakewell and the stowaway, Blackborow, while several others left the ship or were discharged.Alexander 1998 pp. 15–18. On 26 October, the ship sailed for the South Atlantic, arriving in South Georgia on 5 November. Shackleton's original intention was that the crossing would take place in the first season, 1914–1915. Although he soon recognised the impracticality of this, he neglected to inform Mackintosh and the Ross Sea party of his change of plan. According to the Daily Chronicles correspondent Ernest Perris, a cable intended for Mackintosh was never sent.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 214–215. After a month-long halt in the Grytviken whaling station on South Georgia, Endurance departed for the Antarctic on 5 December. Two days later, Shackleton was disconcerted to encounter pack ice as far north as 57° 26′S,Shackleton 1919, p. 5. forcing the ship to manoeuvre. During the following days there were more tussles with the pack, which, on 14 December, was thick enough to halt the ship for 24 hours. Three days later, the ship was stopped again. Shackleton commented: "I had been prepared for evil conditions in the Weddell Sea, but had hoped that the pack would be loose. What we were encountering was fairly dense pack of a very obstinate character".Shackleton 1919, p. 11. Endurances progress was frustratingly slow, until, on 22 December, leads opened up and the ship was able to continue steadily southward. This continued for the next two weeks, taking the party deep into the Weddell Sea.Shackleton 1919, pp. 12–16. Further delays then slowed progress after the turn of the year, before a lengthy run south during 7–10 January 1915 brought them close to the ice walls which guarded the Antarctic coastal region of Coats Land. This territory had been discovered and named by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.Shackleton 1919, pp. 23–24. On 15 January, Endurance came abreast of a great glacier, the edge of which formed a bay which appeared a good landing place. However, Shackleton considered it too far north of Vahsel Bay for a landing, "except under pressure of necessity"—a decision he would later regret.Shackleton 1919, pp. 26–28. On 17 January, the ship reached a latitude of 76° 27′S, where land was faintly discernible. Shackleton named it Caird Coast, after his principal backer. Bad weather forced the ship to shelter in the lee of a stranded iceberg. Endurance was now close to Luitpold Land, discovered by Filchner in 1912, at the southern end of which lay their destination, Vahsel Bay. Next day, the ship was forced north-westward for , resuming in a generally southerly direction before being stopped altogether. The position was 76° 34′S, 31° 30′W. After ten days of inactivity, Endurances fires were banked to save fuel.Shackleton 1919, p. 31. Strenuous efforts were made to release her; on 14 February, Shackleton ordered men onto the ice with ice-chisels, prickers, saws and picks to try to force a passage, but the labour proved futile. Shackleton did not at this stage abandon all hope of breaking free, but was now contemplating the "possibility of having to spend a winter in the inhospitable arms of the pack".Shackleton 1919, pp. 34–40. ==== Drift of Endurance ==== On 22 February 1915, Endurance, still held fast, drifted to her most southerly latitude, 76° 58′S. Thereafter she began moving with the pack in a northerly direction.Huntford 1975, p. 418. On 24 February, Shackleton realised that they would be held in the ice throughout the winter and ordered ship's routine abandoned. The dogs were taken off board and housed in ice-kennels or "dogloos", and the ship's interior was converted to suitable winter quarters for the various groups of men—officers, scientists, engineers, and seamen. A wireless apparatus was rigged, but their location was too remote to receive or transmit signals. Shackleton was aware of the recent example of Filchner's ship, Deutschland, which had become icebound in the same vicinity three years earlier. After Filchner's attempts to establish a land base at Vahsel Bay failed, his ship was trapped on 6 March 1912, about off the coast of Coats Land. Six months later, at latitude 63° 37', the ship broke free, then sailed to South Georgia apparently none the worse for its ordeal. Shackleton thought that a similar experience might allow Endurance to make a second attempt to reach Vahsel Bay in the following Antarctic spring. In February and March, the rate of drift was very slow. At the end of March, Shackleton calculated that the ship had travelled a mere since 19 January.Shackleton 1919, pp. 43–47. However, as winter set in the speed of the drift increased, and the condition of the surrounding ice changed. On 14 April, Shackleton recorded the nearby pack "piling and rafting against the masses of ice"—if the ship was caught in this disturbance "she would be crushed like an eggshell". In May, as the sun set for the winter months, the ship was at 75° 23′S, 42° 14′W, still drifting northwards. It would be at least four months before spring brought the chance of an opening of the ice, and there was no certainty that Endurance would break free in time to attempt a return to the Vahsel Bay area.Huntford 1975, p. 421. Shackleton now considered the possibility of finding an alternative landing ground on the western shores of the Weddell Sea, if that coast could be reached. "In the meantime", he wrote, "we must wait". In the dark winter months of May, June and July, Shackleton was concerned with maintaining fitness, training and morale. Although the scope for activity was limited, the dogs were exercised (and on occasion raced competitively), men were encouraged to take moonlight walks, and aboard ship there were attempted theatricals. Special occasions such as Empire Day were duly celebrated.Alexander 1998, pp. 52–54.Shackleton 1919, pp. 50–53. The first signs of the ice breaking up occurred on 22 July. On 1 August, in a south-westerly gale with heavy snow, the ice floe began to disintegrate all around the ship, the pressure forcing masses of ice beneath the keel and causing a heavy list to port. The position was perilous; Shackleton wrote: "The effects of the pressure around us was awe-inspiring. Mighty blocks of ice [...] rose slowly till they jumped like cherry-stones gripped between thumb and finger [...] if the ship was once gripped firmly her fate would be sealed".Shackleton 1919, p. 58. This danger passed, and the succeeding weeks were quiet. During this relative lull the ship drifted into the area where, in 1823, Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer Wasp reported seeing a coastline which he identified as "New South Greenland". There was no sign of any such land; Shackleton concluded that Morrell had been deceived by the presence of large icebergs.Shackleton 1919, pp. 60–61. On 30 September, the ship sustained what Shackleton described as "the worst squeeze we had experienced".Shackleton 1919, pp. 65–66. Worsley described the pressure as like being "thrown to and fro like a shuttlecock a dozen times". On 24 October, the starboard side was forced against a large floe, increasing the pressure until the hull began to bend and splinter, so that water from below the ice began to pour into the ship. When the timbers broke they made noises which sailors later described as being similar to the sound of "heavy fireworks and the blasting of guns".Shackleton 1919, pp. 72–73. The supplies and three lifeboats were transferred to the ice, while the crew attempted to shore up the ship's hull and pump out the incoming sea. However, after a few days, on 27 October 1915, and in freezing temperatures below , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship. The position at abandonment was 69° 05′S, 51° 30′W.Shackleton 1919, pp. 74–77. The wreckage remained afloat, and over the following weeks the crew salvaged further supplies and materials, including Hurley's photographs and cameras that had initially been left behind. From around 550 plates, Hurley chose the best 120, the maximum that could be carried, and smashed the rest.Huntford 1975, p. 461. ==== Camping on the ice ==== thumb|Hurley and Shackleton With the loss of Endurance the transcontinental plans were abandoned, and the focus shifted to that of survival. Shackleton's intention now was to march the crew westward, to one or other of several possible destinations. His first thought was for Paulet Island, where he knew there was a hut containing a substantial food depot, because he had ordered it 12 years earlier while organising relief for Otto Nordenskjöld's stranded Swedish expedition.Shackleton 1919, p. 75. Other possibilities were Snow Hill Island, which had been Nordenskiöld's winter quarters and which was believed to contain a stock of emergency supplies, or Robertson Island.Alexander 1998, p. 95. Shackleton believed that from one of these islands they would be able to reach and cross Graham Land and get to the whaling outposts in Wilhelmina Bay. He calculated that on the day Endurance was abandoned they were from Paulet Island. Worsley calculated the distance to Snow Hill Island to be , with a further to Wilhelmina Bay.Huntford 1975, pp. 456–457. He believed the march was too risky; they should wait until the ice carried them to open water, and then escape in the boats. Shackleton over- ruled him. Before the march could begin, Shackleton ordered the weakest animals to be shot, including the carpenter Harry McNish's cat, Mrs Chippy, and a pup which had become a pet of the surgeon Macklin.Shackleton 1919, pp. 81–82. The company set out on 30 October 1915, with two of the ship's lifeboats carried on sledges. Problems quickly arose as the condition of the sea ice around them worsened. According to Hurley the surface became "a labyrinth of hummocks and ridges" in which barely a square yard was smooth. In three days, the party managed to travel barely , and on 1 November, Shackleton abandoned the march; they would make camp and await the break-up of the ice.Alexander 1998, p. 98. They gave the name "Ocean Camp" to the flat and solid-looking floe on which their aborted march had ended, and settled down to wait. Parties continued to revisit the Endurance wreck, which was still drifting with the ice a short distance from the camp. More of the abandoned supplies were retrieved until, on 21 November, the ship finally slipped beneath the ice.Shackleton 1919, p. 98. The final resting place of Endurance would remain a mystery for nearly 107 years, until the wreckage was discovered on 5 March 2022. The ice was not drifting fast enough to be noticeable, although by late November the speed was up to a day.Shackleton 1919, p. 94. By 5 December, they had passed 68°S, but the direction was turning slightly east of north.Huntford 1975, pp. 468–469. This was taking the transcontinental party to a position from which it would be difficult to reach Snow Hill Island, although Paulet Island, further north, remained a possibility. Paulet Island was about away, and Shackleton was anxious to reduce the length of the lifeboat journey that would be necessary to reach it. Therefore, on 21 December he announced a second march, to begin on 23 December.Huntford 1975, pp. 473–476. Conditions, however, had not improved since the earlier attempt. Temperatures had risen and it was uncomfortably warm, with men sinking to their knees in soft snow as they struggled to haul the boats through the pressure ridges. On 27 December, McNish rebelled and refused to work, arguing that Admiralty law had lapsed since Endurances sinking and that he was no longer under orders. Shackleton's firm remonstrance finally brought the carpenter to heel, but the incident was never forgotten.White, pp. 305–306. Two days later, with only progress achieved in seven back-breaking days, Shackleton called a halt, observing: "It would take us over three hundred days to reach the land".Shackleton 1919, p. 106. The crew put up their tents and settled into what Shackleton called "Patience Camp", which would be their home for more than three months. Supplies were now running low. Hurley and Macklin were sent back to Ocean Camp to recover food that had been left there to lighten the sledging teams’ burden. On 2 February 1916, Shackleton sent a larger party back to recover the third lifeboat.Shackleton 1919, pp. 107–109. Food shortages became acute as the weeks passed, and seal meat, which had added variety to their diet, now became a staple as Shackleton attempted to conserve the remaining packaged rations. In January, all but two teams of the dogs (whose overall numbers had been depleted by mishaps and illness in the preceding months) were shot on Shackleton's orders, because the dogs' requirements for seal meat were excessive. The final two teams were shot on 2 April, by which time their meat was a welcome addition to the rations.Shackleton 1919, p. 112. Meanwhile, the rate of drift became erratic; after being held at around 67° for several weeks, at the end of January there was a series of rapid north-eastward movements which, by 17 March, brought Patience Camp to the latitude of Paulet Island, but 60 nm (111 km) to its east. "It might have been six hundred for all the chance we had of reaching it across the broken sea-ice", Shackleton recorded.Shackleton 1919, p. 116. The party now had land more or less continuously in sight. The peak of Mount Haddington on James Ross Island remained in view as the party drifted slowly by.Fisher 1957, p. 366. They were too far north for Snow Hill or Paulet Island to be accessible, and Shackleton's chief hopes were now fixed on two remaining small islands at the northern extremity of Graham Land. These were Clarence Island and Elephant Island, around 100 nautical miles (185 km) due north of their position on 25 March. He then decided Deception Island might be a better target destination. This lay far to the west, toward the South Shetland Islands, but Shackleton thought it might be attainable by island-hopping. Its advantage was that it was sometimes visited by whalers and might contain provisions, whereas Clarence Island and Elephant Island were desolate and unvisited.Shackleton 1919, p. 119. To reach any of these destinations would require a perilous journey in the lifeboats once the floe upon which they were drifting finally broke up. Earlier, the lifeboats had been named after the expedition's three chief financial sponsors: James Caird, Dudley Docker and Stancomb Wills.Huntford 1975, p. 469. ==== Lifeboat journey to Elephant Island ==== thumb|upright=1.6|Paths taken from Endurances beset to the final rescue The end of Patience Camp was signalled on the evening of 8 April, when the floe suddenly split. The camp now found itself on a small triangular raft of ice; a break-up of this would mean disaster, so Shackleton readied the lifeboats for the party's enforced departure.Shackleton 1919, p. 121. He had now decided they would try, if possible, to reach the distant Deception Island because a small wooden church had been reportedly erected for the benefit of whalers. This could provide a source of timber that might enable them to construct a seaworthy boat. At 1 p.m. on 9 April, the Dudley Docker was launched, and an hour later all three boats were away. Shackleton himself commanded the James Caird, Worsley the Dudley Docker, and navigating officer Hubert Hudson was nominally in charge of the Stancomb Wills, though because of his precarious mental state the effective commander was Tom Crean.Huntford 1975, p. 506 The boats were surrounded by ice, dependent upon leads of water opening up, and progress was perilous and erratic. Frequently the boats were tied to floes, or dragged up onto them, while the men camped and waited for conditions to improve.Huntford 1975, pp. 508–512. Shackleton was wavering again between several potential destinations, and on 12 April rejected the various island options and decided on Hope Bay, at the very tip of Graham Land. However, conditions in the boats, in temperatures sometimes as low as , with little food and regular soakings in icy seawater, were wearing the men down, physically and mentally. Shackleton therefore decided that Elephant Island, the nearest of the possible refuges, was now the most practical option.Huntford 1975, pp. 509–513. On 14 April, the boats lay off the south- east coast of Elephant Island, but could not land as the shore consisted of perpendicular cliffs and glaciers. Next day the James Caird rounded the eastern point of the island to reach the northern lee shore, and discovered a narrow shingle beach. Soon afterwards, the three boats, which had been separated during the previous night, were reunited at this landing place. It was apparent from high tide markings that this beach would not serve as a long-term camp,Shackleton 1919, pp. 142–150. so the next day Wild and a crew set off in the Stancomb Wills to explore the coast for a safer site. They returned with news of a long spit of land, to the west. With minimum delay the men returned to the boats and transferred to this new location, which they later christened Cape Wild.Smith 2015, pp. 328–329. ==== Voyage of the James Caird ==== Elephant Island was remote, uninhabited, and rarely visited by whalers or any other ships. If the party was to return to civilization it would be necessary to summon help. The only realistic way this could be done was to adapt one of the lifeboats for an voyage across the Southern Ocean, to South Georgia. Shackleton had abandoned thoughts of taking the party on the less dangerous journey to Deception Island,Fisher 1957, p. 371. because of the poor physical condition of many of his party. Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands was closer than South Georgia but could not be reached, as this would require sailing against the strong prevailing winds.Shackleton 1919, pp. 156–157. Shackleton selected the boat party: himself, Worsley, Crean, McNish, and sailors John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy. On instructions from Shackleton, McNish immediately set about adapting the James Caird, improvising tools and materials.Shackleton 1919, pp. 158–159.Alexander 1998, pp. 134–135. Wild was to be left in charge of the Elephant Island party, with instructions to make for Deception Island the following spring should Shackleton not return. Shackleton took supplies for only four weeks, judging that if land had not been reached within that time the boat would be lost.Alexander 1998, pp. 136–137. The James Caird was launched on 24 April 1916. The success of the voyage depended on the pin-point accuracy of Worsley's navigation, using observations that would have to be made in the most unfavourable of conditions.Huntford 1975, p. 563. The prevailing wind was helpfully north- west, but the heavy sea conditions quickly soaked everything in icy water. Soon ice settled thickly on the boat, making her ride sluggishly. On 5 May, a north-westerly gale almost caused the boat's destruction as it faced what Shackleton described as the largest waves he had seen in 26 years at sea.Fisher 1957, pp. 378–382. On 8 May, South Georgia was sighted, after a 14-day battle with the elements that had driven the boat party to their physical limits. Two days later, after a prolonged struggle with heavy seas and hurricane-force winds to the south of the island, the party struggled ashore at King Haakon Bay.Shackleton 1919, pp. 175–180. ==== South Georgia crossing ==== The arrival of the James Caird at King Haakon Bay was followed by a period of rest and recuperation, while Shackleton pondered the next move. The populated whaling stations of South Georgia lay on the northern coast. To reach them would mean either another boat journey around the island, or a land crossing through its unexplored interior. The condition of the James Caird, and the physical state of the party, particularly Vincent and McNish, meant that the crossing was the only realistic option.Shackleton 1919, p. 185.Fisher 1957, p. 383. After five days, the party took the boat a short distance eastwards, to the head of a deep bay which would be the starting point for the crossing. Shackleton, Worsley and Crean would undertake the land journey, the others remaining at what they christened "Peggotty Camp", to be picked up later after help had been obtained from the whaling stations. A storm on 18 May delayed their start, but by two o'clock the following morning the weather was clear and calm, and an hour later the crossing party set out. The party's destination was the whaling station at Stromness, which had been Endurances last port of call on their outbound journey. This was roughly away, across the edge of the Allardyce Range. Another whaling station was known to be at Prince Olav Harbour, just north of Peggotty Camp over easier terrain, but as far as the party was aware, this was only inhabited during the summer months. Shackleton and his men did not know that during their two-year absence in Antarctica, the station's owners had begun year-round operations.Worsley 1933, p. 112 Without a map, the route the party chose was largely conjectural. By dawn they had ascended to and could see the northern coast. They were above Possession Bay, which meant they would need to move eastward to reach Stromness. This meant the first of several backtrackings that would extend the journey and frustrate the men. At the close of that first day, needing to descend to the valley below them before nightfall, they risked everything by sliding down a mountainside on a makeshift rope sledge.Fisher 1957, p. 384. They travelled without rest on by moonlight, moving upwards towards a gap in the next mountainous ridge. Early next morning, 20 May, seeing Husvik Harbour below them, the party knew that they were on the right path. At seven o'clock in the morning, they heard a steam whistle sound from Stromness, "the first sound created by an outside human agency that had come to our ears since we left Stromness Bay in December 1914".Fisher 1957, p. 385. After a difficult descent, which involved passage down through a freezing waterfall, they at last reached safety.Fisher 1957, p. 386. Shackleton wrote afterwards: "I have no doubt that Providence guided us ... I know that during that long and racking march of 36 hours over the unnamed mountains and glaciers it seemed to me often that we were four, not three".Shackleton 1919, p. 209. This image of a fourth traveller was echoed in the accounts of Worsley and Crean and later influenced T. S. Eliot in the writing of his poem The Waste Land.Huntford 1975, pp. 696–697. This phenomenon has been reported by other adventurers and is known as the Third Man factor. ==== Rescue ==== thumb|The departure of the James Caird Shackleton's first task, on arriving at the Stromness station, was to arrange for his three companions at Peggotty Camp to be picked up. A whaler was sent round the coast, with Worsley aboard to show the way, and by the evening of 21 May all six of the James Caird party were safe.Shackleton 1919, p. 208–209. It took four attempts before Shackleton was able to return to Elephant Island to rescue the party stranded there. He first left South Georgia a mere three days after he had arrived in Stromness, after securing the use of a large whaler, The Southern Sky, which was laid up in Husvik Harbour. Shackleton assembled a volunteer crew, which had it ready to sail by the morning of 22 May. As the vessel approached Elephant Island they saw that an impenetrable barrier of pack ice had formed, some from their destination. The Southern Sky was not built for ice breaking, and retreated to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands.Shackleton 1919, pp. 210–213. On reaching Port Stanley, Shackleton informed London by cable of his whereabouts and requested that a suitable vessel be sent south for the rescue operation. He was informed by the Admiralty that nothing was available before October, which in his view was too late. Then, with the help of the British Minister in Montevideo, Shackleton obtained from the Uruguayan government the loan of a tough trawler, Instituto de Pesca No. 1, which started south on 10 June. Again the pack thwarted them. In search of another ship, Shackleton, Worsley and Crean travelled to Punta Arenas, where they met Allan MacDonald, the British owner of the schooner Emma. McDonald equipped this vessel for a further rescue attempt, which left on 12 July, but with the same negative result—the pack defeated them yet again.Shackleton 1919, pp. 214–218. Shackleton later named a glacier after McDonald on the Brunt Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea. After problems arose in identifying this glacier, a nearby ice rise was renamed the McDonald Ice Rumples. By now it was mid-August, more than three months since Shackleton had left Elephant Island. Shackleton begged the Chilean Navy to lend him , a small steam tug that had assisted Emma during the previous attempt. They agreed; on 25 August, Yelcho—captained by captain of Chilean Navy Luis Pardo—set out for Elephant Island. This time, as Shackleton recorded, providence favoured them. The seas were open, and the ship was able to approach close to the island in thick fog. At 11:40 a.m. on 30 August, the fog lifted, the camp was spotted and, within an hour, all the Elephant Island party were safely aboard, bound for Punta Arenas.Shackleton 1919, pp. 218–219. ==== On Elephant Island ==== After Shackleton left with the James Caird, Wild took command of the Elephant Island party, some of whom were in a low state, physically or mentally: Lewis Rickinson had suffered a suspected heart attack; Perce Blackborow was unable to walk, due to frostbitten feet; Hubert Hudson was depressed.Huntford 1975, p. 533. The priority for the party was a permanent shelter against the rapidly approaching southern winter. On the suggestion of Marston and Lionel Greenstreet, a hut—nicknamed the "Snuggery"—was improvised by upturning the two boats and placing them on low stone walls, to provide around of headroom. By means of canvas and other materials the structure was made into a crude but effective shelter.Mills 1999, pp. 239–240. Wild initially estimated that they would have to wait one month for rescue, and refused to allow long-term stockpiling of seal and penguin meat because this, in his view, was defeatist.Mills 1999, p. 241. This policy led to sharp disagreements with Orde-Lees, the storekeeper, who was not a popular man and whose presence apparently did little to improve the morale of his companions, unless it was by way of being the butt of their jokes.Mills 1999, pp. 242–250. As the weeks extended well beyond his initial optimistic forecast, Wild established and maintained routines and activities to relieve the tedium. A permanent lookout was kept for the arrival of the rescue ship, cooking and housekeeping rotas were established, and there were hunting trips for seal and penguin.Mills 1999, pp. 250–252. Concerts were held on Saturdays and anniversaries were celebrated, but there were growing feelings of despondency as time passed with no sign of rescue. The toes on Blackborow's left foot became gangrenous from frostbite and, on 15 June, had to be amputated by surgeons Macklin and McIlroy in the candle-lit hut. Using the last of the chloroform in their medical supplies, the whole procedure took 55 minutes and was a complete success.Huntford 1975, pp. 532–533. By 23 August, it seemed that Wild's no-stockpiling policy had failed. The surrounding sea was dense with pack ice that would halt any rescue ship, food supplies were running out and no penguins were coming ashore. Orde-Lees wrote: "We shall have to eat the one who dies first [...] there's many a true word said in jest".Huntford 1975, p. 541. Wild's thoughts were now seriously turning to the possibility of a boat trip to Deception Island—he planned to set out on 5 October, in the hope of meeting a whaling ship—Alexander 1998, p. 182. when, on 30 August 1916, the ordeal ended suddenly with the appearance of Shackleton and Yelcho.Mills 1999, p. 261. === Ross Sea Party === Aurora left Hobart on 24 December 1914, having been delayed in Australia by financial and organizational problems. The arrival in McMurdo Sound on 15 January 1915 was later in the season than planned, but the party's commander, Aeneas Mackintosh, made immediate plans for a depot-laying journey on the Ross Ice Shelf, since he understood that Shackleton hoped to attempt the crossing during that first season.Fisher 1957, pp. 397–400. Neither the men nor the dogs were acclimatised, and the party was, as a whole, very inexperienced in ice conditions. The first journey on the ice resulted in the loss of ten of the party's 18 dogs and a frostbitten and generally demoralised shore party; a single, incomplete depot was their only achievement.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 69–105. On 7 May, Aurora, anchored at the party's Cape Evans headquarters, was wrenched from her moorings during a gale and carried with drifting ice far out to sea. Unable to return to McMurdo Sound, she remained captive in the ice for nine months until on 12 February 1916, having travelled a distance of around , she reached open water and limped to New Zealand.Shackleton 1919, pp. 307–333. Aurora carried with her the greater part of the shore party's fuel, food rations, clothing and equipment, although the sledging rations for the depots had been landed ashore. To continue with its mission the stranded shore party had to re-supply and re-equip itself from the leftovers from earlier expeditions, notably Scott's Terra Nova Expedition, which had been based at Cape Evans a few years earlier. They were thus able to begin the second season's depot-laying on schedule, in September 1915.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 128–144. In the following months, the required depots were laid, at one-degree intervals across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 145–175. On the return journey from the glacier the party was attacked by scurvy; Arnold Spencer-Smith, the expedition's chaplain and photographer, collapsed and died on the ice. The remainder of the party reached the temporary shelter of Hut Point, a relic of the Discovery Expedition at the southern end of McMurdo Sound, where they slowly recovered.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 176–192. On 8 May 1916, Mackintosh and Victor Hayward decided to walk across the unstable sea ice to Cape Evans, were caught in a blizzard and were not seen again.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 195–197. The survivors eventually reached Cape Evans, but then had to wait for eight further months. Finally, on 10 January 1917, the repaired and refitted Aurora, whose departure from New Zealand had been delayed by lack of money, arrived to transport them back to civilization.Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 222–227, 234–243. Shackleton accompanied the ship as a supernumerary officer, having been denied command by the governments of New Zealand, Australia and Great Britain, who had jointly organised and financed the Ross Sea party's relief.Tyler-Lewis 2006, p. 231. == Return to civilization, and aftermath == The rescued party, having had its last contact with civilization in 1914, was unaware of the course of the Great War. News of Shackleton's safe arrival in the Falklands briefly eclipsed war news in the British newspapers on 2 June 1916.Huntford 1975, pp. 605–606. Yelcho had a "triumphal" welcome in Punta Areas after its successful mission. The rescuees were then moved to the port of Valparaíso in Central Chile where they had again a warm welcome, from there they were repatriated. The expedition returned home in piecemeal fashion, at a critical stage in the war, without the normal honours and civic receptions. When Shackleton himself finally arrived in England on 29 May 1917, after a short American lecture tour, his return was barely noticed.Huntford 1975, p. 647. Despite McNish's efforts in preparing and sailing on the James Caird voyage, his prior insubordination meant that, on Shackleton's recommendation, he was one of four men denied the Polar Medal; the others whose contributions fell short of Shackleton's expected standards were John Vincent, William Stephenson and Ernest Holness.Huntford 1975, p. 656. Most of the members of the expedition returned to take up immediate active military or naval service. Before the war ended, two—Tim McCarthy of the open boat journey and the veteran Antarctic sailor Alfred Cheetham—had been killed in action, and Ernest Wild, Frank's younger brother and member of the Ross Sea party, had died of typhoid while serving in the Mediterranean. Several others were severely wounded, and many received decorations for gallantry.Shackleton 1919, pp. 339–341. Following a propaganda mission in Buenos Aires, Shackleton was employed during the last weeks of the war on special service in Murmansk, with the army rank of major.Fisher 1957, p. 432. This occupied him until March 1919. He thereafter organised one final Antarctic expedition, the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition on , which left London on 17 September 1921. From the Endurance crew, Wild, Worsley, Macklin, McIlroy, Hussey, Alexander Kerr, Thomas McLeod and cook Charles Green all sailed with Quest.Smith 2015, pp. 402–407. Shackleton died of a heart attack on 5 January 1922, while Quest was anchored at South Georgia.Smith 2015, pp. 410–411. After his death the original programme, which had included an exploration of Enderby Land,Mills 1999, p. 289. was abandoned. Wild led a brief cruise which brought them into sight of Elephant Island. They anchored off Cape Wild and were able to see the old landmarks, but sea conditions made it impossible for them to land.Mills 1999, pp. 304–305. It would be more than forty years before the first crossing of Antarctica was achieved, by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955–1958. This expedition set out from Vahsel Bay, the same bay Shackleton was in sight of when the Endurance became trapped in ice. They followed a route which avoided the Beardmore Glacier altogether, and bypassed much of the Ross Ice Shelf, reaching McMurdo Sound via a descent of the Skelton Glacier. The entire journey took 98 days.Fuchs & Hillary 1958, p. 293. For Chile, the rescue marked the beginning of the country's official operations in Antarctica. == Citations == === General and cited sources === * * * * * * * * * * == Further reading == * * * * * * == External links == * Category:1914 in Antarctica Category:1914 in science Category:1914 in the United Kingdom Category:1915 in Antarctica Category:1915 in science Category:1916 in Antarctica Category:1916 in science Category:1917 in Antarctica Category:1917 in science Category:Antarctic expeditions Category:Ernest Shackleton Category:Expeditions from the United Kingdom Category:History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Category:United Kingdom and the Antarctic
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David Keith Stewart (born February 19, 1957), nicknamed "Smoke", is an American professional baseball executive, pitching coach, sports agent, and former starting pitcher. The Los Angeles Dodgers' 16th-round selection in the 1975 MLB draft, Stewart's MLB playing career spanned from 1978 through 1995, winning three World Series championships all with different clubs while compiling a career 3.95 earned run average (ERA) and a 168–129 won–lost record, including winning 20 games in four consecutive seasons. He pitched for the Dodgers, Texas Rangers, Philadelphia Phillies, Oakland Athletics, and Toronto Blue Jays. Stewart was an MLB All-Star and was known for his intimidating pitching style and his postseason performance, winning one World Series Most Valuable Player Award and two League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Awards. After his playing career, he served as a pitching coach for the San Diego Padres, Milwaukee Brewers, and Blue Jays and as an assistant GM. General managers he has worked under include Sandy Alderson, Kevin Towers, Gord Ash, and Dean Taylor. He later became a sports agent based in San Diego until the Arizona Diamondbacks hired him as general manager at the end of the 2014 season. He was fired as the Diamondbacks' GM in 2016. ==Early life== Stewart was born in Oakland, California. His father, David, was a longshoreman, and his mother, Nathalie, worked at a cannery. His father didn't want Stewart to play sports, because he felt nobody could make a living hitting a ball, so his older brother taught him how to play. As a kid, Stewart spent many days at the East Oakland Branch of the Oakland Boys Club. Stewart attended St. Elizabeth High School in Oakland, where he earned All-American honors in both baseball (where he played catcher) and in football (where he was a linebacker and tight end). He also averaged 16 points per game as a small forward on the basketball team. He was offered 30 college scholarships to play football, but turned them all down to sign with the Los Angeles Dodgers, who selected him in the 16th round of the 1975 Major League Baseball draft. ==Professional career== ===Los Angeles Dodgers=== The Dodgers decided to turn Stewart into a pitcher because of his strong arm. He made his professional debut with the Bellingham Dodgers of the short-season single-A Northwest League. He had a 0–5 win–loss record with a 5.51 earned run average (ERA) in 22 games pitched, five of which were games started, for a Bellingham team that set a record by losing the first 24 games of the season. He was promoted to the Midwest League at the end of the 1976 season and with the Clinton Dodgers in 1977 he had a breakout season: 17–4 with a 2.15 ERA in 24 starts, including 15 complete games and 3 shutouts. Despite his impressive season, he lost out on the Midwest League MVP and Top prospect honors to future Hall of Famer Paul Molitor, then with the Burlington Bees. Stewart was promoted to the AA San Antonio Dodgers of the Texas League for the 1978 season. He was 14–12 with a 3.68 ERA in 28 starts for San Antonio. Stewart made his major league debut on September 22, 1978, pitching two innings in relief against the San Diego Padres. He allowed only one hit and no runs while striking out one batter (Jim Beswick). That was his only appearance for the Dodgers that season. Stewart spent all of the 1979 and 1980 seasons in AAA with the Albuquerque Dukes. Despite an 11–12 record and 5.24 ERA in 28 games for the Dukes in 1979, Stewart felt he pitched well and was disappointed when he did not receive a September call-up. In 1980, he was 15–10 with a 3.70 ERA for a Dukes team that won the Pacific Coast League (PCL) Championship. He led the PCL in innings pitched (202) and starts (29) and tied for the league lead in wins (15). Stewart went to spring training with the Dodgers in 1981. Because he was out of options, the Dodgers could not send him back down to the minors without risk of losing him to another team. They initially planned to release him, but eventually cut Don Stanhouse instead. He made the Dodgers opening day roster and pitched in relief that season, appearing in 32 games with a 2.49 ERA and six saves. He got his first Major League win in his first appearance of the season, on April 13 against the San Francisco Giants, when he worked two scoreless innings in relief of Bob Welch. His first save was recorded on August 16 against the Atlanta Braves. When MLB's players went on a two-month long strike on June 12, Stewart was hard pressed financially and went to work for a Dodger fan that owned a metal fastener business and worked out with a semi-pro team along with teammate Bobby Castillo. The Dodgers made the split-season playoffs and Stewart saw his first taste of post-season action, being credited as the losing pitcher in the first two games of the Division Series against the Houston Astros. He allowed a walk-off homer to Alan Ashby in game one and allowing the winning runs to reach base in the 11th inning of game two. He redeemed himself by not allowing a run in the two games he appeared in for the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series against the New York Yankees, which the Dodgers won in six games. He spent time as both a starter and a reliever in 1982, appearing in 45 games (starting 14 of them) and was 9–8 with a 3.81 ERA. The Dodgers almost traded Stewart to the Texas Rangers after the 1982 season in a package for catcher Jim Sundberg, however, Sundberg wouldn't waive his no-trade clause and the deal fell apart. In 1983, he appeared in 46 games for the Dodgers, all but one as a relief pitcher, with a 5–2 record and a 2.96 ERA. On July 11, he was part of a play that Dodgers Manager Tommy Lasorda called one of the "craziest" moments he'd ever seen, when three runs scored on a wild pitch. ===Texas Rangers=== On August 19, 1983, the Dodgers traded Stewart with a player to be named later (Ricky Wright) to the Rangers for Rick Honeycutt. The trade was controversial at the time, with many feeling that Rangers GM Joe Klein had gotten too little in exchange for his team's best pitcher. The Rangers placed Stewart in the starting rotation. He made eight starts down the stretch, going 5–2 with a 2.14 ERA. In 1984, however, Stewart struggled, producing a 7–14 record and a 4.73 ERA in 27 starts before losing his rotation spot. Tom House joined the organization in January 1985 as the team's new pitching coach. He decided that Stewart needed a new pitch and started teaching him a split-fingered fastball. In 1985, the Rangers used Stewart as a relief pitcher, but his performances out of the bullpen were poor. On May 22 he gave up a three-run homer to Jorge Orta of the Kansas City Royals, giving up the lead. The home fans booed him off the field; after the game, Stewart called the fans "idiots" and challenged them to come on to the field and do his job for him. The team's new General Manager, Tom Grieve, fined Stewart $500 for his remarks, but that wasn't enough for Rangers owner Eddie Chiles, who demanded that Grieve trade Stewart. After finding a weak market for him, the Rangers finally managed to trade Stewart to the Philadelphia Phillies on September 13, 1985, for pitcher Rick Surhoff. In 42 games for the Rangers in 1985, Stewart was 0–6 with a 5.42 ERA. ===Philadelphia Phillies=== In the off-season, he negotiated with the Yomiuri Giants of Nippon Professional Baseball, but they did not agree to terms on a contract so he re-signed with the Phillies. Stewart appeared in 12 games for the team over parts of the 1985 and 1986 seasons, recording a 6.00 ERA. There were rumors that Stewart had been pitching injured, but the Phillies still released him on May 9, 1986. Stewart later said that the Phillies lied to him, and that they had said if he kept his nose clean he would get somewhere, but instead he was released. ===Oakland Athletics=== Stewart had a try-out with the Baltimore Orioles, but they told him they didn't even have a spot for him in Double-A. He wound up signing a free agent contract with the Oakland Athletics on May 23, 1986. After one game with The Triple-A Tacoma Tigers, Stewart joined the A's roster. In a game on July 1, he punched Pat Corrales, the manager of the Cleveland Indians, during a game, which initiated a bench- clearing brawl. He was suspended four games and fined for his actions. Also in 1986, Stewart developed a forkball to supplement his fastball and slider. He pitched in 29 games for the Athletics in 1986, with 17 starts. He was 9–5 with a 3.74 ERA. Stewart signed a two-year $500,000 contract with the Athletics prior to the 1987 season. He won 20 games in 1987, while posting a 3.68 ERA and striking out 205 batters. He credited pitching coach Dave Duncan with helping improve his pitches. In 1988 he won his first eight games and claimed the Major League Baseball Pitcher of the Month Award. He went 21–12, 3.23 ERA while leading the American League (AL) with 14 complete games and innings pitched. Stewart started two games in the A's four-game sweep of the Boston Red Sox in the 1988 American League Championship Series. After the series, his manager Tony La Russa said he had "never met a player or person of higher quality." Stewart was the starting pitcher in game one of the 1988 World Series against the Dodgers. Prior to the game, he told Dodgers' second baseman Steve Sax that he was going to hit him in the neck during the game. He came close, drilling Sax in the left shoulder and glaring at him. He allowed three runs in eight innings and was in line for the win before Kirk Gibson's walk- off homer off closer Dennis Eckersley gave the game to the Dodgers. Working on three days rest, Stewart wasn't as good in game four, allowing four runs (only two earned) and leaving the game with one out in the sixth to pick up the loss. The Dodgers finished off their championship with a win in Game five. In 1989, Stewart was 21–9 with a 3.32 ERA in 36 starts. His manager, La Russa, was also the manager of the American League team at the All-Star Game and picked Stewart to start for the AL team over fan favorite Nolan Ryan. He allowed two runs to score in his one inning of work in the game. He finished second in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award to Kansas City Royals pitcher Bret Saberhagen. In the 1989 American League Championship Series, Stewart won both of the games he pitched with a 2.81 ERA. In the World Series, Stewart pitched a complete game shutout in the first game against the San Francisco Giants. The series was interrupted when an earthquake struck the Bay Area just prior to the start of Game 3. When the series resumed, 10 days later, Stewart started game three for the A's, and picked up his second win of the series when he allowed three runs in seven innings. The A's swept the series in four games and Stewart was selected as the MVP of the series going 2–0 with a 1.69 ERA. Stewart signed a new two-year $7 million contract extension with the Athletics after the season. This was the largest contract in baseball at the time. In 1990, Stewart was 22–11 (his fourth straight 20-win season and tied for 2nd in the majors) with a 2.56 ERA in 36 starts. He led the league in innings pitched (267), complete games (11) and shutouts (4) while being third in ERA and finishing third in the Cy Young voting. On June 29, he no-hit the Toronto Blue Jays, at SkyDome, the first no-hitter by an African American since Jim Bibby in 1973. That same day, Fernando Valenzuela of the Dodgers no-hit the St. Louis Cardinals at Dodger Stadium – the first time in Major League history that no-hitters had been thrown in both leagues on the same day. The A's won their third straight pennant, beating the Boston Red Sox in the American League Championship Series, and Stewart was named the ALCS MVP going 2–0 with a 1.13 ERA. Stewart got the start in Game one of the 1990 World Series for the heavily favored A's against the Cincinnati Reds. However, Eric Davis hit a two-run home run off him in the first inning and he only lasted four innings as the Reds pulled off the upset. He pitched better in game four, allowing only one earned run while pitching a complete game, but the Reds won the game and finished off a sweep of the series. Despite being the losing pitcher in games 1 and 4 Stewart had a 2.77 ERA in the 1990 World Series. After the 1990 season, Stewart was part of a Major League All-Star team that played an eight-game series in Japan against a Japanese all-star team. He went on the disabled list for the first time in his career in 1991 because of a strained rib muscle, which caused him to miss three weeks of the season. When he returned he was not as dominant as he had been before. His troubles were partly because of an inability to throw his forkball for strikes and as a result he was pitching with less confidence. In 35 starts, Stewart finished 11–11 with a league-high 5.18 ERA in 1991 as the Athletics missed the playoffs for the first time since 1987. Stewart was bothered by elbow tendinitis for much of the 1992 season but still made 31 starts (his fewest since 1986) and had a 12–10 record and 3.66 ERA. The A's returned to the playoffs, but this time were seen as underdogs to the Toronto Blue Jays in the American League Championship Series. Stewart started the opener of the series and pitched 7.2 innings while allowing only three runs in a game the A's won. The A's lost the next three games and were on the verge of elimination, so he called a team meeting in order to give his teammates a pep talk. He responded by pitching a complete game victory in game five, allowing only two runs. It was the first complete game victory in an ALCS game since Bruce Hurst of the Boston Red Sox pitched one in 1986 against the California Angels. However, the Blue Jays won the next game to take the series and eliminate the A's from the post-season. ===Toronto Blue Jays=== Stewart signed a two-year, $8.5 million contract with the Blue Jays on December 8, 1992. He said that he was sad to leave the A's, whom he had envisioned spending the rest of his career with, but he felt the Blue Jays treated him with more respect with their offer. He said that the A's General Manager, Sandy Alderson, was disrespectful of him and all he had done for Oakland and was insulted that he was accused of disloyalty when he signed with the Blue Jays. As a member of the Blue Jays rotation in 1993, Stewart made 26 starts and was 12–8 with a 4.44 ERA. He suffered from a number of injuries during the season but the Blue Jays stuck with him because of his heart and competitiveness as well as the support he offered to other pitchers on the staff. The Blue Jays made it to the ALCS where Stewart got the call in game two. He allowed only one run in six innings of work to pick up the win. The day before his next start, while the rest of his team was already in Chicago, he was in Toronto helping the Salvation Army deliver food to the homeless on Thanksgiving Day in Canada. He made it to the game on time, and pitched 7.1 innings for his second win of the series, in the clinching game six that sent the Blue Jays back to the World Series. He was selected as ALCS MVP for the second time in his career. In the 1993 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies, Stewart got the start in game two and struggled, allowing five runs in six innings to take a rare post-season loss. Nevertheless, he was confident heading into his next start, in game six, saying he was pitching for respect as much as for another championship. He allowed four runs in six innings but that was enough as the Blue Jays, thanks to a three-run walk-off homer by Joe Carter won the game 8–6 and with it took the series, 4 games to 2. Stewart remained with the Blue Jays for the 1994 season, making 22 starts for them with a 7–8 record and 5.87 ERA before the 1994–95 MLB strike wiped out the rest of the season in August (and delayed the start of the next season). He had planned to retire at the end of the season but was bothered by the lack of empathy on the part of the fans towards the players. He would later say that he never felt the same passion for baseball after the strike. ===Return to the Oakland Athletics and retirement=== When the strike finally ended, he re-signed with the Athletics on April 8, 1995, and was their opening day starter on April 26, 1995. However, he could not recapture his prior form. Stewart was rocked for nine runs and was removed from the game with only one out in the second inning. In 16 starts, he was 3–7 with a 6.89 ERA, prompting the manager to announce publicly that Stewart would move to the bullpen for the first time since 1986 and be replaced in the rotation by Todd van Poppel. Stewart chose to retire rather than make the move to the pen. He made the public announcement on July 24, 1995, saying it was a low point in his life and he just couldn't perform like he wanted to anymore. Over his career, he started 18 games in the postseason, compiling a stellar 2.84 ERA and 10–6 (10–4 as a starter) record. In the LCS, he was especially dominant, going 8–0. ==Post-playing career== Stewart served as the assistant to Sandy Alderson, the general manager of the Athletics, in 1996. In 1997, he left that position to serve in a similar capacity under Kevin Towers of the San Diego Padres. In 1998, he agreed to become the Padres' pitching coach, despite some worry that it would detract from his goal of becoming a GM and some personal conflict between him and team president Larry Lucchino. He turned around a pitching staff that had been awful the year before and helped get the team into the World Series. Several of the Padres pitchers (including Andy Ashby, Sterling Hitchcock and Joey Hamilton) credited Stewart directly with the improvement of the staff. He maintained some of his front office duties, including running the Latin America scouting department, during the season and often remarked that he would leave for the right front office position. Stewart left San Diego after the season and interviewed for assistant GM positions with Oakland and the Florida Marlins. He was a finalist to replace Frank Wren in Florida but his concern about the high crime rate in South Florida led him to turn down the position. His familiarity with the Blue Jays organization was the main reason he accepted the job there under Gord Ash. When the Blue Jays fired pitching coach Rick Langford in the middle of the 2000 season, Stewart moved into the position on July 24, 2000. After the 2001 season, when the Blue Jays had an opening at general manager, they passed on Stewart, hiring J. P. Ricciardi instead. Stewart chose to resign from his dual role as pitching coach and assistant general manager. He was outspoken about the fact that he felt minorities were being discriminated against in the front office and that the decision by team president Paul Godfrey was racist. Frustrated, he said, "I think the whole process is a waste of time." He joined the Milwaukee Brewers as their pitching coach for the 2002 season under manager Davey Lopes. After the team started 3–12, Lopes was fired and Stewart was a candidate to replace him but it instead went to bench coach Jerry Royster. He resigned on July 29, 2002, in order to care for his mother and spend more time with family. After leaving that position he was the pitching coach for the United States national baseball team at the Olympic Qualifying tournament. Stewart started a sports agency called Sports Management Partners. His first big deal was negotiating a six-year $66 million contract extension between the A's and third baseman Eric Chavez. He also negotiated contracts for Matt Kemp and Chad Billingsley. On September 25, 2014, the Arizona Diamondbacks hired Stewart to become their general manager, replacing Towers; he was the fourth GM hired by the team since 2010. He reported to La Russa, his former manager when he played for Oakland, who served as the Diamondbacks' chief baseball officer. He transferred his management company to former A's teammate Dave Henderson and his wife, Lonnie Murray, when he took the Diamondbacks job. On December 4, 2015, the Diamondbacks agreed to a six-year contract with free agent pitcher Zack Greinke worth a total of $206.5 million. At that time, it held the highest annual average value in MLB, exceeding $34.4 million per year, and was also the largest contract by total value in team history. Stewart later said of the contract, "It could be franchise-changing for us, if everything goes well." Five days later, they traded for Shelby Miller and Gabe Speier, doing so by trading Dansby Swanson, Ender Inciarte, and Aaron Blair to the Atlanta Braves. The Diamondbacks went 79–83 in 2015 and 69–93 in 2016 with Stewart as general manager. On October 3, 2016, Stewart and manager Chip Hale (hired around the same time as Stewart) were fired by the Diamondbacks. Stewart was about to have his #34 jersey retired by the Oakland Athletics in 2020, but the ceremony was postponed until further notice, due to the COVID-19 pandemic; the lack of plans in 2021 prompted questions from fans and even Stewart himself in April 2022 before it was announced that Stewart will have his jersey retired by the Athletics on September 11, 2022. Stewart would break the A's tradition in that his number would be a re-retirement, as well as his not being in the Hall of Fame. In 2021, following the Dodgers victory in the 2020 World Series, Stewart said he would not be attending the 40th anniversary celebration of the Dodgers’ 1981 World Series championship because of how he believed the team mishandled the Trevor Bauer sexual assault allegations by waiting an entire week to put him on administrative leave. ==Personal life== Stewart and his ex-wife, Vanessa, have two children, Adrian and Alyse. He is currently married to sports agent Lonnie Murray. In 1985, Stewart was arrested on suspicion of lewd conduct with a prostitute later revealed to be a transsexual. After pleading no contest to a lesser charge of soliciting a prostitute, Stewart's judgment was a fine, probation, and a suspended sentence. Two days after the arrest, Stewart was honored with the Good Guys award from Dallas-Fort Worth sportswriters. Accepting the award, he admitted both his guilt and that he was ashamed. In 1994, Stewart and teammate Todd Stottlemyre stood trial for seven days in Hillsborough County, Florida on charges of battery on a law enforcement officer and resisting arrest with violence. Stewart also faced charges of disorderly conduct. Stewart was accused of punching a police officer in the face at a club. The jury deliberated for 36 minutes before finding the pitchers not guilty. ==See also== * List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders * Major League Baseball titles leaders * List of Major League Baseball no-hitters ==References== ==External links== Category:1957 births Category:Living people Category:African-American baseball coaches Category:African-American baseball players Category:Águilas del Zulia players Category:Albuquerque Dukes players Category:American expatriate baseball players in Canada Category:American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela Category:American League All-Stars Category:American League Championship Series MVPs Category:American League wins champions Category:American sports agents Category:American sportspeople convicted of crimes Category:Arizona Diamondbacks executives Category:Baseball coaches from California Category:Baseball players from Oakland, California Category:Bellingham Dodgers players Category:Clinton Dodgers players Category:Danville Dodgers players Category:Leones del Caracas players Category:Los Angeles Dodgers players Category:Major League Baseball general managers Category:Major League Baseball pitchers Category:Major League Baseball pitching coaches Category:Major League Baseball players with retired numbers Category:Milwaukee Brewers coaches Category:Oakland Athletics players Category:Philadelphia Phillies players Category:San Antonio Dodgers players Category:San Diego Padres coaches Category:Tacoma Tigers players Category:Texas Rangers players Category:Toronto Blue Jays coaches Category:Toronto Blue Jays players Category:World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners Category:People acquitted of crimes
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The Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) program is a postgraduate professional certification offered internationally by the American-based CFA Institute (formerly the Association for Investment Management and Research, or AIMR) to investment and financial professionals. The program teaches a wide range of subjects relating to advanced investment analysis—including security analysis, statistics, probability theory, fixed income, derivatives, economics, financial analysis, corporate finance, alternative investments, portfolio management—and provides a generalist knowledge of other areas of finance. A candidate who successfully completes the program and meets other professional requirements is awarded the "CFA charter" and becomes a "CFA charterholder". As of November 2022, at least 190,000 people are charter-holders globally, growing 6% annually since 2012 (including effects of the pandemic). Successful candidates take an average of four years to earn their CFA charter. The CFA exams are noted to be notoriously difficult, with low pass rates. During the period 2010–2021, pass rates for Levels 1-3 ranged from 22-56% . The CFA Level 1 examination in May 2021 and July 2021 made news headlines after plummeting to a record-low pass rate of 25% and 22%, respectively, and in August 2021, the level 2 pass rate fell to 29%.Bloomberg, CFA Level II Exam Pass Rate Is Lowest Ever at 29% The top employers of CFA charter-holders globally include JP Morgan, UBS, Royal Bank of Canada, and Bank of America. ==History== Sectors with the highest proportion of CFA Charter-holders Sector % Portfolio Management 25% Research 12% Consulting 10% Chief level executive 9% Investment strategy 7% Risk management 7% Wealth management 5% Credit analysis 5% Trading 4% Accounting / audit 4% Financial planning 3% Others 9% The predecessor of the CFA Institute, the Financial Analysts Federation (FAF), was established in 1947 as a service organization for investment professionals. The FAF founded the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts in 1962; the earliest CFA charter-holders were "grandfathered" in through work experience only, but then a series of three examinations was established along with a requirement to be a practitioner for several years before taking the exams. In 1990, in the hopes of boosting the credential's public profile, the CFA Institute (formerly the Association for Investment Management and Research) merged with the FAF and the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts. The CFA exam was first administered in 1963 and began in the United States and Canada, but has become global with many people becoming charter-holders across Europe, Asia, and Australia. By 2003, fewer than half the candidates in the CFA program were based in the United States and Canada, with most of the other candidates based in Asia or Europe. The number of charter-holders in India and China had increased by 25% and 53%, respectively, from 2005 to 2006. == CFA Charter == The CFA designation is designed to demonstrate a strong foundation in advanced investment analysis and portfolio management, accompanied with a strict emphasis in ethical practice. A charter-holder is held to the highest ethical standards. Once an investment professional obtains the charter, this individual also makes an annual commitment to uphold and abide by a strict professional code of conduct and ethical standards. Violations of the CFA code of ethics may result in industry related sanctions, suspension of the right to use the CFA designation, or a revocation of membership. ===Requirements=== To become a CFA charter-holder, candidates must satisfy the following requirements: * Have obtained a bachelor's (or equivalent) degree or be in the final year of a bachelor's degree program. However, an accredited degree may not always be a requirement. *Pass all three levels of the CFA program (mastery of the current CFA curriculum and passing three examinations). * Have 4,000 hours in a minimum of three years of qualified work experience acceptable by the CFA Institute. However, individual-level exams may be taken prior to satisfying this requirement. *Have two or three letters of reference. * Become a member of the CFA Institute. * Adhere to the CFA Institute Code of Ethics and Standards of Professional Conduct. Due to the timing of the exams, completing all three levels of the CFA is possible within two years, but candidates must still complete the work experience requirement of 4,000 hours over a minimum of three years to become a charter-holder. === Pass rates === The CFA exams are noted to be notoriously difficult, with low pass rates. During the period 2010–2021, pass rates for Levels 1-3 ranged from 22-56% . The CFA Level 1 examination in May 2021 and July 2021 made news headlines after plummeting to a record-low pass rate of 25% and 22%, respectively, and in August 2021, the level 2 pass rate fell to 29%.Bloomberg, CFA Level II Exam Pass Rate Is Lowest Ever at 29% ==Curriculum== The curriculum for the CFA program is based on a Candidate Body of Knowledge established by the CFA Institute. The CFA curriculum is updated annually to reflect the latest best practices, with the extent of changes varying by year and level. The curriculum comprises, broadly, the topic areas below. There are three exams ("levels") that test the academic portion of the CFA program. All three levels emphasize the subject of ethics. The material differences among the exams are: * The Level I study program emphasizes tools and inputs and includes an introduction to asset valuation, financial reporting and analysis, and portfolio-management techniques. * The Level II study program emphasizes asset valuation and includes applications of the tools and inputs (including economics, financial reporting and analysis, and quantitative methods) in asset valuation. * The Level III study program emphasizes portfolio management and includes descriptions of strategies for applying the tools, inputs, and asset valuation models to manage equity, fixed income, and derivative investments for individuals and institutions. thumb|right|2012 Level III CFA Program Curriculum For exams from 2008 onward, candidates are automatically provided the curriculum readings from the CFA Institute at the time of registration for the exam. The curriculum is not provided separately in the absence of exam registration. If the student fails an exam and is allowed to retest in the same year, the CFA Institute offers a slight rebate and will not send the curriculum again (the curriculum changes only on an annual basis). If the student retests in a year other than the year of failure, he or she will receive the curriculum again, as it may have been changed. Study materials for the CFA exams are available from numerous commercial learning providers, although they are not officially endorsed. Various organizations (some officially accredited) also provide course-based preparation. As of 2019, the examination includes questions on artificial intelligence, automated investment services, and mining unconventional sources of data. ===Ethical and professional standards=== The ethics section is primarily concerned with compliance and reporting rules when managing an investor's money or when issuing research reports. Some rules pertain more generally to professional behavior (such as prohibitions against plagiarism); others specifically relate to the proper use of the designation for charter-holders and candidates. These rules are delineated in the "Standards of Professional Conduct", within the context of an overarching "Code of Ethics". ===Quantitative methods=== This topic area is dominated by statistics: the topics are fairly broad, covering probability theory, hypothesis testing, (multi-variate) regression, and time- series analysis. Other topics include time value of money—incorporating basic valuation and yield and return calculations—portfolio-related calculations, and technical analysis. Recent additions, as mentioned above, are a survey of machine learning and big data.Discussion is top down; see: Kathleen DeRose and Christophe Le Lanno (2020). "Machine Learning". ===Economics=== Both microeconomics and macroeconomics are covered, including international economics (mainly related to currency conversions and how they are affected by international interest rates and inflation). By Level III, the focus is on applying economic analysis to portfolio management and asset allocation. ===Financial statement analysis=== The curriculum includes financial reporting topics (International Financial Reporting Standards and U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles), and ratio and financial statement analysis. Financial reporting and analysis of accounting information is heavily tested at Levels I and II, but is not a significant part of Level III. ===Corporate finance === The curriculum initially covers the major corporate finance topics: capital investment decisions, capital structure policy and implementation, and dividend policy; this building on the accounting, economics and statistics areas. It then extends to more advanced topics such as the analysis of mergers and acquisitions, corporate governance, and business and financial risk. ===Security analysis === The curriculum includes coverage of global markets, as well as analysis and valuation of the various asset types: equity (stocks), fixed income (bonds), derivatives (futures, forwards, options and swaps), and alternative investments (real estate, private equity, hedge funds and commodities). The Level I exam requires familiarity with these instruments. Level II focuses on valuation, employing the "tools" studied under quantitative methods, financial statement analysis, corporate finance and economics. Level III centers on incorporating these instruments into portfolios. ====Equity and fixed income==== The curriculum for equity investments includes the functioning of the stock market, indices, stock valuation, and industry analysis. Fixed income topics similarly include the various debt securities, the risk associated with these, and valuations and yield spreads. ====Derivatives==== The curriculum includes coverage of the fundamental framework of derivatives markets, derivatives valuations, hedging and trading strategies involving derivatives, including futures, forwards, swaps, and options. The curriculum incorporates various of the pricing models and frameworks, such as Black–Scholes and binomial option pricing (extending to coverage of interest rate trees), while coverage of the underlying mathematics is conceptual as opposed to technical. ====Alternative investments==== The curriculum includes coverage of a range topics in the alternative investment category. Topics include hedge funds, private equity, real estate, commodities, infrastructure, and other alternative investments, including, as applicable, strategies, sub-categories, potential benefits and risks, fee structures, and due diligence. ===Portfolio management and wealth planning=== This section increases in importance with each of the three levels—it integrates and draws from the other topics, including ethics. It includes: (i) modern portfolio theory (efficient frontier, capital asset pricing model, etc.); (ii) investment practice (defining the investment policy for individual and institutional investors, resultant asset allocation, order execution, and hedging using derivatives); and (iii) measurement of investment performance. == Global regulatory and legal recognition == === Legal recognition by country === Source: ==== Australia ==== * The Australia Securities and Investment Commission (ASIC) has ranked the RG 146 Gap Training program for CFA charterholders and CFA Program candidates at Tier 1. The RG 146 Gap Training Program is intended for candidates who have passed the CFA Level I exam or charterholders who wish to fulfill the requirements necessary to provide both financial product advice to retail clients and personal advice. * The Australian government recognizes CFA Charter-holders to have automatically satisfied the Standard Sets A, C, and D under the Code of Professional Conduct for Authorized Financial Advisers (AFA). *Macquarie University recognizes completion of CFA Level III as equivalent to a bachelor’s degree in a relevant discipline in the admissions process. Similarly, successful completion of CFA Level I or II, combined with a bachelor’s degree in a non-relevant discipline, will be treated as a bachelor’s degree in a relevant discipline in the admissions process. Students who have passed CFA Levels I, II, or III are eligible for course waivers. *Griffith University recognizes students who have passed the CFA Level I exam are exempt from the GMAT/GRE/BAT score requirement, as well as the requirement of completing a specialized undergraduate degree in finance. Applicants who have passed the CFA Level 1 exam are eligible for 40 CP credit (four courses) in the foundation component of the Master of Finance program. ==== Bahrain ==== * The Central Bank of Bahrain (CBB) recognizes CFA Charter-holders as meeting the requirements for the regulated functions of Head of Treasury, Financial Instruments Trader, and Investment Consultant. * CFA Charter-holders automatically satisfy the requirements for the mandatory Financial Advice Program (AFP) level II. ==== Brazil ==== * Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM) recognizes successful CFA Level III candidates as satisfying the requirements of taking the global content exams of the National Certificate of Professional Investment (CNPI). * CFA charter-holders are recognized by Brazilian main regulator of securities analysts, APIMEC, as the equivalent to their "global content" test, although the candidates must still pass a "local content" test to award their memberships. ==== Canada ==== * The CFA Institute is a recognized Educational Institution by Revenu Quebec * CFA Charter-holders are legally recognized by the Canadian Securities Administrators (CSA) as qualifying for the position of portfolio manager, investment counsel, adviser in derivatives & commodity futures, exchange contracts and for the position of securities adviser. * Certain Finance programs are recognized by the CFA Institute as a part of their University Recognition Program. This status is granted to institutions whose degree programs incorporate at least 70 percent of the CFA Program Candidate Body of Knowledge (CBOK). ==== Egypt ==== * The Egyptian Financial Supervisory Authority (EFSA) considers candidates which have passed CFA Level 1 to be exempt from exam requirements for relevant positions. ==== Germany ==== * The Deutsche Börse AG considers the successful completion of the CFA Level III exam as satisfactory for the requirements necessary to be an exchange trader. * The Frankfurt School of Finance and Management allows elective waivers for passing any level of the CFA exams. ==== Greece ==== * The Capital Market Commission (CMC) waives licensing requirements for the position of investment analyst and portfolio manager for those who have passed CFA Level III. ==== Hong Kong ==== * The Government of Hong Kong officially recognizes the CFA Charter as a professional qualification. * The Hong Kong Securities and Futures Commission (SFC) considers the passing of CFA Level I to be recognized as an industry qualification for various licensing exams. * The Academic and Accreditation Advisory Committee of the SFC has approved the CFA designation as a recognized industry qualification for the licensing of Responsible Officers in Hong Kong. * CFA Society Hong Kong (formerly The Hong Kong Society of Financial Analysts Limited) is recognized by the SFC as an institution for providing Continuous Professional Training (CPT). Continuing Education programs and seminars organized by CFA Society Hong Kong qualify for CPT hours. ==== Indonesia ==== * The Financial Services Authority of Indonesia (FSA) requires that any collective investment scheme must have at least one CFA Charter-holder. ==== Ireland ==== * The Institute of Banking exempts CFA Charter-holders from 2 out of 6 modules required for the Professional Diploma in Financial Advice. ==== Israel ==== * The Israel Securities Authority (ISA) requires six exams and an internship to become a portfolio manager. Exams include Securities Law and Ethics, Accounting, Statistics and Finance, Economics, Securities and Financial Instrument Analysis and Portfolio management. CFA Charter-holders are automatically considered to have completed five out of six exams. ==== Malaysia ==== * The Securities Commission Malaysia (SC) requires Capital markets Services Representatives License (CMSRL) applicants to pass various exams. CFA Charter-holders are waived from four exams. ==== Mexico ==== * The Comision Nacional del Sistema de Ahorro para el Retiro (CONSAR) grants the general finance certification permanent license to people which have completed the CFA Institute Investment Foundations Program. ==== Netherlands ==== * The Dutch Securities Institute (DSI) recognizes the completion of the CFA Level 1 exam as being sufficient for the qualification to be a Financial Analyst. * The Dutch Securities Institute (DSI) recognizes CFA Charter-holders as automatically meeting the qualifications requirement to be a Senior Fund Manager. ==== Peru ==== * The Superintendencia del Mercado de Valores, La Superintendencia del Mercado de Valores (SMV) recognizes applicants who have passed CFA Level I to be approved for the role of portfolio manager. ==== Philippines ==== * The Securities and Exchange Commission Philippines requires at least one fund manager must have passed CFA Level 1 in order to manage mutual funds. ==== Portugal ==== * The Comissão do Mercado de Valores Mobiliários (CMVM) (Portuguese Securities Market Commission) officially recognizes a CFA Charter-holder as fully satisfying the qualifications to register as an investment adviser or financial analyst. ==== Saudi Arabia ==== * The Capital Market Authority of Saudi Arabia (CMA) recognizes CFA charter- holders as sophisticated investors and they are exempted from CMA exam level I. ==== Singapore ==== * The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) recognizes CFA Charter-holders seeking to apply for a license as a Capital Markets Services (CMS) Representative to be exempt from modules 6 and 7 of the Capital Markets and Financial Advisory Services (CMFAS) Exam. ==== South Africa ==== * The FAIS licensing process for Financial Service Providers (FSP) exempts CFA Charter-holders from category I, II, IIA, III, and IV of the FSP's entry level qualification for the Key Individuals and Representatives licensing process. * Exemptions are available for various modules in the South African Institute of Financial Markets "Registered Persons Examination", depending on the candidate's level. No exemptions are available for the examination on local market regulations and compliance. *The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) has bench-marked the CFA charter as comparable to its National Certificate in Financial Markets and Instruments. *Exemptions are available to Charter-holders for two of the six qualifying exams of the South African Institute of Stockbrokers. ==== Spain ==== * Candidates who have passed Level 1 of the CFA Program are able to apply for the Certified Advisor- CAd, a certification awarded by CFA Society Spain. CAd certification is recognized by Spain’s national securities regulator, the CNMV, as meeting the requirements of the European Union’s MiFID II directive for investment professionals who engage in any type of client advisory. Candidates must also pass the CAd test on Spanish and EU regulation, commit to the CFA Institute Code of Ethics and Standards of Professional Conduct, and be a local member of CFA Society Spain. CAd certification must be renewed every year by demonstrating 30 hours of Continual Professional Development (CPD) and reconfirming the observance of the Code and Standards. ==== Sri Lanka ==== * The Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka authorizes that CFA Charter-holders automatically meet the requirement to practice as Investment Manager managing client funds. ==== Taiwan ==== * The Securities Investment Trust & Consulting Association (SITCA) of Taiwan officially recognizes CFA Charter-holders to be qualified to practice as a securities investment analyst. *CFA charter-holders are not required to sit the Securities Investment Trust Licensing Exam ==== Thailand ==== * The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) of Thailand Passing CFA Level III qualifies the candidate to be a fund manager. ==== Turkey ==== * The Capital Markets Board (CMB) of Turkey considers the passing of CFA Level I, II, and III to be equivalent to the CMA Level 1, 2 and 3 licensing exam. ==== United Kingdom ==== * In 2009 the UK National Academic Recognition Information Centre (UK NARIC) bench-marked the CFA Program and the CFA charter as comparable to a Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF) Master's Level 7. The levels of the CFA Program were bench-marked as: ** Level III of the CFA Program and the CFA charter are bench-marked at Level 7 by NARIC ** Level II of the CFA Program is bench-marked at Level 6 by NARIC ** Level I of the CFA Program is bench-marked at Level 5 by NARIC ==== United States ==== * The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) exempts candidates who have passed CFA Level I and II from the Series 86 examination to register as a research analyst. * The Investment Adviser Registration Depository (IARD) exempts CFA Charter-holders from required competency exams to register as an investment adviser. * The North American Securities Administrators Association (NASAA) exempts CFA Charter-holders from the required Series 65 exams to register as an investment adviser. * The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) exempts candidates who have passed CFA level I from portion of the Series 16 exam that deals with rules on research standards and related matters are exempt from Part II of the NYSE Supervisory Analysts Qualification Exam. * The National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) recognizes the CFA Charter as meeting the eligibility requirements to become a Registered Player Financial Advisor. * The University of California, Berkeley considers Master of Business Administration (MBA) candidates who have passed the CFA Level III exam to be granted an automatic waiver in two core courses * The University of Notre Dame considers CFA charter-holders in the Executive Master of Nonprofit Administration (EMNA) may be eligible for a waiver of required course work. * Boston University considers CFA charter-holders to be eligible for waivers for up to two out of 10 courses in the Master of Science in Financial Management (MSFM) on-campus and online degree programs. * Duke University considers students enrolled in its graduate business programs who have passed the CFA Level III exam to be eligible for an unconditional administrative exemption from Finance 645. ==== Vietnam ==== * The State Securities Commission (SSC) considers candidates who have passed CFA Level II to be sufficient in exempting them from three required securities practicing certificates: *# Basic issues regarding securities and the securities market *# Securities analysis and investment *# Analysis of enterprise financial statements === Recognition by professional organizations === ==== CBV Institute ==== Individuals who have passed all three levels of the CFA exams are eligible to skip the elective courses of the CBV Institute Program of Studies. ==== The Society of Actuaries (SOA) ==== The Society of Actuaries (SOA) granted the credit of Validation by Educational Experience (VEE)-Economics to the candidates who passed the CFA Level I exam. SOA also granted both the credits of VEE-Corporate Finance and VEE-Applied Statistical Methods to the candidates who passed the CFA Level II exam. ==== Professional Risk Managers' International Association (PRMIA) ==== CFA charter-holders are exempted by the Professional Risk Managers' International Association (PRMIA) from the first required exam for the PRM qualification. ==== Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards (CFP Board) ==== The Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards (CFP Board) has approved the CFA charter as fulfilling most of the education coursework requirement for CFP certification, pending completion of a capstone course registered with CFP Board prior to sitting for the CFP exam. == Efficacy of the CFA program == Given the time and effort that candidates must undergo to complete the CFA program, it would be expected that CFA charter-holders have higher performance than those who do not complete the program. However, there is some evidence that differential analyst performance is economically inconsequential, suggesting the predominance of signaling; although other research in the Financial Analysts Journal (a journal published by CFA Institute) suggests a positive human capital impact from the CFA program. ==Trademark disputes== ===India=== CFA Institute is not affiliated with the Chartered Financial Analyst degree offered by the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI) University of India or its affiliate, the Council of Chartered Financial Analysts (CCFA). In 1998, CFA Institute's predecessor organization, AIMR, sued and won a judgment in an American court against ICFAI/CCFA. The judgment prohibited ICFAI/CCFA and its members from using the CFA or Chartered Financial Analyst mark in the United States and Canada. In August 2006, an Indian court issued a temporary injunction against the Indian entity, as well. The judgments made no assessment of the quality of the Indian program and merely discussed the trademark violation. The Indian Association of Investment Professionals is the only organization in India which is affiliated with CFA Institute. CFA Institute trademark rights to the "CFA" and "Chartered Financial Analyst" brands were affirmed in India by the Delhi High Court. Further, the Delhi High Court issued an interim injunction ordering ICFAI and its affiliated Council of Chartered Financial Analysts to stop using CFA Institute trademarks. The Deputy Registrar of Trade Marks determined that the trademark registration issued to CFA Institute for the "CFA" brand must be republished because of an error by the Trade Marks Registry. CFA Institute has numerous trademark applications on file with the Trade Marks Registry, and CFA charter-holders from CFA Institute are free to use the "CFA" and "Chartered Financial Analyst" marks throughout India. On May 8, 2007, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia vacated a default judgment issued against ICFAI that CFA Institute obtained in October 1998. ICFAI had moved to reopen the case and to vacate the default judgment arguing that the court lacked jurisdiction over ICFAI at the time the default judgment was issued. With the default judgement vacated, ICFAI informed Indian CFA charter holders that they could legally use their charter in the United States and Canada. However, on September 4, 2007, the court reversed its decision to vacate after a motion to reconsider that decision was filed by CFA Institute. ===United Kingdom=== In January 2007, the UK Trade Marks Registry refused to register "Chartered Financial Analyst" as a trademark, as the word "chartered" in the United Kingdom is associated with bodies incorporated by royal charter and thus "the relevant public in the UK would, prima facie, expect a person using the mark applied for to be representing themselves as a member of an organization of the kind subject to a Royal Charter". "CFA" is a registered trademark in the UK, but only for "Educational services" (class 41) rather than "Financial services" (class 36) under which the attempt to register "Chartered Financial Analyst" had been made. ==List of CFA charter-holders== ==See also== *Professional certification *Professional certification in financial services ==References== ==External links== * CFA Institute membership profile * FINRA Education Reference Guide Showing CFA Charter and Requirements * . Category:Professional certification in finance Category:Money managers Category:Institutional investors
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Lucas Ariel Ocampos (; born 11 July 1994) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a winger for La Liga club Sevilla and the Argentina national team. Ocampos began his senior career in Argentina with River Plate before joining Monaco for a Ligue 2 record fee of €11 million in 2012. He spent two-and-a-half seasons in the principality and was nominated for the European Golden Boy award before joining Marseille. There, he spent four seasons, either side of loan spells in Italy with Genoa and Milan, before joining Sevilla in 2019. ==Club career== ===Early career=== Ocampos started playing football at the academy of Quilmes at the age of six where he first played as a striker. It was with Quilmes that Ocampos was spotted by River Plate. In a youth match against the Buenos Aires-based club Ocampos scored twice, prompting the management at River to follow his progression. They completed his signing after the U15 Sudamericano in which Ocampos excelled for Argentina, signing him on a 50% co-ownership deal with Quilmes. ===River Plate=== Ocampos' first opportunity with River Plate's senior side came in 2011 following the club's relegation to the Nacional B for the first time in their history. He was awarded his first-team debut by manager Matías Almeyda on 16 August 2011, aged 17, against Chacarita Juniors and scored his first goal for the club in the following match, netting River's opener in a 3–1 win over Independiente Rivadavia. Ocampos and Almeyda's paths had previously crossed at Quilmes where Almeyda had been a player at the time of the Ocampos' arrival at the academy. Ocampos soon established himself as a regular in the starting eleven and was instrumental in River securing the club's promotion back to the Primera División, ending the season with 7 goals to his name in 38 appearances. His form throughout the season had also seen him named by FIFA as one of the Players to Watch in 2012. He made his Primera División debut on the opening day of the following season against Belgrano. It would be his final appearance for the club, however, as on 6 August 2012 he completed a transfer to French club Monaco. ===Monaco=== On 6 August 2012, Ligue 2 side AS Monaco, owned by Russian billionaire Dmitry Rybolovlev and managed by Claudio Ranieri, completed the signing of Ocampos for a reported fee of €11 million, with the fee split between Quilmes, River and a group of investors. The completion of the deal saw Ocampos become the most expensive Ligue 2 signing of all-time. He made his debut for the club on 31 August 2012, coming on as a second-half substitute for Emir Bajrami in a 2–1 loss against Le Havre. Ocampos then scored his first goal for the club in his second appearance in the third round of the Coupe de la Ligue as Monaco beat Valenciennes 4–2. The goal, a spectacular bicycle kick in extra-time, was later chosen by Monaco supporters as the club's Goal of the Season. His first league goal for the club came on 18 January 2013 when he scored one and recorded an assist for Gary Kagelmacher in a 2–0 win over Istres. Ocampos ultimately featured in 29 appearances across the league campaign, scoring four goals as Monaco secured their return to Ligue 1. Monaco's promotion to Ligue 1 was accompanied by a spate of free- spending by Rybolovlev. The Russian owner completed the big-money signings of James Rodríguez, Radamel Falcao and João Moutinho, amongst others, with the effect that Ocampos found his influence within the Monaco squad diminishing. Despite featuring more from the bench than from the start, Ocampos still managed a return of 5 goals in 34 appearances as Monaco ended the season as runners-up to mega-money rivals PSG. Monaco's failure to secure the league title despite heavy investment saw Ranieri sacked at the end of the season and replaced by Leonardo Jardim. Despite seeing his game time reduced further under Jardim, Ocampos was nominated for the European Golden Boy award in October 2014, though the award was eventually won by Liverpool's Raheem Sterling. On 26 November, Ocampos scored his first Champions League goal in a 1–0 away win against Bayer Leverkusen. Having started only seven matches by the end of January 2015, Ocampos requested a move away from the principality and was granted his wish with a transfer to Ligue 1 rivals Marseille. ===Marseille=== On 3 February 2015, Ocampos signed for Monaco's Ligue 1 rivals Marseille on loan until the end of the season, where he paired up with compatriot and manager, Marcelo Bielsa. He made a goal scoring debut for the club four days later, netting in a 1–1 draw with Rennes. He ultimately made fourteen appearances and scored twice during his loan spell as Marseille ended the season in fourth. On 30 June 2015, Marseille announced that Ocampos had signed for the club on a permanent deal for a fee believed to be around €7 million. He scored his first goal of the season in a 6–0 victory over Troyes on 23 August. The goal, another bicycle kick from a Romain Alessandrini cross, was later nominated for the Ligue 1 Goal of the Season award, which was ultimately won by Pierrick Capelle of Angers It was his only contribution in front of goal, however, as after the resignation of Bielsa early in the campaign Ocampos struggled to impress under new manager Míchel, and made only 17 appearances throughout the league season. ====Loans to Genoa and Milan==== On 29 June 2016, Serie A side Genoa announced the signing of Ocampos on a season-long loan, with an option to purchase included. He made his debut for the club on 12 August, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 3–2 Coppa Italia win over Lecce, and made his Serie A debut on 21 August in a 3–1 win over newly promoted Cagliari. In September, Ocampos injured ligaments in his knee which saw him ruled him out of action for a month. He made his return on 6 November and scored his first goal for Genoa in a 1–1 draw with Udinese. He scored his second goal the following week in a 3–1 loss to Lazio before scoring his third and final goal for the club on 22 January 2017, netting Genoa's second in a 2–2 draw with Crotone. Towards the end of January, Genoa and Marseille reached an agreement to allow Ocampos to join fellow Serie A side A.C. Milan for the remainder of his loan spell for a reported fee of €500k. On 30 January 2017, Milan confirmed the loan signing of Ocampos for the remainder of the season, with Genoa retaining the option to buy from Marseille at the end of the loan spell. He was signed as a replacement for Frenchman M'Baye Niang who had moved on loan to Premier League side Watford. Ocampos made his debut for the club on 5 February, coming on as a late second-half substitute for Andrea Bertolacci in a 1–0 defeat to Sampdoria. He featured sporadically for the club, however, and at the end of the season returned to Marseille having played a combined 29 matches and scored 3 goals across all competitions during his stints with Genoa and Milan. ====Return to Marseille==== Ocampos scored on his first Ligue 1 appearance following his return to Marseille, netting the only goal in a 1–0 win over Nantes on 12 August 2017. On 1 October, he scored a brace in the game against Nice winning the game for Marseille with 4–2. He maintained his form throughout the first half of the season, scoring 6 goals in 15 league appearances by the end of the year, which saw him linked with a move to Torino during the January transfer market. He remained at Marseille, however, and on 7 February 2018 he scored his first professional hat-trick in a 9–0 Coupe de France win over Bourg-en- Bresse. The result was also Marseille's biggest win 70 years. He also featured regularly in the club's Europa League campaign and helped the side reach the final of the competition, where they lost 3–0 to Spanish side, Atlético Madrid. He remained with Marseille the following season before departing for Spain, having scored 28 goals in 135 appearances during his time with the club. ===Sevilla=== On 3 July 2019, Ocampos signed a five-year contract with La Liga side Sevilla for an undisclosed fee. On 11 August 2020, he scored the winning goal for Sevilla in the 88th minute, in a 1–0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League quarter-finals. In his debut season with Sevilla, Ocampos scored 14 goals in La Liga to finish 4th in the table, and eventually won the Europa League. On 24 September 2020, he scored from a penalty in 1–2 defeat against Bayern Munich in the 2020 UEFA Super Cup. ====Loan to Ajax==== On 31 August 2022, Ocampos signed for Ajax on a season-long loan with a buy option included worth €16m. Ocampos was signed as a direct replacement for Antony, who had just joined Manchester United for a record Eredivisie fee of €100m. On 17 January 2023, Ajax announced that they had terminated the loan agreement with immediate effect after Ocampos had only played 114 minutes for the club. ====Return to Sevilla==== On 31 May 2023, he won his second Europa league title after a 4–1 victory over Roma in the penalty shootouts after a 1–1 draw in the final, in which he managed to convert his penalty. ==International career== Having previously represented his nation at youth level, Ocampos made his senior Argentina debut on 9 October 2019 during a friendly against Germany, coming on as a half-time substitute for Ángel Correa and scoring a late equalizer in a 2–2 draw. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National Cup League Cup Continental Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals River Plate 2011–12 Nacional B 38 7 1 0 — 0 0 — 39 7 2012–13 Argentine Primera División 1 0 0 0 — 0 0 — 1 0 Total 39 7 1 0 — 0 0 — 40 7 Monaco 2012–13 Ligue 2 29 4 2 0 2 1 — — 33 5 2013–14 Ligue 1 34 5 4 2 1 0 0 0 — 39 7 2014–15 17 1 2 1 1 0 6 1 — 26 3 Total 80 10 8 3 4 1 6 1 — 98 15 Marseille (loan) 2014–15 Ligue 1 14 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 14 2 Marseille 2015–16 17 1 1 0 1 1 6 2 — 25 4 2017–18 31 9 4 3 1 0 17 4 — 53 16 2018–19 34 4 1 0 1 0 4 1 — 40 5 Total 96 16 6 3 3 1 27 7 — 132 27 Genoa (loan) 2016–17 Serie A 14 3 3 0 — — — 17 3 Milan (loan) 2016–17 12 0 0 0 — — 0 0 12 0 Sevilla 2019–20 La Liga 33 14 4 2 — 7 1 — 44 17 2020–21 34 5 4 2 — 7 0 1 1 46 8 2021–22 30 6 3 1 — 9 2 — 42 9 2022–23 19 4 1 0 — 9 1 — 29 5 Total 116 29 12 5 — 32 4 1 1 161 39 Ajax (loan) 2022–23 Eredivisie 4 0 0 0 — 2 0 — 6 0 Career total 361 65 30 11 7 2 67 12 1 1 466 91 ===International=== Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals Argentina 2019 3 2 2020 4 0 2021 1 0 2022 3 0 Total 11 2 :Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Ocampos goal. List of international goals scored by Lucas Ocampos No. Date Venue Cap Opponent Score Result Competition 1 9 October 2019 Signal Iduna Park, Dortmund, Germany 1 2–2 2–2 Friendly 2 13 October 2019 Estadio Manuel Martínez Valero, Alicante, Spain 2 6–1 6–1 ==Honours== River Plate *Primera B Nacional: 2011–12 Monaco *Ligue 2: 2012–13 Marseille *UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2017–18 Sevilla *UEFA Europa League: 2019–20, 2022–23 *UEFA Super Cup runner-up: 2020 Individual *UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2019–20 ==References== ==External links== * Profile at the Sevilla FC website * * Category:1994 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Quilmes Category:Men's association football wingers Category:Argentine footballers Category:Argentina men's youth international footballers Category:Argentina men's international footballers Category:Argentine expatriate footballers Category:Argentine Primera División players Category:Primera Nacional players Category:Ligue 1 players Category:Ligue 2 players Category:Serie A players Category:La Liga players Category:Eredivisie players Category:Club Atlético River Plate footballers Category:AS Monaco FC players Category:Olympique de Marseille players Category:Genoa C.F.C. players Category:AC Milan players Category:Sevilla FC players Category:AFC Ajax players Category:Expatriate footballers in Monaco Category:Expatriate footballers in Italy Category:Expatriate footballers in Spain Category:Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands Category:UEFA Europa League winning players
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Charles Lee ( – 2 October 1782) was an English-born American military officer who served as a general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He also served earlier in the British Army during the Seven Years War. He sold his commission after the Seven Years War and served for a time in the Polish army of King Stanislaus II Augustus. Lee moved to North America in 1773 and bought an estate in western Virginia. When the fighting broke out in the American War of Independence in 1775, he volunteered to serve with rebel forces. Lee's ambitions to become Commander in Chief of the Continental Army were thwarted by the appointment of George Washington to that post. In 1776, forces under his command repulsed a British attempt to capture Charleston, which boosted his standing with the army and Congress. Later that year, he was captured by British cavalry under Banastre Tarleton; he was held by the British as a prisoner until exchanged in 1778. During the Battle of Monmouth later that year, Lee led an assault on the British that miscarried. He was subsequently court-martialed and his military service brought to an end. He died in Philadelphia in 1782. ==Early and personal life== 175px|thumb|left|Coat of Arms of Charles Lee Lee was born on Karels, p. 105 in Darnhall, Cheshire, England, the son of Major General John Lee and his wife Isabella Bunbury (daughter of Sir Henry Bunbury, 3rd Baronet). His mother's family were landed gentry with national stature—his maternal grandfather had been an MP for Cheshire, and a cousin, Sir Thomas Charles Bunbury, was a MP for Suffolk. Five of Lee's six older siblings had died – only his sister Sidney Lee, four years older, survived to adulthood. Sidney never married. Like his mother, with whom he did not get along well, Lee would have a temperamental personality and poor physical health (suffering rheumatism and chronic attacks of gout), which caused him to travel often to medicinal spas.Papas, [ pp. 18–19]. He received a private education from tutors, then was sent to a grammar school near Chester and a private academy in Switzerland before being sent to King Edward VI School, Bury St Edmunds, a free grammar school near the home of his uncle, Rev. William Bunbury.Papas, [ p. 21]. Lee became proficient in several languages, including Latin, Greek, and French. His father was colonel of the 55th Foot (later renumbered the 44th) when he purchased a commission on April 9, 1747, for Charles as an ensign in the same regiment. Despite inheriting money upon his mother's death, Lee became known for a peripatetic and extravagant lifestyle, which led to financial difficulties several times in his life, including after liquidating land grants in East Florida and St. John's Island in the Gulf of St. Laurence in the late 1760s (which he received because of his service in the French and Indian War).Papas, [ pp. 77-78]. By 1770, Lee had acquired the services of Giuseppe Minghini, who would remain his servant until the end of his life and received a bequest.Papas, pp. [ 89], [ 287–288]. Lee owned at least six slaves shortly before his death,Augusta Bridgland Fothergill and John Mark Naugle, Virginia Tax Payers 1782-1787 other than those published by the United States Census Bureau (1940) p. 75 and his will divided ownership of all his slaves (three mentioned by name) between Minghini and Elizabeth Dunne, Lee's housekeeper.Papas, [ p. 288]. After paying his debts and a number of specific bequests, some involving horses and others money (usually to purchase mourning rings), Lee directed his executors (future congressman Alexander White and former Rev. Charles Mynn Thurston), to pay the remainder of his estate (worth about $700 according to the filed inventory) to his sister Sidney.Papas, [ p. 287].Charles Lee will available on Family Search ==Seven Years' War and after== ===North America=== After completing his schooling, Lee reported for duty with his regiment in Ireland. Shortly after his father's death, on May 2, 1751, he received (or purchased) a lieutenant's commission in the 44th. He was sent with the regiment to North America in 1754 for service in the French and Indian War under Major General Edward Braddock, in what was a front for the Seven Years War between Britain and France. He was with Braddock at his defeat at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755. During this time in America, Lee married the daughter of a Mohawk chief. His wife (name unknown) gave birth to twins. Lee was known to the Mohawk, who were allies of the English, as Ounewaterika or "Boiling Water". On June 11, 1756, Lee purchased a Captain's commission in the 44th for the sum of £900. The following year he took part in an expedition against the French fortress of Louisbourg, and on July 1, 1758, he was wounded in a failed assault on Fort Ticonderoga. He was sent to Long Island to recuperate. A surgeon whom he had earlier rebuked and thrashed attacked him. After recovering, Lee took part in the capture of Fort Niagara in 1759 and Montreal in 1760. This brought the war in the North American theater to an end by completing the Conquest of Canada. ===Portugal=== Lee went back to Europe, transferred to the 103rd Foot as a major, and served as a lieutenant colonel in the Portuguese army. He fought against the Spanish during their unsuccessful invasion of the country, and distinguished himself under John Burgoyne at the Battle of Vila Velha. ===Poland=== Lee returned to England in 1763 following the Peace of Paris, which ended the Seven Years' War. His regiment was disbanded and he was retired on half pay as a major. On 26 May 1772, although still inactive, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1765, Lee served as an aide-de-camp under Stanislaus II, King of Poland. After many adventures he came home to England. Unable to secure promotion in the British Army, in 1769 he returned to Poland and then saw action in the Russo-Turkish War. In a duel in Italy, he lost two fingers, but in a second duel with the same Italian officer, killed his opponent. ==Return to England and America== Returning to England again, he found that he was sympathetic to the American colonists in their quarrel with Britain. He moved to the colonies in 1773 and in 1775 purchased an estate worth £3,000 in Berkeley County, near the home of his friend Horatio Gates, with whom he had served in the French and Indian War and who had moved back to the colony in 1772.Lossing, Benson J., The Home of Washington: or Mount Vernon and its Associations, (New York: Virgue & Yorston 1871) pp. 108-110 This area is now part of West Virginia. He spent ten months travelling through the colonies and acquainting himself with patriots. ==American Revolution== ===Continental Army=== Although Lee was generally acknowledged at the Second Continental Congress to be the most capable candidate for the command of the Continental Army, the role was given to George Washington. Lee recognized the sense of giving the position to a native-born American, but expected to be given the role of second-in-command. He was disappointed when that role went to Artemas Ward, whom Lee considered too inexperienced for the job. Lee was appointed Major-General and third in line, but succeeded to second-in-command in 1776 when Ward resigned due to ill health.Thayer 1976 pp. 15–16 ===Southern command=== Lee also received various other titles: in 1776, he was named commander of the so-called Canadian Department, although he never got to serve in this capacity. He was appointed as the first commander of the Southern Department. He served in this post for six months, until he was recalled to the main army. During his time in the South, the British sent an expedition under Henry Clinton to recover Charleston, South Carolina. Lee oversaw the fortification of the city. Fort Sullivan was a fortification built out of palmetto logs, later named for commander Col. William Moultrie. Lee ordered the army to evacuate the fort because as he said it would only last thirty minutes and all soldiers would be killed.Allen, p. 185 Governor John Rutledge forbade Moultrie to evacuate and the fort held. The spongy palmetto logs repelled the cannonball from the British ships.Allen, p. 186 The assault on Sullivan's Island was driven off, and Clinton abandoned his attempts to capture the city. Lee was acclaimed as the "hero of Charleston", although according to some American accounts the credit for the defense was not his. ===New York and capture=== The British capture of Fort Washington and its near 3,000-strong garrison on November 16, 1776, prompted Lee's first overt criticism of Washington. Believing the commander-in-chief's hesitation to evacuate the fort to be responsible for the loss, Lee wrote to Joseph Reed lamenting Washington's indecision, a criticism Washington read when he opened the letter believing it to be official business.Thayer 1976 p. 17 As Washington retreated across New Jersey after the defeat at New York, he urged Lee, whose troops were north of New York, to join him. Although Lee's orders were at first discretionary, and although there were good tactical reasons for delaying, his slow progress has been characterized as insubordinate. On December 12, 1776, Lee was captured by British troops at White's Tavern in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, while writing a letter to General Horatio Gates complaining about Washington's deficiency.Thayer 1976 pp. 18–19Lender & Stone 2016 p. 110 ===Battle of Monmouth=== thumb|left|General Lee on horseback Lee was released on parole as part of a prisoner exchange in early April 1778 and, while on his way to York, Pennsylvania, was greeted enthusiastically by Washington at Valley Forge. Lee was ignorant of the changes that had occurred during his sixteen-month captivity; he was not aware of what Washington believed to be a conspiracy to install Gates as commander-in-chief or of the reformation of the Continental Army under the tutelage of Baron von Steuben.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 110, 113 According to Elias Boudinot, the commissary who had negotiated the prisoner exchange, Lee claimed that "he found the Army in a worse situation than he expected and that General Washington was not fit to command a sergeant's guard." While in York, Lee lobbied Congress for promotion to lieutenant general, and went above Washington's head to submit to it a plan for reorganizing the army in a way that was markedly different from that which Washington had worked long to implement.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 114–117 Lee's suggestion was for a militia army that avoided competing with a professional enemy in a pitched battle and relied instead on a defensive strategy which would wear down an opposing army with harassing, small-unit actions.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 119–120 After completing his parole, Lee returned to duty with the Continental Army as Washington's second-in-command on May 21.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 117–118 In June, as the British evacuated Philadelphia and marched through New Jersey en route to New York, Washington twice convened war councils to discuss the best course of action. In both, his generals largely agreed that Washington should avoid a major battle, Lee arguing that such a battle would be criminal, though a minority favored a limited engagement. At the second council, Lee argued the Continental Army was no match for the British Army, and favored allowing the British to proceed unimpeded and waiting until French military intervention following the Franco-American alliance could shift the balance in favor of the Americans.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 101, 173 Washington agreed with the minority of his generals who favored an aggressive but limited action. He allocated some 4,500 troops, approximately a third of his army, to a vanguard that could land a heavy blow on the British without risking his army in a general engagement. The main body would follow and provide support if circumstances warranted.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 174–177, 234 He offered Lee command of the vanguard, but Lee turned the job down on the basis that the force was too small for a man of his rank and position.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 177–178Ferling 2009 p. 176 Washington gave the position to Major General the Marquis de Lafayette. In his haste to catch the British, Lafayette pushed the vanguard to exhaustion and outran his supplies, prompting Washington to send Lee, who had in the meantime changed his mind, to replace him.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 178–182, 187, 188 Lee took over on June 27 at Englishtown.Lender & Stone 2016 p. 188 The British were at Monmouth Courthouse (modern-day Freehold), from Englishtown. Washington was with the main body of just over 7,800 troops and the bulk of the artillery at Manalapan Bridge, behind Lee.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 157–158, 184 Believing action to be imminent, Washington conferred with the vanguard's senior officers at Englishtown that afternoon but did not offer a battle plan. Lee believed he had full discretion on whether and how to attack and called his own war council after Washington left. He intended to advance as soon as he knew the British were on the move, in the hope of catching their rearguard when it was most vulnerable. In the absence of any intelligence about British intentions or the terrain, Lee believed it would be useless to form a precise plan of his own.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 191–193 ====Lee's battle==== thumb|Lee's attack on the British rearguard|alt=map When news arrived at 05:00 on June 28 that the British were moving, Lee led the vanguard towards Monmouth Court House, where he discovered the British rearguard, which he estimated at around 2,000 troops. He ordered Brigadier General Anthony Wayne with some 550 men to fix the rearguard in place while he led the remainder of the vanguard on a left hook with the intention of outflanking the British, but he neglected to inform his subordinates, Brigadier General Charles Scott and Brigadier General William Maxwell, of his plan. Lee's confidence crept into reports back to Washington that implied "the certainty of success."Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 198, 253–255, 261 As soon as the British commander, General Sir Henry Clinton, received news that his rearguard was being probed, he ordered his main combat division to march back towards Monmouth Court House.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 264–265 Lee became concerned that his right flank would be vulnerable and moved with Lafayette's detachment to secure it.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 262–264 To his left, Scott and Maxwell were not in communication with Lee and not privy to his plan. They became concerned that the arriving British troops would isolate them, and decided to withdraw. To their left, Wayne's isolated troops, having witnessed the British marching back, were also withdrawing.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 264–266Bilby & Jenkins 2010 p. 199 Lee witnessed one of Lafayette's units pulling back after a failed attempt to silence some British artillery around the same time as one of his staff officers returned with the news that Scott had withdrawn. With his troops withdrawing without orders, it became clear to Lee that he was losing control of the vanguard, and with his immediate command now only 2,500 strong, he realized his plan to envelop the British rearguard was finished. His priority became the safety of his troops in the face of superior numbers, and he ordered a general retreat.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 266–269 Lee had significant difficulties communicating with his subordinates and could exercise only limited command and control of the vanguard, but at unit level, the retreat was generally conducted with a discipline that did credit to Steuben's training, and the Americans suffered few casualties. Lee believed he had conducted a model "retrograde manoeuver in the face and under fire of an enemy" and claimed his troops moved with "order and precision." He had remained calm during the retreat but began to unravel at Ker's house. When two of General Washington's aides informed Lee that the main body was still some away and asked him what to report back, Lee replied "that he really did not know what to say."Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 268–272 Crucially, he failed to keep Washington informed of the retreat.Ferling 2009 p. 178 thumb|left|American rearguard action|alt=map Without any recent news from Lee, Washington had no reason to be concerned as he approached the battlefield with the main body shortly after midday. In the space of some ten minutes, his confidence gave way to alarm as he encountered a straggler bearing the first news of Lee's retreat and then whole units in retreat. None of the officers Washington met could tell him where they were supposed to be going or what they were supposed to be doing. As the commander-in-chief rode on ahead, he saw the vanguard in full retreat but no sign of the British. At around 12:45, Washington found Lee marshalling the last of his command across the middle morass, marshy ground southeast of a bridge over the Spotswood Middle Brook.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 281–286 Expecting praise for a retreat he believed had been generally conducted in good order, Lee was uncharacteristically lost for words when Washington asked without pleasantries, "I desire to know, sir, what is the reason – whence arises this disorder and confusion?"Lender & Stone 2016 p. 289 When he regained his composure, Lee attempted to explain his actions. He blamed faulty intelligence and his officers, especially Scott, for pulling back without orders, leaving him no choice but to retreat in the face of a superior force, and reminded Washington that he had opposed the attack in the first place.Chernow 2010 p. 448 Washington was not convinced; "All this may be very true, sir," he replied, "but you ought not to have undertaken it unless you intended to go through with it." Washington made it clear he was disappointed with Lee and rode off to organize the battle he felt his subordinate should have given. Lee followed at a distance, bewildered and believing he had been relieved of command.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 289–290 With the main body still arriving and the British no more than away, Washington began to rally the vanguard to set up the very defenses Lee had been attempting to organize. He then offered Lee a choice: remain and command the rearguard, or fall back across the bridge and organize the main defenses on Perrine's Hill. Lee opted for the former while Washington departed to take care of the latter.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 291–295Ferling 2009 p. 179 Lee fought the counter-attacking British in a rearguard action that lasted no more than thirty minutes, enough time for Washington to complete the deployment of the main body, and at 13:30, he was one of the last American officers to withdraw across the bridge.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 298–310, 313 When Lee reached Perrine's Hill, Washington sent him with part of the former vanguard to form a reserve at Englishtown. At 15:00, Steuben arrived at Englishtown and relieved Lee of command.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 315–316 General Lee regarded John Skey Eustace as his adopted son and declared him as his heir,A Cock and Bull for Kitty: Lord Dunmore and the Affair that Ruined the ... by George Morrow, p. 73“To Alexander Hamilton from John Skey Eustace, [27 October 1798],” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-22-02-0127. [Original source: The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 22, July 1798 – March 1799, ed. Harold C. Syrett. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975, pp. 213–216.]The Papers of Robert Morris, 1781-1784: August-September 1781 but the handsome Eustace decided to desert the unpredictable Lee.General Charles Lee, traitor or patriot? ====Court martial==== Even before the day was out, Lee was cast in the role of villain, and his vilification became an integral part of after- battle reports written by Washington's officers.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 391–392 Lee continued in his post as second-in-command immediately after the battle, and it is likely that the issue would have simply subsided if he had let it go. On June 30, after protesting his innocence to all who would listen, Lee wrote an insolent letter to Washington in which he blamed "dirty earwigs" for turning Washington against him, claimed his decision to retreat had saved the day and pronounced Washington to be "guilty of an act of cruel injustice" towards him. Instead of the apology Lee was tactlessly seeking, Washington replied that the tone of Lee's letter was "highly improper" and that he would initiate an official inquiry into Lee's conduct. Lee's response demanding a court martial was again insolent, and Washington ordered his arrest and set about obliging him.Ferling 2009 p. 180Chernow 2010 p. 452Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 392–393 The court convened on July 4, 1778, and three charges were laid before Lee: disobeying orders in not attacking on the morning of the battle, contrary to "repeated instructions"; conducting an "unnecessary, disorderly, and shameful retreat"; and disrespect towards the commander-in-chief. The trial concluded on August 12, 1778, and the accusations and counter- accusations continued to fly until the verdict was confirmed by Congress on December 5, 1778.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 395–396, 400 Lee's defense was articulate but fatally flawed by his efforts to turn it into a personal contest between himself and Washington. He denigrated the commander-in-chief's role in the battle, calling Washington's official account "from beginning to end a most abominable damn'd lie", and disingenuously cast his own decision to retreat as a "masterful manoeuvre" designed to lure the British onto the main body.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 396, 397, 399 Washington remained aloof from the controversy, but his allies portrayed Lee as a traitor who had allowed the British to escape and linked him to the previous winter's alleged conspiracy against Washington.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 397–399 Although the first two charges proved to be dubious, Lee was undeniably guilty of disrespect, and Washington was too powerful to cross.Lender & Stone 2016 p. 396 As the historian John Shy noted, "Under the circumstances, an acquittal on the first two charges would have been a vote of no-confidence in Washington."Shy 1973, cited in Lender & Stone 2016, p. 396 Lee was found guilty on all three counts, but the court deleted "shameful" from the second and noted the retreat was "disorderly" only "in some few instances." Lee was suspended from the army for a year, a sentence so lenient that some interpreted it as a vindication of all but the charge of disrespect.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 396–397 Lee continued to argue his case and rage against Washington to anyone who would listen, prompting both Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, one of Washington's aides, and Steuben to challenge him to a duel. Only the duel with Laurens actually transpired, during which Lee was wounded. In 1780, Lee sent such a poorly received letter to Congress that it terminated his service with the army.Ferling 2009 pp. 180–181Lender & Stone 2016 p. 400–401Chernow 2010 p. 455 ==Later life== right|thumb|Lee was very fond of dogs, and was seldom seen without half a dozen at his heels. Lee retired to his Prato Rio property in the Shenandoah Valley, where he bred horses and dogs. However, debts had again accumulated, and his advisors recommended liquidating the property. By the spring of 1780, in addition to more frequent gout attacks, Lee had acquired a chronic cough which with other symptoms might have indicated tuberculosis. He made a final tour of Baltimore, Williamsburg, and Fredericksburg, Virginia; Frederick, Maryland; and western Pennsylvania.Papas, [ pp. 286-287]. While visiting Philadelphia to complete the property's sale (that to Maryland buyers having fallen through), he was stricken with fever and died in an inn on October 2, 1782. Despite a provision of his will that denounced organized religion and specifically forbade burial near a church or religious meeting house, his remains were taken to the City Tavern for friends and dignitaries to pay their respects, then a military escort took his remains to Christ Church, where after a brief Anglican service, Lee was buried in the churchyard in an unmarked grave.Papas, [ pp. 288-291]. Lee left his property to his sister, Sidney Lee, who died unmarried in 1788.Papas, [ p. 289]. ==Legacy== Lee's last home, Prato Rio, still exists, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A historical marker indicates General Lee's service. Much of the adjoining property, which has many natural springs, has been federally owned since 1931, and is currently operated by the U.S. Geological Survey as the Leetown Science Center (formerly the National Fish Hatchery and Research Station), as well as the federal agency's eastern regional office. Fort Lee, New Jersey, on the west side of the Hudson River (across the water from Fort Washington, New York), was named for him during his life. Lee, Massachusetts; Lee, New Hampshire; and Leetown, West Virginia were also named for him. Lee's place in history was further tarnished in the 1850s when George H. Moore, the librarian at the New-York Historical Society, discovered a manuscript dated March 29, 1777, written by Lee while he was a British prisoner of war. It was addressed to the "Royal Commissioners", i.e. Lord Richard Howe and Richard's brother, Sir William Howe, respectively the British naval and army commanders in North America at the time, and detailed a plan by which the British might defeat the rebellion. Moore's discovery, presented in a paper titled "The Treason of Charles Lee" in 1858, influenced perceptions of Lee for decades.Lender & Stone 2016 pp. 111–112 Lee's infamy became orthodoxy in such 19th-century works as Washington Irving's Life of George Washington (1855–1859), George Washington Parke Custis's Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington (1861) and George Bancroft's History of the United States of America, from the Discovery of the American Continent (1854–1878).Lender & Stone 2016 p. 431 Although most modern scholars reject the idea that Lee was guilty of treason, it is given credence in some accounts, examples being Willard Sterne Randall's account of the Battle of Monmouth in George Washington: A Life (1997), and Dominick Mazzagetti's Charles Lee: Self Before Country (2013).Lender & Stone 2016 p. 112Randall 1997 p. 358Mazzagetti 2013 p. xi ==In popular culture== *Lee is featured as the secondary antagonist in the video game Assassin's Creed III, serving as second-in-command of the Colonial Templar Order under Grand Master Haytham Kenway and the archenemy of protagonist Connor Kenway, who ultimately kills him in an inn in 1782. He is voiced by Neil Napier. *Lee and his arrest following the retreat during the Battle of Monmouth is depicted in the animated television series Liberty's Kids. *Lee is a character in the first two seasons of the 2014 AMC television series Turn: Washington's Spies, in which he is blackmailed into becoming a British intelligence operative by Major John André. He is portrayed by Brian T. Finney. *Lee is a character in Diana Gabaldon's novel Written in My Own Heart's Blood, part of the Outlander series. *Lee, portrayed in the original Broadway cast by Jon Rua, is a minor character in the 2015 Broadway musical Hamilton, appearing in the songs "Stay Alive," and "Ten Duel Commandments" in which his duel with soldier John Laurens marks a turning point in the plot. ==Notes== ==References== ==Sources== * * Axelrod, Alan. "The Real History of the American Revolution" Sterling Publishing, 2007. * * * * * * * * — 1776 (book) * * * Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution. New York: Facts on File, 1993. . * * * ==External links== * Washington's Retreat through Jersey – Capture of General Lee * * MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF THE LATE CHARLES LEE. London 1792 Category:1732 births Category:1782 deaths Category:Military personnel from Cheshire Category:44th Regiment of Foot officers Category:American planters Category:American slave owners Category:American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain Category:American people of English descent Category:Royal Dublin Fusiliers officers Category:British Army personnel of the French and Indian War Category:Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia Category:Continental Army generals Category:Continental Army officers from England Category:Continental Army personnel who were court-martialed Category:18th-century deaths from tuberculosis Category:American duellists Category:British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies Category:People from Winsford Category:Polish Army officers Category:Virginia colonial people Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Pennsylvania
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Chilean Americans (, chileno-estadounidenses, or ) are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population from the U.S. census was 126,810. In the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Latino group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Latino groups. Chilean Americans live mainly in the New York Metropolitan Area, South Florida, Los Angeles County, San Francisco Bay Area (esp. San Mateo County) and the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area, with high population concentrations found in Queens in New York City; Northern New Jersey; Miami, Florida; and Nassau County, New York. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas. After the 1960s, Chileans began to immigrate more for economic or academic rather than political reasons and that continues into the modern day. == History == Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush. Not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they frequently worked as bricklayers, bakers, or seamen. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour and mining equipment from Chile. In the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in separate camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans constituted the majority of the population of Sonora. Chileans frequently worked their mines as group efforts. When the placer gold ran out around Sonora the Chileans were amongst the first miners in California to extract gold from quartz. Historical remnants of those settlements influenced the names of locations such as Chileno Valley in Marin County, Chili Gulch in Calaveras and Chili Bar in Placer which was named after Chilean road builders. Names of Chilean towns and places are often found in the names of streets in Northern California: Valparaiso, Santiago, and Calera. After Allende was overthrown and a military regime was established in 1973, a large exodus of Chileans took place. Most fled to European countries, but a small group did emigrate to the United States. The U.S. government took these Chileans as refugees under a program for "political parolees." Many of San Francisco's streets carry names of former residents of Chile: Atherton, Ellis, Lick, Larkin, and others. Chilean women also left their names: Mina and Clementina. Manuel Briseño, an early journalist in the mines was one of the founders of the San Diego Union. Juan Evangelista Reyes was a Sacramento pioneer as were the Luco brothers. Luis Felipe Ramírez was one of the City Fathers in Marysville. The Leiva family owned at one time, much of the land in Marin County, including Fort Ross. In 1975, Chilean exiles of the Augusto Pinochet dictatorship established La Peña Cultural Center in Berkeley, California, which is to this day the largest Chilean cultural center in the United States. Chilean Americans have achieved many skills as entrepreneurs, judges, musicians, and others. As of 2020, no Chilean American has yet been elected to the United States Congress. ==Motives of immigration== Most Chilean immigration to the U.S. has occurred largely since the 1990s. For the most part, Chileans left as either political asylees and refugees first during the presidency of the Marxist Salvador Allende or for economic reasons; the involvement of the United States in Salvador Allende's overthrow in 1973 and supporting the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, led to more political exiles fleeing from Chile to the U.S., as well as other countries. Also, there have been others that have emigrated to seek higher education and career development opportunities. Since the 1960 Valdivia earthquake and with 2010 Chile earthquake, many Chileans have pursued economic opportunities in the United States, with Paterson, New Jersey, representing an increasingly common destination. Many of the Pinochet-era immigrants were of middle or upper class origin. A significant proportion of them arrived with advanced educations and well-developed skills. They had contacts with other Chilean exiles and a sense of identity from their shared commitment to a democratic Chile. After a period of adjustment, many of them were able to pursue skilled jobs or professions. Unfortunately, others, who lacked skills or whose professional certifications were not recognized in the United States, were forced to take low-level jobs in which they were unable to use their skills. Some had been politically active students or union leaders in Chile who did not enter the United States with easily transferable skills. The second major arrival into the United States was mainly for economic or academic opportunities. Yet, in general, acquiring a U.S. Visa requires the applicant to have a stable economic background, so most Chileans emigrating to the United States since 1990 have done so mostly for study purposes or to further their academic backgrounds. == Identity == Chileans are mostly diverse, their ancestry can be fully West/South European as well as mixed with Indigenous and other European heritage. They commonly identify themselves as both Latino and white. Some Chilean-owned stores and restaurants advertise as French and Italian. Many often prefer living in white suburban neighborhoods in the U.S., and have a strong sense of family. == Demographics == ===Population by state=== The 10 U.S. states with the largest population of Chilean Americans are: # California – 24,006 # Florida – 23,549 # New York – 15,050 # New Jersey – 8,100 # Texas – 6,282 # Virginia – 4,195 # Maryland – 4,146 # Utah – 3,364 # Massachusetts – 3,045 # Illinois – 2,753 ===Population by urban agglomeration=== The largest populations of Chilean Americans are situated in the following urban areas: # New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA MSA – 20,688 # Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Pompano Beach, FL MSA – 17,161 # Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, CA MSA – 10,471 # Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV MSA – 6,963 # San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA MSA – 4,000 # Boston-Cambridge-Quincy, MA-NH MSA – 2,622 # Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown, TX MSA – 2,570 # Chicago-Joliet- Naperville, IL-IN-WI MSA – 2,454 # Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA MSA – 2,066 # Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford, FL MSA – 1,884 # Atlanta-Sandy Springs- Marietta, GA MSA – 1,779 # Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue, WA MSA – 1,776 # San Diego-Carlsbad-San Marcos, CA MSA – 1,730 # Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington, TX MSA – 1,686 # Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington, PA-NJ-DE-MD MSA – 1,505 # Salt Lake City, UT MSA – 1,463 # San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA MSA – 1,397 # Las Vegas-Paradise, NV MSA – 1,376 # Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL MSA – 1,215 # Phoenix-Mesa-Glendale, AZ MSA – 1,211 ===Population by city proper=== # New York City, New York – 7,026 # Los Angeles, California – 4,112 # Miami, Florida – 1,427 # Houston, Texas – 934 # San Diego, California and Chicago, Illinois – 876 # San Francisco, California – 754 # Miami Beach, Florida – 739 # Washington, DC – 697 # San Jose, California – 632 # Doral, Florida – 622 # Kendall, Florida – 613 # Hialeah, Florida – 602 # The Hammocks, Florida – 564 # Pembroke Pines, Florida – 558 # Fontainebleau, Florida – 549 # Hollywood, Florida – 542 # Kendale Lakes, Florida – 469 # Las Vegas, Nevada – 467 # Boston, Massachusetts – 405 # San Antonio, Texas – 374 # Union City, New Jersey – 372 # Charlotte, North Carolina – 368 # Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – 357 # Coral Springs, Florida – 342 # Miramar, Florida and Austin, Texas – 340 ===Population by percentage=== U.S. communities with the highest percentages of Chileans as a percent of total population: (Source: Census 2010) # Brookeville, Maryland – 3.73% # Manorhaven, New York – 3.57% # Oyster Bay, New York – 2.67% # Warm Springs, Virginia – 1.63% # Dover, New Jersey – 1.55% # Key Biscayne, Florida – 1.50% # Sleepy Hollow, New York – 1.48% # Forest Home, New York – 1.40% # Doral, Florida – 1.36% # Victory Gardens, New Jersey – 1.32% # Wharton, New Jersey – 1.27% # The Crossings, Florida – 1.18% # The Hammocks, Florida – 1.11% # Inwood, New York – 1.10% # North Lynbrook, New York – 1.01% Chileans are more than 1% of the entire population in only fifteen communities in the United States. These communities are mostly located in Miami-Dade County, Morris County, NJ, and Nassau County, NY. == Traditions and Customs == Most Chileans have customs that blend well into the American lifestyle. The Chilean workday is similar to the American workday, with the regular businessperson working 45 hours a weekHarris Gomez Group, Chilean labour law – Overtime and how it works! from 8:30 am to 6:30 pm with a lunch break, as well as possibly staying behind at work for a few hours to work overtime. However, many Chileans outside Santiago are used to going home for lunch, something not as common in the U.S. and with Chilean Americans. Unlike the "normal" American diet, Chileans are used to having four meals a day. Breakfast, lunch, tea (or onces) at about five o'clock, and a late dinner. Many people actually have onces during the early evening hours and skip dinner. Surprisingly, Chile is one of the only Latin countries where tea is a more popular drink than coffee, differing from American consumption trends as well. ==Notable people== thumb|110px|Politician Juan Pablo Letelier *Alexa Guarachi – Tennis player *Los Abandoned – Chilean American rock band *Marjorie Agosín – Poet, essayist, fiction writer, activist, and professor. *Fernando Alegria – Stanford professor *Marsia Alexander-Clarke – American video installation artist *Isabel Allende – Chilean writer *Fernando Alvarez – Jockey * Cayetano Apablasa (1847–1889) – Land owner and politician in Los Angeles, California. He was son of a Chilean."Biographies of Famous Citizens," LAGenealogy.com "R.J. Apablasa Takes Bride," Los Angeles Times, July 13, 1954, page B-1 *Tom Araya – Musician *Claudio Arrau – Pianist *Felipe Bazar – U.S. Navy hero *Natascha Bessez – Singer and beauty pageant *Nico Bodonczy – Soccer player *Daniel Borzutzky – Poet and translator *Charissa Chamorro – Actress *Charmaine – Musician *Beto Cuevas – Singer *Angélica Castro – Former model, actress and TV presenter (see Wikipedia en español) *Cristian de la Fuente – Soap opera actor *Patricia Demick – Boxer *Ruperto Donoso – Jockey *Ariel Dorfman – Educator, activist, and author *Juan Downey – Artist *Frank J. Duarte – Laser physicist and author *Matias Duarte – Inventor *Sebastian Edwards – Academic and economist *Paloma Elsesser – Plus size fashion model *Julio M. Fernandez – Biologist *Pablo Francisco – Comedian *Alberto Fuguet – Writer and film director *Thelma Furness, Viscountess Furness – Mistress of King Edward VIII *Jorge Garcia – Actor *John Gavin – Actor *Alexa Guarachi – Tennis player *Lisa Guerrero – Sportscaster and actress *Tommy Guerrero – Skateboarder, company owner, and musician *Claudio Guzmán – Television director, producer, art director, and production designer. *Sophia Hayden – Architect and the first woman graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology *Fareed Haque – Fusion guitarist *Alfredo Jaar – Artist, architect, and filmmaker *Nicolas Jaar – Composer and recording artist *Alain Johannes – Musician *Paulina Kernberg – Child psychiatrist and professor *Mario Kreutzberger – aka Don Francisco, U.S. Latino TV host *Juan Pablo Letelier – Socialist member of the Chilean Senate, son of Orlando Letelier *Jason Liebrecht – Voice actor *Vicente Luque – MMA fighter *Antonio Macia – Screenwriter and actor *Paloma Mami – Singer *Benny Mardones – Singer *Roberto Matta – Surreal painter *Gordon Matta-Clark – Artist *Claudio Miranda – Novelist and filmmaker *Gabriela Mistral – Nobel laureate *Daniella Monet – Actress *Harry Hays Morgan Jr. – Diplomat, society figure, and actor *Mauro E. Mujica – chairman and CEO of U.S. English *Gloria Naveillán – Member of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile, born in Chicago *Ricardo A. Olea – Engineer and scientist *America Olivo – Actress, singer, and model *Cote de Pablo – Actress, singer and musical theater actress *Frank Pando – Actor *Marko Zaror – Actor *Pedro Pascal – Actor *Nicole Polizzi – Reality TV personality *Promis – Singer-songwriter and composer *Jose Quiroga – Cardiologist *Horatio Sanz – Comedian, Saturday Night Live *Elizabeth Schall – Singer-songwriter and guitarist *Sebastian Soto – Soccer player *Tom Araya – Musician *Elizabeth Subercaseaux – Writer *Mahani Teave – Classical pianist and conservationist, born in Hawaii to a Rapanui father and an American mother *Ryann Torrero – Soccer player and model *Steve Thurston – Journalist, entrepreneur, and co- founder, CEO and president of Integrity Ministries *Mercedes Valdivieso – Chilean writer and Rice University professor *Arturo Valenzuela – Professor *Francisca Valenzuela – Chilean poet, singer-songwriter, and pianist *Leonor Varela – Actress *Andres Velasco – Economist and professor *Alexander Witt – Director ==Chileans abroad== Of the 857,781 Chilean expatriates around the globe, 13.3% (114,084) live in the United States, 50.1% reside in Argentina, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% each in Canada and Australia, with the remaining 18% being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe, particularly the countries of the European Union. ==See also== *Demographics of Chile *Latino conservatism in the United States *Chileans in the United Kingdom *Chilean Australian *List of Chileans *Chile–United States relations ==Notes== ==References== * US Census Chilean Factpage * Are We Really So Fearful? by Ariel Dorfman The Washington Post 10/24/06 ==Further reading== * Burson, Phyllis J. "Chilean Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 479–490. online * Pike, F. B. Chile and the United States: 1880–1962 (University of Notre Dame Press, 1963). * Gomez, L.A. (2018). "Chilean Americans: A micro cultural Latinx group." In Patricia Arredondo (Ed.), Latinx immigrants: Transcending acculturation and xenophobia (pp. 33–52). Springer. ==External links== * Historical Text Archive History of Chileans and the California Gold Rush * Rosales and the Chilean miners in California PBS American Experience the Gold Rush ** * Cámara Chileno Norteamericana de Comercio (AMCHAM) Chilean American Chamber of Commerce ** * The Avalon Project (Yale Law School) Chilean Diplomacy * La Peña Cultural Center a major Chilean community and political activism center in Berkeley, California Category:Hispanic and Latino American * American
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In United States patent law, patent misuse is a patent holder's use of a patent to restrain trade beyond enforcing the exclusive rights that a lawfully obtained patent provides. If a court finds that a patent holder committed patent misuse, the court may rule that the patent holder has lost the right to enforce the patent. Patent misuse that restrains economic competition substantially can also violate United States antitrust law.. ==Definition== Patent misuse is a patent owner's improper use of patent rights, speaking very generally, to expand the scope or term of the patent. Examples of such patent misuse include forcing customers to agree to pay royalties on unpatented products or to pay royalties on an expired patent. This type of patent misuse can take place without a violation of antitrust laws. But it violates such policies of US patent law as the monopoly of a patent is confined to what its claims cover and once a patent expires the public has an unlimited right to practice the formerly claimed subject matter.See . Patent misuse may also occur when the patentee's conduct is a violation of antitrust laws. For example, a company buying all the patents in a given field (relevant market) to stall competition would be misusing patents, and (assuming other statutory requirements are met) also violating section 7 of the Clayton Act (15 U.S.C. § 18) and section 2 of the Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. § 2). Other antitrust patent misuse includes (again assuming that other statutory requirements are met) a licensor's exercising control over the price that several licensees charge for a product or service; attempting to enforce a patent that the patentee knows to be invalid or not infringed; and selling patented goods on the condition, agreement, or understanding that the buyer will not deal in the goods of a competitor of the seller.; section 3 of the Clayton Act (). ==History== In the early 20th century, patent misuse was not yet a well recognized defense to patent infringement, although it had been recognized in Adams v. Burke in 1873. Courts at that time recognized relatively few limitations to patentees' rights. In 1912, the Supreme Court did not recognize a doctrine of patent misuse in Henry v. A.B. Dick Co.,. a case in which a patent license was tied to a purchase of another product.A mimeograph machine patent was used to tie ink and stencils used with the machine to the machine. According to the Court, because a patent owner had the greater right to withhold its patented product from market entirely, it had the inherent lesser right to selectively withhold it from people who did not purchase other products.Brian D. Hill, "Princo Corp. v. Int'l Trade Comm'n: Patent Misuse No Longer a Deterrent to Anticompetitive Behavior in the Group Venture Context", 7 J. Bus. & Tech. L. 361 (2012) This inherent-right doctrine was expressly rejected a few years later, however, in Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Mfg. Co. (holding unenforceable a restriction that a user of a patented film projector must use it to screen only such films as the patentee authorized). In that case, Justice Holmes (who had been in the majority in the A.B. Dick case), now in dissent, argued that because the owner of a patented teapot "may keep his device wholly out of use . . . I cannot understand why he may not keep it out of use unless the licensee, or, for the matter of that, the buyer" will agree to buy his tea from the patent owner.243 U.S. at 519. But the majority rejected this doctrine of patentees' "inherent rights." It explained: > [T]he argument [is] that, since the patentee may withhold his patent > altogether from public use, he must logically and necessarily be permitted > to impose any conditions which he chooses upon any use which he may allow of > it. The defect in this thinking springs from the substituting of inference > and argument for the language of the statute, and from failure to > distinguish between the rights which are given to the inventor by the patent > law and which he may assert against all the world through an infringement > proceeding, and rights which he may create for himself by private contract, > which, however, are subject to the rules of general, as distinguished from > those of the patent, law. While it is true that, under the statutes as they > were (and now are), a patentee might withhold his patented machine from > public use, yet, if he consented to use it himself or through others, such > use immediately fell within the terms of the statute, and, as we have seen, > he is thereby restricted to the use of the invention as it is described in > the claims of his patent, and not as it may be expanded by limitations as to > materials and supplies necessary to the operation of it, imposed by mere > notice to the public.243 U.S. at 514-15. A year after the A.B. Dick case, in Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell,. the Supreme Court began to shift its perspective by holding that, although patentees could control manufacturing, use, and sale of patented products with license agreements, they could not use license agreements to control the resale price of patented products the patentee sold. After the Motion Picture Patents case, the tide began to run more strongly against restrictive patent practices. ==Case law== ===Origins and development=== In 1917, the Supreme Court reversed the four-year-old Henry v. A.B. Dick Co. decision and established patent misuse as an affirmative defense to copyright infringement. In Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Mfg. Co., the Supreme Court held that requiring a patented film projector only be used for screening films authorized by the patent holder was unenforceable and constituted patent misuse. The Court concluded that the patentee's attempt to extend its monopoly power beyond the rights that the patent statute conferred on it was inequitable, and because of the patentee's "unclean hands," the court, as a court of equity, would not grant it relief.White, Katherine "A Rule for When Patent Misuse Should be Applied" 11 671 In explaining its ruling, the Court said: > [W]e are convinced that the exclusive right granted in every patent must be > limited to the invention described in the claims of the patent, and that it > is not competent for the owner of a patent, by notice attached to its > machine, to in effect extend the scope of its patent monopoly by restricting > the use of it to materials necessary in its operation, but which are no part > of the patented invention, or to send its machines forth into the channels > of trade of the country subject to conditions as to use or royalty to be > paid, to be imposed thereafter at the discretion of such patent owner. The > patent law furnishes no warrant for such a practice, and the cost, > inconvenience, and annoyance to the public which the opposite conclusion > would occasion forbid it.243 U.S. at 516. Carbice Corp. v. American Patents Development Corp.,. clarified that requiring patent licensees to buy other products as a condition of a patent license ("product tying") was misuse. American Patents Development Corp. held a patent for a dry ice transport enclosure. It required its customers only use their enclosure to transport dry ice from their exclusive distributor. The Supreme Court held that using patents to control an enclosure purchaser's other product purchases was patent misuse. (In a separate case a few months later, the Supreme Court held that Carbice's patent was invalid.). The Supreme Court held that patent misuse made the patent unenforceable regarding monetary relief in Morton Salt Co. v. G.S. Suppiger Co.. Suppiger Co. owned a patent on salt-tablet dispensing machines that it manufactured. The sales agreement for the machines required customers to purchase salt tablets exclusively from Suppiger. Morton Salt Co., a competitor that also sold salt tablets, manufactured and leased dispensing machines that infringed Suppiger's patent. The Supreme Court denied Suppiger Co. compensation for Morton Salt's infringement, holding that Suppiger's patent was unenforceable because it was using it to restrain competition in unpatented salt. The Court said its ruling would not be different if Morton Salt were not Suppiger's competitor. The Court added that misuse could be found in conduct falling short of an antitrust violation. Brulotte v Thys Co.,. established that attempting to collect royalties after a patent expired was misuse. Mr. Brulotte purchased a hop-harvesting machine from Thys Co. Upon purchase, Brulotte accepted a licensing agreement which required annual royalty payments beyond the duration of the Thys patent. When Brulotte realized that the terms of the contract exceeded the duration of the patent, he stopped paying the royalties. The Supreme Court held that the contract between Brulotte and Thys was not enforceable once the last licensed patent expired, because the license extended the term of patent protection beyond the duration of the patent. In June 2015, the Supreme Court reaffirmed the Brulotte case., emphasizing that the patent misuse doctrine is based on policies of patent law (such as the establishment of a public domain right upon patent expiry) rfather than antitrust policies. In Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc. the Supreme Court established that demanding a percentage of a licensees patented and non-patented product sales in exchange for a license was misuse. Hazeltine Research required Zenith pay a total percentage of all its sales to license Hazeltine's patents. The court ruled that this license requirement was patent misuse, even though it might not be an antitrust violation because the anticompetive impact may have been too slight.395 U.S. at 140. This holding reaffirmed a line of Supreme Court patent misuse decisions holding that the competitive impact of a restrictive practice might fall short of an antitrust violation and nonetheless be misuse. Other forms of patent misuse recognized by courts of appeals decisions but not addressed in detail as yet by the Supreme Court include: * Tying the purchase of unpatented materials as a condition of a patent license, where the effect is substantially anticompetitive in a relevant market over which the patent has market power.. * Tying one patent license to another, where the tying patent has market power.; see Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technical Services, Inc., 504 U.S. 451, 461 (1992) ("Conditioning the ability of a licensee to license one or more items of intellectual property on the licensee's purchase of another item of intellectual property . . . has been held in some cases to constitute illegal tying."). * Requiring a licensee not to make a competitive product as a condition of a patent license.National Lockwasher Co. v. George K. Garrett Co., 137 F.2d 255 (3d Cir. 1943). * Requiring a licensee to assign back or exclusively license back subsequent related patents, where the effect is substantially anticompetitive.U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission, Antitrust Guidelines for the Licensing of Intellectual Property, § 5.6 (1995)("Grantbacks may adversely affect competition, however, if they substantially reduce the licensee's incentives to engage in research and development and thereby limit rivalry in innovation markets.") * Licensor's giving licensees veto power over additional licenses.See United States v. Krasnov, 143 F. Supp. 184 (E.D. Pa. 1956), aff'd per curiam, 335 U.S. 5 (1957); United States v. Besser Mfg, Co., 96 F. Supp. 304 (E.D. Mich. 1951), aff'd, 343 U.S. 444 (1952)' see United States v. Union Camp Corp., Crim. Action No. 4558 (indictment E.D. Va. Nov. 30, 1967); id., 1969 Trade Cas. ¶ 72,689 (E.D. Va. 1969) (consent decree). ===Recent changes=== Windsurfing v. AMFWindsurfing Intern. INC. v. AMF, INC 782 F.2d 995 (1986) held that a patent misuse defense must show that the patentee's behavior hurts competition. This case also clarified that if the Supreme Court had already held a particular licensing arrangement was misuse, the infringer did not have to establish that it was anticompetitive. However, if the Supreme Court had not spoken on the licensing agreement, the infringer has to establish the agreement hurts competition. A few months later, however, the Federal Circuit retreated from Windsurfing in Senza-Gel Corp. v. Seiffhart.803 F.2d 661, 665 (Fed. Cir. 1986). In response to a certified question, the court recognized that "as the Supreme Court has said, the patentee's act may constitute patent misuse without rising to the level of an antitrust violation."803 F.2d at 668. Citing the contrary suggestion in Windsurfing, the court explained: > Commentators and courts have questioned the rationale appearing in Supreme > Court opinions dealing with misuse in view of recent economic theory and > Supreme Court decisions in non-misuse contexts. We are bound, however, to > adhere to existing Supreme Court guidance in the area until otherwise > directed by Congress or by the Supreme Court.803 F.2d at 665 n.5. In Princo Corp. v. International Trade Commission,Princo Corp. v. International Trade Commission and U.S. Philips Corp.,616 F.3d 1318 (Fed. Cir. 2010) the Federal Circuit held that violations of antitrust law involving patents are not always patent misuse. Philips, Sony and other manufacturers developed patented technology to create CDs that could be rewritten multiple times (CD-RWs). Philips licensed these patents to CD player and reader manufacturers (so they could develop CD players and readers that worked with CD-RWs). Princo Corp., one of the licensees, stopped paying royalty fees to Philips, but continued to manufacture readable discs using Phillips technology. Phillips filed a complaint with the International Trade Commission and Princo responded claiming that Sony and Phillips were using their patents to suppress competition. On appeal, an en banc the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals held that Sony and Phillips had not expanded the scope of their patent in a way prohibited by previous Supreme Court cases. Namely, the violation allegedly did not "leverage" the patent at hand. According to one commentator, patent scholars have speculated that this opinion will significantly narrow the scope of misuse. In Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC,. on June 22, 2015, the Supreme Court refused to overrule Brulotte v. Thys Co., because of stare decisis. The Court pointed out that "Congress has spurned multiple opportunities to reverse Brulotte," and "Congress has rebuffed bills that would have replaced Brulotte's per se rule with the same antitrust-style analysis Kimble now urges."Kimble, slip op. at 8-9, 11. Moreover, the Court maintained, there was not a good reason to overrule Brulotte: "Brulotte's statutory and doctrinal underpinnings have not eroded over time."Kimble, slip op. at 10. The patent statute at issue in Brulotte is essentially unchanged. The precedents on which the Brulotte Court relied, like other decisions enforcing a patent's cutoff date, remain good law.Kimble, slip op. at 3-4, 10-11. And Brulotte's "close relation to a whole web of [other] precedents means that reversing it could threaten others."Kimble, slip op. at 11. In addition, the Court rejected Kimble's arguments that the Brulotte doctrine should be overturned because the practice it outlaws is not anticompetive and it does not violate the antitrust laws. The Court found this argument beside the point: "But Brulotte is a patent rather than an antitrust case," it insisted.Kimble, slip op. at 14. It also said, "The patent laws—unlike the Sherman Act—do not aim to maximize competition (to a large extent, the opposite)." Kimble, slip op. at 15. Under the Court's legal analysis, "[P]atent (not antitrust) policy gave rise to the Court's conclusion that post-patent royalty contracts are unenforceable—utterly 'regardless of a demonstrable effect on competition.'"Kimble, slip op. at 16. Earlier in its opinion, the Court explained that it was well-settled that it was "patent law's policy [to] establish[] a 'post-expiration . . . public domain' in which every person can make free use of a formerly patented product."Kimble, slip op. at 5. The Court also said that legal enforcement of agreements for post- patent expiration royalties conflicts with the "free market visualized for the post-expiration period" and so "runs counter to the policy and purpose of the patent laws." Kimble, slip op. at 16. The majority opinion is thus a strong rebuke to those analysts that seek to make the misuse doctrine a kind of petty antitrust law, in which antitrust principles of analysis dominate over policies unique to patent law; Kimble reaffirms many prior Supreme Court decisions that hold that misuse may be found in conduct that does not violate the antitrust laws.See, e.g., Zenith Radio Corp., 395 U.S. at 140 (holding that conditions for patent misuse may not violate Sherman or Clayton Acts); (patent may be misused contrary to purpose of patent laws without violating antitrust laws); Morton Salt Co., 314 U.S. at 491-94 (consideration of Clayton Act is unnecessary to determine whether patent misuse occurred). ==Congressional limits to patent misuse== Congress limited the patent misuse affirmative defense in both 1952 and 1998, resulting in (d) of the Patent Act. ===Overhaul of the Patent Act in 1952=== In 1952, Congress added provisions to the Patent Act explicitly exempting from patent misuse merely charging royalties, licensing, and suing to enforce patents against contributory infringement. These provisions are in 35 U.S.C. § 271(d). ===Patent Misuse Reform Act of 1988=== In 1988, Congress enacted legislation that narrowed the scope of the patent misuse by creating safe harbors for patent holders in (d). It clarified that patentees did not misuse their patents by suing people creating products which could be used to infringement patents (contributory infringement). Requiring people to buy another license or product to obtain a patented product is also not misuse, unless the patentee holds "market power."The specific language of section 271(d)(5), the relevant statutory provision, is: Tying is not misuse"unless, in view of the circumstances, the patent owner has market power in the relevant market for the patent or patented product on which the license or sale is conditioned." ==Remedy== Most types of misuse can be erased (or "purged") so the patent is valid again by abandoning the misusing practice and causing its effects to fully dissipate. Fraud or inequitable conduct in acquiring patents, however, is not purgeable.Leaffer, M."Patent Misuse and Innovation" 10 J. HIGH TECH. L. 142 (2010) ==Criticisms and support== Critics of the patent misuse defense argue it is anachronistic, that it should be limited by the antitrust rule of reason, and that it has been narrowed to oblivion since 1988 by court rulings like Princo Corp. v. International Trade Commission.Testimony of Robert J. Hoerner "FTC Hearings on Competition and Intellectual Property Law and Policy in the Knowledge-Based Economy" (2002)Frankel, Kenneth M. "Patent Misuse After Federal Circuit's Princo Decision En Banc" The AIPLA Antitrust News February 2011 Proponents of the patent misuse defense suggest it could be a defense against litigation brought by patent trolls.Gene Quinn "Indicia of Extortion – Federal Circuit Slams Patent Troll" Use of this doctrine to contest patent infringement suits by non-practicing entities may require the courts to challenge precedent set in Continental Paper Bag Co. v. Eastern Paper Bag Co.. The Supreme Court rejected some of this criticism in Kimble v. Marvel, which reaffirmed Brulotte v. Thys Co. and asserted that misuse is governed by patent policy rather than antitrust policy. ===The "Nine No-No's" Controversy=== In November 1970. Bruce Wilson, then a Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Justice Department's Antitrust Division, gave a speech in Boston that came to be known as the "Nine No-No's."Bruce B. Wilson, Deputy Ass't Atty. Gen., Antitrust Div., Dep't of Justice, Patent and Know-How License Agreements: Field of Use, Territorial, Price and Quantity Restrictions , Remarks Before the Fourth New England Antitrust Conference 9 (Nov. 6, 1970). The Nine No-Nos' 'were: :(1) tying the purchase of unpatented materials as a condition of the license (tie-ins), :(2) requiring the licensee to assign back subsequent patents ("assignment grant-backs"), :(3) restricting the right of the purchaser of the product in the resale of the product (post-sale restraints), :(4) restricting the licensee's ability to deal in products outside the scope of the patent ("tie-outs"), :(5) a licensor's agreement not to grant further licenses without the consent of the licensee ("veto-power" clauses), :(6) mandatory package licenses, :(7) royalty provisions not reasonably related to the licensee's sales (coerced "total-sales royalties"), :(8) restrictions on a licensee's use of a product made by a patented process, and :(9) minimum resale price provisions for the licensed products (price fixing). Wilson repeated the "No-No's" speech several more times,See Wilson, "Is The Past Prologue, or Where Do We Go From Here?" (Detroit Sept. 21, 1972), reprinted in 5 Trade Reg. Rep. 50, 146; Wilson, :"Law on Licensing Practices: Myth or Reality? or Straight Talk from 'Alice in Wonderland,' " (Washington DC Jan. 21, 1975). and an impression was created that it reflected the Antitrust Division's litigation policy. It has been debated whether the No-No's "reflected actual Department of Justice antitrust policy," despite Wilson's assertion that the so-called No-No's are restraints "which in virtually all cases are going to lead to antitrust trouble because of their adverse effect upon competition."Wilson, Straight Talk from 'Alice in Wonderland,' (Jan. 21, 1975) at 9. Two other former Deputy Assistant Attorney Generals from the Antitrust Division commented: > In actuality, of the sixteen cases filed by the division's Intellectual > Property Section between the late 1960s and the late 1970s, only half > specifically addressed any of the nine practices. Moreover, almost all of > these cases were litigated under a rule of reason rather than per se > illegality.Richard Gilbert and Carl Shapiro, Antitrust Issues in the > Licensing of Intellectual Property: The Nine No-No's Meet the Nineties, 13 > 283, 286 (1997). Although it therefore appears that the No-No's were never more than an informal antitrust prosecutors' check-list, and were not advanced much less pressed in litigation as a proposed rule of antitrust law, they were widely denounced. For example, during the Bush Administration, government officials distanced themselves from them.It has been asserted that as early as 1981 the "Department of Justice repudiated the 'Nine No-No's.' " Am. Bar Ass'n, 1082 (6th ed. 2007) (citing a speech by a Reagan Administration official). Thus, in 2003 the official then heading the Antitrust Division spoke out strongly against the No-No's as valid enforcement guidelines.See R. Hewitt Pate, Acting Assistant Attorney General/ Antitrust Division, U.S. Department of Justice. Antitrust and Intellectual Property, Address Before American Intellectual Property Law Association (Jan. 24, 2004). He then spoke of how the "No-No" practices actually often benefited competition; for example: * Tie-ins of unpatented supplies "could minimize the risks associated with the uncertainty that a patent owner may have regarding the value of his/her patented technology." * "Compulsory payment of royalties in amounts not reasonably related to sales of the patented product . . . might be far more efficient, for example, to [use to] base royalties upon the total units produced by the licensee." * "Licensee veto power over the licensor's grant of further licenses . . . may have a net procompetitive effect."Pate. Another commentator during this period said with approval, "The Agencies have come a long way since the days of the Nine No-Nos."George G. Gordon, Analyzing IP License Restrictions Under The Antitrust Laws: A General Outline Of Issues(June 6, 2002). In retrospect, the Nine No-No's controversy appears to have been overblown, and the aims of its proponents exaggerated. The Antitrust Division's retreat from it and emphasis on whether the restrictive No-No actually had any anticompetitive effects in the marketplace, may properly be considered in light of the Zenith and Kimble cases' distinctions between antitrust and patent misuse based on their different respective policies. Considered in that light, the No-No's may properly state patent misuse policy. But in large part they did not state a viable antitrust enforcement policy. That appears to be the conclusion drawn in recent papers by Professor Hovenkamp.See Herbert Hovenkamp, Antitrust and the Patent System: A Reexamination, 76 L.J. 467, 468 (2015) (asserting that patent misuse doctrine "migrated into antitrust law"); see also , at 200–03 (2015). Thus, the Nine No-No's controversy informs us more about patent misuse than it does about antitrust policy, for Wilson's assertions that the No-No's likely spell antitrust trouble have proven not supported by events. == See also == * Copyright misuse * Evergreening * Inequitable conduct * Patent ambush * Patent troll * Submarine patent * Qualcomm#Apple == References == ==Further reading== *. *. *. *. *. * * * * Bruce B. Wilson, Deputy Ass't Atty. Gen., Antitrust Div., Dep't of Justice, Patent and Know-How License Agreements: Field of Use, Territorial, Price and Quantity Restrictions, Remarks Before the Fourth New England Antitrust Conference 9 (Nov. 6, 1970) (the so-called Nine No-Nos speech). Category:Anti-competitive practices Category:Equitable defenses Category:United States antitrust law Category:United States patent law Category:United States misuse law
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The United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force (UN ICT TF) was a multi-stakeholder initiative associated with the United Nations which is "intended to lend a truly global dimension to the multitude of efforts to bridge the global digital divide, foster digital opportunity and thus firmly put ICT at the service of development for all". ==Establishment== The UN ICT Task Force was created by United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan in November 2001, acting upon a request by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) dated July 11, 2000, with an initial term of mandate of three years (until the end of 2004). It followed in the footsteps of the World Economic Forum (WEF) Global Digital Divide Initiative (GDDI), and the Digital Opportunities Task Force (DOT Force), established in 2000 by the G8 at their annual summit in Okinawa, Japan. By providing it with a home in the United Nations, this accorded the UN ICT Task Force, in the eyes of many developing countries, a broader legitimization than the previous WEF and G8 initiatives, even if these previous initiatives also included a multi- stakeholder approach with broad participation by stakeholders from industrialized and developing countries. ==Aims and objectives== The Task Force's principal aim was to provide policy advice to governments and international organizations for bridging the digital divide. In addition to supporting the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and leading the UN in developing ICT strategies for development, the Task Force's objective was to form partnerships between the UN system and states, private industry, trusts, foundations, and donors, and other stakeholders. ==Membership and organization== The UN ICT Task Force has included the top ranks of the computer industry (Cisco Systems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Nokia, SAP, Siemens, Sun Microsystems), together with global NGOs (e.g., the Association for Progressive Communications), governments and international agencies. Its coordinating body was a multi-stakeholder bureau, assisted by a small secretariat at UN headquarters in New York. Technical advice was provided by a high-level panel of technical advisors. ==Activities== ===United Nations Information Technology Service (UNITeS)=== Within the Report of the high-level panel of experts on information and communication technology (22 May 2000) suggesting a UN ICT Task Force, the panel welcomed the establishment of a United Nations Information Technology Service (UNITeS), suggested by Kofi Annan in "We the peoples: the role of the United Nations in the 21st century" (Millennium Report of the Secretary-General). The panel made suggestions on its configuration and implementation strategy, including that ICT4D volunteering opportunities make mobilizing "national human resources" (local ICT experts) within developing countries a priority, for both men and women. The initiative was launched at the United Nations Volunteers under the leadership of Sharon Capeling-Alakija and was active from February 2001 to February 2005. Initiative staff and volunteers participated in the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva in December 2003. ===Challenge to Silicon Valley=== In November 2002 Kofi Annan issued a Challenge to Silicon Valley to create suitable systems at prices low enough to permit deployment everywhere. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ran a refugee camp in Tanzania where the Global Catalyst Foundation had placed computers and communications equipment for the use of the Burundian refugees confined there. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) worked with the Kingdom of Bhutan on a Simputer project. ===World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)=== The Task Force was active, inter alia, in the process leading to the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva in December 2003 and WSIS II in Tunis, Tunisia, in November 2005. In order to participate in the second phase of the WSIS, the Task Force's original three-year mandate was extended by another year and expired on 31 December 2005, with no further extension. ===Working groups=== The Task Force's stakeholders, members and the experts on the panel of technical advisors, were active in working groups organized around four broad themes: * ICT policy and governance * Enabling environment * Human resource development and capacity building * ICT Indicators and MDG mapping ===Regional networks=== Regional activities were carried out in five regional networks—Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, Arab States, and Europe and Central Asia. ===Meetings=== 2002, June 17–18: A session of the General Assembly of the United Nations was devoted to information and communication technologies for development, addressing the digital divide in the context of globalization and the development process. The session promoted coherence and synergies between various regional and international information and communication technologies initiatives. The meeting also contributed to the preparation of WSIS. Many countries were represented by high-level officials responsible for communications and for development. The Task Force held 10 semi-annual meetings in various places that served as important venues for exchange of best practices, and to bring the various stakeholders together to work on common themes. Most successful, in the eyes of the participants, were those meetings that were held in conjunction with a series of Global Forums: * 1st meeting: at UN headquarters in New York City, NY, (United States) - November 19–20, 2001. * 2nd meeting: at UN headquarters in New York City, NY, (United States) - February 3–4, 2002. * 3rd meeting: at UN headquarters in New York City, NY, (United States) - September 30 - October 1, 2002, focused on ICT for development in Africa. It also reviewed the results of the first year of Task Force activities and agreed on an ambitious strategy for the next two years. * 4th meeting: at UN in Geneva, (Switzerland) - February 21–22, 2004, with a Private Sector Forum. * 5th meeting: at WIPO in Geneva - September 12–13, 2003, to allow participants to discuss the Task Force's contribution to WSIS. * 6th meeting: at UN headquarters in New York City, NY, (United States) - March 2004, with a Global Forum on Internet Governance. * 7th meeting: at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Berlin, Germany - November 18–20, 2004, with a Global Forum on an Enabling Environment. * 8th meeting: in Dublin, Ireland - April 13–15, 2005, with a Global Forum on Harnessing the Potential of ICTs in Education. * 9th meeting: at ILO in Geneva, Switzerland - October 1, 2005. * 10th (final) meeting: at the World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis, Tunisia - November 17, 2005. In addition, a Global Roundtable Forum on "Innovation and Investment: Scaling Science and Technology to Meet the MDGs" was held in New York City, 13 September 2005. The primary focus of the Forum was on the critical role of science, technology and innovation, especially information and communication technologies, in scaling-up grassroots, national and global responses to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. ==WSIS II in Tunis== Parallel to the booth at the ICT4ALL exhibition, a series of events was held under the auspices of the UN ICT Task Force and its members: ===Measuring the Information Society=== The Partnership for Measuring ICT for DevelopmentWelcome to the Measuring ICT Website - new.unctad.org involves 11 organizations—Eurostat, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations ICT Task Force, the five United Nations Regional Commissions and the World Bank. ===Role of Parliaments in the Information Society=== Key parliament leaders presented their views on the role that national and regional assemblies can play in building the information society at a “High- level Dialogue on Governance, Global Citizenship and Technology”, on 16 November. ===Choosing the Right Technologies for Education=== At this workshop, the Global e-School InitiativeGlobal eSchools and Communities Initiative presented the Total Cost of Ownership Calculator—a framework for identifying and selecting the right ICT for schools by assessing their benefits, feasibility and costs. ===Building Partnerships for the Information Society=== Two high-level round tables on 16 November focused on “Regional Perspectives for the Global Information Society” and on “Women in the Information Society: Building a Gender Balanced Knowledge-based Economy”. ===Putting ICT to Work for the Millennium Development Goals and the UN Development Agenda=== The 17 November round table examined how ICT can be applied to the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals, and discussed ways to raise awareness of ICT as an enabler of development. ===Achieving Better Quality and Cost Efficiency in Health Care and Education through ICT=== The 17 November panel demonstrated the potential of ICT to improve quality and cost efficiency of key public services, with specific focus on education and health care. ===Bridging the Digital Divide with Broadband Wireless Internet=== The 17 November round table focused on the critical role that broadband wireless infrastructure deployments play in bridging the digital divide. ==Outcomes from WSIS== ===GESCI=== One of the notable outcomes of the work of the UN ICT Task Force was the creation in 2003 of the Global E-Schools and Communities Initiative (GESCI), an international NGO initially located in Dublin, Ireland, to improve education in schools and communities through the use of information and communication technologies. GESCI was officially launched during the WSIS. Today GESCI (www.gesci.org) is located in Nairobi, Kenya. It has evolved into an organization engaging with governments and ministries, development partners, the private sector and communities to provide strategic advice, coordinate policy dialogue, conduct research and develop and implement models of good practice for the widespread use and integration of ICTs in formal education and other learning environments, within the context of supporting the development of inclusive knowledge societies and the achievement of the SDGs. ===ePol-Net=== Another outcome is the Global ePolicy Resource Network (ePol-NET), designed to marshal global efforts in support of national e-strategies for development. The network provides ICT policymakers in developing countries with the depth and quality of information needed to develop effective national e-policies and e-strategies. The network was first proposed by the members of the Digital Opportunities Task Force (DOT Force), who merged their activities with the UN ICT Task Force in 2002. The ePol-Net was also officially launched during the WSIS. ===Global Centre for ICT in Parliament=== Another outcome of the WSIS is the Global Centre for ICT in Parliament. Launched by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in cooperation with the Inter- parliamentary Union (IPU) on the occasion of the World Summit of the Information Society (WSIS) in Tunis in November 2005, the Global Centre for Information and Communication Technologies in Parliament responds to the common desire to build a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented information society, where legislatures are empowered to better fulfill their constitutional functions through Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The Global Centre for ICT in Parliament acts as a clearing house for information, research, innovation, technology and technical assistance, and promotes a structured dialogue among parliaments, centres of excellence, international organizations, the civil society, the private sector and the donor community, with the purpose to enhance the sharing of experiences, the identification of best practices and the implementation of appropriate solutions. ==Follow-up== The task of bridging the digital divide is yet unfinished. The WSIS has called for an Internet Governance ForumInternet Governance Forum to allow for a global multi-stakeholder discussion of issues related to the governance of the global resource that the Internet represents. The WSIS also called for a follow-up and implementation process, for which the principles embodied in the multi-stakeholder composition and workings of the UN ICT TF can provide a useful model. Work is also being carried on by the UN Group on the Information Society (UN GIS),Group on the Information Society with a focus on the UN System, and the successor to the UN ICT TF, the Global Alliance for ICT and Development (GAID),Global Alliance for ICT and Development with an international development emphasis. ==Selected documents== *Report of the high-level panel of experts on information and communication technology (22 May 2000), suggesting a UN ICT Task Force. *Draft Ministerial Declaration (11 July 2000), asking for the establishment of the UN ICT TF. ==Publication series== As part of its work, the Task Force and its members have published a series of books on various topics related to the work of the Task Force. These books are available in the UN bookstore, at Amazon (partially), or in PDF form: * UN ICT Task Force Series 1 - Information Insecurity: A Survival Guide to the Uncharted Territories of Cyber-Threats and Cyber-Security (By Eduardo Gelbstein, Ahmad Kamal) - July 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 2 - Information and Communication Technologies for African Development: An Assessment of Progress and Challenges Ahead (Edited with Introduction by Joseph O. Okpaku, Sr., Ph.D.) - July 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 3: The Role of Information and Communication Technology in Global Development - Analyses and Policy Recommendations (Edited with introduction by Abdul Basit Haqqani) - July 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 4: Connected for Development: Information Kiosks and Sustainability (By Akhtar Badshah, Sarbuland Khan and Maria Garrido) - July 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 5 - Internet Governance: A Grand Collaboration (By Don MacLean) - July 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 6 - Creating an Enabling Environment: Toward the Millennium Development Goals (By Denis Gilhooly) - September 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 7 - WTO, E-commerce and Information Technologies: From the Uruguay Round through the Doha Development Agenda (By Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, Edited by Joanna McIntosh) * UN ICT Task Force Series 8: The World Summit on the Information Society: Moving from the Past into the Future (Edited by Daniel Stauffacher and Wolfgang Kleinwächter) * UN ICT Task Force Series 9: Harnessing the Potential of ICT for Education – A Multistakeholder Approach (Edited by Bonnie Bracey and Terry Culver) * UN ICT Task Force Series 10: Village Phone Replication Manual (By David Keogh and Tim Wood) - September 2005, * UN ICT Task Force Series 11: Information and Communication Technology for Peace - The Role of ICT in Preventing, Responding to and Recovering from Conflict (By Daniel Stauffacher, William Drake, Paul Currion and Julia Steinberger) * UN ICT Task Force Series 12: Reforming Internet Governance: Perspectives from the Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG) (Edited by William J. Drake) ==See also== *International Telecommunication Union * Multistakeholder Model ==Notes== ==External links== *UNICTTF official homepage *Information about the Digital Opportunities Task Force (DOT Force) *Global eSchools and Communities Initiative (GeSCI) Category:Digital divide Category:Information and communication technologies for development Category:Internet governance organizations Category:Organizations established by the United Nations Category:Task forces
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Clubul Sportiv Luceafărul Oradea, commonly known as Luceafărul Oradea or simply as Luceafărul, is a Romanian professional football club from Oradea, Bihor County. The team currently plays in the Liga IV. Founded in 2001, Luceafărul started as a youth academy for children who had no future at FC Bihor. The club played for the first time in Liga III in the 2006–07 season, after a merger with Lotus Băile Felix. They promoted to Liga II twice, in 2011 and 2016. Over time Luceferii has had several transformations, from the merger with Lotus to moving in Bacău and withdrawing in favor of FC Bihor, followed by a new reorganization. ==History== thumb|right|290px|Chart of yearly table positions of Luceafărul in the national leagues since their first promotion in 2007 to the present. ===First years and ascension (2001–2008)=== Founded in 2001, at the initiative of several parents whose children had no future at FC Bihor, Luceafărul was grown by the former Prefect of Bihor County, Gavrilă Ghilea, also a former president of FC Bihor. For the first 5 seasons of its existence, Luceafărul have activated only at youth level, reaching the final stages of the championship at different youth groups for 3 times, but then the team from Oradea grew step by step and from the training of children they have reached a professional status in 2006 when Luceafărul merged with Lotus Băile Felix. After a first perfect season, they managed to promote to the Liga II. The miracle did not last long, because the lack of money led to the withdrawal of the team from the championship. Luceferii started the 2007–08 season with a new head coach, Lucian Ciocan and after a new great season, Luceafărul Lotus earned the promotion to the Liga II, but subsequently they announced their withdrawal due to financial reasons. A group of businessmen from Bacău decided to form a new team to occupy the vacant spot. Thus, Știința Bacău was born after a merger. ===Știința Bacău, a failed project (2008–2009)=== FC Știința Bacău was probably one of the strangest football clubs in the history of the Romanian football. After Luceafărul Lotus disappeared, Știința was born, but after only a half of season, the club encountered serious financial problems. In February 2009 businessman Giani Nedelcu joined with Mircea Crainiciuc and re-founded back the club dissolved last summer, Luceafărul Lotus Băile Felix and took Știința's place in the championship. But until the end of the season, they continued to play under the name of Știința Bacău. In fact the club was a strange mix of influences from 3 different clubs, remains of Rocar București, Luceafărul Lotus and Știința Bacău. In fact, the club wanted to be a fresh alternative to the Bacău football problems, but it ended by being nothing but a team without supporters, tradition, with players transferred in the last moment and a poor management. On 3 June 2009, Mircea Crainiciuc announced that the club withdrew from the championship because of financial reasons. They lost their remaining 3 matches from the 2008–09 Liga II season with 0–3 and relegated to the Liga III, ending a strange, unique and turbulent moment in the history of the club. Name Period Luceafărul Oradea 2001–2006 Luceafărul- Lotus Băile Felix 2006–2008 Luceafărul Oradea 2008–2011 Luceafărul Felix 2011–2013 Luceafărul Oradea 2013–present ===Luceafărul reborn from ashes, several times (2008–present)=== The old club was re-founded in the summer of 2008 as Luceafărul Oradea, its original name, and started from Liga IV–Bihor County, functioning in parallel with the old entity, called then Știința, for a season. After two seasons the club promoted back to the Liga II, at the end of the 2010–11 Liga III season. A new head coach was hired in the summer of 2011, the Brașov born Călin Moldovan. On 9 December 2011 he was fired and replaced with Leontin Grozavu. It finished 6th in the 2011–12 Liga II and 10th in the 2012–13 Liga II. In 2011, they also played a Round of 32 match in the Cupa României against Dinamo București, lost 0–1. On 10 July 2013, it was announced that Luceafărul withdrew from the Liga II and would be enrolled in the Liga IV for the 2013–14 season. This movement has been accomplished in order to help FC Bihor, Oradea and Bihor County most important club, which was in serious financial and sporting problems at that time. At the end of the 2014–15 Liga IV season, Luceafărul promoted back to Liga III after an impressive journey: 18 victories, 1 draw, no defeats, 177 goals scored and only 7 received. The goalscorer of the team was Constantin Roșu who scored 51 goals in 26 matches for the red and blues. At the end of the 2015–16 Liga III season, Luceafărul promoted to Liga II, after a single Liga III season, in which they led and dominated their series almost all season. Its first season after the promotion was an oscillating one for the red and blues. After a first part dominated by poor results and more coach changes, but with a round of 16 match played in the Cupa României against the defending Liga I champions, Astra Giurgiu, Luceafărul, with new important players in the squad like: Claudiu Codoban or Marius Matei, made a very good second part and finished on the 10th place, in the middle of the table. 2017–18 Liga II season has brought thoughts of promotion to Oradea, the owner of the club, Ioan Blidaru, desiring more than the second league and for this he set up Cornel Țălnar and Florentin Petre as coaches, and some experienced players were transferred, among them Andrei Hergheligiu, Andrei Cordoș or Petre Goge. But the start of the season was almost to kill the team from Oradea for the 4th time in its history. After four rounds Luceafărul had only one point, four rounds in which the team played three matches at home (1–1 against Sportul Snagov, 1–2 against Ripensia Timișoara and 3–4 against Dacia Unirea Brăila) and only one match away (2–3 against Târgu Mureș). But the real problem was that Sportul Snagov and Dacia Unirea Brăila were teams with organizational or financial problems, Ripensia was a new promoted and also the side with the smallest budget in the league and Târgu Mureș, despite it was a new relegated team, was threatened with bankruptcy, which was going to happen during the winter break. The bubble broke after the match against Dacia Unirea Brăila, a match with a spectacular evolution of the score. Ioan Blidaru announced that he is withdrawing from the team and all the players and coaches are free agents, basically leading to the disbanding of the team. The news shocked the media, the supporters and all started to become truth when Luceafărul did not play at Pitești against FC Argeș. At the second default, the team would be excluded from the championship, but that another unexpected fact happened, Luceafărul and their stadium were bought through intermediaries by Nicolae Sarcină, a businessman from Gorj County, who was known for buying by the same procedure the Liga III club CS Șirineasa. Then a very turbulent period followed, first of all there have been serious accusations that the former owner, Blidaru, have withdrawn because he suspected the players to be involved in the betting mafia, the confessions being made by the former coach Cornel Țălnar. After this scandal, Luceafărul tried to reborn, as he had done so many times, in the squad remained some local players and the new owner tried to complete the squad with players from its other controlled team, Șirineasa, also former international player, Cristian Dulca was named as the new coach. Rebuilding in the middle of the season proved to be extremely difficult and the results were left out, but the scandals have returned to the forefront. After buying CS Șirineasa, Sarcină moved the team from Șirineasa to Petroșani and the fact that he was from Gorj County not from Bihor County or even Transylvania has brought the first speculation that he plans to move the team to Târgu Jiu, Petroșani or Motru, even talking about a merger with the Liga III team or its abandonment in favor of Luceafărul and a Liga II spot, in any case, no option included Oradea and the team's stay in its hometown. However, although some rumors even had evidence, the ownership of the club has rejected any such attempt claiming that the team will remain in Oradea, it seemed like a new Știința Bacău episode might appear. After the bustle and the scandals have subsided, luceferii, despite having a small number of players, began to produce results, coming out of the relegation area before the winter break, Claudiu Codoban and Vlad Rusu, being the main weapons of the team near the Băile Felix. After a good 2018–19 season, in which Luceafărul was ranked 8th, the ownership of the club decided to withdraw the team from the Liga II and to enroll it in the Liga III, move made in favor of ACS Energeticianul, which remained in the second division and also took the most important players and the entire technical staff of the club from Bihor County. ==Youth program== Born in 2001 as a substitute for FC Bihor, Luceafărul youth academy has over time given many chances to players denied by the local neighbor. Among the most important players that grew up at the team near the Băile Felix were: Claudiu Codoban, Claudiu Micovschi or Constantin Roșu. ==Grounds== 250px|thumbnail|right|Stadionul Luceafărul The club plays its home matches on Stadionul Luceafărul from Sânmartin, Bihor, with a capacity of 2,200 seats. In April 2017 the club moved for its official matches from Stadionul Luceafărul to Stadionul Iuliu Bodola from Oradea a stadium with a capacity of 11,155, the biggest of Bihor County and with not so much activity after the dissolution of FC Bihor Oradea. In the summer of 2017 CA Oradea was re-founded and started to play its home matches on the same stadium, also the ownership of Luceafărul was changed and in October 2017 they decided to move the official matches back on their stadium, Stadionul Luceafărul. ==Support== Luceafărul Oradea has never had many supporters in Oradea, most of the public opting for much more familiar and successful FC Bihor. Over the time the club had sporadically an organized group of supporters, especially between 2011 and 2013, when the club was in the Liga II and important rivalries with FC Bihor were born. After 2016 promotion to the second league, corroborated with FC Bihor dissolution, Luceafărul tried to attract more of the supporters by its side and even played some matches on the Stadionul Iuliu Bodola, but all these efforts were not necessarily productive. ===Rivalries=== Luceafărul Oradea does not have many important rivalries, the only important one was born between 2011 and 2013, against FC Bihor, but the rivalry was far from being a bitter one, the two clubs working well together and Luceafărul even retired from the championship to enter into a partnership with its rival, in 2013. ==League history== Season Tier Division Place Cupa României 2021–22 3 Liga III (Seria X) 10th (R) First Round 2020–21 3 Liga III (Seria X) 10th (O) 2019–20 3 Liga III (Seria V) 5th 2018–19 2 Liga II 8th (R) Round of 32 2017–18 2 Liga II 8th 2016–17 2 Liga II 10th Round of 16 2015–16 3 Liga III (Seria V) 1st (C, P) 2014–15 4 Liga IV (BH) 1st (C, P) Season Tier Division Place Cupa României 2013–14 4 Liga IV (BH) 12th 2012–13 2 Liga II (Seria II) 10th (R) 2011–12 2 Liga II (Seria II) 6th Round of 32 2010–11 3 Liga III (Seria V) 1st (C, P) 2009–10 3 Liga III (Seria VI) 5th 2008–09 2 Liga II (Seria I) 16th (R) 2007–08 3 Liga III (Seria VI) 1st (C, P) 2006–07 3 Liga III (Seria VI) 2nd *2001–02 – Youth Leagues *2002–03 – Youth Leagues *2003–04 – Youth Leagues *2004–05 – Youth Leagues *2005–06 – Youth Leagues *2006–07 – Liga III 2nd place, Seria VI, merged with Lotus Băile Felix *2007–08 – Liga III 1st place, Seria VI, promoted to Liga II, the club was dissolved after a merge and Știința Bacău was born *2008–09 – Liga IV 1st place, Bihor County, promoted to Liga III, while Știința, which played in Liga II, instead of Luceafărul, was dissolved at the end of the season *2009–10 – Liga III 5th place, Seria VI *2010–11 – Liga III 1st place, Seria V, promoted to Liga II *2011–12 – Liga II 6th place, Seria II *2012–13 – Liga II 10th place, Seria II, withdrew from Liga II at the end of the season *2013–14 – Liga IV 12th place, Bihor County *2014–15 – Liga IV 1st place, Bihor County, promoted to Liga III *2015–16 – Liga III 1st place, Seria V, promoted to Liga II *2016–17 – Liga II 10th place *2017–18 – Liga II 8th place *2018–19 – Liga II ==Honours== *Liga III **Winners (3): 2007–08, 2010–11, 2015–16 **Runners-up (1): 2006–07 *Liga IV – Bihor County **Winners (2): 2008–09, 2014–15 ==Players== ===First team squad=== ===Out on loan=== ==Club Officials== ===Board of directors=== Role Name President Lucia Vladimirescu Vice-President Andrei Diaconescu Secretary Ana Buzatu ===Current technical staff=== Role Name Manager Dorin Mudura Goalkeeping coach Attila Martha Club Doctor Mariana Cevei ==Shirt sponsors and manufacturers== Period Kit manufacturer Period Shirt partner 2001–2006 Joma 2001–2006 Primăria Bihor 2006–2009 Zeus 2006–2009 Construcții Bihor 2009–2010 Mitre 2009–2010 None 2010–2011 Joma 2010–2011 None 2011–2012 Erreà 2011–2012 Construcții Bihor 2012–2013 Nike 2012–2013 None 2013–2014 Patrick 2013–2014 None 2014–present Adidas 2014–present None ==Notable former players== The footballers enlisted below have had international cap(s) for their respective countries at junior and/or senior level and/or more than 50 caps for CS Luceafărul Oradea. ;Romania * Zeno Bundea * Cristian Cigan * Claudiu Codoban * Andrei Cordoș * Marius Feher * Alexandru Iacob * Andrei Hergheligiu ;Burkina Faso * Salif Nogo ;Romania * Claudiu Micovschi * Dorin Mihuț * Sergiu Moga * Cristian Oroș * Eduard Pap * Constantin Roșu ==Notable former managers== * Cristian Dulca * Leontin Grozavu * Erik Lincar * Cristian Lupuț * Zsolt Muzsnay * Cornel Țălnar ==References== ==External links== * * * Club profile on UEFA's official website Category:Football clubs in Bihor County Category:Oradea Category:Sport in Oradea Category:Association football clubs established in 2001 Category:Liga II clubs Category:Liga III clubs Category:Liga IV clubs Category:2001 establishments in Romania
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Iraq's large oil reserves have attracted attention from the United Kingdom, a country with a high demand for (and a low supply of) oil. British involvement in the Iraqi oil industry dates to World War I. Political influence in the region has given the UK the power to establish a number of oil companies in Iraq. == History == In the early twentieth century, use of oil rapidly increased. This was first demonstrated during World War I, when the major powers relied on oil to power newly built naval ships and vehicles. Oil was needed not only for war, but for production in the civilian economy. Britain had to turn elsewhere to address its growing oil needs. As Kaiser Wilhelm I and the Ottoman sultan struggled to reassert Ottoman dominion over the Sheikhdom of Kuwait, the British viceroy of the colonial government in India entered into an agreement with Sheikh Mubarak Al-Sabah which created a British protectorate in Kuwait. Britain needed a supply of petroleum which was not controlled by contemporary rivals such as Russia, Germany, or the Netherlands. British Admiral John Fisher wanted to replace Britain's coal-burning naval vessels with fuel-burning ships. This shift was crucial for Britain's two- power standard, which held that Britain's navy should have as many ships as the next two largest fleets combined. The new fuel-burning ships would be called dreadnoughts. Since Persia was within Britain's sphere of influence, Britain pursued its interests in the Persian Gulf rather than the United States or Mexico; at the time, Standard Oil controlled 43 percent of the global market. In 1909, after oil was discovered in Iran, William Knox D'Arcy became director of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company; however, concessionary rights in Mosul Vilayet and Baghdad Vilayet continued to be elusive. Control of their colonial empire allowed Britain to ensure that oil kept flowing into the country. Iraq, from 1918 until its independence in 1931, was known as Mandatory Iraq. Britain controlled the oil-rich territory and began to influence the development of its oil, including a guarantee of an oil-trading deal. Britain entered into the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, a secret pact with France which defined the countries' spheres of influence in Western Asia. The two countries had agreed to divide the region's fertile areas, and the British realised that they had ceded much of Iraq's oil-potential areas to the French. To secure the oil reserves, British forces captured the city of Mosul; this created a power struggle with France. In 1927, the British began major oil exploration and discovered large oil deposits in the province surrounding Mosul. The United States also began to insert itself into the power struggle due to its goal of securing influence in the region. Growing transatlantic pressure led the British and French to sell some of their consortium stakes to the United States. The British, still the dominant colonial power, secured nearly half of Iraq's oil reserves for themselves. The negotiations took six years, and ended with the July 1928 Red Line Agreement. Later in the century, Iraq was one of the five founding members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and began nationalising its oil fields in 1961. After the nationalisation of its oil, Iraq created the Iraq National Oil Company. In 1976, after the nationalisation of its oil industry, Iraq established a Ministry of Oil. The ministry was tasked with planning and creating petroleum infrastructure, and established oil companies. Iraq increased its oil production; it was the third largest oil-producing country in the world in 1979, with an output of four million barrels per day. Increasing oil production lead to the establishment of an Iraqi petroleum company which was shared by Shell, British Petroleum and Mobil, and Exxon. The company had a monopoly on Iraq's oil production. == Role of oil in Iraq == Oil, as a natural resource and a commodity, can be identified as a contributor to war. In the Gulf and Iraq Wars, oil and its flow to other countries were factors considered by Iraq and the other countries involved in the conflict. Although political changes, economic sanctions, and war created instability in Iraq's oil production, its production could still affect future oil trends. According to senior British Army official in Iraq James Ellery, "Iraq holds the key to stability in the region, due to its relatively large, consuming population," possessing "the second-largest reserve of oil – under-exploited", and its geostrategic location "on the routes between Asia, Europe, Arabia and North Africa ... the Silk Road." At the beginning of the ongoing Iraq conflict, the country's oil-production capability reached 2.5 to 2.7 million barrels per day (b/d). The estimate dropped to 1.5 million b/d in 2003 and climbed back to 2.06 million b/d in early 2006. Current Iraqi production capacity is estimated by the International Energy Agency (IEA) at below five million b/d. This figure is expected to rise to 6.5 million b/d by 2022, since Baghdad and the oil companies have agreed to boost crude-oil production in the country. === Economic interests and implications === Crude oil, one of the Iraqi government's most important revenue sources, will continue to be valued for the foreseeable future due to the country's lack of diversification options. According to the World Bank, more than 65 percent of Iraq's 2016 GDP derived from the oil sector. Ninety percent of the Iraqi government's 2016 revenue came from oil, which makes up nearly all of Iraq's exports. Although oil investment has recently increased, the government needs to cut expenditures due to falling oil prices (a 63-percent drop between 2014 and 2016) and is focusing on non-oil investments. Iraq's dependence on crude oil has had negative implications for the country and has made it a focus of international discussion. This was demonstrated in the 2016 OPEC production- cut deal, in which all 14 members of the organisation agreed to cut oil production to 32.5 million b/d to stabilise the drop in oil prices, giving rise to further discussions of Iraq's dependence on oil. Iraqi oil minister Jabbar Alluaibi said in a 2016 interview that his country's crude-oil reserves are larger than forecast, with previous estimates of 143 billion barrels expanded to 153 billion barrels. If this proves true, Iraq would have the world's largest oil reserves. == Corporate interests after 2003 == thumb|alt=Map of Iraq, with graphs and charts|Iraq's petroleum and gas infrastructure The Iraq conflict, which began with the 2003 invasion, has had significant effects on the country's oil situation. Iraq and its oil industry suffered from the wars and sanctions, increasing the need for international cooperation and investment. Operations of the most prominent British oil companies, BP and Royal Dutch Shell, in the Kirkuk and Rumaila regions were also affected by the conflict and have evolved. === Kirkuk === The Kirkuk oil field, in northern Iraq near Kirkuk, is over 100 kilometers long and up to four kilometers wide and has estimated reserves of about nine billion barrels of oil. It is one of Iraq's largest. Due to the conflict between the Kurdistan Regional Government and Baghdad, oil from the Kirkuk field has been a contested issue. After the Kurdish Peshmerga seized control of Kirkuk and its oil field in 2014, the central government re-occupied the region in October 2017 after the Peshmerga ignored an Iraqi deadline to withdraw from the area. Although the Iraqi-owned North Oil Company has taken over production in the Kirkuk oil field, the Kurdistan Regional Government continues to control of northern parts of the field. In early 2018, the Iraqi government and BP signed a memorandum of understanding with the goal to increase production output of Kirkuk to an aspired level of 750,000 barrels/day. BP announced that the company will provide technological support and expertise to develop the field. In late February 2018, the Iraqi government and the Kurdish Regional Government reached an agreement about the production and exporting of oil from Kirkuk. On May 7, 2018, Oil Minister Jabar al-Luaibi said that BP signed an agreement with Iraq's North Oil Company in the southern Iraqi city of Basra to raise production capacity from six fields in the Kirkuk region to a total of more than 1 million bpd. === Rumaila === The Rumaila oil field is in the southern Basra region, near the border with Kuwait. Thirty-eight kilometers long and 12 kilometers wide, it contains an estimated 17.7 billion barrels of oil. One of the world's largest oil fields, Rumaila accounts for about one- third of Iraq's oil production. In 2009, BP was subcontracted to develop 38 percent of the field. Developed by BP and Chinese partner CNPC, Rumaila generates 1.45 million b/d. According to Rumaila director Mohammed Hassan, "Our plan for 2018 is to boost production by around 50,000 barrels per day after increasing water-injection operations and starting new energy installations at Rumaila". === West Qurna-I === West Qurna-1, in southern Iraq, has a reserve of about 8.7 billion barrels of oil. In 2009, Shell was granted 15 percent of the field for development. ExxonMobil, which manages West Qurna-1, produces about 405,000 b/d. === Majnoon === The Majnoon oil field, in southern Iraq, is long and wide and holds about 13 billion barrels of oil. In 2009, Shell contracted to operate 45 percent of the Majnoon field. Shell was scheduled to cease operations in Majnoon in June 2018 in a handover to the state-owned Basra Oil Company. === Iraq Inquiry === The Iraq Inquiry, also known as the Chilcot Inquiry, was begun to investigate Britain's participation in the Iraq War. Its report was published in 2016. According to the inquiry, British energy interests played a role in the government's decision-making about the Iraq invasion. According to the report, the war was driven by intelligence that Saddam Hussein presented a risk; however, diplomatic alternatives to contain him had not been exhausted. UK government officials met with BP and Shell officials before and during the invasion to discuss corporate interests and perspectives on Iraqi oil. On October 2, 2002, director of Middle East and North Africa at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Edward Chaplin met with Tony Wildig (Shell senior vice-president for new business in the Middle East) to discuss the importance of Iraqi oil for Shell and BP. Baroness Liz Symons, minister of state for trade, met with BP officials Richard Paniguian and Tony Renton and Shell officials on October 31 to discuss their fears of falling behind in Iraqi oil. Symons agreed to address the issue with US representatives, and told BP that a fair share of Iraqi oil and gas should be awarded to British companies due to the UK's alliance with (and commitment to) US plans for regime change. On December 4, Symons met again with BP officials and was briefed about BP's difficulties and concerns with US policies about future Iraqi oil prospects and planning. On November 6, Foreign Office Director General for Europe and Economics Michael Arthur met with BP official Richard Paniguian to addressing post-regime-change opportunities for BP. On March 18, 2003, in the wake of the Iraq invasion, Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Michael Jay and BP Chief Executive John Browne met; Browne expressed BP's readiness to renovate Iraqi oil facilities. Long-term development would be more complex, depending on the post invasion government/situation. A September 6, 2004 internal note between British civil servants addressed economic perspectives and advantages for UK firms in Iraqi energy. When Edward Chaplin met with Ayad Allawi (interim prime minister of Iraq) on December 13, 2004, he raised "BP and Shell's interests" in the Iraqi oil industry. Journalists Gregg Muttitt and David Whyte criticized the small interest the Iraq Inquiry put into investigating the role British energy and oil interests might have played in the UK decision to join the Iraq invasion in 2003. According to Whyte, the inquiry failed to address "political and economic motivations" other than weapons of mass destruction and was biased. ==See also== *Battle of Kirkuk (2017) *Petroleum industry in Iraq ==References== Category:Energy in Iraq Category:History of the petroleum industry in the United Kingdom Category:History of the petroleum industry Category:Iraq Inquiry Category:Iraq–United Kingdom relations Category:Petroleum politics Category:Politics of Iraq
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Ross Miner (born January 24, 1991) is an American skating coach and retired competitive figure skater. He is the 2012 Four Continents bronze medalist, 2009 JGP Final bronze medalist, 2013 and 2018 U.S. national silver medalist and 2009 U.S. junior champion. In 2021, Miner was suspended from coaching for six months by the United States Center for SafeSport, for sexual harassment. == Personal life == Ross Miner was born in Burlington, Vermont. In addition to figure skating, he also played hockey until the age of 12. Miner moved from Williston, Vermont, to Watertown, Massachusetts, when he was 12. He takes on- line courses from the University of Missouri. == Career == ===Early career=== Ross Miner began skating at the age of three. When he was 12, he began training at the Skating Club of Boston. He had to relearn much from scratch as his jump technique was extremely poor at the beginning – underrotating even single Axels; nevertheless, Mark Mitchell and Peter Johansson agreed to coach him. In the 2004–05 season, Miner competed on the Intermediate level. He won the bronze medal at his regional championship to qualify for the U.S. Junior Championships, where he placed eighth. He remained on the intermediate level during the following season. He won the silver medal at his regional championship to qualify for the U.S. Junior Championships, where he won the gold medal. In the 2006–07 season, Miner moved up to the Novice level. He won his regional championship and then placed fifth at his sectional championship, missing qualifying for the 2007 U.S. Championships by one position. In the 2007–08 season, Miner remained on the Novice level. He won his sectional championship to qualify for the 2008 U.S. Championships, where he won the silver medal. Following the U.S. Championships, Miner was assigned to the 2008 Gardena Spring Trophy, where he won the silver medal on the Junior level. In the 2008–09 season, Miner moved up to the Junior level nationally. He won his sectional championships to qualify for the 2009 U.S. Championships. At Nationals, Miner won the short program and placed second in the free skate to win the gold medal overall. Following the event, Miner was named to the team to the 2009 World Junior Championships, where he placed tenth. Miner won the bronze medal at the 2009–10 Junior Grand Prix Final. He had qualified to compete at the senior level at the 2010 U.S. Nationals but suffered a high ankle sprain while practicing a triple Axel. He was forced to withdraw from the event and also missed the Junior Worlds that season. ===Senior career=== During the 2010–11 season, Miner finished ninth at 2010 NHK Trophy and seventh at 2010 Cup of China. He made his senior national debut at the 2011 U.S. Championships where he won the bronze medal. He was selected to compete at the 2011 World Championships, where he finished eleventh. During the off-season, he worked on a quad Salchow and shortening the lead time into his jumps. Miner finished fifth at the 2012 Skate Canada International. At the 2012 NHK Trophy, he landed his first quad Salchow in competition and took the bronze medal. At the 2013 U.S. Championships, Miner finished second, behind champion Max Aaron. Miner was ninth at the 2013 Skate Canada International. He withdrew from his other Grand Prix event, the 2013 Trophee Eric Bompard, due to a right ankle sprain. He was seventh at the 2014 U.S. Championships. Miner began the 2014–15 season competing on the Challenger circuit, winning the silver medal at the 2014 US Classic and gold at the 2014 Autumn Classic. He was eighth at his lone Grand Prix assignment, the 2014 NHK Trophy, and finished sixth at the 2015 U.S. Championships. Starting the 2015–16 season again at the U.S. Classic, Miner won the bronze medal. On the Grand Prix, Miner was seventh at Skate America before winning the bronze medal with personal best scores at the 2015 Rostelecom Cup. He was fifth at the 2016 U.S. Championships, but was nevertheless named to the American team for the 2016 Four Continents Championships, finishing fourteenth. Miner was sixth at the 2016 U.S. Classic, before finishing twelfth at the 2016 Skate Canada International and ninth at the 2016 Cup of China. He was fifth at the 2017 U.S. Championships. To begin what would be his final competitive season, Miner finished sixth at the Autumn Classic. He was given a second Challenger assignment, and placed fifth at the Finlandia Trophy. Given one Grand Prix assignment, he was sixth at the 2017 Skate America. In his final competition, Miner had a striking return to form at the 2018 U.S. Championships. Only sixth in the short program, he was second in the free skate, and took the silver medal. Despite his second-place finish, Miner was not named to the American team for the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang, with the second and third spots on the team going to bronze medalist Vincent Zhou and pewter medalist Adam Rippon. This selection process was controversial, and Miner's coach Mark Mitchell criticized the US Federation publicly. ===Coaching=== Following his retirement from competition, Miner worked as a figure skating coach in Boston. In 2021, Miner was suspended from coaching for six months by the United States Center for SafeSport for sexual harassment. On March 31, 2022, the United States Center for SafeSport suspended Miner for another three months. == Programs == Season Short program Free skating Exhibition 2016–2017 * New York State of Mind Queen medley: * Somebody to Love * Love of my Life * Crazy Little Thing Called Love * 2015–2016 * New York State of Mind Queen medley: * Who Wants to Live Forever * Too Much Love Will Kill You * (Another Song) All Over Again 2014–2015 * The Way We Were * Romanza 2013–2014 * The Way We Were * Glory 2012–2013 * Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini * Captain Blood 2011–2012 * Para Ti * The Untouchables 2010–2011 * Salsa Mix (Para Ti) Casablanca: * As Time Goes By * Born to Run 2009–2010 * A Carmen Fantasy for Trumpet and Orchestra * Carmen * Adiós Nonino * Libertango 2008–2009 * Bonanza * Cotton-Eyed Joe * I've Got Rhythm * Someone to Watch Over Me * Nice Work If You Can Get It * Crazy Little Thing Called Love 2007–2008 * Hawaii 5-0 * Wipe Out * I've Got Rhythm * Someone to Watch Over Me * Nice Work If You Can Get It ==Competitive highlights== === 2006–present === GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix International International International International International International International International International International International Event 08–09 09–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 Worlds 11th 14th Four Continents 3rd 9th 14th WD Cup of China 7th 9th NHK Trophy 9th 3rd 3rd 7th Rostelecom Cup 3rd Skate America 7th 6th Skate Canada 6th 5th 9th 12th Autumn Classic 1st 6th Finlandia 5th U.S. Classic 2nd 3rd 6th Gardena 2nd Nepela Trophy 4th U.S. Classic 3rd International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice International: Junior and novice Junior Worlds 10th WD Final 3rd Croatia 2nd United States 1st National National National National National National National National National National National U.S. Champ. 1st J WD 3rd 3rd 2nd 7th 6th 5th 5th 2nd Eastern Sect. 1st J J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew J: Junior level; TBD: Assigned; WD: Withdrew ===Juvenile to intermediate levels=== International Event 01–02 02–03 03–04 04–05 05–06 06–07 07–08 Gardena Spring Trophy 2nd J NACS, Pittsburgh 3rd N National U.S. Championships 2nd N U.S. Junior Champ. 8th I 1st I Eastern Sectionals 5th N 1st N New England Regionals 4th V 7th V 3rd V 2nd I 3rd I 2nd I 1st N == Detailed results == Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships. 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season Date Event SP FS Total Dec. 29 – Jan. 8, 2018 2018 U.S. Championships 6 88.91 2 185.60 2 274.51 November 24–26, 2017 2017 Skate America 8 71.59 5 148.03 6 219.62 October 6–8, 2017 2017 CS Finlandia Trophy 7 71.64 4 162.08 5 233.72 September 20–23, 2017 2017 Autumn Classic International 8 69.84 6 150.12 6 219.96 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season Date Event SP FS Total January 14–22, 2017 2017 U.S. Championships 2 88.67 8 151.67 5 240.35 November 18–20, 2016 2016 Cup of China 6 76.73 8 136.61 9 213.34 October 28–30, 2016 2016 Skate Canada 11 63.92 12 132.61 12 196.53 September 14–18, 2016 2016 CS U.S. Classic 8 71.37 6 143.11 6 214.48 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season Date Event SP FS Total February 16–21, 2016 2016 Four Continents Championships 17 58.17 12 132.85 14 191.12 January 16–24, 2016 2016 U.S. Championships 2 90.90 6 157.11 5 248.01 November 20–22, 2015 2015 Rostelecom Cup 3 85.36 4 163.56 3 248.92 October 23–25, 2015 2015 Skate America 2 78.96 8 136.15 7 215.11 September 16–20, 2015 2015 CS U.S. Classic 1 74.66 5 135.37 3 209.93 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season Date Event SP FS Total January 18–25, 2015 2015 U.S. Championships 6 82.25 6 167.03 6 249.28 November 28–30, 2014 2014 NHK Trophy 8 65.81 8 137.46 8 203.27 October 15–16, 2014 2014 Autumn Classic 1 80.24 1 147.02 1 227.26 September 11–14, 2014 2014 U.S. Classic 3 67.06 2 142.72 2 209.78 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season Date Event SP FS Total March 23–25, 2014 2014 Gardena Spring Trophy 2 71.14 2 138.94 2 210.08 January 5–12, 2014 2014 U.S. Championships 8 71.94 6 152.87 7 224.81 October 24–27, 2013 2013 Skate Canada 10 66.71 8 130.18 9 196.89 October 3–5, 2013 2013 Ondrej Nepela Trophy 3 74.28 4 136.59 4 210.87 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season Date Event SP FS Total March 11–17, 2013 2013 World Championships 14 70.24 13 141.66 14 211.90 February 8–11, 2013 2013 Four Continents Championships 9 74.01 7 140.35 9 214.36 January 19–27, 2013 2013 U.S. Championships 2 80.99 2 170.30 2 251.29 November 22–25, 2012 2012 NHK Trophy 4 73.41 3 161.96 3 235.37 October 26–28, 2012 2012 Skate Canada International 8 69.41 4 144.19 5 213.60 September 13–16, 2012 2012 U.S. Classic 2 69.09 3 144.35 3 213.44 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season Date Event SP FS Total February 7–12, 2012 2012 Four Continents Championships 6 76.89 4 146.34 3 223.23 January 22–29, 2012 2012 U.S. Championships (Senior) 4 78.90 3 151.42 3 230.32 November 11–13, 2011 2011 NHK Trophy 6 71.12 4 141.24 3 212.36 October 27–30, 2011 2011 Skate Canada International 9 60.83 5 141.53 6 202.36 2010–11 season 2010–11 season 2010–11 season 2010–11 season 2010–11 season Date Event SP FS Total 24 April – 1 May 2011 2011 World Championships 13 70.40 11 147.53 11 217.93 January 22–30, 2011 2011 U.S. Championships 6 67.99 2 156.36 3 224.35 November 5–7, 2010 2010 Cup of China 6 67.10 8 130.03 7 197.13 October 21–24, 2010 2010 NHK Trophy 7 64.85 10 121.77 9 186.62 === Junior level === Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships. Previous ISU world best highlighted in bold. 2009–10 season 2009–10 season 2009–10 season 2009–10 season 2009–10 season 2009–10 season Date Event Level SP FS Total December 3–6, 2009 2009–10 Junior Grand Prix Final Junior 2 70.85 4 125.24 3 196.09 October 7–11, 2009 2009 JGP Croatia Cup Junior 2 66.86 2 129.22 2 196.08 September 3–4, 2009 2009 JGP United States Junior 1 63.82 1 116.13 1 179.95 2008–09 season 2008–09 season 2008–09 season 2008–09 season 2008–09 season 2008–09 season Date Event Level SP FS Total February 23 – March 1, 2009 2009 World Junior Championships Junior 9 59.15 9 105.65 10 164.80 January 18–25, 2009 2009 U.S. Championships Junior 1 66.62 2 117.18 1 183.80 2007–08 season 2007–08 season 2007–08 season 2007–08 season 2007–08 season 2007–08 season Date Event Level SP FS Total March 29–30, 2008 2008 Gardena Trophy (Junior) Junior 2 50.60 3 92.57 2 143.17 January 20–27, 2008 2008 U.S. Championships Junior 4 44.85 3 90.96 2 135.81 == References == ==External links== * Ross Miner official website * * Ross Miner at IceNetwork Category:American male single skaters Category:1991 births Category:Living people Category:Sports controversies Category:Sportspeople from Burlington, Vermont Category:Four Continents Figure Skating Championships medalists
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In motion pictures, whether for film (cinema), television, or streaming, de- aging is a visual effects technique used to make an actor or actress look younger, especially for flashback scenes. This is often accomplished via digitally editing the image or using computer-generated imagery (CGI) overlays or touch-ups. Some media will even create de-aged digital actors from scratch or with a mixture of stand-ins and CGI. ==Motion pictures employing digital de-aging techniques== ===List of films=== The following is a list of films, in chronological order of release, that employ de-aging techniques: Year Film Description 2006 X-Men: The Last Stand Actors Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen, who play the mutants Professor X and Magneto respectively, are de- aged in a flashback scene in which the two work together to recruit a mutant girl (Jean Grey) as a student. 2008 Based on a short story in which the protagonist ages backwards, actor Brad Pitt, who plays Benjamin Button, is initially shown as elderly and is gradually de-aged to look progressively younger as numerous decades of the character's life go by. 2009 X-Men Origins: Wolverine In this superhero film, Patrick Stewart, who plays mutant Professor X, is de-aged for a brief cameo appearance, as the film takes place earlier in the timeline than the previous films of the series in which Stewart participated. Though Danny Huston appears as Major William Stryker in the finished film, his X2 actor Brian Cox initially expressed interest to reprise the role by employing the same CGI program applied to Stewart and Ian McKellen in The Last Stand opening sequence. 2009 Surrogates Bruce Willis plays an FBI agent who controls a look-alike humanoid robot de-aged to appear in his mid 30s. The effect supervised by visual effects artist Mark Stetson relied on makeup, lighting, and digital effects. 2010 Tron: Legacy A sequel to Tron (1982), set 28 years later, actor Jeff Bridges, who plays the protagonist Kevin Flynn in the original film, is de-aged to appear as Flynn's younger self in flashbacks and as the corrupt program CLU, a copy of Flynn himself, but decades younger. Rather than using footage from the original Tron as visual reference, Bridges' likeness was recreated with archive footage from Against All Odds (1984). Bruce Boxleitner, who plays the title character of Tron, also appears de-aged in flashbacks; his real world character of Alan Bradley, however, appears as the actor's natural age. 2013 Grudge Match A film about Robert De Niro (Billy "The Kid" McDonnen) and Sylvester Stallone (Henry "Razor" Sharp) as boxing rivals. In the beginning of the film, both actors are de-aged to show them fighting each other in their youth/prime. The rest of the film is set several decades later. 2013 This film is set decades before The Lord of the Rings film trilogy; actor Orlando Bloom reprises his role as the Elf character Legolas and is de-aged in his scenes, to reflect the fact that the film's Elves do not age. 2014 Kingsman: The Secret Service Michael Caine was digitally de-aged for a scene set in 1975 featuring his character. This scene was ultimately cut from the film and has never been publicly released. 2015 Ant-Man Michael Douglas and Martin Donovan, who play Hank Pym and Mitchell Carson, are both de-aged by 25 years, in a flashback scene set in 1989. 2016 Pee-wee's Big Holiday In this comedy film, actor Paul Reubens reprises his role as Pee-wee Herman 28 years after the previous Pee-wee film. De-aging was applied to Reubens to make him appear the same age as he was in his last appearance. During filming, Reubens wore powder and tape on his face. 2016 Fan In this Indian film, Shah Rukh Khan stars in a double role as film star Aryan Khanna and obsessive fan Gaurav Chandna, who looks like Aryan but is around twenty years younger. Khan was de-aged for the part of Gaurav with a combination of visual effects and prosthetics. 2016 Captain America: Civil War Robert Downey Jr., who plays Tony Stark, is de-aged in a digital recreation of a pivotal moment from the character's youth. LolaVFX analyzed footage of Downey from Less than Zero (1987) as reference to achieve the youthful appearance Downey had around that period. 2016 Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children Terence Stamp, who plays Abe Portman, is de-aged in the scenes in the loop of September 3, 1943, when he was in the army. 2017 Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 Kurt Russell, who plays Ego, is de-aged in a flashback scene set on Earth in 1980. Visual effects supervisor Trent Claus disclosed that director James Gunn desired to use Escape from New York (1981) as a visual reference for Russell's appearance in the film's flashback, but given how Russell's character wore an eyepatch in that film, the VFX crew could just use that film to take notes of how his skin folded and moved, ultimately choosing Russell's appearance in Used Cars (1980) as the base reference. Laura Haddock, who previously played Meredith Quill in Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), was similar de-aged to a slight degree to enable her to play a young Meredith. 2017 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales In this swashbuckler, Johnny Depp, who plays the main character Captain Jack Sparrow, is de-aged for a flashback scene, with Anthony De La Torre standing in for him while wearing a digital replication of Depp's face depicting him as he looked back in 21 Jump Street (1987–1991) and What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993). 2017 Kingsman: The Golden Circle Colin Firth was de-aged for a flashback scene, years before the events of Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014). 2018 Ant-Man and the Wasp Michael Douglas, Michelle Pfeiffer and Laurence Fishburne who play Hank Pym, Janet van Dyne and Bill Foster, respectively, are de-aged in flashback sequences. 2018 Aquaman Temuera Morrison and Nicole Kidman are de-aged through CGI, to portray Aquaman's parents, Thomas Curry and Atlanna, in opening scenes set during Aquaman's childhood. In addition, CGI was used to de-age Willem Dafoe for the scene where Nuidis Vulko trains the young Arthur Curry. 2019 Captain Marvel Samuel L. Jackson and Clark Gregg, who portray Nick Fury and Phil Coulson, are de- aged by 23 years for the entire film as it is set in 1995 (but filmed in 2018), whereas the previous films in which they had appeared in these roles had all been set in the present day. In Jackson's case, according to LolaVFX supervisor Trent Claus, they watched several of Jackson's films from the 1990s to determine which ones they would use as visual reference, ultimately mainly choosing One Eight Seven (1997) and bits of Loaded Weapon 1 (1993) and Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995). 2019 Avengers: Endgame Multiple actors were digitally de-aged for different sequences. Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson and Jeremy Renner were digitally de-aged for their 2012 appearances that recreate scenes from The Avengers (2012) in which they respectively portray Tony Stark, Steve Rogers, Thor, Natasha Romanoff and Clint Barton. Michael Douglas, John Slattery and Stan Lee were also digitally de-aged for their 1970s appearances, in which they respectively portray Hank Pym, Howard Stark and a car driver, the latter being Lee's final cameo role. The final cut of the film features 200 de-aging and aging shots. 2019 It Chapter Two Horror sequel in which child actors Jaeden Martell, Jeremy Ray Taylor, Finn Wolfhard, Chosen Jacobs, Jack Dylan Grazer, Sophia Lillis, Wyatt Oleff and Jackson Robert Scott are digitally de-aged to reprise their roles from It (2017) in flashback scenes, having visibly aged in the two-year interval. 2019 Gemini Man In this science fiction film, actor Will Smith is de-aged to portray a younger clone of his character. 2019 The Irishman In this epic crime film, actors Robert De Niro, Al Pacino and Joe Pesci are digitally de-aged to portray younger versions of Frank Sheeran, Jimmy Hoffa and Russell Bufalino respectively. 2020 Bill & Ted Face the Music A comic science fiction film starring Alex Winter and Keanu Reeves as Bill S. Preston, Esquire and Ted "Theodore" Logan, portraying younger and older versions of Bill & Ted. 2021 Coming 2 America In this comedic sequel, Eddie Murphy and Arsenio Hall are de- aged in a flashback. 2021 Candyman Tony Todd, reprising his role as the original Candyman, appears de-aged at the end of the film. 2021 Spider-Man: No Way Home Willem Dafoe and Alfred Molina reprised their roles as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin and Otto Octavius / Doctor Octopus, respectively, and were both de-aged by 19 and 17 years respectively to match their younger appearances from Spider-Man (2002) and Spider-Man 2 (2004), respectively. 2022 Scream Skeet Ulrich reprises his role of Billy Loomis from the original Scream (1996), de-aged to appear as he did in 1996, in scenes featuring his daughter Sam Carpenter hallucinating with him due to him being her biological father. 2022 The Adam Project In this science fiction film, actress Catherine Keener is de-aged to portray a younger version of her character. 2022 The Unbearable Weight of Massive Talent Nicolas Cage portrays Nicky Cage, a figment of Cage's imagination, seen as a younger Wild at Heart (1990)-era version of himself. 2022 Acharya A de-aged Chiranjeevi appears as a younger version of his character in a flashback scene. 2022 Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers A de-aged Paula Abdul appears as herself in a flashback scene. 2022 Vikram A de-aged Kamal Haasan appears as himself in flashback scenes. The appearance for these scenes were referenced from the actor's 1986 movie which incidentally had the same title. 2022 Orphan: First Kill Isabelle Fuhrman is de-aged from Fuhrman's age, 25 to 9 years old, around 13 years, to recapture Fuhrman's age in the first film Orphan (2009) for the prequel film. Noticeably, Fuhrman wasn't de- aged using CGI, like many other cases with de-aging, instead being de-aged with practical effects such a combination of forced perspective shots, camera angles and makeup. 2022 Samaritan A de-aged Sylvester Stallone appears in a flashback scene. 2022 Lifemark Kirk Cameron and Rebecca Rogers, who play Jimmy and Susan Colton; the adoptive parents of main character David Colton, were de-aged to make them look roughly 20 years younger to depict them at around the age that Jimmy and Susan would have been when they first adopted David in flashback scenes. 2022 Avatar: The Way of Water Stephen Lang, Matt Gerald and Giovanni Ribisi are respectively de-aged to match their appearances as Miles Quaritch, Lyle Wainfleet and Parker Selfridge in Avatar (2009) for video recordings the Avatar Recombinants of the former two see that took place prior to the first film's climax. Sigourney Weaver is also de-aged to match her appearance as Dr. Grace Augustine from the original film in a dream sequence her Avatar's daughter Kiri experiences when connecting to Eywa. 2023 Scream VI Like in Scream (2022), Skeet Ulrich reprises his role of Billy Loomis from the original Scream (1996), de-aged to appear as he did in 1996, in scenes featuring his daughter Sam Carpenter hallucinating with him due to him being her biological father. 2023 Fast X Joaquim de Almeida will be de-aged to reprise his role as Hernan Reyes for the film's flashback sequences taking place during the events of Fast Five (2011), for which Jason Momoa will be de- aged as well due to the tenth film's retconning of his character Dante Reyes, Hernan's son, in the fifth film. 2023 The Flash Michael Shannon was de-aged for the alternate 2013 timeline created by Barry Allen / The Flash to match his appearance as Zod in Man of Steel (2013). Helen Slater and Nicolas Cage were also de-aged for the film for their respective cameos as Supergirl from the 1984 film of the same name, and Superman from the unproduced film Superman Lives. 2023 Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny Harrison Ford will be de- aged for the film's opening sequence, which will consist of a World War II flashback of Indiana Jones fighting Nazis set in 1944, for which Ford was de- aged back to how he looked during the release period of the first three Indiana Jones films in order to recapture the feeling that the footage was shot in the 1980s. To achieve this, Industrial Light & Magic trawled archive material of a younger Ford and matched it with freshly shot footage in addition to giving Ford the original jacket he used in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981). Ford was "spooked" a bit with the result, but anyway impressed for its realism, yet affirmed that the technology didn't make him feel nostalgia for his youth. A Getty Images photo released by Walt Disney Studios' website seems to indicate that Mads Mikkelsen will be de-aged for the opening sequence as well, with his film Pusher (1996) likely used as a reference. 2024 Here Tom Hanks and Robin Wright will be de-aged through methods such as new hyperrealistic technology and AI-generated face replacements for the film adaptation of Richard McGuire's comic strip "Here" (2014) in order to allow Hanks and Wright to star in the plot, which spans generations. Director Robert Zemeckis cited his need to employ de-aging for the film due to Metaphysic’s feeling as the "global leaders" of the feature-quality AI content necessary to help him tell the film's story, which wouldn't work out without Hanks and Wright seamlessly transforming into younger versions of themselves. ===List of television series=== The following is a list of television series, in chronological order of release, that employ de-aging techniques: Year Television series Description 2016 Westworld In the first season episode "The Stray", Anthony Hopkins was de-aged to appear as a younger Dr. Robert Ford in a flashback. Visual effects supervisor Jay Worth stated to figure out how they wanted Hopkins to look like with photography and references, for which they used all movies and photos the actor appeared in before his breakthrough role as Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991), Important Looking Pirates took a scan of Hopkins and produced a photorealistic CG version of the thespian that was placed on a stand-in's body. 2017 Twin Peaks In the third season episode "Part 17", Sheryl Lee was digitally de-aged through a combination of lightning and CGI to appear as a youthful Laura Palmer when Agent Dale Cooper time travels back to the past to save her. 2021 WandaVision In the episode "Previously On", Kathryn Hahn is digitally de-aged for the opening flashback sequence revealing her character Agatha Harkness' origin story that takes place in 1693's Salem, Massachusetts. 2022 Star Trek: Picard At the end of the second-season premiere, John de Lancie appears as Q did in Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) for a few moments, before the character uses his powers to instantly age his physical appearance (reflecting de Lancie's current age) to match Patrick Stewart's, who is playing an elderly Jean-Luc Picard. In addition, Patrick Stewart himself and Jonathan Frakes (playing William Riker) were de-aged for several flashback sequences set in the years between TNGs events and the series' present, shown throughout the third season. 2022 Obi-Wan Kenobi In the episode "Part V", both Ewan McGregor and Hayden Christensen are de-aged 20 to 17 years to match their appearances as Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker respectively from Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005) in flashback scenes which take place during the timeframe of the Star Wars prequel trilogy. 2022 Better Call Saul While de-aging wasn't employed for most of the show for characters like Giancarlo Esposito's Gus Fring or Jonathan Banks' Mike Ehrmantraut, episode writer/director Thomas Schnauz confirmed that in the sixth season episode "Breaking Bad", some de-aging was used to erase some lines from the faces of Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul to enable them to reprise their roles as Walter White and Jesse Pinkman for scenes that take place during the timeframe of the Breaking Bad second season episode "Better Call Saul". 2022 Cobra Kai In the fifth season episode "Ouroboros", William Zabka is de-aged with the use of a body double to match Zabka's appearance as a younger Johnny Lawrence in The Karate Kid (1984). 2022–2023 Willow For some flashbacks sequences in the series premiere "The Gales" and its second episode "The High Aldwin", Warwick Davis and Joanne Whalley are de-aged to match their appearances as Willow Ufgood and Queen Sorsha in Willow (1988). 2023 Kaleidoscope In the episode "Violet: 24 Years Before the Heist", Giancarlo Esposito and Rufus Sewell are de-aged to appear as they did 24 years earlier from 2022, in 1998. ==Virtual actors in motion pictures== In some cases, a young version of a character is not played by the original actor but by a virtual actor, even though the actor being represented is usually still alive. This is usually accomplished with some combination of CGI, a body double, and a voice double or archival audio. Examples of actors who were replaced by virtual actors to portray their younger selves include: ===List of films=== Year Actor Film Description 2009 Arnold Schwarzenegger Terminator Salvation The likeness of a younger Schwarzenegger as the T-800 from The Terminator (1984) is virtually recreated, with Roland Kickinger serving as the body double. 2015 Terminator Genisys For a scene which depicts the same T-800 from The Terminator, Brett Azar served as body double for Schwarzenegger's 1984 likeness. 2016 Peter Cushing Rogue One: A Star Wars Story Peter Cushing's portrayal of Grand Moff Tarkin from Star Wars (1977) is digitally recreated, with Guy Henry serving as both the body and voice double. Carrie Fisher In the film's closing scene, Carrie Fisher's 1977 likeness as Princess Leia from Star Wars (1977) is digitally recreated, with Ingvild Deila serving as body double and archive audio of Fisher's voice (taken from outtakes of her hologram scene in Star Wars), being used. 2017 Sean Young Blade Runner 2049 Sean Young's portrayal of Rachael from Blade Runner (1982) is recreated in the scene where a clone of the replicant is created by Niander Wallace and offered to Rick Deckard in an (ultimately rejected) exchange for information. Young's likeness was digitally superimposed onto Loren Peta, who studied Young's performance from the first film to recreate her voice and movements. 2019 Arnold Schwarzenegger Terminator: Dark Fate Although all but Furlong appeared in the film as their current ages, virtual actors were used for their characters Terminator, Sarah Connor and John Connor in flashback scenes. Brett Azar, Maddy Curley and Jude Collie served as the three characters' body doubles, respectively. Linda Hamilton Edward Furlong 2019 Mark Hamill Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker For a brief flashback sequence in this epic space opera film, a young Carrie Fisher's and Mark Hamill's likenesses as Princess Leia and Luke Skywalker from following Return of the Jedi (1983) are digitally recreated using archival footage — Fisher's daughter, Billie Lourd served as body double for her, while Lukaz Leong served as body double for Hamill. Carrie Fisher 2021 Harold Ramis Ghostbusters: Afterlife Bob Gunton and producer Ivan Reitman portrayed the living and ghostly versions of Egon Spengler respectively through the use of prosthetics and digital makeup, digitally recreating the likeness of Harold Ramis from Ghostbusters (1984) and Ghostbusters II (1989). ===List of television series=== Year Actor Series Season Episode Description 2020 Mark Hamill The Mandalorian Season 2 "Chapter 16: The Rescue" In "Chapter 16: The Rescue", the sixteenth episode of The Mandalorian (2019–present), a young Mark Hamill's likeness as Luke Skywalker from the decade following Return of the Jedi (1983) is digitally recreated; Max Lloyd Jones served as body double, while Hamill's younger voice was recreated using speech synthesis through machine learning. 2021 The Book of Boba Fett "Chapter 6: From the Desert Comes a Stranger" In "Chapter 6: From the Desert Comes a Stranger", the sixth episode of The Book of Boba Fett (2021–2022), Hamill's likeness as Skywalker is recreated again; Graham Hamilton was the on-set performer for the character. Skywalker was largely created through visual effects and synthesized speech based on reference images and recordings, respectively, of Hamill. Unlike his previous The Mandalorian appearance, Hamill's likeness was based on his real-life appearance in the mid-to-late 1990s, rather than his film appearance in Return of the Jedi (1983). 2022 Millie Bobby Brown Stranger Things Season 4 In the fourth season of Stranger Things (2016–present), a younger pre-Stranger Things Millie Bobby Brown as Eleven / Jane Hopper ("El") was digitally recreated, with Martie Blair serving as her body double. Blair stood-in for the 9-year- old version of Eleven, with her face digitally replaced with Brown's own in post-production. ==References== Category:Film and video technology Category:Ageing Category:Visual effects Category:Special effects
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An elevated passenger ropeway, or chairlift, is a type of aerial lift, which consists of a continuously circulating steel wire rope loop strung between two end terminals and usually over intermediate towers, carrying a series of chairs. They are the primary onhill transport at most ski areas (in such cases referred to as 'ski lifts'), but are also found at amusement parks and various tourist attractions. Depending on carrier size and loading efficiency, a passenger ropeway can move up to 4000 people per hour, and the fastest lifts achieve operating speeds of up to or . The two-person double chair, which for many years was the workhorse of the ski industry, can move roughly 1200 people per hour at rope speeds of up to . The four person detachable chairlift ("high-speed quad") can transport 2400 people per hour with an average rope speed of . Some bi and tri cable elevated ropeways and reversible tramways achieve much greater operating speeds. ==Design and function== A chairlift consists of numerous components to provide safe efficient transport. ===Terminology=== Especially at American ski areas, chairlifts are referred to with a ski industry vernacular. A one-person lift is a "single", a two-person lift is a "double", a three-person lift a "triple", four-person lifts are "quads", and a six-person lift is a "six pack". If the lift is a detachable chairlift, it is typically referred to as a "high-speed" or "express" lift, which results in an "express quad" or "high-speed six pack". ;rope speed: the speed in meters per second at which the rope moves ;[load] interval: the spacing between carriers, measured either by distance or time ;capacity: the number of passengers the lift transports per hour ;efficiency: the ratio of fully loaded carriers during peak operation, usually expressed as a percentage of capacity. Because fixed grip lifts move faster than detachables at load and unload, misloads (and missed unloads) are more frequent on fixed grips, and can reduce the efficiency as low as 80%. ;fixed grip: each carrier is fastened to a fixed point on the rope ;detachable grip: each carrier's grip opens and closes during regular operation allowing detachment from the rope and travel slowly for load and unload. Detachable grips allow a greater rope speed to be used, usually twice that of a fixed grip chair, while simultaneously having slower loading and unloading sections. See detachable chairlift. The capacity of a lift is constrained by the motive power (prime mover), the rope speed, the carrier spacing, the vertical displacement, and the number of carriers on the rope (a function of the rope length). Human passengers can load only so quickly until loading efficiency decreases; usually an interval of at least five seconds is needed. ===Rope=== The rope is the defining characteristic of an elevated passenger ropeway. The rope stretches and contracts as the tension exerted upon it increases and decreases, and it bends and flexes as it passes over sheaves and around the bullwheels. The fibre core contains a lubricant which protects the rope from corrosion and also allows for smooth flexing operation. The rope must be regularly lubricated to ensure safe operation and long life. Various techniques are used for constructing the rope. Dozens of wires are wound into a strand. Several strands are wound around a textile core, their twist oriented in the same or opposite direction as the individual wires; this is referred to as Lang lay and regular lay respectively. Rope is constructed in a linear fashion, and must be spliced together before carriers are affixed. Splicing involves unwinding long sections of either end of the rope, and then winding each strand from opposing ends around the core. Sections of rope must be removed, as the strands overlap during the splicing process. ===Terminals and towers=== Every lift involves at least two terminals and may also have intermediate supporting towers. A bullwheel in each terminal redirects the rope, while sheaves (pulley assemblies) on the towers support the rope well above the ground. The number of towers is engineered based on the length and strength of the rope, worst case environmental conditions, and the type of terrain traversed. The bullwheel with the prime mover is called the drive bullwheel; the other is the return bullwheel. Chairlifts are usually electrically powered, often with Diesel or gasoline engine backup, and sometimes a hand crank tertiary backup. Drive terminals can be located either at the top or the bottom of an installation; though the top-drive configuration is more efficient,Greater top-drive efficiency assumes the chairlift predominantly moves passengers uphill. practicalities of electric service might dictate bottom-drive. ====Braking systems==== The drive terminal is also the location of a lift's primary braking system. The service brake is located on the drive shaft beside the main drive, before the gearbox. The emergency brake acts directly on the bullwheel. While not technically a brake, an anti-rollback device (usually a cam) also acts on the bullwheel. This prevents the potentially disastrous situation of runaway reverse operation.See a disastrous failed rollback test at Winter Park, Colorado in 1990 Chairlift Rollback Test ====Tensioning system==== The rope must be tensioned to compensate for sag caused by wind load and passenger weight, variations in rope length due to temperature and to maintain friction between the rope and the drive bullwheel. Tension is provided either by a counterweight system or by hydraulic or pneumatic rams, which adjust the position of the bullwheel carriage to maintain design tension. For most chairlifts, the tension is measured in tons. ===Prime mover and gearbox=== Either Diesel engines or electric motors can function as prime movers. The power can range from under 7.5 kW (10 hp) for the smallest of lifts, to more than 750 kW (1000 hp) for a long, swift, detachable eight-seat up a steep slope. DC electric motors and DC drives are the most common, though AC motors and AC drives are becoming economically competitive for certain smaller chairlift installations. DC drives are less expensive than AC variable-frequency drives and were used almost exclusively until the 21st century when costs of AC variable-frequency drive technology dropped. DC motors produce more starting torque than AC motors, so applications of AC motors on chairlifts is largely limited to smaller chairlift installations, otherwise the AC motor would need to be significantly oversized relative to the equivalent horsepower DC motor. The driveshaft turns at high RPM, but with lower torque. The gearbox transforms high RPM/low torque rotation into a low RPM/high torque drive at the bullwheel. More power is able to pull heavier loads or sustain a higher rope speed (the power of a force is the rate at which it does work, and is given by the product of the driving force and the cable velocity) . ====Secondary and auxiliary movers==== In most localities, the prime mover is required to have a backup drive; this is usually provided by a Diesel engine that can operate during power outages. The purpose of the backup is to permit clearing the rope to ensure the safety of passengers; it usually is much less powerful and is not used for normal operation. The secondary drive connects with the drive shaft before the gear box, usually with a chain coupling. Some chairlifts are also equipped with an auxiliary drive, to be used to continue regular operation in the event of a problem with the prime mover. Some lifts even have a hydrostatic coupling so the driveshaft of a snowcat can drive the chairlift. ===Carriers and grips=== Carriers are designed to seat 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 8 passengers. Each is connected to the cable with a steel cable grip that is either clamped onto or woven into the cable. Clamping systems use either a bolt system or coiled spring or magnets to provide clamping force. For maintenance or servicing, the carriers may be removed from or relocated along the rope by loosening the grip. ====Restraining bar==== thumb|right|A 6-year old skier in a chairlift. Also called a retention bar or safety bar, these may help hold passengers in the chair in the same way as a safety bar in an amusement park ride. If equipped, each chair has a retractable bar, sometimes with attached foot rests. In most configurations, a passenger may reach up and behind their head, grab the bar or a handle, and pull the restraint forward and down. Once the bar has swung sufficiently, gravity assists positioning the bar to its down limit. Before disembarking, the bar must be swung up, out of the way. The physics of a passenger sitting properly in a chairlift do not require use of a restraining bar. If the chairlift stops suddenly (as from use of the system emergency brake), the carrier's arm connecting to the grip pivots smoothly forward—driven by the chair's inertia—and maintains friction (and seating angle) between the seat and passenger. The restraining bar is useful for children—who do not fit comfortably into adult sized chairs—as well as apprehensive passengers, and for those who are disinclined or unable to sit still. In addition, restraining bars with footrests reduce muscle fatigue from supporting the weight of a snowboard or skis, especially during long lift rides. The restraining bar is also useful in very strong wind and when the chair is coated by ice. Some ski areas mandate the use of safety bars on dangerous or windy lifts, with forfeiture of the lift ticket as a penalty. Vermont and Massachusetts state law also require the use of safety bars, as well as most Ontario and Quebec in Canada. Restraining bars (almost always with foot rests) on chairlifts are more common in Europe and also naturally used by passengers of all ages. Some chairlifts have restraining bars that open and close automatically. ====Canopy==== Some lifts also have individual canopies which can be lowered to protect against inclement weather. The canopy, or bubble, is usually constructed of transparent acrylic glass or fiberglass. In most designs, passenger legs are unprotected; however in rain or strong wind this is considerably more comfortable than no canopy. Among more notable bubble lifts are the Ramcharger 8 at Big Sky Resort, North America's first high speed eight pack; and the longest bubble lift in the world is the American Flyer high speed six pack at Copper Mountain. ===Control system=== To maintain safe operation, the chairlift's control system monitors sensors and controls system parameters. Expected variances are compensated for; out-of-limit and dangerous conditions cause system shutdown. In the unusual instance of system shutdown, inspection by technicians, repair or evacuation might be needed. Both fixed and detachable lifts have sensors to monitor rope speed and hold it within established limits for each defined system operating speed. Also, the minimum and maximum rope tension, and speed feedback redundancy are monitored. Many—if not most—installations have numerous safety sensors which detect rare but potentially hazardous situations, such as the rope coming out of an individual sheave. Detachable chairlift control systems measure carrier grip tension during each detach and attach cycle, verify proper carrier spacing and verify correct movement of the detached carriers through the terminals. ===Safety systems=== Aerial lifts have a variety of mechanisms to ensure safe operation over a lifetime often measured in decades. In June 1990, Winter Park Resort performed planned destructive safety testing on Eskimo, a 1963 Riblet Tramway Company two-chair, center-pole fixed grip lift, as it was slated for removal and replacement with a high-speed quad Poma lift. The destructive testing attempted to mimic potential real-life operating scenarios, including tests for braking, rollback, oily rope, tree on line, fire, and tower pull. The data gleaned from this destructive safety testing helped improve the safety and construction of both existing as well as the next generation of chairlifts. ====Braking==== As mentioned above, there are multiple redundant braking systems. When a Normal Stop is activated from the control panel, the lift will be slowed and stopped using regenerative braking through the electric motor and the service brake located on the highspeed shaft between the gearbox and electric motor. When an Emergency Stop is activated all power is cut to the motor and the emergency brake or bull-wheel brake is activated. In the case of a rollback, some lifts utilize a ratchet like system to prevent the bull-wheel from spinning backwards while newer installations utilize sensors which activate one or more bull-wheel brakes. All braking systems are fail-safe in that a loss of power or hydraulic pressure will activate the brake. Older chairlifts, for example 1960s-era Riblet Tramway Company lifts, have a hydraulic release emergency brake with pressure maintained by a hydraulic solenoid. If the emergency brake/stop button is depressed by any control panel, the lift cannot be restarted until the hydraulic brake is hand-pumped to proper operating pressure. ====Brittle bars==== thumb|right|Example of a brittle bar within a cable catcher beside a sheave train. Wiring connected to the brittle bar is visible immediately to the right of the closest sheave. An anti-derailment plate is visible at top. Some installations use brittle bars to detect several hazardous situations. Brittle bars alongside the sheaves detect the rope coming out of the track. They may also be placed to detect counterweight or hydraulic ram movement beyond safe parameters (sometimes called a brittle fork in this usage) and to detect detached carriers leaving the terminal's track. If a brittle bar breaks, it interrupts a circuit which causes the system controller to immediately stop the system. ====Cable catcher==== These are small hooks sometimes installed next to sheaves to catch the rope and prevent it from falling if it should come out of the track. They are designed to allow passage of chair grips while the lift is stopping and for evacuation. It is extremely rare for the rope to leave the sheaves. In May 2006, a cable escaped the sheaves on the Arthurs Seat, Victoria chairlift in Australia causing four chairs to crash into one another. No one was injured, though 13 passengers were stranded for four hours. The operator blamed mandated changes in the height of some towers to improve clearance over a road. ====Collision==== Passenger loading and unloading is supervised by lift operators. Their primary purpose is to ensure passenger safety by checking that passengers are suitably outfitted for the elements and not wearing or transporting items which could entangle chairs, towers, trees, etc. If a misload or missed unload occurs—or is imminent—they slow or stop the lift to prevent carriers from colliding with or dragging any person. Also, if the exit area becomes congested, they will slow or stop the chair until safe conditions are established. ====Communication==== The lift operators at the terminals of a chairlift communicate with each other to verify that all terminals are safe and ready when restarting the system. Communication is also used to warn of an arriving carrier with a passenger missing a ski, or otherwise unable to efficiently unload, such as patients being transported in a rescue toboggan. These uses are the chief purpose for a visible identification number on each carrier. ====Evacuation==== thumb|Chairlift evacuation training using climbing equipment, Klínovec, Czech Republic Aerial ropeways always have several backup systems in the event of failure of the prime mover. An additional electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine—even a hand crank—allows movement of the rope to eventually unload passengers. In the event of a failure which prevents rope movement, ski patrol may conduct emergency evacuation using a simple rope harness looped over the aerial ropeway to lower passengers to the ground one by one. ====Grounding==== A steel line strung alongside a mountain is likely to attract lightning strikes. To protect against that and electrostatic buildup, all components of the system are electrically bonded together and connected to one or many grounding systems connecting the lift system to earth ground. In areas subject to frequent electrical strikes, a protective aerial line is fixed above the aerial ropeway. A red sheave may indicate it is a grounding sheave. ====Load testing==== thumb|Old double chair lift in Western New York In most jurisdictions, chairlifts must be load inspected and tested periodically. The typical test consists of loading the uphill chairs with bags of water (secured in boxes) weighing more than the worst case passenger loading scenario. The system's ability to start, stop, and forestall reverse operation are carefully evaluated against the system's design parameters. Load testing a new lift is shown in a short video. ====Rope testing==== Frequent visual inspection of the rope is required in most jurisdictions, as well as periodic non-destructive testing. Electromagnetic induction testing detects and quantifies hidden adverse conditions within the strands such as a broken wire, pitting caused by corrosion or wear, variations in cross sectional area, and tightening or loosening of wire lay or strand lay. ====Safety gate==== thumb|right|A safety gate at the top terminal detects passengers failing to unload. An open restraining bar is also visible. If passengers fail to unload, their legs will contact a lightweight bar, line, or pass through a light beam which stops the lift. The lift operator will then help them disembark, reset the safety gate, and initiate the lift restart procedure. While possibly annoying to other passengers on the chairlift, it is preferable to strike the safety gate—that is, it should not be avoided—and stop the lift than be an unexpected downhill passenger. Many lifts are limited in their download capacity; others can transport passengers at 100 percent capacity in either direction.entry for Download at SkiLifts glossary ====Moving walkways==== The boarding area of a detachable chairlift can be fitted with a moving walkway which takes the passengers from the entrance gate to the boarding area. This ensures the correct, safe and quick boarding of all passengers. For fixed grip lifts, a walkway can be designed so that it moves at a slightly slower speed than the chairs: passengers stand on the moving walkway while their chair approaches, hence easing the boarding process since the relative speed of the chairlift will be slower. ==History== Aerial passenger ropeways were known in Asia well before the 17th century for crossing chasms in mountainous regions. Men would traverse a woven fiber line hand over hand. Evolutionary refinement added a harness or basket to also transport cargo. The first recorded mechanical ropeway was by Venetian Fausto Veranzio who designed a bicable passenger ropeway in 1616. The industry generally considers Dutchman Adam Wybe to have built the first operational system in 1644. The technology, which was further developed by the people living in the Alpine regions of Europe, progressed rapidly and expanded due to the advent of wire rope and electric drive. World War I motivated extensive use of military tramways for warfare between Italy and Austria. ===First chairlifts=== The world's first three ski chairlifts were created for the ski resort in Sun Valley, Idaho in 1936 and 1937, then owned by the Union Pacific Railroad.The "first known chairlift" depends on definition: Miners in Kennecott, Alaska used a mining tram to ski in the 1920s. There were other non-ski "chairlifts" in British Columbia at the start of the 20th century: Grass Valley (California) in 1896; Aspen (Colorado) in 1890; and British Columbia in 1874. The first chairlift, since removed, was installed on Proctor Mountain, two miles (3 km) east of the more famous Bald Mountain, the primary ski mountain of Sun Valley resort since 1939. One of the chairlifts still remains on Ruud Mountain, named for Thomas Ruud a famous Norwegian ski racer. The chairlift has been preserved with its ski jump and original single chairs as it was during WWII. The chairlift was developed by James Curran of Union Pacific's engineering department in Omaha during the summer of 1936. Prior to working for Union Pacific, Curran worked for Paxton and Vierling Steel, also in Omaha, which engineered banana conveyor systems to load cargo ships in the tropics. (PVS manufactured these chairs in their Omaha, NE facility.) Curran re-engineered the banana hooks with chairs and created a machine with greater capacity than the up-ski toboggan (cable car) and better comfort than the J-bar, the two most common skier transports at the time—apart from mountain climbing. His basic design is still used for chairlifts today. The patent for the original ski lift was issued to Mr. Curran along with Gordon H. Bannerman and Glen H. Trout (Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific RR) in March 1939. The patent was titled "Aerial Ski Tramway,'. W. Averell Harriman, Sun Valley's creator and former governor of New York State, financed the project. Mont Tremblant, Quebec opens in February 1938 with the first Canadian chairlift, built by Joseph Ryan. The ski lift had 4,200 feet of cable and took 250 skiers per hour. The first chairlift in Europe was built in 1938 in Czechoslovakia (present-day Czech Republic), from Ráztoka, at , to Pustevny, at , in the Moravian-Silesian Beskids mountain range. ===Modern chairlifts=== New chairlifts built since the 1990s are infrequently fixed-grip. Existing fixed-grip lifts are being replaced with detachable chairlifts at most major ski areas. However the relative simplicity of the fixed-grip design results in lower installation, maintenance and, often, operation costs. For these reasons, they are likely to remain at low volume and community hills, and for short distances, such as beginner terrain. ==See also== ===Snowsport transport=== * Heliskiing * Riblet tramway ===Ski industry related=== * List of aerial lift manufacturers * Skiing and Skiing Topics ===Other lifts=== * Aerial lift * Aerial tramway * Cable car (railway) * Elevator * Funifor * Funitel * Gondola lift * Hallidie ropeway * List of transport topics * Paternoster lift * Ski lift ==References== ==External links== * Skilifts.org An online community dedicated to documenting all types of Ski Lifts, founded by Bill Wolfe. * Chairlift.org preservation society * Colorado Chairlift Locations Category:Aerial lifts Category:Chairlifts Category:Amusement rides Category:Ski lift types Category:Vertical transport devices Category:Articles containing video clips pt:Teleférico#Tipos de teleférico
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Gagosian is a contemporary art gallery owned and directed by Larry Gagosian. The gallery exhibits some of the most influential artists of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are 16 gallery spaces: five in New York City; three in London; two in Paris; one each in Basel, Beverly Hills, Rome, Athens, Geneva and Hong Kong. ==Development== ===1980s=== Larry Gagosian opened his first gallery in Los Angeles in 1980. In the 1980s, the Los Angeles gallery showed the work of young contemporary artists such as Eric Fischl, Jean-Michel Basquiat and David Salle, as the New York City space mounted exhibitions dedicated to the history of The New York School, Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art by showing the earlier work of Robert Rauschenberg, Roy Lichtenstein and Willem de Kooning. In 1985, the business expanded from Los Angeles to New York. In 1986, Gagosian opened a second space on West 23rd Street in Manhattan.Jeffrey Hogrefe, "Gagosian Pays $5.75 Million for Largest Gallery in Chelsea," The New York Observer, August 22, 1999 ===1990s=== In 1989, a new and more spacious gallery opened in New York City at 980 Madison Avenue with the inaugural exhibition: "The Maps of Jasper Johns." During its first two years, the Madison Avenue space, once used by Sotheby's, presented work by Yves Klein, Andy Warhol, Cy Twombly and Jackson Pollock. Shortly after, artists such as Walter de Maria, Philip Taaffe, Francesco Clemente, and Peter Halley joined the gallery. Gagosian Gallery's second New York City location opened in the neighborhood of SoHo, then the heart of the New York art scene, in 1991. Shortly before, the gallery had wooed David Salle and Philip Taaffe from long-term relationships with the Mary Boone Gallery.Grace Glueck (June 24, 1991), One Art Dealer Who's Still a High Roller New York Times. The new venue served to show large-scale works by artists such as Richard Serra, Mark di Suvero, Barnett Newman, and Chris Burden. The downtown location showed younger artists such as Ellen Gallagher, Jenny Saville, Douglas Gordon and Cecily Brown. The uptown gallery maintained its commitment to historical exhibitions by showing monumental sculptures by Miró, Calder and Moore. Andy Warhol was exhibited at both New York galleries, in collaboration with the Andy Warhol Foundation, including exhibitions of his Rorschach Paintings, Camouflage Paintings, Late Hand-Painted Paintings, Oxidation Paintings and the Diamond Dust Shadow Paintings. In 1996, The Damien Hirst exhibition "No Sense of Absolute Corruption," was the first exhibition in America to show Hirst's animals in formaldehyde tanks, a controversial series of the artist's oeuvre. Gagosian opened a location in Beverly Hills designed by architect Richard Meier in 1995. The Beverly Hills gallery mounted exhibitions by Edward Ruscha, Nan Goldin, Frank Gehry, Jeff Koons and Richard Prince. It also showed modern artists such as Pablo Picasso, Roy Lichtenstein and Abstract Expressionism group exhibitions. To finance Koons's giant "Celebration" sculptures, a consortium of dealers, including Gagosian, spent years helping the artist line up buyers willing to prepay for them. The buyers paid $2 million to $8 million apiece to own one of the artist' car-sized sculptures of balloon dogs and candy-colored hearts.Kelly Crow (April 1, 2011), The Gagosian Effect Wall Street Journal. In 1999, Gagosian Gallery moved from SoHo to West 24th Street, in New York's industrial Chelsea. Richard Gluckman designed the gallery in which Richard Serra presented the monumental sculpture, "Switch," in November 1999. The new space was fully completed in September. The large viewing space at West 24th Street allowed Gagosian artists, such as Richard Serra and Damien Hirst, to exhibit large scale works with great flexibility. ===2000s=== In spring of 2000, Gagosian became an international gallery with the opening in London of a Caruso St John-designed space on Heddon Street, near Piccadilly, then the largest commercial art gallery in London.Charlotte Higgins (May 10, 2004), King's Cross a Go-Go as top US art dealer unveils new gallery The Guardian. The UK gallery inaugurated its exhibitions program with a performance by the Italian artist Vanessa Beecroft, followed by an exhibition of works by Chris Burden. In September 2000, in New York, Gagosian held the Hirst show, Damien Hirst: Models, Methods, Approaches, Assumptions, Results and Findings. A second London Gallery, also designed by Caruso St John, on Britannia Street, opened in May 2004 with a paintings and sculpture show by Cy Twombly. Comparable to the Chelsea exhibition space in size, this addition was then the largest commercial art gallery in London. It accommodated large sculpture, video pieces and installations such as Martin Kippenberger's show, The Magical Misery Tour, Brazil. The Heddon Street location closed in July 2005, and a new storefront space on Davies Street opened simultaneously with an exhibition of Pablo Picasso prints. To complement the West 24th Street gallery, a Richard Gluckman designed space on West 21st Street opened in October 2006. A joint exhibition with the 24th Street gallery, Cast a Cold Eye: The Late Works of Andy Warhol, launched Gagosian Gallery's second location in Chelsea and third location in New York. In 2009, the 21st Street gallery held an exhibition of Pablo Picasso's late works entitled Mosqueteros, curated by Picasso historian John Richardson. The Madison Avenue location introduced a fifth-floor gallery space, set up to focus more on young and upcoming artists. Featuring works by Hayley Tompkins and Anselm Reyle, Old Space New Space inaugurated the space in January 2007. The fifth-floor gallery has since showcased the works of Steven Parrino, Mark Grotjahn and Isa Genzken, Dan Colen and Dash Snow, among others. From 2007 on, Gagosian Gallery has also shown at the art gallery of the Eden Rock St Barths, Saint Barthélemy, including an exhibition of Richard Prince (2007). Gagosian opened a gallery in Rome in 2007, exhibiting new works by Cy Twombly. The Italian space is a refurbished former bank on Via Francesco Crispi, built in 1921 and redesigned by Rome-based architect Firouz Galdo in collaboration with Caruso St John. The renovation transformed the classical space into a contemporary gallery while retaining its Roman character. The main banking hall of the building had a huge bay window, and the architects have remodelled the opposite, formerly perpendicular, wall to create an oval space, with plenty of daylight coming through the windows.Peter Pophamin (December 17, 2007), Gagosian turns to Rome for next stage of his art empire The Independent. In November 2008, Gagosian Gallery expanded its Madison Avenue gallery to the fourth floor, with an inaugural exhibition of works by Francis Bacon and Alberto Giacometti in Isabel and Other Intimate Strangers, in collaboration with the Giacometti Foundation and the Bacon Foundation. Between 2003 and 2008, artists who had previously been represented by other renowned galleries joined Gagosian, such as Anselm Reyle from Gavin Brown's Enterprise; John Currin from Andrea Rosen; Mike Kelley from Metro Pictures; Tom Friedman from Feature; Takashi Murakami from Marianne Boesky; and Richard Phillips from Friedrich Petzel.Roberta Smith (April 18, 2008), Dear Gallery: It Was Fun, but I'm Moving Up New York Times. On the other hand, several artists left the stable for smaller galleries, including Tom Friedman, Mark di Suvero, and Ghada Amer. The estate of Willem de Kooning went to rival Pace Gallery in 2010. ===2010s=== In 2010, Gagosian opened its Paris gallery on 350-square- meter (3,757 square feet) at 4, rue de Ponthieu, where it debuted with an exhibition of five new acrylic abstracts and five bronze sculptures by Cy Twombly. Priced between $4 million and $5 million each, all the paintings sold before the gallery officially opened.Scott Reyburn (October 25, 2010), Gagosian Sells $20 Million Art in Paris, Plans Global Growth Bloomberg. Located off Rue du Rhône in Geneva's business district, a 140-square-metre Art Deco space was opened as the gallery's Swiss outpost later that year. In early 2011, the gallery, which has had a representative in Hong Kong since 2008, opened a facility at the Pedder Building there.Alexandra A. Seno (December 10, 2010), At Last, a Gagosian Space in Hong Kong Wall Street Journal Blog. The outpost was inaugurated with an exhibition by Damien Hirst. That year, a survey of dealers in The Wall Street Journal estimated that Gagosian Gallery's annual sales approached $1 billion. In May 2011 alone, roughly half the works for sale by the major auction houses in New York (evening sales only) were by artists on the gallery's roster.Eric Konigsberg (January 28, 2013), The Trials of Art Superdealer Larry Gagosian New York Magazine. In October 2012, Gagosian Gallery opened a new gallery outside of Paris in Le Bourget. Designed by architect Jean Nouvel, the space is the 12th Gagosian location worldwide. From 2016 until 2021, Gagosian Gallery operated a space on Howard Street in San Francisco. Over the course of four years, it hosted shows by Richard Prince, Ed Ruscha, Jonas Wood, and Jay DeFeo, among others, and partnered with the Golden Gate National Recreation Area and the Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy to install two large-scale sculptures by Giuseppe Penone at Fort Mason from 2020 until 2021.Gagosian Takes over Former Marciano Museum, Closes San Francisco Gallery Artforum, January 5, 2021. Gagosian has a global presence with 17 exhibition spaces in New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, London, Paris, Rome, Athens, Geneva, Hong Kong and Basel, designed by world- renowned architects including Caruso St John, Richard Gluckman, Richard Meier, Jean Nouvel, Selldorf Architects, and wHY Architecture. ===Further expansion=== As of 2008, buyers from Russia and other republics of the former Soviet Union account for almost 50 percent of total global sales at Gagosian Gallery.John Varoli (September 23, 2008), Gagosian Makes Half of Global Sales to Russia, Director Says Bloomberg. Strong relationships with Russian collectors and an expanding Russian art scene, encouraged Gagosian to host temporary exhibitions in Moscow. In 2007, Insight? featured works by Jeff Koons, Damien Hirst, Willem de Kooning and Pablo Picasso, in the Barvikha Luxury Village. In late 2011, following "Brazil: Reinvention of the Modern," a 2011 exhibition Gagosian Gallery held in its Paris outpost featuring the 1960s and '70s Neo-Concrete artists Sérgio de Camargo, Lygia Clark, Amilcar de Castro, Hélio Oiticica, Lygia Pape, and Mira Schendel, the gallery will stage a major sculpture exhibition in a warehouse in Rio de Janeiro as part of the ArtRio fair.Carol Vogel (July 19, 2012), Gagosian in Brazil New York Times. Since its arrival in Hong Kong in 2011 of its 26 solo exhibitions only one has featured a woman artist. ==Auction records== Gagosian Gallery aims to maintain the price level of its artists by actively playing a role at art auctions. When Christie's established an auction record for Henri Matisse by selling a bronze relief for $48.8 million in 2010, it was Gagosian that bought the work.Katya Kazakina and Scott Reyburn (December 29, 2010), Picasso Nude Beats Giacometti, Chinese Vase in 2010s Top Sales Bloomberg. Also, Gagosian Gallery purchased Ed Ruscha's Angry Because It's Plaster, Not Milk (1965) for $3.2 million at Phillips de Pury in 2010, again establishing an auction record for that artist.Katya Kazakina and Lindsay Pollock (May 14, 2010), Cnet Founder Minor Sells $21.1 Million of Art to Pay Creditors Bloomberg. Not long after joining Gagosian Gallery in 2003, the painter John Currin made his auction record of $847,500; his highest price before was a little over half that.Sarah Douglas (2009), Larry Gagosian: The Art of the Deal The Economist Intelligent Life Magazine. ==Legal issues== ===Tax evasion=== In 2003, the Internal Revenue Service sued Larry Gagosian and three of his associates, accusing them of evading $26.5 million in taxes, interest and penalties on a 1990 sale of contemporary art.Thomas S. Mulligan (March 20, 2003), Noted Art Dealer Cited in Tax Fraud Los Angeles Times.Phoebe Hoban (May 26, 2003), The Artful Dealer New York Magazine. The IRS charged Gagosian and his partners deliberately shifted assets out of a company they created, Contemporary Art Holding Corp., to avoid paying taxes.Greg B. Smith (March 20, 2003), Probed in ImClone scandal, he's now sued for 26M Daily News. In May 2016, New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman announced a $210,000 tax settlement with Gagosian Gallery director Victoria Gelfand-Magalhaes, though the settlement involved 31 works—including pieces by John Baldessari, Richard Prince and Cindy Sherman—that she had bought between 2005 and 2013 through her company Artemis, not Gagosian.Charles V. Bagli (May 3, 2016), New York Times.Jennifer Smith (May 3, 2016), Aby Rosen Settles Tax-Evasion Inquiry for $7 Million Wall Street Journal. In July 2016, Gagosian Gallery agreed to a $4.28 million settlementKatya Kazakina (July 19, 2016), Gagosian Gallery Agrees to Pay $4.28 Million in Tax Settlement Bloomberg News. on back taxes, interest and penalties after Schneiderman and the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance found that the company and its affiliate Pre-War Art Inc. in Beverly Hills, California, had failed to pay New York State sales tax on hundreds of art transactions from 2005 to 2015.Randy Kennedy (July 19, 2016), Gagosian Gallery to Pay New York State $4.3 Million New York Times. ===Copyright infringement=== When French photographer Patrick Cariou launched a copyright lawsuit against Richard Prince in 2009, the suit also named as defendant Larry Gagosian, who had displayed the disputed series of painting in a show titled "Canal Zone".Andrew Goldstein (April 8, 2009), Richard Prince and Gagosian fight back over copyright The Art Newspaper. ===Other issues=== In 2009, a deal that Gagosian Gallery had struck to buy $3 million in gold bricks for the work One Ton, One KiloAdrienne Gaffney (March 5, 2009), Gagosian Gold Held Hostage in Ponzi-Scheme Investigation Vanity Fair. by the artist Chris Burden was frozen when it turned out that the bricks had been acquired from a Houston-based company owned by financier Allen Stanford, who was later charged by the U.S. Securities and Exchange CommissionDana Goodyear (March 23, 2009), Goldless The New Yorker. and sentenced to 110 years in prison for cheating investors out of more than $7 billion over 20 years in one of the largest Ponzi schemes in US history. In March 2011, British collector Robert Wylde sued the Gagosian Gallery for selling him Mark Tansey painting, The Innocent Eye Test (1981), which, it turned out, had been promised to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by its owner, Jan Cowles.Rob Sharp (March 15, 2011), Whose painting is it anyway? Collector sues the Gagosian The Independent. The case was later settled for in January 2012. Shortly after, Gagosian Gallery was sued before the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Cowles herself, who claimed that the gallery sold another painting, Girl in Mirror (1964) by Roy Lichtenstein, from her collection in 2008–2009 without her consent.Randy Kennedy (March 26, 2012), Frank E-Mails Reveal Negotiations at Art Gallery New York Times.$14M suit hits Gagosian New York Post, January 19, 2012. In 2018, Steven Tananbaum brought a case to the New York Supreme Court against Gagosian Gallery and the studio of Jeff Koons over their alleged failure to deliver three works by the artist for which he had paid more than $13 million.Alex Greenberger (September 23, 2019), Gagosian Continues Fight to Nix Billionaire Collector's Suit Over Delayed Sculptures From 'Perfectionist' Jeff Koons ARTnews. ==See also== *Antwaun Sargent, a director and curator ==References== ==External links== * *Larry Gagosian and Thomas Ammann to buy Hughes Warhols together Category:Art museums and galleries in Los Angeles Category:Art museums and galleries in Manhattan Category:Contemporary art galleries in the United States Category:Contemporary art galleries in France Category:Contemporary art galleries in London Category:Contemporary art galleries in Italy Category:Art galleries established in 1979 Category:1979 establishments in California
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Kenneth Young, also known as Kenneth C. M. Young or Kenny Young, is a Scottish freelance audio director, composer, sound designer and writer.Burnard, Pamela (2012). "The Practice of Diverse Compositional Creativites". In Collins, David (Ed.) The Act of Musical Composition: Studies in the Creative Process, p. 241, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham, England. ."Official website biography", gamesound.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. He is best known for his award- winning work on the audio experiences in Media Molecule's LittleBigPlanet and Tearaway video game franchises, and the music of Sony Japan Studio's Astro Bot games. ==Early life and education== Young was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and had a strong musical upbringing, learning the violin from the age of six, but chose not to pursue performance as a careerBurnard, Pamela (2012). "Musical Creativities In Practice" p. 188, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. . and instead went on to study an undergraduate degree in Music Technology at the University of Edinburgh. That course introduced him to working creatively with sound and he went on to gain an MA in Sound Design at Bournemouth University"Audio Interviewing Audio: Tomoya Kishi and Kenneth Young", designingsound.org, retrieved 5 November 2014. for which he received a distinction. ==Career== Young began his professional career in 2004 working as a junior sound designer in the centralised audio department of Sony London Studio. He worked on a broad range of different gaming experiences and hardware platforms, from action-adventure games such as The Getaway: Black Monday and Heavenly Sword to more family-friendly and innovative titles such as EyeToy: Kinetic.Kenneth Young (V) IMDB profile, imdb.com, retrieved 5 November 2014. He has described this period as "an apprenticeship" and a "baptism by fire"Burnard, Pamela (2012). "Musical Creativities In Practice" p. 189-190, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. . which stood him in good stead for his future game audio work. Young left Sony in 2007 and joined startup video game developer Media Molecule to establish their audio department and "make LittleBigPlanet sound awesome". The audio experience in LittleBigPlanet was very well received, garnering an exceptional eight GANG award nominations in 2009, more than any other game that year, and four academy nominations. Young and fellow composer Mat Clark won the GANG awards for Best Original Instrumental (for "The Gardens") and Best Interactive Score. For LittleBigPlanet 2, Young built upon the eclecticism of the original's soundtrack by working with six other composers,"The Music of LittleBigPlanet 2", mediamolecule.com, retrieved 6 November 2014. the results of which achieved a nomination in 2012 for Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences."AIAS 2012 Awards Category Details", interactive.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway's folk-infused soundtrack received a 2014 British Academy Video Games Award nomination for Original Music"BAFTA Games Awards 2014", awards.bafta.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. and is notable for its hand-made aesthetic, being written and performed entirely by Young and co-composer Brian D'Oliveira."Behind The Music of Tearaway", thevitalounge.net, retrieved 6 November 2014. Kotaku's Kirk Hamilton considered it one of the best video game soundtracks of 2013, writing "It's jarring to hear out-of-tune instruments in a video game; we've become so accustomed to pitch-perfect digital performances that any hint of humanity is startling. I'd like to be startled like this more often"."The Best Video Game Music Of 2013", kotaku.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. On 27 February 2015, Young announced that he was leaving Media Molecule to pursue a freelance career."Tearaway Unfolded looks to be a summer release", destructoid.com, retrieved 3 October 2015. ==Works== ===Games=== Game Year Platform Developer Credit Astro's Playroom 2020 PlayStation 5 Asobi Team Composer Knights and Bikes 2019 PlayStation 4, Microsoft Windows Foam Sword Audio designer Astro Bot Rescue Mission 2018 PlayStation VR Asobi Team Composer WonderWorlds 2017 iOS Glowmade Composer, sound designer Tethered 2016 PlayStation VR, Oculus Rift, HTC Vive Secret Sorcery Composer, sound designer Tearaway Unfolded 2015 PlayStation 4 Media Molecule Audio director; composer with Brian D'Oliveira LittleBigPlanet 3 2014 PlayStation 3, 4 Sumo Digital Special thanks; composer with Si Begg, Chrome Canyon, Mat Clark, Brian D'Oliviera, The Emperor Machine, Jim Fowler, Joe Henson, Winifred Phillips, David Poore, Alexis Smith, Paul Thomson, Ugress Run Sackboy! Run! 2014 iOS, Android, PlayStation Vita Firesprite Composer with Christoffer Berg, Mat Clark, Joe Henson, Alexis Smith, Keith Tenniswood Tearaway 2013 PlayStation Vita Media Molecule Head of audio; composer with Brian D'Oliveira LittleBigPlanet Vita 2012 PlayStation Vita Double Eleven, Tarsier Studios Special thanks; composer with Todd Baker, Christoffer Berg, Joe Henson, Richard Jacques, Tobias Lilja, Dominic Parker, Winifred Phillips, David Poore, Alexis Smith, Stakula, Paul Thomson LittleBigPlanet Karting 2012 PlayStation 3 United Front Games Composer with Mat Clark, Winifred Phillips, Richard Jacques, Keith Tenniswood LittleBigPlanet 2 2011 PlayStation 3 Media Molecule Audio lead; composer with Baiyon, Richard Jacques, Keith Tenniswood, Daniel Pemberton, Winifred Phillips, Paul Thomson LittleBigPlanet 2008 PlayStation 3 Media Molecule Audio designer; composer with Mat Clark, Daniel Pemberton Heavenly Sword 2007 PlayStation 3 Ninja Theory Dialogue dubbing editor 24: The Game 2006 PlayStation 2 Cambridge Studio Cinematic Sound Designer Gangs of London 2006 PSP London Studio Sound designer Go! Sudoku 2006 PSP London Studio Composer with Alistair Lindsay, Dave Ranyard EyeToy: Kinetic Combat 2006 PlayStation 2 London Studio Sound designer EyeToy: Operation Spy 2005 PlayStation 2 London Studio Sound designer Fired Up 2005 PSP London Studio Sound designer EyeToy: Kinetic 2005 PlayStation 2 London Studio Sound designer; composer with Alistair Lindsay, Dave Ranyard The Getaway: Black Monday 2004 PlayStation 2 London Studio Sound designer EyeToy: Chat 2004 PlayStation 2 London Studio Sound designer ===Albums=== The official video game soundtrack album for Tearaway was released alongside the game as a pre- order bonus on 22 November 2013."Tearaway pre-order bonus includes soundtrack, exclusive skins and more", polygon.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. The album was later made available via the PlayStation Network."Tearaway Soundtrack Available Today", blog.us.playstation.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. The official video game soundtrack album for Tearaway Unfolded was released alongside the game on 8 September 2015 via the PlayStation Network and on 16 October 2015 via iTunes."Tearaway® Unfolded Soundtrack", store.playstation.com, retrieved 3 October 2015."Tearaway® Unfolded (Original Soundtrack)", itunes.apple.com, retrieved 27 October 2015. The official video game soundtrack album for Tethered was released alongside the game on 27 October 2016 via the PlayStation Network and on 27 February 2017 via Steam."Tethered (Original Soundtrack)", store.playstation.com, retrieved 8 March 2017."Tethered - Original Soundtrack", steampowered.com, retrieved 8 March 2017. The official video game soundtrack album for WonderWorlds was released on 11 December 2017."WonderWorlds (Original Soundtrack)", itunes.apple.com, retrieved 11 December 2017. The official video game soundtrack album for Astro Bot Rescue Mission was released on 30 January 2019,"Astro Bot Rescue Mission (Original Soundtrack)", spotify.com, retrieved 14 April 2020. with a vinyl album following in August 2020."ASTRO BOT Rescue Mission soundtrack releasing on vinyl", gamingaudionews.com/, retrieved 12 March 2021. The official video game soundtrack album for Astro's Playroom was released on 12 March 2021."I’m Your GPU – Crafting the digitally-infused pop of Astro’s Playroom", blog.playstation.com, retrieved 12 March 2021. ===Writing=== Young started the website gamesound.org in 2005 "as a useful resource for those who work in, aspire to work in, or wish to learn more about game sound". Most of his own writing featured on the site is focused on the subject of the use of voice in games."Gamesound.org Articles by Kenneth Young", gamesound.org, retrieved 6 November 2014. He has twice won the GANG Best Game Audio Article Publication or Broadcast award for his articles The Use of Voice in Portal 2 (2012) and The Mix in The Last of Us (2015)."GANG Awards 2014 Final Winners", http://www.audiogang.org, retrieved 3 October 2015. He has also written for designingsound.org,"The Sound of Tearaway", designingsound.org, retrieved 6 November 2014. and contributed a chapter to the book Production Pipeline Fundamentals for Film and Games, edited by Renee Dunlop, entitled The Game Audio Pipeline."Production Pipeline Fundamentals for Film and Games - Editor and Contributor Information", http://documents.routledge-interactive.s3.amazonaws.com, retrieved 3 October 2015. Young was co-writer of Tearaways and Tearaway Unfoldeds voice script with the game's lead creator, Rex Crowle. ==Awards and nominations== Year Result Award Category Work 2021 Nominated BAFTA Audio Achievement"2021 BAFTA Games Awards: The Nominations", bafta.com, retrieved 12 March 2021. Astro's Playroom 2020 Nominated IGF Excellence in Audio"HERE ARE YOUR FINALISTS FOR THE 2020 INDEPENDENT GAMES FESTIVAL AWARDS!", igf.com, retrieved 14 April 2020. Knights and Bikes Nominated GANG Best Sound Design In An Indie Game"18th Annual G.A.N.G. Awards Nominees", audiogang.org, retrieved 14 April 2020. Knights and Bikes Nominated GANG Best Game Audio Article Publication or Broadcast Thoughts On Game Audio History' Nominated MCV/Develop Audio Innovation of the Year"MCV/Develop Awards 2020: The Shortlist", mcvdevelopawards.com, retrieved 14 April 2020. Knights and Bikes Nominated Develop: Star Awards Best Audio"About the Develop:Star Awards", developconference.com, retrieved 18 November 2020. Knights and Bikes Nominated Game Dev Heroes Sound"Game Dev Heroes Shortlist 2020", gamedevheroes.co, retrieved 18 November 2020. N/A 2019 Nominated Game Audio Awards Best Game Music"Game Audio Awards Nominees Best Game Music 2018", facebook.com, retrieved 14 April 2020. Astro Bot Rescue Mission Won Guildford Games Awards Creative"Guildford Games Awards 2019 Winners", guildford.games, retrieved 14 April 2020. Astro Bot Rescue Mission 2018 Nominated HMMA Original Song - Video Game"Complete list of 2018 HMMA Music In Visual Media Nominations", hmmawards.com, retrieved 18 October 2018. Astro Bot Rescue Mission Nominated GANG Best Music for an Indie Game"G.A.N.G. 2017 Finalists", audiogang.org, retrieved 20 February 2018. WonderWorlds 2017 Nominated GANG Best Interactive Score"15th Annual G.A.N.G. Award Nominees", audiogang.org, retrieved 8 March 2017. Tethered Nominated GANG Best Game Audio Article Publication or Broadcast The VR Soundscape of Secret Sorcery's Tethered 2016 Nominated GANG Music of the Year"Finalists for the 14th annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards Announced", audiogang.org, retrieved 25 March 2016. Tearaway Unfolded Nominated TIGA Best Audio Design"TIGA 2016 Awards Categories' Shortlists", tiga.org, retrieved 11 November 2016. Tearaway Unfolded 2015 Won GANG Best Game Audio Article Publication or Broadcast"GANG AWARDS 2014 FINAL WINNERS", audiogang.org, retrieved 8 June 2015. The Mix In 'The Last of Us' 2014 Nominated BAFTA Original Music"Games In 2014", bafta.org, retrieved 8 March 2017. Tearaway Won GANG Best Handheld Audio"GANG AWARDS 2013 FINAL WINNERS", audiogang.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Nominated GDC Best Audio"14th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards", gamechoiceawards.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Nominated SXSW Excellence in Musical Score"2014 SXSW Gaming Awards Finalists" , sxsw.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Nominated Golden Joysticks Best Audio"Golden Joysticks 2014 voting begins" , computerandvideogames.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Nominated GMAs Outstanding Achievement: In-Game Music"Annual Game Music Awards 2013", vgmonline.net, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Nominated GMAs Best Soundtrack: Western Tearaway Won IGN Best PS Vita Sound"Best PS Vita Sound", ign.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway Won The Vita Lounge Best Soundtrack"The Best of the Vita: Year Two", thevitalounge.net, retrieved 4 November 2014. Tearaway 2012 Nominated AIAS Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition"2012 AWARDS CATEGORY DETAILS", interactive.org, retrieved 8 March 2017. LittleBigPlanet 2 Nominated GANG Best Use of Licensed Music"10th Annual GANG Awards", audiogang.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet 2 Nominated GDC Best Audio"12th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards", gamechoiceawards.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet 2 Won GMAs Outstanding Achievement: Licensed Music"Annual Game Music Awards 2011 Winners", vgmonline.net, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet 2 Nominated NAVGTR Original Light Mix Score, Franchise"NAVGTR 2011 Awards", http://navgtr.org, retrieved 1 June 2016. LittleBigPlanet 2 Won GANG Best Game Audio Article Publication or Broadcast The Use of Voice in Portal 2 2009 Nominated BAFTA Original Score"BAFTA Games Awards 2009", awards.bafta.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Nominated BAFTA Use of Audio LittleBigPlanet Nominated AIAS Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design"AIAS 2009 Awards LittleBigPlanet Details", interactive.org, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Nominated AIAS Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack LittleBigPlanet Won AIAS Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance"Voices of Sackboy", behindthevoiceactors.com, retrieved 5 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Won GANG Best Interactive Score"DC 2009: G.A.N.G. AWARDS, THE “WOW, IT’S BRIGHT UP HERE.” DRINKING GAME.", originalsoundversion.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Won GANG Best Original Instrumental LittleBigPlanet (for 'The Gardens', tied with 'Main Theme' from Africa) Nominated GANG Audio of the Year"LittleBigPlanet snags eight nominations in GANG audio awards", joystiq.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Nominated GANG Music of the Year LittleBigPlanet Nominated GANG Sound Design of the Year LittleBigPlanet Nominated GANG Best Original Vocal: Choral LittleBigPlanet Nominated GANG Best Use of Licensed Music LittleBigPlanet Nominated GANG Best Dialogue LittleBigPlanet Nominated GDC Best Audio"9th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards", gamechoiceawards.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Nominated TEC Awards Outstanding Creative Achievement in Interactive Entertainment Sound Production"2009 Nominees for Outstanding Creative Achievement", tecawards.org, retrieved 15 March 2015. LittleBigPlanet Nominated Spike VGAs Best Original Score"Presenting the 2008 Spike Video Game Award nominees" , joystiq.com, retrieved 4 November 2014. LittleBigPlanet Nominated Spike VGAs Best Soundtrack LittleBigPlanet ==References== ==External links== *Official Website * *MobyGames rap sheet * Category:Alumni of Bournemouth University Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Category:Living people Category:Musicians from Edinburgh Category:Media Molecule Category:Scottish composers Category:Video game composers Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
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thumb|Hair care in Tianjin, China, in late Qing dynasty Hair care is an overall term for hygiene and cosmetology involving the hair which grows from the human scalp, and to a lesser extent facial, pubic and other body hair. Hair care routines differ according to an individual's culture and the physical characteristics of one's hair. Hair may be colored, trimmed, shaved, plucked or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring and threading. Hair care services are offered in salons, barbershops and day spas, and products are available commercially for home use. Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or speciality spas. ==Hair cleaning and conditioning== ===Biological processes and hygiene=== thumb|Human hair close-up Care of the hair and care of the scalp skin may appear separate, but are actually intertwined because hair grows from beneath the skin. The living parts of hair (hair follicle, hair root, root sheath and sebaceous gland) are beneath the skin, while the actual hair shaft which emerges (the cuticle which covers the cortex and medulla) has no living processes. Damage or changes made to the visible hair shaft cannot be repaired by a biological process, though much can be done to manage hair and ensure that the cuticle remains intact. Scalp skin, just like any other skin on the body, must be kept healthy to ensure a healthy body and healthy hair production. If the scalp is cleaned regularly by those who have rough hair or have a hair-fall problem, it can result in loss of hair. However, not all scalp disorders are a result of bacterial infections. Some arise inexplicably, and often only the symptoms can be treated for management of the condition (example: dandruff). There are also bacteria that can affect the hair itself. Head lice is probably the most common hair and scalp ailment worldwide. Head lice can be removed with great attention to detail, and studies show it is not necessarily associated with poor hygiene. More recent studies reveal that head lice actually thrive in clean hair. In this way, hair washing as a term may be a bit misleading, as what is necessary in healthy hair production and maintenance is often simply cleaning the surface of the scalp skin, the way the skin all over the body requires cleaning for good hygiene. The sebaceous glands in human skin produce sebum, which is composed primarily of fatty acids. Sebum acts to protect hair and skin, and can inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the skin. Sebum contributes to the skin's slightly acidic natural pH somewhere between 5 and 6.8 on the pH spectrum. This oily substance gives hair moisture and shine as it travels naturally down the hair shaft, and serves as a protective substance by preventing the hair from drying out or absorbing excessive amounts of external substances. Even though sebum serves as a protective substance, too much of this oily substance can cause blockage around hair follicles. This blockage is usually from dandruff or even dead skin. As a result, "blocked or obstructed hair follicles" may prevent hair from producing. Sebum is also distributed down the hair shaft "mechanically" by brushing and combing. When sebum is present in excess, the roots of the hair can appear oily, greasy, and darker than normal, and the hair may stick together. ===Hair cleaning=== Washing hair removes excess sweat and oil, as well as unwanted products from the hair and scalp. Often hair is washed as part of a shower or bathing with shampoo, a specialized surfactant. Shampoos work by applying water and shampoo to the hair. The shampoo breaks the surface tension of the water, allowing the hair to become soaked. This is known as the wetting action. The wetting action is caused by the head of the shampoo molecule attracting the water to the hair shaft. Conversely, the tail of the shampoo molecule is attracted to the grease, dirt and oil on the hair shaft. The physical action of shampooing makes the grease and dirt become an emulsion that is then rinsed away with the water. This is known as the emulsifying action. Sulfate free shampoos are less harming on color treated hair than normal shampoos that contain sulfates. Sulfates strip away natural oils as well as hair dye. Sulfates are also responsible for the foaming effect of shampoos. Shampoos have a pH of between 4 & 6\. Acidic shampoos are the most common type used and maintain or improve the condition of the hair as they do not swell the hairshaft and do not strip the natural oils. ==Hairstyling tools== ===Hairstyling equipment=== Hairstyling equipment which helps in creating hairstyles include: * Hair dryer * Hair clip * Comb * Hair iron * Hair roller * Hair clipper * Hairbrush * Hairpin * Headband * Kanzashi * Ribbon * Hair tie * Scissors * Shower cap ===Hair products=== Cosmetics products used in creating and maintaining hairstyles include: * Hair coloring * Hair conditioner * Hair gel * Hair glue * Hair mousse * Hair serum * Hair spray * Hair tonic * Hair wax * Pomade ==Hair lengths== * Bald – having no hair at all on the head * Shaved – hair that is completely shaved down to the scalp * Buzz – hair that is extremely short and hardly there * Cropped – hair that is a little longer than a buzz * Short back and sides – hair that is longer than a crop, but does not yet hit the ears * Ear-length – hair reaching one's ears * Chin-level – hair that grows down to the chin * Flip-level – hair reaching the neck or shoulders * Shoulder-length – hair reaching the shoulders * Armpit-length – hair reaching the armpit * Midback-level – hair that's at about the same point as the widest part of one's ribcage and chest area * Waist-length – hair that falls at the smallest part of one's waist, a little bit above the hip bones * Hip-length – hair reaching the top of one's hips * Tailbone-length – hair that is at about the area of one's tailbone * Classic length – hair that reaches where one's legs meet the buttocks * Thigh-length – hair that is at the mid-thigh * Knee- length – hair that is at the knee * Calf-length – hair that is at the calf * Floor-length – hair that reaches the floor ==Chemical alteration== Chemical alterations like perming, coloring can be carried out to change the perceived color and texture of hair. All of these are temporary alterations because permanent alterations are not possible at this time. Chemical alteration of hair only affects the hair above the scalp; unless the hair roots are damaged, new hair will grow in with natural color and texture. ===Hair coloring=== Hair coloring is the process of adding pigment to or removing pigment from the hair shaft. Hair coloring processes may be referred to as coloring or bleaching, depending on whether pigment is being added or removed. Temporary hair tints simply coat the shaft with pigments which later wash off. Most permanent color changes require that the cuticle of the hair be opened so the color change can take place within the cuticle. This process, which uses chemicals to alter the structure of the hair, can damage the cuticle or internal structure of the hair, leaving it dry, weak, or prone to breakage. After the hair processing, the cuticle may not fully close, which results in coarse hair or an accelerated loss of pigment. Generally, the lighter the chosen color from one's initial hair color, the more damaged it may be. Other options for applying color to hair besides chemical dyes include the use of such herbs as henna and indigo, or choosing ammonia-free solutions. ===Perms and chemical straightening=== Perms and relaxation using relaxer or thermal reconditioning involve chemical alteration of the internal structure of the hair in order to affect its curliness or straightness. Hair that has been subjected to the use of a permanent is weaker due to the application of chemicals, and should be treated gently and with greater care than hair that isn't chemically altered. ==Special considerations for hair types== ===Long hair=== Many industries have requirements for hair being contained to prevent worker injury. This can include people working in construction, utilities, and machine shops of various sorts. Furthermore, many professions require containing the hair for reasons of public health, and a prime example is the food industry. There are also sports that may require similar constraints for safety reasons: to keep hair out of the eyes and blocking one's view, and to prevent being caught in sports equipment or trees and shrubs, or matted hair in severe weather conditions or water. Safety is usually the reason behind not allowing hair to fly loose on the backs of motorcycles and open-topped sports cars for longer tresses. ===Delicate skin=== Scalp skin of babies and the elderly are similar in subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2–3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin may experience a longer interval. Teenagers often require daily washing of the hair. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. Daily washing will remove the sebum daily and incite an increase in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. ==Treatment of damage== ===Split ends=== Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers. This condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber splits into two or three strands and the split may be two to three centimeters in length. Split ends are most often observed in long hair but also occur in short hair that is not in good condition. As hair grows, the natural protective oils of the scalp can fail to reach the ends of the hair. The ends are considered old once they reach about 10 centimeters since they have had long exposure to the sun, gone through many shampoos and may have been overheated by hair dryers and hot irons. This all results in dry, brittle ends which are prone to splitting. Infrequent trims and lack of hydrating treatments can intensify this condition. ===Breakage and other damage=== Hair can be damaged by chemical exposure, prolonged or repeated heat exposure (as through the use of heat styling tools), and by perming and straightening. Oil is harmful for rough hair and for dry scalp as it decreases nourishment for hair leading to split and hair fall. When hair behaves in an unusual way, or a scalp skin disorder arises, it is often necessary to visit not only a qualified physician, but sometimes a dermatologist, or a trichologist. Conditions that require this type of professional help include, but are not limited to, forms of alopecia, hair pulling/picking, hair that sticks straight out, black dots on the hair, and rashes or burns resulting from chemical processes. Gel provides a shiny look but dries the hair and makes it rough. There are a number of disorders that are particular to the scalp. Symptoms may include: * Abnormal odor * Bleeding * Bumps * Caking skin buildup that appears white or another color than one's natural skin tone * Chafes * Clumps of hair falling out * Clumpy flakes that do not easily slough off the scalp skin * Dandruff and clumps * Dry hair & scalp * Excessive itchiness that doesn't go away with a few hair wash, redness of scalp skin * Patches of thinning * Pus-like drainage * Shedding Any of these symptoms may indicate a need for professional assistance from a dermatologist or trichologist for diagnosis. Scalp skin can suffer from infestations of mites, lice, infections of the follicles or fungus. There could be allergic reactions to ingredients in chemical preparations applied to the hair, even ingredients from shampoo or conditioners. Common concerns surrounding dandruff (often associated with excessive sebum); psoriasis, eczema, or seborrheic dermatitis. An odor that persists for a few weeks despite regular hair washing may be an indication of a health problem on the scalp skin. Not all flakes are dandruff. For example, some can merely be product buildup on the scalp skin. This could result from the common practice of applying conditioner to scalp skin without washing. This would dry upon the scalp skin and flake off, appearing like dandruff and even causing itchiness, but have no health effects whatsoever. There are various reasons for hair loss, most commonly hormonal issues. Fluctuations in hormones will often show in the hair. Not all hair loss is related to what is known as male pattern baldness, women can suffer from baldness just as men do. Formulas for addressing this specific cause of lack of hair growth yet typically they require around three months of consistent use for results to begin to appear. Cessation may also mean that gained growth may dissipate. Particularly among women, thyroid disease is one of the more under-diagnosed health concerns. Hair falling out in clumps is one symptom of a set of symptoms that may indicate a thyroid concern. In many gynecological exams a blood screen for thyroid is now a common protocol. Thyroid often shows up first in the behavior of the hair. During pregnancy and breast feeding, the normal and natural shedding process is typically suspended (starting around month three because it takes a while for the body to recognize and reset for the hormonal shifts the body goes through) for the period of gestation and extended longer if one breast feeds (this includes pumping for breast milk). Upon cessation of either of these, it typically takes around two months for the hormones to shift again to the normal hormonal settings, and hair shedding can increase exponentially, for approximately 3–6 months until hair returns to its normal volume. It is commonly noticed that hair seems thicker and shinier, even, during pregnancy and breast feeding in response to the influx of shifting hormones. It is not unusual also for hair color to change, or hair structure to change (e.g., straighter hair, curlier hair). These changes can occur more often than people may realize yet isn't often reported. ===General hair loss=== Some choose to shave their hair off entirely, while others may have an illness (such as a form of cancer—note that not every form of cancer or cancer treatment necessarily means one will lose their hair) that caused hair loss or led to a decision to shave the head. ===Hair care and nutrition=== Genetics and health are factors in healthy hair. Proper nutrition is important for hair health. The living part of hair is under the scalp skin where the hair root is housed in the hair follicle. The entire follicle and root are fed by a supply of arteries, and blood carries nutrients to the follicle/root. Any time an individual has any kind of health concern from stress, trauma, medications of various sorts, chronic medical conditions or medical conditions that come and then wane, heavy metals in waters and food, smoking etc. these and more can affect the hair, its growth, and its appearance. Generally, eating a full diet that contains protein, fruits, vegetables, fat, and carbohydrates is important (several vitamins and minerals require fat in order to be delivered or absorbed by the body). Any deficiency will typically show first in the hair. A mild case of anemia can cause shedding and hair loss. Among others, the B group of vitamins are the most important for healthy hair, especially biotin. B5 (pantothenic acid) gives hair flexibility, strength and shine and helps prevent hair loss and graying. B6 helps prevent dandruff and can be found in cereals, egg yolk and liver. Vitamin B12 helps prevent the loss of hair and can be found in fish, eggs, chicken and milk. When the body is under strain, it reprioritizes its processes. For example, the vital organs will be attended to first, meaning that healthy, oxygenated blood may not feed into the hair follicle, resulting in less healthy hair or a decline in growth rate. While not all hair growth issues stem from malnutrition, it is a valuable symptom in diagnosis. Scalp hair grows, on average, at a rate of about 1.25 centimeters per month, and shampoos or vitamins have not been shown to noticeably change this rate. Hair growth rate also depends upon what phase in the cycle of hair growth one is actually in; there are three phases. The speed of hair growth varies based upon genetics, gender, age, hormones, and may be reduced by nutrient deficiency (i.e., anorexia, anemia, zinc deficiency) and hormonal fluctuations (i.e., menopause, polycystic ovaries, thyroid disease).The World of Hair, A Scientific Companion by Dr. John Gray, Macmillan Press Limited, 1977, pp. 23–24. The essential omega-3 fatty acids, protein, vitamin B12, and iron, found in fish sources, prevent a dry scalp and dull hair color. Dark green vegetables contain high amounts of vitamins A and C, which help with production of sebum and provide a natural hair conditioner. Legumes provide protein to promote hair growth and also contain iron, zinc, and biotin. Biotin functions to activate certain enzymes that aid in metabolism of carbon dioxide as well as protein, fats, and carbohydrates. A deficiency in biotin intake can cause brittle hair and can lead to hair loss. In order to avoid a deficiency, individuals can find sources of biotin in cereal-grain products, liver, egg yolk, soy flour, and yeast. Nuts contain high sources of selenium and therefore are important for a healthy scalp. Alpha-linolenic acid and zinc are also found in some nuts and help condition the hair and prevent hair shedding that can be caused by a lack of zinc. Protein deficiencies or low-quality protein can produce weak and brittle hair, and can eventually result in loss of hair color. Dairy products are good sources of calcium, a key component for hair growth. A balanced diet is extremely necessary for a healthy scalp and furthermore healthy hair. ==See also== * Artificial hair integrations * Hair coloring * Hair conditioner * Hair gel * Hair mousse * Hair prosthesis * Hair transplantation * Hair washing * No poo ==References== Category:Hygiene Category:Hairdressing
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Timothy Alexander Pickup (6 October 1948 – 7 June 2021) was an Australian Rugby League footballer for the North Sydney Bears, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, New South Wales and Australian national side in the 1970s, playing his First Test for Australia in 1972, only 14 games after his NSWRL First Grade debut. A player with blistering acceleration that could step off both feet, he had good hands, a smart kicking game, was a cunning tactician complimented by the unusual combination of being an exceptional defender for a small man. Pickup also played First Grade Rugby Union for the Manly Rugby Club as a teenage prodigy for three seasons from 1966-68. In retirement Pickup was involved in boxing at famed Newtown PCYC and was Jeff Harding's manager when he won the WBC World Light-Heavyweight title in 1989. He was the foundation CEO of the Adelaide Rams franchise of the Australian Super League in 1995. In 2000 he was awarded the Australian Sports Medal for services to Australian sport. Pickup was named in the North Sydney Bears Team of the Century in 2006 and was a finalist for both the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs 70th Anniversary team as well as Manly Rugby Union's Team of the Century. ==Early years== Tim Pickup was born in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia as the second of three sons to Harrie and Mary Pickup, between brothers Paul and Chris. His father Harrie was a lower-grade player for St. George and Eastern Suburbs, and his brother, Tim's uncle, Laurie was an outstanding First Grade Rugby League player with the Eastern Suburbs Roosters (player #258). Laurie Pickup is on record as the third youngest ever captain of the Tri-colors whose career was cut short when killed on duty at age 26 during World War II. ==Enfield Federals== Tim Pickup was a Western Suburbs Rugby League junior who played his formative years with the Enfield Federals J.R.L.F.C. from 1959 to 1965. Dormant since the 1930s, the Federals were revived by a local consortium including Tim's father Harrie Pickup and friends in 1959. Harrie was club President from 1959 to 1965. The Federals became a juggernaut and Pickup's teammates included six future Sydney first-graders, including Michael McClean – Manly, North Sydney and Wests (son of former Western Suburbs captain Peter McClean), Neville Hornery – Canterbury and Wests, Geoff Nielsen – Canterbury and Easts, John Clark – Wests and Parramatta, as well as Rod Smith and Australian horse-racing identity, Frank Tagg – both Wests. Legendary Balmain, NSW and Australian Rugby League trainer/conditioner, and noted hard man Les Hobbs was also a key member of this team. The Enfield Federals were such a dominant side they went undefeated for seven years, and ironically lost their one and only game, the 1965 Grand Final which was Pickup's last ever match for the club. During the Federals reign they quickly ran out of opponents, having to play up an age group to get a game and eventually had to shift to other Junior Leagues (Balmain, Newtown) to be accommodated. The Federals were such a force that twelve out of the starting thirteen line-up represented Western Suburbs RLFC in the 1963 (u15) S.G Ball/Oatley Shield and 1965 (u17) Jersey Flegg Shield and won both competitions undefeated, with Tim Pickup as five- eighth and captain. In 1965, Western Suburbs RLFC called upon Pickup and teammate Neville Hornery to play in the 3rd grade open-age semi-finals. Harrie Pickup deemed his son to be too young for this promotion at only 16 years of age, yet Neville not only accepted the challenge, he excelled and so began his chequered career. Hornery never realised his immense potential and after five short seasons he misbehaved his way out of a couple of clubs, leaving all who saw him play to wonder what might have been. Pickup did his schooling at St. Patrick's Strathfield, and graduated from Christian Brothers Lewisham in 1965. He was offered a high school scholarship to storied Rugby Union nursery, St. Joseph's Hunter's Hill but declined for at that time was not a fan of Rugby Union. At the end of 1965 Harrie Pickup decided to move his family to the Northern Beaches, as all three brothers had discovered surfing and were regulars on the Peninsula. The Pickups settled in Curl Curl. In 2019 The Enfield Federals named their Team of the Century with Tim Pickup as the Halfback and Captain; 1.Tony Ford 2.Graham McKay 3.Wayne Smith 4.Ken Hey 5.Hazem El Masri 6.Denis Pittard 7.Tim Pickup(c) 8.Rod Smith 9.Neville Hornery 10.Jim Serdaris 11.Sid Walsh 12.Robbie Farah 13.John Armstrong Reserves: 14.Solomon Haumono 15.Jason Williams 16.Scott Gale 17.Neville Sinclair ==Manly Rugby Union== Pickup's Rugby League career stalled when his family relocated to Sydney's Northern Beaches as the Western Suburbs RLFC did not grant a transfer/release for Tim to further his craft with any other club than Wests, and especially not with Manly-Warringah RLFC. With few options left to continue his Rugby League career Pickup tagged along with a work mate to the Manly Rugby Union Club and having never played the sport, quickly rose through the grades in the pre-season and was named starting First Grade stand-off as a 17-year-old in the first game of the 1966 season, against reigning Premiers Randwick. Pickup played three straight years at five-eighth /stand-off uninterrupted, never missing the First Grade starting line-up through form or injury, never playing a single lower grade match. Manly were competitive during the entirety of Pickup's tenure, his last ever game for the club being the 1968 Grand Final which they lost to Sydney University, 23–6. Pickup broke his collarbone early and even managed a left footed field-goal for a short lived lead, yet they were ultimately outclassed and he managed to finish the match. Two of Pickup's Manly teammates were future dual-international Steve Knight, and Robbie Parker. Ironically both would convert to Rugby League with Western Suburbs RLFC in the early 1970's and like Pickup they were also teenagers in 1968. Frustrated with a lack of progress on the representative scene, Pickup felt he was a victim of Rugby Union elitism due to his Rugby League heritage, and stubbornly severed his ties and set off to England on a working holiday. He would not return to Australia until 1972. Pickup was one of five finalists nominated for the position of five-eighth / stand off in Manly Marlins team of the century in 2008. ==England== With his passport full of stamps after exploring Europe and the Middle East, Pickup and friends eventually found their way to England, where he was spotted playing touch football in a London park, and was recommended for a trial with legendary club, St. Helens RLFC. He bolted up north for the opportunity and was signed after a couple of lower grade games. With a glut of talent already on their books, Tim was 'loaned' out to First Division battlers, Blackpool Borough where he played fullback and was teammates with the legendary Billy Boston, in the twilight of his career, and Allan Bishop, the tenacious younger brother of the great Tommy Bishop. In 1969 Tim was deported to his last port of call, the US, for overstaying his visa. During this period Tim was stuck in New York living at a homeless hostel and would hitch a ride to the Woodstock music festival with fellow residents. A lifelong boxing fanatic, Pickup also tracked down his boyhood hero Sugar Ray Robinson and would follow him and his entourage on their daily run through Central Park. He was accosted by Robinson's minders when they were alerted to his pattern of following their group. Tim talked his way out of a beating when he identified himself as a true fan and made Sugar Ray laugh. He then trained as part of the group until his visa was cleared and was able to return to England. In 1971 Tim married his Australian wife and AMP colleague, Jan, with Allan Bishop as his Best Man. Jan flew over to join Tim once his visa status was sorted and he was readmitted to the UK. Pickup would be named Blackpool's player of the year for the consecutive 1970 and 1971 seasons, but again got itchy feet when unable to get a recall to St. Helens' first team. His stellar play for Blackpool Borough didn't go unnoticed and he began to generate massive interest in his native Australia and decided to return. ==North Sydney Bears== When Tim Pickup returned to Sydney he resumed his career in finance with AMP, and with multiple clubs vying for his services, he resumed his career in Rugby League with the North Sydney (#691). Pickup explained that Norths were the team that had suffered the longest drought between premierships, and he wanted to make a difference. His impact was felt immediately. Partnered with Keith 'Chicka' Outten in the halves, the tough but tiny pair made for a dynamic defensive duo, with Outten playing the organisational role in attack, where Pickup assumed the role of running back. With club stalwart Ross Warner, Keith Harris and the dynamic Bruce Walker in the forwards, and the rock hard playing surface itself, North Sydney Oval quickly became a formidable and dreaded place to visit. Although Norths fortunes improved during Tim's short time as a Bear, they never made the final five playoff series and hovered around the middle of the ladder, when coached by the great Noel Kelly from 1972 to 1974. Their best finish was 6th, worst was 9th in the 12 team NSWRL competition. Personally Tim achieved instant success at representative level in 1972 and played for Australia after only 14 games for the Bears. Pickup was chosen for City Seconds then played two games for New South Wales (NSW #664), he made the Australian team (#462) alongside Norths teammate George Ambrum. When first chosen for the Australian team, Pickup gave his first jersey to his Bears halves partner Keith Outten in recognition of his contribution to achieving the sports highest honour and his childhood dream. Tim played two Tests against New Zealand in 1972 partnering Tommy Raudonikis in the halves, and 'Ímmortal' Bob Fulton in the centres, a combination which was regularly used by selectors over the next four seasons. Tim Pickup was the only North Sydney Bears player chosen in the 26 man squad when he toured Europe with the 1973 Kangaroos, captain-coached by 'Immortal' Graeme Langlands. Pickup played in four Tests, including the 21-12 First Test loss to Great Britain at Wembley and 12 tour matches. He generally played at five-eighth, though he was selected at halfback in the 2nd Test against France. The 13th Kangaroo Tour was a huge success as the Australians retained the Ashes with a 2–1 series win over Great Britain, a 2–0 series win vs France, where 'Ímmortal' Arthur Beetson became the first Indigenous Australian to captain an Australian team in any sport. The mighty Kangaroo's had an overall tally of 17 wins from 19 games. Their only other loss was against St. Helens. Tim's last Test Match for Australia as a North Sydney Bear was against the touring Great Britain side in 1974 series. He was named the Bears player of the year for the 1973 and 1974 seasons. Frustrated at North Sydney's policy towards player retention and its lack of ambition in recruiting star-quality players, Pickup decided it was time to move on and signed a massive (for the day) five-year contract to captain Canterbury-Bankstown, (#406) who were known as the Berries at that time. ==Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs== Tim Pickup took two teammates with him from the Bears and together their impact at Belmore was immediate. Promising young centre/second-rower Keith Harris developed though never realised his enormous potential, and Dave Cooper's contribution should never be underestimated by Canterbury fans. Cooper at that stage had just retired and the former Norths, Balmain and Cronulla forward turned his passion for fitness into the role of trainer/conditioner. His tough training regime set the tone for Canterbury's team, giving them a physical and mental edge and a template that has been replicated by future Bulldogs squads right up until the present day. Dave Cooper's massive influence on the club was recognised when he was awarded life membership in 2010. Pickup's tenure with the Belmore club started with a bang in 1975. As captain he led the team to a barnstorming start to the season, and after the club's loss in the 1974 NSWRFL season's grand final to Eastern Suburbs the Belmore faithful were feeling that they had found the missing piece to the elusive premiership puzzle. Tim was first choice five-eighth for all representative games for City, State and for Australia, but that momentum came crashing to a halt when he severely injured his knee in a World Cup match against England at the Sydney Cricket Ground in June of that season. Canterbury were in 2nd place at that time and eventually were knocked out in the major semi-final and Pickup did not play again that season and would also missed the entire 1976 season recovering from complications of the same injury. After nearly two full seasons out due to his 1975 knee injury Pickup returned to the field in 1977. For the first time in his career, in Australian Rugby League or Rugby Union, where he emerged as a teen sensation in 1966 at 17, Tim had to play his way back into the First Grade squad via Reserve Grade. He proved his fitness after a few games and was back in the top squad but his speed and quickness was zapped, and he was forced to adapt to a different style of play to the one that built his reputation. Paired in the halves with the brilliant Steve Mortimer for the first time, Pickup assumed the organisational role to Mortimer's wildly unorthodox running back. Tim would share captain duties with Bob McCarthy and George Peponis for the rest of the season and the team would finish out of final five contention in 7th place. In 1978 McCarthy would return to South Sydney, and Peponis and Pickup would share captaincy of the newly monikered Bulldogs. Canterbury had a dangerous combination in Mortimer and Pickup had a very good season, making the finals in fifth place. Personally Pickup was named KB Player of the week across the entire competition in May, and learned to play effectively within his enforced physical limitations. Canterbury were bitterly disappointed to go out in the first week of the finals to Parramatta 22-15. The Eels would lose to eventual premiership winners Manly 17-11 in a mid week replay, just three days after playing a 13-13 draw, exactly a week after their victory over the Bulldogs. This was Pickup's last full season of First Grade that ended with the horrible feeling of what might have been? Pickup was talked out of retirement by Canterbury patriarch Peter Moore, he played on in Reserve Grade as insurance for any potential first team injuries. Tim would play one further First Grade game in the 1979 season, he was devastated at the demotion but would excel in his mentoring role of the next generation of pups who graduated to be Bulldog superstars over the next decade. Players such as Chris Anderson, Steve Folkes, George Peponis, Greg Brentnall and the Mortimer brothers, Steve, Peter and Chris, all served their apprenticeships alongside Pickup during their formative years. Steve Mortimer states as much in his biography "Top Dog", devoting a chapter to the issue, with the title 'Toughened by Tim (Pickup) Tom (Raudonikis) and Terry (Lamb).' Tim Pickup finished his career at Belmore as captain of the 2nd Grade side in a Grand Final loss to Parramatta. He was named Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs Clubman of the Year in 1979. ==Post Rugby League career== Tim Pickup worked for AMP from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s as a financial planner. He also owned a successful chain of donut shops in three Sydney locations, Chatswood, Birkenhead Point and Hurstville. He also managed boxer Jeff 'Hitman' Harding when he won the WBC Light-Heavyweight world title in 1989. Tim was a voracious traveler, spending several months at a time in South America (mid 80's), Africa, Asia and Europe (late 90's), Middle East(immediately post 9/11) and Cuba (mid 2000's) and Africa again (late 2000's). Tim was a fitness devotee who was fascinated by mental toughness in the athletic arena. He was obsessed with Olympic competition or any elite sports and their athletes such as Bjorn Borg vs John McEnroe in tennis, Alain Prost vs Ayrton Senna in Formula One, Marvin Hagler vs Thomas Hearns, Roberto Duran and Sugar Ray Leonard in Boxing, Jack Nicklaus in golf. He especially appreciated rivalry of middle-distance runners such as Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovetts and Steve Cram. Tim along with former teammate Dave Cooper were avid competitors in the Sydney Sunday Fun Run Circuit every winter, including the 16 km Great Nosh Run, 14 km Harbour Bridge to Breakers(Manly), 12 km Narrabeen to Manly, 11 km Sutherland to Surf, and the Bay Run, the 7 km Iron Cove Bridge Circuit to taper off culminating with the 14 km City to Surf in the second week of August. Pickup and Cooper began running during their football careers to enhance their fitness, when their teams schedules allowed and ran the trails of Lane Cove National Park during summer. Tim ran 15 City to Surfs, his best time was a sub 49 minute run in the early 1980s. As Tim's troubled knee deteriorated he continued to run relentlessly timed 600m laps of Manly First Grade Cricket Clubs' training ground, Graham Reserve. He continued this ritual daily into his mid 60's. For many years Pickup would combine his Manly laps with further self inflicted punishment on his rowing machine, introduced to him by former Bulldogs Conditioner, Cooper. They would be forever competing over times given via the phone. For a period there they both discovered bicycle road races. At this time Pickup would join forces with former teammate Steve Folkes, and Folkes' former Bulldogs teammate Billy Johnstone to collectively do a leg each of a few triathlons. Folkes would swim, Pickup would bike and Johnstone would run. Tim Pickup's training partners would play a large part in the Bulldogs most successful period in team history. Dave Cooper was Canterbury's trainer from 1975 to 1992, during the tenure of First Grade Coaches Malcolm Clift 1975–1977, and Ted Glossop 1978–1983, Warren Ryan 1984–1987, Phil Gould 1988–1989, and Pickup's former Bulldogs, NSW and Australian teammate, Chris Anderson 1990–1992. This was the Bulldogs Golden Age! Upon retirement as a player, Steve Folkes took over as Conditioner from Cooper from 1992 to 1995 with Chris Anderson still as First Grade Coach and Billy Johnstone would rejoin the club as Conditioner in 1994. Folkes would move into Coaching the Reserve Grade side from 1995 to 1997, ultimately succeeding Anderson as the Bulldogs First Grade Coach in 1998, when he left to coach the Melbourne Storm during their maiden season in 1998. Anderson would win Melbourne's maiden premiership in 1999. Folkes would coach 11 First Grade seasons at the Bulldogs, he was fired during the 2008 campaign having won the clubs most recent title in 2004. Billy Johnstone would succeed Folkes as Head Trainer and Conditioner in 1995 when Folkes moved into coaching and would maintain that position until 2001. Johnstone then moved to the North Queensland Cowboys as Conditioner from 2002 to 2006, then the Gold Coast Titans from 2007 to 2008, before returning to the Cowboys for the 2009–2011 seasons. Upon Tim Pickup's retirement as a player from the Bulldogs at the end of the 1979 season, Peter "Bullfrog" Moore convinced Pickup to move into team administration and he made a seamless transition to Director of the Football Club. Tim served in this capacity until the end of the 1995 season, and again from 2002 to 2004. Scouting was also one of his duties, his most notable discovery being Australian representative David Gillespie. Tim was awarded Life Membership at Canterbury-Bankstown in 1985 for his 10 years of continuous service with the team, from player to Front Office. After a 1995 detour to Super League as CEO of the now defunct Adelaide Rams, Pickup, fueled by a Rupert Murdoch 'golden handshake,' never worked another day and went on safari. Tim spent entire year of 1997 marauding the African Continent, he even made a habit of watching his favourite middle-distance runner, mens 10 000 metre Olympic Champion Haile Gebrselassie prepare and train in his native Ethiopia. Tim's adventure came to an end after being rescued by the French Foreign Legion in a parade of Tanks, after being holed up in a Brazzaville Church for three days during a Congo uprising. Returning to Sydney he decided to learn Russian at Tafe before spending the second half of 1998 in Russia and Mongolia. Upon his return in 1999, Tim resumed his relationship with the Bulldogs as a member of their Ambassadors Club, a role that he maintained well into the mid-2010s, until his health declined and he moved into a retirement home. During this period he would rejoin their Board in an official capacity after their 2002 Salary Cap Scandal and would stand down after the club won their last title in 2004. Pickup's connection to the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs lasted nearly 50 years until his death in 2021, the comradery with teammates and coaches gave him immense satisfaction and lifelong friendships. ==Super League== When Peter Moore decided to stand down from his post as Chief Executive of Canterbury in the mid-1990s, he offered the CEO position to Tim Pickup, who in turn declined for personal reasons. With the advent of Super League the following year in 1995, Moore campaigned heavily for Pickup to become Foundation CEO of the ill- fated Adelaide Rams Franchise, a position he accepted and held for under a year. Pickup was present for the entire Super League court proceedings as chief of the Rams. He moved on from that position into retirement after the ARL injunction prevented Super League from kicking off in the 1996 season. After traveling to Africa for a year in 1997, Tim spent 1998 in Russia and Mongolia before returning to Australia and the Bulldogs in 1999, in an official capacity as a Director in 2002. ==Salary cap scandal== In the wake of Canterbury's 2002 Salary Cap scandal, Tim Pickup was recruited by then CEO Steve Mortimer to a place on his hand-picked Board. He was one of a host of former Bulldogs players such as Clive Gartner, George Peponis and Terry Lamb among others, assembled to restore pride in the jersey after the former regime nearly crippled the club. Unprecedented NRL penalties included a record fine ($500K) and deduction of competition points (37) that sent the team from first to last and claim the wooden spoon, on the back of 17 straight victories. Pickup stayed on until the club got back on its feet, even through the Coffs Harbour scandal that followed two years later. Unhappy with the unfair dismissal of former teammate Garry Hughes in that incident's aftermath, Pickup strongly disagreed with the scapegoat sacking of Hughes and left quietly, along with Gartner after the Bulldogs won the 2004 NRL Premiership the same season. ==Boxing== Tim Pickup was heavily involved with Johnny Lewis and the Newtown Police Boys PCYC during Australian boxing's golden age, from the early 80's. He used to take a gruelling forty-minute circuit class twice a week that was patronised by future boxing World Champions Jeff Fenech, Jeff Harding and Joe Bugner, as well as First Grade Rugby League players Steve Mortimer, Billy Johnstone, Pat Jarvis and Geordie Peats among others. Pickup became Jeff 'Hitman' Harding's manager after the boxer was selected in the Australian team for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, Scotland. All members needed to raise $5,000 to get on the plane, so Pickup appealed to Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs boss Peter Moore, who signed off on the request. Grateful for the assistance, Harding walked into the ring for the gold medal bout wearing a Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs jersey, minus the required Australian tracksuit. Harding lost the bout and had to settle for a silver medal, and was told in no uncertain terms by officials that he had better turn professional as he had just fought his last fight as amateur, as far as they were concerned. They felt Harding had disrespected the Australian team by wearing the Bulldogs jersey. With Johnny Lewis as his trainer, Harding approached Pickup to be his manager as a professional fighter following the assistance that he provided in getting the boxer to Edinburgh. Tim originally declined but was eventually talked into it by his good friend Lewis. Harding scaled the ranks quickly, for his style was much more suited to the professional ranks as opposed to the amateur criteria. Harding quickly went into world title calculations after leaving behind him a trail of battered foes. He was undefeated when he was called upon as a last minute replacement to fight WBC Light-Heavyweight champion Dennis Andries in Atlantic City, USA in 1989. After initially declining the WBC invitation due to inexperience, Lewis and Pickup reconsidered fearing they may never get another opportunity for their young pugilist. What ensued was that of a fairy tale, Harding came from behind on points to win in the most dramatic of fashions, knocking Andries down three times in the 12th and final round before the referee stopped the contest, showing mercy to the former champion. Harding v Andries 1 was named the World Boxing Council's Fight of the Year, 1989. Jeff Harding was given the award by Mike Tyson at the 1990 WBC convention. The Ring magazine "The Bible of Boxing" listed the fight as no.58 in their 100 Greatest Title Fights of All-Time. Tim Pickup ranks Harding's win as his absolute sporting highlight, eclipsing his own personal achievements. He managed Harding for the best part of a decade, that saw the 'Hitman' fight for the world title on eight occasions. (Harding won it twice, defended it four times and lost it twice. He fought Andries in three title fights for two wins and a loss.) ==Honours== Pickup was awarded the Australian Sporting Medal in 2000 for services to Australian sport. In August 2006 Pickup was named at in the North Sydney Bears' Team of the Century. Pickup was originally named in the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs 70th Anniversary Team in 2004, (named one of the club's 20 greatest players, on the bench-not the starting line-up) but was omitted due to a technicality, when it was revealed he had only played 47 1st grade games and was three games short of the 50 game minimum. Pickup was nominated as one of the final four five- eighths/stand-offs for Manly Rugby Union's Team of the Century in 2005. Tim was named Halfback and Captain of the Enfield Federals team of the Century in 2019. Pickup was also named halfback on Roy Slaven and H.G. Nelson's 'All-time Mustachioed Rugby League Team' on their nationally syndicated program 'This Sporting Life' on radio station Triple J in 1998. ==Death== Pickup died on 7 June 2021 after a long battle with dementia. ==References== ==Sources== *Bob Fulton's Rugby League By Peter Muszkat & Bob Fulton, Pot Still Press 1978 * Rugby League Week, April 1978 Front Cover 'Two Bulldogs KO'd...Doctor warns: Brain Damage Danger!' By Brad Boxall *Berries to Bulldogs : Fifty years of Canterbury-Bankstown R.L.F.C. By Gary Lester, Lester-Townsend Publishing 1985. *Top Dog - The Steve Mortimer story By Norman Tasker, Hutchison Publishing 1988. *Sterlo! The story of a Champion - Peter Sterling By Ian Heads, Lester- Townsend Publishing 1989. *The Kangaroos - The saga of Rugby League's great tours By Ian Heads, Lester-Townsend Publishing 1990. *Fatty and Chook: Laughing at League Paul Vautin and Johnny Raper tell football's funniest stories By Ian Heads, Lester-Townsend Publishing 1990. *The Bulldogs Story - A history of the Canterbury-Bankstown Rugby League Club By Gary Lester, Playwright Publishing 1991. *Jeff Fenech : I love youse all! By Terry Smith, Modern Publishing Group 1993. *Straight between the posts: The legendary Frank Hyde and his stories By Ian Heads, Ironbark Pan MacMillan Publishing 1995. *Super League : The inside story By Mike Colman, Pan Macmillan Publishing 1996 *Good as Gould – Phil Gould's stormy life in football. By Ray Chesterton, Ironbark Pan MacMillan Publishing 1996. *Big Artie – The autobiography of Arthur Beetson. With Ian Heads, ABC Books 2004. *'Captaining the Kangaroos - Rugby League Test and World Cup Captains' By Alan Whitticker, New Holland Publishing 2004. *'Dogs at War – Triumph,Treachery,Truth' Graeme Hughes with Larry Writer, Allen & Unwin 2010. *'Johnny Lewis : The Biography – The story of Australia's King of Boxing' By Paul Kent, Allen & Unwin 2010. *'Macca : Bob McCarthy - My life in Rugby League' New Holland Publishing 2012. *'Mud Blood and Beer : Rugby League in the 1970s' By Alan Whitticker, New Holland Publishing 2014 *'Dogs of War : 80 years of the Canterbury Bankstown Rugby League Club' By Gary Lester, Playwright Publishing 2016. *'The Great Grand Final Heist : A mysterious tale of Tigers, Rabbitohs and an unlikely coaching hero' By Ian Heads, Stoke Hill Press 2017. *Men of League Foundation.'Tim Pickup OAM - A modest sporting legend' Story by Ken Vessey, November 2017 *https://menofleague.com/2017/11/29/tim-pickup-oam-modest-sporting-legend/ *'Great Australian Sporting Tales' 65 Tales from on and off the field. "The Globetrotter" By Ian Heads & Norman Tasker,Pan MacMillan Publishing 2019. *Sydney Morning Herald, Aus.'Federals set to nail down Pickup as all time fibro legend' By Roy Masters, February 26, 2019. * https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/federals-set-to-nail-down-pickup-as-an-all- time-fibro-legend-20190226-p510br.html *St.Helens Star, UK. 'Australian Test Star Tim Pickup, one that got away from Saints' 15/5/2020 *https://www.sthelensstar.co.uk/news/18450559.australian-test-star-tim-pickup- one-got-away-saints/ *The Ring magazine "The Bible of Boxing" – The 100 Greatest Title Fights of All-Time Holiday 1996 Issue. Sports & Entertainment Publishing,LLC *BoxRec.com ==External links== *Canterbury Bulldogs profile Category:1948 births Category:2021 deaths Category:North Sydney Bears players Category:Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs players Category:Australia national rugby league team players Category:New South Wales rugby league team players Category:City New South Wales rugby league team players Category:Sportsmen from New South Wales Category:Rugby league players from Sydney Category:Blackpool Borough players Category:Australian rugby league administrators Category:Rugby league five-eighths Category:Rugby league halfbacks Category:Rugby league fullbacks
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Indian Airlines Flight 605 was a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Bombay to Bangalore. On 14 February 1990, an Airbus A320-231 registered as VT- EPN, crashed onto a golf course while attempting to land at Bangalore, killing 92 of 146 people on board. The Indian investigative team ruled that the probable cause was the pilots selecting the "Open descent/flight idle" control mode rather than "Glideslope capture", allowing the aircraft to sink far below the correct flight path. They further failed to advance the throttles or pull up even after the radio altitude call-outs, as the aircraft approached landing. The report stated that the crew of Flight 605 weren’t aware of the situation and the danger they were facing at the time, resulting in delayed reaction during the descent. After the crash, the Indian investigation committee issued 62 recommendations to the Indian Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), including a time recording on the air traffic control (ATC) tapes and the formation of several investigative committees specializing in several aviation operational issues. Included in the recommendation was the addition of a crash siren in Bangalore, evaluation of the evacuation doors and slides in Airbus airplanes, and a design change on their instrument knob. The report also urged the government to evaluate every airport in India to prevent similar incidents from occurring. The crash drew criticism among the Indian Commercial Pilot Association (ICPA) which claimed that the Airbus A320 had severe flaws. They claimed that the aircraft's systems were too confusing and that the crew of Flight 605 was struggling to avert the crash. Another A320 accident less than two years later (which occurred under similar circumstances) led to design improvements to the flight control unit and numerous safety recommendations. ==Flight== ===Take-off and approach=== Flight 605 took off from Bombay Airport at 11:58 local time after an hour delay. Prior to this, the aircraft was used for two other flights on the day of the accident, operating as Flight 669 and Flight 670, flying from Bombay to Goa and back. The aircraft was an Airbus A320-231 registered in India as VT-EPN first delivered to Indian Airlines on 23 December 1989, carrying 139 passengers and 7 crew members, including 4 infants. The aircraft's assigned route was on route W17 from Bombay to Belgaum via Karad and W56 from Belgaum to Bangalore. The take-off phase and en route phase proceeded normally. At 12:53 local time, Flight 605's radar plot appeared on Bangalore's radar. Flight 605 was asked by Bangalore Radar to turn right and make a visual approach to Runway 09. The crew disengaged the autopilot and later changed to the Bangalore Tower after being transferred by Bangalore Radar. ===Crash=== While Flight 605 was attempting to land, the pilots flew far below the glideslope, and the landing gear touched down on the grounds of the Karnataka Golf Club, approximately from the airport. Most people on the aircraft, including some crew members, thought that the aircraft had touched down on the runway as it was similar to its normal landing. Flight 605 then bounced and shortly later impacted the ground for the second time. The impact caused several people's seat belts to fail, leading people to be thrown from their seats and hit the aircraft's floor. Flight 605 later struck a embankment. Both the engines and landing gear detached from the aircraft. The aircraft then flew over a road and crashed into a grassy, rocky area near the airport. ===Search and rescue=== thumb|After the crash, the aircraft was immediately engulfed in flames After the crash, a post-impact fire started and the survivors began to escape from the burning wreckage. Several people managed to get out of the plane from an opening in the aircraft's fuselage. The surviving cabin crew opened the emergency door on the airplane and began to evacuate the survivors. 92 people, consisting of 88 passengers and 4 crew, perished in the crash, while 54 survived, all with injuries. Two people succumbed to their injuries after the accident. According to eyewitnesses, no fire service units reached the crash site as there was no radio transmitter (RT) communication facility between the tower and firefighting vehicles. A portable radio transmitter was available for communication between the tower and the aerodrome fire station, but was not serviceable on the day of the accident. ==Passengers and crew== Flight 605 carried 139 passengers and 7 crew members, consisting of 2 cockpit crew and 5 cabin crew. There were 4 infants aboard the flight. The pilot who controlled the flight was Indian national Captain Cyril Fernandez at 46 years old. He joined Indian Airlines in 1977 as a pilot and was promoted to the position of co-pilot. Eventually, he became Captain of a Hawker Siddeley HS 748. In 1983, Fernandez obtained a Boeing 737 co-pilot rating, followed by a Captain rating in 1984. Fernandez became the co-pilot of an Airbus A320 in 1989. Fernandez had a total flying experience of 9,307 hours, of which 68 hours were spent on the Airbus A320. According to the report, Captain Fernandez was under supervision as he was undergoing the first of 10 route checks required for qualification to Captain. During the flight, he was seated in the left seat. The pilot who supervised Captain Fernandez was Indian national Captain Satish Gopujkar at 44 years old. He joined Indian Airlines in 1969 and was employed as a co-pilot on a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 from 1971–1981, later flying the plane as a Captain. In 1981, he obtained a Boeing 737 co-pilot rating and later, a pilot in command rating in 1983. In 1989, he was promoted as a co-pilot on an Airbus A320. Captain Gopujkar had a total flying experience of 10,340 hours, of which 255 hours were on the Airbus A320. During the flight, he was carrying out the duties of both the co-pilot and the check pilot. Before Flight 605, Captain Gopujkar was involved in a taxiing incident in Cochin, although he was not blamed for the incident. During Flight 605, he was seated in the right seat. ==Casualties== 92 people were killed in the crash, including Captain Gopujkar and Captain Fernandez. According to official reports: amongst the 54 injured people, at least 20 had suffered head injuries, 32 suffered lower limb injuries, while 7 sustained thoracic injuries. Details in the report revealed that most of the dead suffered major trauma during the crash. At least 81 victims were revealed to have suffered shock and burn injuries. The report then stated that several passengers may have been too injured to move, leaving them physically unable to escape from the burning wreckage. They may have survived the impact, but due to the injuries they suffered during the crash, they couldn't escape. The report stated that most people seated near the emergency exits and slides survived the crash. As most survivors and victims of the crash suffered head and leg injuries, the investigative team stated that those injuries might have occurred to the passengers (and some of the crew) onboard as a result of the inadequate leg room. In addition, during the crash, several seats were thrust forward, causing several passengers' head to slam into the back of the seat in front of them. ==Investigation== The Indian Ministry of Civil Aviation ordered a full-scale investigation into the crash. The Indian AAIB and the Canadian TSB were involved in the investigation. On 19 February, investigators visited the crash site and inspected the wreckage of the aircraft. They noted that the front part of the aircraft was destroyed during its impact with the embankment. A subsequent fire led to the total destruction of the aircraft. ===Initial inspection=== Investigators then inspected the flight controls of Flight 605, viz. the rudder, the ailerons, the trimmable horizontal stabilizer, the flaps and slats, and several other flight controls. However, they didn't find any abnormalities on these controls. Control failure was ruled out as a possible cause of the crash. According to investigators, they also ruled out terrorism as a cause of the crash, as there were no signs of an onboard explosion during the approach and there was no evidence of explosives on board. ===FDR and CVR analysis=== After the discovery of the FDR and the CVR, investigators decoded and analyzed its contents. Investigators made an analysis based on both flight recorders as follows: Flight 605 was approaching Bangalore Airport in 'open descent' mode. In this mode, the aircraft engines are at the idle throttle. People would notice this since the engines seem to turn silent, and the plane appears to be sinking gradually. The crew of Flight 605 disengaged the autopilot when sighting the runway of Bangalore Airport. They later made contact with Bangalore Tower. At 01:40 pm local time, the aircraft display indicated that the plane’s altitude had been just under 5000 feet and its approach path was 600 ft higher than the normal glide path. Captain Fernandez noticed this and requested for a go-around. He would climb to , do another circle and come back better aligned to the normal glide path. The check pilot, Captain Gopujkar then responded to his request: "Do you want a go around? Or do you want vertical speed?" Captain Fernandez chose to proceed with the vertical speed option. If the pilots had proceeded with the go-around, the emergency that was to follow could have been averted. Since the plane was a little higher than the normal glide path, Captain Fernandez asked for a higher descent rate of 1000 ft/min, instead of the normal rate of 700 ft/min. This faster descent increased the aircraft speed to — higher than the recommended speed of — but it helped the aircraft regain the normal glide path. The aircraft was also now in the vertical speed mode — the correct mode for landing. Captain Gopujkar then checked the landing checklist. After completing the checklist, he asked the cabin crew to be seated at their stations. Realizing that the aircraft had regained its normal glide path, Captain Gopujkar reported at 01:42 that he had now selected a "700 ft rate of descent". However, instead of choosing the vertical speed knob, he accidentally chose the altitude knob. So, instead of inputting an order for a rate of descent to the Airbus A320, he made an order to put the aircraft on an altitude of 700 ft. thumb|The cockpit of an Airbus A320. The ten control knobs are shown. The vertical speed knob and the altitude knob are located next to each other and have a similar design. This might have led to the confusion. Because of Captain Gopujkar's action, the aircraft went back to the 'open descent' mode, causing the throttle to be in the idle position. The absence of engine power on the aircraft led to a decrease of the aircraft's speed, and the plane began descending more quickly. Despite the impending disaster, the crew of Flight 605 seemed to be unaware of it. The plane's radio altimeter then sounded: "400 ft". This probably alerted Captain Gopujkar in some way because he suddenly observed: "You are descending on idle open descend eh, all this time!". And as the altimeter called out "300 ft", Captain Gopujkar asked: "You want flight directors off now?". Captain Fernandez confirmed that his flight director had been put off, Captain Gopujkar's however, hadn't. If both the flight directors had been put off at that point, the plane would have gone to the speed mode, sensing that speed was dropping, and enough engine power could have been generated for a possible recovery even at that late stage. The plane continued to hurtle downwards. When the plane was only from the ground, Captain Fernandez suddenly realized the gravity of the situation and exclaimed: "Hey, we're going down!". Captain Gopujkar, himself stunned now, could only respond with "Oh, shit!" Those were his last recorded words. Captain Fernandez then ordered an immediate TOGA (Take-off Go-around). However, this action was too late. The aircraft did lift from the ground, however, it failed to clear a embankment and crashed. Investigators stated that if this action had been taken 2 seconds earlier, the disaster could have been averted. ===Court's findings=== The High Court of Karnataka reported that the accident was caused by the pilots failing to realize the gravity of the situation and failing to respond by immediately advancing the throttles, even after the radio altitude callouts of "Four Hundred," "Three Hundred" and "Two Hundred" feet, despite knowing that the plane was in idle/open descent mode. ==Controversy== India's investigative team concluded that pilot error was the cause of the accident, which was supported by Airbus Industrie. However, the India Commercial Pilot Association (ICPA) disputed the report, claiming that a design flaw on the Airbus A320 was the cause of the crash. The ICPA stated that the senior Captain of the flight, Captain Gopujkar, wouldn't have made the series of mistakes described in the official report, and stated that there was no proof that he made the faulty setting (since the flight data recorder didn't record such mistakes). The association also believed that the engines went to idle power because of a major system defect, and that, even when Gopujkar tried to shut his director off, it didn't respond. They also claimed that the time lag of 0.5 seconds for the auto-thrust controls to act proved to be disastrous. At the time, the Airbus A320 was relatively new, having just been launched in 1988. Its main difference from other aircraft was that it used fly-by-wire (FBW) technology. In a conventional aircraft the pilot was in direct contact with the actuator; so if the pilot opened the throttle more, the actuator immediately gave the pilot more power. In the A320, however, the pilot’s command is first directed to an onboard computer — and the actuator responds only when the computer determines that it is okay to do so. Before the crash of Flight 605, an Airbus A320 had been involved in another crash, Air France Flight 296Q. The official investigation had determined that the cause of that crash was pilot error. However, the pilot had blamed the plane's fly-by-wire system for the crash. This claim had caused a major controversy about the Airbus A320. == Aftermath == Less than two years after the crash of Flight 605, the A320 suffered another fatal accident when Air Inter Flight 148 crashed in France killing 87 people. The cause was also a CFIT like 605. The investigation of Flight 148 harshly criticized the Airbus A320's cockpit design. In response, changes were made to the Flight Control Unit panel display; the French aviation safety authority issued 34 recommendations. ==See also== * Airblue Flight 202 – A crash in Pakistan in which the pilot failed to pull a knob to put a heading setting into effect * Air Inter Flight 148 – Similar crash in France involving an Airbus A320 which was caused by a design flaw on its autopilot * British European Airways Flight 548 – Pilot retracted the aircraft's droop flaps too early, causing a fatal deep stall ==References== ==External links== *Indian Airlines Flt 605 Accident Report (Archive) **Alternate link at the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Archive) *Cockpit voice recorder transcript and accident summary Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A320 Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1990 Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in India Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain 605 Category:1990 disasters in India Category:History of Karnataka (1947–present) Category:1990s in Bangalore Category:Disasters in Karnataka Category:February 1990 events in Asia
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The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, also known as the Sahrawi Republic and Western Sahara, is a partially recognized state, recognised by 45 UN member states, located in the western Maghreb, which claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, but controls only the easternmost one-fifth of that territory. Between 1884 and 1975, Western Sahara was known as Spanish Sahara, a Spanish colony (later an overseas province). The SADR is one of the two African states in which Spanish is a significant language, the other being Equatorial Guinea. The SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on 27 February 1976, in Bir Lehlou, Western Sahara. The SADR government calls the territories under its control the Liberated Territories or the Free Zone. Morocco controls and administers the rest of the disputed territory, and calls these lands its Southern Provinces. The claimed capital city of the SADR is El-Aaiún (Laayoune) (the former capital of Western Sahara). Since SADR does not control El-Aaiún, it has a temporary capital in Tifariti. The seat of the SADR government is in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf, Algeria. The SADR maintains diplomatic relations with 45 United Nations states, and is a full member of the African Union. With a population of about half a million, it is the most sparsely populated in Africa, and the second-most sparsely populated in the world. ==Etymology== The name Sahrawi is the romanization of the Arabic word , meaning 'Inhabitant of the Desert'. The word then is derived from the Arabic word (), meaning 'desert'. ==History== Following the evacuation of the Spaniards, due to the Moroccan Green March, Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania signed the Madrid Accords on 14 November 1975, six days before Francisco Franco died. Morocco and Mauritania responded by annexing the territory of Western Sahara. On 26 February 1976, Spain informed the United Nations (UN) that as of that date it had terminated its presence in Western Sahara and relinquished its responsibilities, which left the region devoid of any Administering Power. Neither Morocco nor Mauritania gained international recognition, and war ensued with the independence-seeking Polisario Front. The UN considers the Polisario Front to be the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people, and maintains that the people of Western Sahara have a right to "self-determination and independence". The creation of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 27 February 1976, as the Polisario declared the need for a new entity to fill what they considered a political void left by the departing Spanish colonizers. While the claimed capital is the former Western Sahara capital El-Aaiún (which is in Moroccan-controlled territory), the proclamation was made in the government-in-exile's provisional capital, Bir Lehlou, which remained in Polisario-held territory under the 1991 ceasefire (see Settlement Plan). On 27 February 2008, the provisional capital was formally moved to Tifariti. Day-to-day business, however, is conducted in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf Province, Algeria, which house most of the Sahrawi exile community. == Constitution == A new 1999 Constitution of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic took a form similar to the parliamentary constitutions of many European states, but with some paragraphs suspended until the achievement of "full independence". Among key points, the head of state is constitutionally the Secretary General of the Polisario Front during what is referred to as the "pre-independence phase", with provision in the constitution that on independence, Polisario is supposed to be dismantled or separated completely from the government structure. Provisions are detailed for a transitory phase beginning with independence, in which the present SADR is supposed to act as Western Sahara's government, ending with a constitutional reform and eventual establishment of a state along the lines specified in the constitution. The broad guidelines laid down in the constitution for an eventual Western Saharan state include eventual multi- party democracy with a market economy. The constitution also defines Sahrawis as a Muslim, African and Arab people.Article 6 of the Sahrawi constitution. Article 2 prescribes that "Islam is the state religion and source of law". The Constitution also declares a commitment to the principles of human rights and to the concept of a Greater Maghreb, as a regional variant of Pan-Arabism. == Government structure == Since August 1982, the highest office of the republic has been the President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a post held by the secretary-general of the Polisario Front, presently Brahim Ghali,Zunes S; Mundy J (2010). Western Sahara: War, Nationalism, and Conflict Irresolution Syracuse University Press. Retrieved 3 August 2016. who appoints the Prime Minister, presently Bouchraya Hammoudi Bayoun. The SADR's government structure consists of a Council of Ministers (a cabinet led by the Prime Minister), a judicial branch (with judges appointed by the President) and the parliamentary Sahrawi National Council (SNC; the present speaker is Khatri Addouh). Since its inception in 1976, the various constitutional revisions have transformed the republic from an ad hoc managerial structure into something approaching an actual governing apparatus. From the late 1980s the parliament began to take steps to institute a division of powers and to disentangle the republic's structures from those of the Polisario Front, although without clear effect to date. Its various ministries are responsible for a variety of services and functions. The judiciary, complete with trial courts, appeals courts and a supreme court, operates in the same areas. As a government-in-exile, many branches of government do not fully function, and has affected the constitutional roles of the institutions. Institutions parallel to government structures also have arisen within the Polisario Front, which is fused with the SADR's governing apparatus, and with operational competences overlapping between these party and governmental institutions and offices. A 2012 report mentioned the existence of the Sahrawi Bar Association. In 2016, the bar association (going by the name Union of Sahrawi Lawyers) issued a report calling for the implementation of political and civil rights. Unfortunately, there is no clear indication as to how certain demographic groups, such as women, have fared in the legal field. The SNC is weak in its legislative role, having been instituted as a mainly consultative and consensus-building institution, but it has strengthened its theoretical legislative and controlling powers during later constitutional revisions. Among other things, it has added a ban on the death penalty to the constitution, and brought down the government in 1999 through a vote of no-confidence. The Sahrawi National Council is composed of 53 members, all from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro. == Military == The Sahrawi People's Liberation Army is the defence force of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and previously served as the armed wing of the Polisario Front prior to the foundation of the Republic. == Economy == The SADR in its controlled territories uses the Sahrawi Peseta although the majority of the country uses the Moroccan Dirham. == Demographics == ==Religion== The predominant religion practiced in Sahrawi territories is Sunni Islam. == Area of authority == The SADR acted as a government administration in the Sahrawi refugee camps located in the Tindouf Province of western Algeria. It is headquartered in Camp Rabouni, south of Tindouf, although some official events have taken place in towns in the Free Zone, including the provisional capitals, first Bir Lehlou until 2008, then Tifariti. The government of the SADR claims sovereignty over all of the Western Sahara territory, but has control only within the Free Zone. Several foreign aid agencies, including the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and non-governmental organizations, are continually active in the camps. == International recognition and membership == states. Of these, 39 have since "frozen" or "withdrawn" recognition for a number of reasons. A total of 29 UN states maintain an embassy from the SADR, with Vietnam being the only nation not hosting an embassy but only sending their own mission [Sahrawi embassies exist in 18 states]. 6 UN states have other diplomatic relations, while a further 9 UN nations and South Ossetia also recognise the state either by previous regimes or through international agreements in the past, but do not have any active relations at the moment [See 'Foreign relations of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic' for more details]. Chile, Australia, Brazil, and Sweden have all internally voted to recognise the SADR, but none have yet ratified it. Although it is not recognised by the UN, the SADR has held full membership of the African Union (AU, formerly the Organisation of African Unity, OAU) since 1982. Morocco withdrew from the OAU in protest during 1984, and from the time of South Africa's admittance to the OAU in 1994 was the only African UN member not also a member of the AU, until it was readmitted on 30 January 2017. The SADR participates as a guest in meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement and the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership, over Moroccan objections to SADR participation. The SADR also participated in a conference of the Permanent Conference of Political Parties of the Latin American and the Caribbean (COPPPAL) in 2006; the SADR ambassador to Nicaragua participated in the opening conference of the Central American Parliament in 2010, and a SADR delegation participated in the meeting of COPPPAL and International Conference of Asian Political Parties in Mexico City in 2012. On 27 February 2011, the 35th anniversary of the proclamation of SADR was held in Tifariti, Western Sahara. Delegations, including parliamentarians, ambassadors, NGOs and activists from many countries participated in this event. The SADR is not a member of the Arab League, nor of the Arab Maghreb Union, both of which include Morocco as a full member. == Proposed Western Sahara Authority == Under the Baker Plan created by James Baker, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan's personal envoy to Western Sahara, the SADR would have been replaced with a five-year transitional Western Sahara Authority (WSA), a non-sovereign autonomous region supervised by Morocco, to be followed by a referendum on independence. It was endorsed by the UN in 2003. As Morocco has declined to participate, however, the plan appears dead. In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. A stalemate over the Moroccan proposal led the UN, in an April 2007 "Report of the UN Secretary-General", to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. == National holidays == Date Name Original event / Notes 27 February Independence Day Proclamation of the SADR in Bir Lehlou, 1976 8 March First Martyr 10 May Foundation of the Polisario Front The anniversary of the front's establishment in 1973 20 May 20 May Revolution Start of the armed struggle against Spain in 1973 9 June Day of the Martyrs Day on which El-Ouali died in 1976 17 June Zemla Intifada Harakat Tahrir riots in El-Aaiun, 1970 12 October Day of National Unity Celebrating the commemoration anniversary of the Ain Ben Tili Conference, 1975 Additionally, Muslim celebrations are kept according to the lunar Islamic calendar. Date Name Observance Muharram 1 Islamic New Year The anniversary of the Hijra from Mecca to Medina and the beginning of the lunar Islamic year Dhul Hijja 10 Eid al-Adha Sacrifice feast Shawwal 1 Eid al-Fitr End of Ramadan Rabi' al-awwal 12 Mawlid Birth of Muhammad == Gallery == File:Mezquita en Dajla (Sahara Occidental).jpg|A mosque in Dakhla, a city under Moroccan control. File:Veronica Forque en el Sáhara libre.jpg|The Spanish actress Verónica Forqué at the Sahara Film Festival. File:RASD - Commemoration of the 30th independence day in the Liberated Territories (2006).jpg|Commemoration of the 30th independence day in Tifariti, Liberated Territories, Western Sahara == See also == * Elections in Western Sahara * Foreign relations of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic * International recognition of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic * List of cities in Western Sahara * Moroccan Western Sahara Wall * Outline of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic * Polisario Front * Political status of Western Sahara * Politics of Western Sahara == Notes == == References == == External links == ; Official SADR pages * Polisario.es * Sahara Press Service (SPS) * RASD TV * SADR National Radio * SADR Oil & Gas 2005 * Sahara salud * Economic development ministry of the SADR * Ministry of Culture of the SADR * UJSARIO * UNMS ; SADR pages * Sahara Today * Futuro Saharaui * FiSahara Festival de cine del Sahara – Sahara Film Festival] * El Bubisher Bookmobile and permanent Libraries Project in the Saharawi refugee camps) * EFA Abidin Kaid Saleh de la RASD Audiovisual Education School Abidin Kaid Saleh of the SADR) * ARTifariti ; Others * Profile of Western Sahara on the CIA World Factbook website (including data and political information) Category:North African countries Category:Maghrebi countries Category:Saharan countries Category:Arab republics Category:Disputed territories in Africa Category:Territorial disputes of Morocco Category:Governments in exile Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Member states of the African Union Category:One-party states Category:Polisario Front Category:States and territories established in 1976 Category:1976 establishments in Western Sahara Category:Geography of Western Sahara Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories Category:Spanish- speaking countries and territories Category:Countries in Africa Category:States with limited recognition
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Glossop North End Association Football Club is a football club in Glossop, Derbyshire, England, which compete in the . Their home ground is Surrey Street, which has a capacity of 1,301 (200 seated, 1,101 standing). The club play in blue, and are nicknamed the Hillmen or the Peakites. Between 1899 and 1992 the club was officially known simply as Glossop. Glossop is one of the smallest towns in England to have had a Football League club, and it remains the smallest town whose team has played in the English top-flight. The club was founded in February 1886 and joined the North Cheshire League four years later. Glossop spent two seasons each in The Combination and the Midland League, before moving to North Road and being elected into the Football League Second Division in 1898. Having been promoted in the 1898–99 season, they spent one season in the First Division. During this period the club was bankrolled by Sir Samuel Hill-Wood, who was later to become chairman of Arsenal. The club retains some connections with Arsenal. Glossop were relegated in 1900 and spent the next fifteen seasons in the Second Division, before exiting the Football League during World War I. Glossop North End spent 1920 to 1957 in the Manchester League, being crowned champions in 1927–28. They moved from the Lancashire Combination back to the Manchester League in 1966, and then spent four seasons in the Cheshire County League from 1978. Glossop were founder members of the North West Counties League in 1982 and won Premier Division title at the end of the 2014–15 campaign. They were beaten finalists in the FA Vase in 2009 and 2015. ==History== ===Early years=== thumb|200px|left|Glossop team of 1899–1900 200px|thumb|Glossop team of 1904–05 thumb|200px|left|Glossop team of 1906–07 200px|thumb|Glossop team of 1914–15 thumb|200px|left|Glossop team of 1915–16 200px|thumb|Glossop team of 1927-28 Glossop North End were founded in 1886, when they played friendly amateur matches. They played at various grounds in the town, including Pyegrove, Silk Street, Water Lane and Cemetery Road before settling at North Road. The club joined the North Cheshire League in 1890, before moving to the Combination in 1894 and turning professional. In their first season in the Combination, 1894–95, they finished as runners-up. After ending the following season, 1895–96, in third, the club moved to the Midland League and in the 1896–97 season finished as runners-up. After a second season in the Midland League, they were elected to the Second Division of the Football League in 1898–99 finishing as runners-up to Manchester City and winning promotion to the First Division. They then changed their name to Glossop (primarily to avoid any confusion with Preston North End) before spending their one and only season in the top flight, 1899–1900 when they finished in last place and were relegated back to the Second Division, having won only 4 matches, all at home, against Burnley, Nottingham Forest, Blackburn and Aston Villa. They then spent the next fifteen seasons in the Second Division, during which time they reached the quarter-finals of the FA Cup in 1908–09 where they lost to 1–0 to eventual finalists Bristol City in a replay on 10 March 1909. The club's chairman and benefactor at the time was Sir Samuel Hill-Wood, who was later to become chairman of Arsenal. However, the club became perennial strugglers in the Second Division. The 1913–14 season saw a club record attendance of 10,736 for an FA Cup second round match against Preston North End on 31 January 1914.Paul Smith & Shirley Smith (2005) The Ultimate Directory of English & Scottish Football League Grounds Second Edition 1888–2005, Yore Publications, p93, However, the following season they finished bottom of the league and had to apply for re-election. This was curtailed when the start of World War I meant the Football League closed down. Glossop were then re-formed toward the end of the war by Oswald Partington, but failed to be re-elected back into the Football League. Glossop then joined the Lancashire Combination, playing just one season, 1919–20. Northern Nomads ground-shared with Glossop for several years during this time. The club then dropped out of the Lancashire Combination and into the Manchester League. In the 1920s and 1930s they won the Gilcryst Cup three times and were crowned Manchester League champions in 1927–28. They won the Gilcryst Cup for a fourth time in 1947–48. ===1950s onwards=== During 1955, the club moved from its original home of North Road to their current ground Surrey Street, with the first game played at their new home on 17 September 1955. In 1957 Glossop rejoined the Lancashire Combination, finishing in eighth in 1957–58. They spent nine seasons in the league before dropping back down once more to the Manchester League after the 1965–66 season. They joined the Cheshire County League as founder members of Division Two in the 1978–79 season, finishing in 17th. In 1980–81 they were Division Two runners-up, only losing out on the title on goal difference, but still winning promotion to Division One. After a sixth-place finish in 1981–82, the club became founder members of the newly formed North West Counties Football League in 1982 when the Cheshire County League merged with the Lancashire Combination. In 1986, the club marked their centenary season with a match with sister club Arsenal. They joined Division One, however they struggled in the league for the next six seasons and after finishing bottom in 1987–88 were relegated to Division Two. The 1990–91 season saw the club reach the fourth round of the FA Vase where they lost to Cammell Laird 2–1 in a replay. They also won the North West Counties Football League Division Two Cup, beating Cheadle Town 2–1 in the final. However, the club almost folded in 1990–91 when their then chairman sold the ground to the local council and left the club with large debts. The present board of directors took over in January 1991. After a sixth-place finish in 1991–92 they were promoted back to Division One over higher-placed clubs and after the season the directors reverted the club's name to Glossop North End. In their first season under the club's original name, they reached the semi-finals of the North West Counties League Cup, before losing to Nantwich Town 5–2 over two legs. They reached the semi-finals of the League's floodlit Cup in 1994–95, losing to Penrith 3–1 over two legs. In the 1996–97 season they beat Trafford in the final of the Manchester Premier Cup at Old Trafford, before winning the competition again the following season, this time beating Radcliffe Borough in the final at Maine Road. They also reached the semi-finals of the North West Counties League Cup, losing to Vauxhall Motors 3–1 over two legs. ===2000s onwards=== In the 2000–01 season they won the Derbyshire County Football Association Senior Challenge Cup beating Glapwell in a two-legged final, drawing 3–3 away and 2–2 at home before winning 4–2 on penalties. In the league the club struggled to avoid relegation from Division One throughout much of the early 2000s, before finishing ninth in 2006–07, the highest position attained by manager Chris Nicholson in his six seasons at the club. Nicholson announced in March 2007 that he was to step down at the end of the season. As a result, his assistant Steve Young was eventually appointed manager for 2007–08. In the 2008–09 season they reached the final of the FA Vase where they lost 2–0 to Northern League First Division side Whitley Bay at Wembley Stadium, on 10 May 2009. Due to this achievement, Arsenal, with whom they retain connections due to Arsenal chairman Peter Hill-Wood's grandfather Sir Samuel Hill-Wood having owned and bankrolled Glossop during their run in the Football League, invited them to their state-of-the-art London Colney training ground during their stay in London, to prepare for the FA Vase final. In May 2013 the club appointed Chris Wilcock as first team manager. In his first season the team finished third in the North West Counties League. During the season Glossop produced an unbeaten run in the league of 22 games, with only 5 draws, stretching from November 2013 until they were beaten by Bootle in April 2014. On 19 April 2015 Glossop beat Nelson to win the North West Counties League Premier Division, earning promotion to Division One North of the Northern Premier League. They also reached two cup finals; the North West Counties League Cup, where they faced Atherton Collieries winning 2–0, and the FA Vase final, in which they played North Shields at Wembley Stadium. In a repeat of the 2009 final, Glossop were beaten 2–1 after extra time. Glossop began the 2015–16 season in the Northern Premier League Division One North. They also competed in the FA Trophy for the first time since 1986. The club finished fourth and qualified for the playoffs but lost 2–1 to Northwich Victoria in the semi-final. At the end of the 2016–17 season Chris Wilcock resigned as manager, leaving the position after 4 seasons and as the winningest manager in recorded history. On 19 May 2017 the club announced that the joint team of Steve Halford and Paul Phillips would take the reins at Surrey Street On 12 March 2018 the management team left Glossop to join Buxton. Goalkeeper coach Mark Canning took over as caretaker manager, assisted by Andy Bishop. This was made a permanent position at the end of the 2017–18 season. However, after a poor run of results, culminating in a loss to Widnes in mid October, Canning and Bishop were sacked. After a short search the board appointed ex-Mossley duo Peter Band and Lloyd Morrison as joint managers on 14 October 2018. In an unprecedented move the majority of football activities were ceased mid March 2020 due to the coronavirus, and by the end of March the NPL took the decision along with all step 4 and lower divisions to end the season early and expunge all results with no promotion or relegation taking place. The coronavirus took centre stage again in the 20/21 season, with only a handful of games being played before the season was cancelled in Feb 2021. This was followed in March 2021 by the resignation of manager Pete Band who left to join up with his hometown team Macclesfield FC. The new manager, Stuart Mellish, took charge at the beginning of May ready to start the 2021–22 season in the newly realigned NPL Division One West Division. ==Historical kits== * 0000–0000 years used * 0000–0000 football season used Home and away kits (if known) ==Grounds== thumb|Glossop's North Road ground Glossop played at a variety of grounds, including Pyegrove, Silk Street, Water Lane and Cemetery Road before settling at North Road. The ground was originally used for cricket, but became home to Glossop North End in 1898 when the club were elected to the Second Division of the Football League. The football ground was located in the south-east corner of the site, with a seated stand was constructed on the northern side of the pitch and raised earth embankment on a triangular space in the south-east corner and eastern sides. During the football season a temporary wooden seated stand was erected behind the western goal, but removed for the cricket season. The first League match played at North Road was on 3 September 1898, with Glossop defeating Blackburn Rovers 4–1 in front of 4,000 spectators. The last Football League match at North Road was played on 17 April 1915, with just 500 spectators watching a 1–1 draw with Stockport County. thumb|Glossop's new clubhouse During 1955, the club moved from its original home to the club's home ground Surrey Street. The first game was played on Saturday 17th September 1955 against Radcliffe Borough FC. Floodlights were installed in 1992. During the off-season of 2010 the Supporters' Club funded and helped build the new team benches, replacing the aged and basic ones with new spacious dugouts. In the summer of 2011 the club upgraded more of the facilities at Surrey Street. The new clubhouse, dressing rooms, refreshment bar and hospitality room were completed in a relatively short amount of time being ready for the first pre-season game of 2011–12. By March 2012 the ground had achieved the FA Ground Grading grade of E which is required for football clubs to participate at step 4 of the National League System. During the off season of 2014 season Glossop were approved a grant from the Football Foundation to replace the aged pitch perimeter fence with a new sports rail with mesh panel infill. With that and a few other improvements they achieved the FA Ground Grade of D which was required to remain at step 4 of the National League System. In the summer of 2018 new floodlights were installed. ===Attendances=== * Largest home attendance: 10,736 vs Preston North End, FA Cup 31 January 1914. Average league attendances: 300px|thumb|average league attendances Season Average Highest Lowest +/– % 2023–24 2022-23 381 1015 186 +31.9 2021-22 305 505 171 +29.4 2020–21 238 333 176 +4.1 2019–20 228 324 139 -5.1 2018–19 240 498 127 -20.8 2017–18 303 604 170 -20.1 2016–17 379 741 191 -2.9 2015–16 390 529 275 +15.4 2014–15 338 914 183 +61.0 2013–14 210 445 105 +41.9 2012–13 148 180 78 –18.2 2011–12North West Counties League – North West Counties League Premier Division Non-League Matters 181 243 116 –2.2 2010–11Results by Season – 2010–11 Glossop North End 185 374 104 –21.6 2009–10Results by Season – 2009–10 Glossop North End 236 658 142 +19.2 2008–09Attendances Tony's Non-League Football site 198 455 70 +46.7 2007–08North West Counties Division One Tony's Non-League Football Site 135 231 86 –10.0 2006–07North West Counties Division One Tony's Non-League Football Site 150 1219 64 +54.6 2005–06North West Counties Division One Tony's Non-League Football Site 97 140 55 –15.7 2004–05 115 184 88 –7.3 2003–04North West Counties Division One Tony's Non-League Football Site 124 ==Players== ===Current squad=== As of 1 May 2023 ===Notable former players=== Players who have international playing experience or top division experience who have played for Glossop include:sourced from historical data from Glossop FC/Glossop North End AFC/sourced newspapers * Thomas Bartley 1897–1899 * Thomas Clifford 1898–1899 * John Goodall 1900–1903 * George Badenoch 1901–1903 * Bob Jack 1902–1903 * Edwin Bardsley 1903 * Fred Spiksley 1904–? * Archie Goodall 1904–1905 * Thomas Callaghan 1905–1907 * David Copeland 1907–? * John Robertson 1907–1909 * Leslie Hofton 1908–1910 * Thomas Fitchie 1909–1911 * Billy Herbert 1910–1911 * Harry Bamford 1912-1914 * Alec Campbell 1909–1914 * James Montgomery 1915 * Albert John 'Jack' Allen 1914–1915 * Billy Fitchford 1923–? * Joe Frail * Bert Maddlethwaite * Irvine Thornley * Frank Booth * Lee Martin 1998–1999 * Ben Chapman 2016 * Zephaniah Thomas 2017 ===Ladies' team=== The club have a ladies team, Glossop North End Ladies, which was established in 1998. In 2014–15 the team reached the final of the Derbyshire Girls & Ladies League Challenge Cup, losing 2–1 to Mackworth St Francis. The following season saw them the Challenge Cup, defeating Castle Donnington Ladies 4–1. On 11 May they won the Derbyshire Girls & Ladies League Division One title. They retained the league title the following season, after which they transferred to Division One of the Cheshire WFL. ====Honours==== Derbyshire Girls & Ladies League * Division One: 2015–16, 2016–17 Derbyshire Ladies Challenge Cup * Winners: 2015–16 ===Youth teams=== Glossop North End AFC Juniors was established in 1989. They have teams of both boys in age groups from 6 years old right to Under-21, and girls in age groups from Under-9 to Under-16. They were accredited to the FA Charter standard Award in 2004, and in 2015 were awarded Derbyshire FA Charter Standard Community club of the year. ==Club management== ===Coaching positions=== Name Role Manager Michael Worthington Assistant Manager James Stokes Goalkeeper Coach Physiotherapist ===Managerial history=== Based on win % in all competitive matches Name Managed Record From To P W D L % Michael Worthington 05/2023 -- -- -- -- --.-- Stuart Mellish 05/2021 05/2023 88 24 22 42 27.30 Peter Band 08/2020 04/2021 11 3 2 6 27.27 Peter Band / Lloyd Morrison 11/2018 08/2020 75 18 19 38 24.00 Mark Canning / Andy Bishop 03/2018 11/2018 27 4 7 16 14.81 Steve Halford / Paul Phillips 05/2017 03/2018 40 16 6 18 40.00 Chris Willcock 05/2013 04/2017 232 143 32 57 61.64 Paul Williams / Garry Brown 12/2012 05/2013 21 5 5 11 23.81 Paul Colgan 05/2011 12/2012 81 37 15 29 45.68 Terry Hincks 04/2011 05/2011 10 3 4 3 30.00 Steve Young 05/2007 04/2011 215 108 39 68 50.23 Chris Nicholson 06/2001 04/2007 301 95 54 152 31.56 Syd White 02/2001 05/2001 16 2 1 13 12.50 Mickey Boyle 06/1999 02/2001 91 27 18 46 29.67 Syd White 1996 1999 171 70 33 68 40.94 Ged Coyne 1993 1996 154 64 33 57 41.56 Pete O'Brien 1993 1993 6 1 0 5 16.67 Gordon Rayner 1993 1993 20 7 7 6 35.00 Roy Soule 1991 1993 106 41 23 42 38.68 Brent Peters 1990 1991 56 25 15 16 44.64 Jim Royle / Barry Walton 1988 1990 82 19 14 49 23.17 John Birchall 1986 1988 72 10 12 50 13.89 Tony Webber 1984 1986 76 15 21 40 19.74 Brian Grundy 1980 1984 152 53 50 49 34.87 D.Partridge 1978 1980 68 20 13 35 29.41 George Allman 1974 1975 David Wilde 1974 1974 George Allman 1970 1971 Ted Burgin 1966 19?? Alex Mcintosh 1955 19?? Archie Goodall 1904 1905 Italic - denotes Caretaker Manager * Stats correct as of 18 September 2022 ==Honours and achievements== thumb|Glossop North End NWCFL Champions 2015 Football League Second Division (2nd tier) * 2nd place promotion: 1898–99 North West Counties League Premier Division (9th tier) * Champions: 2014–15 Manchester League * Champions: 1927–28 thumb|Glossop North End League Challenge Cup winners 2015 North West Counties League League Challenge Cup * Winners: 2014–15 North West Counties League Division Two Cup * Winners: 1990–91 Gilcryst Cup * Winners: 1922–23, 1929–30, 1934–35, 1948–49 Manchester FA Premier Cup * Winners: 1996–97, 1997–98 Derbyshire County FA Senior Challenge Cup * Winners: 2000–01; runners-up: 2013–14 FA Vase * Runners-up: 2008–09, 2014–15 Manchester FA Fair play Award * Winners: 2014–15 ==References== ==External links== * Glossop North End website * Glossop North End Juniors website * * * Glossop results and players in the English National Football Archive Category:1886 establishments in England Category:Association football clubs established in 1886 Category:Football clubs in Derbyshire Category:Football clubs in England Category:Midland Football League (1889) Category:English Football League clubs Category:Lancashire Combination Category:Cheshire County League clubs Category:North West Counties Football League clubs Category:Northern Premier League clubs
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The Stone Bell House is located at the Old Town Square in Prague. It is located next to the Kinský Palace, on the corner of Old Town Square and Týnská street. == Origin of the name == The house is named after the stone bell embedded in the outside corner. The bell could be a reminder of the arrival of John of Bohemia to Prague in 1310, after a futile siege of the city occupied by Henry of Bohemia. == History == left|thumb|The stone bell === Summary === The house today is a remainder of a larger residence from the mid-14th century. It most likely served as a temporary residence for Elizabeth of Bohemia and John of Bohemia after their move to Prague. The house was rebuilt during the 15th-19th century. During these years, the Gothic image of the palace was practically lost. Between 1975-1987 an extensive Gothic revival of the house was carried out. During this renovation, the Gothic facade was uncovered and restored, instead of the existing Baroque one. A reinforced concrete parapet was also added to the roof, which the house previously lacked. Since 1988 it is under administration of the National Gallery in Prague. === 14th – 16th century === The first documented reference of the house dates back to 1363, when it belonged to the nobleman Henslin Pesold from Cheb. In the following years the house had many owners, ranging from rich noblemen to small nobles. Furthermore, the house was a gem of the square thanks to its intricate facade decorations which inspired the articulation of the eastern facade of the new city hall which was built at the end of the 14th century. Between the years 1484-1513, the price of the house doubled. This suggests that the house underwent major renovations during these years. During the first decade of the 16th century, when the house was owned by Václav Šlechta from Pomberk, the eastern wing and a Renaissance portal were built. Also from this time, several paintings of draperies, which decorated the walls, have been preserved. Sometime after completion, the northern wing was added, which enclosed the courtyard. === 17th – 19th century === A significant milestone for the house was the year 1685, when the house underwent another major renovation. All the Gothic elements which were protruding from the facade were removed and used in the walling up. The house also gained a new roof and its height was reduced. Another major adjustment was changing the number of floors of the corner tower from three to four, which gave the western facade a very distinct character. However, the articulation of three windows was preserved. The northern snail staircase lost its function as the main staircase due to changes in the floor-to-floor height and was used from then on as a pantry. The year 1775 was another year of significant adjustments to the house. A built-on gallery, seated on massive Baroque brackets, was built in the inner courtyard and the western facade got a new stucco accentuation. In the 19th century the house once again underwent smaller adjustments, although not nearly as significant as the previous reconstructions. For example, the Baroque facade was simplified. In the 90s however, the house regained its Neo-Baroque stucco decoration. === Restoration in the 20th century === thumb|left|Boss in the ground floor. During the 20th century, the rooms of the Stone House Bell were used as offices, storage spaces or workshops and the building slowly dilapidated. During the 60s, there were several historical surveys which showed that the house was an exceptional Gothic building. The Head of the State Institute for the Restoration of Historical Towns and Buildings (SÚRPMO) Jan Muk (civil engineer and art historian) together with Josef Hýzler (architect and architectural restorer) discovered the main facade from the Gothic period. thumb|The House in 1959, before the Gothic restoration. After the surveys, a thorough Gothic revival of the house began in 1975 and lasted until 1987. The design works were undertaken by architects A. Charvátová and V. Pelzbauer, while the restoration of the Gothic architectural elements was under the guidance of architectural conservator-restorer Jiří Blažej. At the centre of the Old Town Square, a temporary stonemasonry workshop was created, where the fragments of the elements found in the brick backing were restored. Fragments of stone decorations were temporarily stored in the cellar of the house. Some were stored into a collection storage room. More than 12,000 fragments were found while renovating the house. In the corner tower, the original two floors were restored, thus the Baroque windows were plated and the original Gothic windows were restored. The tracery was assembled from the found fragments, however the baldachins with gablets between the windows were only preserved in the torso. The roofing of the corner tower does not correspond with its historical situation. Originally, the house had a high chiselled roof made of shingles ending only with eaves. However, during the restoration, the designers gave the house a slate, which was not used in Gothic Prague because of its unavailability. They finished off the roof with a reinforced concrete machicolation. Inside, restorers were able to find and restore polychromatic wooden ceilings on both floors as well as painted chapels on the ground floor and first floor. The snail staircase with garderobes was also restored. The inner courtyard, however, retained its Baroque appearance, including the built-on gallery, seated on massive Baroque brackets. == Exterior == As the Stone Bell House is now called a corner tower to which the southern wing is connected. The eastern and northern wings which were completed later, enclose the courtyard of the house. The transverse west wing which was not preserved, stood at the site of today's Kinsky Palace. The facades were plastered with the exception of decorative stone around the jamb, which was very common with medieval burgher houses. The western facade however was an exception, as it was left completely unplastered. === Western facade === The facade facing Old Town Square is the most beautiful from the whole house. Compared to the other facades it is much more sophisticated and can boast with intricate stone carvings. Western lancet windows are regularly arranged in three axes. It has Gothic tracery with trefoils and quatrefoils which end with nuns. Above the windows were gables with trefoils inside, decorated with crockets and finished off with flowers. thumb|left|Torsos of statues of the King and Queen from the west facade of the house - currently in a chapel on the ground floor. Between the windows of the first and second floor were niches with brackets for statues. They were also finished with off with lancet arches, decorated with nuns and above them were gables with crochets and plants. On the sides of the niches grew pinnacles from waterleaf capitals. thumb|Position of the house between the Kinský palace Church of Our Lady before Týn within the Old Town Square. Inside these eight niches were statues. All were placed on brackets and protected by baldachins. Between the windows of the first floor were statues of kings and queens sitting on the throne. By their side, they were accompanied by knights in full armour. The torsos of these statues were reassembled from fragments by Jan Blažej and can be seen today in the chapel located on the ground floor. The statues in the niches of the second floor were not preserved. It is speculated, that there may have been the statues of saints – Czech patrons - Wenceslaus I, Vitus, Adalbert of Prague, and Procopius of Sázava. The ground-floor part of the facade could not be fully renovated due to poor condition. However, after findings of a horse rump, it is speculated that an equestrian statue could have been placed above its portal. The layout of the statues on the front facade and the ornaments refer to both the architecture of cathedrals, as well as ancient Byzantine art. All window jamb profiles and other stone elements are of the same character and show unity, which is proof that the tower was built in a short period of time (around 1310) by a single masonry workshop. The statue decorations reveal that the artists belonged to the same masonry workshop, but it is not known which workshop in particular. While some sources refer to a French-oriented masonry workshop, others refer to a lodge from Cologne. == Interior == === Ground floor === The entire ground floor of the tower is made up of an entrance hall that leads through a passage into the courtyard. The width of the passage indicates that the house could be ridden through on a horse but not a horse- drawn carriage. The carriageway was accessible from the Týnská alley behind the building. thumb|Floor plans: 1 - Entrance hall, 2 - Small spiral staircase, 3 - Passageway to the yard, 4 - Passageway to the chapel, 5 - Lower chapel, 6 - Courtyard, 7 - Large spiral staircase, 8 - Hall on the first floor of the tower, 9 - Private chapel, 10 - Built-on gallery A chapel is accessible from the passageway through small Gothic portals. The architectural concept of the space indicates it was not originally intended to be a chapel. It is a long room with two bays of ribbed groin vaults divided by a wide stone strip. The windows facing into the courtyard and into the street are plain and of rectangular shape. The room lacks liturgical requisites except for the murals with a sacral theme, dating back to 1310, which suggest the space was a chapel, despite the walls dating back to the second half of the 13th century. Before the space was consecrated, there may have been a shop or a merchant's room, which in medieval houses was usually located behind the entrance hall. It should however be noted, that also domestic chapels in Central Europe were often situated in very similar spaces with two bays of vaults. === First floor === The tower is accessible from a spiral staircase, located on the left side of the entrance hall. It connects the individual floors of the corner tower. It is used to access the garderobes, and originally allowed entrance to the first floor of the west wing, which had a lower floor-to-floor height. The space of the first floor of the corner tower is once again unified, and there is no doubt that it was used as a representative hall. There are three richly decorated lancet windows which face west towards the square and have stone seats beneath them. The lateral windows facing the side street are rectangular shaped, but from the outside they look like lancet windows with a tympanum. On the northern wall, there is a restored painting showing elements of court art of the second half of the 14th century. The key point in identifying the room’s purpose is the lancet arch portal when entering the spiral staircase from the hall. The portal boasts with a finely profiled jamb with a tracery at the top. On the sides there were brackets in the form of lions' heads and out of these grew pinnacles. Also worth mentioning is a private oratory located in the southern wing. Unlike the chapel on the ground floor, which is located directly below the oratory, the purpose here is clear. The chapel is situated between living chambers and from the location of the door, it shows that it was accessible from both sides and served as the last chamber in this floor. Church services could be viewed by the residents of the house from the adjoining chamber through a horizontal mullioned window. thumb|left|Example of polychromy in a niche in a private oratory. Inside, the oratory exuberated with many architectural details. The most significant include a trefoil niche in the east wall. The largest middle foil had a lancet arch with a tracery on the top placed on brackets with vegetal patterns. At the bottom it was finished off with a protuberant cornice, which replaced an altar. Square- shaped niches by the sides complemented with gamblets served as tabernacles and reliquaries. All three niches are decorated with crochets and flowers. Partially preserved are also polychrome (saturated red and blue colors) niches. The oratory has two groin vaults with ogee moulded vaulting ribs, yielded by brackets with once again vegetal patterns. The northern boss is speculated that to have been shaped like the sun, while the southern boss like a crowned face. It is also speculated that other chambers of the first floor served for private purposes, except for the unpreserved transverse hall located in the west wing. Besides the small snail stairway in the tower, the rooms were accessible mainly from the wide spiral stairway in the north wing. === Second Floor === On the second floor of the tower there is a unified space, which was renamed during renovations in the 20th century as the throne room of Elizabeth of Bohemia. It boasts with lancet windows to the west and a triple niche in the southern wall, which is speculated to have been a space for the grand throne. Two brackets found during the renovation of the house are located on the eastern wall, indicating that a fireplace had been here in the past. Above them there is an opening or a niche, connected to the flue of the fireplace. However, the claim that the throne room was actually located on the second floor has its drawbacks. thumb|Triple niche in the southern wall of the hall on the second floor. Firstly, it is worth noting that the passage between the snail staircase and the hall is not nearly as decorated as the portal of the floor below. This indicates a space of less importance. Another breach in this speculation is the fact that a representative hall already existed on the first floor, another hall therefore lacks purpose. Furthermore, the flue over the fireplace was wrongly dated and is much newer than the opening above it. This proves, that the fireplace was most likely added to the room during the later renovations, the stone brackets therefore do not cohere with it. The research of associate professor Rykl and professor Škabrada shows that these brackets could have been placed in the apex of the triple niche, today finished off with unmoulded stone blocks. According to their opinions, the room was divided into a smaller entrance hall, a room with heating and a hall room with windows in the wall facing the Old Town square. The three rooms were supposedly divided by wooden partitions, the room with heating had a lower wooden ceiling, its structure unfolding from the triple niche. Warm smoke could then be pumped into the space above the room, from where the smoke could escape through the opening by the ceiling. Wooden structures which forged a room with heating inside a larger room were not unusual in the Middle Ages. The room was inhabited probably by women and children in the colder months and could even serve as a place to sleep. The hall next to it was used mainly in the summer. From the layout we can assume that a set of living chambers were located on the second floor of the tower, which typologically corresponds to the more sophisticated buildings of the period. The second floor of the other wings was not directly accessible from the second floor of the tower due to height differences. The layout corresponded to the layout of the rooms located on the first floor, with the difference that the hall of the transverse wing was probably replaced with more private chambers. == Interesting facts == * The Royal Palace of the Prague Castle was uninhabitable for some time after the fire in 1303, therefore it is possible that John of Bohemia and Elizabeth of Bohemia lived in the Stone Bell House, and that Charles IV was born here in 1316. He may have stayed here shortly even after his return to Bohemia in 1333. * Since 2012 the Brikcius Festival is held here - a cycle of concerts of chamber music (spring-autumn.) * Today, it is hard to understand the extensive Baroque adjustments of the building. The changes they made to the Gothic elements of the house are somewhat drastic and incomprehensible. However, it is important to mention, that the research carried out by Jan Blažej revealed that most of the elements were in very poor condition at the time and the whole house seemed to look dingy. This was due to the inappropriate use of marlite on the facade. The use of low-quality stone, or the moulding of some elements caused the architectural elements to be exposed to the effects of water. The Baroque adjustments were therefore essential and brought the building greater comfort of living. * Renovations from the 1960s to the 1980s are still a subject of many disputes. The added concrete wreath of the gallery is controversial as well as use of the technique anastylosis. This technique leaves the original elements in place wherever possible and restores the broken ones with exact replicas. Although opinions on the Gothic revival of the building differ and some scientific circles even reject or disagree with it, the building still remains to be one of great importance in Europe and is an extraordinary example of the profane Gothic architecture which is unparalleled in areas east of France. == Exhibitions == In the building is located The Prague City Gallery, so in the house are often placed exhibitions of the modern and contemporary art, which make a very interesting and special contrast in the antient space of the rooms and halls. * June 2018 - September 2018 - Santiago Calatrava: Art and Architecture == See also == * Old Town Square * Old Town Hall (Prague) * Elizabeth of Bohemia * John of Bohemia * Old Town (Prague) * Czech Gothic architecture == Sources == * HANÁK, Milan. Dictionary of Architecture and Building Construction. 1st edition. Prague: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2017. . * ŠEFCŮ, Ondřej. ARCHITEKTURA – Lexikon architektonických prvků a stavebního řemesla. 1st edition. Prague: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2013. . * BENEŠOVSKÁ, Klára; VŠETEČKOVÁ, Zuzana. Dům „U Kamenného zvonu“. In: VLČEK, Pavel a kol. Umělecké památky Prahy. Staré Město – Josefov. Vyd. 1. Praha: Academia, 1996, 639 s. . * BENEŠOVSKÁ, Klára. Dům u Kamenného zvonu jako městská královská rezidence. In: Královský sňatek: Eliška Přemyslovna a Jan Lucemburský – 1310. Editor Klára BENEŠOVSKÁ. Praha: Gallery, 2010, 589 s. . * LÍBAL, Dobroslav. Období vrcholné gotiky za Jana Lucemburského. In: POCHE, Emanuel. Praha středověká: čtvero knih o Praze: architektura, sochařství, malířství, umělecké řemeslo. 1. vyd. Praha: Panorama, 1983, 780 s., [16] s. obr. příl. Pragensia (Panorama). * ŠKABRADA, Jiří; RYKL, Michael. Byt ve druhém patře věže domu U zvonu /. Škabrada, Jiří – Rykl, Michael. In: Zprávy památkové péče. Časopis státní památkové péče. Praha: Státní ústav památkové péče 56, č. 1-2, (1996), s. 12–16. * ŠTULC, Josef. Naděje, pochybnosti a rizika rekonstrukčních projektů – příklad domu U Zvonu a Malostranské radnice v Praze /. Štulc, Josef. In: Zprávy památkové péče. Časopis státní památkové péče. Praha: Národní památkový ústav 67, č. 4, (2007), s. 310–315. * BLAŽEJ, Jiří. Cesta za podobou soch z průčelí domu U kamenného zvonu /. Blažej, Jiří. Zprávy památkové péče. Časopis státní památkové péče. 62, č. 4, (2002), s. 73–116. Category:Buildings and structures in Prague Category:Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Gothic architecture in the Czech Republic Category:National Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic Category:Tourism in Prague Category:Tourist attractions in Prague
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thumb|right|Ribeirão Preto from the air Ribeirão Preto (Portuguese pronunciation: [ʁibejˈɾɐ̃w ˈpɾetu]) is a municipality and a metropolitan area located in the northeastern region of São Paulo state, Brazil. Ribeirão Preto is the eighth-largest municipality in the State with . It has an estimated population of 720,216 in 2021 and a metropolitan area of 1,178,910. It is located from the city of São Paulo and from Brasília, the federal capital. Its mean altitude is high. The city's average temperature throughout the year is , and the original predominant vegetation is the Atlantic forest. The city originated around 1856 as an agricultural region. Coffee was a primary income source until 1929 when it lost value compared with the industrial sector. In the second half of the 20th century, investment in health, biotechnology, bioenergy, and information technology led to the city being declared a Technological Center in 2010. These activities have caused the city to have the 30th biggest gross national (GNP) in Brazil. The city is also an important cultural center. The Mayor Luiz Roberto Jábali Park, the Maurilio Biagi Park, Carlos Raya Park, Santa Tereza Reserve, and the Zoo are important preservation areas. Pinguim Beerhouse, Dom Pedro Theatre, and projects such as Ribeirão Preto's Cinema Center are relevant sightseeing points, along with events such as the Agrishow Agricultural Fair, Tanabata Festival, Joao Rock Music Festival, and the National Outdoor Book Fair. == History == thumb|250px|right|Panoramic view of Ribeirão Preto The municipality was founded June 19, 1856, being populated initially by farmers and African slaves coming from other areas of São Paulo (especially from Mogi Mirim and São Simão) and Minas Gerais looking for land with good pastures. The city was built by a stream called Black Creek, and was named after it (Ribeirão Preto means black creek in Portuguese, sometimes translated as "Black Stream"). The fertile soil of Ribeirão Preto region allowed a high crop productivity. Initially the main rural activities were pastures, cattle and subsistence agriculture. In the 1870s, the coffee crop arrived to Ribeirão Preto. The rapid development of coffee cultivation brought wealth and progress to the city, which by the 1880s had become the largest coffee producer in the world. Coffee, also called "green gold", caused a "gold rush" in the region, which attracted workers and adventurous people from many parts of the world. This movement was helped by the new Mogiana Railway, linking Ribeirão Preto to São Paulo and to the port city of Santos, and by the abolition of slavery in Brazil, in 1888. The end of slavery created a strong market for labor, and "coffee barons", as coffee farmers were called, also stimulated immigration. Immigrants coming from Europe (mostly Italy, but also from Portugal, Spain and Germany) and from Japan have settled in coffee farms of Ribeirão Preto and neighboring towns. Some of the immigrants, especially the Italians, were settled at the "Núcleo Colonial Antonio Prado" (Antonio Prado Colonial Nucleus) which was created by the government in 1897. This nucleus originated many of the northern and eastern districts of Ribeirão Preto. Later, after the stock market crash of 1929, some of the immigrants bought the farms from their impoverished former employers. == Demography == Adding to the Native Amerindians already living in the area when migrants began to occupy and settle the land, the population of Ribeirão Preto includes, amongst other groups, descendants of Africans, Italians, Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese, Germans, Lebanese immigrants who were attracted to the region, after the abolition of slavery in 1888, when immigrants were granted lands, after being indentured workers. Descendants of enslaved African people constitute a big and important element of the population. Italians also arrived in huge number. During the 1990s, Northeastern migrants came to the region attracted by São Paulo state cities' economic development, which was widely broadcast in TV documentaries. With the city's super population by individuals who often had no technical skills and were often illiterate, poverty and crime grew considerably. Many migrants boosted the economy by working in sugar cane plantations and orange groves, though. However, those who perform seasonal duties often have no safety net when the work is over. IBGE estimative (2020) indicates that Ribeirão Preto has a population of 711,825 inhabitants. The urban agglomeration incorporates 34 municipalities, with a population of about 1.4 million inhabitants. Ribeirão Preto population: 703,293 inhabitants (2019). Metropolitan area: approx. 1.7 million inhabitants ;Data of the Census of 2010 *Total population: 605,114 **Metro: 603,401 **Rural: 1,713 **Men: 290,286 **Women: 314,828 *Population density (inhabitants/km2): 930.42 *Infant mortality up to 1 year (per thousand): 9.90 *Life expectancy (years): 74.40 *Total fertility rate: 1.89 *Literacy rate: 95.56% *Human Development Index (HDI): 0.855 **HDI GDP: 0.855 **HDI longevity: 0.823 **HDI education: 0.918 : Source: IPEAdata === Ethnicity === Ethnic groups Percent White 76.9% Mixed 15.7% Black 5.6% Asian 0.8% Amerindian 0.1% Source: Census 2000 == Region == thumb|right|300px|Political division map of the micro-region of Ribeirão Preto, with population ranges expressed in color Ribeirão Preto is the center of a Metropolitan Area with about 1.662 million inhabitants (2017), and comprises the following 34 municipalities: * Altinopolis * Barrinha * Brodowski * Batatais * Cravinhos * Cajuru * Cassia dos Coqueiros * Dumont * Guariba * Guatapará * Jaboticabal * Jardinópolis * Luís Antônio * Mococa * Monte Alto * Morro Agudo * Nuporanga * Orlândia * Pitangueiras * Pontal * Pradópolis * Ribeirão Preto * Sales Oliveira * Santa Cruz da Esperança * Santa Rita do Passa Quatro * Santa Rosa de Viterbo * Santo Antônio da Alegria * São Simão * Serra Azul * Serrana * Sertãozinho * Taiuva * Tambaú * Taquaral == Geography == === Climate === The climate of Ribeirão Preto is tropical, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw in Köppen climate classification), with rainy summers and dry winters. The record maximum registered in the city was 43.6 °C (110.5 °F) on October 29, 2012.Com 43,6°C nesta tarde, Ribeirão tem novo recorde de temperatura G1 Ribeirão e Franca (October 29, 2012); accessed in: November 17, 2018. * Average temperature: Winter 18.6 °C; Summer 23.9 °C * Altitude: 531m (between 504 and 852 meters) * Average precipitation: 1508 mm of rain (annual total) * Relative humidity: 71% yearly average === Hydrography === * Pardo River * Ribeirão Preto ("Black Creek", origin of the city's name) * Retiro Saudoso Creek * Tanquinho Creek * Laureano Creek * Das Palmeiras Creek * Dos Catetos Creek * Dos Campos Creek * Vista Alegre Creek * Antarctica Creek * Olhos d'Água Creek * California Creek * Limeirinha Creek == Tourism, culture and events== thumb|left|Teatro Pedro II At the beginning of the 20th century and during its first three decades, Ribeirão Preto was a rich city, boasting several mansions, European-style cafés, cabarets and even two opera houses, as result of the coffee economy. One of the opera houses – the Carlos Gomes Theatre (in honour of Brazilian opera composer Carlos Gomes) – was demolished in 1949, but the other – the "Pedro II Theatre" (named in honor of Emperor Dom Pedro II), dating from the 1920s – resisted time and was restored and modernized during the 1990s. Its ceiling, completely destroyed in a fire of 1980, was rebuilt and gained a new design projected by Japanese-Brazilian artist Tomie Ohtake. The Pedro II Theatre is now the third largest opera house in Brazil and is the home of the Ribeirão Preto symphony orchestra, one of the oldest and most important in Brazil. Several events take place in Ribeirão Preto, many of which occur annually, such as the Agrishow (an international fair of agricultural technology), Fair Photo Image, Film Festival Ribeirão Preto, National Book Fair of Ribeirão Preto, Festival Tanabata (Japanese cultural festival), Festitália (Italian cultural festival), João Rock Music Fest, Ribeirão Rodeo Music, Bonfim Paulista Rodeo Show, Ribeirão Skol Folia, Fair ExpoHair, Feitrans (Fair Transport Interior Paulista), Arena Cross, Entorta Bixo, Ribeirão Cana Invest, Expobonsai, AVIRRP, Comida di Buteco, Restaurant Week Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto Tropeada, Mitsubishi Rally Cup, Copa Chevrolet Montana, and others. These events move various segments of the municipality, as the airport, bus system, taxi, hotel chain, bars, restaurants, and more. An important fact for the city life happened in 1911 with the opening of its first big factory, the Antarctica Brewery Company, nowadays part of the AmBev group. Antarctica built the Pedro II Theatre. The Antarctica factory led to the opening of several beer houses in the city and one of them named Pinguim (penguin in Portuguese), became particularly famous and made Ribeirão Preto nationally renowned for the quality of its draft beer (chope or chopp in Brazilian Portuguese). Many people say that Pinguim has the best draft beer in Brazil and it became so important that it is now a symbol of the city; people say that coming to Ribeirão Preto and not visiting Pinguim is like going to Rome and not seeing the Pope. There are two Pinguim beer houses in Ribeirão Preto: one of them is at the Quarteirão Paulista (Paulista Square), next to November XV square in central area of Ribeirão Preto and right beside the Pedro II Theatre. The other one is at the mall Ribeirão Shopping. The Pinguim beer house was named after the Antarctica company's logo (see at ). Many small "alambiques" exist in the region, each producing its own singular "Pinga," better known as Cachaça. These "Pingas" are often aged and are available in many flavours, while still maintaining their flair. Pinguim is not the only good beer house in Ribeirão Preto. The municipality has a hot climate, which makes people go out in the evening to chat and enjoy cold draft beers in bars. Therefore, the municipality is teeming with bars, from the simple "botequins" or "botecos" that one can find in almost every corner, to the most sophisticated pub style bars, which rival their counterparts in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Ribeirão Preto has also many micro-breweries, many of them nationally known. Ribeirão Preto is considered one of the major centers of business tourism in the country, being chosen by the Ministry of Tourism as an inducer of regional tourism development, between 4 cities of São Paulo and 64 other locations throughout Brazil. Currently the city has 52 hotels in full operation, with 8600 beds (or jobs), beyond 30 motels with 2000 beds, beds totaling 10,600 rooms in the network of the city. There are still many convention centers and event spaces, such as: *Convention Center Ribeirão Preto, capacity: 2450 people; *Convention Center Taiwan, capacity: 400, 1000, 3000 and 5000 people per venue; *Events Center CENACON, capacity: 1700 people; *Mediterranean Area Events Center, capacity: 3000 people; *Events Center Hotel JP, capacity: 1800 people; *White Canvas Events Center, capacity: 1700 people; *New Event Space Centre, capacity: 4000 people; *Events West Shopping Center, capacity: 3000 people; *Ribeirão Preto Expo Center. *NEO Convention (under construction), capacity: 600 people; *Exhibition Park IAC, capacity: 380 people; *Exhibition Park: capacity: 1500 people; *Santo Antônio Space, capacity 1500 people. thumb|250px|"Curupira" Park. === Parks and forests === Ribeirão Preto has many parks, gardens and a zoo e.g. Fábio Barreto municipal forest; a municipal park called "Curupira", officially named Luís Roberto Jábali Park; the Botanical Garden Park, named as Luís Carlos Raya Park, both located in the south zone; Tom Jobim Park, located in the northwest region and Maurílio Biagi Ecological Park, located in the central region. ===Theatres and museums=== Ribeirão Preto has some museums and theatres, highlighting the Theatro Pedro II (Pedro II Theatre), which is an opera house, located in the central region, more specifically in the "Quarterão Paulista" (Paulista Square), considered the third largest of the category in Brazil, with capacity for 1580 spectators and a total area of 6500 m2, inaugurated on October 8, 1930. Another highlight is the Municipal Theatre, inaugurated in 1969 with modern lines, which has capacity for 515 people. Being a large and wooded place, is also used for cultural events. There is also the Arena Theater, which is next to the Municipal Theatre, among others. Some museums stand out in the city, as the "Coffee Museum Francisco Schmidt," which was built in the early 1950s, known for saving the most important collection of pieces of São Paulo on the History of Coffee. Its collection consists of large sculptures, bullock carts, trolleys, coffee machines benefit, plus photos of the golden age of coffee in the region of Ribeirão Preto. Another important museum is the Art Museum of Ribeirão Preto (MARP) - "Manuel Pedro Gismondi". The municipality has other museums, such as the Casa da Memória Italiana (Italian Memory House), Museum of General Order and the Museum of Image and Sound. Theatres in the city: *Auxiliadora Theatre; *Bassano Vaccarini Theatre; *Arena Theatre; *SESC Theatre; *Minaz Theatre; *Municipal Theatre; *Pedro II Theatre/Opera House; *Santa Rosa Theatre; *Sesi Theatre. ===Cinema=== Ribeirão Preto is a major center of cinema in Brazil, with the Kaiser Film Studios, held by the São Paulo Film Commission, with space of more than 13 thousand square meters of constructed area and houses an entire infrastructure for audiovisual production. Situated in the historic city center, (the company's former headquarters Brewery Paulista), this historical and cultural heritage is listed by the Defense Council of Historical, Artistic, Archaeological and Tourism of the State of São Paulo (Condephaat), Council of Heritage Preservation Cultural de Ribeirão Preto (Conppac) and at present is in the process of overturning the Iphan – "Institute of National Historical and Artistic Heritage. In addition, the city still has the largest film society in the country, Cineclube Cauim (900 seats), and dozens of mainstream cinema rooms, such as UCI, Cinemark and Cinepolis. ===Carnival=== Ribeirão Preto is the birthplace of one of the oldest samba schools in Brazil: the "Bambas" founded in 1927. However, as a string carnival, becoming samba schools later. Besides this pioneering school, there are the Embaixadores dos Campos Elíseos (Ambassadors of Campos Elíseos), Tradição do Ipiranga (Tradition of Ipiranga), Camisa 12 Corintiana (12 Corinthian Shirt) and Imperadores do Samba (Emperors of Samba). In Bonfim Paulista district, two samba schools are present: Acadêmicos de Bonfim and Unidos da Vila. In 2010, Ribeirão Preto was chosen as the theme for Águias de Ouro Samba School parade, in São Paulo Sambodrome, showing its history related to coffee, sugar cane and agribusiness. There are also some street carnival groups, such as "Os Alegrões" (Jardim Irajá neighborhood) and "O Berro" (in the city center). == Sports == The municipality possesses two soccer stadiums, the Estádio Palma Travassos (of Comercial FC) and Santa Cruz (of Botafogo FC). Botafogo FC is currently competing in Campeonato Brasileiro Série C and Campeonato Paulista, whereas Comercial FC is currently competing in Campeonato Paulista Série A3. On the national and international scene, Botafogo is often confused with the Rio de Janeiro club with the same name to the extent that the Rio club is often credited with being the infamous club against which Pelé scored a record 8 goals in one game. One example is in Franklin Foer's book "How Soccer Explains the World". But it was in the Paulista championships on November 21, 1964, in the coastal city of Santos and against the Ribeirão Preto's team that Pelé achieved the incredible feat and his Santos team won by an 11 × 0 score. The 8 goals were payback for the defeat Santos suffered on September 6, 1964, when they visited Ribeirão Preto during the first round of the tournament and lost 2 x 0. Not only had a "small" team beaten one of the "big" teams, but had done so while insulting the "King". A better claim to fame for Botafogo (often referred to as Botafogo-SP) is that Brazilian soccer captains (and brothers) Sócrates and Raí started their careers with Botafogo. In 2017 a men's volleyball team was founded in Ribeirão Preto, Vôlei Ribeirão, which was champion of Superliga Brasileira B in 2018, and competed in Superliga Brasileira, the major volleyball league in Brazil, from 2019 to 2021. The matches of Vôlei Ribeirão took place at Cava do Bosque, a public sports centre in Ribeirão Preto. The volleyball team ended in 2021. The skateboard gained in 2021 a new space in the city, the RP Skate Park, placed at Maurilio Biagi Ecological Park. With 4,000 square meters, the skate park was projected by the world champion Bob Burnquist and is able to receive the styles park and street. ===National Team Training Centres (CTSs) FIFA World Cup 2014=== Ribeirão Preto was among the municipalities that met the basic requirements for a training centre for 2014 FIFA World Cup. Therefore, it was selected by France national football team as base for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. The stadium Santa Cruz was the training base, whereas the Theatre Pedro II hosted press conferences. == Economy == thumb|200px|right|The Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant, one of the largest and oldest in Brazil, is located near Ribeirão Preto. thumb|200px|right|Typical sugarcane harvest transport near Ribeirão Preto After the New York Stock Exchange crash of 1929 the economy of Ribeirão Preto, based on a single export crop, collapsed, and the city had to adapt to a new situation. Since the city is relatively far from other major Brazilian urban centers, it found a new economic vocation in the services and commercial sector, which was developed to attend the local and regional demands. The second economic boom in the history of Ribeirão Preto occurred after the oil crisis (1973 and 1979) of the 1970s. The increase in the oil price obliged Brazil to look for alternative means of fueling and the solution found was the alcohol fuel program, or Pro-Álcool as it is called. Pró-Álcool led to the development of a technology which allows the use of ethanol (sugarcane alcohol) either as automotive fuel or as a gasoline additive. The latter improves performance and substitutes lead thus decreasing polluting emissions. Due to the Pró-Álcool program, farmers from the region of Ribeirão Preto were encouraged by government subsidies to grow sugarcane. The high productivity of the land around Ribeirão Preto rapidly placed the region as the largest alcohol and sugar producer of the world, being responsible for 30 percent of Brazil's sugarcane alcohol fuel. thumb|right|Business District of Ribeirão Preto. thumb|200px|right|The mall "Ribeirão Shopping". The sugarcane boom brought a new age of prosperity for the city, which was called the "Brazilian California" during the 1980s and early 1990s. On the one hand, this has increased the city's wealth and turned it into a sophisticated centre of services for Brazil and South America but, on the other hand, the image of a new "Eldorado" attracted many migrants from impoverished areas of Brazil leading to a rapid population growth and the appearance of slums (favelas as they are called in Brazil). Nowadays, the sugarcane is the major crop produced in the rural area of the municipality, followed by minor crops such as pastures, maize, peanut and soybean. Ribeirão Preto's major manufactures are: medical materials, dental materials, animal feed, meat, dairy products, textiles, steel, furniture, building materials, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and, of course, beer. The city hosts "Agrishow" on an annual basis, this show is one of the most important agricultural trade shows in Brazil. The airline Passaredo Transportes Aéreos has its headquarters in the Jardim Aeroporto area of the city."Fale Conosco." Passaredo Transportes Aéreos. Retrieved July 5, 2010. == Government == The municipal administration is given by the executive power and by the legislative power. The first to govern the municipality was João Gonçalves dos Santos, who was in the position of intendant for some months of 1874. Currently the municipal mayor is Duarte Nogueira, from the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB). ===Twin towns – sister cities=== Ribeirão Preto is twinned with: * Bucaramanga, Colombia. * Ripa Teatina, Italy. * San Leandro, United States. * Teramo, Italy. === Subdivisions === Besides the main administration, the city has three regional administrations (sub city halls): * Regional administration 1: North (Campos Elísios) * Regional administration 2: West (Vila Tibério) * Regional administration 3: South (Bonfim Paulista) == Urban infrastructure == === Health === In 2009 the municipality counted with 319 health establishments such as hospitals, emergencies rooms, clinics and dental care, being 64 of these publics and 255 private. With them, the city had 2 177 beds available for hospitalization, which 847 are in the public's establishments and 1 320 in the private's. In 2011, 95.7% of the children of under-1 year had their immunization updated. In 2010 was registered 8 141 new born, and the infant mortality rate as 9.7/ every 1 000 born child and 99.8% of all the new born had assisted birth. In the same year 12.5% of all pregnant women were under-20 years. 32 963 children were weighed by the Family's Health Program, and 0.8% of them were undernourished. Ribeirão Preto has the following hospitals, among public and privates: Hospital das Clínicas de Ribeirão Preto - HC Campus (Clinics Hospital of Ribeirão Preto) - Emergency Unit and HC Criança; Hospital Estadual de Ribeirão Preto (State Hospital of Ribeirão Preto); Hospital Santa Casa de Ribeirão Preto (Santa Casa Hospital); Hospital Psiquiátrico Santa Tereza (Santa Tereza Psychiatric Hospital); Sanatório Espírita Vicente de Paulo (Spiritist Sanatorium Vicente de Paulo); Beneficência Portuguesa Hospital; Hospital do Câncer de Ribeirão Preto - SOBECCan (Cancer Hospital of Ribeirão Preto); São Lucas Hospital; Ribeirânia Hospital; Hospital Municipal Santa Lydia (Santa Lydia Municipal Hospital); São Paulo Hospital; São Francisco Hospital; Electro Bonini Hospital; Mater; Hospital Maternidade Sinhá Junqueira (Sinha Junqueira Maternity Hospital); RDO VIVER Hospital; Unimed Ribeirão Hospital. The Ribeirão Preto's Health division is linked to the City hall and responsible for the maintenance and operation of the Sistema Unico de Saude (SUS- Unified Health System), and for the policies, programs and projects that aimed the city's health. For the first care the city counts with 33 Units UBDS and UBS. Among the support and basic attention services there're the Homeopathy and Herbal Medicine Program, Sanitary Surveillance (VISA), the Programme for Health Care of the Person with Disabilities (PASDEF), the Home Care Service (DSS), the Health Program of the Deaf and Fissured (Prodaf) and the Program Community Integration (PIC). The Service Mobile Emergency (EMS) in Ribeirão Preto was one of the first to be instituted in Brazil, counting today with 11 ambulances basic (USBs) and a mobile ICU. Ministry of Health points Ribeirão Preto as the best city in the state and the third better in the country, among the 29 Brazilian's municipality with the highest income and infrastructure in access and quality of the health services. The city was rated 6,69, above the Brazilian average, of 5,47, according to the SUS' Index of Performance (Idsus). The first two ranked are Vitória (ES) and Curitiba (PR) with the notes 7,08 ad 6,96, respectively. The hospitals, clinics and medical centres of Ribeirão Preto attract people from many municipalities of the region. === Education === The medium Basic Education Performance Index (IDEB) among the city's public schools was, in 2009, 4.0 (in a scale from 1 to 10), considering that the note from the 5th years was 4.4 and the 9th years was 3.7; the note of the municipals and publics schools in the hole country was also 4,0. Among the private institutions the municipal index raises to 6.1 (6.4 for the 5th years students and 5.9 for the 9th years). The education Human Development Index (HDI) was 0.918 (classified as very elevated), while Brazilian's was 0,849. The municipality counted, in 2009, with approximated 117 373 enrollments in the schools. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geographic and Statics, in the same year, out of all 168 elementary schools, 60 belonged to the state, 26 to the municipality and 82 were private. Among all 68 high schools, 32 belonged to the state, 3 to the municipality and 33 were private. In 2000, 5.5% of the children from 7 to 14 were not at school. The graduation average among teen of 15 to 17 years was, in the same year, 67.7%. The index of alphabetization of the population above 15 years, in 2010, was of 98.9%. In 2006, for each 100 girls there were 105 boys in the elementary school. The city's Education Office has as their objective to coordinate and advise the management and pedagogical the city's education system. Are examples of the programs coordinated by the Office the Young and Adults Education (EJA) that is a non-cost education for the adults that had not concluded elementary schooling and the Special Education Networking, where students who have physical disabilities are conducted by specialist teachers. During the economic stagnation from the 1940s to the 1950s the city discovered and established its vocation as an educational and university center. In 1942 the state government expropriated the Monte Alegre Farm, an important coffee farm from the Schmidt family of German immigrants, and transformed it into an agricultural practical school. Several new buildings and houses for the professors were constructed on a land which held before tens of thousands of coffee plants. The new school was very well planned and urbanized and many trees were planted to provide shadow and give it a pleasant atmosphere. But the agricultural school never achieved a significant development and it was closed in 1951. A longstanding dream of the population of Ribeirão Preto was to have a university and in 1952 the old farm was donated to the University of São Paulo for the creation of a medical school, which was the first school of its campus at Ribeirão Preto. Fortunately, many original buildings of the agricultural school and even some of the Monte Alegre Farm were preserved and only adapted to hold the new university, which makes its campus one of the most beautiful university campuses in Brazil. After the creation of the medical school the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto (USP-RP) has been growing steadily and it is presently constituted by eight schools: School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto (FMRP), School of Law of Ribeirão Preto (FDRP), School of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters (FFCLRP), School of Dentistry (FORP), School of Economics, Administration and Accounting (FEARP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (FCFRP), School of Nursing (EERP) and School of Music (DMRP-ECA). The creation of USP-RP stimulated the cultural and academic life in Ribeirão Preto and several schools, colleges and universities were opened in the city since then. The municipality has also many private colleges such as: Centro Universitário Barão da Mauá, Centro Universitário Moura Lacerda, Centro Universitário Estácio, Faculdade Anhanguera, Faculdade Reges, Faculdade São Luís, Fundação Armando Alvares Penteado (FAAP), Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Universidade de Ribeirão Preto (UNAERP). One interesting fact is that in Ribeirão Preto there is one Local Committee of AIESEC. Present in over 110 countries and territories and with over 60,000 members, AIESEC is the world's largest student-run organisation. Focused on providing a platform for youth leadership development, AIESEC offers young people the opportunity to be global citizens, to change the world, and to get experience and skills that matter today. Their office is in Rua das Paineiras, casa 9, USP, Monte Alegre. ===Science and technology=== Despite Ribeirão Preto, the entire region comprehends one of the principal University and Research Centers of the State, highlighting the health, engineering and high technology in São Carlos, agronomics, vet and zoo in Jaboticabal, zoo and food engineering at Pirassununga, among others. Therefore, the region consolidates itself as an important technological and educational polo. In May 2012 was opened the School of Technological Training (FORTEC) "Jandyra Camargo Moquenco" downtown, beginning its activities with four classes and attending around 900 students, divided in three shifts. Ribeirão Preto's Technology Park has as its objective to support the scientific and technological development of the area, attracting companies that invest in research and development of products, focused in the areas of health and biotechnology, that prioritize sustainable development. The focus is to the Education and Research institutions, that comprehends the development of human resources, the availability of technological services and competence, and the technological demands from the companies in the area of Ribeirão Preto and from Brazil itself altogether with the international and national's technological trends in the Health and Biotechnology industry. Ribeirão Preto's Technology Park counts with equipment that induces research and development, as the Medical and Hospital Equipment Laboratory, a Business Center and a Business Incubator. The city also is an educational center in IT. In 2005 the city counted already with more than 300 companies in the activity and in 2010 the area had an increase of 23% in the income of the companies in the industry of Information and Communication Technology. Other areas that the city also stands out in the technological sector are the Health, the Biotechnology and the Bioenergy, considered one of the biggest sugar and ethanol's producers worldwide. == Transportation == === Public transportation === * Ribeirão Preto's public transportation system is operated by three companies and about 300 buses that attend 113 lines and routes. * There are 30 routes operated by small-sized buses. These routes connect distant districts to the main stations and are free of charge. * An electronic card is required to use public transportation. The card works as a pre-paid fare system, and the fares are debited directly from the electronic card. These electronic cards are issued by the transportation department, which is called Transerp. === Main highways === thumb|right|250px|Ribeirão Preto Beltway Ribeirão Preto has a good road network that connects the cities of São Paulo state and to the capital, having access to highways statewide and even national importance through side roads and two-lane paved, as the National Highway Cândido Portinari and Anhanguera highway. Anhanguera is one of the most important roads of São Paulo, being inserted in the northeast corridor of the state, linking it to Minas Gerais. In a radius of 200 km around the city are some of the major cities in the interior of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, such as Araraquara, São Carlos, Bauru, Piracicaba, Campinas, São José do Rio Preto, Uberaba and Uberlândia, being facilitated by the availability of access roads. The following highways pass through the city: *Highway Antonio Machado Sant'Anna (SP-255) – Linking Ribeirão Preto to Araraquara and São Carlos; *Mario Donegá Highway (SP-291) – Road linking Ribeirão Preto to Pradópolis and Dumont; *Attilio Balbo Highway and Highway Armando Salles de Oliveira (SP-322) – Connects Ribeirão Preto to Sertãozinho; *Highway Alexandre Balbo (SP-328) – Ring Road North; *Highway Mayor Antonio Duarte Nogueira (SP-328) – Ring Road South; *Rodovia Anhangüera Highway (SP-330) – Linking Ribeirão Preto to Brasilia, Campinas and São Paulo; *Abraao Assed Highway (SP-333) – Road linking Ribeirão Preto to Serrana and Cajuru; *Highway Cândido Portinari (SP-334) – Road linking Ribeirão Preto to Batatais and Franca === Bus station === The bus station of Ribeirão Preto (Portuguese: Rodoviária de Ribeirão Preto) is placed in the central area of the city, and operates 24 hours a day, connecting Ribeirão Preto to many other cities in São Paulo and in other Brazilian states. === Airport === Leite Lopes Airport offers support and infrastructure compatible with airports of major centers. It operates full-time, with more than 1.1 million passengers (2015). From here depart flights to important cities of Brazil, such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, Salvador and Campinas. Ribeirão Preto's Airport is administered by the São Paulo's Airway Department (DAESP). It is one of the main airports in state of São Paulo. It functions full-time and received, in 2011, more than 54,000 flights and nearly 1.1 million passengers, making it the 26th busiest airport in Brazil, with more movement than some Brazilian capitals. With a runway measuring 2.100 x 45m, a passenger terminal with 3850 m2 and 840 car parking spaces, works for expansions are about to start (2018) amplifying the passengers terminal to 12,000m2. Also operates charter flights and houses the headquarters of Passaredo (important regional airline), and a flying club. === Railroad === Currently the city's railway system is not functional. There are some projects underway to revitalize it. The first railway to arrive in Ribeirão Preto belonged to the Mogiana Company of Railroads, and the railway station was inaugurated on November 23, 1883. In 1970 it became part of the Railroad Paulista SA, and continued to operate until 1976 when the railroad tracks were transferred. On June 1, 1966, was inaugurated the new railway station, now owned by Centro- Atlantic (FCA), which received passengers until August 1997, when these trains were suppressed. In addition to these Ribeirão Preto has been served by two other railroads. The Dumont Railway, built by Mogiana, connecting the city to the farm Dumont, owned by Henrique Santos Dumont, at west of the city, and the train station Dumont, who belonged to the railroad, was inaugurated in 1890 and abandoned by the closure of the line in 1940, and demolished in March 1968. The Railroad São Paulo-Minas transported ore between Ribeirão Preto and Minas Gerais, with the station that was inaugurated on May 1, 1928, and operated until around 1970. == In popular culture == The city plays a major role in Orson Scott Card's Ender saga, as it becomes the headquarters of the Hegemony and the South American capital of the Free People of Earth (the world government). ==Notable people== *Alemão, footballer *Sócrates, footballer and doctor *Tiago Henrique Gonçalves, footballer *Lino Facioli, actor *Kiko Zambianchi, musician *Hélio Castroneves, racing driver *Marcos Gomes, racing driver *Paulo Gomes, racing driver == See also == *Coffee production in Brazil == References == == External links == * *Local time and date. TimeAndDate Worldclock. *Local weather. Weather.com * Noiteafora. Entertainment, Restaurants and Nightlife guide in Ribeirão Preto *Hotels in Ribeirão Preto. TripAdvisor. *Hotel Booking at Ribeirão Preto * Cervejaria Colorado * Cachaça Gabriela – Organic Category:Populated places established in 1856 Category:1856 establishments in Brazil
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Hamdi Qandil ( Ḥamdī Qandīl, also Romanized Qandeel or Kandil; 1936 – 31 October 2018) was a prominent Egyptian journalist, news anchor, talk show host and activist.Said, Rania. A Few Good Men: Hamdi Qandeel . Identity Magazine. 2011. Qandil started his journalism career in the 1950s when he wrote for the Akher Sa'a ("Last Hour") magazine at the invitation of veteran journalist Mustafa Amin. In 1961 he began broadcasting a news show called Aqwal al-Suhuf ("In the Press") until 1969 when he was appointed director of the Arab Broadcasting Studios Union. In 1971 he left his post in protest at a government inspection of his technical staff. He later worked with UNESCO from 1974 to 1986, specializing in the field of international media. In 1987 he co- founded a satellite broadcasting company that later became known as MBC, where he worked for three months before leaving because of political differences with its management. Qandil briefly presented the show Ma'a Hamdi Qandil ("With Hamdi Qandil") for ART, but left amid disagreements between him and his managers regarding Qandil's planned interviews with Muammar Gaddafi and Tariq Aziz. He returned to Egyptian television in 1998, hosting the current affairs and press review talk show Ra'is el-Tahrir ("Editor-in-Chief"). The program became one of the most popular and respected in Egypt. After apparent trouble with the state censors, Qandil moved the show to Dubai TV in 2004 under the name Qalam Rosas ("Pencil"). The new program was highly watched throughout the Arab world. He was forced to quit Dubai TV after criticizing Arab governments and subsequently hosted the show on the Libyan channel Al-Libiya for two months before the Libyan government cancelled it. He returned to Egypt and wrote for the Al-Masry Al-Youm newspaper and then Al-Shorouk, but his association with the latter ended as a result of a libel suit brought on by then-Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit in response to a column critical of Egyptian foreign policy written by Qandil in May 2010. The case was later dropped following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. Qandil was well known for his pan-Arabist discourse and fierce criticism of the Egyptian and other Arab governments.Veteran Journalist Hamdi Kandil Discusses Revolution at AUC. The American University in Cairo. 6 March 2011.Nasrawi, Saif. Pro- ElBaradei journalist faces criminal trial over minister 'insult'. Egypt Independent. Originally published by Agence France-Presse. 9 June 2010. According to Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies political analyst Diaa Rashwan, Qandil "is a great Egyptian journalist and highly credible, he is bold and gives constructive criticism ... people listen to him and take what he says seriously, which is why he poses a threat" to the government. Prior to the Egyptian revolution, Qandil co-founded the National Association for Change, a reformist group headed by Mohamed ElBaradei. From September 2012, Qandil had lent his support to the Egyptian Popular Current opposition movement. ==Early life== ===Childhood=== Qandil was born in Cairo in 1936 to a father from Menoufia. He was the eldest of five children. Qandil spent much of his childhood and had his primary schooling in the Nile Delta city of Tanta. His father had moved the middle-income family to that city, where he owned a few feddans of land mostly planted with pears and grapes. Qandil's father primarily distributed them to neighbors and others close to him.Dularamani, Sajini. Hamdi Qandil: 'The singer, not the song' . Al-Ahram Weekly. 21 April 1999. During Qandil's boyhood, he borrowed and read books from a medical practice and a culture and sporting association in Tanta on a near weekly basis. He also learned field hockey there. Qandil was at the top of his class throughout his later school years and initially sought to enter the medical profession, a typical career aspiration for students with high marks. His mother particularly encouraged him to become a doctor. Qandil simultaneously took an interest in writing, Arabic calligraphy and foreign languages. ===Journalism career and education=== Qandil was introduced to journalism when he began writing a secondary school research paper. During that time, he also wrote an article for the low-budget Tanta newspaper Al Ikhlas, criticizing King Farouk for spending one million pounds from the treasury to purchase a yacht called the "Mahrousa". He was fired soon after, but had since grown fond of journalism. Due to this new interest and his father's increasingly poor health, Qandil did not complete the first stage of his medical studies, causing his 1952 application to medical school to be rejected. He instead enrolled in the department of geology at Alexandria University. In July of that year, King Farouk was overthrown by a group of dissenting officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, leading to the subsequent establishment of a republican system under the presidency of leading officer Muhammad Naguib. Qandil spent two months studying geology and decided to retake his high school examinations in order to enter into medical school. He performed well and was admitted to Cairo University's Qasr El-Ainy Faculty of Medicine in 1953. He continued in his studies until 1956, by which time Nasser had become president. During this period he also joined the National Guard. Together with some of his fellow students he founded his college's official magazine, which they printed through the Akhbar el-Yom publishing house. The magazine's first edition was confiscated due to an article Qandil wrote that was critical of university professors and regulations. Shortly after completing his final exams in 1956, Qandil was offered a writing position with Akher Sa'a ("Last Hour") magazine by its owners, the prominent journalists and brothers Mustafa Amin and Ali Amin. Mustafa employed Qandil with a salary of 15 Egyptian pounds and initially tasked him with writing the horoscope and a column that responded to letters from readers. Qandil was asked by Amin to serve as an editor for Akher Sa'a in 1961. That year Qandil also attended the International Union of Students in Prague, Czechoslovakia, where he met Yasser Arafat, then the head of the General Union of Palestinian Students. Later in 1956 Qandil was accepted into the department of journalism, obtaining a license (bachelor's degree) in journalism in 1960. Four years later he received a diploma in journalism from the Berlin Institute. Throughout this period he wrote for the magazine Al-Tahrir, earning a salary of 25 Egyptian pounds, and also worked with Al-Jamahir magazine in Damascus. ==Career in television and the UN== In 1961 Qandil began to work in broadcast television as the presenter of the program Aqwal al-Suhf ("In the Press"). In 1966 he became a media adviser to a television studio in Jordan, a role which ended after six weeks; the single broadcast of Aqwal al-Suhuf in Jordan was met with consternation from the Jordanian royal government and after Qandil was notified of this disapproval, he immediately returned to Egypt where he continued presenting the program. His position in Aqwal al-Suhuf ended in 1969 with his appointment as director of the Arab Broadcasting Stations Union (ABSU). In early May 1971 Qandil left the ABSU after refusing to launch a disciplinary investigation of the technical team that recorded the Labor Day speech given by Anwar Sadat, who became president following Nasser's death in 1970. He left at a time when numerous broadcasters and media personalities were removed from their positions during Sadat's Corrective Revolution. However, he briefly returned to television in 1973 to announce Egypt's claimed victory in the Yom Kippur War with Israel in October of that year. Qandil was appointed manager of the Department of the Free Flow of Information and Communication Policies for UNESCO in 1974. In an interview with Al-Ahram Weekly, Qandil stated that while at UNESCO he "specialised in satellite communications and published several books and studies" dealing with global media and broadcasting. During this time he strongly pushed to include Palestine as a member and attempted to remove the United States, the United Kingdom and Singapore from the organization. According to his own account, he was also able to master the English and French languages, and gain experience in diplomacy. He left UNESCO in 1986. Together with partners from Egypt and the Arab world, Qandil co-founded the Eastern Satellite Communications Company in 1987. Its main purpose was to serve broadcasting station that would target Arabic-speaking communities in the Western world and to counter what Qandil perceived as Western bias in global media. However, in 1992, as a result of financial difficulties the company was sold and subsequently became the Middle East Broadcasting Center (MBC). Qandil worked at MBC for roughly three months until he quit, citing political differences with the station's managers, who considered him a Nasserist. That same year, he was offered to host his own show at Arab Radio and Television (ART), but initially opted to work on a project setting up a private Egyptian station for Al-Ahram. The station was not launched and Qandil took up a position at ART in 1996 where he hosted his own show called With Hamdi Qandil. Qandil's arrangements to interview Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi on the anniversary of the 1969 coup that brought him to power, and also Tariq Aziz, the vice president of Iraq at the time, aroused controversy among ART's managers. He quit thereafter. ===Ra'is el-Tahrir and Qalam Rosas=== In 1998 Qandil responded favorably to the invitation of Safwat El-Sherif, the Information Minister in Hosni Mubarak's government, to return to Egyptian television. In March his program Ra'is el-Tahrir ("Editor-in- Chief") began airing. Qandil stated he returned to Egyptian television because he felt he owed "a debt of gratitude to the institution that built my fame when I was in my twenties. Also, working in Egypt is more immediately rewarding than anywhere else." With the relaxation of media restrictions during this period, Ra'is el-Tahrir became one of the most popular and respected television programs in Egypt. Describing the relative freedom afforded to the media, Qandil stated in 2001 that the situation was an improvement from when he first began the program, but "as long as there remains a censor, we will continue to ask for more [freedom of expression]."Elbandary, Amina. TV meets the madding crowd . Al-Ahram Weekly. 20 June 2001. Ra'is el-Tahrir was intended to serve as a weekly review of the pan-Arab press, but in practice the program became a medium through which Qandil expressed his opinions on various issues confronting Egypt and the Arab world, views which he claimed were representative of the popular Egyptian sentiment. Al-Ahram Weekly′s Amina Elbandary wrote that during the show, Qandil spoke "in histrionic style, his commentary replete with daring questions and remarks. Viewers are fascinated by his apparent lack of inhibition." In the wake of the Second Intifada, the Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation that began in 2000, the show became dominated by the conflict, which Qandil generally regarded as a campaign of Israeli aggression. He frequently broadcast the Israeli military's actions during the Intifada and called for viewers to support the uprising and boycott Israeli products. Qandil responded to a query regarding his extensive coverage of the Intifada by saying, "How are news shows expected to react to events such as the Intifada? Are we supposed to keep silent?" Ra'is el-Tahrir later moved to Dream TV, an Egypt-based television station. Qandil continued to express his frustrations regarding the Israel and the Intifada, the run-up to the invasion of Iraq, and what he perceived as the United States' maligned intentions for the Middle East. According to author and researcher Andrew Hammond, "The show's combination of current affairs, press reviews and talk-shows became the most talked-about television in Egypt since Al-Jazeera's al-Ittijah al- Mu'akis." His show on Dream TV was cancelled abruptly in early 2003 amid rumors that he had been crossing political red lines during his broadcasts, including stinging criticism of the government of Hosni Mubarak. This reasoning was dismissed by Dream TV manager Sanaa Mansour, who stated that Qandil had not been let go, was free to express himself and left the show without offering an explanation to management.Osman, Ahmed. TBS 12 Rude Awakening: Dream Drops Top Talkers. Transnational Broadcasting Studies Journal. Adham Center for Television Journalism. Spring-Summer 2004. In 2004 Qandil moved to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) began hosting a program on Dubai TV called Qalam Rosas ("Pencil"). The program was virtually a continuation of Ra'is al-Tahrir,Profiles: Hamdi Qandil: Media man turned politician . Al-Ahram Weekly. 6 January 2011. a highly watched show dealing with the Arab world's major political, economic and social affairs of the day.Qalam Rusas Live on JumpTV. Talfazat. 31 January 2008. Qalam Rosas would normally open with Qandil interviewing an Arab intellectual and discussing a current event. The show would then continue to a round table discussion with other journalists analyzing various social and political events and movements concerning the citizens of the Arab world. At its closing, Qandil would summarize the show with a well-known maxim or saying.Qalam Rusas. Middle East Media Services (MEMS). 2006-2007. The London-based Arab Media Watch organization awarded Qandil the 2006 Media Accomplishment Award to commend him for his "creativity and participation in the media world" over the course of his five decade career.Hamdi Qandil Wins the 2006 Media Accomplishment Award. WALEG. 19 September 2006. In 2008 Qandil was forced to leave Dubai TV for criticizing Arab leaders, while commending Hassan Nasrallah, the secretary- general of the Lebanese political party and paramilitary group Hezbollah. After his departure from Dubai TV he entered into a contract with Al-Libia, although he only remained with the Libyan channel for two months. Qandil's show was cancelled when the state-owned Al Jamahiriya Radio's General Authority took control of the channel. There was no official reason for the cancellation, but Qandil stated it was because of "instructions from high- ranking Libyan officials due to pressures from Egypt". He was reportedly offered to present Qalam Rosas on the Hezbollah-linked Al-Manar TV in early 2009, but opted not to join citing an unclear situation regarding his contract with Al-Libia.Hamdy Kandil offered slot on Hezbollah's Al-Manar. Daily News Egypt. 2009. ==Political activism and Aboul Gheit lawsuit== After his brief stint on Al-Libia, Qandil returned to Egypt to write for the newspaper Al- Masry Al-Youm in 2008 and later began writing for Al-Shorouk. He co-founded and served as the media spokesman for National Association for Change (NAC) headed by Mohamed ElBaradei in early 2010. The NAC's stated purpose is push for democratic and other reforms in Egypt. In May Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit brought a lawsuit for libel against Qandil in response to a critical column about Aboul Gheit and Egyptian foreign policy that Qandil wrote for Al-Shorouk, called "The Homeland’s Disgrace and that of the Citizen." In the column Qandil lambasted the contradictory statements made by Aboul Gheit and Egypt's ambassador to Israel, in which the latter said Israel was a friendly state, while Aboul Gheit had just previously stated that Israel was an enemy. Qandil wrote that the ambassador sought to cover up Aboul Gheit's statement,Al-A'asar, Marwa. Qandil to stand trial on charges of defaming Egypt’s FM. Daily News Egypt. 16 December 2010. and that Aboul Gheit's words "usually ... fall from his mouth like droppings of a torn rubbish bag".Former FM drops defamation charges against Hamdy Qandil. Daily News Egypt. 18 April 2011. The matter was transferred to the criminal court. His relationship with Al-Shorouk consequently ended as a result of the controversy. In June 2010 Qandil quit his position as the NAC's media spokesman. He did not give an official reason for resigning, but was reportedly upset that ElBaradei was frequently outside of Egypt. In mid- December Qandil appeared in court and his defense team, which included his brother Assem and Gamal Eid requested that the "biased" court quit and that the case be transferred to a civil jurisdiction. On 24 January 2011 the court refused the referral and also refused to summon Aboul Gheit at the request of Qandil's defense team.Al-A'asar, Marwa. Court refuses to change Qandil’s trial jurisdiction. Daily News Egypt. 24 January 2011. On 25 January mass demonstrations demanding President Hosni Mubarak's downfall erupted across Egypt, eventually overthrowing the government, including Aboul Gheit, on 11 February. In April Aboul Gheit dropped the lawsuit. According to Hafez Abu Seada of the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights, the revolution was the clear reason Aboul Gheit withdrew the suit, and had it not occurred, "the court could have handed [Qandil] a prison sentence." ==Political views== Qandil described himself as a supporter of Nasserism, which he defined not as a political affiliation, but rather an ideal of "social justice" and "national liberation" that "goes beyond generation and class". He did not join any of Egypt's Nasserist political parties or organizations, but viewed the era of late president Nasser as a period in which his "generation was taught self- respect, national pride and the courage to stand up against the great powers". Qandil was described by Hammond as a "secular-nationalist ... embodying the 'conscience of the Arab nation'".Hammond, 2007, p. 218. In a 1999 interview Qandil stated his view that the pan-Arab media was not able to counter what he perceived as the influence of Zionism in American media and that the state of Arab media reflected the state of stagnation in the Arab world in general. Qandil was vociferously opposed to United States foreign policy in the Middle East. He referred to the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 as the "biggest modern disaster for the Arabs since 1948," the year in which the newly established state of Israel defeated a coalition of Arab armies, causing a mass exodus of Palestinians from their homes.Hammond, 2007, p. 2. Qandil supported the 2011 Egyptian revolution and called for Mubarak to step down from the start of the protests. In a lecture to students from the American University of Cairo in early March 2011, Qandil hailed the young protesters who started the revolution as "brave" and expressed hope that it would open an era of democracy and press freedom in Egypt.Copty, Natalie. Qandil praises Egyptian bravery . Caravan-AUC. 11 March 2011. During the 2012 Egyptian presidential election, Qandil endorsed Nasserist candidate Hamdeen Sabahi after the Revolutionary Youth Coalition (RYC) announced their support for him.Tayel, Abeer. Revolutionary Youth Coalition supports Sabbahi for president. Al Arabiya. 15 May 2012. In late September 2012, during the post-revolution period in Egypt during Mohamed Morsi's presidency, Qandil announced his support for the Egyptian Popular Current movement founded by Sabahi. At the inaugural conference, Qandil stated that "a major political battle" would soon be launched for the next parliamentary elections and that Egypt's diverse make-up could never be changed.El-Sharnoubi, Osman. Unity movement launched at mass rally to counter Egypt's Islamists. Ahram Online. 22 September 2012. ==Personal life and Death== Qandil met and married Egyptian actress Naglaa Fathi in 1992. He was married twice before. Fathi said of Qandil "He is the first man who has fascinated me. It is not easy to bewitch me, but he did. I feel like a student when I'm with him: I discover new qualities in him every day,"Abou al-Magd, Nadia. Naglaa Fathi: Soft as steel . Al-Ahram Weekly. 20 November 2000. while Qandil said he felt an "immediate chemical bond" with Naglaa. Qandil died on 31 October 2018 after a long illness, aged 82. ==References== ==Bibliography== * Category:1936 births Category:2018 deaths Category:Alexandria University alumni Category:Cairo University alumni Category:Egyptian activists Category:Egyptian Arab nationalists Category:Egyptian dissidents Category:Egyptian journalists Category:Egyptian revolutionaries Category:Egyptian socialists Category:Egyptian television presenters Category:Nasserists Category:Mass media people from Cairo Category:People from Tanta Category:People of the Egyptian revolution of 2011
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Below is the list of highway tunnels on Turkish motorways. ==Motorway Tunnels== Name Motorway LengthTwo figures wherever the lengths in two directions differ. Number of lanes Province Harp Akademileri 2 x 4 İstanbul Riva 2 x 4 İstanbul Çamlık 2 x 4 İstanbul Çatalca-1 2 x 4 İstanbul Çatalca-2 2 x 4 İstanbul Cebeci 2 x 4 İstanbul KMO 5. Section T1 2 x 4 Kocaeli KMO 5. Section T2 2 x 4 Kocaeli KMO 5. Section T3 2 x 4 Kocaeli KMO 5. Section T4 2 x 4 Kocaeli KMO 5. Section T5 2 x 4 Kocaeli Diliskelesi 2 x 3 Kocaeli Hereke 2 x 3 Kocaeli İzmit Batı 2 x 2 Kocaeli Korutepe 2 x 2 Kocaeli Gültepe 2 x 2 Kocaeli Mount Bolu 2 x 3 Bolu Orhangazi (Samanlı) 2 x 3 Bursa Selçukgazi 2 x 3 Bursa Belkahve 2 x 3 İzmir Bayraklı-1 2 x 3 İzmir Bayraklı-2 2 x 3 İzmir 75.yıl Selatin 2 x 3 İzmir Buruncuk 2 x 3 İzmir İğdir 2 x 3 Bursa Kırkgeçit-1 2 x 3 Niğde Kırkgeçit-2 2 x 3 Niğde Kırkgeçit-3 2 x 3 Niğde Kırkgeçit-4 2 x 3 Niğde Kırkgeçit-5 2 x 3 Niğde Kırkgeçit-6 2 x 3 Adana Kırkgeçit-7 2 x 3 Adana Çakıt 2 x 3 Adana Gülek 2 x 3 Mersin Adana (Fehmi Özeltürkay) 2 x 3 Adana İskenderun 2 x 1 Hatay Taşoluk 2 x 3 Osmaniye Ayran 2 x 3 Osmaniye Kızlaç 2 x 3 Osmaniye Aslanlı 2 x 3 Osmaniye ==Motorway Tunnels (under construction)== ==Motorway Tunnels (projected)== *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Yalova-Elmalık, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 942 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Yalova- Elmalık, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.045 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Çukurköy-Gölcük, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 480 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Çukurköy-Gölcük, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 880 m *Yalova- İzmit Motorway, Çukurköy-Gölcük, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.560 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Çukurköy-Gölcük, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.730 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Gölcük-Bahçecik, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 830 m *Yalova-İzmit Motorway, Bahçecik-Karatepe, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.155 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Çorlu Cut-Cover T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 500 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Tekirdağ-Malkara, T2 Cut-Cover Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 500 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Tekirdağ-Malkara, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.038 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Lapseki-Çan, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 895 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Lapseki-Çan, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.830 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Çan-Yenice, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 990 m *Kınalı-Balıkesir Motorway, Yenice- Balya, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.045 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Elmadağ-Yahşihan, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.280 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Elmadağ-Yahşihan, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.255 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Elmadağ-Yahşihan, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 475 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Elmadağ-Yahşihan, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 878 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Merzifon-Havza, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 6.600 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Merzifon-Havza, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 855 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Havza-Samsun, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.965 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Havza- Samsun, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 565 m *Ankara-Samsun Motorway, Havza-Samsun, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.935 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,240 m *Bafra- Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 3,540 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 480 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,600 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,300 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra- Samsun, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,000 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,000 m *Bafra- Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,320 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Bafra-Samsun, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 2,360 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 440 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 2,360 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T12 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 4,400 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun- Ünye, T13 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 5,540 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T14 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 440 m *Bafra- Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T15 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 380 m *Bafra-Samsun-Ünye Motorway, Samsun-Ünye, T16 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 1,320 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, BurdurNorth-BurdurSouth, T1 (Burdur) Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.615 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, BurdurNorth-BurdurSouth, T2 (MAKÜ) Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.585 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.000 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 865 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 580 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.145 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.930 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Bucak- Antalya, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.185 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Bucak-Antalya, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 310 m *Afyon-Antalya Motorway, Bucak-Antalya, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.855 m *Afyon- Antalya Motorway, Bucak-Antalya, T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 400 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Antalya-Taşağıl, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.070 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Antalya-Taşağıl, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.680 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Antalya-Taşağıl, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.080 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Antalya- Taşağıl, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.220 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Taşağıl-Manavgat, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 560 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Manavgat T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 875 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Manavgat-Alarahan, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 805 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Alarahan-Konaklı, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.965 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Konaklı-Alanya, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 6.715 m *Antalya-Alanya Motorway, Konaklı- Alanya, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.440 m *Denizli-Burdur Motorway, Honaz-Çardak, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 770 m *Denizli- Burdur Motorway, Çardak-Burdur, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.385 m *Denizli-Burdur Motorway, Çardak-Burdur, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.115 m *Denizli-Burdur Motorway, Burdur-Bucak, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.220 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Gerede- Eskipazar, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.130 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Gerede-Eskipazar, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 260 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Eskipazar-Çerkeş, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.080 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Eskipazar-Çerkeş, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 345 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kurşunlu-Ilgaz, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.570 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Ilgaz-Tosya, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 140 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Ilgaz-Tosya, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 515 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Ilgaz-Tosya, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.205 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Ilgaz-Tosya, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 625 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Ilgaz-Tosya, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 370 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.000 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T12 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 940 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T13 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 650 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T14 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 325 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T15 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 915 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T16 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.450 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T17 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.805 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T18 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 465 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T19 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 870 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T20 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 855 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T21 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.795 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede- Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T22 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.515 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Gerede-Merzifon Section, Kargı-Osmancık, T23 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.035 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Amasya T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 472 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Amasya T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.091 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Amasya T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 730 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Amasya T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 304 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Amasya T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.281 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.221 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.202 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.500 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 368 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.113 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Turhal T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.710 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Tokat T12 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.217 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Tokat T13 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.036 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Tokat T14 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.525 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Almus T15 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.160 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Almus T16 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.119 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Almus T17 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.697 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Almus T18 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.048 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon- Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T19 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 799 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T20 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 473 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T21 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 363 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T22 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 762 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T23 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 323 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Reşadiye T24 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 344 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Doğanşar T25 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 7.788 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Koyulhisar T26 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.520 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Koyulhisar T27 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 849 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Koyulhisar T28 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 706 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Koyulhisar T29 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 849 m *Gerede- Gürbulak Motorway, Merzifon-Koyulhisar Section, Koyulhisar T30 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.583 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Koyulhisar-Suşehri, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.750 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Koyulhisar-Suşehri, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.550 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Koyulhisar-Suşehri, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 8.000 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Gölova- Sivas, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.600 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Gölova-Sivas, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.300 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Sivas-Refahiye, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.900 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye-Kemah, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.100 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye- Kemah, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.350 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye-Kemah, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.100 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye- Kemah, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.250 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye-Kemah, T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 450 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye-Kemah, T12 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.200 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Refahiye-Kemah, T13 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 6.350 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T14 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.000 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T15 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 250 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar- Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T16 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 800 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T17 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 750 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar- Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T18 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 400 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T19 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 600 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar- Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T20 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 200 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T21 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 500 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar- Pülümür Section, Kemah-Erzincan, T22 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.710 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Erzincan-Pülümür, T23 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 7.960 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Erzincan-Pülümür, T24 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.600 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Koyulhisar-Pülümür Section, Erzincan- Pülümür, T25 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.020 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Pülümür-Kargın, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.500 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.000 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.750 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.400 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.600 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.500 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.450 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Tercan-Aşkale, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.350 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Pülümür-Horasan Section, Erzurum-Pasinler, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 5.700 m *Gerede-Gürbulak Motorway, Horasan-Gürbulak Section, Horasan-Eleşkirt, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.600 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Sivrihisar T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.929 m *Ankara- İzmir Motorway, Çifteler-Seyitgazi, T2 (Börüklü) Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.255 *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Seyitgazi-Altıntaş, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.061 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Seyitgazi-Altıntaş, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.688 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Dumlupınar- Banaz, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.757 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Uşak-Kula, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.700 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Uşak-Kula, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.728 m *Ankara- İzmir Motorway, Kula T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.823 m *Ankara- İzmir Motorway, Kula-Adala(Salihli), T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.637 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Adala(Salihli)-Gölmarmara, T10 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.069 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Gölmarmara-Ahmetli, T11 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.770 m *Ankara-İzmir Motorway, Ahmetli- Turgutlu, T12 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 857 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.880 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.200 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T3 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 6.420 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T4 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.800 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T5 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 4.675 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T6 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 2.150 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T7 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.400 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T8 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.900 m *İzmir 2. Ring Road, T9 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.100 m *İzmir Ring Road - İZKARAY Subsea Road-Rail Tunnel (projected) - 3 x 1.797 m *İskenderun-Antakya Motorway, Belen T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 800 m *İskenderun-Antakya Motorway, Belen T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) – 2 x 8,050 m *Sivrihisar-Bursa Motorway, Bozüyük- Pekmezli, T1 Cut-Cover Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 670 m *Sivrihisar- Bursa Motorway, Bozüyük-Pekmezli, T2 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 3.560 m *Çeşmeli-Taşucu Motorway, Silifke Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.570 m *Şanlıurfa-Habur Motorway, T1 Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 1.487 m *Şanlıurfa-Habur Motorway, T2 Cut-Cover Motorway Tunnel (projected) - 2 x 890 m ==Notes== ==References== Category:Highways in Turkey Category:Road tunnels in Turkey Tunnels, motorway Turkey Category:Turkey transport-related lists
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The tables below include tabular lists for selected basic foods, compiled from United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) sources. Included for each food is its weight in grams, its calories, and (also in grams,) the amount of protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, fat, and saturated fat.Home and Garden Bulletin, Number 72 United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) 1963, 2002 As foods vary by brands and stores, the figures should only be considered estimates, with more exact figures often included on product labels. For precise details about vitamins and mineral contents, the USDA source can be used. To use the tables, click on "show" or "hide" at the far right for each food category. In the Measure column, "t" = teaspoon and "T" = tablespoon. In the food nutrient columns, the letter "t" indicates that only a trace amount is available. ==Dairy products== Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Dairy products Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Cows' milk, whole 1 qt. 976 660 32 48 0 40 36 skim 1 qt. 984 360 36 52 0 t t Buttermilk, cultured 1 cup 246 127 9 13 0 5 4 Evaporated, undiluted 1 cup 252 345 16 24 0 20 18 Fortified milk 6 cups 1,419 1,373 89 119 1.4 42 23 Powdered milk, whole 1 cup 103 515 27 39 0 28 24 skim, instant 1 1/3 cups 85 290 30 42 0 t t skim, non-instant 2/3 cup 85 290 30 42 1 t t Goats' milk, fresh 1 cup 244 165 8 11 0 10 8 Malted milk (1/2 cup ice cream) 2 cups 540 690 24 70 0 24 22 Cocoa 1 cup 252 235 8 26 0 11 10 Yogurt, of partially skim. milk 1 cup 250 128 18 13 1 4 3 Milk pudding (cornstarch) 1 cup 248 275 9 40 0 10 9 Custard, baked 1 cup 248 285 13 28 0 14 11 Ice cream, commercial 1 cup 188 300 6 29 0 18 16 Ice milk, commercial 1 cup 190 275 9 32 0 10 9 Cream, light, or half-and-half 1/2 cup 120 170 4 5 0 15 13 Cream, heavy, or whipping 1/2 cup 119 430 2 3 1 44 27 Cheese, cottage, creamed 1 cup 225 240 30 6 0 11 10 uncreamed 1 cup 225 195 38 6 0 t t Cheddar, or American 1-in. cube 17 70 4 t 0 6 5 Cheddar, grated cup 1/2 cup 56 226 14 1 0 19 17 Cream cheese 1 oz. 28 105 2 1 0 11 10 Processed cheese 1 oz. 28 105 7 t 0 9 8 Roquefort type 1 oz. 28 105 6 t 0 9 8 Swiss 1 oz. 28 105 7 t 0 8 7 Eggs, boiled, poached, or raw 2 100 150 12 t 0 12 10 Scrambled, omelet, or fried 2 128 220 13 1 0 16 14 Yolks only 2 34 120 6 t 0 10 8 ==Oils, fats and shortenings== Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Oils, fats and shortenings Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Butter 1T. 14 100 t t 0 11 10 Butter 1/2 cup or 1/4 lb. 112 800 t 1 0 90 80 Hydrogenated cooking fat 1/2 cup 100 665 0 0 0 100 88 Lard 1/2 cup 110 992 0 0 0 110 92 Margarine, 1/2 pound or 1/2 cup 112 806 t t 0 91 76 Margarine, 2 pat or 1 T. 14 100 t t 0 11 9 Mayonnaise 1 T. 15 110 t t 0 12 5 Oils Corn, soy, peanut or cottonseed 1 T. 14 125 0 0 0 14 5 Olive 1T. 14 125 0 0 0 14 3 Safflower, sunflower seed, walnut 1 T. 14 125 0 0 0 14 3 Salad dressing French 1 T. 15 60 t 2 0 6 2 Thousand Island 1 T. 15 75 t 1 0 8 3 Salt pork 2 oz. 60 470 3 0 0 55 ==Meat and poultry== Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Meat and poultry Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Bacon, crisp, drained 2 slices 16 95 4 1 0 8 7 Beef, chuck, pat-roasted 3 oz. 85 245 23 0 0 16 15 Hamburger, commercial 3 oz. 85 245 21 0 0 17 15 Ground lean 3 oz. 85 185 24 0 0 10 9 Roast beef, oven-cooked 3 oz. 85 390 16 0 0 36 35 Steak, as sirloin 3 oz. 85 330 20 0 0 27 25 Steak, lean, as round 3 oz. 85 220 24 0 0 12 11 Corned beef 3 oz. 85 185 22 0 0 10 9 Corned beef hash, canned 3 oz. 85 120 12 6 t 8 7 Dried or chipped 2 oz. 56 115 19 0 0 4 4 Pot-pie, 4 1/2" diameter 1 pie 227 480 18 32 t 28 25 Stew, with vegetables 1 cup 235 185 15 15 t 10 9 chicken; broiled 3 oz. 85 185 23 0 0 9 7 Fried, breast or leg and thigh 3 oz. 85 245 25 0 0 15 11 Roasted 3 1/2 oz. 100 290 25 0 0 20 16 Chicken livers, fried 3 med. 100 140 22 2.30 0 14 12 Duck, domestic 3 1/2 oz. 100 370 16 0 0 28 0 Lamb, chop, broiled 4 oz. 115 480 24 0 0 35 33 Leg roasted 3 oz. 86 314 20 0 0 14 14 Shoulder, braised 3 oz. 85 285 18 0 0 23 21 Pork, chop, 1 thick 3 1/2 oz. 100 260 16 0 0 21 18 Ham, cured, and pan-broiled 3 oz. 85 290 16 0 0 22 19 Ham, as luncheon meat 2 oz. 57 170 13 0 0 13 11 Ham, canned, spiced 2 oz. 57 165 8 1 0 14 12 Pork roast 3 oz. 85 310 21 0 0 24 21 Pork sausage, bulk 3 1/2 oz. 100 475 18 0 0 44 40 Turkey, roasted 3 1/2 oz. 100 265 27 0 0 15 0 Veal, cutlet, broiled 3 oz. 85 185 23 0 0 9 8 Roast 3 oz. 85 305 13 0 0 14 13 ==Fish and seafood== Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Fish and seafood Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Clams, steamed or canned 3 oz. 85 87 12 2 0 1 0 Cod, broiled 3 1/2 oz. 100 170 28 0 0 5 0 Crab meat, cooked 3 oz. 85 90 14 1 0 2 0 Fish sticks, breaded, fried 5 112 200 19 8 0 10 5 Flounder, baked 3 1/2 oz. 100 200 30 0 0 8 0 Haddock, fried 3 oz. 85 135 16 6 0 5 4 Halibut, broiled 3 1/2 oz. 100 182 26 0 0 8 0 Herring, kippered 1 small 100 211 22 0 0 13 0 Lobster, steamed aver. 100 92 18 t 0 1 0 Mackerel, canned 3 oz. 85 155 18 0 a 9 0 Oysters, raw 6-8 med. or 1/2 cup 120 85 8 3 0 2 0 Oyster stew, made with milk 1 cup 230 200 11 11 0 12 0 Salmon, canned 3 oz. 85 120 17 0 0 5 1 Sardines, canned 3 oz. 85 180 22 0 0 9 4 Scallops, breaded, fried 3 1/2 oz. 100 104 18 10 0 8 0 Shad, baked 3 oz. 85 170 20 0 0 10 0 Shrimp, steamed 3 oz. 85 110 23 0 0 1 0 Swordfish, broiled 1 steak 100 180 27 0 0 6 0 Tuna, canned, drained 3 oz. 85 170 25 0 0 7 3 ==Vegetables== Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Vegetables A-E Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Artichoke, globe 1 large 100 8-44 2 10+ 2 t t Asparagus, green 6 spears 96 18 1 3 0.5 t t Beans, green snap 1 cup 125 25 1 6 0.8 t t Lima, green 1 cup 160 140 8 24 3.0 t t Lima, dry, cooked 1 cup 192 260 16 48 2 t t Navy, baked with pork 3/4 cup 200 250 11 37 2 6 6 Red kidney, canned 1 cup 260 230 15 42 2.5 1 0 Bean sprouts, uncooked 1 cup 50 17 1 3 0.3 t 0 Beet greens, steamed 1 cup 100 27 2 6 1.4 t 0 Beetroots, boiled 1 cup 165 1 12 0.80 t 0 Broccoli, steamed 1 cup 150 45 5 8 1.9 t 0 Brussels sprouts, steamed Cabbage, as coleslaw 1 cup 130 60 6 12 1.7 t 0 Sauerkraut, canned 1 cup 150 32 1 7 1.2 t 0 Steamed cabbage 1 cup 170 40 2 9 1.3 t 0 Carrots, cooked, diced 1 cup 150 45 1 10 0.9 t 0 Raw, grated 1 cup 110 45 1 10 1.2 t 0 Strips, from raw 1 mad. 50 20 t 5 0.5 t 0 Cauliflower, steamed 1 cup 120 30 3 6 1 t 0 Celery, cooked, diced 1 cup 100 20 1 4 1 t 0 Stalk raw 1 large 40 5 1 1 0.3 t 0 Chard steamed, leaves and stalks 1 cup 150 30 2 7 1.4 t 0 Collards, steamed leaves 1 cup 150 51 5 8 2 t 0 Corn, steamed, 1 ear 100 92 3 21 0.8 1 t cooked or canned 1 cup 200 170 5 41 1.6 t 0 Cucumbers, 1/8" slices 8 50 6 t 1 0.2 0 0 Dandelion greens, steamed 1 cup 180 80 5 16 3.2 1 0 Eggplant, steamed 1 cup 180 30 2 9 1.0 t 0 Endive (escarole) 2 oz. 57 10 1 2 0.6 t 0 Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Vegetables F-P Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Kale, steamed 1 cup 110 45 4 8 0.9 1 0 Kohlrabi, raw, sliced 1 cup 140 40 2 9 1.5 t 0 Lambs quarters, steamed 1 cup 150 48 5 7 3.2 t 0 Lentils 1 cup 200 212 15 38 2.4 t 0 Lettuce, loose leaf, green 1/4 head 100 14 1 2 0.5 t 0 Iceberg 1/4 head 100 13 t 3 0.5 t 0 Mushrooms, cooked or canned 4 120 12 2 4 t t 0 Mustard greens, steamed 1 140 30 3 6 1.2 t 0 Okra, diced, steamed 1 1/3 cups 100 32 1 7 1 t 0 Onions, mature cooked 1 210 80 2 18 1.6 t 0 Raw, green 6 small 50 22 t 5 1 t 0 Parsley, chopped, raw 2 T. 50 2 t t t t 0 Parsnips, steamed 1 cup 155 95 2 22 3 1 0 Peas, green, canned 1 cup 100 66 3 13 0.1 t 0 Fresh, steamed 1 cup 100 70 5 12 2.2 t 0 Frozen, heated 1 cup 100 5 12 1.8 t 0 Split cooked 4 cups 100 115 8 21 0.4 t 0 With carrots, frozen, heated 1 cup 100 53 3 10 1 t 0 Peppers, pimientos, canned 1 pod 38 10 t 2 t t 0 Raw, green, sweet 1 large 100 25 1 6 1.4 t 0 Stuffed with beef and crumbs 1 med. 150 255 19 24 1 9 8 Potatoes, baked 1 med. 100 100 2 22 0.5 t 0 French-fried 10 pieces 60 155 -1 20 0.4 7 3 Mashed with milk and butter 1 cup 200 230 4 28 0.7 12 11 Potatoes, pan-tried 3/4 cup 100 268 4 33 0.40 14 6 Scalloped with cheese 3/4 cup 100 145 6 14 0.40 8 7 Steamed before peeling 1 med. 100 80 2 19 0.40 t 0 Potato chips 10 20 110 1 10 t 7 4 Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Vegetables R-Z Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Radishes, raw 5 small 50 10 t 2 0.3 0 0 Rutabagas, diced 4 cups 100 32 t 8 1.4 0 0 Soybeans, unseasoned 1 cup 200 260 22 20 3.2 11 0 Spinach, steamed 1 cup 100 26 3 3 1 t 0 Squash, summer 1 cup 210 35 1 8 0.6 t 0 Winter, mashed 1 cup 200 95 4 23 2.6 t 0 Sweet potatoes, baked 1 med. 110 155 2 36 1 1 0 Candied 1 med. 175 235 2 80 1.5 6 5 Tomatoes, canned whole 1 cup 240 50 2 9 1 t 0 Raw, 2 by 2 1/2 1 med. 150 30 1 6 0.6 t 0 Tomato juice, canned 1 cup 240 50 2 10 0.6 t 0 Tomato catsup 1 T. 17 15 t 4 t t 0 Turnip greens, steamed 1 cup 145 45 4 8 1.8 1 0 Turnips, steamed, sliced 1 cup 155 40 1 9 1.8 t 0 Watercress, leaves and stems, raw 1 cup 50 9 1 1 0.3 t 0 ==Fruits== Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Fruits A-F Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Apple juice, fresh or canned 1 cup 250 125 t 34 0 0 0 Apple vinegar 1/3 cup 100 14 t 3 0 0 0 Apples, raw 1 med 130 70 t 18 1 t 0 Stewed or canned 1 cup 240 100 t 26 2 t 0 Apricots, canned In syrup 1 cup 250 220 2 57 1 t 0 Dried, uncooked 1/2 cup 75 220 4 50 1 t 0 Fresh 3 med. 114 55 1 14 0.70 t 0 Nectar, or juice 1 cup 250 140 1 36 2 t 0 Avocado 1/2 large 108 185 2 6 1.80 18 12 Banana 1 med. 150 85 1 23 0.9 t 0 Blackberries, fresh 1 cup 144 85 2 19 6.60 1 0 Blueberries, canned 1 cup 250 245 1 65 2 t 0 Cantaloupe 1/2 med. 380 40 1 9 2.20 t 0 Cherries, canned, pitted 1 cup 257 100 2 26 2 1 0 Fresh, raw 1 cup 114 65 1 15 0.8 t 0 Cranberry sauce, sweetened 1 cup 277 530 t 142 1.2 t 0 Dates, dried 1 cup 178 505 4 134 3.6 t 0 Figs, dried, large, 2" by 1" 2 42 120 2 30 1.9 t 0 Fresh, raw 3 med. 114 90 2 22 1 t 0 Stewed or canned with syrup 3 115 130 1 32 1 t 0 Fruit cocktail, canned 1 cup 256 195 1 50 0.5 t 0 Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Fruits G-O Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Grapefruit, canned sections 1 cup 250 170 1 44 0.5 t 0 Grapefruit, fresh, 5" diameter 1/2 285 50 1 14 1 t t Grapefruit juice 1 cup 250 100 1 24 1 t 0 Grapes, American, as Concord 1 cup 153 70 1 16 0.8 t 0 European, as Muscat, Tokay 1 cup 160 100 1 26 0.7 t 0 Grape juice, bottled 1 cup 250 160 1 42 t t 0 Lemon juice, fresh 1/2 cup 125 30 t 10 t t 0 Lemonade concentrate, frozen 6-oz. can 220 430 t 112 t t 0 Limeade concentrate frozen 6-oz. can 218 405 t 108 t t 0 Olives, green, canned large 10 65 72 1 3 0.8 10 9 Ripe, canned, large 10 65 105 1 1 1 13 12 Oranges, fresh, 3" diameter 1 med. 180 60 2 16 1 t t Orange juice, fresh 8 oz. or 250 112 2 25 0.2 t 0 Frozen concentrate 6-oz. can 210 330 2 78 0.4 t t Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Fruits P-Z Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Papaya, fresh 1/2 med. 200 75 1 18 1.8 t 0 Peaches, canned, sliced 1 cup 257 200 1 52 1 t 0 Fresh, raw 1 med. 114 35 1 10 0.6 t 0 Pears, canned, sweetened 1 cup 255 195 1 50 2 t 0 Raw, 3 by 2V 1 med. 182 100 1 25 2 1 0 Persimmons, Japanese 1 med. 125 75 1 20 2 t 0 Pineapple, canned, sliced 1 large slice 122 95 t 26 0.4 t 0 Crushed 1 cup 260 205 1 55 0.7 t 0 Raw, diced 1 cup 140 75 1 19 0.6 t' 0 Pineapple juice, canned 1 cup 250 120 1 32 0.2 t 0 Plums, canned in syrup 1 cup 256 185 1 50 0.7 t 0 Raw, 2" diameter 1 60 30 t 7 0.2 t 0 Prunes, cooked 1 cup 270 300 3 81 0.8 1 0 Prune juice, canned* 1 cup 240 170 1 45 0.7 t 0 Raisins, dried 1/2 cup 88 230 2 82 0.7 t 0 Raspberries, frozen 1/2 cup 100 100 t 25 2 t 0 Raw, red 3/4 cup 100 57 t 14 5 t 0 Rhubarb, cooked, sweetened 1 cup 270 385 1 98 1.9 t 0 Strawberries, frozen 1 cup 227 242 1 60 1.3 t 0 Raw 1 cup 149 54 t 12 1.9 t 0 Tangerines, fresh I med. 114 40 1 10 1 t 0 Watermelon, 4 by 8" 1 wedge 925 120 2 29 3.6 1 0 ==Breads, cereals and grains== Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Breads, cereals, and grains A-O Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Biscuits, 2 1/2" diameters 1 38 130 3 18 t 4 3 Bran flakes 1 cup 25 117 3 32 0.10 t 0 Bread, cracked wheat 1 slice 23 60 2 12 0.10 1 1 Rye 1 slice 23 55 2 12 0.10 1 1 White, 20 slices, or 1-lb. loaf 454 1,225 39 229 9.00 15 12 Whole-wheat 1-lb. loaf 454 1,100 48 216 67.50 14 10 Whole-wheat 1 slice 23 55 2 11 0.31 1 0 Corn bread of whole ground meal 1 serving 50 100 3 15 0.30 4 2 Cornflakes 1 cup 25 110 2 25 0.1 t 0 Corn grits, refined, cooked 1 cup 242 120 8 27 0.2 t 0 Corn meal, yellow 1 cup 118 360 9 74 1.6 4 2 Crackers, graham 2 med. 14 55 1 10 t 1 0 Soda, 2 1/2 square 2 11 45 1 8 t 1 0 Farina 1 cup 238 105 3 22 8 t 0 Flour, soy, full fat 1 cup 110 460 39 33 2.9 22 0 Wheat (all purpose) 1 cup 110 400 12 84 0.3 1 0 Wheat (whole) 1 cup 120 390 13 79 2.8 2 0 Macaroni, cooked 1 cup 140 155 5 32 0.1 1 0 Baked with cheese 1 cup 220 475 18 44 t 25 24 Muffins of refined flour 1 48 135 4 19 t 5 4 Noodles 1 cup 160 200 7 37 0.1 2 2 Oatmeal, or rolled oats 1 cup 236 150 5 26 4.6 3 2 Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Breads, cereals, and grains P-Z Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Pancakes, buckwheat, 4" diam. 4 108 250 7 28 0.1 9 0 Wheat, refined flour, 4" diam. 4 108 250 7 28 0.1 9 0 Pizza, cheese, 1/8 of 14" diam. 1 section 75 180 8 23 t 6 5 Popcorn, with oil and salt 2 cups 28 152 3 20 0.5 7 2 Puffed rice 1 cup 14 55 t 12 t t 0 Puffed wheat, presweetened 1 cup 28 105 1 26 0.6 t 0 Rice, uncooked, brown 1 cup 208 748 15 154 1.2 3 0 Converted 1 cup 187 677 14 142 0.4 t 0 White 1 cup 191 692 4.2 150 0.3 t 0 Rice flakes 1 cup 30 115 2 26 0.1 t 0 Rice polish 1/2 cup 50 132 6 28 1.2 6 0 Rolls, breakfast, sweet 1 large 50 411 3 23 0.1 12 11 of refined flour 1 38 115 3 20 t 2 2 whole-wheat 1 40 102 4 20 0.1 1 0 Spaghetti with meat sauce 1 cup 250 285 13 35 0.50 10 6 with tomatoes and cheese 1 cup 250 210 6 36 0.50 5 3 Spanish rice with meat 1 cup 250 217 4 40 1.20 4 0 Shredded wheat biscuit 1 28 100 3 23 0.70 1 0 Waffles, 1/2" x 4 1/2" x 5 1/2" 1 75 240 8 30 0.10 9 1 Wheat germ 1 cup 68 245 17 34 2.50 7 3 Wheat-germ cereal, toasted 1 cup 65 260 20 36 2.50 7 3 Wheat-meal cereal, unrefined 3/4 cup 30 103 4 25 0.70 1 0 Wheat, unground, cooked 3/4 cup 200 275 12 35 4.40 1 0 ==Soups: canned and diluted== Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Soups: canned and diluted Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Bean soups 1 cup 250 190 8 30 0.60 5 4 Beef and vegetable 1 cup 250 100 6 11 0.50 4 4 Bouillon, broth, consommé 1 cup 240 24 5 0 0 0 0 chicken or turkey 1 cup 250 75 4 10 0 2 2 Clam chowder, without milk 1 cup 255 85 5 12 0.50 2 8 Cream soups (asparagus, celery, etc.) 1 cup 255 200 7 18 1.20 12 11 Noodle, rice, barley 1 cup 250 115 6 13 0.20 4 3 Split-pea soup 1 cup 250 147 8 25 0.50 3 3 Tomato soup, diluted w/milk 1 cup 245 175 6 22 0.50 7 6 Vegetable (vegetarian) 1 cup 250 80 4 14 0 2 2 ==Desserts and sweets== Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Desserts and sweets Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Apple betty 1 serving 100 150 1 29 0.5 4 0 Bread pudding with raisins 3/4 cup 200 374 11 56 0.20 12 11 Cakes, angel food 1 slice 40 110 3 23 0 t 0 Chocolate fudge w/ icing 1 slice 120 420 5 70 0.3 14 12 Cupcake with icing 1 50 160 3 31 t 3 2 Fruit cake, 2" x 2" x 4" 1 slice 30 105 2 17 0.2 4 3 Gingerbread, 2" cube 1 slice 55 180 2 28 t 7 6 Plain, with no icing 1 slice 55 180 4 31 t 5 4 Sponge cake, no icing 1 slice 40 115 3 22 0 2 2 Candy, caramels 5 25 104 t 19 0 3 3 Chocolate creams 2 30 130 t 24 0 4 4 Fudge, plain, 1" x 1" 2 pieces 90 370 t 80 0.1 12 11 Hard candies 1 oz. 28 90 t 28 0 0 0 Marshmallows, large 5 30 98 1 23 0 0 0 Milk chocolate 2-oz. bar 56 290 2 44 0.2 6 6 Chocolate syrup 2 T. 40 80 t 22 0 t t Doughnuts, cake type 1 33 135 2 17 t 7 4 Gelatin, made with water 1 cup 239 155 4 36 0 t t Honey, strained honey, strained 2 T. 42 120 t 30 0 0 0 Ice cream, see Dairy products Ices, lime, orange, etc. 1 cup 150 117 0 48 0 0 0 Jams, marmalades, preserves 1 T. 20 55 0 14 t 0 0 Jellies 1 T. 20 50 0 13 0 0 0 Molasses, blackstrap 1 T. 20 45 0 11 8 0 0 Cane, refined 1 T. 20 50 0 13 0 0 0 Pie, apple, 1/2 of 9" diam. pie 1 slice 135 330 3 53 0.1 13 11 Cherry 1 slice 135 340 3 55 0.1 13 11 Custard 1 slice 130 265 7 34 0 11 10 Lemon meringue 1 slice 120 300 4 45 0.1 12 10 Mince 1 slice 135 340 3 62 0.70 9 8 Pumpkin 1 slice 130 265 5 34 8 12 11 Puddings (see Dairy products) Sugar, beet or cane 1 cup 200 770 0 199 0 0 0 3 teaspoons or 1 T. 12 50 0 12 0 0 0 Brown, firm-packed, dark 1 cup 220 815 0 210 0 0 Syrup, maple 2 T. 40 100 0 25 0 0 0 table blends 2 T. 40 110 0 29 0 0 0 Tapioca cream pudding 1 cup 250 335 10 42 0 10 9 ==Nuts and seeds== Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Nuts and seeds Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Almonds, dried 1/2 cup 70 425 13 13 1.8 38 28 roasted and salted 1/2 cup 70 439 13 13 1.8 40 31 Brazil nuts; unsalted 1/2 cup 70 457 10 7 2 47 31 Cashews, unsalted 1/2 cup 70 392 12 20 0.9 32 28 Coconut, shredded, sweetened 1/2 cup 50 274 1 26 2 20 19 Peanut butter, commercial 1/3 cup 50 300 12 9 0.9 25 17 Peanut butter, natural 1/3 cup 50 284 13 8 0.9 24 10 Peanuts, roasted 1/3 cup 50 290 13 9 1.2 25 16 Pecans, raw, halves 1/2 cup 52 343 5 7 1.1 35 25 Sesame seeds, dry 1/2 cup 50 280 9 10 3.1 24 13 Sunflower seeds 1/2 cup 50 280 12 10 1.9 26 7 Walnuts, English, raw 1/2 cup 50 325 7 8 1 32 7 ==Beverages== Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Beverages Food Measure Grams Calories Protein Carb. Fiber Fat Sat. fat Alcoholic Beer (4% alcohol) 2 cups 480 228 t 8 0 0 0 Gin, rum, vodka, whiskey (86 proof) 1 oz. 28 70 0 t 0 0 0 Wines, dessert (I 8.8% alcohol) 1/2 cup 120 164 t 9 0 0 0 Table (12.2% alcohol) 1/2 cup 120 100 t 5 0 0 0 Carbonated drinks Artificially sweetened 12 oz. 346 0 0 0 0 0 0 Club soda 12 oz. 346 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cola drinks, sweetened 12 oz. 346 137 0 38 0 0 0 Fruit-flavored soda 12 oz. 346 161 0 42 0 0 0 Ginger ale 12 oz. 346 105 0 28 0 0 0 Root beer 12 oz. 346 140 0 35 0 0 0 Coffee, black, unsweetened 1 cup 230 3 t 1 0 0 0 Tea, clear, unsweetened 1 cup 230 4 0 1 0 t 0 ==See also== * Food energy * Food groups * Nutrient contents of common foods * Food labels * Healthy diet * Nutrition * Human nutrition ==References== Category:Nutrition
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Rodney William Marsh (born 11 October 1944) is an English former footballer and football coach; he later worked as a broadcaster. A forward, he won nine caps for England between 1971 and 1973, scoring one international goal. Brought up in the East End of London, he played youth football for West Ham United before he made his professional debut with Fulham in March 1963. He scored 22 goals in 63 First Division games before falling out with the management and taking a £15,000 transfer to Queens Park Rangers in March 1966. He helped the club to the 1967 League Cup and to consecutive promotions through the Third Division and Second Division. In March 1972 he was sold to Manchester City for £200,000. He featured in the 1974 League Cup final defeat but his time in Manchester was largely disappointing and he left the UK the following year to play for American club Tampa Bay Rowdies. He had a successful career with the Rowdies and went on to coach the club from 1984 to 1986 after previously having brief spells coaching New York United and the Carolina Lightnin'. In the 1990s he began work as a broadcaster on Sky Sports, before he was sacked in January 2005. Since that time he has appeared on numerous reality television shows, and helped to run an American-based property development company with his son. In 2015, Marsh started co-hosting a radio show about football on SiriusXM, titled Grumpy Pundits. His co-host is Irish broadcaster Tommy Smyth. ==Early life== Marsh was born in Hatfield, Hertfordshire to Lilian Dredge, a housewife, and William Marsh, a docker. He grew up in Palatine Road, Stoke Newington, and his parents only spent a few days in Hertfordshire so his mother could avoid going into labour during the Blitz. Marsh had a rough upbringing as a child, particularly from his father, and in his autobiography said that this tough upbringing left him emotionally traumatised. His father came from an even more violent family, and was partially crippled at the age of 19 after being attacked by his father with a hammer. An only child, Marsh described his family as "incredibly poor" and until the age of 11 he slept in the corner of his parents' bedroom – the family shared a three-storey house with two other families and the only other room they had was a living room. He attended Arsenal matches at Highbury with his father, and also went along to see reserve team matches. The family's poverty came to an end just as Marsh was beginning his professional football career – his father helped the landlord to fill out his weekly pool coupon, and the landlord had a massive win shortly before his death and left the house to Marsh's father in his will. Marsh played alongside Ron "Chopper" Harris for Hackney Schools, scoring all three goals as Hackney won the schools national championship. His father secured him a trial for the West Ham United under-16s, and he impressed enough to land himself a place in the academy. However, he was released after ten months by Wally St Pier, who let Marsh go to open up a place on the youth team for Geoff Hurst. Soon before his sixteenth birthday, Marsh was spotted by scout Bill Brown, who offered him a place in Fulham's youth programme. ==Playing career== ===Fulham=== Marsh began his career with First Division side Fulham, and made his debut against Aston Villa at Craven Cottage on 23 March 1963 after Johnny Haynes picked up an injury. He scored the winning goal on his debut with a volley from a George Cohen cross, prompting manager Bedford Jezzard to state that "No boy could have had a better first game". Haynes returned to the starting line-up the next week, but Marsh was accommodated with the number eight shirt. In September 1963, he collided with John Sjoberg whilst scoring a winning goal against Leicester City and was ruled out of action for ten months with a broken jaw and skull. The incident left him with a permanent loss of hearing in his left ear. For weeks he was unable to keep his balance whilst standing, and he was told by one specialist that he would never play football again. He returned to fitness in the 1964–65 season and was utilized at centre forward, and formed an effective partnership with Haynes to secure 17 goals to become the club's top-scorer. However manager Bedford Jezzard left the club and Marsh did not get along with new boss Vic Buckingham. He ridiculed Buckingham, who in turn froze Marsh out of the first team. ===Queens Park Rangers=== Marsh moved across West London to join Queens Park Rangers, then in the Third Division, after manager Alec Stock paid out a £15,000 fee in March 1966. QPR finished third at the end of the 1965–66 campaign, eight points outside promoted Millwall. His first full season with Rangers was his most successful, as he formed an effective strike partnership with Les Allen, whilst Roger Morgan and Mark Lazarus delivered reliable service from the wings. Marsh scored his first hat-trick for the club in a 4–0 win over Middlesbrough. He scored 44 goals in 53 games as the club became Third Division champions; his 30 league goals made him the division's top-scorer. QPR also won the League Cup, with Marsh setting Rangers on their way with four goals during a 5–0 victory over Colchester United at Layer Road. They needed a replay to overcome Aldershot, before they beat Swansea Town, top-flight Leicester City, Carlisle United and Birmingham City. Their opponents in the Wembley final were West Bromwich Albion, who had won the cup the previous year. The "Baggies" took a two-goal lead before half-time, but Rangers fought back in the second half and on the 75th minute Marsh scored what he described as "the defining goal of my career" when he made a mazy run past numerous defenders before finding the net with a 25-yard shot that went in off the post. Lazarus scored QPR's third goal six minutes later to win the game 3–2. A week after the final Tottenham Hotspur manager witnessed Marsh put in a strong performance against Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic and he offered to pay QPR £180,000 for Marsh and Morgan, but his offer was rejected by chairman Jim Gregory. The 1967–68 season saw a second successive promotion as QPR reached the First Division as runners-up in the Second Division, ahead of Blackpool on goal average. Marsh was again top-scorer with 14 goals despite missing the start of the season with a broken foot. He signed a new four-year contract in the summer. Rangers were unable to compete in the top-flight, and Marsh himself struggled with injury as the club suffered relegation with only 18 points to their name. He broke his foot in pre-season training for the 1968–69 campaign and missed the opening months; during this time the club struggled as Stock resigned before the season started, and he was replaced by Bill Dodgin in a caretaker capacity. By the time Marsh recovered from his injury manager Tommy Docherty's first 28-day spell in charge at Loftus Road had come and gone. In summer 1969, Marsh was sent off in a friendly against Rangers after punching Kai Johansen in retaliation for a kick Johansen gave Marsh. In the 1969–70 season he and Barry Bridges shared 46 goals equally between them, as QPR finished in ninth position. They also reached the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, which was then the club's joint-best achievement in the competition. Marsh again hit 23 goals in the 1970–71 campaign, as Rangers again finished in mid-table obscurity under the stewardship of Gordon Jago. However Marsh lost his captaincy to new signing Terry Venables. He hit 20 goals in the 1971–72 season to finish as the club's top-scorer for the second successive season. Before the season began he signed a new contract on the understanding that he would leave the club if they could not achieve promotion by the end of the season. QPR were still in the hunt for promotion by the time that Marsh was sold – they eventually finished a few points short, however the sum offered by Manchester City was too much for the club to refuse. ===Manchester City=== In March 1972, he was signed for Manchester City by Malcolm Allison for a then-club record £200,000. City were four points clear at the top of the table when Marsh was signed, but by the end of the season they had slipped to fourth. Many pundits criticised the signing, pointing out that Marsh was a maverick player ill-suited to Allison's well-drilled set-up. He initially replaced Wyn Davies up front in a 4-4-2 formation, before playing alongside Davies, Mike Summerbee and Francis Lee in a 4-2-4 set-up. Marsh became City's top-scorer, scoring 19 goals in 1972–73. However the club entered into a decline when Allison resigned in March 1973; over the next year Johnny Hart, Tony Book and Ron Saunders all had spells as City manager. The "Sky Blues" finished 11th in 1972–73 and 14th in 1973–74. They did though reach the final of the League Cup in 1974, losing 2–1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers at Wembley. Marsh was so disappointed by the defeat he threw away his runners-up medal. Tony Book started his second spell as City's manager in April 1974, and despite being club captain Marsh showed no respect for Book. City finished eighth in 1974–75 and 1975–76. Marsh was transfer-listed and sent to train with the reserves after chairman Peter Swales told Book the details of a private conversation the pair had held: > If you think I'm effing useless it's not going to work. Do you want to take > it back? (Book) > No chance. In fact, thinking about it more, you're not that good. (Marsh) ===Later career=== In the middle of 1975 Marsh played a handful of matches for Cork Hibernians for a fee of £600 a game. He later was flown to Los Angeles as a guest of Elton John, who was then chairman of the Los Angeles Aztecs in the NASL, but before he agreed to join the club he was approached in January 1976 by the Tampa Bay Rowdies. He was sold to the Rowdies in April 1976 for a £40,000 fee. He made two oft-quoted remarks during his transfer, stating that "football in England had become a grey game, played on grey days by grey people" and upon arriving in America he announced that "Pelé is known as the black Rodney Marsh" after the Rowdies owner said that "Rodney Marsh is known as the white Pelé". He played from 1976 to 1979 in the States, leading the Rowdies to the Soccer Bowl in his final two seasons. Both times they would come up short. Marsh was a NASL All-Star every year, making the first-team in 1976 and 1978, the second team in 1977 and as an Honorable Mention in his final season. Despite this success he suffered from depression and was drinking heavily for much of his time there. Head coach Eddie Firmani resigned from the club in 1977 after becoming frustrated with Marsh's ill-discipline; he was replaced by John Boyle. Marsh stopped his drinking after his doctor told him that alcohol was destroying his liver and seriously shortening his life expectancy. Marsh left the club after being forced out in 1979. He went off in another tantrum after being substituted with ten minutes to go of his competitive career by head coach Gordon Jago. While serving as Rowdies manager for the 1986–87 AISA season, the long-retired Marsh was pressed into service once again as a player, due to a rash of injuries on the squad. He spent the winter of the 1976–77 season on loan at Fulham, now in the Second Division, after learning that George Best would also be playing at Craven Cottage. The "Cottagers" were then a fashionable club where celebrities would often be in attendance and players like Marsh and Best would spend much of their free time in London nightclubs; manager Alec Stock ensured that the partying off the pitch did not hamper progress on the pitch. Stock resigned and new boss Bobby Campbell took the club as high as fourth place before a run of nine defeats in 12 games saw Fulham slide down the table. The bleak wintery conditions eventually took their toll on Best and Marsh, who both returned to the US early in 1976. ==International career== Marsh made his England debut in a 1–1 draw with Switzerland at Wembley in November 1971, coming on as a substitute for Francis Lee. He won a total of nine caps, scoring one goal, which came in a 3–0 victory over Wales. It has been reported that the England manager Alf Ramsey told him "I'll be watching you for the first 45 minutes and if you don't work harder I'll pull you off at half time," to which Marsh replied: "Crikey, Alf, at QPR all we get is an orange and a cup of tea." ==Style of play== Often cited as a player who did not make the most of his talents, Marsh was a strong striker with great technical ability. An excellent dribbler of the ball, he was capable of producing moments of rare skill and extravagant attempts on goal, which earned him a reputation as a show-boater. His ability and the rarity which he played to his full potential earned him comparisons to George Best. He would regularly retaliate against players who used foul play to stop his runs, and picked up numerous fines from the FA for fighting back against his aggressors. ==Coaching career== He retired after 1979, and coached New York United in the ASL. He resigned three months into his contract when the general manager insisted that he sign five Uruguayan refugees to the club against his wishes. In 1981, he was appointed head coach and CEO of the newly created Carolina Lightnin', and quickly assembled a team around star midfielder Don Tobin. He coached the team to the Freedom Conference title in 1981, and they went on to beat his former club New York United 2–1 in the championship final. In 1982 they lost at the semi-final stage to the Oklahoma City Slickers. He then hired Bobby Moore as a coach. At the end of a disappointing 1983 campaign the league folded and Marsh returned to the Tampa Bay Rowdies as head coach in October 1983. There he gave Roy Wegerle his debut as a professional player. After the 1984 season the North American Soccer League also disbanded. The club remained however, and later joined the National Professional Soccer League. Marsh relinquished his coaching duties and remained on as CEO, and appointed Mark Lawrenson and later Malcolm Allison, Ricky Hill, David Hay and Ken Fogarty as head coaches. ==Media career== After ending his coaching career, Marsh undertook a three-year roadshow tour with George Best. He began his career in the media with Best, presenting football related videos, before he became a regular feature on television. In 1994, he spent a brief period as CEO of Queens Park Rangers. Marsh worked as a pundit for Sky Sports for many years. Whilst there he was involved in long-running banter with Bradford City and its supporters in the 1999–2000 season, in which he flippantly dismissed their chances of survival in the Premier League. He offered to shave all of his hair off if the club stayed up, and honoured his bet and had his hair removed in the centre circle of Valley Parade. He appeared on Soccer Saturday for a total of 11 years until he was sacked in January 2005. He was fired after he joked about the 2004 Asian tsunami during a live broadcast of You're On Sky Sports. He had said: "David Beckham has turned down a move to Newcastle United because of trouble with the 'Toon Army in Asia'." Whilst Marsh subsequently apologised on air, this was not enough to save his job. Subsequently, Marsh joined Talksport as a presenter, co-hosting the daily Drivetime show with Paul Breen-Turner. In 2006, Talksport received a number of complaints and the programme director issued an apology after Marsh made a newsreader laugh uncontrollably whilst she was reporting the death of a British soldier in Afghanistan. Marsh left the station in October 2006. Since then Marsh attempted to rebuild his career with appearances on reality television. He appeared in the 2007 series of ITV's I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! where he was the fifth person to be voted off the show; Celebrity Come Dine with Me on Channel 4 in January 2009, in which he came in joint second place tied with Abi Titmuss; the first series of Celebrity Coach Trip on Channel 4 in November 2010, where he was partnered with Cheryl Baker; other notable appearances include Sing If You Can and Cash in the Attic. He is currently cohost of Grumpy Pundits on Sirius Radio. ==Personal life== He married Jean Barry in March 1967. The pair met a few years earlier at a jazz club in Manor Park. He and his son Jonathan founded the Marsh Group, a property development company in Tampa, Florida, in 1996. After retiring as a player Marsh continued to support QPR and Manchester City. Today he is now a co-host for a radio show called Grumpy Pundits on Sirius XM. ==Honours== ===Club=== ;Queens Park Rangers *League Cup winner: 1967 *Football League Third Division champion: 1966–67 *Football League Second Division runner-up: 1967–68 ;Manchester City *FA Charity Shield winner: 1972 *League Cup runner-up: 1974 ;Tampa Bay Rowdies *NASL regular season premiership: 1976 *NASL Atlantic Conference Eastern Division champion: 1976 *NASL Indoor champion: 1976 *NASL American Conference champion: 1978 & 1979 *Soccer Bowl runner-up: 1978 & 1979 ;Carolina Lightnin' *American Soccer League champion: 1981 ===International=== ;England *British Home Championship winner: 1971–72 (shared) ===Individual=== ;NASL All-Star Selections *1976 First Team (Best XI) *1977 Second Team *1978 First Team (Best XI) *1979 Honorable Mention ==References== Specific General * Category:1944 births Category:Living people Category:People from Hatfield, Hertfordshire Category:Footballers from Hackney, London Category:English footballers Category:England men's under-23 international footballers Category:England men's international footballers Category:Fulham F.C. players Category:Queens Park Rangers F.C. players Category:Manchester City F.C. players Category:Cork Hibernians F.C. players Category:Tampa Bay Rowdies (1975–1993) players Category:English Football League players Category:League of Ireland players Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) indoor players Category:National Professional Soccer League (1984–2001) players Category:English football managers Category:Expatriate soccer coaches in the United States Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) coaches Category:United Soccer League (1984–85) coaches Category:National Professional Soccer League (1984–2001) coaches Category:American Soccer League (1933–1983) coaches Category:English television presenters Category:English association football commentators Category:Sky Sports presenters and reporters Category:Tampa Bay Rowdies coaches Category:Tampa Bay Rowdies executives Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Player-coaches Category:English expatriate sportspeople in the United States Category:Expatriate soccer players in the United States Category:English expatriate footballers
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The Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma is one of three federally recognized Kickapoo tribes in the United States. There are also Kickapoo tribes in Kansas, Texas, and Mexico. The Kickapoo are a Woodland tribe, who speak an Algonquian language.Kuhlman, Annette. "Kickapoo ", Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture published by the Oklahoma Historical Society. (accessed October 6, 2013) They are affiliated with the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, the Kickapoo Tribe in Kansas, and the Mexican Kickapoo. ==Government== The Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in McLoud, Oklahoma, and their tribal jurisdictional area is in Oklahoma, Pottawatomie, and Lincoln Counties. Of the 2,630 enrolled tribal members, 1,856 live within the state of Oklahoma. Membership to the tribe requires a minimum blood quantum of 1/4 Kickapoo descent. The tribe's Chairman is Darwin Kaskaske.,"Oklahoma's Tribal Nations." Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. 2010. Retrieved 10 April 2010. who replaced David Pacheco Jr. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags. ==Economic development== The Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma owns a gas station, and 2 casinos. Their estimated annual economic impact was $16 million in 2010. Kickapoo Casino is located north of McLoud, Oklahoma, near the Tribal Headquarters. Oklahoma Indian Casinos: Casinos by Tribe.500 Nations. (retrieved 21 Feb 2009) ==Language== About 400 tribal members speak the Kickapoo language.Anderton, Alice, PhD. Status of Indian Languages in Oklahoma. Intertribal Wordpath Society. 2009 (21 Feb 2009) It is one of the few Oklahoma tribal languages spoken by children today. ==History== ===Northern origins=== Kickapoo comes from their word "Kiwigapawa", which roughly translates into "he moves from here to there." The tribe is part of the central Algonquian group and has close ethnic and linguistic connections with the Sac and Fox. The Kickapoo were first recorded in history in about 1667-70 at the confluence of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. Under pressure from the Menominee, the Kickapoo and their allies moved south and west into southern Michigan, northern Iowa, Ohio and Illinois. A treaty dated 7 June 1803 between the U.S. Government and the Delaware, Shawnee, Potawatomi, Miami, Eel River, Wea, Kickapoo, Piankeshaw, and Kaskaskia tribes occupying the country watered by the Ohio, Wabash and Miami Rivers and a subsequent treaty dated 7 August 1803 ceded lands previously granted in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 by General Anthony Wayne, and Fort Wayne and Vincennes, Indiana. By these treaties and succeeding treaties in 1809, 1815, 1816, 1819, and 1820 the tribe ceded all their lands on the Wabash, White and Vermilion Rivers and moved into Missouri on the Osage River. ===Resettlement on the Plains=== A mere decade later, in 1832, the tribe ceded their lands in Missouri and were granted a "permanent" home south of the Delaware Nation in Kansas near Fort Leavenworth. Around the same time as the Kickapoo moved into Kansas, some of them went to Texas, invited to settle there by the Spanish colonial governor to serve as a buffer between Mexico and American expansionists. The Mexican War of Independence and the Texas Revolution proved that the tide of settlers would not be stopped by the few hundred Kickapoo. At the conclusion of the Texas Revolution, these groups moved south into Mexico. In 1854 the eastern portion of the Kansas lands was ceded to the United States leaving the Kickapoo the western 150,000 acres. Two provisions of this treaty were to have long-lasting effects on the tribe. The treaty authorized a survey of the Kickapoo lands which could be used as the basis for fee simple allotment and it granted a railroad right-of-way across the reservation. Using these two clauses as a basis, the local agent, William Badger, convinced the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Charles E. Mix that the Kickapoo were desirous of having their lands allotted. Considering that the tribe had always held their lands in common, it is unlikely that the tribe truly wanted allotment. However, in light of Badger's persuasion, Mix directed that allotment proceed if 1) the Indians paid for the costs of surveying and allotting the land, 2) 80 acres was allotted to each head of household, and 3) any lands remaining after allotment of the Kansas Kickapoo be reserved for resettlement of the Mexican Kickapoo. Holding the lands not allotted for the Southern Kickapoo, was not in the interests of the railroad and Badger began pressuring tribal members for allotment. Though they complained, it was a political election, not the tribal issues with their agent, that removed Badger from office and replaced him with his brother-in-law Charles B. Keith in 1861.Gibson (2006), p 125-127 Keith was a political ally of Senator Samuel C. Pomeroy who was the president of the Atchison and Pike's Peak Railroad, the central section of the Transcontinental railroad, which had been formed in 1859. The railroad wanted to gain the right-of-way across the Kickapoo Reservation and title to any surplus lands when the reservation was allotted. Pomeroy and Keith both met with and wrote letters to Commissioner Mix urging allotment and by 1862, a treaty was again made with the Kickapoo. The 28 June 1862 agreement allowed for Chiefs to receive 320 acres, heads of households to receive 160 acres and all other tribe members to get 40 acres, with the bulk of the remaining 125,000 acres to be sold to the railroad. Those who chose not to accept allotment could continue to hold their lands in common until such time as an arrangement could be made to locate a new reserve in Oklahoma, i.e. Indian Territory, and any Southern Kickapoo had one year to return to Kansas and take up their allotment, or it would be forfeit. When news of the treaty being approved broke, protest erupted. The Kickapoo indicated that they were unaware that the agreement had been reached and thought that they were still negotiating terms. The Kansas Attorney General, Warren William Guthrie, launched a grand jury hearing. The charges were considered serious enough that allotment was suspended and the new Commissioner of Indian Affairs, William P. Dole, appointed in 1863, traveled to Kansas to investigate. In the hearings that followed, allegations were made that Guthrie's real interest in the matter stemmed from his involvement with a rival railroad the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad Corporation. Dole returned to Washington and submitted his report to President Lincoln on 4 April 1864.Gibson (2006), p 129-135 Some of the frustrated Kickapoo, decided to leave Kansas, and a group of about 700 headed for Mexico to join kinsmen there in September, 1864. In 1865 pressure from Pomeroy finally gained the approval to continue with the Kickapoo allotment, though the tribe resisted. By 1869, only 93 Kansas Kickapoo had accepted fee simple allotment, the remainder preferring to continue holding their lands in common.Gibson (2006), p 135 Though a small band, approximately 50 tribesmen returned from Mexico to the Kansas Reservation before the forfeit period lapsed, they settled on the common lands briefly, but then left before claiming their allotments. They later joined the Kickapoo in Indian Territory in 1874.Gibson (2006), p 137-138 In 1875, a group of 114 of the Mexican Kickapoos were returned to the Kansas Reservation. ===Texas Settlement=== The first Southern Kickapoo migration occurred around the time that the tribe was settled in Kansas. They traveled across the southern plains, fighting the Seminole in Florida around 1837 and wandered into Texas in search of horses from the Comanche. In 1850, they agreed to act as a buffer between Mexicans, invading Texas settlers and the Lipan, Comanche and other tribes in Northern Coahuila. As a reward for their service, the Spanish governor awarded them a land grant at Hacienda del Nacimiento near the settlement of Santa Rosa (now known as Melchor Múzquiz).Ricky (1999), p224 At the peak of their strength, the southern Kickapoo, numbered about 1500 and by 1860 were living in a swath from the Canadian and Washita Rivers in Indian Territory to the Sabine and Brazos Rivers in Texas to the Remolino River in northern Mexico.Gibson (2006), p 143 In 1864, about 700 Kickapoo, frustrated with the duplicitous actions of agents and their railroad colleagues in Kansas left to join their kinsmen in Mexico. Confederate scouts picked up their trail and reported their findings to Captain Henry Fossett and Captain S. S. Totten, leader of a group of Texas Militiamen. On 8 January 1865, the Texans charged the Kickapoo at Dove Creek, were engaged in battle for a brief half hour and then retreated. The Kickapoo had lost about 15 warriors and the Texans twice as many men. In 1868, a report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs indicated that there were approximately 800 Kickapoo living in Mexico and claimed that the Mexican Kickapoo were responsible for raids in the western part of Texas. In an effort to pacify the Texas citizens and ward off difficulties with Mexico, the U.S. determined to retrieve the Kickapoo. Congress passed P.L. 16 Stat. 359 an Act of 15 July 1870 to appropriate funds for the Secretary of the Interior to collect Kickapoo in Texas and Mexico and establish them in the Indian Territory. A second Act, P.L. 16 Stat. 569, passed by Congress on 3 March 1871 appropriated funds for the resettlement and subsistence of the Kickapoo on reservations within the United States. Armed with these two Acts, Indian Agent John D. Miles, went with a delegation of Kansas Kickapoo to try to persuade the Indians at Santa Rosa to return to the United States. Mexican authorities refused to allow Miles to speak with the Kickapoo as the residents of Santa Rosa saw them as their only defense from other marauding tribes.McKellar (1994), pp 225-226 In 1873, after complaints were again received indicating that Mexican authorities were using the Kickapoo to hide the theft of Texas cattle by Mexicans, another attempt was made to bring the Kickapoo to Indian Territory. Special Agents H. M. Atkinson and Col. T. G. Williams went to Saltillo, to negotiate directly with Governor Victoriano Cepeda Camacho. Though citizens and the Legislature of Coahuila did not support the action, Cepeda appointed an officer to assist the agents and gave him a proclamation that they were to be assisted by the officials and citizenry. While the delegation was en route to Santa Rosa, a party of Americans under the command of General MacKenzie attacked the Kickapoo, thinking that they were a group of raiding Lipan, which did not make the Kickapoo receptive to relocating when the agents arrived. In the autumn of 1874, Atkinson and Williams were finally able to persuade a group of about 300 Mexican Kickapoo to resettle. ===Relocation to Oklahoma=== The Mexican Kickapoos were to be removed to the Indian Territory, in the present State of Oklahoma to a location on the north fork of the Canadian River and provided with farm equipment to begin cultivation. The adjustment was difficult and by 1883, they had still not been provided with a permanent title to the lands they were occupying. By an executive order issued 15 August 1883, the Kickapoo were granted the lands that they had been occupying near the southwest corner of the Sac and Fox Reservation which had been ceded in 1866 by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation for resettlement of freedmen and others. Four years later with the passage of the Dawes Act pressure began mounting to secure fee simple title for the Oklahoma Kickapoo. On 21 June 1891 the tribe agreed to cede their reservation in exchange for 80 acre allotments for each tribesman. The Kickapoo were "bitterly opposed" to allotment and fought the process until 1894. 283 Kickapoo received eighty-acre plots leaving 184,133 surplus acres for non- Indian settlement. In 1895, after the Kickapoo finally consented to allotment, the final Oklahoma Land Run occurred on 23 May 1895. The Land Run of 1895 was the smallest of Oklahoma's five land runs, with approximately 10,000 participants. Because of the large number of contested claims and the problems with Sooners the remaining two land openings in Oklahoma were lotteries. ==20th century== ===Indian Reorganization Act=== In 1936, the tribe organized as the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. They adopted a Constitution and by-laws by a vote of 64 for and 26 against on 18 September 1937, which established the offices of Chairman, Vice Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, and one councilman. ===Claims Commission=== On 13 August 1946 the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the 5-year deadline in August, 1951. At least 6 claims were filed by the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma with the Claims Commission — some on their own behalf, and some in conjunction with the Kickapoo Tribe of Kansas or other tribes in which they had made joint treaties with the U. S. Government. The two biggest awards were for "unconscionable consideration" (the government severely underpaid for ceded lands) from the Treaty of 1854 and the Treaty of 1866. Though the distribution was approved via passage of Public Law 92-467 in 1972, appeals were pending into the late 1970s, as the government was offsetting award amounts due to the Oklahoma and Kansas Kickapoo for expenses incurred in capturing and relocating Mexican Kickapoo during the Texas Revolution. The US government had repatriated some of the Mexican Kickapoos to a reservation in Oklahoma and a later group to Kansas in the 1860s and 1870s. The final distribution plan was not approved until 1980. ===Mexican Kickapoo subgroup established=== In 1979 the Mexican Kickapoo who were dual residents requested clarification of their status as they had no clear legal status in either the United States or Mexico.Ricky (1999), p 172 An Act was passed in 1983 by Congress which recognized them as a distinct subgroup of the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma and granted federal recognition to the Texas Kickapoo. A 1985 law gave the Texas band the option of selecting Mexican or U.S. citizenship. 145 of the tribemembers chose to become U.S. citizens and the remaining 500 or so chose to obtain Mexican citizenship. The interaction between the Mexican Kickapoo and Oklahoma tribe remains strong. Mexican Kickapoos use the health services of the tribal clinic in McLoud, Oklahoma and the Oklahoma Kickapoos travel for the ceremonial seasons in February and March to Mexico. == Education == The Kickapoo Tribe of Kansas tribal school is the Kickapoo Nation School. The Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma maintains the Kickapoo Community Day Care facility and the Kickapoo Nation Head Start Program to serve both enrolled members and non members residing within the boundaries of the original Kickapoo Tribe Reservation lands. == Notable tribal members == * Arigon Starr, musician, comic artist Gregorio E. Kishketon, Native American/Alaskan Native Liaison to the Secretary of the Veterans Affairs in Washington, District of Columbia. ==Notes== Category:Native American tribes in Oklahoma Category:Algonquian peoples Category:Federally recognized tribes in the United States
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Paola Suárez (; born 23 June 1976) is a retired tennis player from Argentina. She was one of the most prominent women's doubles players throughout the early and mid-2000s, winning eight Grand Slam titles, all of them with Virginia Ruano Pascual, and holding the No. 1 doubles ranking for 87 non-consecutive weeks. She was also a singles top ten player and semifinalist at the 2004 French Open. ==Career== Suárez began playing professional tennis at the age of 15. In 1994, she joined the professional tour as a singles player. Suárez won four WTA titles (2004 Canberra, 2003 Vienna, 1998 & 2001 Bogotá) and 12 other minor tournaments. In 2004, she reached her only Grand Slam singles semi-final by defeating the 18th seed and future Wimbledon champion Maria Sharapova, but lost to Elena Dementieva. That year, she reached her highest WTA ranking of No. 9, to become the highest-ranked Argentine women's player since Gabriela Sabatini achieved the No. 3 ranking in 1989. Also in 2004, she won the bronze medal at the Olympic Games in Athens for the women's doubles with Patricia Tarabini. She had success in singles but her best results came in doubles, winning more than half a dozen titles partnering fellow Argentine Laura Montalvo. However Suárez's more long-standing doubles partnership was with the Spaniard Virginia Ruano Pascual, with whom she won 32 of her 39 titles. Besides numerous WTA Tour titles, they won the French Open on four occasions, the US Open three times, and the Australian Open in 2004. Suárez and Ruano Pascual were the No. 1 female pair for three consecutive years after 9 September 2002 and were the WTA Tour Doubles Team of the Year in 2002, 2003 and 2004. They also reached nine straight Grand Slam finals, two short of Navratilova and Shriver's record of eleven. In 2005, Suárez announced her forthcoming retirement for personal reasons. In June of that year, she underwent a labrum hip clinical intervention, with a recovery time of three to four months. She restarted playing in Sydney in January 2006 with Ruano Pascual, reaching the final, but suffered a calf injury short after. Later that year, she also reached the final of Wimbledon with Ruano Pascual, marking her third appearance in a final there. Suárez returned to the circuit with a victory over Dinara Safina, ranked No. 15, in the San Diego Open singles tournament. On 1 September 2007, Suárez retired after losing in the mixed doubles second round at the US Open. She partnered Kevin Ullyett and lost to Jamie Murray and Liezel Huber, 5–7, 4–6. She briefly returned to the WTA doubles tour in 2012, partnering her fellow Argentinian Gisela Dulko. The pair played at the London Summer Olympics but lost in the first round.Suárez Back On Court, Plays First Match Back In her career, Suárez earned more than $5.2 million, with four singles titles on the WTA Tour, and eight doubles Grand Slam titles. ==Significant finals== ===Grand Slam tournaments=== ====Doubles: 14 (8 titles, 6 runner-ups)==== Result Year Championship Surface Partner Opponents Score Loss 2000 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Martina Hingis Mary Pierce 2–6, 4–6 Win 2001 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Jelena Dokić Conchita Martínez 6–2, 6–1 Win 2002 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 6–4, 6–2 Loss 2002 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Serena Williams Venus Williams 2–6, 5–7 Win 2002 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Elena Dementieva Janette Husárová 6–2, 6–1 Loss 2003 Australian Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Serena Williams Venus Williams 6–4, 4–6, 3–6 Loss 2003 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 7–6(7–5), 2–6, 7–9 Loss 2003 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 4–6, 4–6 Win 2003 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Martina Navratilova 6–2, 6–3 Win 2004 Australian Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–4, 6–3 Win 2004 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–0, 6–3 Win 2004 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–4, 7–5 Win 2005 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Cara Black Liezel Huber 4–6, 6–3, 6–3 Loss 2006 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Yan Zi Zheng Jie 3–6, 6–3, 2–6 ====Mixed doubles: 2 (2 runner-ups)==== Result Year Championship Surface Partner Opponents Score Loss 2001 French Open Clay Jaime Oncins Tomás Carbonell Virginia Ruano Pascual 5–7, 3–6 Loss 2002 Australian Open Hard Gastón Etlis Daniela Hantuchová Kevin Ullyett 3–6, 2–6 ===Olympic Games=== ====Doubles: 1 (bronze medal)==== Result Year Location Surface Partner Opponents Score Bronze 2004 Athens Hard Patricia Tarabini Shinobu Asagoe Ai Sugiyama 6–3, 6–3 ==WTA career finals== ===Singles: 8 (4 titles, 4 runner- ups)=== Legend Tier I Tier II Tier III (2/2) Tier IV & V (2/2) Result No. Date Tournament Surface Opponent Score Win 1. Feb 1998 Bogotá Clay Sonya Jeyaseelan 6–3, 6–4 Loss 1. May 1999 Madrid Clay Lindsay Davenport 6–1, 6–3 Loss 2. Feb 2000 São Paulo Clay Rita Kuti-Kis 4–6, 6–4, 7–5 Loss 3. Jan 2001 Auckland Hard Meilen Tu 7–6(12–10), 6–2 Win 2. Feb 2001 Bogotá Clay Rita Kuti-Kis 6–2, 6–4 Loss 4. Mar 2002 Acapulco Clay Katarina Srebotnik 6–7(1–7), 6–4, 6–2 Win 3. Jun 2003 Vienna Clay Karolina Šprem 7–6(7–0), 2–6, 6–4 Win 4. Jan 2004 Canberra Hard Silvia Farina Elia 3–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–5) ===Doubles: 69 (44 titles, 25 runner-ups)=== Legend Grand Slam tournaments (8–6) WTA Championships (1–0) Tier I (9–9) Tier II (5–6) Tier III (10–2) Tier IV & V (11–2) Result No. Date Tournament Surface Partner Opponents Score Win 1. 5 May 1996 Bol Clay Laura Montalvo Alexia Dechaume-Balleret Alexandra Fusai 6–7(5–7), 6–3, 6–4 Win 2. 18 January 1998 Hobart Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Julie Halard-Decugis Janette Husárová 7–6(8–6), 6–3 Win 3. 22 February 1998 Bogotá Clay Janette Husárová Melissa Mazzotta Ekaterina Sysoeva 3–6, 6–2, 6–3 Win 4. 26 April 1998 Budapest Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Cătălina Cristea Laura Montalvo 4–6, 6–1, 6–1 Win 5. 3 May 1998 Bol Clay Laura Montalvo Joannette Kruger Mirjana Lučić w/o Win 6. 10 May 1998 Rome Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Amanda Coetzer Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 7–6(7–1), 6–4 Win 7. 12 July 1998 Maria Lankowitz Clay Laura Montalvo Tina Križan Katarina Srebotnik 6–1, 6–2 Loss 1. 21 February 1999 Bogotá Clay Laura Montalvo Christína Papadáki Seda Noorlander 6–4, 7–6(7–5) Win 8. 23 May 1999 Madrid Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual María Fernanda Landa Marlene Weingärtner 6–2, 0–6, 6–0 Win 9. 18 July 1999 Sopot Clay Laura Montalvo Gala León García María Sánchez Lorenzo 6–4, 6–3 Win 10. 10 October 1999 São Paulo Clay Laura Montalvo Janette Husárová Florencia Labat 6–7(1–7), 7–5, 7–5 Win 11. 20 February 2000 Bogotá Clay Laura Montalvo Rita Kuti-Kis Petra Mandula 6–4, 6–2 Win 12. 27 February 2000 São Paulo Clay Laura Montalvo Janette Husárová Florencia Labat 5–7, 6–4, 6–3 Win 13. 23 April 2000 Hilton Head Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini 7–5, 6–3 Loss 2. 11 June 2000 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Martina Hingis Mary Pierce 6–2, 6–4 Win 14. 16 July 2000 Klagenfurt Clay Laura Montalvo Barbara Schett Patty Schnyder 7–6(7–5), 6–1 Win 15. 23 July 2000 Sopot Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Åsa Carlsson Rita Grande 7–5, 6–1 Loss 3. 21 August 2000 New Haven Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Julie Halard-Decugis Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 5–7, 6–2 Loss 4. 8 October 2000 Tokyo Hard Nana Miyagi Julie Halard-Decugis Ai Sugiyama 6–0, 6–2 Loss 5. 19 February 2001 Bogotá Clay Laura Montalvo Tathiana Garbin Janette Husárová 6–4, 2–6, 6–4 Loss 6. 4 March 2001 Acapulco Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Anabel Medina Garrigues María José Martínez Sánchez 6–4, 6–7(5–7), 7–5 Loss 7. 11 March 2001 Indian Wells Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Nicole Arendt Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 6–4 Loss 8. 22 April 2001 Charleston Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 5–7, 7–6(7–5), 6–3 Loss 9. 20 May 2001 Rome Clay Patricia Tarabini Cara Black Elena Likhovtseva 6–1, 6–1 Win 16. 26 May 2001 Madrid Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 7–5, 2–6, 7–6(7–4) Win 17. 10 June 2001 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Jelena Dokić Conchita Martínez 6–2, 6–1 Win 18. 15 July 2001 Vienna Clay Patricia Tarabini Vanessa Henke Lenka Němečková 6–4, 6–2 Win 19. 24 February 2002 Bogotá Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Tina Križan Katarina Srebotnik 6–2, 6–1 Win 20. 3 March 2002 Acapulco Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Tina Križan Katarina Srebotnik 7–5, 6–1 Loss 10. 1 April 2002 Miami Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 7–6(7–4), 6–7(4–7), 6–3 Win 21. 19 May 2002 Rome Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini 6–3, 6–4 Win 22. 9 June 2002 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs 6–4, 6–2 Loss 11. 24 June 2002 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Serena Williams Venus Williams 6–2, 7–5 Win 23. 18 August 2002 Montreal Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Rika Fujiwara Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 7–6(7–4) Win 24. 8 September 2002 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Elena Dementieva Janette Husárová 6–2, 6–1 Win 25. 14 September 2002 Bahia Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Émilie Loit Rossana de los Ríos 6–4, 6–1 Loss 12. 24 September 2002 Leipzig Carpet Janette Husárová Alexandra Stevenson Serena Williams 6–3, 7–5 Loss 13. 13 October 2002 Filderstadt Hard (i) Meghann Shaughnessy Lindsay Davenport Lisa Raymond 6–2, 6–4 Loss 14. 13 January 2003 Australian Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Serena Williams Venus Williams 4–6, 6–4, 6–3 Win 26. 13 April 2003 Charleston Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Janette Husárová Conchita Martínez 6–0, 6–3 Loss 15. 20 April 2003 Amelia Island Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Lindsay Davenport Lisa Raymond 7–5, 6–2 Win 27. 11 May 2003 Berlin Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 6–3, 4–6, 6–4 Loss 16. 8 June 2003 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 6–7(5–7), 6–2, 9–7 Loss 17. 6 July 2003 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 6–4 Win 28. 23 August 2003 New Haven Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Alicia Molik Magüi Serna 7–6(8–6), 6–3 Win 29. 7 September 2003 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Martina Navratilova 6–2, 6–3 Loss 18. 19 October 2003 Zürich Hard (i) Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 7–6(7–3), 6–2 Win 30. 10 November 2003 Los Angeles Hard (i) Virginia Ruano Pascual Kim Clijsters Ai Sugiyama 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 Loss 19. 5 January 2004 Auckland Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Mervana Jugić-Salkić Jelena Kostanić Tošić 7–6(8–6), 3–6, 6–1 Win 31. 1 February 2004 Australian Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–4, 6–3 Win 32. 21 March 2004 Indian Wells Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–1, 6–2 Win 33. 18 April 2004 Charleston Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Martina Navratilova Lisa Raymond 6–4, 6–1 Loss 20. 10 May 2004 Rome Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Nadia Petrova Meghann Shaughnessy 2–6, 6–3, 6–3 Win 34. 3 June 2004 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Elena Likhovtseva 6–0, 6–3 Loss 21. 26 July 2004 San Diego Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Cara Black Rennae Stubbs 4–6, 6–1, 6–4 Win 35. 11 September 2004 US Open Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Martina Navratilova 6–4, 7–5 Loss 22. 17 October 2004 Moscow Carpet Virginia Ruano Pascual Anastasia Myskina Vera Zvonareva 6–3, 4–6, 6–2 Loss 23. 24 October 2004 Zürich Hard (i) Virginia Ruano Pascual Cara Black Rennae Stubbs 6–4, 6–4 Win 36. 31 October 2004 Luxembourg City Hard (i) Virginia Ruano Pascual Jill Craybas Marlene Weingärtner 6–1, 6–7(1–7), 6–3 Win 37. 5 March 2005 Dubai Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Svetlana Kuznetsova Alicia Molik 6–7(7–9), 6–2, 6–1 Win 38. 19 March 2005 Indian Wells Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Nadia Petrova Meghann Shaughnessy 7–6(7–3), 6–1 Win 39. 4 June 2005 French Open Clay Virginia Ruano Pascual Cara Black Liezel Huber 4–6, 6–3, 6–3 Loss 24. 17 January 2006 Sydney Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Corina Morariu Rennae Stubbs 6–3, 5–7, 6–2 Loss 25. 8 July 2006 Wimbledon Grass Virginia Ruano Pascual Zheng Jie Yan Zi 6–3, 3–6, 6–2 Win 40. 13 August 2006 Los Angeles Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Daniela Hantuchová Ai Sugiyama 6–3, 6–4 Win 41. 24 September 2006 Beijing Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Anna Chakvetadze Elena Vesnina 6–2, 6–4 Win 42. 1 October 2006 Seoul Hard Virginia Ruano Pascual Chuang Chia-jung Mariana Díaz Oliva 6–2, 6–3 Win 43. 6 January 2007 Auckland Hard Janette Husárová Hsieh Su-wei Shikha Uberoi 6–0, 6–2 Win 44. 25 February 2007 Bogotá Clay Lourdes Domínguez Lino Flavia Pennetta Roberta Vinci 1–6, 6–3, [11–9] ==ITF Circuit finals== $50,000 tournaments $25,000 tournaments $10,000 tournaments ===Singles (12–4)=== Outcome No. Date Tournament Surface Opponent Score Winner 1. 14 October 1991 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay María Luciana Reynares 2–6, 7–6, 6–1 Winner 2. 4 November 1991 Florianópolis, Brazil Clay Cintia Tortorella 6–3, 6–3 Runner-up 1. 24 November 1991 Novo Hamburgo, Brazil Clay Svetlana Komleva 2–6, 5–7 Winner 3. 27 April 1992 Lerida, Spain Clay Sarah Pitkowski-Malcor 4–6, 6–4, 6–1 Winner 4. 4 May 1992 Balaguer, Spain Clay Svetlana Krivencheva 3–6, 6–3, 6–0 Winner 5. 17 May 1992 Barcelona, Spain Clay Catherine Barclay 6–4, 6–1 Winner 6. 18 May 1992 Tortosa, Spain Clay Irina Sukhova 3–6, 6–4, 6–1 Winner 7. 21 November 1992 La Plata, Argentina Clay Vanessa Matthys 7–6, 6–3 Runner-up 2. 23 October 1995 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Mariana Díaz Oliva 6–2, 4–6, 3–6 Winner 8. 19 November 1995 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Miriam D'Agostini 6–2, 6–1 Runner- up 3. 17 December 1995 Tacuman, Argentina Clay Florencia Labat 2–6, 1–6 Winner 9. 11 October 1998 Santiago, Chile Clay Conchita Martínez Granados 3–6, 6–4, 6–1 Winner 10. 25 October 1998 Montevideo, Uruguay Clay Antonella Serra Zanetti 7–5, 6–4 Runner-up 4. 8 November 1998 Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil Clay Janette Husárová 2–6, 6–2, 1–6 Winner 11. 22 November 1998 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Andreea Ehritt-Vanc 4–6, 6–1, 6–4 Winner 12. 19 September 1999 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Florencia Labat 6–0, 7–5 ===Doubles (7–6)=== Outcome No. Date Tournament Surface Partner Opponents Score Runner-up 1. 27 October 1991 Asunción, Paraguay Clay Pamela Zingman Karolina Bulat Katarzyna Malec 5–7, 4–6 Runner-up 2. 24 November 1991 Novo Hamburgo, Brazil Clay Pamela Zingman Maria Marfina Svetlana Komleva 4–6, 3–6 Runner-up 3. 4 May 1992 Balaguer, Spain Clay Pamela Zingman Svetlana Krivencheva Irina Sukhova 6–4, 4–6, 4–6 Winner 1. 11 May 1992 Barcelona, Spain Hard Pamela Zingman Rosa Bielsa Gala León García 6–4, 6–2 Winner 2. 11 October 1993 Santiago, Chile Clay Pamela Zingman Bárbara Castro María Dolores Campana 6–1, 3–6, 6–0 Winner 3. 23 October 1995 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Cintia Tortorella Mariana Lopez Palacios Mariana Díaz Oliva 6–2, 6–2 Runner-up 4. 13 November 1995 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Florencia Cianfagna Katalin Marosi Miriam D'Agostini 7–6(4), 0–6, 3–6 Winner 4. 17 December 1995 Tucumán, Argentina Clay Laura Montalvo Larissa Schaerer Veronica Stele 6–2, 7–6(4) Winner 5. 11 February 1996 Mar del Plata, Argentina Hard Laura Montalvo Marion Maruska Noëlle van Lottum 6–3, 6–1 Runner-up 5. 12 October 1997 Sedona, United States Hard Liezel Huber Cătălina Cristea Corina Morariu 5–7, 2–6 Winner 6. 5 October 1998 Santiago, Chile Clay Laura Montalvo Miriam D'Agostini Katalin Marosi 6–1, 6–2 Winner 7. 19 October 1998 Montevideo, Uruguay Clay Laura Montalvo Eva Bes María Fernanda Landa 6–2, 6–2 Runner-up 6. 13 September 1999 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Laura Montalvo Paula Racedo Aliénor Tricerri w/o ==Performance timelines== ===Singles=== Tournament 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A A 2R 2R 1R 1R 4R 1R 3R 3R A A LQ French Open 1R 2R 2R 1R 2R 2R 1R 2R QF 3R SF 1R A LQ Wimbledon 1R A 1R 1R 1R 1R 3R 1R 1R 4R QF A A LQ US Open 2R 1R 2R 3R 1R 2R 1R 1R 2R QF 3R A A LQ ===Doubles=== Tournament 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 ... 2012 SR W–L Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A A QF 2R 2R 2R QF 3R F W A QF 1R A 1 / 10 23–9 French Open A A 1R 1R 2R 2R F W W F W W 2R 1R 2R 4 / 13 38–9 Wimbledon A A 1R 1R 2R 3R QF SF F F SF A F 1R 1R 0 / 12 29–11 US Open A A 1R 2R SF 2R 1R 3R W W W A QF 1R A 3 / 11 28–8 Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–3 4–4 7–4 5–4 9–4 15–3 19–2 20–3 21–1 6–0 11–4 0–4 1–2 8 / 46 118–37 Olympic Games Summer Olympics Not Held Not Held A Not Held Not Held Not Held 2R Not Held Not Held Not Held SF-B Not Held Not Held Not Held 1R 0 / 4 6–4 Year-end championships Tour Championships A A A A A A QF SF QF W SF A A A A 1 / 5 3–4 ==Record against top-10 players== Suárez's match record against players who have been ranked in the top 10, with those who have been ranked No. 1 in boldface * Patty Schnyder 5–4 * Mary Pierce 4–2 * Barbara Schett 3–2 * Jelena Dokic 2–0 * Anna Kournikova 2–0 * Svetlana Kuznetsova 2–0 * Alicia Molik 2–0 * Dinara Safina 2–0 * Daniela Hantuchová 2–1 * Francesca Schiavone 2–1 * Nadia Petrova 2–2 * Sandrine Testud 2–2 * Magdalena Maleeva 2–3 * Amélie Mauresmo 2–3 * Ai Sugiyama 2–3 * Vera Zvonareva 2–3 * Anke Huber 1–0 * Maria Kirilenko 1–0 * Barbara Paulus 1–0 * Lucie Šafářová 1–0 * Maria Sharapova 1–0 * Nathalie Tauziat 1–0 * Andrea Temesvári 1–0 * Serena Williams 1–0 * Jelena Janković 1–1 * Iva Majoli 1–1 * Anastasia Myskina 1–1 * Mary Joe Fernández 1–2 * Chanda Rubin 1–2 * Elena Dementieva 1–3 * Amanda Coetzer 1–5 * Victoria Azarenka 0–1 * Anna Chakvetadze 0–1 * Zina Garrison 0–1 * Julie Halard-Decugis 0–1 * Justine Henin 0–1 * Brenda Schultz-McCarthy 0–1 * Irina Spîrlea 0–1 * Helena Suková 0–1 * Marion Bartoli 0–2 * Conchita Martínez 0–2 * Monica Seles 0–2 * Venus Williams 0–2 * Natasha Zvereva 0–2 * Jennifer Capriati 0–3 * Kim Clijsters 0–3 * Steffi Graf 0–3 * Dominique Monami 0–4 * Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 0–4 * Lindsay Davenport 0–7 ==References== ==External links== * * * * Ole 2005, on her retirement * Paola and Virginia * Paola Suarez at the TheTennisTimes Category:1976 births Category:Living people Category:Argentine female tennis players Category:Australian Open (tennis) champions Category:French Open champions Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Argentina Category:Olympic medalists in tennis Category:Olympic tennis players for Argentina Category:People from Pergamino Category:Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Category:Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Category:US Open (tennis) champions Category:Hopman Cup competitors Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Category:Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics Category:WTA number 1 ranked doubles tennis players Category:ITF World Champions Category:Sportspeople from Buenos Aires Province
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The ranchos of Los Angeles County were large-scale land grants made by the governments of Spain and Mexico between 1784 and July 7, 1846, to private individuals within the current boundary lines (last adjusted in 1919) of Los Angeles County in California, United States. ==Background== The earliest colonial land grants called ranchos were established by the Commandancy and General Captaincy of the Internal Provinces of the Spanish Empire's Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Spanish colonial authorities of Alta California also established four , three pueblos, and 20 Catholic missions. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo first claimed California for Spain in 1542 but until 1784 there were no land grants to Spanish subjects, except for small plots within pueblos, the balance of land in Spain's possession "being held for the benefit of the king." The rancho period of California—land grants specifically to individuals outside of misiones and presidios—began in 1784, in what would become L.A. County, with vast grants to three Spanish military veterans. All three were grants of traditional Tongva lands. The greater portion of the rancho grants were created under Mexican dominion, which began with independence from Spain on September 27, 1821, and—according to the U.S. Land Commission—ended amidst the Mexican–American War on July 7, 1846. (Grants made after that date were deemed invalid.) Mission San Fernando Rey de España, Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, and El Pueblo de Los Ángeles lay within the current boundaries of Los Angeles County. Mission San Gabriel was founded in 1771 under Charles III of Spain; its lands were confiscated in 1833 under the Mexican secularization act, which was passed to protect nascent nation-state of Mexico from the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, which was perceived to be an ally of Spain. A land patent application made by Archbishop of San Francisco Joseph Sadoc Alemany on behalf of the church was confirmed for in 1859. Mission San Fernando was established 1797 under Charles IV of Spain and similarly had its lands confiscated in 1833. A land claim of for Mission San Fernando was approved and patented in 1865. In 1875, the City of Los Angeles patented a little more than 17,000 acres of land that had been granted to the pobladores. There were a handful of other, smaller land grants made by Mexican authorities that were patented under the U.S. land law but that are not traditionally identified as ranchos. For example, "tract of land 1000 square near Mission San Gabriel" (patented to Mr. Sexton in 1871) was one of 10 such small grants near that mission, ranging in size from . In the decades following the initial grants, many of the ranches listed were further subdivided. Rancho Los Nietos, for example, was partitioned and re-granted as Rancho Los Alamitos, Rancho Los Cerritos, Rancho Los Coyotes, Rancho Las Bolsas, and Rancho Santa Gertrudes. A couple of the ranches that were patented under the U.S. system were conglomerates of originally smaller ranches—notably, Rancho Guaspita and Rancho Salinas became Sausal Redondo. (Additionally, at least two sets of patented rancho land grants in Los Angeles County had overlapping areas; these disputes were eventually resolved in federal court.) are hand-drawn maps submitted to the U.S. government indicating the extent of a land grant as understood by the grantees. and (written descriptions of the grants) were used during the U.S. land-patent process that began when Mexican Alta California became the U.S. state of California in 1850. Diseños are distinct from later maps produced by U.S. surveyors within the extant American rectangular survey system. Several of the earliest surveys, or plats, of Los Angeles-area ranchos were done by Henry Hancock, who himself owned Rancho La Brea and through his son is a namesake of the Hancock Park neighborhood. As for the cattle brands, many of the large ranchos had multiple brands for various herds or during various eras; the single one included here is the earliest known example. Land patents were ultimately granted to over 60 Mexican, Anglo and indigenous Angelenos; the indigenous contingent was represented by Doña Victoria Reid of Rancho Huerta de Cuati, who was Gabrieleño Tongva, and Odón Chihuya, Urbano Chari, and Manuel of Rancho El Escorpión, who were from a leading family of Fernandeño Tongva. ==List== Following the conventions of the California Land Commission records, the default alphabetization of this list begins after the Spanish- language articles (, , , ) and prepositions (, ), so Rancho Los Encinos is sorted by the E in Encinos, Rancho de los Palos Verdes is sorted by the P in Palos, etc. The grants were originally measured in (Spanish leagues) and (yards), two Spanish customary units. Grant patented by U.S. land commission and district courts Grant either not claimed (due to sale, abandonment, amalgamation, subdivision, et al.) or not recognized during U.S. era Grant Year Grantees Country Grant area (in Spanish leagues) No. Patentees Patent area U.S. survey map Patent date (YYYY-MM-DD) GLO Plat No. Brand Etymology Alt names Counties Case file online Rancho Aguaje de la Centinela 1844 Ygnacio Machado Mexico 382 Bruno Ávila 150px 1872-08-23 437 Spanish; is watering place or spring, is guardian Rancho Centinella, El Centinela Los Angeles Case no. 125, Southern District of California. Rancho Los Alamitos 1834 Juan José Nieto Mexico 06 150px 150px 1874-08-29 468 150px Spanish; diminutive form of , describing Populus fremontii Orange, Los Angeles Rancho Azusa 1837 Ignacio Palomares, Ricardo Véjar Mexico 04 Indigenous, Tongva language; Tongva (Gabrieleño) community Asuksa'nga Los Angeles Rancho Azusa de Dalton 1841 Luis Arenas Mexico 150px Henry Dalton 150px 1876-05-29 455 Personal name; "Azusa ranch of Henry Dalton" Rancho El Susa, Rancho de San José de San Gabriel Los Angeles Rancho Azusa de Duarte 1841 Andrés Duarte Mexico 236 Andrés Duarte 1878-06-06 456 150px Personal name; "Azusa ranch of Andrés Duarte" Rancho Susita Los Angeles Rancho La Ballona 1839 Agustín Machado, Ygnacio Machado, Felipe Talamantes, Tomás Talamantes Mexico 150px 184 Agustín Machado, Ygnacio Machado, Felipe Talamantes, Tomás Talamantes 150px 1873-12-08 434 150px Disputed Rancho Paseo de Las Carretas (wagon pass); Rancho de Los Quintos Los Angeles Case no. 123, Southern District of California. Rancho Boca de Santa Mónica 1839 Ysidro Reyes Mexico 01.5 (1) 150px 330 Ysidro Reyes, Francisco Marquez, et al. 150px 1881-07-21 539 150px Spanish; meaning mouth, entrance, or opening; the flowing waters of the Tongva Sacred Springs were reminiscent of the tears of Monica, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho La Brea 1828 José Antonio Rocha Mexico 01 150px José Antonio Rocha 150px 1873-04-15 429 Spanish; meaning asphalt or tar Los Angeles Case no. 287, Southern District of California. Rancho Cahuenga Twice granted; (1) 1843 (2) 1846 Twice granted; (1) José Yvez Limantour, José Miguel Triunfo (2) Luis Arenas Mexico Twice granted; (1) 06 Spanish leagues (2) 04 Spanish leagues D.W. Alexander 150px 1872-08-02 425 Indigenous, Tongva language; Tongva community Kawee'nga Los Angeles Rancho La Cañada 1843 Ygnacio Coronel Mexico 02 150px J.R. Scott, et al. 1866-08-01 414 Spanish; describes a "dale or glen" between mountains Los Angeles Rancho La Cañada atras de Verdugos 1846 Antonio Francisco Coronel (claim rejected by U.S.) Mexico 150px Spanish; meaning dale or glen between mountains; "behind or in back of" the Verdugo Mountains of Rancho San Rafael Rancho Sierra de los Verdugos Los Angeles Rancho La Cañada de Los Nogales 1844 José Maria Águilar Mexico 0.5 () 150px 380 José M. Águila 1882-05-04 546 Spanish; meaning dale or glen between mountains; meaning walnut tree, describing Juglans californica Los Angeles Rancho Castac 1843 José M. Covarrubias Mexico 05 150px 326 José M. Covarrubias 150px Indigenous, Chumash language; Chumash community of Kaštɨq Kern, Los Angeles Rancho Los Cerritos 1834 Maria Manuela Nieto Mexico 05 150px John Temple 150px 1867-12-07 467 150px Spanish; meaning hillock or little hill Rancho Los Sierritos Orange, Los Angeles Rancho La Ciénega ó Paso de la Tijera 1843 Vicente Sánchez Mexico 150px 532 Tomás Sánchez 150px 1873-05-22 436 150px Spanish; meaning wetland, marsh, or muddy place; is pass or passage; apparently has several definitions: scissors, an X-shaped tool, a person who shears animals, and channel or drain Rancho Cienega y Tijeras Los Angeles Rancho Las Ciénegas 1823 Januario Ávila Mexico 01 Januario Ávila Spanish; meaning wetland, marsh, or muddy place Los Angeles Rancho El Conejo Twice granted; (1) 1803 (2) 1822 Twice granted; (1) José Polanco, Ygnacio Rodriguez (2) José de la Guerra y Noriega Twice granted; (1) Spain (2) Mexico Twice granted; (1) 11 Spanish leagues (2) 48,672 acres (as claimed 1873) 150px José de la Guerra y Noriega 150px 1873-01-08 408 Spanish; meaning rabbit, describing Sylvilagus audubonii and Sylvilagus bachmani Rancho Señora de Altagracia Los Angeles Rancho Los Coyotes 1834 Juan José Nieto Mexico 10 150px Andrés Pico, et al. 1875-03-09 472 Spanish; borrowing of Nahuatl language coyōtl; coyotes remain common mammals of Southern California Rancho La Buena Esperanza Los Angeles Rancho Los Encinos Twice granted; (1) 1785–1797 (2) 1845 Twice granted; (1) Juan Francisco Reyes (2) Ramon, Francisco, Roque (described as "presumably Indians") Twice granted; (1) Spain (2) Mexico 01 458 Vicente de la Osa 150px 1873-01-08 411 150px Spanish; is oak; California has 20 native species of oak tree Rancho El Encino Los Angeles Rancho El Escorpión 1845 Odón Chihuya, Urbano Chari, Manuel Mexico 01.5 (1) 461 Odón Chihuya, Urbano Chari, Manuel 150px 1876-12-11 409 Spanish; there are 54 known scorpion species in the state, including the California common scorpion Los Angeles Rancho Ex Mission de San Fernando 1846 Eulogio de Célis Mexico 13 Eulogio de Célis 150px 1873-01-08 410 150px Descriptive; lands previously held by the Catholic Church were confiscated and redistributed under the Mexican secularization act of 1833 Los Angeles Rancho Los Féliz 1802 José Vicente Féliz Spain 01.5 (1) 150px 350 Juan Diego 1871-04-08 426 150px Personal name; initial grantee Los Angeles Rancho Guaspita 1822 Antonio Ygnacio Ávila Mexico 150px Indigenous, Tongva language; Tongva community of Guashna Los Angeles Rancho La Habra 1839 Mariano Reyes Roldan Mexico 01.5 (1) 150px 131 Andrés Pico 1872-04-18 462 Spanish; is an opening Rancho Cañada de La Habra Orange, Los Angeles Rancho Huerta de Cuati Uncertain; 1820 or 1828 Victoria Reid Uncertain Victoria Reid 150px 1858-06-30 421 Uncertain; is orchard or kitchen garden in Spanish but the meaning of cuati in this context is unknown, although it is a word in Nahuatl, which is in the same language family as Tongva Los Angeles Rancho Isla de Santa Catalina 1846 Thomas M. Robbins Mexico José María Covarrubias 1867-04-10 470 Named for figure of religious significance; Sebastián Vizcaíno named the island for Catherine of Alexandria, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho La Liebre 1846 José M. Flores Mexico 11 547 José M. Flores 1875-06-21 347 Spanish; is hare, describing Lepus californicus Los Angeles Rancho Matzultaquea 1845 Ramon Carrillo (J. B. Frisbie claim rejected by U.S.) Mexico 04 Unknown Los Angeles Rancho La Merced 1844 Casilda Soto Mexico 01 150px Francis Pliny F. Temple, et al. 1872-02-13 443 Spanish; is literally a mercy but is also used to describe income earned by labor Los Angeles Rancho Los Nietos 1784 Manuel Nieto Spain 33 Personal name; initial grantee Orange, Los Angeles Rancho Los Nogales 1840 José de la Luz Linares Mexico 01 150px 195 M. de Jesus García 150px 1882-06-29 459 Spanish; meaning walnut tree, describing Juglans californica Los Angeles Rancho Ojo de Agua 1840 Encarnacio Sepúlveda (no U.S. claim presented) Mexico 02 Spanish; is eye, is water Los Angeles Rancho de los Palos Verdes 1827 José L. Sepúlveda Mexico 150px 565 José L. Sepúlveda, et al. 150px 1880-06-22 439 150px Spanish; is a wooden stick; is green Rancho de Los Palos Colorados Los Angeles Rancho Paso de Bartolo Viejo 1835 Juan Crispin Perez Mexico 02 150px 061 Patented in 3 parts; (1) Joaquin Sepúlveda (208 acres) 2) Pico & Perez (8991 acres) (3) Rafael Guirado (876 acres) 150px 1867-09-27, 1881-03-17, 1881-08-05 465, 458, 464 border Mixed; an old ( in Spanish) San Gabriel River crossing was named for a person called Bartolo Rancho San Rafael Los Angeles Rancho Portezuela 1795 Mariano de la Luz Verdugo (grant abandoned ) Spain Spanish; el portezuelo is a pass Los Angeles Rancho Potrero Chico 1843 Antonio Valenzuela Mexico Ramon Valenzuela, et al. 150px 1923-04-04 444 Spanish; is a paddock, or pasturage for horses; as an adjective means little Rancho Potrero de la Misíon Vieja de San Gabriel Los Angeles Rancho Potrero de Felipe Lugo 1845 Teodoro Romero, Jorge Morillo Mexico 150px Jorge Morillo 150px 1871-06-15 446 150px Spanish; is a paddock, or pasturage for horses; Felipe Lugo was a member of the prominent Californio Lugo family Rancho Dolores Los Angeles Rancho Potrero Grande 1845 Manuel Antonio Mexico 01 150px 439 J. Matías Sanchez 150px 1859-07-19 445 Spanish; is a paddock, or pasturage for horses; is big Los Angeles Rancho La Providencia 1843 Vicente de la Ossa Mexico 01 150px D. W. Alexander 150px 1872-08-06 424 Spanish; providence, foresight, divine superintendence Possibly Rancho Osa after Vicente de la Osa Los Angeles Rancho La Puente 1845 John A. Rowland, William H. Workman Mexico 150px 270 John Rowland, William Workman 150px 1867-04-19 460 150px Spanish; is a bridge over water Los Angeles Rancho Rincón de la Brea 1841 Gil Ibarra Mexico 01 150px 222 Gil Ibarra 150px 1864-11-14 461 Spanish; meaning corner or angle, meaning asphalt or tar Rancho Cañada de la Brea Los Angeles Rancho Rincón de los Bueyes 1821 Bernardo Higuera Spain 0.6 () 150px Francisco Higuera, et al. 150px 1872-08-27 435 Spanish; meaning corner or angle, are oxen Los Angeles Rancho Río de Las Ánimas 1846 Leonardo Cota, Julián A. Chávez (claim rejected by U.S.) Mexico 06 Spanish; "river of souls" Los Angeles Rancho Rodeo de las Aguas Uncertain; Vicente Ferrer Villa Spain 4000 María Rita Valdés 1871-06-27 430 150px Spanish; "gathering of the waters"; literally, is a cattle herd round-up, is water describing pre-settlement watershed features Rancho San Antonio Los Angeles Rancho Rosa Castilla 1831 Juan Ballesteros (Claim of A. Lestrada was rejected.) Mexico 150px Spanish; wild roses grew here; the ranch is named for Castile roses, the plants were likely one of the nine recognized species of roses native to California, such as Rosa californica Los Angeles Rancho Salinas 1822 Antonio Ygnacio Ávila Mexico 150px Spanish; are salt flats; given the location, the name of the rancho likely referred to the Old Salt Lake Los Angeles Rancho San Antonio 1810 Antonio María Lugo Spain 150px Antonio María Lugo 150px 1866-07-20 442 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Anthony of Padua, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho San Francisco 1839 Antonio del Valle Mexico 08 150px Jacoba Féliz 150px 1875-02-12 399 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Francis of Assisi, a Roman Catholic saint Kern, Los Angeles Rancho San Francisquito 1845 Henry Dalton Mexico 150px Henry Dalton 150px 1867-05-30 447 Named for figure of religious significance; Francis of Assisi, a Roman Catholic saint, diminutive form Los Angeles Rancho San José 1837 Ignacio Palomares, Ricardo Véjar Mexico 141 Ignacio Palomares, Ricardo Véjar, Henry Dalton 150px 1875-01-20 458 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Joseph, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho San José de Buenos Ayres 1819 Máximo Alanis, José Polanco Spain 01 150px Benjamin D. Wilson 150px 1866-07-05 431 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Joseph, a Roman Catholic saint, modifier translates roughly to fair winds or fresh air Los Angeles Rancho San Pascual 1835 Juan Maríne Mexico 03.5 (3) 150px Patented in 2 parts; (1) Manuel Garfias (2) Benjamin D. Wilson Patented in 2 parts; (1) (2) 150px 422, 415 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Paschal Baylón, a Roman Catholic saint Rancho El Rincón de San Pasqual Los Angeles Rancho San Pedro 1784 Juan José Dominguez Spain 150px Manuel Dominguez 150px 1858-12-18 440 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Peter, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho San Rafael 1784 José María Verdugo Spain Julio Verdugo, et al. 1882-01-28 423 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Raphael, an archangel Rancho La Zanja; was a local form of irrigation canal Los Angeles Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica 1828 Francisco Sepúlveda Mexico 150px 357 Sepúlveda 150px 1881-07-23 432 Named for figures of religious significance; Vincent of Saragossa and Saint Monica, both Roman Catholic saints Los Angeles Rancho Santa Anita 1841 Hugo Reid Mexico 03 150px Henry Dalton 150px 1866-08-09 454 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Ann, a Roman Catholic saint, diminutive form Los Angeles Rancho Santa Gertrudes 1833 Josefa Cota de Nieto Mexico 05 150px 103 Patented in 2 parts; (1) Tomás Sanchez Colima (2) Jas. P. McFarland, John G. Downey 150px 463, 466 150px Named for figure of religious significance; Gertrude the Great, a Roman Catholic saint Los Angeles Rancho Sausal Redondo 1822 Antonio Ygnacio Ávila Mexico 05 150px 337 Antonio Ygnacio Ávila 150px 1875-03-22 438 Spanish; is willow grove, describing Baccharis salicifolia, California seep willow; is literally round, but here refers to a pasturage Rancho Santa Elena, see also Rancho Gauspita and Rancho Salinas Los Angeles Case no. 354, Southern District of California. Rancho Simi 1795 Santiago Pico Spain 14 150px 271 José de la Guerra y Noriega 150px 1865-06-29 400 Indigenous, Chumash language; Chumash community of Šimiyi Rancho San José de Gracia de Simí Ventura, Los Angeles Rancho La Tajauta 1843 Anastasio Ávila Mexico 01 150px Enrique Ávila 1873-01-08 441 Indigenous, Tongva language; Tongva community of Tajuata Rancho Los Cuerbos (or Cuervos) Los Angeles Rancho Temescal 1843 Francisco Lopez Mexico 03 150px R. de la Cuesta 1871-09-13 398 Spanish; borrowing of the Nahuatl word temāzcalli, meaning sweat house, steam bath, sauna Ventura, Los Angeles Rancho Topanga Malibu Sequit 1804 José Bartolomé Tapia Spain Matthew Keller 150px 1872-08-29 433 Indigenous, mixed; Tongva community of Topaa'nga, Chumash community of Humaliwo, Chumash community of Lisiksi or Lisiqsihi Los Angeles Rancho Tujunga 1840 Pedro Lopez, Francisco Lopez Mexico 01.5 (1) 150px 215 D.W. Alexander 150px 1874-10-19 413 Indigenous, Tongva language; Tongva community of Tuhuu'nga Los Angeles Rancho Las Vírgenes Uncertain; Miguel Ortega Spain 150px 054 Maria Antonia Machado de Reyes 1883-09-05 545 Named for figure of religious significance; originally , a Spanish-language honorific for Mary, mother of Jesus, meaning Our Lady, the Queen of the Virgins Los Angeles ==Influence== Many place names in Los Angeles County draw their names from the ranchos and the . Examples of rancho-derived toponyms include: Ballona (Creek, Wetlands), Brea, Centinela Ave., Cerritos (Auto Square, College), Conejo Valley, Dominguez (Hills, Channel, Rancho, CSUDH), Duarte, Encino, La Brea Ave., La Cañada Flintridge, La Cienega Blvd., La Puente, La Tijera Blvd., Las Virgenes USD, Los Feliz, Mount Baldy, Palos Verdes (Peninsula, Estates, blue butterfly), Park La Brea, Pico Blvd., Pico-Union, Pico Rivera, Rancho Park, Redondo Beach, Rose Hills, Rodeo Dr., San Jose Hills, San Pedro (Bay, neighborhood), San Vicente Blvd., other San Vicente Blvd., Santa Anita Race Track, Santa Monica (Bay, City, Blvd., Mountains), Sepulveda (Blvd., Pass, Transit Corridor, Dam), Verdugo (Mountains, Wash), Walnut, West Whittier-Los Nietos, et al. Rancho boundaries define a portion of the county boundary line; approximately of roads in the county follow rancho borders; and several major arterial thoroughfares run along former rancho property lines, including Pico, Redondo Beach, Sepulveda, Washington, Whittier, and Wilshire boulevards. By the 20th century, the popular culture of California often depicted romantic and idealized missions, but erased the negative consequences for indigenous people of the California mission clash of cultures. Mission Revival (1890–1915), Spanish Colonial Revival (1915–1935), Monterey Colonial Revival and California Churrigueresque were all popular architectural styles in Los Angeles, and not coincidentally: "Thanks to architects, writers, and city boosters, Southern California's identity became firmly grounded in an obsession with geography." The appropriation of Spanish colonization by bourgeois whites is typified by projects like Christine Sterling's preservation of Ávila Adobe and establishment of Olvera Street as a tourist attraction. The eventual design shift from adobe-style buildings to the "Mediterranean" style was an intentional separation from the rustic and Mexican roots of the place to what was perceived as a more sophisticated cultural iconography, although "California stucco" was a method for attaching the "Mexican–Indian mode of domestic architecture" to mass production of small family homes. The "romance of the ranchos" was also used as a pretext for discouraging urban density of Los Angeles and promoting a vast decentralized "rural urban" development style that combines vast tracts of single family homes and practices like faux-rural horse-keeping with dense nodes of finance, law and film production. ==See also== * * * * For more on , see bitumen, history of oil in California through 1930, and La Brea Tar Pits * Ranchería and List of California Rancherías * * * Spanish colonization of the Americas ** Spanish missions in the Americas ** Spanish Texas ** Spanish period in Arizona ** Land grants in New Mexico ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * CSUMB Digital Commons: Hornbeck Collection > American Period > California Land Patents > Private Land Claims by County > Los Angeles County * UCLA Digital Collections: 170/508 Diseños, maps and plans of ranchos of Southern California * * Category:History of Los Angeles County, California
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Buenos Aires (), officially the Buenos Aires Province (Provincia de Buenos Aires ), is the largest and most populous Argentine province. It takes its name from the city of Buenos Aires, the capital of the country, which used to be part of the province and the province's capital until it was federalized in 1880. Since then, in spite of bearing the same name, the province does not include Buenos Aires proper, though it does include all other parts of the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area. The capital of the province is the city of La Plata, founded in 1882. It is bordered by the provinces of Entre Ríos to the northeast, Santa Fe to the north, Córdoba to the northwest, La Pampa to the west, Río Negro to the south and west and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires to the northeast. Uruguay is just across the Rio de la Plata to the northeast, and both are on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Almost the entire province is part of the Pampas geographical region, with the extreme south often considered part of the Patagonia region. The province has a population of about 17.5 million people, which is 38% of Argentina's total population. An estimates 15,172,700 people live in Greater Buenos Aires on 2019 official estimates. The province covers an area of , which is about 11% of Argentina's total area and makes it the country's largest province. ==History== The inhabitants of the province before the 16th-century advent of Spanish colonization were aboriginal peoples such as the Charrúas and the Querandíes. Their culture was lost over the next 350 years. They were subjected to Eurasian plagues from which few survived. The survivors joined other tribes or have been mostly absorbed by Argentina's European ethnic majority. Pedro de Mendoza founded Santa María del Buen Ayre in 1536. Even though the first contact with the aboriginals was peaceful, it soon became hostile. The city was evacuated in 1541. Juan de Garay re-founded the settlement in 1580 as Santísima Trinidad y Puerto Santa María de Los Buenos Aires. Amidst ongoing conflict with the aboriginals, the cattle farms extended from Buenos Aires, whose port was always the center of the economy of the territory. Following the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the end of the 18th century, the export of meat, leather and their derivatives through the port of Buenos Aires was the basis of the economic development of the region. Jesuits unsuccessfully tried to peacefully assimilate the aboriginals into the European culture brought by the Spanish conquistadores. A certain balance was found at the end of the 18th century when the Salado River became the limit between both civilizations, despite frequent malones (aboriginal attacks on border settlements). The end to this situation came in 1879 with the Conquest of the Desert (Conquista del Desierto) in which the aboriginals were almost completely exterminated. After the independence from Spain in 1816, the city and province of Buenos Aires became the focus of an intermittent Argentine Civil War with other provinces. A Federal Pact secured by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1831 led to the establishment of the Argentine Confederation and to his gaining the sum of public power, which provided a tenuous unity. Ongoing disputes regarding the influence of Buenos Aires, between Federalists and Unitarians, and over the Port of Buenos Aires (the prime source of public revenue at the time) fueled periodic hostilities. The province was declared independent on 11 September 1852, as the State of Buenos Aires. Concessions gained in 1859 Pact of San José de Flores and a victory at the Battle of Pavón led to its reincorporation into the Argentine Republic on 17 December 1861. Intermittent conflicts with the nation did not truly cease until 1880, when the city of Buenos Aires was formally federalized and, thus, administratively separated from the province. La Plata was founded in 1882 by Governor Dardo Rocha for the purpose of becoming the provincial capital. The equivalent of a billion (1880s) dollars of British investment and pro-development, education and immigration policies pursued at the national level subsequently spurred dramatic economic growth. Driven by European immigration and improved health, the province's population, like Argentina's, nearly doubled to one million by 1895 and doubled again by 1914. Rail lines connected nearly every town and hamlet in the province by 1914; many developed around the new railway stations. This era of accelerated development was cut short by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused a sharp drop in commodity prices (99% of Argentine exports were agricultural) and led to a halt in the flow of investment funds between nations. The new Concordance and Perón governments funded ambitious lending and public works programs, visible in Buenos Aires Province through the panoply of levees, power plants, water works, paved roads, municipal buildings, and (particularly during Perón's 1946-55 tenure) schools, clinics and massive regional hospitals. The province's population, after 1930, began to grow disproportionately quickly in the suburban areas of Buenos Aires. These suburbs had grown to include 4 million out of the province's total 7 million people in 1960. Much of the area these new suburbs were developed on (particularly the poorer ones) consisted of wetlands and were prone to flooding. To address this, Governor Oscar Alende initiated the province's most important flood-control project to date, the Roggero Reservoir. Completed a decade later, in 1971, the reservoir and associated electric and water-treatment facilities encouraged still more, and more orderly, development of the Greater Buenos Aires region, which today includes around 10 million people ( of the provincial population). It did not address worsening pollution resulting from the area's industrial growth, which had made itself evident since around 1920. This problem has been at its worst along the Reconquista River west and north of the city of Buenos Aires; over 4 million people (one in 10 Argentines) today live on the Reconquista's basin. Of these, about a million still live with seriously compromised water quality, despite the province's (sometimes counterproductive) efforts to remedy the issue. ===Contemporary history=== In April 2013, the northeastern section of Buenos Aires Province, particularly its capital, La Plata, experienced several flash floods that claimed the lives of at least 59 people. Alejandro Armendáriz, of the Radical Civic Union, was elected governor in 1983, when Raúl Alfonsín became president. Alfonsín lost the 1987 midterm elections, leading to the victory of Antonio Cafiero. From then to 2015, all governors have been Peronists. The high population of the province makes it highly influential in Argentine politics. With both ruling for two terms, the rivalry of the president Carlos Menem and governor Eduardo Duhalde dominated the Argentine politics during the nineties. A similar case took place with the president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and governor Daniel Scioli. María Eugenia Vidal, from Republican Proposal, won the 2015 elections, and became the first female governor of the province. === Archaeology === In February 2021, researchers led by Dr. Nicolás Chimento of the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales announced the discovery of a well-preserved fossilized skull of the giant ground sloth Megatherium near San Eduardo del Mar, Province of Buenos Aires. According to paleontologists, the fossil belonged to a juvenile and dated back approximately 3.58 million years. == Government == thumb|Provincial Government House in La Plata thumb|Federal courts in La Plata The provincial government is divided into three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoints the cabinet; the legislative (represented by the Legislature, which is split into the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate); and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court. The Constitution of Buenos Aires Province forms the formal law of the province. In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police, but the province is policed by its own Buenos Aires Provincial Police. ==Geography== Buenos Aires Province, at , is slightly bigger than Italy. The landscape is mainly flat, with two low mountain ranges; Sierra de la Ventana (near Bahía Blanca) and Sierra de Tandil (Tandil). The highest point is Cerro Tres Picos ( amsl; ) and the longest river is Río Salado ( long). As part of The Pampas, the weather of the province is strongly influenced by the ocean, with hot summers and temperate winters. Humidity is high and precipitation is abundant and distributed over the year. The Western and Southwestern regions are drier and are part of the Semi-arid Pampas ecoregion. The southernmost part of the province is often included in definitions of the Patagonia region. ===Climate=== thumb|Köppen climate map of Buenos Aires The climate of the province of Buenos Aires is extremely benign for human activities: it is temperate, with four marked seasons and reliable rainfall on most regions. The province can be divided into four main climatic regions: the southwestern, drier region; the cool Atlantic region; the northern and eastern humid region, and the Delta region, with the warmest, wettest climate. The northern region has warm, humid summers, with days between and nights between , pleasant falls, cool, drier winters with highs between and nights between , and windy, variable springs. Heat waves may bring days with temperatures over , but these do not usually last very long, as cold fronts bring thunderstorms and cooler days, with night temperatures often falling down to . Winter cold waves may bring days with highs about , and lows below , with extremes down to . Snow is uncommon, but there have been accumulations on several occasions in the past. Precipitation ranges from per year. The Delta region is slightly warmer, especially at night, due to the presence of water and the northerly location. Summer nights tend to be stickier, and winters can be damp and foggy, with most nights between . Frost is still to be expected, but temperatures will almost never fall below , and snow has fallen only twice in the last century. Precipitation ranges from and falls throughout the year. The city of Buenos Aires is surrounded by a climate similar to the northern part of the province, but the city itself resembles more the Delta climate, with less frost. The southwestern region is the driest region, and it experiences a more marked differences in temperatures. Summers are often hot, between , but nights are usually comfortable (). Thunderstorms are less frequent but can be very violent in nature. Frost can make an appearance as early as March, but usually first comes in April. Winters are cool and dry, with days between and nights between . Frost occurs on an almost daily basis, with temperatures below not uncommon, and down to recorded in some areas. Snowfall may occur every once in a while, but accumulations are usually small. Total precipitation ranges from , with slightly rainier springs and falls. The Atlantic region sees very moderate weather: the ocean is cold ( in the summer) and sea breezes often bring chilly weather until midsummer. The hottest months average with nights between , providing a perfect relief for the inhabitants of the hotter interior. Fall is often rainy, and winters can be windy and chilly: temperatures average from , and nights from . There can be long periods of drizzly weather and constant temperatures of about . Frost is common but temperatures will rarely fall below , and snowfalls sometimes, but accumulations are only to be expected every few years. Precipitation ranges from . The Sierras de la Ventana (up to ) experience cooler weather, especially at night. The geography of the province is crossed by occasional west Pampero winds. The southern Sudestada produces storms and temperature drops, most notably the Santa Rosa storm, which takes place every year almost exactly on August 30. ==Administrative divisions== thumb|right|Boundaries of the 135 partidos of Buenos Aires Province Unlike the other provinces of the country, in the province of Buenos Aires, the territorial divisions are called partidos, instead of departments. These also constitute the municipal division of the province. The provincial Constitution does not recognize the municipal autonomy that was recognized for the whole country in the reform of the National Constitution of 1994. Each partido corresponds to a municipality and is governed by a mayor (intendente) elected by popular vote. The process of creating a partido is much more dynamic than in the other provinces, with a total of six more partidos in 2000 than in 1990. Most of the newer partidos were created in the Greater Buenos Aires. There are 135 partidos, the last established by law is Lezama (2009). ==Demographics== ===Population=== Buenos Aires Province is the most populated province of the country. The INDEC estimates that the population of Buenos Aires Province was 17,541,141 on 1 July 2020, a 12.26% increase since the 2010 national census. According to that census, there were 15 million inhabitants (38% of the national population), of which 12 million lived in Greater Buenos Aires and 3 million in the rest of the province. Around 33.8% of the inhabitants weren't born in the province, of whom 3,918,552 are migrants from other provinces and 758,640 were born abroad. Evolution of population Year Pop. 1778 33 522Fernando Leónidas Sabsay & Julio Raúl Lascano (1973). La sociedad argentina: España y el Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires: La Ley.-43 165Sonia Tell (2008). Córdoba rural, una sociedad campesina (1750-1850). Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros Editorial, pp. 55 (nota n°32). . 1821 200 000Juan Bautista Alberdi (1856). Organización política y económica de la Confederación Argentina. Besazon: Impr. de J. Jacquin, pp. 576. 1847 320 000Sir Woodbine Parish (1853). Buenos Aires y las provincias del Rio de la Plata: desde su descubrimiento y conquista por los españoles. Tomo II. Buenos Aires: Imprenta de Mayo, pp. 450 1853 500 000 1869 495 107Laura Marcela Méndez (2007). Las Efemérides En El Aula. Buenos Aires: Noveduc Libros, pp. 204. . 1895 921 168Mariela Ceva, Alejandro Fernández, Aníbal Jáuregui & Julio Stortini (2000). Historia Social Argentina En Documentos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, pp. 108. . 1914 2 066 948 1947 4 273 874 1960 6 766 108 1970 8 774 529 1980 9 766 030 1991 12 594 974 2001 13 827 203 2010 15 625 084 Most of its inhabitants are descendants from colonial-era settlers and immigrants from Europe who arrived within the 19th and 20th centuries, mostly Italians, Spaniards and to a lesser extent Germans, French and British. A number of suburbs in the province are also home to a large, predominantly mestizo population that began migrating from the country's northern provinces in the mid-20th century to take advantage of growing employment opportunities. These same communities are also home to considerable numbers of more recent migrants from Paraguay and Bolivia. ===Largest metropolitan areas=== Metropolitan area Population (2010 Census) Greater Buenos Aires 13,588,171 Greater La Plata 787,294 Mar del Plata 618,989 Greater Bahía Blanca 291,327 === Largest cities === City Population (2010 Census) Mar del Plata 593,337 Bahía Blanca 291,327 Merlo 268,961 Quilmes 262,379 Gregorio de Laferrere 248,362 José C. Paz 247,217 Banfield 246,467 González Catán 238,067 Lanús 215,956 La Plata 193,144 ==Tourism== Tourists, mainly from Buenos Aires, visit the Atlantic coast. There are many cities and towns along the coastline, which starts some from Buenos Aires after the Samborombón Bay. Among them, the biggest and most important is Mar del Plata, followed by the La Costa Partido, Pinamar, Villa Gesell, Miramar, and Necochea. The most important summer- related event, the National Sea Festival, is held annually in the city of Mar del Plata. The city's Central Casino and Grand Provincial Hotel are among the nation's largest. Other destinations include the Ventana Sierras, Tandil, Tigre, the Paraná Delta, Isla Martín García, Olavarria, the Chascomús and Gómez lagoons, Campos del Tuyú National Park, and La Plata. Agritourism in estancias (plantations) has become increasingly popular for foreigners visiting the province in recent years. The province's wine district, centered on Médanos, has also become prominent for visitors touring the Argentina Wine Route. == Sports == In Buenos Aires Province, as throughout Argentina, football is the predominant sport. The province has numerous professional football teams, with most of them concentrated in the Greater Buenos Aires area. Rivals Club Atlético Independiente and Racing Club de Avellaneda are the most successful, famous and followed beyond the province borders. Other notable teams in Greater Buenos Aires include Arsenal, Quilmes, Banfield, Lanús, Chacarita Juniors, Tigre and Defensa y Justicia. In the capital of the province, Estudiantes and Gimnasia y Esgrima stand out. Other clubs in the rest of the province include Olimpo and Villa Mitre (Bahía Blanca), Huracán de Tres Arroyos (Tres Arroyos), Aldosivi and Alvarado (Mar del Plata), Sarmiento (Junín), Douglas Haig (Pergamino), Agropecuario (Carlos Casares), Santamarina (Tandil), Racing de Olavarría (Olavarría), Flandria, Club Luján and Villa Dálmine (Campana). The city of Mar del Plata hosted six matches of the 1978 FIFA World Cup and the 1995 Pan American Games, and annually holds the National Evita Games and the final stage of the Bonaerense Games, the last being the most important provincial sports event for young, the elderly and people with disabilities. The province is represented in the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) by four unions: the Rugby Union of Buenos Aires (URBA), includes teams of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (CABA), the Rugby Union of Mar del Plata, the Western Rugby Union of the Province of Buenos Aires (UROBA) and the Southern Rugby Union. Some of the most prominent clubs are CASI and SIC of San Isidro. Among others, some of the most important basketball teams in the province are: Peñarol de Mar del Plata, Quilmes de Mar del Plata, Bahía Basket, Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca, Olimpo de Bahía Blanca, Argentino de Junín, Club Ciclista Juninense, and Estudiantes de Olavarría, Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata, Club Atlético Platense and Lanús. There are numerous racetracks, including La Plata, Nueve de Julio, Olavarría, Mar de Ajó, Junín, Balcarce, San Nicolás de los Arroyos and Bahía Blanca. The San Isidro Racecourse was inaugurated in 1935 and hosts the Carlos Pellegrini Grand Prix. The Hipodromo de La Plata is the third-largest in Argentina. ==Economy== The province's economy has long been the largest in Argentina, estimated in 2014 to have been US$407.6 billion (more than a third of the national total, which was around US$680.8 billion in 2016 according to Argentina's economical growing. It has a per capita income of $24,780 (around $27,300 in 2016). The province is the nation's chief exporter, generating nearly $107 billion in exports in 2016 (37% of the nation's total). Agriculture in the province is renowned around the world for its productivity. The province is Argentina's chief agricultural producer, and accounted for at least $8 billion in export earnings in 2014. This sector adds about 5% to the province's highly diversified economy, however. The province's ranching sector is diversified, and though cattle historically provided the main animal husbandry activity, Buenos Aires is also the top producer of sheep, pork, and chicken meat of the country. Equally important is the dairy industry. Crop harvests are the most diverse in the nation, and have grown to record levels in recent decades. The most important crops include soybean, maize, wheat, sunflower and other oilseeds, like flax. More recently, premium wines have been produced in the Buenos Aires wine region in the south of the province. Manufacturing accounts for a fourth of the province's output and is about 40% of the entire nation's. The industry of the province is diverse: chemical, pharmaceutical, metallurgic, motor vehicles, machinery, textiles and the food industry are the most notable. Excluding processed agricultural items, the province was responsible for over US$70 billion of industrial exports in 2016 and accounted for a third of all Argentine exports. The province's services sector is well- diversified and differs little from national trends. The largest local bank is the public Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires. The institution, the second- largest in Argentina, holds nearly a tenth of the nation's bank deposits. === Transport === ==== Airports ==== thumb|Ministro Pistarini International Airport Name City OACI IATA FAA Ministro Pistarini Ezeiza SAEZ EZE EZE San Fernando San Fernando SADF FDO FDO Astor Piazzolla Mar del Plata SAZM MDQ MDP Comandante Espora Bahía Blanca SAZB BHI EPO Edgardo Hugo Yelpo Necochea SAZO NEC NEC Junín Junín SAAJ JNI NIN La Plata La Plata SADL LPG PTA Olavarría Olavarría SAZF OVR OLA Santa Teresita Santa Teresita SAZL SST SST Tandil Tandil SAZT TDL DIL Villa Gesell Villa Gesell SAZV VLG GES ==== Ports ==== Name City Location Puerto Ingeniero White Bahía Blanca Mar Argentino Puerto Galván Bahía Blanca Mar Argentino Puerto Rosales Punta Alta Mar Argentino Puerto de San Nicolás de los Arroyos San Nicolás Río Paraná Puerto de Campana Campana Río Paraná Puerto de La Plata Ensenada Río de la Plata Puerto de Mar del Plata Mar del Plata Mar Argentino Puerto de Quequén Necochea Mar Argentino ==== Railways ==== Railway City Station General San Martín Buenos Aires Retiro San Martín Chacabuco Chacabuco Junín Junín Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Buenos Aires Once Luján Luján Mercedes Mercedes Chivilcoy Chivilcoy Sud General Roca Buenos Aires Constitución San Miguel del Monte Monte Las Flores Las Flores Olavarría Olavarría Azul Azul Pigüé Pigüé Bahía Blanca Bahía Blanca Sud Mar del Plata Mar del Plata ==See also== * Buenos Aires Provincial Police == Notes == ==References== == External links == * Official website * Short History of the partidos * Secretary of Interior of the Province * Buenos Aires Province Pictures Category:Provinces of Argentina Category:States and territories established in 1820
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Felipe de Jesús Alvarado Mendoza (born January 8, 1982) is a Mexican luchador, or professional wrestler best known by the ring name La Máscara for his time working for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) and was the co-founder and leader of Los Mercenarios (alongside El Hijo del Fantasma, Rey Escorpión, and Texano Jr.). Alvarado worked for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) since 2001 until 2017, during that time he won several championships including the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, CMLL World Tag Team Championship, CMLL World Trios Championship, NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship, Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, Mexican National Trios Championship, and Mexican National Welterweight Championship. Alvarado is a founding member of Los Ingobernables along with Rush and La Sombra. Alvarado is the son of Jesús Alvarado Nieves, better known under the name Brazo de Oro, and the promotion acknowledges the relationship. many of the Alvarado family have been, or currently are professional wrestlers, including family patriarch Shadito Cruz and uncles who worked under the ring names Brazo de Plata, El Brazo, Brazo Cibernético. Brazo de Platino and Súper Brazo. Many of Felipe Alvarado's cousins are also wrestlers including Psycho Clown, Máximo Sexy and Goya Kong among others. Alvarado originally used the name Brazo de Oro Jr. ("Golden Arm Jr.) after his father. ==Personal life== Felipe de Jesús Alvarado Mendoza was born on January 8, 1982, son of Jesús Alvarado Nieves and grandson of Juan Alvarado Ibarra, better known under the professional wrestling ring name Shadito Cruz. Jesús Alvarado and five of his brothers had following in Shadito Cruz's footsteps and all became professional wrestlers as well. Jesús Alvarado was the oldest brother and became known as Brazo de Oro ('Golden Arm") while his brothers would be known as Brazo de Plata ('Silver Arm"), El Brazo ("The Arm"), Brazo Cibernético ("Cyborg Arm"), Brazo de Platino ("Platinum Arm") and Súper Brazo. for a while Jesús Alvarado was married to Sandra González Calderón, better known as Lady Apache, Felipe Alvarado's step mother. Growing up Felipe Alvarado and several of his cousins would often attend wrestling events together, which led to Felipe and his cousins José Christian Alvarado (later known as Máximo) and the wrestler later known as Psycho Clown (real name unrevealed). Several of his cousins would later follow them into the wrestling business such as Robin, Goya Kong, Muñeca de Plata, Brazo Cibernetico Jr. and Brazo Celestial. Over the years several wrestler have paid to use the "Brazo" name, leading to some confusion and uncertainty to how many Alvarado family members have actually been professional wrestlers; it has been confirmed that Brazo Metálico, Brazo Jr. and Andros de Plata were not related to the Alvarado family. ==Professional wrestling career== Felipe Alvarado received most of his early training from his father, often in the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ("World Wrestling Council"; CMLL) where his father served as a trainer for several CMLL trainees. ===Brazo de Oro Jr. (2000-2005)=== After his initial training, Felipe Alvarado would make his official wrestling debut on April 2, 2000, using the ring name "Brazo de Oro Jr.", wearing the same mask design as his father. As Brazo de Oro Jr. he often teamed up with his cousins (José Christian Alvarado and his brother) who worked as Brazo de Platino Jr. and Brazo de Plata Jr. respectively, collectively referred to as Los Brazos Junior. The trio worked primarily for CMLL, normally in the early parts of the shows as they gained in-ring experience. During the summer of 2002 Brazo de Oro Jr. was involved in his first significant storyline feud against a local wrestler on Oaxaca known as Némesis.It is unclear who used the Némesis name in Oaxaca, it was not Antheus Ortiz Chávez who used the same ring name in 2005. On August 24, 2002, Brazo de Oro Jr. defeated Némesis in a Lucha de Apuestas, or "bet match", after which Némesis was forced to unmask. In Lucha libre the Lucha de Apuestas matches are generally considered more prestigious than winning a championship. Through CMLL's working relationship with International Wrestling Revolution Group Los Brazos Junior worked several major shows for that promotion. Including the Arena Naucalpan 26th Anniversary Show on December 21, 2003, where they defeated the trio of Angel de Tijuana and Los Megas (Mega and Ultra Mega). and the subsequent IWRG 8th Anniversary Show on January 1, 2004, where they defeated Los Comandos (Comando Alfa, Comando Delta and Comando Gama). ===La Máscara (2005-2017)=== In 2005 all of the Brazos Junior members took on a new name, creating their own identity in Lucha Libre. Felipe Alvarado took the enmascarado (masked character) "La Máscara" ("The Mask"). In May 2005, he won his first major championship when he defeated Doctor X for the Mexican National Welterweight Championship. He held the title for over a year, before he lost the belt to Sangre Azteca on December 17, 2006. Earlier that year, he lost to Hajime Ohara in a match for the then vacant NWA World Welterweight Championship in Mexico City. La Máscara has been pushed strongly since changing to that gimmick (from Brazo de Oro Jr.), with some thought that it might be due to his family connections. His work has appeared to catch up with his push this year, and he's a solid high flier. On June 13, 2008, La Máscara teamed with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma in a tournament for the vacant CMLL World Trios Championship and won the titles after beating Blue Panther, Dos Caras, Jr. and Místico in the finals. The three held the titles for over seven weeks until they lost it to Último Guerrero, Negro Casas and Atlantis on August 5. La Máscara and his partners regained the titles on a show in Guadalajara on January 18, 2009. On January 29, 2010, La Máscara teamed up with Negro Casas to participate in CMLL's "Torneo Nacional de Pareja Increíbles" ("National Amazing Pairs tournament"), a tournament where CMLL teams up a Tecnico (La Máscara) and a Rudo (Casas) for a tournament. The two defeated El Texano, Jr. and Rouge in the opening round, El Sagrado and Shocker in the second round and Héctor Garza and Toscano in the semi-final to earn a spot in the final of the tournament. On February 5, 2010, Casas and La Máscara lost to Máscara Dorada and Atlantis in the finals. In March 2010 signs of dissention amongst the Trios champions began showing as Garza walked out on the team during a trios match mistakenly thinking that one of his teammates had attacked him. Following the walk out Garza kept insincerely insisting that he was still a tecnico and that his team was getting along great. Further doubts about Garza's allegiance arose when he teamed up with the Rúdo Pólvora to win the 2010 Gran Alternativa tournament. When Garza, La Máscara and Hijo del Fantasma were booked for a CMLL World Trios defense the following week Garza complained that his partners agreed to the match without asking him, but swore that he would still be professional about it. During the title defense on the May 7, 2010 Super Viernes Garza attacked both Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara, allowing La Ola Amarilla (Hiroshi Tanahashi, Okumura and Taichi) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship, turning full blown Rudo in the process. On May 14, 2010, La Máscara teamed up with Máscara Dorada and La Sombra to defeat Ola Amarilla in a non-title match to earn a shot at the titles the following week. One week later the trio defeated Ola Amarilla again, ending the Japanese trios title reign after just two weeks, making La Máscara a three times Trios Champion By virtue of holding the CMLL World Trios Championship La Máscara participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament. He was part of "Block B" that competed on the August 6, 2010 Super Viernes show. In the first round of the tournament he defeated Mr. Águila, then moved on to a match against Volador Jr. during the match Volador Jr. turned rudo (bad guy) after teasing a turn for a long time and got himself disqualified for excessive violence. After the match Volador Jr. beat up La Máscara further, leaving him an easy target for his third round opponent, Jushin Thunder Liger, who quickly defeated La Máscara. On October 5, 2010, La Máscara defeated Volador Jr. to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship. On January 22, 2011, La Máscara made his Japanese debut, when he took part in the Fantastica Mania 2011 weekend, co-promoted by CMLL and New Japan Pro-Wrestling in Tokyo. During the first night, he teamed with Tiger Mask in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Dragón Rojo, Jr. and Tomohiro Ishii. The following night, he, Máscara Dorada and La Sombra successfully defended the CMLL World Trios Championship against La Ola Amarilla (Okumura, Tetsuya Naito and Yujiro Takahashi). In April 2011, La Máscara began feuding with the WWE bound Averno, which led to CMLL booking the two to face each other in a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuesta on June 17. On June 17 at Juicio Final, La Máscara picked up the biggest win of his career by defeating Averno two falls to one and forcing him to unmask himself. Afterwards, La Máscara and Averno continued their rivalry, building up to another singles match on July 4, where Averno successfully defended the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship. On July 15, La Generación Dorada lost the CMLL World Trios Championship to Los Hijos del Averno (Averno, Ephesto and Mephisto). After La Máscara pinned Averno in a six-man tag team match on July 22, the two agreed to another match for the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship on July 29, where Averno was again able to retain the title. La Máscara and Averno faced each other again on September 9 in the second round of the Universal Championship tournament, where Averno once again was victorious. On November 22, La Máscara defeated Averno to win the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship. He would go on to lose the title to Volador Jr. on February 14, 2012. On January 18, 2013, La Máscara returned to Japan to take part in the three-day Fantastica Mania 2013 event. During the first night, he teamed with Máscara Dorada and Máximo in a six-man tag team match, where they were defeated by Taichi, Taka Michinoku and Volador Jr. During the second night, he, Hiroshi Tanahashi and Rush were defeated in a six-man tag team match by Kazuchika Okada, Rey Escorpión and Volador Jr. During the third and final night, La Máscara successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Volador Jr. La Máscara was once again forced to team up with Averno, for the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles, just like he was for the 2012 tournament. The team worked together without too many problems in the first round as they defeated the team of El Hijo de Fantasma and El Felino, but stumbled in the second round as they lost to eventual tournament winners La Sombra and Volador Jr. On April 7, La Máscara returned to New Japan Pro-Wrestling at Invasion Attack, where he and Valiente unsuccessfully challenged Tama Tonga and El Terrible for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. On June 30, La Máscara, Rush and Titán defeated Los Invasores (Kráneo, Mr. Águila and Psicosis) to win the Mexican National Trios Championship. On August 13, La Máscara lost the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship to Mephisto. On October 18, La Máscara and Rush were awarded the CMLL World Tag Team Championship, when Rey Bucanero, one half of the previous champions, was unable to defend the title due to an injury. On February 18, 2014, La Máscara, Rush and Titán lost the Mexican National Trios Championship to La Peste Negra (El Felino, Mr. Niebla and Negro Casas). On June 13, La Máscara and Rush lost the CMLL World Tag Team Championship to Negro Casas and Shocker. ====Los Ingobernables (2014–2017)==== During the summer, La Máscara formed a trio named Los Ingobernables ("The Ungovernables") with Rush and La Sombra with the three essentially wrestling as rudos and being referred to as the most hated wrestlers in the past decade. On April 8, 2016, La Máscara defeated Ángel de Oro to win the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, becoming the 15th light heavyweight champion in the history of the championship. After the match he got into an altercation with Ángel de Oro's corner man Dragon Lee. On May 13, the partnership between La Máscara and Rush came to an end, when Rush and Pierroth turned on their Los Ingobernables stablemate. Following the turn, La Máscara declared war on the entire Muñoz family, which included Rush, Pierroth, Dragon Lee and Místico. La Máscara won the 2016 Leyenda de Plata tournament when he defeated Negro Casas in the finals, held on July 22. On August 5, La Máscara accepted a challenge from Dragon Lee for a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuestas between the two. On September 2 in the main event of the 83rd Anniversary Show, La Máscara was defeated by Dragon Lee and was forced to unmask and reveal his birthname. Afterwards, La Máscara reconciled with Rush. On May 19, 2017, footage emerged of Felipe Alvarado and other members of the Alvarado family, including his cousins José (Máximo Sexy), Psycho Clown and Robin, as well as his uncle Daniel Alvarado (Brazo de Platino), destroying an expensive car belonging to José Gutiérrez, better known as Último Guerrero. The vandalism was reportedly motivated by the fact that Gutiérrez had spoken out against Felipe Alvarado as a possible the head of the wrestler's union after the death of Alvarado's father. The head of the CMLL wrestlers' union had been in the Avarado family for over a decade and the Alvarado family believed it should go to someone in their family. On May 22, CMLL publicly fired both Felipe and José Alvarado, as well as Bobby Villa, while also stripping the two Alvarados of their titles. === The Crash (2017–2018) === On May 30, 2017, La Máscara and Máximo made a surprise appearance at The Crash Lucha Libre, confronting members of the La Rebelión stable. The cousins were originally announced as being booked to wrestle against L.A. Park and Dr. Wagner Jr. in the main event of a Lucha Libre Boom! show, but it was later announced that the match had been changed to L.A. Park vs. Dr. Wagner Jr. as Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) did not want wrestlers under contract with AAA (Wagner) to work with La Máscara and Máximo at the moment. In September, Rush and Pierroth arrived in The Crash, reuniting with La Máscara and kick starting a rivalry between Los Ingobernables and La Rebelión. ===Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2018–2019)=== On January 26, La Máscara along with Máximo made their debut in Guerra de Titanes to help his brother Psycho Clown and thus forming his team called, Los Mosqueteros del Diablo ("The Musketeers of the Devil"). On May 4, La Mascara announced his departure from the AAA and declared himself independent. ==Alvarado family tree== † = deceased ==Championships and accomplishments== *Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre **CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) **CMLL World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Rush **CMLL World Trios Championship (3 times) – with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma (2), Máscara Dorada and La Sombra (1) **Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) **Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – Rush and Titán **Mexican National Welterweight Championship (1 time) **NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship (1 time) **CMLL World Tag Team Championship #1 Contender's Tournament (2013) – with Rush **Leyenda de Plata (2016) **Reyes del Aire (2006) **CMLL Tecnico of the Year (2009) **Torneo Gran Alternativa (2005) – with Atlantis **CMLL Trio of the Year (2009) – with Héctor Garza and El Hijo del Fantasma **CMLL Trio of the Year (2010) – with Máscara Dorada and La Sombra **CMLL Bodybuilding Contest – Advanced (2014) *Pro Wrestling Illustrated **PWI ranked him # 82 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2012 ==Luchas de Apuestas record== Winner (wager) Loser (wager) Location Event Date Notes Brazo de Oro Jr. (mask) Némesis (mask) Oaxaca, Mexico Live event La Máscara (mask) Mosco de la Merced (hair) Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes Live event La Máscara (mask) Averno (mask) Mexico City Juicio Final Dragon Lee (mask) La Máscara (mask) Mexico City CMLL 83rd Anniversary Show La Máscara (Goya Kong's hair) Máximo (Brazo de Plata's hair) Benito Juarez, Distrito Federal AAA/Legends show Each wrestler bet the hair of their second instead of their own. ==Footnotes== ==References== Category:1982 births Category:Alvarado wrestling family Category:Living people Category:Masked wrestlers Category:Mexican male professional wrestlers Category:Professional wrestlers from Mexico City Category:21st-century professional wrestlers Category:Mexican National Trios Champions Category:CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champions Category:CMLL World Tag Team Champions Category:CMLL World Trios Champions Category:Mexican National Welterweight Champions Category:NWA World Historic Middleweight Champions Category:Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champions
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The New Hampshire presidential primary is the first in a series of nationwide party primary elections and the second party contest (the first being the Iowa caucuses) held in the United States every four years as part of the process of choosing the delegates to the Democratic and Republican national conventions which choose the party nominees for the presidential elections to be held the subsequent November. Although only a few delegates are chosen in the New Hampshire primary, its real importance comes from the massive media coverage it receives (along with the first caucus in Iowa). Spurred by the events of the 1968 election, reforms that began with the 1972 election elevated the two states' importance to the overall election,"Nominations & Conventions: Current Practices: Iowa and New Hampshire". U.S. Political Conventions & Campaigns. Northeastern University. Retrieved February 2, 2016.Rainey, Ryan (April 18, 2013). "Choosing the Nominee: How PresidentialPrimaries Came To Be and Their Future in American Politics". ScholarWorks at WMU, Western Michigan University. and began to receive as much media attention as all of the other state contests combined.Richard M. Perloff, Political Communication: Politics, Press, and Public in America (1998) p. 294 Examples of this extraordinary coverage have been seen on the campuses of Dartmouth College and Saint Anselm College, as the colleges have held multiple national debates and have attracted media outlets like NPR, Fox News, CNN, NBC, and ABC. The publicity and momentum can be enormous from a decisive win by a frontrunner, or better- than-expected result in the New Hampshire primary. The upset or weak showing by a front-runner changes the calculus of national politics in a matter of hours, as happened in 1952 (D), 1968 (D), 1980 (R), and 2008 (D). Since 1952, the primary has been a major testing ground for candidates for both the Republican and Democratic nominations. Candidates who do poorly frequently drop out, while lesser-known, underfunded candidates who excel in New Hampshire can become serious contenders, garnering large amounts of media attention and campaign funding. Crucially, the New Hampshire primary is not a "closed primary", where voter participation is limited by voters' past or recent party registration. Instead, New Hampshire enables any voter who has been undeclared, or re-registers as undeclared (not registered with any party) to vote in either party's primary. Candidates who do well in the state are seen as having a strong appeal to independents—who account for as much as 41% of the electorate. A strong performance in New Hampshire is seen as a bellwether for how well a candidate can do in a general election, given their appeal to less partisan voters who sometimes flood that party's primary, if they want to participate at all. This system is not a fully open primary, because people who are registered with a party (Republican or Democratic) on voting day cannot vote in the other party's primary. The term the state of New Hampshire uses for voters not affiliating with a party is "undeclared". See the section entitled "Political Parties" in the source. ==Timing== New Hampshire state law stipulates that the presidential primary shall be on the second Tuesday in March (the date when town meetings and non-partisan municipal elections are traditionally held), but that the Secretary of State must, if necessary, change the date to ensure that the New Hampshire primary will take place at least seven days before any "similar election" in any other state. The Iowa caucuses are not considered to be a similar election. In recent election cycles, the New Hampshire primary has taken place the week after the Iowa caucus. The communities of Dixville Notch, Hart's Location, and Millsfield traditionally participate in the New Hampshire midnight voting, in which they open their polling places at midnight. In particular, the polling place inside the ballroom of The Balsams Grand Resort Hotel in Dixville Notch opens at midnight, usually in front of a crowd of journalists, where the village's handful of voters cast their ballots before the polls close about less than ten minutes later. This has led many presidential candidates to visit the area before the New Hampshire primary in hopes of securing an early- morning boost. The communities of also participate . New Hampshire's first-in- the-nation primary status was threatened in 2007, when both the Republican and Democratic National Committees moved to give more populous states a bigger influence in the presidential race. Several states also sought to move up the dates of their 2008 primaries in order to have more influence and dilute the power of the New Hampshire primary.Scala 2003 Originally held in March, the date of the New Hampshire primary has been moved up repeatedly to maintain its status as first. The 2008 primary was held on January 8. ==Significance== There is consensus among scholars and pundits that the New Hampshire primary, because of the timing and the vast media attention, can have a great impact and may even make, break or revive a candidate.Rebecca B. Morton, Learning by Voting: Sequential Choices in Presidential Primaries and Other Elections (2001) p. 24 Controlling for other factors statistically, a win in New Hampshire increases a candidate's share of the final primary count in all states by 27 percentage points.William G. Mayer, The Making of the Presidential Candidates 2004 pp. 106-7 online Since 1977, New Hampshire has fought hard to keep its timing as the first primary (while Iowa has the first caucus a few days sooner). State law requires that its primary must be the first in the nation (it had been the first by tradition since 1920). As a result, the state has moved its primary earlier in the year to remain the first. The primary was held on the following dates: 1952–1968, second Tuesday in March; 1972, first Tuesday in March; 1976–1984, fourth Tuesday in February; 1988–1996, third Tuesday in February; 2000, first Tuesday in February (February 1); 2004, fourth Tuesday in January (January 27). The shifts have been to compete with changing primary dates in other states. The primary dates for 2008 (January 8) and 2012 (January 10) continued the trend - they were held the second Tuesday in January both years. Before the Iowa caucus first received national attention in the 1970s (Republicans began caucusing in Iowa in 1976), the New Hampshire primary was the first binding indication of which presidential candidate would receive the party nomination. In defense of their primary, voters of New Hampshire have tended to downplay the importance of the Iowa caucus. "The people of Iowa pick corn, the people of New Hampshire pick presidents," said then-Governor John H. Sununu in 1988. Since then, the primary has been considered an early measurement of the national attitude toward the candidates for nomination. Unlike a caucus, the primary measures the number of votes each candidate received directly, rather than through precinct delegates. The popular vote gives lesser-known candidates a chance to demonstrate their appeal to the electorate at large. Unlike most other states, New Hampshire permits voters who have not declared their party affiliation to vote in a party's primary. Voters do not have to officially join a specific political party before voting. Voters can change their affiliation back to "Undeclared" immediately after voting, affiliating with a party only while casting a ballot. Voters who are already registered members of a political party cannot change their affiliation at the polling place; that can only be done before the checklist is closed several weeks prior to the election. New voters can, however, register at the polling place. All voting is done with paper ballots; however, most of the paper ballots are counted by machine. New Hampshire's status as the first in the nation is somewhat controversial because the ethnic makeup of the state is not diverse and not representative of the country's voters.Steven S. Smith, Reforming the Presidential Nomination Process (2009) p. 143 This is shown in the 2010 Census data, with the percentage of minority residents being nearly five times smaller than the national average (New Hampshire is 92% non-Hispanic white, versus 64% nationally). Politically however, the state does offer a wide sampling of different types of voters. Although it is a New England state, it is not as liberal as some of its neighbors. For example, according to one exit poll, of those who participated in the 2004 Democratic primary, 4-in-10 voters were independents, and just over 50% said they considered themselves "liberal". Additionally, as of 2002, 25.6% of New Hampshire residents are registered Democrats and 36.7% are Republicans, with 37.7% of New Hampshire voters registered as "undeclared" independents. Also, New Hampshire was the only state in the Northeast to vote for George W. Bush in 2000. This plurality of independents is a major reason why New Hampshire is considered a swing state in general U.S. presidential elections. Recently, media expectations for the New Hampshire primary have come to be almost as important as the results themselves; meeting or beating expectations can provide a candidate with national attention, often leading to an infusion of donations to a campaign that has spent most of its reserves. For example, in 1992, Bill Clinton, although he did not win, did surprisingly well, with his team dubbing him the "Comeback Kid"; the extra media attention helped his campaign's visibility in later primaries.David A. Hopkins, Presidential Elections: Strategies and Structures of American Politics (12th ed. 2007) p. 108 New Hampshire's political importance as the first-in-the-nation primary state is highlighted in the documentary film Winning New Hampshire. The film focuses on John Kerry's comeback in 2004 and the decisive effect of the New Hampshire primary on the presidential selection process. The most recent presidential election winner to win the New Hampshire primary was Donald Trump in 2016, while the three presidents before him (Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama) finished second in the New Hampshire primary before later being elected to the presidency, and the previous four before that won the New Hampshire primary. ==History== New Hampshire has held a presidential primary since 1916 and started the tradition of being the first presidential primary in the United States starting in 1920. Until 1948, the New Hampshire primary, like most of the small number of other primaries in the country, listed only the names of local citizens who wanted to be delegates to the state convention. In 1948, Richard F. Upton, speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives decided to make the primary "more interesting and meaningful…so there would be a greater turnout at the polls." The state legislature passed a law allowing citizens to vote directly for the presidential candidates. Any candidate could get on the ballot if he submitted fifty supporting petitions from each of the two congressional districts, and voters could choose delegates who were explicitly pledged to a particular candidate. New Hampshire did not begin to assume its current importance until 1952. In that year, Dwight D. Eisenhower demonstrated his broad voter appeal by defeating Robert A. Taft, "Mr. Republican", who had been favored for the nomination, and Estes Kefauver defeated incumbent President Harry S. Truman, leading Truman to abandon his campaign for a second term of his own. The other president to be forced out of the running for re-election by New Hampshire voters was Lyndon Johnson, who, as a write-in candidate, managed only a 49-42 percent victory over Eugene McCarthy in 1968 (and won fewer delegates than McCarthy), and consequently withdrew from the race. The winner in New Hampshire has not always gone on to win their party's nomination, as demonstrated by Republicans Leonard Wood in 1920, Harold Stassen in 1948, Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. as a write-in candidate in 1964, Pat Buchanan in 1996, and John McCain in 2000, and Democrats Estes Kefauver in 1952 and 1956, Paul Tsongas in 1992, Hillary Clinton in 2008, and Bernie Sanders in 2016 and 2020. From 1952 to 1988, the person elected president had always carried the primary, but Bill Clinton broke the pattern in 1992, as did George W. Bush in 2000, Barack Obama in 2008, and Joe Biden in 2020. In 1992, Clinton lost to Paul Tsongas in New Hampshire; in 2000, George W. Bush lost to John McCain in New Hampshire; in 2008 Barack Obama lost to Hillary Clinton; and in 2020 Joe Biden lost to Bernie Sanders. ===1968=== In November 1967, Eugene McCarthy declared, "there comes a time when an honorable man simply has to raise the flag" and entered the New Hampshire Democratic primary. On March 12, 1968, McCarthy, who was the only candidate on the ballot, came within 7 percentage points of defeating President Lyndon Johnson, a write-in candidate who was technically still exploring his candidacy and had not bothered to file. Just a few days later, on March 16, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy entered the race for President. Johnson subsequently withdrew from the election with this Shermanesque statement: “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president.” One minor candidate in the Republican primary was William W. Evans, Jr., a former New Jersey State Assemblyman, who received just 151 votes statewide. The 1968 New Hampshire Democratic primary was one of the crucial events in the politics of that landmark year in United States history. Senator Eugene McCarthy began his campaign with a poem that he wrote in imitation of the poet Robert Lowell, “Are you running with me Jesus”: ===1992=== Bill Clinton was able to declare himself the "Comeback Kid" after posting a surprise second-place finish behind Paul Tsongas in the Democratic primary. Clinton's support had been flagging for weeks since being hit by allegations of infidelity with actress Gennifer Flowers. On the Republican side, Pat Buchanan garnered an unexpected 37% showing behind incumbent President George H. W. Bush. Buchanan did not win a single state, but revealed some doubts about the moderate president among conservative voters. ===2000=== George W. Bush's campaign, which for months had dominated in polling, money and endorsements on the Republican side, suffered a blow when John McCain, who had been surging in late polls, ended up beating the governor in the Granite State by more than 18 points. The result forecast a tough two-man race for the GOP nomination, which would carry on until Super Tuesday in March. Al Gore helped himself with a narrow win in the Democratic primary, which somewhat assuaged his supporters' concerns about Bill Bradley's insurgent campaign. ===2004=== Senator John Kerry secured a decisive victory with 35% of the vote, 10 percentage points more than second- place finisher Howard Dean. ===2008=== Hillary Clinton managed an upset win over Barack Obama in New Hampshire, despite polls showing her as much as 13 points behind in the run-up to the vote.RealClearPolitics - Election 2008 - New Hampshire Democratic Primary. Retrieved 2016-02-12. The win helped Clinton get back some of the momentum she lost the week before when Obama carried the Iowa caucuses—though Obama did eventually win the Democratic nomination. John McCain won the Republican primary, sparking an unexpected comeback for the senator whose long-shot campaign had been written off as a lost cause months before. He went on to win the GOP nomination. ===2016=== Bernie Sanders defeated Hillary Clinton by 22 percentage points. Sanders amassed 152,193 votes in total, earning him 15 delegates, while Clinton managed 95,252 votes with 9 delegates. Together with Donald Trump's double-digit win in the GOP race, the primary results revealed voter frustrations with mainstream "establishment" politicians. ===2020=== Bernie Sanders narrowly placed first in the Democratic primary once again, edging out former Mayor of South Bend Pete Buttigieg with 76,384 votes to 72,454. Incumbent President Donald Trump won an overwhelming victory in the Republican primary with 129,734 votes, beating former Governor of Massachusetts Bill Weld by over 75 percentage points and receiving the most votes in the New Hampshire primary for an incumbent candidate in U.S. history, breaking Bill Clinton's 1996 record of 76,797. ==Democratic results== Notes: An asterisk indicates a write-in candidate. Candidates in bold won the primary. Candidates in italics were incumbent presidents. *1916: Six of the eight delegates elected were pledged to President Woodrow Wilson, the other two were unpledged *1920: Of the eight delegates elected three were pledged to former U.S. Food Administrator Herbert Hoover; the rest were unpledged *1924: All delegate candidates ran unpledged *1928: All delegate candidates ran unpledged *1932: All delegates and alternates elected were pledged to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt *1936: All delegates and alternates elected were pledged to President Roosevelt *1940: All delegates and alternates were pledged to President Roosevelt *1944: All delegates elected were pledged to President Franklin D. Roosevelt *1948: All delegates elected (except for one alternate) were pledged to President Harry Truman *1952 (March 11): Estes Kefauver (55%), Harry Truman (44%), and others (1%) *1956 (March 13): Estes Kefauver (85%) and Adlai Stevenson (15%) *1960 (March 8): John F. Kennedy (85%), Paul C. Fisher (13%), and others (2%) *1964 (March 10): Lyndon B. Johnson (95%), Robert F. Kennedy (2%) and others (3%) *1968 (March 12): Lyndon B. Johnson* (50%), Eugene McCarthy (42%), Richard Nixon (5%), and others (3%) *1972 (March 7): Edmund Muskie (46%), George McGovern (37%), Sam Yorty (6%), Wilbur Mills (4%), Vance Hartke (3%), and others (4%) *1976 (February 24): Jimmy Carter (29%), Mo Udall (23%), Birch Bayh (15%), Fred R. Harris (11%), Sargent Shriver (8%), and others (14%) *1980 (February 26): Jimmy Carter (48%), Ted Kennedy (38%), Jerry Brown (10%), and others (4%) *1984 (February 28): Gary Hart (39%), Walter Mondale (29%), John Glenn (12%), Jesse Jackson (6%), George McGovern (5%), Ronald Reagan (5%), and Fritz Hollings (4%) *1988 (February 16): Michael Dukakis (36%), Dick Gephardt (20%), Paul Simon (17%), Jesse Jackson (8%), Al Gore (7%), Bruce Babbitt (5%), Gary Hart (4%), and others (3%) *1992 (February 18): Paul Tsongas (33%), Bill Clinton (25%), Bob Kerrey (11%), Tom Harkin (10%), Jerry Brown (8%), and others (13%) *1996 (February 20): Bill Clinton (84%), Pat Buchanan* (4%), and others (12%) *2000 (February 1): Al Gore (50%), Bill Bradley (46%), and others (4%) *2004 (January 27): John Kerry (38%), Howard Dean (26%), Wesley K. Clark (12%), John Edwards (12%), Joseph I. Lieberman (9%), Dennis J. Kucinich (1%), and others (2%) *2008 (January 8): Hillary Clinton (39%), Barack Obama (36%), John Edwards (17%), Bill Richardson (5%), Dennis Kucinich (1%), and others (2%) *2012 (January 10): Barack Obama (81%) and others (19%) *2016 (February 9): Bernie Sanders (60%), Hillary Clinton (38%), and others (2%) *2020 (February 11): Bernie Sanders (26%), Pete Buttigieg (24%), Amy Klobuchar (20%), Elizabeth Warren (9%), Joe Biden (8%), Tom Steyer (4%), Tulsi Gabbard (3%), Andrew Yang (3%), and others (3%) ==Republican results== Notes: An asterisk indicates a write-in candidate. Candidates in bold won the primary. Candidates in italics were incumbent presidents. *1916: Of the eight delegates elected only one was formally pledged (to former President Theodore Roosevelt) *1920: All eight elected delegates were pledged to General Leonard Wood; one of the defeated delegates had been pledged to Governor Hiram Johnson *1924: All delegate candidates ran unpledged *1928: All delegate candidates ran unpledged *1932: All delegates and alternates elected were pledged to President Herbert Hoover *1936: All delegates and alternates were unpledged *1940: All eight delegates elected (and all alternates) were unpledged *1944: Two of the 11 delegates elected were pledged to Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the rest were unpledged *1948: Of the eight delegates elected, two were pledged to Governor Dewey, the remainder were unpledged; four of the alternate delegates were also pledged to Governor Dewey *1952 (March 11): Dwight D. Eisenhower (56%), Robert A. Taft (31%), Harold E. Stassen (8%), Douglas MacArthur (4%), and others (1%) *1956 (March 13): Dwight D. Eisenhower (94%) and others (6%). Of the more than 57,000 GOP votes cast, only 600 were not for Eisenhower. *1960 (March 8): Richard Nixon (89%), Nelson Rockefeller (4%), and others (7%) *1964 (March 10): Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.* (36%), Barry Goldwater (22%), Nelson Rockefeller (22%), Richard Nixon (17%), and others (3%) *1968 (March 12): Richard Nixon (78%), Nelson Rockefeller (11%), Eugene McCarthy (5%), Lyndon B. Johnson (2%), George Romney (2%), and others (2%) *1972 (March 7): Richard Nixon (68%), Pete McCloskey (20%), John M. Ashbrook (10%), and others (2%) *1976 (February 24): Gerald Ford (50%), Ronald Reagan (49%), and others (1%) *1980 (February 26): Ronald Reagan (50%), George H. W. Bush (23%), Howard Baker (13%), John B. Anderson (10%), Phil Crane (2%), and John Connally (2%) *1984 (February 28): Ronald Reagan (86%), Gary Hart (5%), Harold Stassen (2%), and others (7%) *1988 (February 16): George H. W. Bush (38%), Bob Dole (28%), Jack Kemp (13%), Pierre S. "Pete" du Pont IV (10%), Pat Robertson (9%), and others (2%) *1992 (February 18): George H. W. Bush (53%), Pat Buchanan (38%), and others (9%) *1996 (February 20): Pat Buchanan (27%), Bob Dole (26%), Lamar Alexander (23%), Steve Forbes, Jr. (12%), Richard G. "Dick" Lugar (5%), Alan Keyes (3%), Morry Taylor (1%), and others (3%) *2000 (February 1): John McCain (49%), George W. Bush (30%), Steve Forbes, Jr. (13%), Alan Keyes (6%), and others (2%) *2004 (January 27): George W. Bush (81%) and others (19%) *2008 (January 8): John McCain (37%), Mitt Romney (32%), Mike Huckabee (11%), Rudy Giuliani (8%), Ron Paul (8%), Fred Thompson (1%), and others (3%) *2012 (January 10): Mitt Romney (39%), Ron Paul (23%), Jon Huntsman, Jr. (17%), Rick Santorum (9%), Newt Gingrich (9%), and others (3%) *2016 (February 9): Donald Trump (35%), John Kasich (16%), Ted Cruz (12%), Jeb Bush (11%), Marco Rubio (11%), Chris Christie (7%), Carly Fiorina (4%), Ben Carson (2%), and others (2%) *2020 (February 11): Donald Trump (86%), Bill Weld (9%), and others (5%) ==Libertarian results== Primary date Winner Runners-Up February 18, 1992 Former Alaska state representative Andre Marrou (100%) No other candidate received a vote February 26, 1996 Investment analyst Harry Browne (35.00%) Tax protester Irwin Schiff (18.33%) ==Vice-presidential results== A Vice- presidential preference primary was also formerly held at the New Hampshire primary. New Hampshire State Senator Jack Barnes, who won the 2008 Republican contest, co-sponsored a bill in 2009 which would eliminate the Vice- presidential preference ballot. The bill passed both houses of the state legislature and took effect in 2012. The only time a non-incumbent won the Vice-presidential primary and then went on to be formally nominated by his or her party was in 2004, when Democratic U.S. Senator John Edwards won as a write-in candidate. Edwards, who was running for President at the time, did not actively solicit Vice-presidential votes. In 1968, the sitting Vice President Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic Vice-presidential primary, and then later won the Presidential nomination after the sitting President Lyndon B. Johnson dropped out of the race. The following candidates received the greatest number of votes at each election. Year Date Republican Democratic Libertarian 1952 March 11 Styles Bridges* Estes Kefauver* 1956 March 13 Richard Nixon* Adlai Stevenson II* 1960 March 8 Wesley Powell* Wesley Powell* 1964 March 10 Richard Nixon* Robert F. Kennedy* 1968 March 12 Austin Burton Hubert Humphrey* 1972 March 7 Spiro Agnew* Jorge Almeyda* 1976 February 24 Wallace J.S. Johnson Auburn Lee Packwood 1980 February 26 Jesse A. Helms Walter Mondale* 1984 February 28 George H. W. Bush* Gerald Willis 1988 February 16 Wayne Green David Duke 1992 February 18 Herb Clark Jr. Endicott Peabody Nancy Lord* 1996 February 20 Colin Powell* Al Gore* Irwin Schiff* 2000 February 1 William Bryk Wladislav D. Kubiak 2004 January 27 Dick Cheney* John Edwards* 2008 January 8 John Barnes, Jr. Raymond Stebbins * - write-in candidate Sources: New Hampshire Department of State, New Hampshire Political Library ==See also== * United States presidential primary * United States presidential election * United States presidential election debates * United States presidential nominating convention * Electoral College (United States) Early votes: * Ames Straw Poll, Iowa, on a Saturday in August prior to the election year, since 1979 * Iowa caucuses, first official election-year event since 1972 Reform plans: * United States presidential primary reform proposals * Graduated Random Presidential Primary System * Delaware Plan * Rotating Regional Primary System * Interregional Primary Plan * National Primary ==Notes== ==References== * New Hampshire presidential election statistics at CountingTheVotes.com * Winning New Hampshire, a film on the history and significance of the NH Primary, 2004 * The New Hampshire Political Library * 2004 primary results (CNN) * 2000 primary results (CNN) * * Local coverage of the primary from The Telegraph of Nashua, NH. * Local coverage of the primary from The Keene Sentinel of Keene, NH. * Social Media coverage of the New Hampshire by the Creepy Sleepy podcast * Radio Row Coverage of the New Hampshire Primary by the Talk Radio News Service and Ellen Ratner * Germond, Jack. "A Cold, Hard Look", Washingtonian, January 1, 2008. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. ==External links== * Booknotes interview with Dayton Duncan on Grass Roots: One Year in the Life of the New Hampshire Presidential Primary, March 31, 1991 *
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Chris Fleming (born January 29, 1987) is an American comedian and actor best known for his YouTube series Gayle, in which he stars as the eponymous character Gayle Waters-Waters. In June 2019, Variety named Fleming one of its "10 Comics to Watch for 2019". Fleming is known for his unique, specific character comedy and "powerful, ridiculous songs." Much of Fleming's comedy is aimed at deconstructing social norms, including masculinity. He has been described as accruing an online cult following. A staff writer for FSUNews covering an appearance at Florida State University praised his stand-up's underlying message, stating, "Fleming does not seem to give too much respect to anything, including himself, which allows him to rid different social norms and constructs of their power." Fleming has been described as a "progressive gender-bending role model." Fleming has stated that he accepts any pronouns, stating, "Anything works for me." == Early life and education == Fleming grew up in Stow, Massachusetts and attended Nashoba Regional High School. During his junior year, he began stand-up comedy at The Comedy Studio in Cambridge, Massachusetts, studying under Rick Jenkins. In 2007, Fleming performed stand- up during HBO's 13th annual Comedy Festival in Aspen, Colorado. He received a degree in theater from Skidmore College in 2009, and graduated one credit short of receiving a minor in dance. ==Gayle== Gayle is a 40-episode, absurdist comedy series on YouTube. The series is written by Fleming and directed by comedian Melissa Strype, who also plays Gayle's daughter, Terry Gross Waters-Waters. It was launched in 2012 and its final episode was published in 2015. The series follows high-strung, eccentric suburban mother Gayle Waters-Waters and her ruthless journey to uphold social status in the small community of Northbread, Massachusetts. Fleming developed the idea for Gayle through his stand-up comedy. In 2019, Fleming described the origin of her character: > I did Gayle in my stand-up and she was inspired by a lot of folks that I saw > growing up...It kind of cemented as ideas do in a very singular moment when > I was in a Crate & Barrel and I saw a woman diving into a barrel of > placemats. Like her legs were up in the air, and she was just digging > through these placemats...it just kind of came from there...I just plucked > her from a tree...I have elements of her in my psyche too; it's not gender- > specific thing. It's fear of how you're seen in your community, that's what > it is, that's the essence of it...Why I related to her so much is just that > terror of how others perceive you. Fleming's mother co-stars as Bonnie, Gayle's best friend and biggest rival (i.e., frenemy). Gayle's sensitive birdwatching husband, Dave, does not reveal his face during Gayle; his voice is provided by Fleming, while his legs are portrayed by Fleming's father. The soundtrack was composed by Brian Heveron- Smith, Tom Lowery, and Chris Hartford. The series is filmed in Fleming's hometown in Massachusetts. Forbes reported that, in the off-seasons of filming Gayle, Fleming worked as an SAT tutor. Circa 2013, comedian Margaret Cho grew an interest in the show. In 2013, she guest starred in the episode "Chibby Point" as Yo-Yo Ma, whom Gayle kidnapped from a Barnes & Noble. In 2014, the Gayle team went on a US tour with the show titled Gayle Live. Although much of his hometown supports the series - with some neighbors even participating as actors \- Fleming claims: > There's one woman, who a lot of [Gayle] was inspired by, who is NOT happy > about it, at all...[she's] absolutely pissed [because her full name is used > for a background character]. I forget to change people's names sometimes, so > a lot of my life has been trying to explain to people's faces that something > that is very obviously about them is not about them. Fleming has expressed regret that COMPANY IS COMING, a viral 2015 short featuring Gayle, is the series' best known project and "what I get stopped at airports for." He dislikes when Gayle is known purely as a "crazy mom character," claiming her character transcends the stereotype: > I've played that character for so long I have such love for her...there's so > many different facets to her. That's just one part of her being. I hate that > that's what people think of her in general. There's so many other beautiful > shades to her psyche. == Sketch comedy == Fleming runs a YouTube channel under his full name; the channel has gained over 436,000 subscribers as of May 2022. In addition to Gayle, Fleming has a variety of other content that ranges from music videos to car rants. He also posts videos on his Twitter and Instagram pages. His 2015 video "COMPANY IS COMING," starring his Gayle character, went viral, accruing over 13.9 million views as of May 2022. In 2018, Fleming has lampooned this viral video as a Faustian bargain with a demon named Davis, who says, "We made a deal; one viral video in 2015 for a lifetime of servitude! You promised me your soul for your video COMPANY IS COMING going viral, and now sorority girls from the South like you for all the wrong reasons!" Fleming is known for his specific, unique character comedy. In 2020, he created "Sick Jan," a song and music video detailing his former H&R; Block tax preparer who exhibited unusual behavior that intrigued Fleming. In 2022, New York magazine interviewed him based on Sick Jan's similarities to Deirdre, a character in 2022 film Everything Everywhere All At Once. Fleming stated, > Jan's not an archetype, Jan's such a specific woman. ... [The] story of Sick > Jan, the character herself, is so dense — maybe it's just that all tax > preparers have a vibe of anarchy and Southwestern style. With Jan, > obviously, it was one song, so I could focus only on the fact that she was > chronically sick for three years and never addressed it. And also her desire > to go to jail — her overwhelming desire. People talk about sexual tension in > the video a lot, but it's just between Jan and the prison system. ... I > remember putting her on speakerphone so my friends could hear her, because > she would use this catchphrase while also coughing. In 2020, Fleming stated that "Sick Jan" and "DePiglio" are his personal favorite of his YouTube videos. In 2022, Fleming created a mockumentary-style interview with an eccentric male character who explains his invention of the word "umpteenth." == Stand-up comedy == In 2010, the 24-year-old Fleming moved to Los Angeles after signing with the talent agency who managed Dane Cook. Fleming has stated, "I was signed to a manager who seduced me to moving out to L.A., and as soon as I got there, she promptly became a chef." In 2011, describing Fleming's brand of comedy, Jenkins stated, "Chris isn't a funny comedian; he's an interesting person who sees the world in a funny way. Chris's world is this rubbery, cartoonish, absurd place filled with over-the- top, self-important characters. It's a really cool world he shows us." In January 2012, Fleming's friend, comedian Gary Gulman, invited to Fleming to a party to meet successful L.A. comedians from Boston. Upon arriving, Fleming realized he was at comedian Dane Cook's house, and it was a watch party of the NFL playoff between the Patriots and the Ravens. While receiving a tour of the house, Fleming complimented its appearance, comparing it to a Crate & Barrel; Cook was not amused by the joke. Dressed in androgynous clothing and having no knowledge about football, Fleming felt "freak[ed] out" and claims to have lost his sense of spatial awareness. He sat on Bill Burr's armrest "like a toy breed," eventually humiliating himself by sneezing "directly into the pleat of Bill Burr's khakis." During his 2020 Boba Everyday tour, Fleming describes the experience in detail. On January 22, 2012, Dane Cook tweeted a photographic lineup of comedians at the party, including Fleming. Fleming displayed this photo at the end of the stand-up routine as photographic evidence of the described party. Fleming lampoons their differences in appearance by displaying the Bostonian comedians with a Dropkick Murphys song; then his own face accompanied by "Last Christmas" by Wham! In 2016 and 2017 he toured the United States with his stand-up comedy show titled Showpig. When asked the meaning of the title, Fleming stated, "I fancy myself a showpig – grease me up and send me to market!" Describing his comedic process to WBUR in 2019, Fleming said, > I burn the formula every time I make something. I really revel in making > things that no one is asking for. I think it might be the nature of being > anti-establishment is like, when people like something they're like "Oh we > want more of this," I'm going to give them something completely out of left- > field. I think that's a way to make inspired work. To follow yourself and > not to follow what David Bowie called "The Gallery." Fleming is likely referring to Bowie's advice for young artists, in which Bowie says, "Never play for the gallery...Never work for other people at what you do." Fleming's stand-up tour entitled Boba Everyday began in late 2019 and was postponed until 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2020, Fleming announced Forest Musings, a virtual show. In August 2021, Fleming announced his stand-up tour, Tricky Tricky. In May 2022, he announced a summer stand-up tour with venues in British Columbia, Texas, New York, Ontario, and Vermont. When Vulture asked for the best comedy advice he had received, Fleming responded, "Rick Jenkins, owner of the Comedy Studio [in Harvard Square], taught me that, through clarity with your audience, even the most absurd idea can be accessible - also, that no idea is too absurd." == Gender identity == Fleming lampooned his audience's questions about his gender in a 2016 video titled "Am I A Man?" His response was, "Can I consider myself a man if, in a pinch, I can dry myself off with a hand towel?" When asked for his preferred pronouns in a 2019 The Peak interview, Fleming stated, "Anything works for me." In 2016, Fleming defined manhood as: > My concept of a man is someone who whacks their elbow a little bit at a > Bertucci's and has no hang-ups about freaking out - zero qualms about going > full Streetcar Named Desire at 2 PM... Fleming satirizes his relationship with masculinity in his comedy, such as with his 2016 song "I'm Afraid to Talk To Men" and 2022 monologue "Men and Me." When asked if he felt secure in his masculinity, he responded, > Oh, I'm not secure with my masculinity, I just don't have any masculinity. > There's just such a lack of it, I have no respect for it. Fleming routinely describes the way he is perceived by others in his stand-up. In regards to his appearance, he has compared himself to "a cocker-spaniel who is bi at best," "a woman...from the woods [who is] deeply ill," and "an American Girl doll that got left out in the rain." In 2022, he stated, "If I'm at a restaurant with a group, the waiter will ask the women, me, children, then men. That's the order of operations...I've got a Gaia thing going on, Mother Goose energy." == Filmography == === Pilot === Beginning in about 2019, Fleming created WarnerMedia/Adult Swim pilot "I'm the Mayor of Bimmi Gardens." The pilot was shot in Atlanta, Georgia in the summer of 2021. It featured Fleming as the protagonist, a "mayor of a town off the coast of Florida (but technically a territory of Maine)." Other actors included Victoria Pedretti, Perfume Genius, and Ms. Pat. In 2022, Fleming told Vulture, "[The pilot] didn't get picked up by the network that we made it for, so we're trying to get it somewhere else." On August 3, 2022, Fleming shared screenshots of the pilot along with captions explaining scenes and thanking the actors. === Film === Year Title Role Notes 2012 Genderfreak Zach 2019 The Last Laugh Palace Comic === Television === Year Title Role Notes 2012–15 Gayle Gayle Waters- Waters Main role; Writer 2019 Corporate Todd Splitting Up Together Rando Twelve Forever Mr. Fleming Voice role The Diaper Sert 2020–22 Bigtop Burger Cesare Voice role 2021 Adventure Time: Distant Lands New Death Voice role, Episode: "Together Again" Summer Camp Island Proffessor Q. Voice role, Episode: "Oscar and the Monsters Chapter 1: Unaccompanied Oscar" 2022 Waffles + Mochi's Restaurant Donny Episode: "Cheese" ==References== ==External links== * * * Rising comic Chris Fleming chases stand-up dream in LA – The Boston Globe * Local Comedian Chris Fleming Brings Fictional Local Web Character 'Gayle' to Boston Stage – BDCwire * Meet Chris Fleming, a Man Who's Man Enough to Admit He's Afraid to Talk to Men - LA Weekly * * Category:1987 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century American comedians Category:21st- century American male actors Category:American male television actors Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American YouTubers Category:American LGBT actors Category:LGBT people from Massachusetts Category:LGBT YouTubers Category:Comedians from Massachusetts Category:People from Stow, Massachusetts Category:Skidmore College alumni
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Career finals Career finals Career finals Career finals Career finals Career finals Discipline Type Won Lost Total Singles Grand Slam 2 1 3 Singles Summer Olympics – – – Singles WTA Finals 1 1 2 Singles WTA Elite Trophy 1 – 1 Singles WTA 1000 9 4 13 Singles WTA 250 & 500 18 5 23 Singles Total 31 11 42 Doubles Grand Slam – – – Doubles Summer Olympics – – – Doubles WTA Finals – – – Doubles WTA 1000 – – – Doubles WTA 250 & 500 – – – Doubles Total – – – Mixed doubles Grand Slam – – – Mixed doubles Total – – – Total Total 31 11 42 This is a list of the main career statistics of Czech professional tennis player Petra Kvitová. To date, Kvitová has won 31 career singles titles including two Grand Slam singles titles at the Wimbledon Championships, one WTA Tour Championships singles title, nine WTA 1000 singles titles. She was also the Bronze medalist at the 2016 Rio Olympics, a runner-up at the 2015 WTA Finals and 2019 Australian Open, a semifinalist at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships, 2012 Australian Open, 2012 French Open and 2020 French Open, and a quarterfinalist at the 2011 Australian Open, 2012 Wimbledon Championships, 2013 Wimbledon Championships, 2015 US Open, 2017 US Open and 2020 Australian Open. Kvitová reached her career-high ranking of world No. 2 on 31 October 2011. ==Performance timelines== Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records. ===Singles=== Current through the 2023 German Open. Tournament 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 SR W–L Win % Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A Q1 1R 2R QF SF 2R 1R 3R 2R A 1R F QF 2R 1R 2R 0 / 14 26–14 French Open A A 4R A 1R 4R SF 3R 3R 4R 3R 2R 3R A SF 2R 2R 1R 0 / 14 30–13 Wimbledon A A 1R 1R SF W QF QF W 3R 2R 2R 1R 4R NH 1R 3R 2 / 14 35–12 US Open A Q2 1R 4R 3R 1R 4R 3R 3R QF 4R QF 3R 2R 4R 3R 4R 0 / 15 33–15 Win–loss 0–0 0–0 3–3 3–3 8–4 14–3 17–4 8–4 11–3 11–4 7–4 6–3 4–4 10–3 12–3 4–3 5–4 1–2 2 / 57 124–54 Year-end championships WTA Finals DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ W RR SF RR F DNQ DNQ RR RR NH DNQ DNQ 1 / 7 10–14 WTA Elite Trophy NH NH NH DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ W DNQ DNQ DNQ NH 1 / 1 4–0 National representation Summer Olympics NH NH A NH NH NH QF NH NH NH SF-B NH NH NH NH 2R NH 0 / 3 9–3 Billie Jean King Cup A A PO SF SF W W SF W W W A W A A A 6 / 10 30–10 WTA 1000 + former Dubai / Qatar Open NMS NMS A 1R A 1R A QF QF 3R 3R A W F F 2R 2R 3R 1 / 12 23–11 Indian Wells Open A A A 3R 2R 2R 3R QF 4R A QF A 3R 2R NH 3R 3R QF 0 / 12 18–12 Miami Open A A 1R 1R 2R 3R 2R 3R QF A 3R A 4R QF NH 4R QF W 1 / 13 23–12 Madrid Open NH NH NH 2R 1R W 2R 2R SF W 3R A W QF NH QF 1R 2R 3 / 13 32–10 Italian Open A A A A 2R A QF 3R 2R QF 2R A A 3R A 2R A A 0 / 8 8–8 Canadian Open A A 2R Q2 1R 3R W QF 3R 2R 3R 2R 3R A NH 3R 1R 1 / 12 15–11 Cincinnati Open NMS NMS NMS Q1 A 3R SF 3R 2R 2R A 2R SF 2R 2R QF F 0 / 11 17–11 Pan Pacific / Wuhan Open A A A A 1R SF 2R W W 3R W 1R 3R SF NH 3 / 10 24–7 China Open NMS NMS NMS A 3R 2R 2R SF F 1R QF SF 1R QF NH 0 / 10 17–10 Guadalajara Open NH 2R 0 / 1 1–1 Kremlin Cup (former) A A 1R NMS 0 / 1 0–1 Career Statistics 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Career Career Career Tournaments 0 1 14 17 20 17 18 23 19 17 22 11 21 16 7 19 20 9 Career total: 271 Titles 0 0 0 1 0 6 2 2 3 3 2 1 5 2 0 1 1 2 Career total: 31 Career total: 31 Career total: 31 Finals 0 0 0 2 0 7 2 4 4 4 3 1 5 4 1 1 2 2 Career total: 42 Career total: 42 Career total: 42 Hard win–loss 0–0 0–1 7–8 16–11 12–15 36–9 29–10 36–15 29–12 25–13 36–16 11–8 26–13 26–13 15–5 18–11 19–13 17–5 20 / 183 358–178 Clay win–loss 0–0 0–0 6–4 3–5 1–5 9–1 10–4 11–6 5–4 11–3 7–4 1–1 15–3 8–2 5–1 8–4 1–4 0–2 5 / 57 101–53 Grass win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–2 0–1 5–2 11–1 7–3 4–2 9–0 2–1 3–3 6–1 6–1 3–1 0–0 3–2 7–2 5–0 6 / 30 71–22 Carpet win–loss 0–0 0–0 1–1 2–0 Discontinued 0 / 1 3–1 Overall win–loss 0–0 0–1 14–15 21–17 18–22 56–11 46–17 51–23 43–16 38–17 46–23 18–10 47–17 37–16 20–6 29–17 27–19 22–7 31 / 271 533–254 Win % 0% 0% 48% 55% 45% 84% 73% 69% 73% 69% 67% 64% 73% 70% 77% 63% 59% Career total: Year-end ranking 773 157 44 62 34 2 8 6 4 6 11 29 7 7 8 17 16 $36,765,447 $36,765,447 $36,765,447 ===Doubles=== Current after the season 2016. Tournament 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 SR W–L Win% Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A 1R 1R 2R A A A A A 0 / 3 1–3 25% French Open A A A 2R A A A A A A 0 / 1 1–1 50% Wimbledon A 1R A 1R 1R A A A A A 0 / 3 0–3 0% US Open A 1R 1R 1R A A A A A A 0 / 3 0–3 0% Win–loss 0–0 0–2 0–2 1–4 1–2 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0 / 10 2–10 17% National representation Summer Olympics NH 1R NH A NH A 0 / 1 0–1 WTA 1000 + former Dubai / Qatar Open A A A A A A A A A 2R 0 / 1 1–0 Indian Wells Open A A A A A 2R 1R A A 2R 0 / 3 2–2 Canadian Open A A A A A A 1R 1R A A 0 / 2 0–2 Cincinnati Open A A A A A A 2R A A A 0 / 1 1–0 Pan Pacific / Wuhan Open A A A A A A QF A A A 0 / 1 1–0 Career Statistics Tournaments 0 3 3 4 2 1 7 4 0 3 Career total: 27 Overall win–loss 0–1 0–3 1–3 1–4 1–2 1–0 2–5 0–4 0–0 2–2 0 / 27 8–24 Year-end ranking 454 959 379 333 361 532 260 1250 n/a 265 === Mixed doubles === Tournament 2011 SR W–L Win% Australian Open A 0 / 0 0–0 0% French Open 1R 0 / 1 0–1 Wimbledon A 0 / 0 0–0 0% US Open A 0 / 0 0–0 0% Win–loss 0–0 0 / 1 0–1 == Grand Slam finals == === Singles: 3 (2 titles, 1 runner-up) === Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score Win 2011 Wimbledon Grass Maria Sharapova 6–3, 6–4 Win 2014 Wimbledon (2) Grass Eugenie Bouchard 6–3, 6–0 Loss 2019 Australian Open Hard Naomi Osaka 6–7(2–7), 7–5, 4–6 ==Other significant finals== ===WTA Finals=== ====Singles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up)==== Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score Win 2011 WTA Finals, Turkey Hard (i) Victoria Azarenka 7–5, 4–6, 6–3 Loss 2015 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) Agnieszka Radwańska 2–6, 6–4, 3–6 ===WTA Elite Trophy=== ====Singles: 1 (1 title)==== Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score Win 2016 WTA Elite Trophy, China Hard (i) Elina Svitolina 6–4, 6–2 === Olympic Games === ==== Singles: 1 (bronze medal) ==== Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score Bronze 2016 Summer Olympics, Brazil Hard Madison Keys 7–5, 2–6, 6–2 ===WTA 1000=== ====Singles: 13 (9 titles, 4 runner-ups)==== Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score Win 2011 Madrid Open Clay Victoria Azarenka 7–6(7–3), 6–4 Win 2012 Canadian Open Hard Li Na 7–5, 2–6, 6–3 Win 2013 Pan Pacific Open Hard Angelique Kerber 6–2, 0–6, 6–3 Win 2014 Wuhan Open Hard Eugenie Bouchard 6–3, 6–4 Loss 2014 China Open Hard Maria Sharapova 4–6, 6–2, 3–6 Win 2015 Madrid Open (2) Clay Svetlana Kuznetsova 6–1, 6–2 Win 2016 Wuhan Open (2) Hard Dominika Cibulková 6–1, 6–1 Win 2018 Qatar Open Hard Garbiñe Muguruza 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 Win 2018 Madrid Open (3) Clay Kiki Bertens 7–6(8–6), 4–6, 6–3 Loss 2019 Dubai Championships Hard Belinda Bencic 3–6, 6–1, 2–6 Loss 2020 Qatar Open Hard Aryna Sabalenka 3–6, 3–6 Loss 2022 Cincinnati Open Hard Caroline Garcia 2–6, 4–6 Win 2023 Miami Open Hard Elena Rybakina 7–6(16–14), 6–2 ==WTA career finals== ===Singles: 42 (31 titles, 11 runner-ups)=== {|class="wikitable" style=font-size:90% Legend Grand Slam (2–1) WTA Finals (1–1) WTA Elite Trophy (1–0) WTA 1000 (9–4) WTA 500 (14–2) WTA 250 (4–3) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score Win 1–0 Hobart International, Australia International Hard Iveta Benešová 7–5, 6–1 Loss 1–1 Linz Open, Austria International Hard (i) Yanina Wickmayer 4–6, 3–6 Win 2–1 Brisbane International, Australia International Hard Andrea Petkovic 6–1, 6–3 Win 3–1 Open GDF Suez, France Premier Hard (i) Kim Clijsters 6–4, 6–3 Win 4–1 Madrid Open, Spain Premier M Clay Victoria Azarenka 7–6(7–3), 6–4 Loss 4–2 Eastbourne International, United Kingdom Premier Grass Marion Bartoli 1–6, 6–4, 5–7 Win 5–2 Wimbledon, United Kingdom Grand Slam Grass Maria Sharapova 6–3, 6–4 Win 6–2 Linz Open, Austria International Hard (i) Dominika Cibulková 6–4, 6–1 Win 7–2 WTA Finals, Turkey WTA Championships Hard (i) Victoria Azarenka 7–5, 4–6, 6–3 Win 8–2 Canadian Open, Canada Premier 5 Hard Li Na 7–5, 2–6, 6–3 Win 9–2 Connecticut Open, United States Premier Hard Maria Kirilenko 7–6(11–9), 7–5 Win 10–2 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Premier Hard Sara Errani 6–2, 1–6, 6–1 Loss 10–3 Katowice Open, Poland International Clay (i) Roberta Vinci 6–7(2–7), 1–6 Loss 10–4 Connecticut Open, United States Premier Hard Simona Halep 2–6, 2–6 Win 11–4 Pan Pacific Open, Japan Premier 5 Hard Angelique Kerber 6–2, 0–6, 6–3 Win 12–4 Wimbledon, United Kingdom (2) Grand Slam Grass Eugenie Bouchard 6–3, 6–0 Win 13–4 Connecticut Open, United States (2) Premier Hard Magdaléna Rybáriková 6–4, 6–2 Win 14–4 Wuhan Open, China Premier 5 Hard Eugenie Bouchard 6–3, 6–4 Loss 14–5 China Open, China Premier M Hard Maria Sharapova 4–6, 6–2, 3–6 Win 15–5 Sydney International, Australia Premier Hard Karolína Plíšková 7–6(7–5), 7–6(8–6) Win 16–5 Madrid Open, Spain (2) Premier M Clay Svetlana Kuznetsova 6–1, 6–2 Win 17–5 Connecticut Open, United States (3) Premier Hard Lucie Šafářová 6–7(6–8), 6–2, 6–2 Loss 17–6 WTA Finals, Singapore WTA Finals Hard Agnieszka Radwańska 2–6, 6–4, 3–6 Win 18–6 Wuhan Open, China (2) Premier 5 Hard Dominika Cibulková 6–1, 6–1 Loss 18–7 Luxembourg Open, Luxembourg International Hard (i) Monica Niculescu 4–6, 0–6 Win 19–7 WTA Elite Trophy, China Elite Trophy Hard (i) Elina Svitolina 6–4, 6–2 Win 20–7 Birmingham Classic, United Kingdom Premier Grass Ashleigh Barty 4–6, 6–3, 6–2 Win 21–7 St. Petersburg Ladies Trophy, Russia Premier Hard (i) Kristina Mladenovic 6–1, 6–2 Win 22–7 Qatar Open, Qatar Premier 5 Hard Garbiñe Muguruza 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 Win 23–7 Prague Open, Czech Republic International Clay Mihaela Buzărnescu 4–6, 6–2, 6–3 Win 24–7 Madrid Open, Spain (3) Premier M Clay Kiki Bertens 7–6(8–6), 4–6, 6–3 Win 25–7 Birmingham Classic, United Kingdom (2) Premier Grass Magdaléna Rybáriková 4–6, 6–1, 6–2 Win 26–7 Sydney International, Australia (2) Premier Hard Ashleigh Barty 1–6, 7–5, 7–6(7–3) Loss 26–8 Australian Open, Australia Grand Slam Hard Naomi Osaka 6–7(2–7), 7–5, 4–6 Loss 26–9 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Premier 5 Hard Belinda Bencic 3–6, 6–1, 2–6 Win 27–9 Stuttgart Open, Germany Premier Clay (i) Anett Kontaveit 6–3, 7–6(7–2) Loss 27–10 Qatar Open, Qatar Premier 5 Hard Aryna Sabalenka 3–6, 3–6 Win 28–10 Qatar Open, Qatar (2) WTA 500 Hard Garbiñe Muguruza 6–2, 6–1 Win 29–10 Eastbourne International, United Kingdom WTA 500 Grass Jeļena Ostapenko 6–3, 6–2 Loss 29–11 Cincinnati Open, United States WTA 1000 Hard Caroline Garcia 2–6, 4–6 Win 30–11 Miami Open, United States WTA 1000 Hard Elena Rybakina 7–6(16–14), 6–2 Win 31–11 German Open, Germany WTA 500 Grass Donna Vekić 6–2, 7–6(8–6) == Team competition finals == === Billie Jean King Cup: 6 (6 titles) === Result W–L Date Tournament Surface Against Partners Opponents in the final Score Win 1–0 Nov 2011 Fed Cup, Russia Hard (i) Russia Lucie Šafářová Květa Peschke Lucie Hradecká Iveta Benešová Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova Svetlana Kuznetsova Maria Kirilenko Elena Vesnina 3–2 Win 2–0 Nov 2012 Fed Cup, Czech Republic (2) Hard (i) Serbia Lucie Šafářová Lucie Hradecká Andrea Hlaváčková Iveta Benešová Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová Ana Ivanovic Jelena Janković Bojana Jovanovski Aleksandra Krunić 3–1 Win 3–0 Nov 2014 Fed Cup, Czech Republic (3) Hard (i) Germany Lucie Šafářová Lucie Hradecká Andrea Hlaváčková Klára Koukalová Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová Angelique Kerber Andrea Petkovic Sabine Lisicki Julia Görges 3–1 Win 4–0 Nov 2015 Fed Cup, Czech Republic (4) Hard (i) Russia Karolína Plíšková Barbora Strýcová Lucie Šafářová Tereza Smitková Denisa Šátralová Maria Sharapova Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova Elena Vesnina 3–2 Win 5–0 Fed Cup, France (5) Hard (i) France Karolína Plíšková Barbora Strýcová Lucie Hradecká Caroline Garcia Kristina Mladenovic Alizé Cornet 3–2 Win 6–0 Nov 2018 Fed Cup, Czech Republic (6) Hard (i) United States Barbora Strýcová Kateřina Siniaková Karolína Plíšková Lucie Šafářová Barbora Krejčíková Sofia Kenin Alison Riske Danielle Collins Nicole Melichar 3–0 === Hopman Cup: 1 (title) === Result Date Tournament Surface Against Partners Opponents Score Win Hopman Cup, Australia Hard France Tomáš Berdych Marion Bartoli Richard Gasquet 2–0 ==ITF Circuit finals== ===Singles: 10 (7 titles, 3 runner- ups)=== {|class=wikitable style=font-size:90% Legend $100,000 tournaments (0–2) $80,000 tournaments (1–0) $60,000 tournaments (0–1) $40,000 tournaments $25,000 tournaments (4–0) $15,000 tournaments (2–0) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score Win 1–0 Oct 2006 ITF Szeged, Hungary 10,000 Clay Dorottya Magas 6–1, 6–4 Win 2–0 Dec 2006 ITF Valašské Meziříčí, Czech Republic 25,000 Hard Radana Holušová 6–3, 6–4 Win 3–0 Jan 2007 ITF Stuttgart, Germany 10,000 Hard Anne Schäfer 6–1, 6–0 Win 4–0 Feb 2007 ITF Prague, Czech Republic 25,000 Carpet Magdaléna Rybáriková 7–5, 7–6(7–2) Loss 4–1 Jun 2007 ITF Zlín, Czech Republic 50,000 Clay Klára Zakopalová 4–6, 1–6 Loss 4–2 Oct 2007 ITF Bratislava, Slovakia 100,000 Hard Tatjana Malek 2–6, 6–7(7–9) Win 5–2 Dec 2007 ITF Přerov, Czech Republic 25,000 Hard Magdaléna Rybáriková 7–5, 6–3 Win 6–2 Dec 2007 ITF Valašské Meziříčí, Czech Republic 25,000 Hard Ivana Lisjak 6–4, 6–0 Win 7–2 Apr 2008 ITF Monzon, Spain 75,000 Hard Yanina Wickmayer 2–6, 6–4, 7–5 Loss 7–3 ITF Prague, Czech Republic 100,000 Clay Magdaléna Rybáriková 3–6, 4–6 == Junior finals == === ITF Finals === ==== Singles: 4 titles ==== Legend Grade A (0–0) Grade 1 / B1 (2–0) Grade 2 (1–0) Grade 3 (0–0) Grade 4 (1–0) Grade 5 (0–0) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score Win 1–0 Jul 2006 ITF Prague, Czech Republic Grade 4 Clay Ioana Ivan 6–3, 6–4 Win 2–0 Sep 2006 ITF Prague, Czech Republic Grade 2 Clay Klaudia Boczová 6–1, 6–4 Win 3–0 Jan 2007 ITF Přerov, Czech Republic Grade 1 Carpet Yanina Wickmayer 6–3, 2–1 ret. Win 4–0 Jun 2007 ITF Roehampton, United Kingdom Grade 1 Grass Jasmina Tinjić 1–0 ret. ==== Doubles: 4 (1 title, 3 runner-ups) ==== Legend Grade A (0–0) Grade 1 / B1 (0–2) Grade 2 (0–1) Grade 3 (0–0) Grade 4 (1–0) Grade 5 (0–0) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Partner Opponents Score Win 1–0 Jul 2006 ITF Prague, Czech Republic Grade 4 Clay Alena Nogolova Karolína Plíšková Kristýna Plíšková 7–5, 6–1 Loss 1–1 Sep 2006 ITF Prague, Czech Republic Grade 2 Clay Dominika Kaňáková Klaudia Boczová Monika Sirilova 4–6, 2–6 Loss 1–2 Jan 2007 ITF Přerov, Czech Republic Grade 1 Carpet Alena Nogolova Kim-Alice Grajdek Syna Kayser 6–3, 5–7, 4–6 Loss 1–3 Jun 2007 ITF Roehampton, United Kingdom Grade 1 Grass Kateřina Vaňková Ksenia Lykina Anastasia Pivovarova 4–6, 1–6 ==Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup== ===Singles: 40 (30–10)=== Legend World Group QF/SF/F (29–9) World Group Play-off (PO) (1–1) Edition Round Date Location Against Surface Opponent W/L Score 2008 WG PO Apr 2008 Ramat HaSharon (ISR) Israel Hard Shahar Peer W 2–6, 6–3, 6–0 Tzipora Obziler L 3–6, 4–6 Ramat HaSharon (ISR) Israel Hard 2009 WG QF Feb 2009 Brno (CZE) Spain Carpet (i) Carla Suárez Navarro W 6–4, 6–4 Nuria Llagostera Vives W 6–4, 7–5 Brno (CZE) Spain Carpet (i) WG SF Apr 2009 Brno (CZE) United States Hard (i) Bethanie Mattek-Sands W 6–3, 7–6(7–2) Alexa Glatch L Brno (CZE) United States Hard (i) 2–6, 1–6 2010 WG QF Feb 2010 Brno (CZE) Germany Hard (i) Andrea Petkovic W 6–4, 6–4 Anna-Lena Grönefeld L 6–4, 3–6, 2–6 Brno (CZE) Germany Hard (i) WG SF Apr 2010 Rome (ITA) Italy Clay Flavia Pennetta L 6–7(3–7), 2–6 2011 WG QF Feb 2011 Bratislava (SVK) Slovakia Hard (i) Dominika Cibulková W 6–2, 6–3 Daniela Hantuchová W 6–4, 6–2 Bratislava (SVK) Slovakia Hard (i) WG SF Apr 2011 Charleroi (BEL) Belgium Hard (i) Kirsten Flipkens W 6–2, 7–6(7–4) Yanina Wickmayer W Charleroi (BEL) Belgium Hard (i) 5–7, 6–4, 6–2 WG F Nov 2011 Moscow (RUS) Russia Hard (i) Maria Kirilenko W 6–2, 6–2 Svetlana Kuznetsova W Moscow (RUS) Russia Hard (i) 4–6, 6–2, 6–3 2012 WG QF Feb 2012 Stuttgart (GER) Germany Hard (i) Julia Görges W 3–6, 6–3, 10–8 Sabine Lisicki W 6–7(2–7), 6–4, 6–1 Stuttgart (GER) Germany Hard (i) WG SF Apr 2012 Ostrava (CZE) Italy Hard (i) Sara Errani W 6–4, 6–3 Francesca Schiavone W Ostrava (CZE) Italy Hard (i) 6–4, 7–6(7–1) WG F Nov 2012 Prague (CZE) Serbia Hard (i) Jelena Janković W 6–4, 6–1 Ana Ivanovic L Prague (CZE) Serbia Hard (i) 3–6, 5–7 2013 WG QF Feb 2013 Ostrava (CZE) Australia Hard (i) Jarmila Gajdošová W 7–6(7–2), 6–3 Samantha Stosur W 2–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–4 Ostrava (CZE) Australia Hard (i) WG SF Apr 2013 Palermo (ITA) Italy Clay Roberta Vinci L 4–6, 1–6 Sara Errani W Palermo (ITA) Italy Clay 2–6, 6–2, 6–0 2014 WG SF Apr 2014 Ostrava (CZE) Italy Hard (i) Camila Giorgi W 6–4, 6–2 Roberta Vinci W 6–3, 7–5 Ostrava (CZE) Italy Hard (i) WG F Nov 2014 Prague (CZE) Germany Hard (i) Andrea Petkovic W 6–2, 6–4 Angelique Kerber W Prague (CZE) Germany Hard (i) 7–6(7–5), 4–6, 6–4 2015 WG SF Apr 2015 Ostrava (CZE) France Hard (i) Kristina Mladenovic W 6–3, 6–4 Caroline Garcia W 6–4, 6–4 Ostrava (CZE) France Hard (i) WG F Nov 2015 Prague (CZE) Russia Hard (i) Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova W 2–6, 6–1, 6–1 Maria Sharapova L Prague (CZE) Russia Hard (i) 6–3, 4–6, 2–6 2016 WG QF Feb 2016 Cluj-Napoca (ROU) Romania Hard (i) Monica Niculescu L 3–6, 4–6 Simona Halep L 4–6, 6–3, 3–6 Cluj-Napoca (ROU) Romania Hard (i) WG F Nov 2016 Strasbourg (FRA) France Hard (i) Caroline Garcia L 6–7(6–8), 3–6 2018 WG QF Feb 2018 Prague (CZE) Switzerland Hard (i) Viktorija Golubic W 6–2, 1–6, 6–3 Belinda Bencic W 6–2, 6–4 WG SF Apr 2018 Stuttgart (GER) Germany Clay (i) Julia Görges W 6–3, 6–2 Angelique Kerber W 6–2, 6–2 ===Doubles: 1 (0–1)=== Legend World Group QF/SF/F (0–0) World Group Play-off (PO) (0–1) Edition Round Date Location Partnering Against Surface Opponent W/L Score 2007 WG PO Jul 2007 Palafrugell (ESP) Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová Spain Clay Nuria Llagostera Vives Virginia Ruano Pascual L 4–6, 1–6 ==WTA ranking== Legend World No. 1 World No. 2 World No. 3 World No. 4–10 Others Current after the 2023 French Open. Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 High 451 150 44 40 29 2 2 6 3 2 6 11 4 2 7 8 16 9 Low 789 450 153 72 77 34 8 11 9 6 16 29 29 8 12 19 34 16 End 773 157 44 62 34 2 8 6 4 6 11 29 7 7 8 17 16 == WTA Tour career earnings == Current after the 2023 German Open. Year Grand Slam singles titles WTA singles titles Total singles titles Earnings ($) Money list rank 2006–07 0 0 0 41,371 – 2008 0 0 0 218,750 84 2009 0 1 1 259,301 77 2010 0 0 0 647,508 32 2011 1 5 6 5,145,943 1 2012 0 2 2 2,732,875 6 2013 0 2 2 2,853,474 8 2014 1 2 3 5,203,236 3 2015 0 3 3 3,288,722 7 2016 0 2 2 2,500,516 9 2017 0 1 1 1,149,122 33 2018 0 5 5 3,301,389 9 2019 0 2 2 3,724,430 10 2020 0 0 0 1,505,967 7 2021 0 1 1 847,988 37 2022 0 1 1 1,343,059 25 2023 0 2 2 2,001,796 5 Career 2 29 31 36,765,447 5 ==Career Grand Slam statistics== ===Grand Slam tournament seedings=== The tournaments won by Kvitová are in boldface, and advanced into finals by Kvitová are in italics. Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open 2007 did not play did not play did not play did not qualify 2008 did not qualify not seeded not seeded not seeded 2009 not seeded did not play not seeded not seeded 2010 not seeded not seeded not seeded 27th 2011 25th 9th 8th (1) 5th 2012 2nd 4th 4th 5th 2013 8th 7th 8th 7th 2014 6th 5th 6th (2) 3rd 2015 4th 4th 2nd 5th 2016 6th 10th 10th 14th 2017 did not play 15th 11th 13th 2018 27th 8th 8th 5th 2019 8th (1) did not play 6th 6th 2020 7th 7th cancelled 6th 2021 9th 11th 10th 10th 2022 20th 32nd 25th 21st 2023 15th 10th 9th ===Best Grand Slam results details=== Grand Slam winners are in boldface, and runner–ups are in italics. {| class="wikitable" style="float:left" Australian Open 2019 Australian Open (8th seed) Round Opponent Rank Score 1R Magdaléna Rybáriková 51 6–3, 6–2 2R Irina-Camelia Begu 70 6–1, 6–3 3R Belinda Bencic 49 6–1, 6–4 4R Amanda Anisimova 87 6–1, 6–2 QF Ashleigh Barty [15] 15 6–1, 6–4 SF Danielle Collins 35 7–6(7–2), 6–0 F Naomi Osaka [4] 4 6–7(2–7), 7–5, 4–6 == Record against other players == ===No. 1 wins=== # Player Event Surface Score Result 1\. Dinara Safina 2009 US Open Hard 3R 6–4, 2–6, 7–6(7–5) 4R 2\. Caroline Wozniacki 2011 WTA Tour Championships Hard (i) RR 6–4, 6–2 W 3\. Serena Williams 2015 Madrid Open Clay SF 6–2, 6–3 W 4\. Angelique Kerber 2016 Wuhan Open Hard 3R 6–7(10–12), 7–5, 6–4 W 5\. Caroline Wozniacki 2018 Qatar Open Hard SF 3–6, 7–6(7–3), 7–5 W 6\. Ashleigh Barty 2020 Qatar Open Hard SF 6–4, 2–6, 6–4 F === Record against top 10 players === * She has a 64–70 () record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10. Result W–L Player Rank Event Surface Score 2008 Win 1–0 Venus Williams No. 8 U.S. National Indoors, United States Hard (i) 1R 2–6, 6–4, 6–3 No. 143 5–3 Loss 1–1 Ana Ivanovic No. 1 Canadian Open, Canada Hard 2R 3–6, 6–4, 3–6 No. 64 3–4 Loss 1–2 Ana Ivanovic No. 4 Zurich Open, Switzerland Hard (i) QF 1–6, 4–6 No. 57 2009 Loss 1–3 Ana Ivanovic No. 5 Brisbane International, Australia Hard 1R 4–6, 2–6 No. 48 Loss 1–4 Vera Zvonareva No. 6 Indian Wells Open, United States Hard 3R 3–6, 1–6 No. 46 3–4 Loss 1–5 Caroline Wozniacki No. 9 Swedish Open, Sweden Clay 2R 4–6, 2–6 No. 58 8–6 Win 2–5 Dinara Safina No. 1 US Open, United States Hard 3R 6–4, 2–6, 7–6(7–5) No. 72 1–0 Win 3–5 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 10 Linz Open, Austria Hard (i) SF 6–3, 6–2 No. 55 8–5 2010 Loss 3–6 Serena Williams No. 1 Australian Open, Australia Hard 2R 2–6, 1–6 No. 77 2–5 Loss 3–7 Caroline Wozniacki No. 2 Madrid Open, Spain Clay 1R 4–6, 2–6 No. 61 Win 4–7 Caroline Wozniacki No. 4 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass 4R 6–2, 6–0 No. 62 Loss 4–8 Serena Williams No. 1 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass SF 6–7(5–7), 2–6 No. 62 Loss 4–9 Kim Clijsters No. 3 US Open, United States Hard 3R 3–6, 0–6 No. 29 1–2 Loss 4–10 Caroline Wozniacki No. 2 China Open, China Hard 3R 3–6, 2–6 No. 34 2011 Win 5–10 Samantha Stosur No. 6 Australian Open, Australia Hard 3R 7–6(7–5), 6–3 No. 28 7–1 Loss 5–11 Vera Zvonareva No. 2 Australian Open, Australia Hard QF 2–6, 4–6 No. 28 Win 6–11 Kim Clijsters No. 2 Open GDF Suez, France Hard (i) F 6–4, 6–3 No. 18 Win 7–11 Vera Zvonareva No. 3 Madrid Open, Spain Clay 3R 6–1, 6–4 No. 18 Win 8–11 Li Na No. 6 Madrid Open, Spain Clay SF 6–3, 6–1 No. 18 3–4 Win 9–11 Victoria Azarenka No. 5 Madrid Open, Spain Clay F 7–6(7–3), 6–4 No. 18 5–4 Loss 9–12 Li Na No. 7 French Open, France Clay 4R 6–2, 1–6, 3–6 No. 9 Loss 9–13 Marion Bartoli No. 9 Eastbourne International, United Kingdom Grass F 1–6, 6–4, 5–7 No. 8 1–3 Win 10–13 Victoria Azarenka No. 5 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass SF 6–1, 3–6, 6–2 No. 8 Win 11–13 Maria Sharapova No. 6 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass F 6–3, 6–4 No. 8 4–7 Loss 11–14 Andrea Petkovic No. 10 Canadian Open, Canada Hard 3R 1–6, 2–6 No. 7 5–6 Win 12–14 Maria Sharapova No. 2 Pan Pacific Open, Japan Hard QF 4–3 ret. No. 6 Loss 12–15 Vera Zvonareva No. 4 Pan Pacific Open, Japan Hard SF 6–7(2–7), 0–6 No. 6 Win 13–15 Vera Zvonareva No. 6 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 6–2, 6–4 No. 3 Win 14–15 Caroline Wozniacki No. 1 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 6–4, 6–2 No. 3 Win 15–15 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 8 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 7–6(7–4), 6–3 No. 3 Win 16–15 Samantha Stosur No. 7 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) SF 5–7, 6–3, 6–3 No. 3 Win 17–15 Victoria Azarenka No. 4 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) F 7–5, 4–6, 6–3 No. 3 2012 Loss 17–16 Li Na No. 5 Sydney International, Australia Hard SF 6–1 5–7, 2–6 No.2 Loss 17–17 Maria Sharapova No. 4 Australian Open, Australia Hard SF 2–6, 6–3, 4–6 No.2 Loss 17–18 Maria Sharapova No. 2 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) SF 4–6, 6–7(3–7) No. 3 Loss 17–19 Maria Sharapova No. 2 French Open, France Clay SF 3–6, 3–6 No. 4 Loss 17–20 Serena Williams No. 6 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass QF 3–6, 5–7 No. 4 Win 18–20 Marion Bartoli No. 10 Canadian Open, Canada Hard 3R 6–1, 6–1 No. 6 Win 19–20 Caroline Wozniacki No. 8 Canadian Open, Canada Hard SF 3–6, 6–2, 6–3 No. 6 Loss 19–21 Angelique Kerber No. 7 Cincinnati Open, United States Hard SF 1–6, 6–2, 4–6 No. 5 8–8 Win 20–21 Sara Errani No. 10 Connecticut Open, United States Hard SF 6–1, 6–3 No. 5 6–1 Loss 20–22 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 4 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 3–6, 2–6 No. 6 2013 Win 21–22 Samantha Stosur No. 9 Billie Jean King Cup, Czech Republic Hard (i) QF 2–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–4 No. 8 Loss 21–23 Serena Williams No. 2 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard QF 6–3, 3–6, 5–7 No. 8 Win 22–23 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 4 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Hard QF 6–2, 6–4 No. 8 Win 23–23 Caroline Wozniacki No. 10 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Hard SF 6–3, 6–4 No. 8 Win 24–23 Sara Errani No. 7 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Hard F 6–2, 1–6, 6–1 No. 8 Win 25–23 Sara Errani No. 7 Billie Jean King Cup, Italy Clay SF 2–6, 6–2, 6–0 No. 8 Loss 25–24 Li Na No. 5 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) QF 3–6, 5–7 No. 8 Loss 25–25 Samantha Stosur No. 10 Italian Open, Italy Clay 3R 5–7, 6–2, 1–6 No. 8 Loss 25–26 Caroline Wozniacki No. 10 Cincinnati Open, United States Hard 3R 6–3, 2–6, 3–6 No. 9 Win 26–26 Angelique Kerber No. 9 Pan Pacific Open, Japan Hard F 6–2, 0–6, 6–3 No. 11 Win 27–26 Sara Errani No. 6 China Open, China Hard 3R 6–4, 6–7(3–7), 6–3 No. 7 Win 28–26 Li Na No. 5 China Open, China Hard QF 4–6, 6–2, 6–4 No. 7 Win 29–26 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 4 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 6–4, 6–4 No. 6 Win 30–26 Angelique Kerber No. 9 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 6–7(3–7), 6–2, 6–3 No. 6 Loss 30–27 Serena Williams No. 1 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) RR 2–6, 3–6 No. 6 Loss 30–28 Li Na No. 5 WTA Tour Championships, Turkey Hard (i) SF 4–6, 2–6 No. 6 2014 Loss 30–29 Jelena Janković No. 8 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard QF 1–6, 3–6 No. 6 5–3 Loss 30–30 Maria Sharapova No. 7 Miami Open, United States Hard QF 5–7, 1–6 No. 8 Loss 30–31 Simona Halep No. 5 Madrid Open, Spain Clay SF 7–6(7–4), 3–6, 2–6 No. 6 1–3 Win 31–31 Eugenie Bouchard No. 9 Wuhan Open, China Hard F 6–3, 6–4 No. 3 4–0 Loss 31–32 Maria Sharapova No. 4 China Open, China Hard F 4–6, 6–2, 3–6 No. 3 Win 32–32 Maria Sharapova No. 2 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 6–3, 6–2 No. 3 Loss 32–33 Caroline Wozniacki No. 8 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 2–6, 3–6 No. 3 Loss 32–34 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 6 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 2–6, 3–6 No. 3 Win 33–34 Angelique Kerber No. 10 Billie Jean King Cup, Czech Republic Hard (i) F 7–6(7–5), 4–6, 6–4 No. 4 2015 Win 34–34 Serena Williams No. 1 Madrid Open, Spain Clay SF 6–2, 6–3 No. 4 Loss 34–35 Carla Suárez Navarro No. 10 Italian Open, Italy Clay QF 3–6, 2–6 No. 4 7–6 Win 35–35 Caroline Wozniacki No. 4 Connecticut Open, United States Hard SF 7–5, 6–1 No. 5 Win 36–35 Lucie Šafářová No. 6 Connecticut Open, United States Hard F 6–7(6–8), 6–2, 6–2 No. 5 10–0 Win 37–35 Lucie Šafářová No. 9 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 7–5, 7–5 No. 5 Loss 37–36 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 3 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 4–6, 6–4, 5–7 No. 5 6–1 Loss 37–37 Angelique Kerber No. 7 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 2–6, 6–7(3–7) No. 5 Win 38–37 Maria Sharapova No. 4 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) SF 6–3, 7–6(7–3) No. 5 Loss 38–38 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 6 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) F 2–6, 6–4, 3–6 No. 5 Loss 38–39 Maria Sharapova No. 4 Billie Jean King Cup, Czech Republic Hard (i) F 6–3, 4–6, 2–6 No. 6 2016 Loss 38–40 Simona Halep No. 3 Billie Jean King Cup, Romania Hard (i) 1R 4–6, 6–3, 3–6 No. 9 Loss 38–41 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 3 Indian Wells Open, United States Hard QF 2–6, 6–7(3–7) No. 9 Win 39–41 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 4 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) QF 6–1, 3–6, 6–0 No. 7 Loss 39–42 Angelique Kerber No. 3 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) SF 4–6, 6–4, 2–6 No. 7 Win 40–42 Madison Keys No. 9 Summer Olympics, Brazil Hard SF-B 7–5, 2–6, 6–2 No. 14 5–4 Loss 40–43 Agnieszka Radwańska No. 4 Connecticut Open, United States Hard SF 1–6, 1–6 No. 15 Loss 40–44 Angelique Kerber No. 2 US Open, United States Hard 4R 3–6, 5–7 No. 16 Win 41–44 Angelique Kerber No. 1 Wuhan Open, China Hard 3R 6–7(10–12), 7–5, 6–4 No. 16 Win 42–44 Simona Halep No. 5 Wuhan Open, China Hard SF 6–1, 6–2 No. 16 Win 43–44 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 4 China Open, China Hard 3R 6–1, 6–4 No. 11 Loss 43–45 Madison Keys No. 9 China Open, China Hard QF 3–6, 7–6(7–2), 6–7(5–7) No. 11 2017 Win 44–45 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 3 US Open, United States Hard 4R 7–6(7–3), 6–3 No. 14 Loss 44–46 Venus Williams No. 9 US Open, United States Hard QF 3–6, 6–3, 6–7(2–7) No. 14 Win 45–46 Caroline Wozniacki No. 6 China Open, China Hard 3R 6–1, 6–4 No. 18 2018 Win 46–46 Jeļena Ostapenko No. 6 St. Petersburg Open, Russia Hard (i) QF 6–0, 6–2 No. 29 6–4 Win 47–46 Kristina Mladenovic No. 10 St. Petersburg Open, Russia Hard (i) F 6–1, 6–2 No. 29 9–1 Win 48–46 Elina Svitolina No. 3 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard 3R 6–4, 7–5 No. 21 7–4 Win 49–46 Julia Görges No. 10 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard QF 6–4, 2–1 ret. No. 21 6–1 Win 50–46 Caroline Wozniacki No. 1 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard SF 3–6, 7–6(7–3), 7–5 No. 21 Win 51–46 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 4 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard F 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 No. 21 Loss 51–47 Jeļena Ostapenko No. 5 Miami Open, United States Hard 4R 6–7(4–7), 3–6 No. 9 Win 52–47 Karolína Plíšková No. 6 Madrid Open, Spain Clay SF 7–6(7–4), 6–3 No. 10 4–2 Loss 52–48 Caroline Wozniacki No. 3 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 5–7, 6–3, 2–6 No. 5 Loss 52–49 Karolína Plíšková No. 8 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 3–6, 4–6 No. 5 Loss 52–50 Elina Svitolina No. 7 WTA Finals, Singapore Hard (i) RR 3–6, 3–6 No. 5 2019 Win 53–50 Angelique Kerber No. 2 Sydney International, Australia Hard QF 6–4, 6–1 No. 8 Loss 53–51 Naomi Osaka No. 4 Australian Open, Australia Hard F 6–7(2–7), 7–5, 4–6 No. 6 0–2 Win 54–51 Kiki Bertens No. 7 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) SF 7–6(7–3), 3–6, 6–1 No. 3 3–3 Loss 54–52 Kiki Bertens No. 7 Madrid Open, Spain Clay QF 2–6, 3–6 No.2 Win 55–52 Belinda Bencic No. 10 China Open, China Hard 3R 6–3, 6–3 No. 7 4–2 Loss 55–53 Ashleigh Barty No. 1 China Open, China Hard QF 6–4, 4–6, 3–6 No. 7 5–5 Loss 55–54 Naomi Osaka No. 3 WTA Finals, Shenzhen Hard (i) RR 6–7(1–7), 6–4, 4–6 No. 6 Loss 55–55 Ashleigh Barty No. 1 WTA Finals, Shenzhen Hard (i) RR 4–6, 2–6 No. 6 Loss 55–56 Belinda Bencic No. 7 WTA Finals, Shenzhen Hard (i) RR 3–6, 6–1, 4–6 No. 6 2020 Loss 55–57 Ashleigh Barty No. 1 Australian Open, Australia Hard QF 6–7(6–8), 2–6 No. 8 Win 56–57 Ashleigh Barty No. 1 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard SF 6–4, 2–6, 6–4 No. 11 Loss 56–58 Sofia Kenin No. 6 French Open, France Clay SF 4–6, 5–7 No. 11 2–1 2021 Loss 56–59 Elina Svitolina No. 5 Miami Open, United States Hard 4R 6–2, 5–7, 5–7 No. 10 Loss 56–60 Elina Svitolina No. 5 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) QF 7–6(7–4), 5–7, 2–6 No. 10 Loss 56–61 Ashleigh Barty No. 1 Madrid Open, Spain Clay QF 1–6, 6–3, 3–6 No. 12 2022 Loss 56–62 Ons Jabeur No. 10 Sydney International, Australia Hard 2R 4–6, 4–6 No. 21 4–1 Win 57–62 Aryna Sabalenka No. 2 Dubai Championships, United Arab Emirates Hard 2R 6–4, 6–4 No. 25 3–2 Loss 57–63 Maria Sakkari No. 6 Indian Wells Open, United States Hard 3R 3–6, 0–6 No. 31 3–5 Loss 57–64 Iga Świątek No. 2 Miami Open, United States Hard QF 3–6, 3–6 No. 32 0–1 Loss 57–65 Karolína Plíšková No. 7 Stuttgart Open, Germany Clay (i) 1R 4–6, 6–4, 6–7(5–7) No. 28 Loss 57–66 Paula Badosa No. 4 Wimbledon Championships, United Kingdom Grass 3R 5–7, 6–7(4–7) No. 26 2–1 Win 58–66 Ons Jabeur No. 5 Cincinnati Masters, United States Hard 3R 6–1, 4–6, 6–0 No. 28 Win 59–66 Garbiñe Muguruza No. 10 US Open, United States Hard 3R 5–7, 6–3, 7–6(12–10) No. 21 Loss 59–67 Jessica Pegula No. 6 US Open, United States Hard 4R 3–6, 2–6 No. 21 3–1 Win 60–67 Paula Badosa No. 4 Ostrava Open, Czech Republic Hard (i) 2R 7–6(7–4), 6–4 No. 20 2023 Win 61–67 Jessica Pegula No. 3 United Cup, Australia Hard RR 7–6(8–6), 6–4 No. 16 Loss 61–68 Daria Kasatkina No. 8 Adelaide International 2, Australia Hard QF 3–6, 6–7(3–7) No. 16 1–1 Loss 61–69 Coco Gauff No. 6 Qatar Open, Qatar Hard 2R 3–6, 6–7(6–8) No. 13 0–1 Win 62–69 Jessica Pegula No. 3 Indian Wells Open, United States Hard 4R 6–2, 3–6, 7–6(13–11) No. 15 Loss 62–70 Maria Sakkari No. 7 Indian Wells Open, United States Hard QF 6–4, 5–7, 1–6 No. 15 Win 63–70 Elena Rybakina No. 7 Miami Open, United States Hard F 7–6(16–14), 6–2 No. 12 2–1 Win 64–70 Caroline Garcia No. 4 German Open, Germany Grass QF 6–4, 7–6(7–3) No. 9 6–4 ===Double bagel matches (6–0, 6–0)=== Result W–L Year Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Rank Win 1–0 2009 Hobart International, Australia International Hard Sally Peers No. 468 1R No. 49 Win 2–0 2016 Stuttgart Open, Germany Premier Clay (i) Louisa Chirico No. 121 1R No. 7 == Longest winning streaks == === 14 match win streak (2011–2012) === # Match Tournament Category Start date Surface Rd Opponent Rank Score – 283 China Open Premier Mandatory 1 October 2011 Hard 2R Sofia Arvidsson No. 85 6–7(6–8), 6–4, 3–6 1 284 Linz Open International 10 October 2011 Hard (i) 1R Rebecca Marino No. 59 6–2, 6–2 2 285 2R Patricia Mayr-Achleitner No. 105 6–2, 6–3 3 286 QF Daniela Hantuchová No. 25 6–2, 6–2 4 287 SF Jelena Janković No. 13 4–6, 6–4, 6–3 5 288 F Dominika Cibulková No. 23 6–4, 6–1 6 289 WTA Tour Championships WTA Finals 25 October 2011 Hard (i) RR Vera Zvonareva No. 6 6–2, 6–4 7 290 RR Caroline Wozniacki No. 1 6–4, 6–2 8 291 RR Agnieszka Radwańska No. 8 7–6(7–4), 6–3 9 292 SF Samantha Stosur No. 7 5–7, 6–3, 6–3 10 293 F Victoria Azarenka No. 4 7–5, 4–6, 6–3 11 294 Fed Cup Team Event 5 November 2011 Hard (i) – Maria Kirilenko No. 27 6–2, 6–2 12 295 – Svetlana Kuznetsova No. 19 4–6, 6–2, 6–3 13 296 Sydney International Premier 8 January 2012 Hard 2R Alexandra Dulgheru No. 66 7–5, 3–6, 6–4 14 297 QF Daniela Hantuchová No. 21 6–0, 6–4 – 298 SF Li Na No. 5 6–1, 5–7, 2–6 === 14 match win streak (2018) === # Match Tournament Category Start date Surface Rd Opponent Rank Score – 646 Australian Open Grand Slam 15 January 2018 Hard 1R Andrea Petkovic No. 98 3–6, 6–4, 8–10 1 647 St. Petersburg Ladies Trophy Premier 29 January 2018 Hard (i) 1R Elena Vesnina No. 21 6–2, 6–0 2 648 2R Irina-Camelia Begu No. 37 6–3, 1–6, 6–1 3 649 QF Jeļena Ostapenko No. 6 6–0, 6–2 4 650 SF Julia Görges No. 12 7–5, 4–6, 6–2 5 651 F Kristina Mladenovic No. 10 6–1, 6–2 6 652 Fed Cup Team Event 10 February 2018 Hard (i) – Viktorija Golubic No. 100 6–2, 1–6, 6–3 7 653 – Belinda Bencic No. 73 6–2, 6–4 8 654 Qatar Total Open Premier 5 12 February 2018 Hard 1R Çağla Büyükakçay No. 160 6–0, 6–3 9 655 2R Agnieszka Radwańska No. 33 6–7(3–7), 6–3, 6–4 10 656 3R Elina Svitolina No. 3 6–4, 7–5 11 657 QF Julia Görges No. 10 6–4, 2–1 ret. 12 658 SF Caroline Wozniacki No. 1 3–6, 7–6(7–3), 7–5 13 659 F Garbiñe Muguruza No. 4 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 14 660 Indian Wells Open Premier Mandatory 5 March 2018 Hard 2R Yulia Putintseva No. 81 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–3), 6–4 – 661 3R Amanda Anisimova No. 149 2–6, 4–6 ==Notes== == References == == External links == * * * Career Statistics Category:Tennis career statistics
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Geo-Force (Brion Markov) is a fictional superhero character appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. Markov is the younger Prince Twin of Markovia and the elder brother of Terra. One of the founding members of the superhero group the Outsiders, he first appeared in a special insert in The Brave and the Bold #200 (July 1983). The character was created by Mike W. Barr and Jim Aparo. The character has made scattered appearances throughout animated and live-action media, such as Young Justice: Outsiders and the third season of the Arrowverse series Black Lightning, portrayed by Jahking Guillory. ==Fictional character biography== ===Batman and the Outsiders=== Dr. Helga Jace used a device to give Prince Brion Markov superpowers with which he could stop an insurrection mounted by the evil Baron Bedlam. Five other superheroes converge on Markovia for various reasons of their own. Veteran heroes Batman, Metamorpho, and Black Lightning join forces with Geo-Force and two other new heroes, Katana and Halo. After stopping the insurrection, the heroes decide to remain together as the Outsiders, with Batman (who has resigned from the Justice League) as team leader. Brion gets along with his teammates, though he occasionally butts heads with Batman and his teammates due to his short temper. When he is not active as a superhero, Brion attends college in the US and begins dating classmate Denise Howard. In one of their earliest missions, the Outsiders team up with the Teen Titans, who are led at the time by Batman's sidekick, Robin. Geo-Force is the brother of Tara Markov, also known as Terra, of the Titans. Tara is the product of an affair King Markov (Brion's father) had with an unnamed American woman. Fearing scandal, the king sent Tara to be raised in the United States. Unbeknownst to Geo-Force and her fellow Titans, Terra is secretly a spy working for Deathstroke. Brion is happy to be reunited with his half-sister, though Terra is less happy due to her fears that Brion will say the wrong thing and possibly expose the fictional back-story she has told the Titans about herself and how she gained her powers. Several weeks later, Terra betrays the Titans for Deathstroke. In the climactic battle between Titans and the alliance of Deathstroke and Terra, Terra's sociopathic personality breaks down as she tries to kill both the Titans and Deathstroke, when Deathstroke's son Joseph intervenes on behalf of the Titans to stop his father. In the end, Terra accidentally kills herself when she tries to bury the Titans alive in a massive rock storm. At first, the Titans do not tell Geo-Force of her betrayal, letting him think that she has died a hero. However, Batman later reveals the truth to Geo-Force, which leaves him even more heartbroken. In his depression, Geo-Force cannot bring himself to continue wearing his earthtone costume, as it reminds him of Tara, who wore a similar uniform. Designed and suggested by Batman, a new green and gold costume is presented to Brion by his teammates to lift his spirits. It works well, and Geo-Force wears green and gold for most of his career. The colors have a dual importance to Geo-Force as both the colors of his native Markovia's flag, as well as symbolically representing the Earth, from which his powers are derived (green), while reminding him how precious his gifts truly are (gold). By the time he joins the Justice League, however, Geo-Force has returned to another version of his old earthtone uniform. ===The Outsiders=== After the Outsiders split with Batman, they are privately funded by Markovia. During this time, Geo-Force is the unofficial new leader of the team. This information eventually comes out and Major Disaster destroys their base. Around this time, the sovereignty of Markovia again comes under threat. Investigating the mysterious new prime minister, Geo-Force leads a team of Outsiders and Infinity, Inc. members back to his homeland. Having grown up in the main castle, it is easy for Geo-Force to lead the team in. He soon discovers that the Psycho-Pirate in the disguise of long-term Outsiders enemy Baron Bedlam is attempting to conquer the country. The two teams join forces to stop Psycho-Pirate and leave on good terms. Brion, meanwhile, has a one- night stand with Looker when the team is stranded on a desert island. The move strains the relationship between Brion and his girlfriend Denise, as well as Looker's relationship with her husband. Brion and Looker agree to remain platonic friends afterward. The United States government withdraws any foreign aid from Markovia until that nation releases the true names of the Outsiders. King Gregor, Brion's older brother, is murdered before he can make a decision. Brion becomes king, but he is forced to abdicate and is imprisoned when his sister-in-law, Iona (Gregor's wife), reveals she is pregnant. His teammate Looker reveals to Brion that the murderer of his brother was the team's trusted friend and scientist associate, Doctor Jace. Jace has betrayed the team for the Manhunters because she admires their dedication to knowledge. In the end, Jace dies, along with a mind-controlled Metamorpho. This, along with a second battle with the descendants of teammate Looker, which results in Looker being temporarily stripped of her powers and Halo left injured and comatose, causes the Outsiders to disband and Brion to retire as Geo-Force. In the early 1990s, however, the Outsiders were revived with former Outsiders Geo-Force, Katana, Halo, and Looker joined by new heroes Faust, Technocrat and Wylde. The latter two are on hand to sell a new battlesuit to Markovia. Queen Iona has teamed up with Roderick, a vampire, in order to kill Geo-Force, though the first attempt makes it seem as if Technocrat is under attack. Using a vampire's inability to be recorded, Roderick frames Geo-Force for Iona's on- air murder, forcing the team to run. Geo-Force and the Outsiders are on the run for some time, hiding out mostly in America. They eventually clear their names and destroy Roderick and his vampiric legions. At the end of the second Outsiders series, Brion marries his long-time girlfriend, Denise Howard. 273px|thumb|right|Brion and the new Terra awaiting the results of the DNA test. During this time, another Terra has appeared as part of a group known as the Team Titans, who appear to have come from the future. This new Terra claims to have been a normal girl who was given Terra's appearance and powers as a result of a DNA virus. Geo-Force's first attempt to talk to her meets with failure when he accidentally gets swept up in a rock column she has created during a loud party. He finds her again at the Titans headquarters. After a brief fight with her friends, he manages to sit down with her. The new Terra convinces him she is not his sister. The rogue Markovian scientists attack with the intention of forcibly duplicating Terra's powers. Geo-Force and the other Titans rescue her. Further revelations imply that this Terra is in fact from their time, when the original Terra's grave is dug up and her corpse is missing from her coffin. Brion invites Terra to live in Markovia, which she accepts, as her group of Titans is disbanding. In Markovia, scientists conduct a DNA test in the hopes of discovering if Terra is, in fact, Geo-Force's sister. Terra is afraid of finding out the results, fearful that she might, in fact, be a villainous traitor. When the test results come back positive, Brion lies to Terra, telling her that the results are negative. Around this time, as part of the Day of Judgement incident, a portal to hell threatens to swallow the country of Markovia. A small team of Outsiders, including the newer Terra, Katana, and the original Halo, are on hand to help combat it. Geo-Force and Terra become kidnap victims of a strange cult run by a man with mind-control powers. They are rescued by the super-team called the "Birds of Prey". Geo-Force briefly appears in 52 #35, assisting Metropolis citizens injured in a mass-murder caused by Lex Luthor. He later is a part of the army of heroes gathered by the Justice Society at the end of 52 to battle Black Adam who, in his global killing spree after the death of his wife and brother-in-law, has murdered Terra II. Before the battle, Geo-Force tells Beast Boy not to blame himself for Terra II's death. ===Justice League of America=== While sailing in his yacht off the coast of Greece, Geo-Force suddenly finds himself losing control over his powers, which have suddenly changed to include his sister's earth manipulation powers. This sudden increase in power, which causes Geo-Force to black out, is ultimately caused by the villainous Deathstroke through as yet unrevealed means. Geo-Force seeks help from the newly reformed Justice League of America, becoming an unofficial member of the group. This will ultimately be revealed to be Deathstroke's overall plan, as he ultimately confronts Geo-Force in order to blackmail him into becoming a spy, just like Terra, in exchange for Deathstroke's promise to one day remove the added powers he forced upon Geo-Force. Geo-Force informs Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman of Deathstroke's scheme and agrees to become a double agent: spying on Deathstroke for the League, while spying on the League for Deathstroke. The scheme falls apart when Lex Luthor organizes a new incarnation of the Injustice League and captures the Justice League. While a prisoner, Geo-Force is brutally tortured alongside Red Tornado at the hands of Gorilla Grodd. While recovering from his injuries, Geo-Force is "traded" to Batman's latest incarnation of The Outsiders, much to Geo-Force's dismay and, ultimately, acceptance. In DC Universe: Last Will and Testament, Geo-Force confronts Deathstroke in a battle. After contemplating murder, he is talked out of it by Black Lightning and Rocky Davis of the Challengers of the Unknown. He loses a lot of blood to Deathstroke in their fight, but then he sets their confrontation at the same alley and building complex where Deathstroke's second son Jericho was held after being kidnapped. Slashing his own throat in the same manner as his son was cut lets Deathstroke's guard down, allowing Brion to impale Deathstroke with his own sword through his own body. Believing he has defeated Deathstroke, while sacrificing his own life, he is surprised to wake up in the hospital. It is thought that he single- handedly took down Deathstroke, but no one knows that Geo-Force was trying to commit suicide. Geo-Force becomes the field leader of the Outsiders and is still secretly living with the shame of his actions. ===Blackest Night=== Geo- Force is visited by his sister, who has been reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps. Claiming to have been freed from the dark force that was controlling her, Tara begs Brion to kill her.Outsiders (vol. 4) #24. DC Comics. However, it is a facade in order to feed on the Outsiders' emotions. Geo-Force turns Terra into a statue and her ring is destroyed by Halo.Outsiders (vol. 4) #25. DC Comics. ===Marriage and divorce=== Geo-Force later marries his long-time girlfriend, Denise Howard. Since she is not a Markovian, the marriage is annulled by Brion's choice. Unbeknownst to Brion, Denise later tries to undergo the same experiment which transformed Geo-Force into a powerful hero but, because she does not have Markovian blood in her, she gains the same powers but with a changed appearance and loss of sanity, becoming Geode. She is locked up, but escapes to take revenge on Markovia by killing several innocent Markovians. Geo-Force proclaims his affections for Katana, but before she can answer Geo's declaration of love, they are interrupted by Eradicator. Eradicator informs Brion of Geode's escape and her recent attack on Markovia. Geo-Force and Eradicator go to intercept Geode. The battle with Brion's deranged wife seems one-sided as Geode smacks both heroes around like ragdolls. Eradicator pleads with Geo-Force to use his powers to subdue Geode, but Brion is conflicted over the idea of striking his wife. With Geo-Force unable to take the initiative, Eradicator decides to unleash the full extent of his power to knock Geode unconscious. Later, Geode is free from her captivity, thanks to an unusual character named Veritas. Veritas wants Geode to begin Markovia's immediate destruction, which will draw out Geo- Force, who pinpoints the center of the disturbance in Markovia and is approached by Veritas. Veritas asks Brion to join him and reestablish Markovia's Old World Order. Brion refuses Veritas' offer and Veritas tells Geode to kill her estranged husband. Geo-Force gathers his strength and becomes a giant rock creature. On his unfortune, Brion's unstable powers have put Markovia in danger, because his new form consists of Markovia itself and earthquakes begin to spring up. One earthquake opens up a large crevice beneath Geode and Veritas. The two villains fall to their supposed doom and Geo-Force finally realizes that Veritas used Geode to tempt Geo-Force into unleashing his untapped abilities in order to destroy Markovia. Now, Markovia is torn between civil war and the devastation that Brion has inadvertently wrought on his people. ===DC Rebirth=== In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called DC Rebirth, which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". Prince Brion Markov appears, without his Geo-Force identity or costume, in the miniseries Suicide Squad: Most Wanted. He meets Katana for the first time and helps her and the Suicide Squad battle the terrorist organisation Kobra, attempting to invade Markovia. There is no indication he possesses any superhuman abilities. During the "Dark Nights: Metal" event it is revealed that Batman had been operating a team known as the Outsiders as a stealth team of black ops for some time, with Metamorpho, Black Lightning, Katana, Halo and Geo-Force.Dark Days: The Forge #1. DC Comics. After the moon was left shattered by Vandal Savage's battle against the Justice League. Geo-Force lent his aid in stabilizing the planets gravitational sphere until his fellow heroes could fix the damages to the Moon.Justice League (vol. 4) #3 (2018). DC Comics. In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Brion Markov was one of the first meta-humans created outside America's programs by Dr. Helga Jace. He is currently leading a new team of Outsiders, based out of Markovia, and has denied any knowledge of working with Batman before.Doomsday Clock #5. DC Comics. At the time when Superman confronts Doctor Manhattan, Geo-Force arrives with his Outsiders alongside the People's Heroes and the Doomed in an attempt to bring Superman in for what happened in Russia. Geo-Force tells Superman to do the right thing and cooperate. Both foreign superheroes and Black Adam's group start to charge towards Superman to see who will get to him first which intensifies when the other foreign superhero teams show up. The fight is broken up when Doctor Manhattan undoes the experiment that erased the Justice Society of America and the Legion of Super-Heroes from history.Doomsday Clock #12. DC Comics. In Shadow War, he disguised himself as Deathstroke and murdered Ra's al Ghul. He did this to pit the real Deathstroke against Ra's' daughter, Talia al Ghul, against each other and get revenge on both. Deathstroke for what he did to Markov's sister, and Talia for hurting his country.Shadow War Zone #1 ==Powers and abilities== As implied by his code name, all of Brion's powers are in some way related to the planet Earth. He can manipulate the Earth's gravitational field to make an object heavier ("plus-gravity") or lighter ("null-gravity"). He can project scorching "lava blasts" in imitation of terrestrial volcanoes.Batman and the Outsiders #1 (1983). DC Comics. By using his null- gravity power on himself, coupled with lava blasts for propulsion, Geo-Force can fly at great speeds for short periods of time (his teammate Black Lightning once remarked that Geo-Force weakens after flying 1,000 miles). Geo- Force has demonstrated the ability to manipulate the Earth itself, in a manner similar to Terra. Brion has shown he can turn organic material to earthen mineral with a touch. This ability is not quite explained in the instance where he turns the reanimated corpse of Terra to stone.Outsiders (vol. 4) #25. DC Comics. Geo-Force possesses impressive superhuman strength, speed and durability. He once used his gravity manipulation powers to enhance his own super-strength, strengthening him sufficiently enough to fight pre-crisis Superman toe-to-toe.Batman and the Outsiders #19, DC Comics. When he is shot in the back by the clone of Baron Bedlam, the bullets stagger him, but they do not puncture his skin.Batman and the Outsiders #2, DC Comics. Brion has the addition of on again off again earth moving abilities similar to what Tara Markov possessed, for some reason they seemed to fluctuate in continuity.Batman and the Outsiders Annual #1 (1983), DC Comics. Having enough affinity with the geophysical to aid in keep the planet from splitting into pieces during the War of the Gods.Captain Atom #57 (1987), DC Comics. Reportedly his geokinesis is so powerful, that working in conjunction with four other similarly powered individuals, Geo-Force could crack the planet in half.Justice Society of America (vol. 3) #43 (2007), DC Comics. With the return of these abilities however the level of durability he has seems to fluctuate. At one time being slashed by sharp items, usually a deep wound triggering this unstable and largely dormant facet of his powers, leading to violent earthquakes and ground swells.Justice League of America (vol. 2) #7 (2007), DC Comics. At others, not even being burned by putting his hand over an active candle flame.DC Universe: Last Will and Testament, DC Comics. He's eventually learned to drudge up and weaponize molten lava from beneath the earth's surface as well during Convergence.Convergence: Batman & the Outsiders #1-2 (2015), DC Comics. Brion Markov has gained his powers due in part to his heritage as a prince of Markovia, as well as the effects of the device designed for manifesting the powers. Only one with royal Markov blood can retain these powers permanently.Batman and the Outsiders #2 (1983), DC Comics. The source of Geo-Force's powers is the Earth itself. During his first adventure, Geo-Force is apparently killed and buried by enemy soldiers. The Earth nurtured Geo-Force, healing his wounds and restoring him. Through his connection to the earth Geo-Force is able to survive indefinitely without food, sleep or need for respiration; having spent days to weeks on end sitting underground without discomfort.Batman and the Outsiders Special (vol. 2) #1 (2009), DC Comics. Geo-Force is at his strongest when he's firmly planted on the ground. His powers and health will deteriorate if he is out of contact with the Earth for long time periods.Outsiders (vol. 2) #24, DC Comics. ==Other versions== In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Brion Markov is the king of Markovia. At some point, he is contacted by Mera while trying to make an alliance with the Atlanteans, due to the Amazonian Invasion of the United Kingdom. He is later captured by Aquaman, who attaches the young king to a machine constructed by Vulko in order to amplify Brion's powers of manipulation of the Earth's gravitational field. It is through Brion that Aquaman manages to cause Western Europe to sink into the sea. ==In other media== ===Television=== ====Live-action==== Two variations of Brion Markov / Geo-Force appear in media set in The CW's Arrowverse: * Dr. Brion Markov appears in the Arrow episode "Darkness on the Edge of Town", portrayed by Eric Floyd. This version is a human scientist for Unidac Industries who invents a device that can manipulate seismic activity. Malcolm Merlyn hires him to weaponize the device before murdering Markov and his staff so Merlyn can use the device on The Glades as part of the "Undertaking". * An Americanized adaptation of Geo-Force appears in Black Lightning, portrayed by Jahking Guillory. This version is Brandon Marshall, a student at Garfield High alongside Jennifer Pierce. Early in the third season, he reveals his geokinetic metahuman status to her and how Helga Jace killed his mother, Helen, in her experiments before teaming up with Pierce on occasion to fight off an invasion of Markovians. Near the end of the season, he learns Helen was a Markovian and his father had the same geokinetic abilities as him. In response, Marshall keeps Jace in his apartment to gain information about his father. ====Animation==== * Geo-Force appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Requiem for a Scarlet Speedster!", voiced by Hunter Parrish. This version is a new member of the Outsiders and joins them in helping Batman fight Kobra. * Geo-Force appears in Young Justice: Outsiders, voiced by Troy Baker. This version is the 17-year-old, fraternal, younger twin brother of Crown Prince Gregor Markov of Markovia. After his younger sister Tara was kidnapped by metahuman traffickers two years earlier, Brion decides to activate his meta-gene so he can stop the traffickers and find his sister, though he was put into a meta-activation tank against his will by Doctors Helga Jace and Simon Ecks. When his villainous uncle Baron Bedlam tries to frame him for the recent murder of his parents, Brion confronts him, but is outmatched due to his inability to control his newly acquired magma-based powers. After Superboy intervenes and defeats Bedlam, Gregor is forced to exile a heartbroken Brion from their home to prevent metahumans from causing further damage to Markovia but asks Superboy to take care of his brother in his place. Following this, Brion begins training with Superboy, Nightwing, Artemis, Halo, Black Lightning, and Forager to better develop and control his abilities. Due to his banishment, family tragedies, and his allies not being able to find Tara fast enough, Brion develops anger issues, though he slowly learns to overcome them. He also enters a relationship with Halo and develops a friendship with Forager. Brion eventually reunites with Tara, though he and his allies are initially unaware of her alliance with the Light. Following this, Brion joins the Team, and later the Outsiders. While on a mission to Markovia to stop Bedlam once more, Brion learns of Tara's deceit. Though she defects to the heroes' side, Zviad Baazovi secretly manipulates Brion into killing Bedlam and usurping Gregor as king of Markovia on the Light's behalf. As of the Young Justice: Phantoms episode "Artemis Through the Looking Glass", Brion has welcomed all metahumans into Markovia, which in turn has caused all non-metahuman Markovians to flee to the neighboring nation of Vlatava. Brion later becomes the leader of a superhero group called the Infinitors. ===Miscellaneous=== Geo-Force appears in Teen Titans Go! #51. He arrives in America looking for his younger sister, Terra, to bring her back to Markovia. After meeting the Teen Titans, Beast Boy brings him to the school where he met the schoolgirl who resembles Terra. While Geo-Force is certain that the schoolgirl is Terra, he sees that she seems happy now, something he had never seen while she was in Markovia. Deciding not to confront her, he returns to Markovia alone. ==References== ==External links== * DCU Guide: Geo-Force * Cosmic Teams: Geo-Force * Atlas of the DC Universe Category:DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Category:DC Comics characters with superhuman strength Category:DC Comics metahumans Category:Comics characters introduced in 1983 Category:Fictional princes Category:Fictional kings Category:Characters created by Mike W. Barr Category:Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities Category:Fictional characters with gravity abilities Category:Characters created by Jim Aparo
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A Picardy third, (; ) also known as a Picardy cadence or Tierce de Picardie, is a major chord of the tonic at the end of a musical section that is either modal or in a minor key. This is achieved by raising the third of the expected minor triad by a semitone to create a major triad, as a form of resolution.Percy Scholes (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Music: Self-indexed and with a Pronouncing Glossary and Over 1,100 Portraits and Pictures, ninth edition, completely revised and reset and with many additions to text and illustrations (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), pp. 1027–28. For example, instead of a cadence ending on an A minor chord containing the notes A, C, and E, a Picardy third ending would consist of an A major chord containing the notes A, C, and E. The minor third between the A and C of the A minor chord has become a major third in the Picardy third chord. thumb|233px|Schütz "Heu mihi, Domine" from Cantiones Sacrae, 1625 Philosopher Peter Kivy writes: According to Deryck Cooke, "Western composers, expressing the 'rightness' of happiness by means of a major third, expressed the 'wrongness' of grief by means of the minor third, and for centuries, pieces in a minor key had to have a 'happy ending' – a final major chord (the 'tierce de Picardie') or a bare fifth."Deryck Cooke, The Language of Music (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 57. As a harmonic device, the Picardy third originated in Western music in the Renaissance era. ==Illustration== What makes this a Picardy cadence is shown by the red natural sign. Instead of the expected B-flat (which would make the chord minor) the accidental gives us a B natural, making the chord major. Listen to the final four measures of "I Heard the Voice of Jesus Say" with () and without () Picardy third (harmony by R. Vaughan Williams).Denise LaGiglia and Anna Belle O'Shea, The Liturgical Flutist: A Method Book and More (Chicago, Illinois: GIA Publications, 2005), p. 166\. . ==History== ===Name=== The term was first used in 1768 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although the practice was used in music centuries earlier.Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire De Musique (Amsterdam: M. M. Rey, 1768), p.320. https://www.loc.gov/resource/muspre1800.101611/?sp=428.Don Michael Randel (ed.), The Harvard Dictionary of Music (4th ed.) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press, 2003), p. 660\. . Rousseau argues that “the term is used jokingly by musicians”, suggesting it might have never had an academic basis, a tangible origin, and might have sprung out of idiomatic jokes in France in the first half of the 18th century. But his attempt at explaining why this term was used remains unconvincing: “the [practice] remained longer in Church Music, and, consequently, in Picardy, where there is music in a lot of cathedrals and churches”. Robert Hall hypothesizes that, instead of deriving from the Picardy region of France, it comes from the Old French word "picart", meaning "pointed" or "sharp" in northern dialects, and thus refers to the musical sharp that transforms the minor third of the chord into a major third.Robert A. Hall, Jr., "How Picard was the Picardy Third?", Current Musicology 19 (1975): pp. 78–80. The few Old French dictionaries in which the word picart (fem. picarde) appears give “aigu, piquant” as a definition. While piquant is quite straightforward — meaning spiky, pointy, sharp — aigu is much more ambiguous, because it has the inconvenience of having at least three meanings: “high-pitched/treble”, “sharp” as in a sharp blade, and “acute”. Considering the definitions also state the term can refer to a nail ("clou") (read masonry nail), a pike or a spit, it seems aigu might be there used to mean "pointy" / “sharp”. However, not “sharp” in the desired sense, the one relating to a raised pitch, but in the sense of a sharp blade, which would thus completely discredit the word picart as the origin for the Picardy third, which also seems unlikely considering the possibility that aigu was also used to refer to a high(er)-pitched note, and a treble sound, thus perfectly explaining the use of the word picarde to designate a chord whose third is higher than it should be. Not to be ignored is the existence of the proverb "ressembler le Picard" ("to resemble an inhabitant of Picard") which meant “éviter le danger” (to avoid danger). This would link back to the humorous character of the term, that would have thus been used to mock supposedly cowardly composers who used the Picardy third as a way to avoid the gravity of the minor third, and perhaps the backlash they would have faced from the academic elite and the Church by going against the time’s scholasticism. Ultimately, the origin of the name "tierce picarde" will likely never be known for sure, but what evidence there is seems to point towards these idiomatic jokes and proverbs as well as the literal meaning of picarde as high-pitched and treble. ===Use=== In medieval music, such as that of Machaut, neither major nor minor thirds were considered stable intervals, and so cadences were typically on open fifths. As a harmonic device, the Picardy third originated in Western music in the Renaissance era. By the early seventeenth century, its use had become established in practice in music that was both sacred (as in the Schütz example above) and secular: 233px|thumb|William Byrd, Pavane "The Earl of Salisbury", 1612 Examples of the Picardy third can be found throughout the works of J. S. Bach and his contemporaries, as well as earlier composers such as Thoinot Arbeau and John Blow. Many of Bach's minor key chorales end with a cadence featuring a final chord in the major: 233px|thumb|J. S. Bach, Jesu meine Freude, BWV 81.7, mm. 12–13 In his book Music and Sentiment, Charles Rosen shows how Bach makes use of the fluctuations between minor and major to convey feeling in his music. Rosen singles out the Allemande from the keyboard Partita No. 1 in B-flat, BWV 825 to exemplify "the range of expression then possible, the subtle variety of inflections of sentiment contained with a well-defined framework". The following passage from the first half of the piece starts in F major, but then, in bar 15, "Turning to the minor mode with a chromatic bass and then back to the major for the cadence adds still new intensity."Charles Rosen, Music and Sentiment (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010), p. 45. 233px|thumb|Bach, Allemande from Partita 1, bars 13–18 thumb|center|500px|Bach Allemande from Partita 1, bars 13–18 Many passages in Bach's religious works follow a similar expressive trajectory involving major and minor keys that may sometimes take on a symbolic significance. For example, David Humphreys (1983, p. 23) sees the "languishing chromatic inflections, syncopations and appoggiaturas" of the following episode from the St Anne Prelude for organ, BWV 552 from Clavier- Übung III as "showing Christ in his human aspect. Moreover the poignant angularity of the melody, and in particular the sudden turn to the minor, are obvious expressions of pathos, introduced as a portrayal of his Passion and crucifixion":Humphreys, D. (1983). The Esoteric structure of Bach's Clavierübung III, p. 25\. University of Cardiff Press. thumb|233px|From Bach "St Anne" Prelude for Organ, BWV 552, bars 118–130 thumb|center|500px|From Bach "St Anne" Prelude for Organ, BWV 552, bars 118–130 Notably, Bach's two books of The Well-Tempered Clavier, composed in 1722 and 1744 respectively, differ considerably in their application of Picardy thirds, which occur unambiguously at the end of all of the minor-mode preludes and all but one of the minor-mode fugues in the first book.Butler, H. Joseph. "Emulation and Inspiration: J. S. Bach's Transcriptions from Vivaldi's L'estro armonico " (2011), p. 21. In the second book, however, fourteen of the minor-mode movements end on a minor chord, or occasionally, on a unison.Oxford Companion to Music, tenth edition, edited by Percy A. Scholes and John Owen Ward (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). Manuscripts vary in many of these cases. While the device was used less frequently during the Classical era, examples can be found in works by Haydn and Mozart, such as the slow movement of Mozart's Piano Concerto 21, K. 467: 233px|thumb|Mozart, Piano Concerto 21, K. 467, slow movement, bars 83–93 thumb|center|600px|Mozart, Piano Concerto 21, K467, slow movement, bars 83–94 Philip Radcliffe says that the dissonant harmonies here "have a vivid foretaste of Schumann and the way they gently melt into the major key is equally prophetic of Schubert".Radcliffe, P. (1978). Mozart Piano Concertos, p. 52\. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. At the end of his opera Don Giovanni, Mozart uses the switch from minor to major to considerable dramatic effect: "As the Don disappears, screaming in agony, the orchestra settles in on a chord of D major. The change of mode offers no consolation, though: it is more like the tierce de Picardie, the 'Picardy third' (a famous misnomer derived from tierce picarte, 'sharp third'), the major chord that was used to end solemn organ preludes and toccatas in the minor keys in days of old."Taruskin, R. (2010). The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries, p. 494\. Oxford University Press. The fierce C minor drama that pervades the Allegro con brio ed appassionato movement from Beethoven's last Piano Sonata, Op. 111, dissipates as the prevailing tonality turns to the major in its closing bars "in conjunction with a concluding diminuendo to end the movement, somewhat unexpectedly, on a note of alleviation or relief".Taruskin, R. (2010). The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, p. 730\. Oxford University Press. 233px|thumb|Beethoven, Piano Sonata, Op. 111, first movement concluding bars thumb|center|500px|Beethoven, Piano Sonata, Op. 111, first movement concluding bars The switch from minor to major was a device used frequently and to great expressive effect by Schubert in both his songs and instrumental works. In his book on the song cycle Winterreise, singer Ian Bostridge speaks of the "quintessentially Schubertian effect in the final verse" of the opening song "Gute Nacht", "as the key shifts magically from minor to major".Ian Bostridge (2015). Schubert's Winter Journey, p. 7 London: Faber and Faber. 233px|thumb|Schubert, "Gute Nacht", piano link to final verse thumb|center|500px|Schubert, "Gute Nacht", piano link to the final verse Susan Wollenberg describes how the first movement of Schubert's Fantasia in F minor for piano four-hands, D 940, "ends in an extended Tierce de Picardie".Wollenberg, S. (2011). Schubert's Fingerprints: Studies in the Instrumental Works, p. 42\. London, Routledge. The subtle change from minor to major occurs in the bass at the beginning of bar 103: 233px|thumb|Schubert Fantasia in F minor bars 98–106 thumb|center|500px|Schubert Fantasia in F minor bars 98–106 In the Romantic era, those of Chopin's nocturnes that are in a minor key almost always end with a Picardy third. A notable structural employment of this device occurs with the finale of the Tchaikovsky Fifth Symphony, where the motto theme makes its first appearance in the major mode. ==Interpretation== According to James Bennighof: "Replacing an expected final minor chord with a major chord in this way is a centuries-old technique—the raised third of the chord, in this case G rather than G natural, was first dubbed a 'Picardy third' (tierce de Picarde) in print by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1797 ... to express [the idea that] hopefulness might seem unremarkable, or even clichéd."James Bennighof, "The Words and Music of Joni Mitchell", Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2010. ==Notable examples== * The Christian hymn tune "Picardy", often sung with the text "Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silence", is based on a French carol from the 17th century or earlier. It is in a minor key, but the final chord is changed to major on the final verse. *(Unknown) – "Coventry Carol" (written not later than 1591). Modern harmonisations of this carol include the famously distinctive finishing major Picardy third in the melody,Coventry Carol at the Choral Public Domain Library. Accessed 2016-09-07. but the original 1591 harmonisation went much further with this device, including Picardy thirds at seven of the twelve tonic cadences notated, including all three such cadences in its chorus.Thomas Sharp, A Dissertation on the Pageants Or Dramatic Mysteries Anciently Performed at Coventry (Coventry: Merridew and Son, 1825), p. 116. *The Beatles – "I'll Be Back", from the soundtrack album of the film A Hard Day's Night. Ian MacDonald speaks of the way "Lennon is harmonised by McCartney in shifting major and minor thirds, resolving on a Picardy third at the end of the first and second verses".Ian MacDonald, Revolution in the Head: The Beatles Records and the Sixties (London: Pimlico, 2005): p. 119. *Beethoven – Hammerklavier, slow movementRobert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 39\. . First paperback reprint edition 2004. . *Brahms – Piano Trio No. 1, scherzoJohannes Brahms, Complete Piano Trios (: Dover Publications, 1926), . . *Sarah Connor – "From Sarah with Love", final cadenceWalter Everett, "Pitch Down the Middle", in Expression in Pop-Rock Music, second edition, edited by (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008): *Coots and Gillespie, "You Go to My Head". Ted Gioia describes the song as starting "in the major key, but from the second bar onward, Mr. Coots seems intent on creating a feverish dream quality tending more to the minor mode" before finally reaching a cadence in the major.Gioia, T. (2012). The Jazz Standards: A Guide to the Repertoire, p. 468\. Oxford University Press. *Dvořák – New World Symphony, finaleAntonín Dvořák, Symphonies Nos. 8 and 9 (Dover Publications, 1984), pp. 257–258. . *Bob Dylan – "Ain't Talkin', the final song on Modern Times (2006), is played in E minor but ends (and ends the album) with a ringing E major chord.See "Ain't Talkin'" in songs list at https://dylanchords.info. The guitar part is played in Em with a capo on the 4th fret, so the song sounds in the key of G minor. *Roberta Flack – "Killing Me Softly with His Song" ending and resolution. According to Flack: "My classical background made it possible for me to try a number of things with [the song's arrangement]. I changed parts of the chord structure and chose to end on a major chord. [The song] wasn't written that way."Toby Cresswell, 1001 Songs (Pahran, Austria: Hardie Grant Books, 2005), p. 388, . *Oliver Nelson – "Stolen Moments", from the 1961 album The Blues and the Abstract Truth; Ted Gioia sees "the brief resolve into the tonic major in bar four of the melody" as "a clever hook... one of the many interesting twists" in this jazz composition.Gioia, T. (2012, p.402), The Jazz Standards, Oxford University Press *Joni Mitchell – "Tin Angel", from Clouds (1969); the Picardy third lands on the lyric "I found someone to love today". According to Katherine Monk, the Picardy third in this song, "suggests Mitchell is internally aware of romantic love's inability to provide true happiness but, gosh darn it, it's a nice illusion all the same."Katherine Monk, Joni: The Creative Odyssey of Joni Mitchell (Vancouver: Greystone, 2012) p. 73. *Donna Summer – “I Feel Love” (1977) alternates throughout with an accompaniment of "synth swirls: major and minor; it’s basically a version of what Franz Schubert did for his whole career."Tom Service (2019) "Riffs, Loops and Ostinati", a programme in the series The Listening Service, BBC Radio 3, 27 January. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m00022nx Accessed 29 January 2019. *The Fireballs – "Vaquero", This (1961) Tex-Mex instrumental composed by George Tomsco and Norman Petty is clearly in the key of E minor, and yet ends with a ringing E Major chord." *Hall & Oates – "Maneater"; each verse has a Picardy third in the middle, moving from a major seventh in the second measure to a flat second in the third measure, and finally ending on a major first in the fourth measure. In the song's original key of B minor, this is an A major chord to a C major chord, ending on a B major chord. *The Turtles – "Happy Together" (1967) alternates between major and minor keys with the last chord of the outro featuring a Picardy third. ==See also== *List of major/minor compositions ==References== ==Further reading== *Latham, Alison (ed.). 2002. "Tierce de Picardie (Fr., ‘Picardy 3rd’)". The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. . * Ruff, Lillian M. 1972. "Josquin Des Pres: Some Features of His Motets". The Consort: Annual Journal of the Dolmetsch Foundation 28:106–18. * Rushton, Julian. 2001. "Tierce de Picardie [Picardy 3rd]". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. * Rutherford-Johnson, Tim, Michael Kennedy, and Joyce Bourne Kennedy (eds.). 2012. "Tierce de Picardie". The Oxford Dictionary of Music, sixth edition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. . Category:Cadences Category:Chords Category:Intervals (music) Category:Musical techniques
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This is a complete list of Members of Parliament elected to the Parliament of the United Kingdom at the 1950 general election, held on 23 February 1950. Notable newcomers to the House of Commons included Edward Heath, Horace King, Fred Mulley, Bernard Braine, Harry Hylton-Foster, Iain Macleod, Gerald Nabarro, Reginald Maudling, Robert Carr, Bill Deedes, Enoch Powell, David Ormsby-Gore, Christopher Soames, Anthony Crosland, and Jo Grimond. ==Composition== These representative diagrams show the composition of the parties in the 1950 general election. border|560x560px Note: This is not the official seating plan of the House of Commons, which has five rows of benches on each side, with the government party to the right of the Speaker and opposition parties to the left, but with room for only around two-thirds of MPs to sit at any one time. Affiliation Members Labour Party 315 Conservative Party* 246 Unionist 26 National Liberal* 16 UUP* 10 Liberal Party 9 Independent Nationalist 2 Independent Liberal 1 Total 625 Effective government majority 5 * The National Liberals, (Scottish) Unionists and Ulster Unionists were in alliance with the Conservatives, bringing total Conservative strength to 298 seats. == A == Constituency MP Party Aberavon William Cove Labour Aberdare David Thomas Labour Aberdeen North Hector Hughes Labour Aberdeen South Lady Tweedsmuir Conservative Aberdeenshire East Robert Boothby Conservative Aberdeenshire West Henry Spence Conservative Abertillery George Daggar Labour Abingdon Sir Ralph Glyn, Bt Conservative Accrington Henry Hynd Labour Acton Joseph Sparks Labour Aldershot Oliver Lyttelton Conservative Altrincham and Sale Frederick Erroll Conservative Anglesey Lady Megan Lloyd George Liberal Angus North and Mearns Colin Thornton-Kemsley Conservative & National Liberal Angus South James Duncan Conservative & National Liberal Antrim, North Hugh O'Neill Ulster Unionist Antrim, South Douglas Savory Ulster Unionist Argyll Duncan McCallum Conservative Armagh James Harden Ulster Unionist Arundel and Shoreham William Cuthbert Conservative Ashford Bill Deedes Conservative Ashton-under-Lyne Hervey Rhodes Labour Aylesbury Spencer Summers Conservative Ayr Thomas Moore Conservative Ayrshire, Central Archie Manuel Labour Ayrshire North and Bute Sir Charles MacAndrew Conservative Ayrshire South Emrys Hughes Labour == B == Banbury Douglas Dodds-Parker Conservative Banffshire William Duthie Conservative Barking Somerville Hastings Labour Barkston Ash Leonard Ropner Conservative Barnet Reginald Maudling Conservative Barnsley Frank Collindridge Labour Barrow-in-Furness Walter Monslow Labour Barry Dorothy Rees Labour Basingstoke Patrick Donner Conservative Bassetlaw Fred Bellenger Labour Bath James Pitman Conservative Batley and Morley Alfred Broughton Labour Battersea North Douglas Jay Labour Battersea South Caroline Ganley Co-op & Labour Bebington Hendrie Oakshott Conservative Beckenham Patrick Buchan-Hepburn Conservative Bedford Christopher Soames Conservative Bedfordshire Mid Alan Lennox-Boyd Conservative Bedfordshire South Edward Moeran Labour Bedwellty Harold Finch Labour Belfast, East Alan McKibbin Ulster Unionist Belfast, North H. Montgomery Hyde Ulster Unionist Belfast, South Conolly Gage Ulster Unionist Belfast, West Rev J.G. MacManaway × Ulster Unionist Belper George Brown Labour Bermondsey Bob Mellish Labour Berwick and East Lothian John Robertson Labour Berwick-upon-Tweed Robert Thorp Conservative Bethnal Green Percy Holman Co-op & Labour Beverley George Odey Conservative Bexley Edward Heath Conservative Billericay Bernard Braine Conservative Bilston Will Nally Co-op & Labour Birkenhead Percy Collick Labour Birmingham Aston Woodrow Wyatt Labour Birmingham Edgbaston Sir Peter Bennett Conservative Birmingham Erdington Julius Silverman Labour Birmingham Hall Green Aubrey Jones Conservative Birmingham Handsworth Harold Roberts Conservative Birmingham King's Norton Geoffrey Lloyd Conservative Birmingham Ladywood Victor Yates Labour Birmingham Northfield Raymond Blackburn Labour Birmingham Perry Barr Cecil Poole Labour Birmingham Small Heath Fred Longden Co-op & Labour Birmingham Sparkbrook Percy Shurmer Labour Birmingham Stechford Roy Jenkins Labour Birmingham Yardley Henry Usborne Labour Bishop Auckland Hugh Dalton Labour Blackburn East Barbara Castle Labour Blackburn West Ralph Assheton Conservative Blackpool North Toby Low Conservative Blackpool South Roland Robinson Conservative Blaydon William Whiteley Labour Blyth Alfred Robens Labour Bodmin Douglas Marshall Conservative Bolsover Harold Neal Labour Bolton East Alfred Booth Labour Bolton West John Lewis Labour Bootle John Kinley Labour Bosworth Arthur Allen Labour Bothwell John Timmons Labour Bournemouth East and Christchurch Brendan Bracken Conservative Bournemouth West Viscount Cranborne Conservative Bradford Central Maurice Webb Labour Bradford East Frank McLeavy Labour Bradford North William Taylor Conservative & Nat. Liberal Bradford South George Craddock Labour Brecon and Radnor Tudor Watkins Labour Brentford and Chiswick Laddie Lucas Conservative Bridgwater Gerard Wills Conservative Bridlington Richard Wood Conservative Brierley Hill Charles Simmons Labour Brigg Lance Mallalieu Labour Brighouse and Spenborough Frederick Cobb Labour Brighton Kemptown Howard Johnson Conservative Brighton Pavilion William Teeling Conservative Bristol Central Stan Awbery Labour Bristol North East Will Coldrick Co-op & Labour Bristol North West Gurney Braithwaite Conservative Bristol South William A. Wilkins Labour Bristol South East Sir Stafford Cripps Labour Bristol West Oliver Stanley Conservative Brixton Marcus Lipton Labour Bromley Harold Macmillan Conservative Bromsgrove Michael Higgs Conservative Broxtowe Seymour Cocks Labour Buckingham Aidan Crawley Labour Buckinghamshire South Ronald Bell Conservative Burnley Wilfrid Burke Labour Burton Arthur Colegate Conservative Bury and Radcliffe Walter Fletcher Conservative Bury St Edmunds William Aitken Conservative == C == Caernarvon Goronwy Roberts Labour Caerphilly Ness Edwards Labour Caithness and Sutherland Sir David Robertson Conservative Cambridge Hamilton Kerr Conservative Cambridgeshire Gerald Howard Conservative Cannock Jennie Lee Labour Canterbury John Baker White Conservative Cardiff, North David Llewellyn Conservative Cardiff South East James Callaghan Labour Cardiff West George Thomas Labour Carlton Kenneth Pickthorn Conservative Cardigan Roderic Bowen Liberal Carlisle Alfred Hargreaves Labour Carmarthen Rhys Hopkin Morris Liberal Carshalton Anthony Head Conservative Cheadle William Shepherd Conservative Chelmsford Hubert Ashton Conservative Chelsea Allan Noble Conservative Cheltenham W. W. Hicks Beach Conservative Chertsey Lionel Heald Conservative Chesterfield George Benson Labour Chester-le-Street Patrick Bartley Labour Chichester Lancelot Joynson-Hicks Conservative Chippenham David Eccles Conservative Chislehurst Patricia Hornsby-Smith Conservative Chorley Clifford Kenyon Labour Cirencester and Tewkesbury William Morrison Conservative City of Chester Basil Nield Conservative Cities of London and Westminster Sir Harold Webbe Conservative Clapham Charles Gibson Labour Cleveland Octavius Willey Labour Clitheroe Richard Fort Conservative Coatbridge and Airdrie Jean Mann Labour Colchester Cuthbert Alport Conservative Colne Valley Glenvil Hall Labour Consett James Glanville Labour Conway Elwyn Jones Labour Cornwall North Sir Harold Roper Conservative Coventry East Richard Crossman Labour Coventry North Maurice Edelman Labour Coventry South Elaine Burton Labour Crewe Scholefield Allen Labour Crosby Malcolm Bullock Conservative Croydon East Herbert Williams Conservative Croydon, North Fred Harris Conservative Croydon West Richard Thompson Conservative == D == Dagenham John Parker Labour Darlington David Hardman Labour Dartford Norman Dodds Co-op & Labour Darwen Stanley Prescott Conservative Dearne Valley Wilfred Paling Labour Denbigh Garner Evans National Liberal Deptford John Cooper Labour Derby North Clifford Wilcock Labour Derby South Philip Noel-Baker Labour Derbyshire North East Henry White Labour Derbyshire South East Arthur Champion Labour Derbyshire West Edward Wakefield Conservative Devizes Christopher Hollis Conservative Devon North Christopher Peto Conservative Dewsbury Will Paling Labour Doncaster Ray Gunter Labour Don Valley Tom Williams Labour Dorking Gordon Touche Conservative Dorset North Robert Crouch Conservative Dorset, South Victor Montagu Conservative Dorset West Simon Wingfield Digby Conservative Dover John Arbuthnot Conservative Down, North Sir W. D. Smiles Ulster Unionist Down, South Lawrence Orr Ulster Unionist Droylesden Rev. George Woods Labour Dudley George Wigg Labour Dulwich Wilfrid Vernon Labour Dumfries Niall Macpherson National Liberal & Conservative Dunbartonshire East David Kirkwood Labour Dunbartonshire West Adam McKinlay Labour Dundee East Thomas Cook Labour Dundee West John Strachey Labour Dunfermline Burghs James Clunie Labour Durham Charles Grey Labour Durham North West James Murray Labour == E == Ealing North James Hudson Co-op & Labour Ealing South Angus Maude Conservative Easington Manny Shinwell Labour East Ham North Percy Daines Co-op & Labour East Ham South Alfred Barnes Co-op & Labour Eastbourne Charles Taylor Conservative East Grinstead Ralph Clarke Conservative Ebbw Vale Aneurin Bevan Labour Eccles William Proctor Labour Edinburgh Central Andrew Gilzean Labour Edinburgh East John Wheatley Labour Edinburgh Leith James Hoy Labour Edinburgh North James Latham Clyde Conservative Edinburgh Pentlands John Hope Conservative Edinburgh South Sir William Darling Conservative Edinburgh West Ian Clark Hutchison Conservative Edmonton Austen Albu Labour Enfield East Ernest Davies Labour Enfield West Iain Macleod Conservative Epping Nigel Davies Conservative Epsom Malcolm McCorquodale Conservative Esher William Robson Brown Conservative Eton and Slough Fenner Brockway Labour Exeter J. C. Maude Conservative Eye Edgar Granville Liberal == F == Falmouth and Camborne Harold Hayman Labour Farnham Godfrey Nicholson Conservative Farnworth George Tomlinson Labour Faversham Percy Wells Labour Fermanagh and South Tyrone Cahir Healy Irish Nationalist Fife East James Henderson-Stewart National Liberal & Conservative Fife West Willie Hamilton Labour Finchley John Crowder Conservative Flint East Eirene White Labour Flint West Nigel Birch Conservative Folkestone and Hythe Harry Mackeson Conservative Fulham East Michael Stewart Labour Fulham West Edith Summerskill Labour Fylde North Richard Stanley Conservative Fylde South Claude Lancaster Conservative == G == Gainsborough Harry Crookshank Conservative Galloway John Mackie Conservative Gateshead East Arthur Moody Labour Gateshead West John Hall Labour Gillingham Frederick Burden Conservative Glasgow Bridgeton James Carmichael Labour Glasgow Camlachie William Reid Labour Glasgow Cathcart John Henderson Conservative Glasgow Central James McInnes Labour Glasgow Gorbals Alice Cullen Labour Glasgow Govan Jack Browne Conservative Glasgow Hillhead Tam Galbraith Conservative Glasgow Kelvingrove Walter Elliot Conservative Glasgow Maryhill William Hannan Labour Glasgow Pollok Thomas Galbraith Conservative Glasgow Scotstoun Sir Arthur Young, Bt Conservative Glasgow Shettleston John McGovern Labour Glasgow Springburn John Forman Co-op & Labour Glasgow Tradeston John Rankin Co-op & Labour Glasgow Woodside William Gordon Bennett Conservative Gloucester Moss Turner-Samuels Labour Gloucestershire South Anthony Crosland Labour Gloucestershire West M. Philips Price Labour Goole George Jeger Labour Gosport and Fareham Reginald Bennett Conservative Gower David Grenfell Labour Grantham Eric Smith Conservative Gravesend Sir Richard Acland, Bt Labour Greenock Hector McNeil Labour Greenwich Joseph Reeves Labour Grimsby Kenneth Younger Labour Guildford George Nugent Conservative == H == Hackney North and Stoke Newington David Weitzman Labour Hackney South Herbert Butler Labour Halifax Dryden Brook Labour Haltemprice Richard Law Conservative Hamilton Tom Fraser Labour Hammersmith North Frank Tomney Labour Hammersmith South Thomas Williams Co-op & Labour Hampstead Henry Brooke Conservative Harborough John Baldock Conservative Harrogate Christopher York Conservative Harrow Central Patrick Bishop Conservative Harrow East Ian Harvey Conservative Harrow West Norman Bower Conservative The Hartlepools D. T. Jones Labour Harwich Sir Stanley Holmes National Liberal Hastings Neill Cooper-Key Conservative Hayes and Harlington Walter Ayles Labour Hemel Hempstead Frances Davidson Conservative Hemsworth Horace Holmes Labour Hendon North Ian Orr-Ewing Conservative Hendon South Sir Hugh Lucas-Tooth, Bt Conservative Henley John Hay Conservative Hereford James Thomas Conservative Hertford Derek Walker-Smith Conservative Hertfordshire South West Gilbert Longden Conservative Heston and Isleworth Reader Harris Conservative Hexham Douglas Clifton Brown Conservative (Speaker) Heywood and Royton Harold Sutcliffe Conservative High Peak Hugh Molson Conservative Hitchin Nigel Fisher Conservative Holborn and St Pancras South Santo Jeger Labour Holland-with-Boston Herbert Butcher National Liberal & Conservative Honiton Cedric Drewe Conservative Horncastle John Maitland Conservative Hornchurch Geoffrey Bing Labour Hornsey David Gammans Conservative Horsham The Earl Winterton Conservative Houghton-le-Spring Billy Blyton Labour Hove Anthony Marlowe Conservative Huddersfield East Joseph Mallalieu Labour Huddersfield West Donald Wade Liberal Huntingdonshire David Renton National Liberal & Conservative Huyton Harold Wilson Labour == I == Ilford North Geoffrey Hutchinson Conservative Ilford South Albert Cooper Conservative Ilkeston George Oliver Labour Ince Tom Brown Labour Inverness Lord Malcolm Douglas-Hamilton Conservative Ipswich Richard Stokes Labour Isle of Ely Harry Legge-Bourke Conservative Isle of Thanet Edward Carson Conservative Isle of Wight Sir Peter Macdonald Conservative Islington East Eric Fletcher Labour Islington North Moelwyn Hughes Labour Islington South West Albert Evans Labour · == J == Jarrow Ernest Fernyhough Labour == K == Keighley Charles Hobson Labour Kensington North George Rogers Labour Kensington South Sir Patrick Spens Conservative Kettering Gilbert Mitchison Labour Kidderminster Gerald Nabarro Conservative Kilmarnock Willie Ross Labour King's Lynn Frederick Wise Labour Kingston upon Hull Central Mark Hewitson Labour Kingston upon Hull East Harry Pursey Labour Kingston upon Hull North Austen Hudson Conservative Kingston-upon-Thames John Boyd-Carpenter Conservative Kinross and West Perthshire William McNair Snadden Conservative Kirkcaldy Burghs Thomas Hubbard Labour Knutsford Walter Bromley-Davenport Conservative == L == Lanark Alec Douglas-Home Conservative Lanarkshire North Margaret Herbison Labour Lancaster Fitzroy Maclean Conservative Leeds Central George Porter Labour Leeds North East Alice Bacon Labour Leeds North Osbert Peake Conservative Leeds North West Donald Kaberry Conservative Leeds South Hugh Gaitskell Labour Leeds South East James Milner Labour Leeds West Charles Pannell Labour Leek Harold Davies Labour Leicester North East Terence Donovan Labour Leicester North West Barney Janner Labour Leicester South East Charles Waterhouse Conservative Leicester South West Bert Bowden Labour Leigh Harold Boardman Labour Leominster Archer Baldwin Conservative Lewes Tufton Beamish Conservative Lewisham North Sir Austin Hudson, Bt Conservative Lewisham South Herbert Morrison Labour Lewisham West Henry Price Conservative Leyton Reginald Sorensen Labour Lichfield and Tamworth Julian Snow Labour Lincoln Geoffrey de Freitas Labour Liverpool Edge Hill Arthur Irvine Labour Liverpool Exchange Bessie Braddock Labour Liverpool Garston Victor Raikes Conservative Liverpool Kirkdale William Keenan Labour Liverpool Scotland David Logan Labour Liverpool Toxteth Reginald Bevins Conservative Liverpool Walton Kenneth Thompson Conservative Liverpool Wavertree John Tilney Conservative Liverpool West Derby Sir David Maxwell Fyfe Conservative Llanelly Jim Griffiths Labour Londonderry Sir Ronald Ross, Bt Ulster Unionist Loughborough Mont Follick Labour Louth Cyril Osborne Conservative Lowestoft Edward Evans Labour Ludlow Uvedale Corbett Conservative Luton Charles Hill Conservative & National Liberal == M == Macclesfield Arthur Vere Harvey Conservative Maidstone Alfred Bossom Conservative Maldon Tom Driberg Labour Manchester Ardwick Leslie Lever Labour Manchester Blackley Jack Diamond Labour Manchester Cheetham Harold Lever Labour Manchester Clayton Harry Thorneycroft Labour Manchester Exchange Will Griffiths Labour Manchester Gorton William Oldfield Labour Manchester Moss Side Florence Horsbrugh Conservative Manchester Withington Frederick Cundiff Conservative Manchester Wythenshawe Eveline Hill Conservative Mansfield Bernard Taylor Labour Melton Anthony Nutting Conservative Merioneth Emrys Roberts Liberal Merthyr Tydfil S. O. Davies Labour Merton and Morden Robert Ryder Conservative Middlesbrough East Hilary Marquand Labour Middlesbrough West Geoffrey Cooper Labour Middleton and Prestwich Ernest Gates Conservative Midlothian and Peebles David Pryde Labour Mitcham Robert Carr Conservative Monmouth Peter Thorneycroft Conservative Montgomeryshire Clement Davies Liberal Moray and Nairn James Stuart Conservative Morecambe and Lonsdale Sir Ian Fraser Conservative Morpeth Robert Taylor Labour Motherwell Alexander Anderson Labour == N == Neath D. J. Williams Labour Nelson and Colne Sydney Silverman Labour Newark George Deer Labour Newbury Anthony Hurd Conservative Newcastle-under-Lyme John Mack Labour Newcastle upon Tyne Central Lyall Wilkes Labour Newcastle upon Tyne East Arthur Blenkinsop Labour Newcastle upon Tyne North Sir Cuthbert Headlam, Bt Conservative Newcastle upon Tyne West Ernest Popplewell Labour New Forest Oliver Crosthwaite-Eyre Conservative Newport Peter Freeman Labour Newton Frederick Lee Labour Norfolk Central Frank Medlicott National Liberal & Conservative Norfolk North Edwin Gooch Labour Norfolk South Peter Baker Conservative Norfolk, South West Sidney Dye Labour Normanton Thomas Brooks Labour Northampton Reginald Paget Labour Northamptonshire South Reginald Manningham-Buller Conservative Northwich John Foster Conservative Norwich, North John Paton Labour Norwich, South Henry Strauss Conservative Norwood John Smyth Conservative Nottingham Central Ian Winterbottom Labour Nottingham East James Harrison Labour Nottingham North West Tom O'Brien Labour Nottingham South Norman Smith Co-op & Labour Nuneaton Frank Bowles Labour == O == Ogmore Walter Padley Labour Oldbury and Halesowen Arthur Moyle Labour Oldham East Frank Fairhurst Labour Oldham West Leslie Hale Labour Orkney and Zetland Jo Grimond Liberal Ormskirk Sir Ronald Cross, Bt Conservative Orpington Sir Waldron Smithers Conservative Oswestry David Ormsby-Gore Conservative Oxford Quintin Hogg Conservative == P == Paddington North William J. Field Labour Paddington South Somerset de Chair Conservative Paisley Douglas Johnston Labour Peckham Freda Corbet Labour Pembrokeshire Desmond Donnelly Labour Penistone Henry McGhee Labour Penrith and the Border Robert Scott Conservative Perth and East Perthshire Alan Gomme-Duncan Conservative Peterborough Harmar Nicholls Conservative Petersfield George Jeffreys Conservative Plymouth Devonport Michael Foot Labour Plymouth Sutton Lucy Middleton Labour Pontefract George Sylvester Labour Pontypool Granville West Labour Pontypridd Arthur Pearson Labour Poole Mervyn Wheatley Conservative Poplar Charles Key Labour Portsmouth Langstone Geoffrey Stevens Conservative Portsmouth South Sir Jocelyn Lucas, Bt Conservative Portsmouth West Terence Clarke Conservative Preston North Julian Amery Conservative Preston South Edward Shackleton Labour Pudsey Cyril Banks Conservative Putney Hugh Linstead Conservative == R == Reading, North Ronald Mackay Labour Reading, South Ian Mikardo Labour Reigate John Vaughan-Morgan Conservative Renfrewshire, East Guy Lloyd Conservative Renfrewshire, West John Maclay National Liberal & Conservative Rhondda East William Mainwaring Labour Rhondda West Iorwerth Thomas Labour Richmond (Yorks) Sir Thomas Dugdale, Bt Conservative Richmond upon Thames Sir George Harvie-Watt Conservative Ripon Malcolm Stoddart-Scott Conservative Rochdale Joseph Hale Labour Rochester and Chatham Arthur Bottomley Labour Romford John Lockwood Conservative Ross and Cromarty John MacLeod Liberal & Conservative Rossendale Tony Greenwood Labour Rotherham Jack Jones Labour Rother Valley David Griffiths Labour Rowley Regis and Tipton Arthur Henderson Labour Roxburgh and Selkirk Archie Macdonald Liberal Rugby James Johnson Labour Ruislip-Northwood Petre Crowder Conservative Runcorn Dennis Vosper Conservative Rushcliffe Martin Redmayne Conservative Rutherglen Gilbert McAllister Labour Rutland and Stamford Roger Conant Conservative == S == Saffron Walden Rab Butler Conservative St Albans John Grimston Conservative St Helens Hartley Shawcross Labour St Ives Greville Howard Conservative & Nat. Liberal St Marylebone Sir Wavell Wakefield Conservative St Pancras North Kenneth Robinson Labour Salford East Edward Hardy Labour Salford West Charles Royle Labour Salisbury John Morrison Conservative Scarborough and Whitby Alexander Spearman Conservative Sedgefield Joseph Slater Labour Sevenoaks John Rodgers Conservative Sheffield, Attercliffe John Hynd Labour Sheffield, Brightside Richard Winterbottom Labour Sheffield, Hallam Roland Jennings Conservative & Liberal Sheffield, Heeley Peter Roberts Conservative & Liberal Sheffield, Hillsborough George Darling Co-op & Labour Sheffield, Neepsend Harry Morris Labour Sheffield, Park Fred Mulley Labour Shipley Geoffrey Hirst Conservative Shoreditch and Finsbury Ernest Thurtle Labour Shrewsbury John Langford-Holt Conservative Skipton Burnaby Drayson Conservative Smethwick Patrick Gordon Walker Labour Solihull Martin Lindsay Conservative Somerset North Ted Leather Conservative Southall George Pargiter Labour Southampton, Itchen Ralph Morley Labour Southampton, Test Horace King Labour Southend East Stephen McAdden Conservative Southend West Henry Channon Conservative Southgate Beverley Baxter Conservative Southport Robert Hudson Conservative South Shields James Chuter Ede Labour Southwark George Isaacs Labour Sowerby Douglas Houghton Labour Spelthorne Beresford Craddock Conservative Stafford and Stone Hugh Fraser Conservative Stalybridge and Hyde Rev. Gordon Lang Labour Stepney Walter Edwards Labour Stirling and Falkirk Malcolm MacPherson Labour Stirlingshire East and Clackmannan Arthur Woodburn Labour Stirlingshire West Alfred Balfour Labour Stockport North Norman Hulbert Conservative Stockport South Sir Arnold Gridley Conservative Stockton-on-Tees George Chetwynd Labour Stoke-on-Trent Central Barnett Stross Labour Stoke-on-Trent North Albert Davies Labour Stoke-on-Trent South Ellis Smith Labour Stratford-on-Avon John Profumo Conservative Streatham Duncan Sandys Conservative Stretford Samuel Storey Conservative Stroud and Thornbury Walter Perkins Conservative Sudbury and Woodbridge John Hare Conservative Sunderland North Fred Willey Labour Sunderland South Richard Ewart Labour Surrey East Michael Astor Conservative Sutton and Cheam Sydney Marshall Conservative Sutton Coldfield Sir John Mellor, Bt Conservative Swansea East David Mort Labour Swansea, West Percy Morris Labour Swindon Thomas Reid Labour == T == Taunton Henry Hopkinson Conservative Tavistock Henry Studholme Conservative Thirsk and Malton Robin Turton Conservative Thurrock Hugh Delargy Labour Tiverton Derick Heathcoat-Amory Conservative Tonbridge Gerald Williams Conservative Torquay Charles Williams Conservative Torrington George Lambert National Liberal & Conservative Totnes Ralph Rayner Conservative Tottenham Frederick Messer Co-op & Labour Truro Geoffrey Wilson Conservative Twickenham Edward Keeling Conservative Tynemouth Irene Ward Conservative == U == Ulster Mid Anthony Mulvey Irish Nationalist Uxbridge Frank Beswick Co-op & Labour == V == Vauxhall George Strauss Labour == W == Wakefield Arthur Greenwood Labour Wallasey Ernest Marples Conservative Wallsend John McKay Labour Walsall William Wells Labour Walthamstow East Harry Wallace Labour Walthamstow West Clement Attlee Labour Wandsworth Central Richard Adams Labour Warwick and Leamington Anthony Eden Conservative Warrington Hyacinth Morgan Labour Watford John Freeman Labour Wednesbury Stanley Evans Labour Wellingborough George Lindgren Labour Wells Dennis Boles Conservative Wembley North Sir Eric Bullus Conservative Wembley South Ronald Russell Conservative West Bromwich John Dugdale Labour Westbury Robert Grimston Conservative Western Isles Malcolm Macmillan Labour West Ham North Arthur Lewis Labour West Ham South Elwyn Jones Labour Westhoughton Rhys Davies Labour West Lothian George Mathers Labour Westmorland William Fletcher-Vane Conservative Weston-super-Mare Ian Orr-Ewing Conservative Whitehaven Frank Anderson Labour Widnes James MacColl Labour Wigan Ronald Williams Labour Willesden East Maurice Orbach Labour Willesden West Samuel Viant Labour Wimbledon Cyril Black Conservative Winchester Peter Smithers Conservative Windsor Charles Mott-Radclyffe Conservative Wirral Selwyn Lloyd Conservative Woking Harold Watkinson Conservative Wokingham Peter Remnant Conservative Wolverhampton North East John Baird Labour Wolverhampton South West Enoch Powell Conservative Woodford Winston Churchill Conservative Wood Green William Irving Co-op & Labour Woolwich East Ernest Bevin Labour Woolwich West William Steward Conservative Worcester George Ward Conservative Worcestershire South Rupert de la Bere Conservative Workington Fred Peart Labour Worthing Otho Prior-Palmer Conservative The Wrekin Ivor Owen Thomas Labour Wrexham Robert Richards Labour Wycombe John Haire Labour == Y == Yarmouth Ernest Kinghorn Labour Yeovil William Kingsmill Conservative York Harry Hylton-Foster Conservative × MacManaway was disqualified for being a Church of Ireland priest. A by-election was held in November 1950. ł Polling in Moss Side took place on 9 March after the Conservative candidate, Sqn. Ldr. Fleming, died before polling day. Florence Horsbrugh had previously stood in the main election in Midlothian and Peebles. == By-elections == See the list of United Kingdom by-elections. ==See also== * List of parliaments of the United Kingdom * UK general election, 1950 * :Category:UK MPs 1950–1951 ==References== * The Times House of Commons 1950 (1950) 1950 Category:1950 United Kingdom general election List UK MPs
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Giambattista Bodoni (, ; 16 February 1740 Baptismal register, Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta and San Chiaffredo, Saluzzo, and also on the plaque on Bodoni's birthplace in Saluzzo. – 30 November 1813) was an Italian typographer, type-designer, compositor, printer, and publisher in Parma. He first took the type-designs of Pierre Simon Fournier as his exemplars, but afterwards became an admirer of the more modelled types of John Baskerville; and he and Firmin Didot evolved a style of type called "Modern", in which the letters are cut in such a way as to produce a strong contrast between the thick and thin parts of their body. Bodoni designed many typefaces, each one in a large range of type sizes. He is even more admired as a compositor than as a type designer, as the large range of sizes which he cut enabled him to compose his pages with the greatest possible subtlety of spacing. Like Baskerville, he sets off his texts with wide margins and uses little or no illustrations or decorations. Bodoni achieved an unprecedented level of technical refinement, allowing him to faithfully reproduce letterforms with very thin "hairlines", standing in sharp contrast to the thicker lines constituting the main stems of the characters. He became known for his designs of pseudoclassical typefaces and highly styled editions, some considered more apt "to be admired for typeface and layout, not to be studied or read".Bodoni, Giambattista. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition [serial online]. January 2009:1-1. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed August 7, 2009. His printing reflected an aesthetic of plain, unadorned style, combined with purity of materials. This style attracted many admirers and imitators, surpassing the popularity of French typographers such as Philippe Grandjean and Pierre Simon Fournier. Bodoni has also had his share of detractors, including William Morris, who felt that his almost mechanical perfection seemed cold and inhumane. There have been several modern revivals of his typefaces, all called Bodoni. They are often used as display faces. ==Biography== ===Childhood in Saluzzo (1740–1758)=== Bodoni's birthplace is set in the foothills of the Cottian Alps, in what was then Kingdom of Sardinia, and is now Piedmont. He was the seventh child and fourth son of Francesco Agostino Bodoni and Paola Margherita Giolitti. His father and grandfather were both printers in Saluzzo, and as a child his toys were his grandfather's leftover punches and matrices.Giambattista Bodoni, "Notizie intorno a vari incisori di caratteri e sopra alcune getterie d'Italia." MS.ital.222, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. He learned the printing trade working at his father's side, and his gift for wood-engraving and printing was evident very early. So was his ambition and liveliness.Zefirino Campanini,“Memorie diverse e intervista di 28 domande e risposte su bodoni e la sua stamperia.” Catalogo del Museo Bodoniano di Parma. Parma: Artegrafica Silva, 1968, p. 123. At the age of 17 he decided to travel to Rome with the intention of securing fame and fortune as a printer. He left Saluzzo on 8 February 1758.V. Passerini, Memorie aneddote per servire un giorno alla vita del Signor Giovanbattista Bodoni tipografo di sua Maestà Cattolica e Direttore del Parmense Tipografeo. Parma: Stamperia Carmignani, 1804, p. 9. ===Training in Rome (1758–1766)=== In Rome, Bodoni found work as an assistant compositor (typesetter) at the press of the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples), the missionary arm of the Vatican. He flourished under the careful supervision of Cardinal Giuseppe Spinelli, the prefect of the Propaganda Fide, and Costantino Ruggieri, the superintendent of the press.Giuseppe de Lama, Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni…, Parma, Stamperia Ducale, 1816. One of his first tasks was sorting and cleaning punches in a wide variety of Middle Eastern and Asian languages. Bodoni quickly demonstrated his gift for exotic languages and, as a thumb|Pontificale copto-arabo with Bodoni acknowledgement.result, he was sent to study Hebrew and Arabic at “La Sapienza,” (Sapienza University of Rome). Bodoni soon became the press's compositor of foreign languages, and began to typeset books. Spinelli and Ruggieri were so delighted with his work on the "Pontificale Arabo-Copto" that they allowed him to add his name and birthplace to subsequent printings. He then began cutting his own punches. After eight years at the Propaganda Fide press, Bodoni's remarkable skill was renowned, but he was ripe for change. Saddened by the death of Spinelli and Ruggieri's tragic suicide, and encouraged by British friends, he left Rome for England, a country which, under the influence of Baskerville whose books were much admired on the Continent, had become a leader in printing innovation. Bodoni's plan was summarily scotched by sickness; on his journey north, he succumbed to Tertian feverde Lama, p. 9. (malaria), and returned home to Saluzzo to recuperate. ===Life and work in Parma (1768–1813)=== After convalescing in Saluzzo, Bodoni started working with his father again. Meanwhile, in Parma, the young duke, Don Ferdinando di Borbone (Duke Ferdinand of Parma), and the prime minister, Guillaume du Tillot, were making plans to start a royal press. They wanted someone hardworking and talented to set it up and run it. Father Paolo Maria Paciaudi, the librarian at Parma, who had known Bodoni in Rome, put the young man's name forward. In February 1768, with the permission of Duke Vittorio Amedo III of Savoy, Bodoni left Saluzzo for the court of Parma. He started work right away. The challenge was tremendous; he needed help, so wrote to two of his brothers to come from Saluzzo to assist him. One of them, Giuseppe, remained by his side at the press in Parma for over 30 years. In tandem with Du Tillot, Bodoni acquired everything necessary for a printing business of the highest order: presses, paper, ink, tools, and he ordered type from Fournier in France.Lester, p. 63. He used Fournier's letters for early work published in Parma, gradually replacing it with his own imitations of Fournier, and eventually developing his own style. His first major publication at the royal press was the extravagant volume in celebration of the wedding of the duke of Parma to Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria, "Descrizione delle Feste Celebrate in Parma per le Auguste Nozze . . ."As an example of its kind, it remains unsurpassed in its beauty and printing technique, and it showed the rest of Europe that the young Italian was a printer to be reckoned with. Several major presentation volumes would follow, along with the various publications required by the court: announcements, invitations, posters, and many sonnets written by those who wished their work to be printed by the great Bodoni. He also began a series of specimen volumes, the first of which, "Fregi e majuscule" (1771) was in direct imitation of Fournier. His Manuale tipografico of 1788 paved the way for his masterwork, the "Manuale tipografico" of 1818, published posthumously by his widow. Other cities tried to woo Bodoni away from Parma. Other patrons wished to oust the duke. The most formidable of these was José Nicolás de Azara, the Spanish ambassador to Rome. He felt Bodoni was wasting himself on unimportant work for the duke when he should instead be printing gorgeous editions of the classics. Bodoni was tempted by the offer to move to Rome, but in 1791, when the duke realized the seriousness of the threat, he offered Bodoni his own private press where he could print whatever he wished for whomever he wished. Bodoni had no desire to leave comfortable Parma, where he had just married (at the age of 51) Margherita Dall’Aglio, a local woman 18 years his junior. He remained in Parma for the rest of his life, running both ducal and private presses, and printing editions of the classics for Azara and other patrons. In the years following 1791, Bodoni produced much of his greatest work, including the great classics of Horace, Virgil, Anacreon, Tasso, and Homer, among others. Napoleon was so delighted with the gift of Bodoni's "Iliad" that he made him a Chevalier of the Order of the Reunion and gave him a pension for life. The duke of Parma died suddenly and mysteriously in 1802, the duchess fled to Prague, and the French swooped in to fill the vacuum. Bodoni, who lived to work, was apolitical and had no trouble in allying himself with the new régime. His fame became comparable to that of today's rock star. Visitors flocked to his print works on the banks of the river Parma, wanting a glimpse of him working in his studio. Benjamin Franklin, a printer himself, wrote a fan letter. In 1805, even the emperor Napoleon and empress Josephine visited the city and asked to see him; alas, that very day Bodoni was confined to bed with a disastrous attack of gout, a disease that was to plague him until the end of his life. On his trip to Paris to crown Napoleon emperor, Pope Pius VII had been impressed by a copy of Jean-Joseph Marcel's "Oratio Dominica," which contained the Lord's Prayer in 150 languages. Visiting Bodoni on his way back to Rome, he challenged him to surpass the Frenchman's achievement. Bodoni took up the challenge, and in 1806 he was able to present the Pope with an "Oratio Dominica" in 155 languages. Before his death on 30 November 1813, Bodoni had started work on a series of French classics for his new patron, Joachim Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law. The "Théatre Complet de Jean Racine" was on the press on the day of his death. His favorite title page was the one for "Boileau Despréaux."thumb|Title page. Boileau Despréaux. He had to cut the type expressly for the title to fit on one line. It would be up to Bodoni's widow to complete the series. Margherita Dall’Aglio Bodoni picked up where her husband left off, completed the French classics, and then five years after Bodoni died, published the Manuale typografico of 1818, the specimen book to end all specimen books. Published in two volumes, it was over 600 pages long and contained 265 pages of roman characters, “imperceptibly declining in size, romans, italics, and script types, and the series of 125 capital letters; 181 pages of Greek and Oriental characters; 1036 decorations and 31 borders; followed in the last 20 pages by symbols, ciphers, numerals, and musical examples.thumb|Quosque tandem . . . The largest Bodoni font of all (in honor of Saluzzo).”Corrado Mingardi, Bodoni. Parma: Gazzetta di Parma, 2008, p. 96. ==Since 1813== ===Bodoni Museum=== The Museo Bodoniano was opened in Parma, Italy in 1963. The entrance is shared with the Biblioteca Palatina, both housed within the museum and theater complex of the Palazzo della Pilotta.Museo Bodoniano official site. ==Notable editions== * Descrizione delle Feste Celebrate in Parma per le Auguste Nozze… (1769?) * Epithalamia Exoticis Linguis Reddita (1775) * Santorini's Anatomici summi septemdecim tabulae… (1775) * Aminta (1780) * The Works of Homer (1791) * Virgil's Aeneid (1793) * The Divine Comedy (1795) * Didymi Taurinensis de Pronuntiatione Divini Nominis (1799) Horne called this volume "A most elegant edition, particularly on account of the diversity of characters..."Thomas Hartwell Horne, An Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, v2 cvii, London, T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1814. * Oratio Dominica (1806) * Homer's Iliad (1808) This work has been singled out for praise for the fidelity of the Greek letters to the form of those in Greek manuscripts. * Cimelio… (1811) * Oeuvres Poétiques de Boileau (1811) * Manuale tipografico (1818, posthumous) ==Further reading== * Janssen, Frans A. (2022) "Perfection: On the Bodoni Edition of Télémaque (1812)". The Book Collector 71 no.4 (Winter 2022): 627-641. * Valerie Lester, Giambattista Bodoni: His Life and His World (2015) * T. M. Cleland, (1916) * G. de Lama, Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni ... Ristampa ... cura di Leonardo Farinelli e Corrado Mingardi (1816; 1989) * De Azara - Bodoni [correspondence] ed. A. Ciavarella (1979) * M. E. Cosenza, Biographical and bibliographical dictionary of the Italian printers ... to 1800 (1968) * G. Giani, Catalogo delle autentiche edizioni bodoniane (1948) * H. C. Brooks, Compendiosa bibliografia di edizioni bodoniane (1927) * R. Bertieri, L'Arte di Giambattista Bodoni (1913) ==See also== *Bodoni, a series of typefaces *Amoretti Brothers ==References== ==External links== * *Manuale Tipografico (1818), at Rare Book Room *Museo Bodoni museum in Parma, Italy *Biblioteca Bodoni * Bodoni (1740-1813). Principe dei tipografi nell’Europa dei Lumi e di Napoleone. (exhibition in Parma for the bicentenary) *The Bodoni Collection at Uppsala University Library Category:1740 births Category:1813 deaths Category:Businesspeople from Parma Category:Italian typographers and type designers Category:Italian engravers Category:Articles needing translation from Italian Wikipedia Category:18th-century Italian businesspeople Category:19th-century Italian businesspeople Category:18th- century Italian artists Category:Artists from Parma
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Boone County is located in the U.S. state of Missouri. Centrally located in Mid-Missouri, its county seat is Columbia, Missouri's fourth-largest city and location of the University of Missouri. As of the 2020 census, the population was 183,610, making it the state's eighth-most populous county. The county was organized November 16, 1820 and named for the then recently deceased Daniel Boone, whose kin largely populated the Boonslick area, having arrived in the 1810s on the Boone's Lick Road. Boone County comprises the Columbia Metropolitan Area. The towns of Ashland and Centralia are the second and third most populous towns in the county. ==History== Boone County was organized November 16, 1820, from a portion of the territorial Howard County. The area was then known as Boone's Lick Country, because of a salt lick which Daniel Boone's sons used for their stock. Boone County was settled primarily from the Upper South states of Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. The settlers brought slaves and slave-holding with them, and quickly started cultivating crops similar to those in Middle Tennessee and Kentucky: hemp and tobacco. Boone was one of several counties to the north and south of the Missouri River that was settled by southerners. Because of its culture and traditions, the area became known as Little Dixie, and Boone County was at its heart.The Story of Little Dixie, Missouri, Missouri Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans , accessed 3 June 2008 In 1860 slaves made up 25 percent or more of the county's population, Boone County was strongly pro-Confederate during the American Civil War.T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: The Last Rebel of the Civil War, New York: Vintage Books, 2003, pp.10–11 Shortly after the murder of President Lincoln, the leading citizens of the county denounced the killing. They also directed that all public buildings including the courthouse and the university be draped in mourning for thirty days.PAPERS RELATING TO FOREIGN AFFAIRS, ACCOMPANYING THE ANNUAL MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT TO THE SECOND SESSION THIRTY- EIGHTH CONGRESS, PART IV, APPENDIX TO DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF 1865; THE ASSASSINATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, LATE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, AND THE ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM H. SEWARD, SECRETARY OF STATE, AND FREDERICK W. SEWARD, ASSISTANT SECRETARY, ON THE EVENING OF THE 14TH OF APRIL, 1865; EXPRESSIONS OF CONDOLENCE AND SYMPATHY INSPIRED BY THESE EVENTS; Foreign Relations of the United States; Washington DC, 1866, Document 1090 ==Geography== According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.8%) is water. The Missouri River makes up the southern border of the county. ===National protected areas=== *Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge *Mark Twain National Forest (part) ===Adjacent counties=== *Audrain County (northeast) *Callaway County (east) *Cole County (south) *Cooper County (west) *Howard County (northwest) *Moniteau County (southwest) *Randolph County (north) ===Major highways=== *20px Interstate 70 *20px Interstate 70 Business Loop *20px U.S. Route 40 *20px U.S. Route 63 * *20px Route 22 *20px Route 124 *20px Route 163 *20px Route 740 *20px Route 763 ==Demographics== As of the census of 2000, there were 135,454 people, 53,094 households, and 31,378 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 56,678 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 85.43% White, 8.54% Black or African American, 0.42% Native American, 2.96% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.69% from other races, and 1.93% from two or more races. Approximately 1.78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 24.6% claimed German, 12.3% American, 11.2% English and 9.8% Irish ancestry. There were 53,094 households, out of which 30.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.50% were married couples living together, 10.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.90% were non- families. 28.70% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.97. In the county, the population was spread out, with 22.80% under the age of 18, 19.90% from 18 to 24, 29.90% from 25 to 44, 18.80% from 45 to 64, and 8.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.90 males. The median income for a household in the county was $37,485, and the median income for a family was $51,210. Males had a median income of $33,304 versus $25,990 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,844. About 7.60% of families and 14.50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.10% of those under age 18 and 5.90% of those age 65 or over. There are 121,319 registered voters.Registered Voters in Missouri 2008 ===Religion=== According to the Association of Religion Data Archives County Membership Report (2010), Boone County is sometimes regarded as being on the northern edge of the Bible Belt, with evangelical Protestantism being the most predominant religion. The most predominant denominations among residents in Boone County who adhere to a religion are Southern Baptists (20.81%), Roman Catholics (16.71%), and nondenominational evangelical groups (13.23%). ===2020 Census=== Boone County Racial Composition Race Num. Perc. White (NH) 137,771 75% Black or African American (NH) 17,882 9.7% Native American (NH) 452 0.3% Asian (NH) 7,772 4.23% Pacific Islander (NH) 120 0.07% Other/Mixed (NH) 11,561 6.3% Hispanic or Latino 8,052 4.4% ==Education== ===Public schools=== *Ashland R-I School District* **Southern Boone Elementary **Southern Boone Middle School **Southern Boone High School *Centralia R-VI School District – Centralia **Chance Elementary School (PK-02) **Centralia Intermediate School (03-05) **Chester Boren Middle School (06-08) **Centralia High School (09-12) *Columbia School District No. 93 – Columbia **Center for Gifted Education (01-05) **Cedar Ridge Elementary School (PK-05) **Thomas Benton Elementary School (PK-05) **John Ridgeway Elementary School (K-05) **Eugene Field/ Alpha Hart Lewis Elementary School (PK-05) **Midway Heights Elementary School (PK-05) **Ulysses S. Grant Elementary School (PK-05) **Two Mile Prairie Elementary School (PK-05) **New Haven Elementary School (PK-05) **West Boulevard Elementary School (PK-05) **Locust Street Expressive Arts Elementary School **Parkade Elementary School (PK-05) **Blue Ridge Elementary School (PK-05) **Fairview Elementary School (PK-05) **Russell Boulevard Elementary School (PK-05) **Shepard Boulevard Elementary School (PK-05) **Mary Paxton Keeley Elementary School (PK-05) **Beulah Ralph Elementary School (PK-05) **Eliot Battle Elementary School (PK-05) **Derby Ridge Elementary School (PK-05) **Mill Creek Elementary School (PK-05) **John B. Lange Middle School (06-08) **Ann Hawkins Gentry Middle School (06-08) **Smithton Middle School (06-08) **Oakland Middle School (06-08) **Jefferson Middle School (06-08) **West Middle School (06-08) **Warner Middle School (06-08) **David H. Hickman High School (09-12) **Muriel Battle High School (09-12) **Frederick Douglass High School (09-12) – Alternative School **Rock Bridge High School (09-12) *Hallsville R-IV School District – Hallsville **Hallsville Primary School (PK-01) **Hallsville Intermediate School (02-05) **Hallsville Middle School (06-08) **Hallsville High School (09-12) *Harrisburg R-VIII School District – Harrisburg **Harrisburg Elementary School (PK-06) **Harrisburg Middle School (07-08) **Harrisburg High School (09-12) *Sturgeon R-V School District – Sturgeon **Sturgeon Elementary School (K-04) **Sturgeon Middle School (05-08) **Sturgeon High School (09-12) ===Private schools=== *Apple School – Columbia (PK-K) – Nonsectarian *Children's House And Windsor Street Montessori – Columbia (PK-06) – Nonsectarian – Coed *Christian Chapel Academy – Columbia (K-08) – Pentecostal *Christian Fellowship School – Columbia (PK-12) – Nondenominational Christian *College Park Christian Academy – Columbia (K-09) – Seventh-day Adventist *Our Lady of Lourdes Interparish School– Columbia (K-08) – Roman Catholic *Columbia Independent School – Columbia (PK-12) – Nonsectarian *Columbia KinderCare – Columbia (NS-PK) – Nonsectarian *Columbia Montessori School – Columbia (PK-K) – Nonsectarian *Father Tolton Regional High School- Columbia (09-12) – Roman Catholic *Good Shepherd Lutheran School – Columbia (K-08) – Lutheran *Heritage Academy – Columbia (03-12) – Nondenominational Christian – Alternative School *Islamic School of Columbia, Missouri – Columbia (K-05) – Muslim *Morningside Community School – Columbia (05-07) – Nonsectarian *Shalom Christian Academy – Columbia (PK-12) – Nonsectarian *Harrisburg Early Learning Center – Harrisburg (NS/PK-06) *Sunnydale Adventist Academy – Centralia (09-12) – Seventh-day Adventist ===Post secondary=== *University of Missouri – Columbia A public, four-year flagship university. *Columbia College – Columbia A private, four-year university. *Stephens College – Columbia A private, four-year women's university. *Moberly Area Community College (MACC), a two-year public college, operates a Columbia satellite campus. ===Public libraries=== * Centralia Public Library * Daniel Boone Regional Library * Southern Boone County Public Library * Holts Summit Public Library * Columbia Public Library ==Communities== ===Cities=== *Ashland *Centralia *Columbia (county seat) *Hallsville *Rocheport *Sturgeon ===Villages=== *Harrisburg *Hartsburg *Huntsdale *McBaine *Pierpont ===Unincorporated communities=== * Bourbon * Browns * Claysville * Deer Park * Easley * Englewood * Ginlet * Harg * Hinton * Oldham * Midway * Prathersville * Providence * Riggs * Rucker * Shaw * Two Mile Prairie * Wilton * Woodlandville ===Townships=== Township boundaries have changed over time. See links at end of article for maps of Boone County showing boundaries of different dates. As a rule, older townships were split, with newer townships created from their subdivisions. This is significant for historical and genealogical research. Note that maps show changes in township boundaries between 1898 and 1930 were minimal. * Bourbon * Cedar * Centralia * Columbia * Katy * Missouri * Perche * Rock Bridge * Rocky Fork * Three Creeks ==Politics== ===Local=== Like nearly all counties nationwide with a major university, the Democratic Party predominantly controls politics at the local level in Boone County. Democrats currently hold all of the elected county-wide positions. ===State=== Past Gubernatorial Elections Results Year Republican Democratic Third Parties 2020 44.63% 40,478 52.96% 48,056 2.39% 2,171 2016 41.28% 34,106 54.95% 45,396 3.77% 3,117 2012 37.59% 29,171 58.38% 45,302 4.03% 3,125 2008 42.71% 35,785 55.28% 46,315 2.01% 1,688 2004 47.33% 35,666 51.08% 38,489 1.59% 1,201 2000 43.13% 25,609 52.22% 31,007 4.65% 2,767 1996 30.51% 15,929 65.62% 34,266 3.87% 2,021 Boone County is split between five legislative districts in the Missouri House of Representatives. Three are held by Republicans, with two held by Democrats. *District 44 — Cheri Toalson Reisch (R-Hallsville). Consists of the communities of Centralia, Hallsville, Sturgeon, and northeastern Columbia. *District 45 — David Smith (D-Columbia). Consists of the north-central part of the city of Columbia. *District 46 – Martha Stevens (D-Columbia). Consists of the southern part of the city of Columbia. *District 47 — Charles Basye (R-Rocheport). Consists of the western part of the city of Columbia and the communities of Harrisburg and Rocheport. *District 50 – Sara Walsh Consists of parts of the city of Columbia and the communities of Ashland, Hartsburg, and McBaine. All of Boone County is a part of Missouri's 19th District in the Missouri Senate and is currently represented by Caleb Rowden (R-Columbia), who is the Majority Floor Leader. However, Democrats have carried Boone County in recent elections. ===Federal=== All of Boone County is included in Missouri's 4th Congressional District and is currently represented by Vicky Hartzler (R-Harrisonville) in the U.S. House of Representatives. Hartzler was elected to a sixth term in 2020 over Democratic challenger Lindsey Simmons, although Democrats have carried Boone County in recent elections. Boone County, along with the rest of the state of Missouri, is represented in the U.S. Senate by Josh Hawley (R-Columbia) and Roy Blunt (R-Strafford). However, their Democratic opponents carried Boone County in each of their respective most recent elections. Blunt was elected to a second term in 2016 over then-Missouri Secretary of State Jason Kander. ====Political culture==== At the presidential level, Boone County has been one of the most consistently Democratic counties in Missouri. George W. Bush was the last Republican presidential nominee to carry Boone County in 2004 with a plurality of the vote, no Republican has won a majority in the county in a presidential election since Ronald Reagan in 1984. ===Missouri presidential preference primaries=== ====2020==== The 2020 presidential primaries for both the Democratic and Republican parties were held in Missouri on March 10. On the Democratic side, former Vice President Joe Biden (D-Delaware) both won statewide by a wide margin and carried a majority in Boone County. Biden went on to defeat President Donald Trump in the general election. Incumbent President Donald Trump (R-Florida) faced a primary challenge from former Massachusetts Governor Bill Weld, but won both Boone County and statewide by overwhelming margins. ====2016==== The 2016 presidential primaries for both the Republican and Democratic parties were held in Missouri on March 15. Businessman Donald Trump (R-New York) narrowly won the state overall, but Senator Ted Cruz (R-Texas) carried a plurality of the vote in Boone County. Trump went on to win the nomination and the presidency. On the Democratic side, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (D-New York) narrowly won statewide, but Senator Bernie Sanders (I-Vermont) won Boone County by a wide margin. ====2012==== The 2012 Missouri Republican Presidential Primary's results were nonbinding on the state's national convention delegates. Voters in Boone County supported former U.S. Senator Rick Santorum (R-Pennsylvania), who finished first in the state at large, but eventually lost the nomination to former Governor Mitt Romney (R-Massachusetts). Delegates to the congressional district and state conventions were chosen at a county caucus, which selected a delegation favoring Congressman Ron Paul (R-Texas). Incumbent President Barack Obama easily won the Missouri Democratic Primary and renomination. He defeated Romney in the general election. ====2008==== In 2008, the Missouri Republican Presidential Primary was closely contested, with Senator John McCain (R-Arizona) prevailing and eventually winning the nomination. Former Governor Mitt Romney (R-Massachusetts) won a plurality in Boone County. Then-Senator Barack Obama (D-Illinois) received more votes than any candidate from either party in Boone County during the 2008 presidential primary. Despite initial reports that Hillary Clinton (D-New York), also a senator at the time, had won Missouri, Obama narrowly defeated her statewide and later became that year's Democratic nominee, going on to win the presidency. ==Public safety== thumb|250px|The Boone County Fire Protection District responding to a working structure fire. The Boone County Sheriff has jurisdiction over the whole county. The Boone County Fire Protection District (BCFPD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for a large portion of Boone County, Missouri. The BCFPD is the largest volunteer fire department and third largest fire service organization in the state, protecting of residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural property and over 50,000 people. The Boone County Fire District maintains 15 fire stations, a training center, and a headquarters facility. ===History=== Prior to 1964, there was no organized fire protection in Boone County. This changed after an elderly handicapped woman died in a house fire just west of the city limits of Columbia. A small group of CB radio enthusiasts, known as the Central Missouri Radio Squad, banded together to develop a fire protection system for Boone County. ===USAR Task Force=== Boone County Fire is the sponsoring agency of Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1 (MO-TF1), which is one of 28 FEMA Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces across the United States. The team is made up of 210 members that are qualified in various aspects of urban search and rescue. ==Notable people== *James William Abert – soldier and explorer *David W. Alexander, 19th century Los Angeles, California politician and sheriff *Thomas M. Allen – clergyman *Benjamin Anderson – economist *Gary Anderson – football player *Simon Barrett – filmmaker *Rob Benedict – actor *Duane Benton – judge *Rebecca Blank – educator; acting U.S. Secretary of Commerce (2011-2011; 2012–2013) *Philemon Bliss – U.S. Representative from Ohio (1855–1859), 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Dakota Territory, and Associate Justice of Missouri Supreme Court (1868–1872) *John William Boone – musician *Stratton D. Brooks – college president *Fleda Brown – poet *Jessica Capshaw – actress *Russ Carnahan – U.S. Representative from Missouri (2005–2013) *Albert Bishop Chance, inventor of the earth anchor, mayor of Centralia, and founder of the A.B. Chance Company *J'den Cox – wrestler, Olympic medalist *Kevin Croom – UFC Mixed Martial Artist *Jack D. Crouch – hotelier *Derek "Deke" Dickerson – musician *Carl Edwards – retired NASCAR driver *Jane Froman – singer; actress *Nicole Galloway – Missouri State Auditor (2015–present), Democratic nominee for Governor of Missouri (2020) *Chuck Graham – politician *Ken Griffin – organist *Eugene Jerome Hainer – U.S. Representative from Nebraska (1893–1897) *William Least Heat-Moon – writer *Martin Heinrich – U.S. Senator from New Mexico (2013–present), U.S. Representative from New Mexico (2009–2013) *Peter Hessler – journalist *Darwin Hindman – mayor of Columbia (1995–2010) *Brett James – singer *William Jewell – educator, second mayor of Columbia *Leon W. Johnson – Air Force General *Tyler Johnson – baseball pitcher *Daniel Webster Jones – Mormon pioneer *John Carleton Jones – president of the University of Missouri *Lloyd E. Jones – United States Army major general *Kraig Kann – golf commentator *Henry Kirklin, horticulturalist, first black instructor at the University of Missouri *E. Stanley Kroenke – sports mogul *Sergei Kopeikin – astrophysicist *Ken Lay – chief executive, Enron *Grace Lee – radio and television personality *Guy Sumner Lowman, Jr. – linguist *Jeff Maggert – professional golfer *William Rainey Marshall – 5th Governor of Minnesota (1866–1870) *William L. Nelson – U.S. Representative from Missouri (1861–1865) *John Neihardt – poet *Don Nardo – author *Korla Pandit – musician *Carlos Pena Jr. – singer *Michael Porter Jr. – basketball player for Denver Nuggets *William Rainey Marshall – Minnesota Governor *James S. Rollins – 19th-century politician *Jesse M. Roper – 19th-century naval officer *Charles Griffith Ross – press secretary for U.S. President Harry S. Truman *Felix Sabates – philanthropist *Max Schwabe – U.S. Representative from Missouri (1943–1949) *Jon Scott – television journalist *John F. Shafroth – U.S. Senator from Colorado (1913–1919), Governor of Colorado (1909–1913), U.S. Representative from Colorado (1895–1904) *Clay Shirky – writer *Apollo M. O. Smith – aviation executive *William Smith – actor *William J. Stone – U.S. Senator from Missouri (1903–1918), Governor of Missouri (1893–1897), U.S. Representative from Missouri (1885–1891) *Blake Tekotte – baseball player *Malcolm Thomas – professional basketball player *Nischelle Turner – television personality *Zbylut Twardowski – nephrologist *Charlie Van Dyke – radio personality *Andrew VanWyngarden – musician *James "Bud" Walton – co-founder, Wal-Mart *Sam Walton – co-founder, Wal-Mart *Edwin Moss Watson – editor; publisher *Norbert Wiener – mathematician *Lisa Wilcox – actress *Roger B. Wilson – 52nd Governor of Missouri (2000–2001) ==See also== *The Big Tree, landmark and national champion Bur Oak *List of cemeteries in Boone County, Missouri *National Register of Historic Places listings in Boone County, Missouri *Boone County Historical Society ==References== ==Further reading== * History of Boone County, Missouri: Written and comp. from the most authentic official and private sources; including a history of its townships, towns, and villages. Together with ... biographical sketches and portraits of prominent citizens (1882) online ==External links== * Digitized 1930 Plat Book of Boone County from University of Missouri Division of Special Collections, Archives, and Rare Books *Map of Boone County in 1898, showing township boundaries of that date: *Map of Boone County in 1917, showing township boundaries of that date: *Map of Boone County in 1930, showing township boundaries of that date: *Map Boone County today, showing current township boundaries: Category:Little Dixie (Missouri) Category:Columbia metropolitan area (Missouri) Category:1820 establishments in Missouri Territory Category:Populated places established in 1820 Category:Missouri counties on the Missouri River
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Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. Battles have been fought on water for more than 3,000 years. The armed forces branch designated for naval warfare is a navy. Naval operations can be broadly divided between riverine and littoral applications (brown-water navy), open- ocean applications (blue-water navy), and something in between (green-water navy), although these distinctions are more about strategic scope than tactical or operational division. The strategic offensive purpose of naval warfare is projection of force by water, and its strategic defensive purpose is to frustrate the similar projection of force by enemies. ==History== Man has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years. Even in the interior of large landmasses, transportation before the advent of extensive railways was largely dependent upon rivers, canals, and other navigable waterways. The latter were crucial in the development of the modern world in the United Kingdom, America, the Low Countries and northern Germany, because they enabled the bulk movement of goods and raw material, which supported the nascent Industrial Revolution. Prior to 1750, materials largely moved by river barge or sea vessels. Thus armies, with their exorbitant needs for food, ammunition and fodder, were tied to the river valleys throughout the ages. Pre-recorded history (Homeric Legends, e.g. Troy), and classical works such as The Odyssey emphasize the sea. The Persian Empire – united and strong – could not prevail against the might of the Athenian fleet combined with that of lesser city states in several attempts to conquer the Greek city states. Phoenicia's and Egypt's power, Carthage's and even Rome's largely depended upon control of the seas. So too did the Venetian Republic dominate Italy's city states, thwart the Ottoman Empire, and dominate commerce on the Silk Road and the Mediterranean in general for centuries. For three centuries, Vikings raided and pillaged far into central Russia and Ukraine, and even to distant Constantinople (both via the Black Sea tributaries, Sicily, and through the Strait of Gibraltar). Gaining control of the sea has largely depended on a fleet's ability to wage sea battles. Throughout most of naval history, naval warfare revolved around two overarching concerns, namely boarding and anti- boarding. It was only in the late 16th century, when gunpowder technology had developed to a considerable extent, that the tactical focus at sea shifted to heavy ordnance. Many sea battles through history also provide a reliable source of shipwrecks for underwater archaeology. A major example is the exploration of the wrecks of various warships in the Pacific Ocean. == Mediterranean Sea == The first recorded sea battle was The Battle of the Delta, the Ancient Egyptians defeated the Sea Peoples in a sea battle . As recorded on the temple walls of the mortuary temple of pharaoh Ramesses III at Medinet Habu, this repulsed a major sea invasion near the shores of the eastern Nile Delta using a naval ambush and archers firing from both ships and shore. Assyrian reliefs from the 8th century BC show Phoenician fighting ships, with two levels of oars, fighting men on a sort of bridge or deck above the oarsmen, and some sort of ram protruding from the bow. No written mention of strategy or tactics seems to have survived. Josephus Flavius (Antiquities IX 283–287) reports a naval battle between Tyre and the king of Assyria who was aided by the other cities in Phoenicia. The battle took place off the shores of Tyre. Although the Tyrian fleet was much smaller, the Tyrians defeated their enemies. The Greeks of Homer just used their ships as transport for land armies, but in 664 BC there is a mention of a battle at sea between Corinth and its colony city Corcyra. Ancient descriptions of the Persian Wars were the first to feature large-scale naval operations, not just sophisticated fleet engagements with dozens of triremes on each side, but combined land-sea operations. It seems unlikely that all this was the product of a single mind or even of a generation; most likely the period of evolution and experimentation was simply not recorded by history. After some initial battles while subjugating the Greeks of the Ionian coast, the Persians determined to invade Greece proper. Themistocles of Athens estimated that the Greeks would be outnumbered by the Persians on land, but that Athens could protect itself by building a fleet (the famous "wooden walls"), using the profits of the silver mines at Laurium to finance them. The first Persian campaign, in 492 BC, was aborted because the fleet was lost in a storm, but the second, in 490 BC, captured islands in the Aegean Sea before landing on the mainland near Marathon. Attacks by the Greek armies repulsed these. The third Persian campaign in 480 BC, under Xerxes I of Persia, followed the pattern of the second in marching the army via the Hellespont while the fleet paralleled them offshore. Near Artemisium, in the narrow channel between the mainland and Euboea, the Greek fleet held off multiple assaults by the Persians, the Persians breaking through a first line, but then being flanked by the second line of ships. But the defeat on land at Thermopylae forced a Greek withdrawal, and Athens evacuated its population to nearby Salamis Island. The ensuing Battle of Salamis was one of the decisive engagements of history. Themistocles trapped the Persians in a channel too narrow for them to bring their greater numbers to bear, and attacked them vigorously, in the end causing the loss of 200 Persian ships vs 40 Greek. Aeschylus wrote a play about the defeat, The Persians, which was performed in a Greek theatre competition a few years after the battle. It is the oldest known surviving play. At the end, Xerxes still had a fleet stronger than the Greeks, but withdrew anyway, and after losing at Plataea in the following year, returned to Asia Minor, leaving the Greeks their freedom. Nevertheless, the Athenians and Spartans attacked and burned the laid-up Persian fleet at Mycale, and freed many of the Ionian towns. These battles involved triremes or biremes as the standard fighting platform, and the focus of the battle was to ram the opponent's vessel using the boat's reinforced prow. The opponent would try to maneuver and avoid contact, or alternately rush all the marines to the side about to be hit, thus tilting the boat. When the ram had withdrawn and the marines dispersed, the hole would then be above the waterline and not a critical injury to the ship. During the next fifty years, the Greeks commanded the Aegean, but not harmoniously. After several minor wars, tensions exploded into the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) between Athens' Delian League and the Spartan Peloponnese. Naval strategy was critical; Athens walled itself off from the rest of Greece, leaving only the port at Piraeus open, and trusting in its navy to keep supplies flowing while the Spartan army besieged it. This strategy worked, although the close quarters likely contributed to the plague that killed many Athenians in 429 BC. There were a number of sea battles between galleys; at Rhium, Naupactus, Pylos, Syracuse, Cynossema, Cyzicus, Notium. But the end came for Athens in 405 BC at Aegospotami in the Hellespont, where the Athenians had drawn up their fleet on the beach, and were surprised by the Spartan fleet, who landed and burned all the ships. Athens surrendered to Sparta in the following year. [[File:D473-birème romaine-Liv2-ch10.png|thumb|A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina),D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201–217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley- Blackwell. . Plate 12.2 on p. 204. which was built c. 120 BC;Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84. exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums.]] Navies next played a major role in the complicated wars of the successors of Alexander the Great. The Roman Republic had never been much of a seafaring nation, but it had to learn. In the Punic Wars with Carthage, Romans developed the technique of grappling and boarding enemy ships with soldiers. The Roman Navy grew gradually as Rome became more involved in Mediterranean politics; by the time of the Roman Civil War and the Battle of Actium (31 BC), hundreds of ships were involved, many of them quinqueremes mounting catapults and fighting towers. Following the Emperor Augustus transforming the Republic into the Roman Empire, Rome gained control of most of the Mediterranean. Without any significant maritime enemies, the Roman navy was reduced mostly to patrolling for pirates and transportation duties. It was only on the fringes of the Empire, in newly gained provinces or defensive missions against barbarian invasion, that the navy still engaged in actual warfare. == Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa == While the barbarian invasions of the 4th century and later mostly occurred by land, some notable examples of naval conflicts are known. In the late 3rd century, in the reign of Emperor Gallienus, a large raiding party composed by Goths, Gepids and Heruli, launched itself in the Black Sea, raiding the coasts of Anatolia and Thrace, and crossing into the Aegean Sea, plundering mainland Greece (including Athens and Sparta) and going as far as Crete and Rhodes. In the twilight of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century, examples include that of Emperor Majorian, who, with the help of Constantinople, mustered a large fleet in a failed effort to expel the Germanic invaders from their recently conquered African territories, and a defeat of an Ostrogothic fleet at Sena Gallica in the Adriatic Sea. During the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, Muslim fleets first appeared, raiding Sicily in 652 (see History of Islam in southern Italy and Emirate of Sicily), and defeating the Byzantine Navy in 655. Constantinople was saved from a prolonged Arab siege in 678 by the invention of Greek fire, an early form of flamethrower that was devastating to the ships in the besieging fleet. These were the first of many encounters during the Byzantine-Arab Wars. The Caliphate became the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea from the 7th to 13th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. One of the most significant inventions in medieval naval warfare was the torpedo, invented in Syria by the Arab inventor Hasan al- Rammah in 1275. His torpedo ran on water with a rocket system filled with explosive gunpowder materials and had three firing points. It was an effective weapon against ships. In the 8th century the Vikings appeared, although their usual style was to appear quickly, plunder, and disappear, preferably attacking undefended locations. The Vikings raided places along the coastline of England and France, with the greatest threats being in England. They would raid monasteries for their wealth and lack of formidable defenders. They also utilized rivers and other auxiliary waterways to work their way inland in the eventual invasion of Britain. They wreaked havoc in Northumbria and Mercia and the rest of Anglia before being halted by Wessex. King Alfred the Great of England was able to stay the Viking invasions with a pivotal victory at the Battle of Edington. Alfred defeated Guthrum, establishing the boundaries of Danelaw in an 884 treaty. The effectiveness of Alfred's 'fleet' has been debated; Kenneth Harl has pointed out that as few as eleven ships were sent to combat the Vikings, only two of which were not beaten back or captured. The Vikings also fought several sea battles among themselves. This was normally done by binding the ships on each side together, thus essentially fighting a land battle on the sea. However the fact that the losing side could not easily escape meant that battles tended to be hard and bloody. The Battle of Svolder is perhaps the most famous of these battles. As Muslim power in the Mediterranean began to wane, the Italian trading towns of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice stepped in to seize the opportunity, setting up commercial networks and building navies to protect them. At first the navies fought with the Arabs (off Bari in 1004, at Messina in 1005), but then they found themselves contending with Normans moving into Sicily, and finally with each other. The Genoese and Venetians fought four naval wars, in 1253–1284, 1293–1299, 1350–1355, and 1378–1381. The last ended with a decisive Venetian victory, giving it almost a century to enjoy Mediterranean trade domination before other European countries began expanding into the south and west. In the north of Europe, the near-continuous conflict between England and France was characterised by raids on coastal towns and ports along the coastlines and the securing of sea lanes to protect troop–carrying transports. The Battle of Dover in 1217, between a French fleet of 80 ships under Eustace the Monk and an English fleet of 40 under Hubert de Burgh, is notable as the first recorded battle using sailing ship tactics. The battle of Arnemuiden (23 September 1338), which resulted in a French victory, marked the opening of the Hundred Years War and was the first battle involving artillery.Jean-Claude Castex, Dictionnaire des batailles navales franco-anglaises, Presses de l'Université Laval, 2004, p. 21 However the battle of Sluys, fought two years later, saw the destruction of the French fleet in a decisive action which allowed the English effective control of the sea lanes and the strategic initiative for much of the war. == Eastern, Southern, and Southeast Asia == thumb|right|A Javanese junk and a Nanking junk. thumb|A 17th-century model of Vietnamese "Mông đồng" ship. The vessel appears to be propelled by a score of oars and armed with one bombard and a smaller culverin. The roof is recorded to be protected against projectiles with hide or bronze plates. The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties of China were involved in several naval affairs over the triple set of polities ruling medieval Korea (Three Kingdoms of Korea), along with engaging naval bombardments on the peninsula from Asuka period Yamato Kingdom (Japan). The Tang dynasty aided the Korean kingdom of Silla (see also Unified Silla) and expelled the Korean kingdom of Baekje with the aid of Japanese naval forces from the Korean peninsula (see Battle of Baekgang) and conquered Silla's Korean rivals, Baekje and Goguryeo by 668. In addition, the Tang had maritime trading, tributary, and diplomatic ties as far as modern Sri Lanka, India, Islamic Iran and Arabia, as well as Somalia in East Africa. From the Axumite Kingdom in modern-day Ethiopia, the Arab traveller Sa'd ibn Abi-Waqqas sailed from there to Tang China during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. Two decades later, he returned with a copy of the Quran, establishing the first Islamic mosque in China, the Mosque of Remembrance in Guangzhou. A rising rivalry followed between the Arabs and Chinese for control of trade in the Indian Ocean. In his book Cultural Flow Between China and the Outside World, Shen Fuwei notes that maritime Chinese merchants in the 9th century were landing regularly at Sufala in East Africa to cut out Arab middle-men traders.Shen, 155 The Chola dynasty of medieval India was a dominant seapower in the Indian Ocean, an avid maritime trader and diplomatic entity with Song China. Rajaraja Chola I (reigned 985 to 1014) and his son Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–42), sent a great naval expedition that occupied parts of Myanmar, Malaya, and Sumatra.thumb|Full size replica of Borobudur ship of the 8th century AD. This one had gone to expedition to Ghana in 2003–2004, reenacting the Srivijayan and Mataram navigation and exploration. In the Nusantara archipelago, large ocean going ships of more than 50 m in length and 5.2–7.8 meters freeboard are already used at least since the 2nd century AD, contacting India to China. Srivijaya empire since the 7th century AD controlled the sea of the western part of the archipelago. The Kedukan Bukit inscription is the oldest record of Indonesian military history, and noted a 7th-century Srivijayan sacred siddhayatra journey led by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. He was said to have brought 20,000 troops, including 312 people in boats and 1,312 foot soldiers. The 10th century Arab text Ajayeb al-Hind (Marvels of India) gives an account of an invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or Waqwaq,Kumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122. probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Mataram kingdom,Lombard, Denys (2005). Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. in 945–946 CE. They arrived at the coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, and ambergris, and also because they wanted black slaves from Bantu people (called Zeng or Zenj by Arabs, Jenggi by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves. Before the 12th century, Srivijaya is primarily land-based polity rather than maritime power, fleets are available but acted as logistical support to facilitate the projection of land power. Later, the naval strategy degenerated to raiding fleet. Their naval strategy was to coerce merchant ships to dock in their ports, which if ignored, they will send ships to destroy the ship and kill the occupants. In 1293, the Mongol Yuan Dynasty launched an invasion to Java. The Yuan sent 500–1000 ships and 20,000–30,000 soldiers, but was ultimately defeated on land by surprise attack, forcing the army to fall back to the beach. In the coastal waters, Javanese junks had already attacked the Mongol ships. After all of the troops had boarded the ships on the coast, the Yuan army battled the Javanese fleet. After repelling it, they sailed back to Quanzhou. Javanese naval commander Aria Adikara intercepted a further Mongol invasion. Although with only scarce information, travellers passing the region, such as Ibn Battuta and Odoric of Pordenone noted that Java had been attacked by the Mongols several times, always ending in failure. After those failed invasions, Majapahit empire quickly grew and became the dominant naval power in the 14–15th century. The usage of cannons in the Mongol invasion of Java, led to deployment of cetbang cannons by Majapahit fleet in 1300s.Averoes, Muhammad (2020). Antara Cerita dan Sejarah: Meriam Cetbang Majapahit. Jurnal Sejarah, 3(2), 89 - 100. The main warship of Majapahit navy was the jong. The jongs were large transport ships which could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people, 28.99–88.56 meter in length. The exact number of jong fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs, when Majapahit attacked Pasai, in 1350.Hill (June 1960). "Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 33: p. 98 and 157: "Then he directed them to make ready all the equipment and munitions of war needed for an attack on the land of Pasai – about four hundred of the largest junks, and also many barges (malangbang) and galleys." See also Nugroho (2011). p. 270 and 286, quoting Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai, 3: 98: "Sa-telah itu, maka di- suroh baginda musta'idkan segala kelengkapan dan segala alat senjata peperangan akan mendatangi negeri Pasai itu, sa-kira-kira empat ratus jong yang besar-besar dan lain daripada itu banyak lagi daripada malangbang dan kelulus." (After that, he is tasked by His Majesty to ready all the equipment and all weapons of war to come to that country of Pasai, about four hundred large jongs and other than that much more of malangbang and kelulus.) In this era, even to the 17th century, the Nusantaran naval soldiers fought on a platform on their ships called balai and performed boarding actions. Scattershots fired from cetbang are used to counter this type of fighting, fired at personnel. In the 12th century, China's first permanent standing navy was established by the Southern Song dynasty, the headquarters of the Admiralty stationed at Dinghai. This came about after the conquest of northern China by the Jurchen people (see Jin dynasty) in 1127, while the Song imperial court fled south from Kaifeng to Hangzhou. Equipped with the magnetic compass and knowledge of Shen Kuo's famous treatise (on the concept of true north), the Chinese became proficient experts of navigation in their day. They raised their naval strength from a mere 11 squadrons of 3,000 marines to 20 squadrons of 52,000 marines in a century's time. Employing paddle wheel crafts and trebuchets throwing gunpowder bombs from the decks of their ships, the Southern Song dynasty became a formidable foe to the Jin dynasty during the 12th–13th centuries during the Jin–Song Wars. There were naval engagements at the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao. With a powerful navy, China dominated maritime trade throughout South East Asia as well. Until 1279, the Song were able to use their naval power to defend against the Jin to the north, until the Mongols finally conquered all of China. After the Song dynasty, the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China was a powerful maritime force in the Indian Ocean. The Yuan emperor Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan twice with large fleets (of both Mongols and Chinese), in 1274 and again in 1281, both attempts being unsuccessful (see Mongol invasions of Japan). Building upon the technological achievements of the earlier Song dynasty, the Mongols also employed early cannons upon the decks of their ships. While Song China built its naval strength, the Japanese also had considerable naval prowess. The strength of Japanese naval forces could be seen in the Genpei War, in the large-scale Battle of Dan-no-ura on 25 April 1185. The forces of Minamoto no Yoshitsune were 850 ships strong, while Taira no Munemori had 500 ships. In the mid-14th century, the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398) seized power in the south amongst many other rebel groups. His early success was due to capable officials such as Liu Bowen and Jiao Yu, and their gunpowder weapons (see Huolongjing). Yet the decisive battle that cemented his success and his founding of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was the Battle of Lake Poyang, considered one of the largest naval battles in history. In the 15th century, the Chinese admiral Zheng He was assigned to assemble a massive fleet for several diplomatic missions abroad, sailing throughout the waters of the South East Pacific and the Indian Ocean. During his missions, on several occasions Zheng's fleet came into conflict with pirates. Zheng's fleet also became involved in a conflict in Sri Lanka, where the King of Ceylon traveled back to Ming China afterwards to make a formal apology to the Yongle Emperor. The Ming imperial navy defeated a Portuguese navy led by Martim Afonso de Sousa in 1522. The Chinese destroyed one vessel by targeting its gunpowder magazine, and captured another Portuguese ship. (Original from Princeton University)(Original from Harvard University) A Ming army and navy led by Koxinga defeated a western power, the Dutch East India Company, at the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, the first time China had defeated a western power. The Chinese used cannons and ships to bombard the Dutch into surrendering. In the Sengoku period of Japan, Oda Nobunaga unified the country by military power. However, he was defeated by the Mōri clan's navy. Nobunaga invented the Tekkosen (large Atakebune equipped with iron plates) and defeated 600 ships of the Mōri navy with six armored warships (Battle of Kizugawaguchi). The navy of Nobunaga and his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi employed clever close-range tactics on land with arquebus rifles, but also relied upon close-range firing of muskets in grapple-and-board style naval engagements. When Nobunaga died in the Honnō-ji incident, Hideyoshi succeeded him and completed the unification of the whole country. In 1592, Hideyoshi ordered the daimyōs to dispatch troops to Joseon Korea to conquer Ming China. The Japanese army which landed at Pusan on 12 April 1502 occupied Seoul within a month. The Korean king escaped to the northern region of the Korean peninsula and Japan completed occupation of Pyongyang in June. The Korean navy then led by Admiral Yi Sun- sin defeated the Japanese navy in consecutive naval battles, namely Okpo, Sacheon, Tangpo and Tanghangpo. The Battle of Hansando on 14 August 1592 resulted in a decisive victory for Korea over the Japanese navy. In this battle, 47 Japanese warships were sunk and 12 other ships were captured whilst no Korean warship was lost. The defeats in the sea prevented the Japanese navy from providing their army with appropriate supply. Yi Sun-sin was later replaced with Admiral Won Gyun, whose fleets faced a defeat. The Japanese army, based near Busan, overwhelmed the Korean navy in the Battle of Chilcheollyang on 28 August 1597 and began advancing toward China. This attempt was stopped when the reappointed Admiral Yi, won the battle of Myeongnyang. The Wanli Emperor of Ming China sent military forces to the Korean peninsula. Yi Sun-sin and Chen Lin continued to successfully engage the Japanese navy with 500 Chinese warships and the strengthened Korean fleet.History of Ming Vol. 247 Japan encyclopedia, By Louis Frédéric (p. 92) In 1598, the planned conquest in China was canceled by the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the Japanese military retreated from the Korean Peninsula. On their way back to Japan, Yi Sun-sin and Chen Lin attacked the Japanese navy at the Battle of Noryang inflicting heavy damages, but the Chinese top official Deng Zilong and the Korean commander Yi Sun-sin were killed in a Japanese army counterattack. The rest of the Japanese army returned to Japan by the end of December. In 1609, the Tokugawa shogunate ordered the abandonment of warships to the feudal lord. The Japanese navy stagnated until the Meiji period. In Korea, the greater range of Korean cannons, along with the brilliant naval strategies of the Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin, were the main factors in the ultimate Japanese defeat. Yi Sun-sin is credited for improving the Geobukseon (turtle ship), which were used mostly to spearhead attacks. They were best used in tight areas and around islands rather than on the open sea. Yi Sun-sin effectively cut off the possible Japanese supply line that would have run through the Yellow Sea to China, and severely weakened the Japanese strength and fighting morale in several heated engagements (many regard the critical Japanese defeat to be the Battle of Hansan Island). The Japanese faced diminishing hopes of further supplies due to repeated losses in naval battles in the hands of Yi Sun-sin. As the Japanese army was about to return to Japan, Yi Sun-sin decisively defeated a Japanese navy at the Battle of Noryang. === Ancient and Medieval China === In ancient China, the first known naval battles took place during the Warring States period (481–221 BC) when vassal lords battled one another. Chinese naval warfare in this period featured grapple- and-hook, as well as ramming tactics with ships called "stomach strikers" and "colliding swoopers".Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, p. 678 It was written in the Han dynasty that the people of the Warring States era had employed chuan ge ships (dagger-axe ships, or halberd ships), thought to be a simple description of ships manned by marines carrying dagger-axe halberds as personal weapons. The 3rd-century writer Zhang Yan asserted that the people of the Warring States period named the boats this way because halberd blades were actually fixed and attached to the hull of the ship in order to rip into the hull of another ship while ramming, to stab enemies in the water that had fallen overboard and were swimming, or simply to clear any possible dangerous marine animals in the path of the ship (since the ancient Chinese did believe in sea monsters; see Xu Fu for more info). Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC), owed much of his success in unifying southern China to naval power, although an official navy was not yet established (see Medieval Asia section below). The people of the Zhou dynasty were known to use temporary pontoon bridges for general means of transportation, but it was during the Qin and Han dynasties that large permanent pontoon bridges were assembled and used in warfare (first written account of a pontoon bridge in the West being the oversight of the Greek Mandrocles of Samos in aiding a military campaign of Persian emperor Darius I over the Bosporus). During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the Chinese began using the stern-mounted steering rudder, and they also designed a new ship type, the junk. From the late Han dynasty to the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), large naval battles such as the Battle of Red Cliffs marked the advancement of naval warfare in the East. In the latter engagement, the allied forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei destroyed a large fleet commanded by Cao Cao in a fire-based naval attack. In terms of seafaring abroad, arguably one of the first Chinese to sail into the Indian Ocean and to reach Sri Lanka and India by sea was the Buddhist monk Faxian in the early 5th century, although diplomatic ties and land trade to Persia and India were established during the earlier Han dynasty. However, Chinese naval maritime influence would penetrate into the Indian Ocean until the medieval period. == Early modern == The late Middle Ages saw the development of the cogs, caravels and carracks ships capable of surviving the tough conditions of the open ocean, with enough backup systems and crew expertise to make long voyages routine. In addition, they grew from 100 tons to 300 tons displacement, enough to carry cannon as armament and still have space for cargo. One of the largest ships of the time, the Great Harry, displaced over 1,500 tons. The voyages of discovery were fundamentally commercial rather than military in nature, although the line was sometimes blurry in that a country's ruler was not above funding exploration for personal profit, nor was it a problem to use military power to enhance that profit. Later the lines gradually separated, in that the ruler's motivation in using the navy was to protect private enterprise so that they could pay more taxes. Like the Egyptian Shia-Fatimids and Mamluks, the Sunni-Islamic Ottoman Empire centered in modern-day Turkey dominated the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The Ottomans built a powerful navy, rivaling the Italian city-state of Venice during the Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503). Although they were sorely defeated in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) by the Holy League, the Ottomans soon rebuilt their naval strength, and afterwards successfully defended the island of Cyprus so that it would stay in Ottoman hands. However, with the concurrent Age of Discovery, Europe had far surpassed the Ottoman Empire, and successfully bypassed their reliance on land-trade by discovering maritime routes around Africa and towards the Americas. The first naval action in defense of the new colonies was just ten years after Vasco da Gama's epochal landing in India. In March 1508, a combined Gujarati/Egyptian force surprised a Portuguese squadron at Chaul, and only two Portuguese ships escaped. The following February, the Portuguese viceroy destroyed the allied fleet at Diu, confirming Portuguese domination of the Indian Ocean. In 1582, the Battle of Ponta Delgada in the Azores, in which a Spanish-Portuguese fleet defeated a combined French and Portuguese force, with some English direct support, thus ending the Portuguese succession crisis, was the first battle fought in mid- Atlantic. In 1588, Spanish King Philip II sent his Armada to subdue the English fleet of Elizabeth, but Admiral Sir Charles Howard defeated the Armada, marking the rise to prominence of the English Royal Navy. However it was unable to follow up with a decisive blow against the Spanish navy, which remained the most important for another half century. After the war's end in 1604 the English fleet went through a time of relative neglect and decline. In the 16th century, the Barbary states of North Africa rose to power, becoming a dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea due to the Barbary pirates. The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert DavisDavis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. as many as 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. These slaves were captured mainly from seaside villages in Italy, Spain and Portugal, and from farther places like France, England, the Netherlands, Ireland and even Iceland and North America. The Barbary pirates were also able to successfully defeat and capture many European ships, largely due to advances in sailing technology by the Barbary states. The earliest naval trawler, xebec and windward ships were employed by the Barbary pirates from the 16th century. From the middle of the 17th century competition between the expanding English and Dutch commercial fleets came to a head in the Anglo- Dutch Wars, the first wars to be conducted entirely at sea. Most memorable of these battles was the raid on the Medway, in which the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter sailed up the river Thames, and destroyed most of the British fleet. This remains the greatest English naval defeat, and established Dutch supremacy at sea for over half a century. Very few ships were sunk in naval combat during the Anglo-Dutch wars, as it was difficult to hit ships below the water level; the water surface deflected cannonballs, and the few holes produced could be patched quickly. Naval cannonades damaged men and sails more than they sunk ships. == Late modern == === 18th century === The 18th century developed into a period of seemingly continuous international wars, each larger than the last. At sea, the British and French were bitter rivals; the French aided the fledgling United States in the American Revolutionary War, but their strategic purpose was to capture territory in India and the West Indies – which they did not achieve. In the Baltic Sea, the final attempt to revive the Swedish Empire led to Gustav III's Russian War, with its grande finale at the Second Battle of Svensksund. The battle, unrivaled in size until the 20th century, was a decisive Swedish tactical victory, but it resulted in little strategical result, due to poor army performance and previous lack of initiative from the Swedes, and the war ended with no territorial changes. Even the change of government due to the French Revolution seemed to intensify rather than diminish the rivalry, and the Napoleonic Wars included a series of legendary naval battles, culminating in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, by which Admiral Horatio Nelson broke the power of the French and Spanish fleets, but lost his own life in so doing. === 19th century === Trafalgar ushered in the Pax Britannica of the 19th century, marked by general peace in the world's oceans, under the ensigns of the Royal Navy. But the period was one of intensive experimentation with new technology; steam power for ships appeared in the 1810s, improved metallurgy and machining technique produced larger and deadlier guns, and the development of explosive shells, capable of demolishing a wooden ship at a single blow, in turn required the addition of iron armour. Although naval power during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties established China as a major world seapower in the East, the Qing dynasty lacked an official standing navy. They were more interested in pouring funds into military ventures closer to home (China proper), such as Mongolia, Tibet, and Central Asia (modern Xinjiang). However, there were some considerable naval conflicts involving the Qing navy before the First Opium War (such as the Battle of Penghu, and the capture of Formosa from Ming loyalists). The Qing navy proved woefully undermatched during the First and Second Opium Wars, leaving China open to de facto foreign domination; portions of the Chinese coastline were placed under Western and Japanese spheres of influence. The Qing government responded to its defeat in the Opium Wars by attempting to modernize the Chinese navy; placing several contracts in European shipyards for modern warships. The result of these developments was the Beiyang Fleet, which was dealt a severe blow by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the First Sino- Japanese War (1894–1895). The battle between CSS Virginia and in the American Civil War was a duel of ironclads that symbolized the changing times. The first fleet action between ironclad ships was fought in 1866 at the Battle of Lissa between the navies of Austria and Italy. Because the decisive moment of the battle occurred when the Austrian flagship successfully sank the Italian flagship Re d'Italia by ramming, in subsequent decade every navy in the world largely focused on ramming as the main tactic. The last known use of ramming in a naval battle was in 1915, when rammed the (surfaced) German submarine, U-29. The last surface ship sunk by ramming happened in 1879 when the Peruvian ship Huáscar rammed the Chilean ship Esmeralda. The last known warship equipped with a ram was launched in 1908, the German light cruiser . With the advent of the steamship, it became possible to create massive gun platforms and to provide them with heavy armor resulting in the first modern battleships. The Battles of Santiago de Cuba and Tsushima demonstrated the power of these ships. === 20th century === thumb| in the Persian Gulf (1991) In the early 20th century, the modern battleship emerged: a steel-armored ship, entirely dependent on steam propulsion, with a main battery of uniform caliber guns mounted in turrets on the main deck. This type was pioneered in 1906 with which mounted a main battery of ten guns instead of the mixed caliber main battery of previous designs. Along with her main battery, Dreadnought and her successors retained a secondary battery for use against smaller ships like destroyers and torpedo boats and, later, aircraft. Dreadnought style battleships dominated fleets in the early 20th century. They would play major parts in both the Russo-Japanese War and World War I. The Russo-Japanese War saw the rise of the Imperial Japanese Navy after their underdog victory against the waning Imperial Russian Navy at the Battle of Tsushima; while WWI pitted the old Royal Navy against the new Kaiserliche Marine of Imperial Germany, culminating in the 1916 Battle of Jutland. The future was heralded when the seaplane carrier and her Short 184 seaplanes joined the battle. In the Black Sea, Russian seaplanes flying from a fleet of converted carriers interdicted Turkish maritime supply routes, Allied air patrols began to counter German U-boat activity in Britain's coastal waters, and a British Short 184 carried out the first successful torpedo attack on a ship. In 1918 the Royal Navy converted an Italian liner to create the first aircraft carrier, , and shortly after the war the first purpose-built carrier, was launched. Many nations agreed to the Washington Naval Treaty and scrapped many of their battleships and cruisers while still in the shipyards, but the growing tensions of the 1930s restarted the building programs, with even larger ships. The s, the largest ever, displaced 72,000 tons and mounted guns. The victory of the Royal Navy at the Battle of Taranto was a pivotal point as this was the first true demonstration of naval air power. The importance of naval air power was further reinforced by the Attack on Pearl Harbor, which forced the United States to enter World War II. Nevertheless, in both Taranto and Pearl Harbor, the aircraft mainly attacked stationary battleships. The sinking of the British battleships and , which were in full combat manoeuvring at the time of the attack, finally marked the end of the battleship era.Tagaya (2001) "Mitsubishi Type 1 Rikko 'Betty' Units of World War 2" Aircraft and their transportation, the aircraft carrier, came to the fore. During the Pacific War of World War II, battleships and cruisers spent most of their time escorting aircraft carriers and bombarding shore positions, while the carriers and their airplanes were the stars of the Battle of the Coral Sea,Lundstrom (2005a) "The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway" Battle of Midway, Battle of the Eastern Solomons,Lundstrom (2005b) "First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942" Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and Battle of the Philippine Sea. The engagements between battleships and cruisers, such as the Battle of Savo Island and the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, were limited to night-time actions in order to avoid exposure to air attacks.Morison (1958) "The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943" Nevertheless, battleships played the key role again in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, even though it happened after the major carrier battles, mainly because the Japanese carrier fleet was by then essentially depleted. It was the last naval battle between battleships in history.Morison (1956) "Leyte, June 1944 – January 1945" Air power remained key to navies throughout the 20th century, moving to jets launched from ever- larger carriers, and augmented by cruisers armed with guided missiles and cruise missiles. Roughly parallel to the development of naval aviation was the development of submarines to attack underneath the surface. At first, the ships were capable of only short dives, but they eventually developed the capability to spend weeks or months underwater powered by nuclear reactors. In both world wars, submarines (U-boats in Germany) primarily exerted their power by using torpedoes to sink merchant ships and other warships. In the 1950s, the Cold War inspired the development of ballistic missile submarines, each loaded with dozens of thermonuclear weapon-armed SLBMs and with orders to launch them from sea if the other nation attacked. Against the backdrop of those developments, World War II had seen the United States become the world's dominant sea power. Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the United States Navy maintained a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined.Work, Robert O. Winning the Race: A Naval Fleet Platform Architecture for Enduring Maritime Supremacy Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments Online. Retrieved 8 April 2006 The aftermath of World War II saw naval gunnery supplanted by ship to ship missiles as the primary weapon of surface combatants. Two major naval battles have taken place since World War II. The Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 was the first major naval war post World War II. It saw the dispatch of an Indian aircraft carrier group, heavy utilisation of missile boats in naval operations, total naval blockade of Pakistan by the Indian Navy and the annihilation of almost half of Pakistan's Navy. By the end of the war, the damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and Air Forces on Pakistan's Navy stood at two destroyers, one submarine, one minesweeper, three patrol vessels, seven gunboats, eighteen cargo, supply and communication vessels, as well as large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks located in the major port city of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships, Anwar Baksh, Pasni, and Madhumathi, and ten smaller vessels were captured. Around 1,900 personnel were lost, while 1,413 servicemen (mostly officers) were captured by Indian forces in Dhaka. The Indian Navy lost 18 officers and 194 sailors and a frigate, while another frigate was badly damaged and a Breguet Alizé naval aircraft was shot down by the Pakistan Air Force. In the 1982 Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom, a Royal Navy task force of approximately 100 ships was dispatched over from the British mainland to the South Atlantic. The British were outnumbered in theatre airpower with only 36 Harriers from their two aircraft carriers and a few helicopters, compared with at least 200 aircraft of the Fuerza Aérea Argentina, although London dispatched Vulcan bombers in a display of long-distance strategic capacity. Most of the land-based aircraft of the Royal Air Force were not available due to the distance from air bases. This reliance on aircraft at sea showed the importance of the aircraft carrier. The Falklands War showed the vulnerability of modern ships to sea-skimming missiles like the Exocet. One hit from an Exocet sank , a modern anti-air warfare destroyer. Over half of Argentine deaths in the war occurred when the nuclear submarine torpedoed and sank the light cruiser with the loss of 323 lives. Important lessons about ship design, damage control and ship construction materials were learnt from the conflict. ===21st century=== At the present time, large naval wars are seldom-seen affairs, since nations with substantial navies rarely fight each other; most wars are civil wars or some form of asymmetrical warfare, fought on land, sometimes with the involvement of military aircraft. The main function of the modern navy is to exploit its control of the seaways to project power ashore. Power projection has been the primary naval feature of most late-century conflicts including the Korean War, Suez Crisis, Vietnam War, Konfrontasi, Gulf War, Kosovo War, the War on Terrorism in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. A major exception to that trend was the Sri Lankan Civil War, which saw a large number of surface engagements between the belligerents involving fast attack craft and other littoral warfare units. The lack of large fleet-on-fleet actions does not, however, mean that naval warfare has ceased to feature in modern conflicts. The bombing of the USS Cole on October 12, 2000, claimed the lives of seventeen sailors, wounded an additional thirty-seven, and cost the Cole fourteen months of repairs. Though the attack did not eliminate the United States' control of the local seas, in the short- term, it did prompt the US Navy to reduce its visits to far-flung ports, as military planners struggled to ensure their security. This reduced US Naval presence was ultimately reversed in the wake of the September 11 attacks, as part of the Global War on Terrorism. Even in the absence of major wars, warships from opposing navies clash periodically at sea, sometimes with fatal results. For example, 46 sailors drowned in the 2010 sinking of the ROKS Cheonan, which South Korea and the United States blamed on a North Korean torpedo attack. North Korea, in turn, denied all responsibility, accused South Korea of violating North Korean territorial waters, and offered to send its own team of investigators to "examine the evidence." During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the armed forces of both Russia and Ukraine have openly targeted and destroyed each other's ships. Though many of these are supporting vessels, such as landing ships, tugs, and patrol boats, several larger warships have also been destroyed. Notably, the Ukrainian Navy scuttled its flagship, the frigate Hetman Sahaidachny, to prevent its capture, while the patrol ship Sloviansk was sunken by Russian air attack. The Russian Navy lost the flagship of its Black Sea Fleet, the Moskva, in what the Ukrainian Navy has claimed as a successful Neptune anti-ship missile strike. The Russian Navy, while not admitting to the Ukrainian claims of a missile attack, has confirmed the sinking of the Moskva. As of May 2022, the naval war between Russia and Ukraine is ongoing, as the Russian Navy attempts to dominate Black Sea trade routes, and the Ukrainian Military attempts to erode Russian naval control. ==Naval history of nations and empires== * Genoese Navy * Hellenic Navy (Greece) * Roman navy * Byzantine navy (Eastern Roman Empire) * Fatimid navy * Ottoman Navy (Turkey) * History of the Royal Navy * History of the French Navy * History of the Indian Navy * History of the Iranian Navy * Naval history of China * Naval history of Japan * Naval history of Korea * Naval history of the Netherlands * Bangladesh Navy * Italian Navy * Spanish Navy * Portuguese Navy * Philippine Navy * Russian Navy * History of the United States Navy * Indonesian Navy * Venetian Navy * The German navy has operated under different names. See ** Brandenburg Navy, from the 16th century to 1701 ** Prussian Navy, 1701–1867 ** Reichsflotte (Fleet of the Realm), 1848–52 ** North German Federal Navy, 1867–71 ** Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), 1871–1919 ** Reichsmarine (Navy of the Realm), 1919–35 ** Kriegsmarine (War Navy), 1935–45 ** German Mine Sweeping Administration, 1945 to 1956 ** German Navy, since 1956 ** Volksmarine, the navy of East Germany, 1956–90 ==See also== * Bibliography of early American naval history * Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history * Command of the sea * History of ship transport * Maritime power * Maritime republics * Maritime timeline * Naval history of World War II * Naval infantry * Naval strategy * Naval tactics * Piracy * Submarine warfare * Surface warfare * Thalassocracy * War film * Warship * Major theorists: Sir Julian Corbett and Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (The Influence of Sea Power Upon History) Lists: * List of naval battles * List of navies * :Category:Naval historians, list of naval historians ==References== ==Sources== * Shen, Fuwei (1996). Cultural Flow Between China and the Outside World. China Books & Periodicals. * Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China. Volume 4, Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. ==Further reading== * Holmes, Richard, et al., eds. The Oxford companion to military history (Oxford University Press, 2001), global. * Howarth, David British Sea Power: How Britain Became Sovereign of the Seas (2003), 320 pp. from 1066 to present * Padfield, Peter. Maritime Dominion and the Triumph of the Free World: Naval Campaigns That Shaped the Modern World 1852-2001 (2009) * Potter, E. B. Sea Power: A Naval History (1982), world history * Rodger, Nicholas A.M. The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. Vol. 2. (WW Norton & Company, 2005). * Rönnby, J. 2019. On War On Board: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on Early Modern Maritime Violence and Warfare. Södertörn Archaeological Studies 15. Södertörn Högskola. * Sondhaus, Lawrence. Naval Warfare, 1815–1914 (2001). * Starr, Chester. The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History (1989) * Tucker, Spencer, ed. Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (3 vol. Cambridge UP, 2002); 1231 pp; 1500 articles by many experts cover 2500 years of world naval history, esp. battles, commanders, technology, strategies and tactics, * Tucker, Spencer. Handbook of 19th century naval warfare (Naval Inst Press, 2000). * Willmott, H. P. The Last Century of Sea Power, Volume 1: From Port Arthur to Chanak, 1894–1922 (2009), 568 pp. online in ebrary * Willmott, H. P. The Last Century of Sea Power, vol. 2: From Washington to Tokyo, 1922–1945. (Indiana University Press, 2010). xxii, 679 pp. online in ebrary ===Warships=== * George, James L. History of warships: From ancient times to the twenty-first century (Naval Inst Press, 1998). * Ireland, Bernard, and Eric Grove. Jane's War at Sea 1897–1997: 100 Years of Jane's Fighting Ships (1997) covers all important ships of all major countries. * Peebles, Hugh B. Warshipbuilding on the Clyde: Naval orders and the prosperity of the Clyde shipbuilding industry, 1889–1939 (John Donald, 1987) * Van der Vat, Dan. Stealth at sea: the history of the submarine (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995). ===Sailors and officers=== * Conley, Mary A. From Jack Tar to Union Jack: representing naval manhood in the British Empire, 1870–1918 (Manchester UP, 2009) * Hubbard, Eleanor. "Sailors and the Early Modern British Empire: Labor, Nation, and Identity at Sea." History Compass 14.8 (2016): 348–58. * Kemp, Peter. The British Sailor: a social history of the lower deck (1970) * Langley, Harold D. "Union Jacks: Yankee Sailors in the Civil War." Journal of Military History 69.1 (2005): 239. * Ortega-del-Cerro, Pablo, and Juan Hernández-Franco. "Towards a definition of naval elites: reconsidering social change in Britain, France and Spain, c. 1670–1810." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire (2017): 1–22. * Smith, Simon Mark. "'We Sail the Ocean Blue': British sailors, imperialism, identity, pride and patriotism c. 1890 to 1939" (PhD dissertatation U of Portsmouth, 2017. online ===First World War=== * Bennett, Geoffrey. Naval Battles of the First World War (Pen and Sword, 2014) * Halpern, Paul. A naval history of World War I (Naval Institute Press, 2012). * Hough, Richard. The Great War at Sea, 1914–1918 (Oxford UP, 1987) * Marder, Arthur Jacob. From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow (4 vol. 1961–70), covers Britain's Royal Navy 1904–1919 * O'Hara, Vincent P.; Dickson, W. David; Worth, Richard, eds. To Crown the Waves: The Great Navies of the First World War (2013) excerpt also see detailed review and summary of world's navie before and during the war * Sondhaus, Lawrence The Great War at Sea: A Naval History of the First World War (2014). online review ===Second World War=== * Barnett, Correlli. Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War (1991). * Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War Two (Naval Institute Press, 1985). * Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (1963) short version of his 13 volume history. * O'Hara, Vincent. The German Fleet at War, 1939–1945 (Naval Institute Press, 2013). * Roskill, S.K. White Ensign: The British Navy at War, 1939–1945 (United States Naval Institute, 1960); British Royal Navy; abridged version of his Roskill, Stephen Wentworth. The war at sea, 1939–1945 (3 vol. 1960). * Van der Vat, Dan. The Pacific Campaign: The Second World War, the US- Japanese Naval War (1941–1945) (2001). ===Historiography=== * Harding, Richard ed., Modern Naval History: Debates and Prospects (London: Bloomsbury, 2015) * Higham, John, ed. A Guide to the Sources of British Military History (2015) 654 pp. excerpt * Messenger, Charles. Reader's Guide to Military History (Routledge, 2013) comprehensive guide to historical books on global military & naval history. * Zurndorfer, Harriet. "Oceans of history, seas of change: recent revisionist writing in western languages about China and East Asian maritime history during the period 1500–1630." International Journal of Asian Studies 13.1 (2016): 61–94. Category:Naval history
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The Janata Party ( JP, lit. People's Party) was a political party that was founded as an amalgam of Indian political parties opposed to the Emergency that was imposed between 1975 and 1977 by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of the Indian National Congress. In the 1977 general election, the party defeated the Congress and Janata leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister in independent modern India's history. Raj Narain, a socialist leader, had filed a legal writ alleging electoral malpractice against Indira Gandhi in 1971. On 12 June 1975, Allahabad High Court found her guilty of using corrupt electoral practices in her 1971 election victory over Narain in the Rae Bareli constituency. She was barred from contesting any election for the next six years. Economic problems, corruption and the conviction of Gandhi led to widespread protests against the Congress (R) government, which responded by imposing a State of Emergency. The rationale was that of preserving national security. However, the government introduced press censorship, postponed elections and banned strikes and rallies. Opposition leaders such as Jivatram Kripalani, Jayaprakash Narayan, Anantram Jaiswal Chandra Shekhar, Biju Patnaik, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L. K. Advani, Raj Narain, Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Ramnandan Mishra and Morarji Desai were imprisoned, along with thousands of other political activists. When the State of Emergency was lifted and new elections called in 1977, opposition political parties such as the Congress (O), Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Bharatiya Lok Dal as well as defectors from the Indian National Congress joined to form the Janata party, which won a sweeping majority in the Indian Parliament. Narain defeated Gandhi at Rae Bareli in those elections. The new Janata-led government reversed many Emergency-era decrees and opened official investigations into Emergency-era abuses. Although several major foreign policy and economic reforms were attempted, continuous in-fighting and ideological differences made the Janata government unable to effectively address national problems. By mid-1979, Prime Minister Morarji Desai was forced to resign and his successor Chaudhary Charan Singh failed to sustain a parliamentary majority as alliance partners withdrew support. Popular disenchantment with the political in-fighting and ineffective government led to the resurgence of Gandhi and her new Congress (I) party, which won the general election called in 1980. Although the original Janata Party fragmented and dissolved, modern political parties continue to invoke its legacy. == History == Having led the Indian independence movement, the Indian National Congress became the most popular political party in independent India and won every election following national independence in 1947. However, the Indian National Congress bifurcated in 1969 over the issue of the leadership of Indira Gandhi, the daughter of India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Supporters of Indira Gandhi claimed to be the real Congress party, adopting the name Indian National Congress (R) – where "R" stood for "Requisition." Congress politicians who opposed Indira identified themselves as the Indian National Congress (O) – where "O" stood for "Organisation" or "Old." For the 1971 election, the Congress (O), Samyukta Socialist Party and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh had formed a coalition called the "Grand Alliance" to oppose Indira Gandhi and the Congress (R), but failed to have an impact; Indira's Congress (R) won a large majority in the 1971 elections and her popularity increased significantly after India's victory in the war of 1971 against Pakistan. However Indira's subsequent inability to address serious issues such as unemployment, poverty, inflation and shortages eroded her popularity. The frequent invoking of "President's rule" to dismiss state governments led by opposition political parties was seen as authoritarian and opportunist. Political leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Kripalani and Congress (O) chief Morarji Desai condemned Indira's government as dictatorial and corrupt. Narayan and Desai founded the Janata Morcha (People's Front), the predecessor of what would become the Janata party. The Janata Morcha won the elections for the Vidhan Sabha (State Legislature) of the state of Gujarat on 11 June 1975. Raj Narain, a leader of the Socialist Party (India), who had unsuccessfully contested election against Indira from the constituency of Rae Bareilly in 1971, lodged a case at the Allahabad High Court, alleging electoral malpractices and the use of government resources for her election campaign. On 12 June 1975 in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain, the Allahabad High Court found Indira guilty and barred her from holding public office for six years. Opposition politicians immediately demanded her resignation and stepped up mass protests against the government. On 25 June, Narayan and Desai held a massive rally in Delhi, calling for a "Satyagraha" – a campaign of non-violent civil disobedience to force the government to resign. == Emergency == On 25 June 1975, the president of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, accepted prime minister Indira Gandhi's recommendation to declare a state of national emergency. Indira argued that the political and civil disorder constituted a threat to national security. A state of emergency enabled the central government to issue executive decrees without requiring the consent of Parliament. Elections were postponed and public gatherings, rallies and strikes were banned. Curfews were imposed and police forces were empowered to make warrantless searches, seizures and arrests. Indira's government imposed "President's rule" in the states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, dismissing the governments controlled by opposition political parties. The central government also imposed censorship on radio, television and newspapers. Across the country, police forces arrested thousands of opposition political activists, as well as leaders such as Raj Narain, Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani,Anantram Jaiswal, Kamaraj, Morarji Desai, Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Vijaya Raje Scindia, Charan Singh, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Lal Krishna Advani and others. Opposition political organizations such as the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) were banned and their leaders arrested. Only the Communist Party of India supported the state of emergency. Due to the advancing age and failing health, Narayan was released from prison, but remained prohibited from political activity. During the Emergency, Indira Gandhi implemented a 20-point program of economic reforms that resulted in greater economic growth, aided by the absence of strikes and trade union conflicts. Encouraged by these positive signs and distorted and biased information from her party supporters, Indira called elections for May 1977. However, the emergency era had been widely unpopular. The most controversial issue was the 42nd amendment to the Constitution of India, which deprived citizens of direct access to the Supreme Court, except when violation of the fundamental rights resulted from Union law. The Parliament was given unrestrained power to amend any parts of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was given exclusive jurisdiction as regards determination of the constitutional validity of laws passed by the Union government. It restricted the power of the courts to issue stay orders or injunctions. Almost all parts of the Constitution saw changes through this amendment. The clampdown on civil liberties and allegations of widespread abuse of human rights by police had angered the public. Indira Gandhi was believed, by the public at large to be under the influence of a clique of politicians led by her youngest son, Sanjay Gandhi, who had become notorious for using his influence in the government and the Congress party for alleged corrupt activities. Sanjay Gandhi had masterminded the Union government's unpopular campaign of family planning, which had allegedly involved forcible sterilization of young men by government officials. Sanjay Gandhi had also instigated the demolition of slums in the Jama Masjid area of New Delhi, the national capital, which left thousands of people, mostly Muslims, homeless. Indian laborers, urban workers, teachers and government employees were also disenchanted by wage freezes and the curtailing of trade union activities and rights. == Creation == Calling elections on 18 January 1977 the government released political prisoners and weakened restrictions and censorship on the press, although the state of emergency was not officially ended. When opposition leaders sought the support of Jayaprakash Narayan for the forthcoming election, Narayan insisted that all opposition parties form a united front. The Janata Party was officially launched on 23 January 1977 when the Janata Morcha, Charan Singh's Bharatiya Lok Dal, Swatantra Party, the Socialist Party of India of Raj Narain and George Fernandes, and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) joined, dissolving their separate identities (the merger of all party organizations was to be completed after the election). Although the political ideologies of Janata constituents were diverse and conflicting, the party was able to unite under the over- reaching appeal of Jayaprakash Narayan, who had been seen as the ideological leader of the anti-Emergency movement and now the Janata party. Chandra Shekhar became first president of Janata Party. Ramakrishna Hegde became the party general secretary, and Bharatiya Jana Sangh politician Lal Krishna Advani became the party spokesperson. The Janata manifesto was released on 10 February, which declared that the coming election presented voters with: As it became clear that Indira's Emergency rule had been widely unpopular, defections from the Congress (R) government increased. The most significant was that of Jagjivan Ram, who commanded great support amongst India's Dalit communities. A former Minister of Defence, Ram left the Congress (R) and along with his supporters formed the Congress for Democracy on 2 February 1977. Other co-founders included the former Chief Minister of Orissa Nandini Satpathy, former Union Minister of State for Finance K. R. Ganesh, former MP D. N. Tiwari and Bihar politician Raj Mangal Pandey. Although committing to contest the election with the Janata party, Ram resisted merging his party organization with Janata. It was ultimately decided that the Congress for Democracy would contest the election with the same manifesto as the Janata party and would join the Janata party in Parliament, but would otherwise retain a separate identity (the CFD would merge with the Janata party after the elections on 5 May). On 30 January 1977 the Communist Party of India (Marxist) announced that it would seek to avoid a splintering in the opposition vote by not running candidates against the Janata party. === Constituent Parties === * Bharatiya Lok Dal ** Bharatiya Kranti Dal ** Swatantra Party ** Socialist Party *** Praja Socialist Party *** Samyukta Socialist Party ** Utkal Congress * Bharatiya Jana Sangh * Congress (O) * Congress for Democracy * Congress (R) Rebels like Chandra Shekhar, Krishan Kant, Ram Dhan, Mohan Dharia, Chandrajit Yadav, Lakshmi Kanth == 1977 elections == During the election campaign, the leaders of the Congress (R) and the Janata party traveled across the country to rally supporters. Indira and her Congress (R) promoted the record of achieving economic development and orderly government. Although she offered apologies for abuses committed during the Emergency, Indira and the Congress (R) defended the rationale 455 of imposing the state of emergency as being essential for national security. On the other hand, Janata leaders assailed Indira for ruling as a dictator and endangering human rights and democracy in India. Janata's campaign evoked memories of India's freedom struggle against British rule, during which Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani and Morarji Desai had first emerged as political leaders. Although Narayan and Kripalani did not seek office themselves, they became the leading campaigners for the Janata party, drawing great masses of people in rallies across the country. Actions taken during Emergency significantly diminished support for the Congress (R) amongst its most loyal constituencies. The bulldozing of slums near the Jama Masjid was widely unpopular amongst India's Muslims, and the defection of Jagjivan Ram significantly diminished support for the Congress (R) amongst India's Dalits. BLD leader Charan Singh's peasant roots helped him raise considerable support in the rural parts of Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state of India. The Shiromani Akali Dal, the party of the Sikhs of Punjab and regional political parties such as the Tamil Nadu-based Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam became important allies. The leaders of the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Jana Sangh rallied India's middle-class merchants, traders and conservative Hindus. The Hindu nationalist RSS and trade unions aligned with Janata helped rally considerable voting blocs. The 1977 election drew a turnout of 60% from an electorate of more than 320 million. On 23 March, it was announced that the Janata party had won a sweeping victory, securing 43.2% of the popular vote and 271 seats. With the support of the Akali Dal and the Congress for Democracy, it had amassed a two-thirds, or absolute majority of 345 seats. Although the Congress for Democracy won 28 seats, Ram's standing as a national Dalit leader and moving a significant share of the Dalit vote to the Janata party and its allies won him considerable influence. In contrast to the rest of the country, the Janata party won only six seats from India's southern states – none from the state of Kerala – where the Emergency had not caused political unrest. The Congress (R) won a total of 153 seats, mainly from India's south. However, Janata candidates resoundingly defeated Congress (R) candidates in the northern "Hindi belt", especially in Uttar Pradesh. One of the most shocking outcomes of the election was the defeat of Indira Gandhi in her bid to seek re-election from her constituency of Rae Bareilly, which she lost to her 1971 opponent Raj Narain by a margin of 55,200 votes. The Congress (R) did not win any seats in Uttar Pradesh and was wiped out in 10 states and territories by Janata candidates. Summary of the 1977 March Lok Sabha election results of India, using alliances under Morarji Government from 1977 to 1979''' Sources: Keesing's – World News Archive Alliances Party Seats won Change Popular votes % Janata alliance Seats: 345 Seat Change: +233 Popular vote %: 51.89 Janata Party / Congress for Democracy 298 +245 43.17 == Government formation == On the morning of 24 March, Jayaprakash Narayan and Jivatram Kripalani led the newly elected Janata MPs to Raj Ghat, where the ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were laid, and administered a pledge to continue Gandhi's work and preserve honesty in serving the nation. Immediately afterwards, the Janata party faced a serious challenge in choosing a leader to become India's new prime minister, where the rival bids of party leaders could divide the party and weaken its majority before it took power. Janata party chairman Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram enjoyed the support of a significant number of Janata MPs and the activists brought from their own political parties into the Janata organization. To avoid a potentially divisive contest, Janata leaders asked Jayaprakash Narayan and Jivatram Kripalani to select the party's leader, pledging to abide by their choice. After a period of deliberation, Narayan and Kripalani selected Morarji Desai to become the chairman of the Janata Parliamentary Party on 24 May. Although some leaders such as George Fernandes and Jagjivan Ram hesitated to support Desai and criticized the undemocratic method of selection, Desai's position was soon confirmed and consolidated. Taking office as prime minister, Desai also took charge of the Ministry of Finance. He sought to carefully distribute important posts to satisfy Janata's different constituents and the most powerful party leaders who were rivals for his own position of leadership. Both Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram were accorded the title of deputy prime minister. Charan Singh became the Minister of Home Affairs, the second-most important position in the Council of Ministers, while Jagjivan Ram took charge of the Ministry of Defence. BJS leaders Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani were respectively given charge of the Ministry of External Affairs and the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Raj Narain was appointed Minister of Health, Madhu Dandavate was to head the Ministry of Railways and trade unionist George Fernandes was made the Ministry of Communications. Jurist Shanti Bhushan was appointed Minister of Law and Justice. Congress (O) veteran and Janata candidate Neelam Sanjiva Reddy won the presidential election to become the 6th President of India on 25 July 1977. The results of its election defeat considerably weakened and diminished the Congress (R). Significant numbers of Congress (R) MPs and activists condemned Indira's leadership and left the party. As a result, MPs still loyal to Indira Gandhi renamed their party to Congress (I) – "I" standing for Indira. Although no longer an MP, Indira Gandhi continued as the president of Congress (I), which remained the largest opposition party. thumb|250px|Indian prime minister Morarji Desai (1977–1979) == Janata rule == The first actions taken by the Desai government were to formally end the state of emergency and media censorship and repeal the controversial executive decrees issued during the Emergency. The Constitution was amended to make it more difficult for any future government to declare a state of emergency; fundamental freedoms and the independence of India's judiciary was reaffirmed. The new government also proceeded to withdraw all charges against the 25 accused in the Baroda dynamite case, which included the new Minister of Industry, George Fernandes. The Minister of Railways reinstated the railway employees disciplined after the May 1974 strike. The Desai government proceeded to establish inquiry commissions and tribunals to investigate allegations of corruption and human rights abuses by members of Indira Gandhi's government, political party and the police forces. Specific inquiries were instituted on Sanjay Gandhi's management of the state-owned Maruti Udyog Ltd., the activities of the former Minister of Defence Bansi Lal and the 1971 Nagarwala scandal. Both Indira and her son Sanjay were charged with allegations of corruption and briefly arrested. === Elections in the states === Immediately upon taking office, the Janata government pressured the ten state governments where the Congress was in power to dissolve the state assemblies and hold fresh elections in June. Tamil Nadu witnessed the massive victory of the AIADMK, led by M. G. Ramachandran. Home Minister Charan Singh argued that the ruling party had been resoundingly rejected by voters and would need to win a new mandate from the people of the states. The Congress (R) was defeated in all the states, and the Janata party took power in seven – Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. In Punjab, the Janata party formed a coalition government with the Akali Dal. In Bihar, Karpuri Thakur won the closely contested Janata legislature party leadership from the then Bihar Janata Party chief Satyendra Narayan Sinha to become the Bihar Chief Minister. The number of Janata members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of all the states increased from 386 to 1,246 seats. The government also called fresh elections in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, where the Janata party won 13 seats to the Congress' 11, and the veteran Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah returned to power after having been dismissed in 1953. === Foreign policy === Prime Minister Morarji Desai and the Minister of External Affairs Atal Bihari Vajpayee began significant changes in India's foreign policy, moving away from the course adopted by Indira's government. Both Pakistan and China had celebrated the ouster of Indira Gandhi, who had preserved a hardline stance against India's rival neighbors. In 1979, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the highest-ranking Indian official to visit Beijing, meeting China's leaders. The Desai government re-established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, which had been severed due to the Sino-Indian War of 1962. Both nations established regular dialogue to resolve long-standing territorial disputes, expand trade and enhance border security. The Desai government ended India's support for the guerrillas loyal to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the founding leader of Bangladesh, who had been assassinated in 1975 by military officers and replaced by a military regime that sought to distance itself from India. India also sought to improve relations with the United States, which had been strained due to the latter's support for Pakistan during the 1971 war and India's subsequent proximity with the Soviet Union. The Janata government announced its desire to achieve "genuine" non-alignment in the Cold War, which had been the long-standing national policy. In 1978, Jimmy Carter became the third U.S. president to make an official visit to India. Both nations sought to improve trade and expand cooperation in science and technology. Vajpayee represented India at the U.N. conference on nuclear disarmament, defending India's nuclear programme and its refusal to sign non-proliferation treaties. === Economic policy === The Janata government had lesser success in achieving economic reforms. It launched the Sixth Five-Year Plan, aiming to boost agricultural production and rural industries. Seeking to promote economic self-reliance and indigenous industries, the government required multi- national corporations to go into partnership with Indian corporations. The policy proved controversial, diminishing foreign investment and led to the high-profile exit of corporations such as Coca-Cola and IBM from India. == Fall of the government == Despite a strong start, the Janata government began to wither as significant ideological and political divisions emerged. The party consisted of veteran socialists, trade unionists and pro-business leaders, making major economic reforms difficult to achieve without triggering a public divide. Socialists and secular Janata politicians shared an aversion to the Hindu nationalist agenda of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, whose members included Vajpayee, Advani and other leaders from the former Bharatiya Jana Sangh. Violence between Hindus and Muslims led to further confrontations within the Janata party, with most Janata leaders demanding that Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani choose between staying in government and being members of the RSS. Both Vajpayee and Advani as well as other members of the former BJS opted to remain members of the RSS and consequently resigned from their posts and from the party. The decline in the popularity of the Janata government was aided by the stalled prosecution of Emergency-era abuses. The government had failed to prove most of the allegations and obtained few convictions. Cases against Indira Gandhi had also stalled for lack of evidence, and her continued prosecution began to evoke sympathy for her from the Indian public and anger of her supporters, who saw it as a "witch hunt." In June 1978, Raj Narain attacked party president Chandra Shekhar and Bharatiya Jana Sangh. On 16 June 1978, Charan Singh announced his resignation from Janata Party parliamentary board. Janata Party parliamentary board which met on 22 June 1978 issued show-cause notices to Raj Narain, Devi Lal, Ram Dhan, Jabbar Singh and Sibhan Lal Saxena. On 1 July 1978, Charan Singh resigned from the cabinet of Morarji Desai because of growing differences between them over trial of Indira Gandhi. On 24 January 1979, Charan Singh returned into cabinet and held two portfolios of Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance. Hirubhai M. Patel was shifted from Finance ministry to Home Ministry. Through 1979, support for Morarji Desai had declined considerably due to worsening economic conditions as well as the emergence of allegations of nepotism and corruption involving members of his family. Desai's confrontational attitude eroded his support. His main rival Charan Singh had developed an acrimonious relationship with Desai. Protesting Desai's leadership, Singh resigned and withdrew the support of his Bharatiya Lok Dal. Desai also lost the support of the secular and socialist politicians in the party, who saw him as favoring the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Jana Sangh. On 19 July 1979 Desai resigned from the government and eventually retired to his home in Mumbai (then Bombay). The failing health of Jayaprakash Narayan made it hard for him to remain politically active and act as a unifying influence, and his death in 1979 deprived the party of its most popular leader. Dissidents projected Charan Singh as the new prime minister in place of Desai. President Neelam Sanjiva Reddy appointed Charan Singh as the Prime Minister of a minority government on the strength of 64 MPs, calling upon him to form a new government and prove his majority. The departure of Desai and the BJS had considerably diminished Janata's majority, and numerous Janata MPs refused to support Charan Singh. MPs loyal to Jagjivan Ram withdrew themselves from the Janata party. Former allies such as the DMK, Shiromani Akali Dal and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) had distanced themselves from the Janata party. Desperately seeking enough support for a majority, Charan Singh even sought to negotiate with Congress (I), which refused. After only three weeks in office, Charan Singh resigned. With no other political party in position to establish a majority government, President Reddy dissolved the Parliament and called fresh elections for January 1980. In 1980 general elections, Janata Party declared Jagjivan Ram as its Prime Ministerial candidate, but the party won only 31 seats out of 542. == Party Presidents == * Chandra Shekhar (1977–1988) * Ajit Singh (1988) * Subramanian Swamy (1990–2013) == General election results == === Lok Sabha seats === Year Legislature Seats contested Seats won Change in seats Percentage of votes Vote swing Ref. 1977 6th Lok Sabha 405 295 41.32% 41.32% 1980 7th Lok Sabha 433 264 18.97% 22.35% 1984 8th Lok Sabha 207 21 6.89% 12.08% 1989 9th Lok Sabha 155 10 1.01% 5.88% 1991 10th Lok Sabha 349 5 3.37% 2.36% 1996 11th Lok Sabha 101 5 0.19% 3.18% 1998 12th Lok Sabha 16 1 0.12% 0.07% 1999 13th Lok Sabha 26 1 0.05% 0.07% == National Units == Thakur Ji Pathak (January 1982–20 January 1985) Before Thakur Ji Pathak was in Janata party. == State Units == === Karnataka === ==== Presidents ==== Veerendra Patil (1977–78) H. D. Deve Gowda (1978) D. Manjunath (1983) M. P. Prakash (1987) ==== Secretary General ==== Jeevaraj Alva (1988–1990) === Uttar Pradesh === ==== President ==== Navneet Chaturvedi ===Tamil Nadu=== ====President==== Nellai R. Jebamani''' == Demise == In the run-up to the 1980 elections, the remaining Janata party leaders tried unsuccessfully to rebuild the party and make fresh alliances. Desai campaigned for the party but did not himself stand for election, preferring retirement from politics. The Congress (I) capitalized on the aversion of the Indian public to another fragile and dysfunctional government by campaigning on the slogan "Elect A Government That Works!" Indira Gandhi apologized for mistakes made during the Emergency and won the endorsement of respected national leaders such as Vinoba Bhave. At the polls, the candidates running under the Janata ticket were resoundingly defeated – the party lost 172 seats, winning only 31. Indira Gandhi and the Congress (I) returned to power with a strong majority. Sanjay Gandhi was also elected to the Parliament. President Reddy was succeeded at the end of his term in 1982 by Congress (I) leader Zail Singh. Between 1980 and 1989, the Janata party maintained a small presence in the Indian Parliament under the leadership of socialist politician Chandra Sekhar. In 1988, Lok Dal (A) was merged into Janata Party and Ajit Singh was made its president. After some months, it merged into the Janata Dal, which had emerged as the chief opposition party under the leadership of Vishwanath Pratap Singh and the main constituent of the National Front coalition. Singh had become widely popular for exposing the role of the government of prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, the eldest son and successor of Indira, in the Bofors scandal, though on 5 February 2004, the Delhi High Court quashed the charges of bribery against Rajiv Gandhi and others. But some leaders of Janata Party refused to accept its merger into Janata Dal and continued in Janata Party. These included Indubhai Patel, Subramanian Swamy, Syed Shahabuddin, H. D. Deve Gowda, Sarojini Mahishi. On 4 January 1989, Indubhai Patel was declared as acting president of Janata Party. Janata Dal filed an application to Election Commission of India to seek the transfer of Janata Party symbol to its own. But the Election Commission froze the symbol chakra–haldhar for 1989 general election and as a result, Janata Dal had to use wheel as their election symbol. Under V. P. Singh, the Janata Dal and the National Front sought to replicate the Janata-style alliance of anti-Congress political parties. Although it failed to win a majority, it managed to form a fragile coalition government with V.P. Singh as the prime minister with the outside support of the BJP and the Communist Party of India (Marxist). However, Singh's government soon fell victim to intra-party rivalries and power struggles, and his successor Chandra Sekhar's Janata Dal (Socialist) government lasted barely into 1991. == Legacy == Although its tenure in office was tumultuous and unsuccessful, the Janata party played a definitive role in Indian politics and history and its legacy remains strong in contemporary India. The Janata party led a popular movement to restore civil liberties, evoking the memories and principles of the Indian independence movement. Its success in ending 30 years of uninterrupted Congress rule helped strengthen India's multi-party democracy. The term "Janata" has been used by several major political parties such as the Biju Janata Dal (BJD), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Janata Dal (United), Janata Dal (Secular), Rashtriya Janata Dal and others. Participants in the struggle against the Indian Emergency (1975–77) and of the Janata party went on to comprise a new generation of Indian political leaders. Chandra Shekhar, Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Deve Gowda went on to serve as Prime Ministers; Vajpayee led the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term from 1999 to 2004. Lal Krishna Advani served as deputy prime minister. Younger politicians such as Subramanian Swamy, Arun Jaitley, Pramod Mahajan, Sushma Swaraj and others were grass-roots activists in the Janata party. The Janata Party continued to exist led by Subramanian Swamy, which maintained a small presence in the politics of the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Chandigarh, Delhi and at the national stage. Janata party continued its lead as opposition in AP until the formation of TDP party, due to prominent leaders such as Jaipal Reddy, Babul Reddy and T. Gajula Narasaiah. == See also == * Janata Party (Secular) * Congress for Democracy == Further reading == * Shourie, Arun (1980). Institutions in the Janata phase. Bombay: Popular. == References == == External links == * The Rise and Decline of Janata Politics Category:Political parties established in 1977 Category:The Emergency (India) Category:1977 establishments in India Category:2013 disestablishments in India Category:Political parties disestablished in 2013 Category:Janata Parivar
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Salfit (; pronounced "Salfeet") is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, and the capital of the Salfit Governorate of the State of Palestine. Salfit is located at an altitude of , adjacent to the Israeli settlement of Ariel. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), Salfit had a population of 10,911 in 2017.2017 PCBS Census Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. p. 72. Since the 1995 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, Salfit, located in Area A, has been administered by the Palestinian National Authority,Palestinian National Information Centre while continuing under Israeli military occupation. ==Etymology== According to the Salfit Chamber of Commerce, the word "Salfit" is a Canaanite word which means "basket of grapes" (Sal meaning "basket and fit meaning "grapes").History and Development. Salfit Chamber of Commerce. Palmer in 1881 suggested the name was possible from "levelled sown field". ==History== Pottery sherds from the Iron Age I, Iron Age II, Persian, Hellenistic, and the Roman eras have been found, while no sherds from the Byzantine era have been found.Finkelstein and Lederman, 1997, p. 473. According to Ronnie Ellenblum, Salfit was re- established during early Muslim rule (7th–11th centuries) and continued to exist through the Crusader period. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Salfit was inhabited by Muslims.Ellenblum, 2003, p. 263 Pottery sherds from the Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk eras have also been found here. ===Ottoman era=== Salfit was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine, and sherds from the early Ottoman era have been found. In 1596 the village appeared in Ottoman tax registers under the name of Salfit al-Basal as being in the Nahiya ("Subdistrict") of Jabal Qubal, part of the Sanjak of Nablus. It had a population of 118 households and 2 bachelors, all Muslim. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 33,3% on various agricultural products, such as wheat, barley, summer crops, olives, goats and/or beehives, in addition to "occasional revenues"; a total of 7,618 akçe.Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 132 In the 18th and 19th centuries, Salfit formed part of the highland region known as Jūrat ‘Amra or Bilād Jammā‘īn. Situated between Dayr Ghassāna in the south and the present Route 5 in the north, and between Majdal Yābā in the west and Jammā‘īn, Mardā and Kifl Ḥāris in the east, this area served, according to historian Roy Marom, "as a buffer zone between the political- economic-social units of the Jerusalem and the Nablus regions. On the political level, it suffered from instability due to the migration of the Bedouin tribes and the constant competition among local clans for the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Ottoman authorities.” In 1838, it was noted as a Muslim village, Selfit, in Jurat Merda, south of Nablus.Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Appendix 2, p. 127 During the Ottoman era, it served as a hub for the local villages,Lockman and Beinin, 1989, p. 143 and was one of many large commercial villages in the area that served a mediating role between the administrative center of Nablus and the smaller villages.Doumani, 1995, p. 166 In 1882 the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine, Salfit was described as "a large village, on high ground, with olive groves round it, and a pool to the east. It is apparently an ancient site with rock-cut tombs." It further noted that there were two springs to the west of the village.Conder and Kitchener, 1882, SWP II, p. 287. By 1916, towards the end of Ottoman rule in Palestine, Salfit was one of the two largest villages in the District of Nablus that produced olive oil. At the time there were tensions between the residents of the village and the merchants of the administrative center of Nablus.Doumani, 1995, p. 150 The boys' school had about 100 pupils while the girls' school had 10 pupils. One of the reasons for the disparity was the locust attack on Salfit's crop earlier the previous year which had destroyed the village's harvest. Because of the consequent poverty and state of demise, parents kept their daughters at home to care for the family.Greenberg, 2010, p. 42 ===British mandate era=== In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Salfit had a population of 901; 899 MuslimsBarron, 1923, Table IX, Sub-district of Nablus, p. 25 and 2 Orthodox Christians,Barron, 1923, Table XV, p. 47 increasing in the 1931 census, to 1,415; 1,412 Muslims and 3 Christians, occupying 331 homes.Mills, 1932, p. 64 In the 1945 statistics the population was 1,830, all Muslims,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. 19 while the total land area was 23,117 dunams, according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 61 Of this, 10,853 were allocated for plantations and irrigable land, 3,545 for cereals,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 107 while 100 dunams were classified as built-up areas.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 157 ===Jordanian era=== In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and after the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Salfit came under Jordanian rule. In 1948 Salfit was the center of the Palestine Communist Party.Bardin, 2012, p. 184 Throughout the 1950s it became a major stronghold for the communist movement and center of anti-Jordanian activity.Lockman and Beinin, 1989, p. 144 Salfit was given municipality status in 1955. In 1961, the population of Salfit was 3,393 persons.Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1964, p. 14 ===1967-present=== Salfit has been under Israeli occupation since the 1967 Six-Day War. By 1989 Salfit was still a communist stronghold. Between the Israeli occupation that began in 1967 following the Six-Day War and the First Intifada, the Palestinian uprising that began in 1987, a relatively large number of the town's residents, about 600 out of a population of 4,500, worked labor jobs in Israel proper and in the adjacent Israeli settlement of Ariel. In Salfit there was a higher proportion of laborers who worked in Israeli establishments, compared to other Palestinian towns, because of the proximity to nearby settlements and the border with Israel as well as the significantly higher wages earned.Robinson, 1997, pp. 58-60. However, at the beginning of the First Intifada, nearly all workers boycotted their jobs in Israel and the following year, when many Palestinians ended their boycott, around half of the workers of Salfit refused to return to their jobs. Consequently, according to historian Glenn E. Robinson, between 1987–1989, a "virtual green revolution" took hold in the town as a result of the enthusiasm generated by the "back-to- the-land movement," agricultural expertise and the increase in additional workers. While prior to the uprising Salfit's residents acquired the bulk of their produce from the Nablus region and Israel, during the revolt the town became self-sufficient in both tomatoes, which were not grown at all previously, and cucumbers. Other agricultural products such as potatoes, eggplants, peppers, cauliflower and beans were grown in greenhouses while those that were not grown were supplied by other Palestinian farmers. Unlike in previous years, Salfit had supplied Nablus with vegetables while that city was under Israeli curfew. Part of this upsurge in agricultural activity was the cultivation of about 100 dunams of relatively isolated lands. In response to Salfit's agricultural initiative, Israel halved the town's water supply in 1989. As a result of an Israeli military measure that closed all schools in the West Bank on 3 February 1988 for the stated purpose that they served to organize violence, a number of "popular education committees" were established. These committees held classes in lieu of the closed-down schools. Families affiliated with the conservative Hamas movement sent their children to the mosque-based class while those leaned towards communism and secularism sent their children to a local union building. Classes held in the mosque were considered to particularly progressive because of gender integration.Robinson, 1997, p. 103 Between the 1960s and the late 1980s, Salfit's urban growth had mostly occurred eastward from the old town. The old town still served as a nucleus of activity in Salfit and the stone villas of the Zir and 'Afana clans still remain. In 1993, the military wing of Hamas claimed it launched its first suicide operation in Salfit.Holtmann, 2009, p. 144 In 1995 the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), which now administered the town, created the district of Salfit gained the status of governorate. Under the Oslo Accords, the city has been placed under Palestinian civil control, what is known as Area A. In 2021 the Israeli authorities published plans to construct 730 residential units around the illegal Israeli outpost of Nof Avi, which was established in 2020 by an Israeli couple as a farm, on what Israel declares is 'state land'. The new settlement was to be called 'West Ariel'. The establishment of such a large settlement, according to Salfit residents, would effectively block their own planned urban expansion.Hagar Shezaf 'New Jewish Neighborhood in West Bank Threatens Development of Palestinian Town,' Haaretz 16 November 2021. ==Demographics== In the 1997 census by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) the population of Salfit was 7,101. Nearly 13% of the population were recorded as refugees.Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). The gender distribution was 50.6% male and 49.4% female. Over 50% of the residents were below the age of 24, while 45% were between the ages of 25-65 and the remaining 5% were over 65.Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). In the 2007 PCBS census Salfit's population reached 8,796 and the number of households was 1,840. Males and females each constituted half of the population. The age distribution was 48.9% below the age of 20, 46.6% between ages 20–65 and 4.1% over the age of 65. Over 48% of residents over the age of 12 were married, 3.6% were widowed and less than 1% were divorced.Census Final Results – Summary (Population, Buildings, Housing, Establishments) Salfit Governorate. According to the (PCBS) 2017 census, the population grew to 10,911.http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Downloads/book2364.pdf page 72 ==Economy== thumb|right|The hospital at Salfit, 2010 Salfit is a major administrative and commercial center for the dozens of villages surrounding it. However, the route for Palestinians from Salfit's northern dependencies has been sealed off by the Israel Defense Forces because of a bypass road for the settlement of Ariel crossing the main road.Makdisi, 2008, p. 34. There are several governmental offices and institutions in the city. Education services in Salfit are provided by four modern schools in addition to the Al-Quds Open University campus.Al-Quds Open University. The Salfit Governorate is also an area that is well known in the field of stone cutting and marble. An industrial zone was established on 200 dunams of land at the east end of Salfit. The Salfit Governorate is the largest olive oil producer in the Palestinian territories, producing 1,500 tons annually.Salfit Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture Zaytoun, the Palestinian Olive Tree Association, is active with Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees (PARC) in Salfit to improve the quality and sales of Palestinian Olive oil.Palestinian Olive Tree Association Salfit is located just across a valley to the south of the Israeli settlement of Ariel and around 1/3 the population of Ariel, about midway between Nablus and Ramallah. On 30 May 2008 the US Consulate General in Jerusalem presented 700 books and 100 magazines for a new library at the Community-Based Learning Center in Salfit and the ceremony was attended by the PA Ministry of Youth and Sports official, Hussein Azzam, Deputy Governor of Salfit, Nawaf Souf.US consulate Jerusalem The Community Center is located on al-Madares Street in Salfit and was established by the Relief International Schools Online (RISOL) in 2007. The Salfit Hospital was completed in 2006. Before the closest government hospitals were in Nablus, Tulkarm and Ramallah, all more than a one-hour's drive away.Salfit Hospital Project Fact Sheet . United Nations Development Programme. ===Water treatment plant=== There are a large number of water springs in and around the city but they unable to cope with the growing demand of the city. For the past nine years, the municipality has been trying to build a waste-water treatment plant to service the residents of Salfit town. In July 2007, the House of Water and Environment (HWE) of Ramallah produced a report the “Assessment of the Impact of Pollution Sources on the Water Environment and the Lives of the Residents in the Northern West Bank, Palestine”. The plant was supposed to be built on Salfit Governorate land from the town of Salfit. The municipality received a grant of 22 million euros from the German government to build the plant and a mainline pipe to the town but the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) stopped the construction of the building and seized all the equipment because it allegedly would interfere with the nearby Israeli settlements.HWE p. 8 The equipment was returned only 18 months later. As a result, the town had to take out a loan to buy a new piece of land eight kilometers closer to its outskirts and another loan of 2 million euros to move the pipes and the electricity cables. Although Israel approved the new site of the plant, the planned West Bank Barrier will now separate Salfit from the sewage plant. In May 2006, international human rights organizations were called to witness sewage of Ariel settlement running into the agriculture valleys north of the city and damaging the surrounding agriculture and environment.alternativenews.org In June, 2016, Salfit and other towns in the area had to go without running water for weeks, as the Israeli Mekorot reduced the amount of water it sold to the Palestinians.Israel incapable of telling truth about water it steals from Palestinians, by Amira Hass, Jun. 22, 2016, Haaretz ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Official Municipality Website * Salfit Chambers Of Commerce * Salfit City Website *Welcome To The City of Salfit *Salfit City, Welcome to Palestine *Survey of Western Palestine, Map 14: IAA, Wikimedia commons *Salfit Municipality (including Khirbet Qeis Locality) (Fact Sheet), Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem (ARIJ) *Salfit City Profile (including Khirbet Qeis Locality), ARIJ *Salfit, aerial photo, ARIJ *Development Priorities and Needs in Salfit, ARIJ Category:Cities in the West Bank Category:Municipalities of West Bank
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Jerónimo Osório da Fonseca (1506The Universities of Lisbon and Coimbra attribute 1515 as the birthdate, and held a quincentennial Congress, "O Humanismo Português e Europeu", in December 2015 in honour of Osorio. Plataforma9. Encyclopedia Britannica follows F.A. Lobo giving birthdate 1506. – 20 August 1580) was a Portuguese Roman Catholic humanist bishop, historian and polemicist.Encyclopedia Britannica depends largely upon F.A. Lobo, 'D. Jerónimo Ozório, e Jacinto Friere da Andrade', in Obras de D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo, Bispo de Vizeu Vol. I (José Baptisto Morando, Lisbon 1848), pp. 293–301. (In Portuguese) An extensive notice of his life and thought (Vita) was written by his nephew, a canon of Évora also named Jerónimo Osório, to introduce his edition of his uncle's Complete Works (dedicated to King Philip I of Portugal) published in 1592.'Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani Vita auctore Hieronymo Osorio nepote', in Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani Episcopi Algarbiensis Opera Omnia, Hieronymi Osorii Nepotis Canonici Eborensis Diligentia in unum collecta et in quatuor volumina distributa (ex bibliotheca Georgii Ferrarii, Romae; ex typographia Bartholomaei Bonfadini, Romae; ex typographia Gabiana, Romae 1592), Volume I, pages 1–19 (separate pagination). (In Latin). F.A. Lobo apparently depends upon this. ==Life== ===Young life and education=== Osório was a native of Lisbon and one of two sons of João Osório de Fonseca, and Francisca, daughter of Affonso Gil de Gouveia, Ouvidor of the lands of the Infante Ferdinand,Lobo, 'Jerónimo Osório', p. 294. both families of aristocratic lineage. His father, appointed by John III to be Ouvidor Geral (Auditor-GeneralN.R. Madhava Menon (ed.), Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 9, Goa 2002 (Allied Publishers, 2003), p. 56.) of Portuguese rule in India, went alone, and there found himself under the authority of Vasco da Gama.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, p. 1. Jerónimo, at school in Portugal, showed such prodigious ability in Latin that in 1519, when aged 13, his mother sent him to Salamanca in Spain to study civil law.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, p. 1. Two years later, with further fluency in Latin and Greek, he returned home wanting to make a military career with the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes: his father sent him back to Salamanca, where he worked to strengthen and discipline both body and mind for that calling when his father's objections should be overcome.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, pp. 1–2. But he developed strongly devotional feelings, and on his father's death his mother persuaded him to give up military ambitions.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, pp. 1–2. In 1525, aged 19, he went to Paris to study Aristotelian logic and Natural philosophy.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, pp. 2–3. There he became a near associate of Peter Faber, who with his companion Francis Xavier and others was then drawing close to Ignatius of Loyola.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, p. 3. Returning to Portugal to settle his affairs, Osório next proceeded for Theology to Bologna, immersing himself in the Church Fathers (particularly Gregory Nazianzen, St Basil, John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo and St Jerome) and St Thomas Aquinas and making a higher study of Cicero, Demosthenes and Plato.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, p. 3. His Neoplatonic leanings were nourished by the Corpus Areopagiticum, the author of which he considered, next to the Apostles, to be the prince of theologians.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, p. 3. He made such a name that King John III invited him in 1536–1537 to lecture in the reorganized University of Coimbra, where he expounded on Isaiah and on St Paul's Epistle to the Romans.Lobo, 'Jerónimo Osório', p. 295. ===De Nobilitate=== Returning to Lisbon in 1540 he became secretary to Prince Luís, and tutor to his son António (afterwards Prior of Crato), obtaining also two benefices in the diocese of Viseu. Before the age of 30 he had begun his twin treatises De Nobilitate Civili and De Nobilitate Christiana: their publication in Lisbon in 1542 rapidly won him international acclaim.Hieronymi Osorij Lusitani, De Nobilitate Ciuili, libri duo; (eiusdem) De Nobilitate Christiana, libri tres (Ludovicum Rodericum [Luis Rodrigues], Olyssipone [Lisbon] 1542). Opera Omnia (1592), Vol. 1, pp. 1–36, 37–112. His mastery of Latin style earned him the name "The Portuguese Cicero". After the death of Prince Luís in 1553, he withdrew from court to his churches.Encyclopedia Britannica, after F.A. Lobo. De Nobilitate was promoted by his friend Roger AschamFor Ascham on Osório, see R. Greene, Five Words: Critical Semantics in the Age of Shakespeare and Cervantes (University of Chicago Press, 2013), pp. 27–29. in England to William Paget,L.V. Ryan, Roger Ascham, c. 1515–1568 (Stanford University Press, 1963), p. 196. Cuthbert Tunstall,St John's College, Cambridge, Aa. 6. 20/AsR 3.8. Sir William Petre and, in 1555, to Cardinal Pole.St John's College, Cambridge, Aa. 6. 20*/AsR 3.9. See S. Anglo, 'Osorio and Machiavelli: From Open Hostility to Covert Approbation', in Machiavelli – The First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility and Irrelevance, Oxford Warburg Studies (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 143–163. Images of Ascham's dedications can be seen at the St John's College, Cambridge website Library pages. (To Pole he afterwards dedicated his work De Justitia Caeli.) He was named archdeacon of Évora in 1560, and much against his will became Bishop of Silves, the diocese of the Algarve, in 1564.Prestage, Encyclopedia Britannica 1911. ===The English question=== As Osório had denounced Machiavelli, so in addressing England he could denounce the influence of Martin Luther and Martin Bucer.E.F. Hirsch, Damião de Gois: The Life and Thought of a Portuguese Humanist, 1502–1574, International Archives of the History of Ideas, 19 (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1967), pp. 182–84. As the Council of Trent drew towards its close, in 1562, at the prompting of Cardinal Henrique,Osório was reputedly moved to this by a dream in which, while fishing from the promontory, he caught a sea monster: brought to the beach, it turned into a beautiful woman wearing a royal crown, who kneeling at his feet begged for baptism. Osórius, Vita Auctoris, p. 5. Osório published a Latin epistle to Queen Elizabeth urging her to return to the Roman Catholic communion and to accept papal authority.Latin texts in A. Guimarães Pinto, Humanismo e Controvérsia Religiosa: Lusitanos e Anglicanos III (Imprensa Nacional – Casa da Moeda, Lisboa 2006).B.C. Lockey, Early Modern Catholics, Royalists and Cosmopolitans: English Transnationalism and the Christian Commonwealth (Routledge, 2016), pp. 39–48. An English translation, A Pearl for a Prince, was issued by Richard Shacklock, a Catholic Englishman at Louvain.(Richard Shacklock), An epistle of the reuerend father in God Hieronymus Osorius Bishop of Arcoburge in Portugale, to the most excellent Princesse Elizabeth by the grace of God Quene of England, Fraunce, and Ireland. &c.; (Aegidius Diest, Antwerp 1565). Taken aback by this public reproach to its sovereign, the English government employed Walter Haddon to compose a Latin response, published in Paris (English translation by Abraham Hartwell (the elder)).(Abraham Hartwell), A sight of the Portugall pearle, that is, the aunswere of D. Haddon maister of the requests vnto our soueraigne lady Elizabeth by the grace of God quene of England Fraunce and Irelande, defendour of the faith. &c.; against the epistle of Hieronimus Osorius a Portugall, entitled Pearle for a Prince. Translated out of lattyn into englishe by Abraham Hartwell, student in the kynges colledge in Cambridge (By Wiyllyam Seres dwelling at the west ende of Paules Church, at the sygne of the Hedgehogge, London 1565). Text at Umich/eebo. Osório exceeded himself in a lengthy Latin reply (English version by John Fenn).(John Fenn), A learned and very eloquent treatie, written in Latin by the famous man Hieronymus Osorius Bishop of Sylva in Portugal, wherein he confuteth a certayne Aunswere made by M. Waltere Haddon against the Epistle of the said Bishoppe unto the Queenes Maiestie. Translated into English by Iohn Fen student of Divinitie in the Universitie of Louen (Joannes Foulerus, Louvain 1568). Full text at Umich/eebo (open). Haddon prepared a rejoinder, but it remained unfinished at his death in 1572With native casuistry Osório's biographer attributed Haddon's illness and death to spiritual degeneration: Osório, Vita Auctoris, p. 10. and was completed in excellent style, and with additions, by John Foxe.J. Strype, Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion... Under Queen Elizabeth, 2nd edition (Thomas Edlin, London 1725), Vol. I, Chapter 37, pp. 422–33.W. Haddon & J. Foxe, Contra Hieron. Osorium, eiusq; odiosas infectationes pro Evangelicae veritatis necessaria Defensione, Responsio Apologetica. Per clariss. virum, Gualt. Haddonum inchoata: Deinde suscepta & continuata per Ioan. Foxum (Iohannis Daij Typographi, London 1577). Full text (page views) at Google. (open). The controversy was notorious and widely-read, and culminated in the Papal Bull Regnans in Excelsis being issued against Elizabeth.Lockey, Early Modern Catholics, p. 48. It is held that the name and colour of Osorio's diatribes influenced the character of Hieronimo in Thomas Kyd's drama The Spanish Tragedy.R. Hillman, 'Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy,' (Chapter 33), in T. Betteridge & G. Walker (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Tudor Drama (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2012), pp. 566–83. ===Later years=== The Cardinal Prince Henry, who had advanced him to the see of Silves, wished to employ him at Lisbon in state business when King Sebastian took up the reins of power in 1568, but Osório excused himself on the ground of his pastoral duties. In 1571 his extensive History of the reign of King Emmanuel was published at Lisbon,De Rebus Emmanuelis Regis Lusitaniae Invictissimi Virtute et Auspicio Gestis, libri duodecim, auctore Hieronimo Osorio Episcopo Sylvensi (Apud Antonium Gondisaluum Typographum, Olyssipone 1571) Cum Privilegio Regio. which rendered in his accomplished Latin much of the material in the Chronicle on the same subject by Damião de Góis.D. de Góis, Crónica do Felicíssimo Rei Dom Emanuel (casa de Françisco Correa, Lisboa 1566–67) digitized (Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal). Encompassing the adventures of Vasco da Gama, it coincided with the publication of Os Lusíadas, The Lusiads, of his great contemporary Luís Vaz de Camões.L. de Camões, Os Lusíadas (casa de Antonio Gõçaluez, Lisboa 1572) digitized (Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal). He further showed his zeal for the commonwealth by writing two letters, one seeking to dissuade the King from going to Africa, and the other sent during the latter's first expedition there calling upon him to return to his kingdom.Osorio, Vita Auctoris, pp. 14–15. Sebastian looked with disfavour on opponents of his African adventure, and Osório found it prudent to leave Portugal for Parma and Rome to make a visit ad limina. His scruples regarding residence, and the appeals of the King and the Cardinal Prince, prevented him from long enjoying the hospitality of Pope Gregory XIII.L. Bourdon, 'Le voyage de Jerónimo Osório évêque de Silves en Italie (1576–77)', Annales publiées par la Faculté de Lettres de Toulouse (1951). He therefore returned to his diocese, the seat of which was transferred from Silves to Faro in 1577,J.A. Pinheiro e Rosa, 'A Diocese do Algarve e a Universidade de Coimbra', Revista da Universidade de Coimbra XXXVII (1992), pp. 77–91, at p. 78. and continued there through the brief reign of the Cardinal King. He died at Tavira on 20 August 1580.Encyclopedia Britannica, which follows F.A. Lobo, which follows Osorio, Auctoris Vita. ===The library=== 125px|thumb|Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Haddon said of him that "he was a most perverse, overthwart Brawler, who besides a commendable Facility in the Latin Tongue, could profit the Publick nothing at all."Strype, Annals of the Reformation, I, p. 422. It has been said that his library was carried off from Faro when the Earl of Essex, returning from the Capture of Cádiz, raided the town in 1596.(Encyclopedia Britannica). See Lytton Strachey, Elizabeth and Essex, A Tragic History (Chatto & Windus, London 1928), pp. 104–115. The library taken by the Earl was that of Dom Fernando Martins Mascarenhas, then Bishop of Faro, whose house Essex occupied during the raid: it is said to have included many of Osorio's books.J.B. Silva Lopes, Memorias para a Historia Ecclesiastica do Bispado do Algarve (Lisboa 1848), p. 369. In 1600 Essex gave some 200 volumes to the Bodleian Library (then in the care of Thomas Bodley) in Oxford, none of which bear the signature of Bishop Osório.K.M. Pogson, 'A Grand Inquisitor, and his Library' (together with 'A list of books presented by the Earl of Essex in 1600, still in the Bodleian'), The Bodleian Quarterly Record III (Oxford 1922), pp. 239–44. It is possible however that the early codex of Tomé Pires' Suma Oriental and the Book of the cartographer Francisco Rodrigues, among the French National Manuscript Collections, belonged to Osório.A. Cortesao (ed.), The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (etc), 2 vols (Hakluyt Society, London 1944), (introduction p. xv, & note). ==Works== His principal works written in Latin include: *De Nobilitate Civile, et De Nobilitate Christiana (1542). Lisbon 1542 edition (Googlebooks). Florence 1552 edition (Googlebooks). The English version by William Blandie appeared in London in 1576.(William Blandie), The fiue bookes of the famous, learned, and eloquent man, Hieronimus Osorius, contayninge a discourse of ciuill, and Christian nobilitie. : a worke no lesse pleasaunt then profitable for all, but especiallye the noble gentlemen of England, to view their liues, their estates, and conditions in. Translated out of Latine into Englishe by William Blandie late of the Vniuersitie of Oxeford, and now fellow of the Middle Temple in London (Thomas Marsh, In Fleetestreate, London 1576). Full text at Umich/eebo2. (Reserved - Login only). *De Justitia Coelesti (1564) (Dedicated to Cardinal Pole).Hieronymi Osorii Silvensis Algarbiorum In Lusitania Episcopi, De Justitia, libri decem, [With a preface by A. Valiero, Bishop of Verona.] (J. Zileti, Venetis 1564); [Ibid.] Ad Reginaldum Cardinalem Polum, Archiepiscopum Cantuariensem. Ex Auctoris codice, misso Coloniam ab hinc plus minus nouem annis, ex quo primum edendos ipse iusserat, transcripti et emendati. Hisce libris Quaestio omnis de caelesti Justitia: hoc est; quae de Fide, et praesensione, praescriptioneque; disceptata hactenus fuere: tractatur (etc.), (Apud haeredes Arnoldi Birckmanni, Coloniae Agrippinae 1572). Cologne 1586 edition (Internet archive) *De Gloria (1568). Alcalá de Henares (Compluti) 1568 edition (Hathi Trust).Hieronymi Osorii Lvsitani, De Gloria, libri V Ad Ioannem Tertivm Lusitaniae Regem (Excudebat Andreas de Angulo, Compluti 1568); (Apud Petrum Pernam, Basileae 1573). *De Regis Institutione et Disciplina (1571).D. Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani Episcopi Sylvensis, De Regis Institutione et Disciplina, lib. VIII. Ad serenissimum et invictissimum Portugaliae Regem Sebastianum e. n. I. (Ex officina Ioannis Hispani, Olysippone 1571/2). (English edition by Francis and Tobias Matthew (Apud haeredes Arnoldi Birckmanni, Coloniae Agrippinae 1574).) Cologne 1574 edition (Googlebooks). *De Rebus Emmanuelis Regis Lusitaniae Invictissimi Virtute et Auspicio Gestis (1571),De Rebus Emmanuelis Regis Lusitaniae Invictissimi Virtute et Auspicio Gestis, libri duodecim, auctore Hieronimo Osorio Episcopo Sylvensi (Apud Antonium Gondisaluum Typographum, Olyssipone 1571) Cum Privilegio Regio. Title page (John Carter Brown Library). Cologne 1586 edition (Internet archive). *De Vera Sapientia (1578).Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani, episcopi Algarbiensis, De Vera Sapientia, libri V. Ad sanctissimum D. N. Gregorium XIII. Pont. Maximum (Apud haeredes Arnoldi Birckmanni, Coloniae Agrippinae 1579). Lisbon 1578 edition (Internet archive). The Complete Works were collected and published in four volumes by his nephew in 1592:H. Osorius (ed.), Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani Episcopi Algarbiensis Opera Omnia, Hieronymi Osorii Nepotis Canonici Eborensis Diligentia in unum collecta et in quatuor volumina distributa, (ex bibliotheca Georgii Ferrarii, Romae; ex typographia Bartholomaei Bonfadini, Romae; ex typographia Gabiana, Romae 1592) Volume I (Googlebooks).(In Latin). * Volume I (Googlebooks): (Vita Auctoris, H.O. nepotis); De Nobilitate; De Gloria; De Regis Institutione; De Rebus Emmanuelis Gestis; Epistolae * Volume II (Internet Archive): Epistolae ad Elizabetham Angliae et ad Gualterum Haddonum; De Justitia; De Sapientia; In Epistola Sci Pauli ad Romanos * Volume III (Internet Archive): Paraphrasis in Job; Paraphrasis in Psalmos; (Notationes in illos, H.O., nepotis); Commentarius in Parabolas Salomonis; Paraphrasis in Sapentiam Salomonis; (Paraphrasis et Notationes in Cantica, H.O., nepotis) * Volume IV (Googlebooks): Paraphrasis in Isaiam; Commentarius in Oseam Profetam; Commentarius in Zachariam; Oratio in Laudem D. Aecatherinae; In Evangelium Joannis De Nobilitate was turned into Portuguese by Francisco Manoel de Nascimento, into French by J. Crispin (2 vols., Geneva, 1610), and an English paraphrase in 2 vols. by J. Gibbs came out in London in 1752. His Portuguese epistles were printed in Lisbon in two editions in 1818 and 1819, and in Paris in 1859. ==Further reading== * J.B. Mayer, 'Ueber Leben und Schriften Bischofs Jeronimo Osorio', Jahresbericht von der Königlichen Studien-Anstalt in Amberg (Karl Klöber, Amberg 1845), pp. 3–8. (In German). * A.F.G. Bell, 'The Humanist Jeronymo de Osorio,' Revue Hispanique 73 (1928), pp. 525–556. * L. Bourdon, Novas Investigações sobre a Viagem de Jerónimo Osório a Itália (1576–1577) (Lisboa, 1952). * L.V. Ryan, 'The Haddon-Osorio Controversy (1563–1583),' Church History 22 (1953). * L. Bourdon, Jeronimo Osorio et Stanislas Hosius: D'après leur correspondence, 1565–1578 (Coimbra, 1956). * L. Bourdon, 'Jerónimo Osório et les humanistes anglais,' in L. de Albuquerque (ed.), L'Humanisme Portugais et l'Europe, Actes du XXIe Colloque International d'Etudes Humanistes, (Paris, 1984). * D. Bigalli, 'La trama delle passioni nel De Regis Institutione et Disciplina di Jeronimo Osorio', in Cultura, História e Filosofía. Homenagem ao Prof. J.S. Da Silva Dias, V, (1986). * D. Bigalli, 'Isole di dottrina: il dialogo De Gloria di Jerónimo Osório,' in D. Bigalli & G. Canziani (eds), Il Dialogo Filosofico nel '500 Europeo, (Milano, 1990) * N. de Nazaré Castro Soares, O Príncipe Ideal no Século XVI e a Obra de D. Jeronimo Osorio (Coimbra, 1994). * D. Bigalli, 'Senso della colpa e società umana in Jerónimo Osório,' in G. Canziani, M.A. Granada & Y.C. Zarka (eds), Potentia Dei. L'Onnipotenza Divina nel Pensiero dei Secoli XVI e XVII (Milano, 2000), pp. 63–76. * W. Goertz, 'Jerónimo Osório's political thought', Studia40 (Lisbon 1979). * M. Racine, 'A Pearle for a Prynce: Jeronimo Osorio and Early Elizabethan Catholics', The Catholic Historical Review 87 no. 3 (The Catholic University of America Press, July 2001), pp. 401–27. * S. Anglo, 'Osorio and Machiavelli: From Open Hostility to Covert Approbation', in Machiavelli – The First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility and Irrelevance, Oxford Warburg Studies (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 143–163 * T.F. Earle, 'Portuguese scholarship in Oxford in the early modern period: the case of Jerónimo Osório (Hieronymus Osorius),' Bulletin of Spanish Studies, Vol. 81 issue 7 & 8 (November 2004), pp. 1039–49. ==Notes== ==Attribution== * This is largely derived from the biographical note by F.A. Lobo. ==External links== * Works of Jerónimo Osório at Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes * Category:1506 births Category:1580 deaths Category:Writers from Lisbon Category:Portuguese chroniclers Category:Portuguese Renaissance writers Category:Portuguese Renaissance humanists Category:Maritime history of Portugal Category:16th-century Portuguese historians
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Samoan New Zealanders are Samoan immigrants in New Zealand, their descendants, and New Zealanders of Samoan ethnic descent. They constitute one of New Zealand's most sizeable ethnic minorities. In the 2018 census, 182,721 New Zealanders identified themselves as being of Samoan ethnicity with 55,512 stating that they were born in Samoa, and 861 stating that they were born in American Samoa. ==History== ===Overview=== The country of Samoa (distinct from American Samoa) has a unique historical relationship with New Zealand, having been administered by New Zealand from 1914 to 1962. Notable levels of Samoan migration to New Zealand began in the 1950s. In the 1970s, Samoan illegal immigrants were the targets of notorious "dawn raids" by the police, which led to accusations of ethnic bias in tackling illicit immigration. That same decade, some Samoan New Zealanders joined the newborn Polynesian Panthers, an organisation dedicated to supporting Pasifika New Zealanders, for example by providing information on their legal rights. The number of Samoan-born residents in New Zealand doubled to over 24,000 during the 1970s. In Auckland, Samoan communities developed in inner city suburbs, such as Ponsonby, Freemans Bay and Grey Lynn. By the mid-1970s, gentrification caused Samoan communities to relocate to more distant suburbs, such as Māngere and Massey. Grey Lynn continued to have a large Samoan population until the mid-1980s. In 1982, a number of Samoan-born residents were granted citizenship with the Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act. Samoan immigration in New Zealand has subsequently been regulated by quotas. Since 2002, 1,100 Samoans are granted entry each year. In the 1980s, figures from the Samoan community became nationally recognised New Zealand celebrities, such as rugby union player Michael Jones, who grew up in Te Atatū South. In 1993, Samoan-born Taito Phillip Field became the first Pasifika member of parliament (MP), when he was won the Otara electorate seat for Labour. Samoan New Zealanders, compared to other groups such as Dutch New Zealanders who immigrated to New Zealand at the same time, retain a large number of Samoan language speakers. ===Demographics=== The 1874 census recorded 6 Samoans in New Zealand. Numbers have increased steadily ever since, to 279 in 1936, 1,336 in 1951, 19,711 in 1976, 24,141 in 1981, and 47,118 in 2001. There were 182,721 people identifying as being part of the Samoan ethnic group at the 2018 New Zealand census, making up 3.9% of New Zealand's population. This is an increase of 38,583 people (26.8%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 51,618 people (39.4%) since the 2006 census. Some of the increase between the 2013 and 2018 census was due to Statistics New Zealand adding ethnicity data from other sources (previous censuses, administrative data, and imputation) to the 2018 census data to reduce the number of non-responses. There were 91,443 males and 91,275 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.002 males per female. The median age was 22.8 years, compared to 37.4 years for New Zealand as a whole; 62,688 people (34.3%) were aged under 15 years, 50,229 (27.5%) were 15 to 29, 59,859 (32.8%) were 30 to 64, and 9,942 (5.4%) were 65 or older. In terms of population distribution, 64.9% of Samoan New Zealanders live in the Auckland region, 27.0% live in the North Island outside the Auckland region, and 8.1% live in the South Island. The Māngere-Ōtāhuhu local board area of Auckland has the highest concentration of Samoan people at 26.8%, followed by the Ōtara-Papatoetoe local board area (24.2%) and the Manurewa local board area (19.7%). Porirua City has the highest concentration of Samoan peoples outside of Auckland at 16.1%. The Kaikōura District had the lowest concentration of Samoan people at 0.2%, followed by the Gore, Queenstown-Lakes, Southland and Waimate districts, all at 0.3%. A majority of New Zealanders of Samoan ethnicity today are New Zealand-born. At the 2013 census, 62.7 percent of Samoan New Zealanders were born in New Zealand. Of the overseas-born population, 84 percent had been living in New Zealand for at least five years, and 48 percent had been living in New Zealand for at least 20 years. At the 2013 census, 63.8 percent of Samoan New Zealanders were in the labour force, of which 15.3 percent were unemployed. The large employment industries of Samoans were manufacturing (17.3 percent), health care and social assistance (9.1 percent), and retail trade (8.7 percent). ==Culture== In 2013, 56% of ethnic Samoan New Zealanders were able to speak the Samoan language. As of 2018, Samoan is the third most- spoken language in New Zealand, behind English and Māori. Samoan cultural values, the "Samoan way of life" (fa‘asamoa), are reportedly retained particularly by elderly members of the community, and include respect and mutual help within the extended family (‘aiga), as well as fa‘alavelave (ceremonial and family obligations), and attendance at a Christian church. In 2013, 83.4 percent of Samoans affiliated with at least one religion, compared with 55.0 percent for all New Zealanders. Traditional tattooing (tatau) is embraced by some Samoan New Zealanders, both men and women, as an expression of cultural identity. Samoans have contributed significantly to New Zealand culture in the fields of art, music, literature and sport. ==Notable Samoan New Zealanders== ===Arts=== *Aaradhna – R&B; artist (Samoan mother, Indian father) *Frankie Adams - actress *Adeaze – R&B; Group Name of 2 Artists, Guitarists & Vocalists – Nainz Tupa'i & Viiz Tupa'i *Nick Afoa - singer *Alex Aiono – singer/producer (Samoan-New Zealand father) *KJ Apa – actor (of paternal Samoan descent) *Tusiata Avia - author *Teuila Blakely - actress *Jackie Clarke – actress, comedian *Joseph Churchward – graphic designer *David Dallas – rapper (half Samoan) *Iosefa Enari – opera singer *Eteuati Ete – comedian (Laughing Samoans) *Daniel Faitaua – news presenter (born in Christchurch) *Tulele Faletolu – worship leader/singer *David Fane - actor *Tofiga Fepulea'i – comedian (Laughing Samoans) *Fatu Feu'u – painter *Sia Figiel – novelist and poet *Mario Gaoa – actor, writer and director *Dei Hamo – rapper *Jamoa Jam – vocal quartet *Bob Jahnke - artist *Jay'ed – singer/songwriter *Kings – rapper/songwriter *King Kapisi – hip hop artist *Freddie Keil – musician *Oscar Kightley – actor, writer and television presenter *Yuki Kihara - artist *John Kneubuhl – television writer *Beulah Koale - actor *Ladi 6 – singer/MC *Jay Laga'aia – actor *Jawsh 685 – record producer *Lily Laita – painter and ceramic sculptor *Nathaniel Lees – actor *Andy Leleisi'uao - artist *Jonathan Lemalu – Grammy winning opera singer *Stacey Leilua - actor *Pua Magasiva – actor and radio presenter *Robbie Magasiva – actor *Rose Matafeo – comedian (Samoan father) *Karlo Mila - writer and poet *Naked Samoans – comedy group *Rene Naufahu – actor, screen writer and director *Chong Nee – hip hop and R&B; writer, producer and singer *Louis Sutherland – director, actor, two-time winner at Cannes Film Festival *Savage – rapper *Scribe – rapper *Tusi Tamasese – film director *Michel Tuffery – painter and sculptor *Lani Tupu - actor *Jared Turner - actor (Samoan mother) *Sima Urale - film director and screen writer *Tha Feelstyle – hip hop artist, rapper *Rosita Vai – pop and R&B; singer *the Yandall Sisters – singers *Albert Wendt – writer *Emily Williams – singer ===Sports=== *Maselino Masoe – Boxer (middleweight, Former World Champion) *Joseph Parker – Boxer *David Tua – Boxer *Rodney Reid - Soccer player, New Zealand *Murphy Su'a – Cricketer, New Zealand *Ross Taylor – Cricketer, New Zealand *Beatrice Faumuina – Discus thrower (Former World Champion) *Mark Hunt – Kickboxer in K-1 / mixed martial artist in Pride FC & UFC *Ray Sefo – Kickboxer in K-1 *Robert Whittaker – mixed martial artist *Cheree Crowley - Wrestler *Rita Fatialofa – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Paula Griffin – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *April Ieremia – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Cathrine Latu – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Bernice Mene – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Grace Rasmussen – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Sheryl Scanlan nee Clarke – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Frances Solia – Netball player *Lorna Suafoa – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Maria Tutaia – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Linda Vagana – Netball player (Silver Ferns) *Brad Abbey - Rugby League player *Jack Afamasaga – Rugby League player *Bunty Afoa - - Rugby league player *Fred Ah Kuoi – Rugby League player *Isaak Ah Mau – Rugby League player *Leeson Ah Mau – Rugby League player *Patrick Ah Van – Rugby League Player *Josh Aloiai - Rugby league player *Daejarn Asi - Rugby League player *Nelson Asofa-Solomona – Rugby League player *Roy Asotasi – Rugby League player *Renouf Atoni - Rugby league player *Andrew Bentley - Rugby League player *Kane Bentley - Rugby League player *Monty Betham – former professional rugby league footballer & Boxer *Dean Blore - Rugby League player *Shawn Blore - Rugby League player *Dylan Brown - Rugby League player *Fa'amanu Brown - Rugby League player *George Carmont – Rugby League player *Michael Chee-Kam -Rugby League player *Erin Clark – Rugby League player *Oscar Danielson – Rugby League player *Mark Elia – Rugby League player *Herman Ese'ese - Rugby League player *Henry Fa'afili – former professional rugby league footballer & Manu Samoa player *David Fa'alogo – Rugby League player *Poasa Faamausili - Rugby league player *Maurie Fa'asavalu – Rugby League player & Manu Samoa player *Sonny Fai – Rugby League player *David Faiumu – Rugby League player *Bureta Faraimo - Rugby league player *Sione Faumuina – Rugby League player *Max Feagai - Rugby League player *Olsen Filipaina – Rugby League player *Marvin Filipo – Rugby League player *Joe Galuvao – Rugby League player *James Gavet – Rugby League player *Pita Godinet – Rugby League player *Harrison Hansen – Rugby League player *Chanel Harris-Tavita - Rugby League player *Hymel Hunt - Rugby League player *Karmichael Hunt - Rugby League player *Krisnan Inu – Rugby League player *Masada Iosefa – Rugby League player *Willie Isa – Rugby League player *Jamayne Isaako - Rugby League player *Sam Kasiano – Rugby league player *Oregon Kaufusi - Rugby league player *Tim Lafai – Rugby league player *Ali Lauitiiti – Rugby League player *Tasesa Lavea – Rugby League player & Manu Samoa player *Joseph Leilua – Rugby League player *Connelly Lemuelu - Rugby League player *Spencer Leniu - Rugby League player *Moses Leota – Rugby League player *Kylie Leuluai – Rugby League player *Phillip Leuluai – Rugby League player *Thomas Leuluai – Rugby League player *Danny Levi - Rugby League player *Jeff Lima – Rugby League player *Mason Lino – Rugby League player *Sam Lisone - Rugby League player *Isaac Liu - Rugby League player *Jamahl Lolesi – Rugby League player *Jarome Luai - Rugby League player *Patrick Mago - Rugby League player *Hutch Maiava – Rugby League player *Greg Marzhew - Rugby league player *Mose Masoe – Rugby League player *Willie Mason - Rugby League player *Suaia Matagi – Rugby League player *Steve Matai – Rugby League player *Ben Matulino – Rugby League player *Ken Maumalo – Rugby league player *Wayne McDade – Rugby League player *Francis Meli – Rugby League player *Constantine Mika – Rugby League player *Thomas Mikaele - Rugby League player *Junior Moors – Rugby League player *Ronaldo Mulitalo - Rugby League player *Zane Musgrove - Rugby League player *Jeremiah Nanai - Rugby league player *Frank-Paul Nu'uausala – Rugby League player *Hitro Okesene – Rugby League player *Keenan Palasia - Rugby League player *Iafeta Paleaaesina – Rugby League player *Sam Panapa – Rugby League player *Abraham Papalii - Rugby League player *Isaiah Papali'i - Rugby League player *Josh Papalii – Rugby League player *Junior Pauga - Rugby League player *Jaxson Paulo - Rugby League player *Joseph Paulo – Rugby League player *Junior Paulo – Rugby League player *Franklin Pele - Rugby League player *Jordan Pereira - Rugby League player *Eddy Pettybourne – Rugby League player *Apollo Perelini – Former Rugby league player & Manu Samoa player *Sam Perrett – Rugby League player *Dominique Peyroux – Rugby League player *Willie Poching – Rugby League player *Frank Pritchard – Rugby League player *Frank Puletua – Rugby League player *Tony Puletua – Rugby League player *Nathaniel Roache - Rugby League player *Ben Roberts – Rugby League player *Iva Ropati – Rugby League player *Jerome Ropati – Rugby League player *Tea Ropati – Rugby League player *Setaimata Sa – Rugby League player & Manu Samoa player *Smith Samau – Rugby League player *Junior Sau – Rugby League player *Andre Savelio - Rugby League player *Jesse Sene-Lefao - Rugby League player *Lagi Setu – Rugby League player *Ava Seumanufagai – Rugby league player *Jerry Seuseu – Rugby League player *Tim Simona – Rugby League player *Tukimihia Simpkins - Rugby League player *Toafofoa Sipley - Rugby League player *Jeremy Smith – Rugby League player *Iosia Soliola – Rugby League player *David Solomona – Rugby League player *Denny Solomona - Rugby League player *Malo Solomona – Rugby League player *Tupou Sopoaga – Rugby League player *Chase Stanley – Rugby League player *Kyle Stanley – Rugby League player *Jaydn Su'A - Rugby League player *Sauaso Sue - Rugby League player *Anthony Swann – Rugby League player *Logan Swann – Rugby League player *Sam Tagataese – Rugby League player *Willie Talau – Rugby League player *Tony Tatupu – Rugby League player *Mark Taufua – Rugby League player *Murray Taulagi - Rugby League player *Misi Taulapapa – Rugby League player *Martin Taupau - Rugby League player *Ben Te'o – Rugby League player *Jazz Tevaga – Rugby League player *Junior Tia-Kilifi – Rugby League player *Matthew Timoko - Rugby League player *Motu Tony – Rugby League player *Kelma Tuilagi - Rugby league player *Tony Tuimavave – Rugby League player *Braden Uele – Rugby league player *Wayne Ulugia – Rugby League player *Matt Utai – Rugby League player *Joe Vagana – Rugby League player *Nigel Vagana – Rugby League player *Taioalo Vaivai - Rugby League player *Daniel Vidot – Rugby League player *Ruben Wiki – Rugby League player *Darrell Williams – Rugby League player *Antonio Winterstein – Rugby League player *Frank Winterstein – Rugby League player *Matthew Wright – Rugby League player *Cameron Howieson – Soccer player New Zealand Men's *Dane Ingham – Soccer player New Zealand Men's *Jai Ingham – Soccer player New Zealand Men's *Bill Tuiloma - Soccer player New Zealand Men's *Renee Leota – Soccer player New Zealand Women's *Emma Hunter – Swimmer (Olympics) ====All Blacks (past & present)==== * Asafo Aumua – (All Black number 1163) * John Afoa – (All Black number 1062) * Sosene Anesi – (All Black number 1054) * Ben Atiga – (All Black number 1037) * Graeme Bachop – (All Black number 885) * Stephen Bachop - (All Black number 925) * Andrew Blowers – (All Black number 956) * Olo Brown – (All Black number 910) * Frank Bunce – (All Black number 915) * Caleb Clarke – (All Black number 1187) * Eroni Clarke – (All Black number 919) * Jerry Collins – (All Black number 1002), captain * Christian Cullen – (All Black number 952) * Matt Duffie – (All Black number 1164) * Charlie Faumuina – (All Black number 1116) * Ross Filipo – (All Black number 1070) * Alex Hodgman – (All Black number 1190) * Carl Hoeft – (All Black number 971) * Alama Ieremia – (All Black number 942) * Akira Ioane – (All Black number 1166) * Josh Ioane – (All Black number 1185) * Rieko Ioane – (All Black number 1156) * Michael Jones – (All Black number 882) * Jerome Kaino – (All Black number 1050) * Josh Kronfeld – (All Black number 943) * Pat Lam – (All Black number 928) * Casey Laulala – (All Black number 1048) * Nepo Laulala – (All Black number 1139) * Anton Lienert-Brown – (All Black number 1153) * Keith Lowen – (All Black number 1020) * Steven Luatua – (All Black number 1121) * Lelia Masaga – (All Black number 1092) * Chris Masoe – (All Black number 1059) * Aaron Mauger – (All Black number 1013) * Nathan Mauger – (All Black number 1008) * Keven Mealamu – (All Black number 1026), captain * Liam Messam - (All Black number 1082) * Brad Mika – (All Black number 1024) * Dylan Mika – (All Black number 982) * Richard Mo'unga – (All Black number 1167) * Mils Muliaina – (All Black number 1033), captain * Ma'a Nonu – (All Black number 1031) * Dalton Papalii – (All Black number 1176) * Stephen Perofeta - (All Black number 1206) * Augustine Pulu – (All Black number 1136) * Francis Saili – (All Black number 1126) * Ardie Savea – (All Black number 1147), captain * Julian Savea – (All Black number 1111) * John Schuster – (All Black number 889) * John Schwalger – (All Black number 1071) * Kevin Senio – (All Black number 1058) * Dave Solomon – (All Black number 415) * Frank Solomon – (All Black number 387) * Rodney So'oialo – (All Black number 1028), captain * Lima Sopoaga – (All Black number 1145) * Benson Stanley – (All Black number 1102) * Jeremy Stanley – (All Black number 963) * Joe Stanley – (All Black number 874) * Angus Ta'avao – (All Black number 1175) * Mark Telea – (All Black number 1207) * Neemia Tialata – (All Black number 1060) * Filo Tiatia – (All Black number 993) * Isaia Toeava – (All Black number 1064) * Ofisa Tonu'u – (All Black number 957) * Jeffery Toomaga-Allen – (All Black number 1130) * Mose Tuiali'i – (All Black number 1042) * Va'aiga Tuigamala – (All Black number 900) * Patrick Tuipulotu – (All Black number 1133) * Roger Tuivasa-Sheck – (All Black number 1204) * Richard Turner – (All Black number 917) * Tana Umaga – (All Black number 961), captain * Peter Umaga-Jensen – (All Black number 1189) * Victor Vito – (All Black number 1103) * Bryan Williams – (All Black number 689) * Sonny Bill Williams – (All Black number 1108) * Rudi Wulf – (All Black number 1077) ===General=== *Tulele Faletolu – worship leader/singer – Hillsong Church *Samani Pulepule – Preacher – Evangelist ===Politics=== *Arthur Anae – politician *Barbara Edmonds - politician *Taito Phillip Field – politician *Mark Gosche – politician *Luamanuvao Winnie Laban – politician *Agnes Loheni – politician *Peseta Sam Lotu-Iiga – politician *Carmel Sepuloni - politician *William Sio – politician ==See also== * New Zealand–Samoa relations * Samoan Australians ==References== Category:Polynesian New Zealander
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The music of the Virgin Islands reflects long-standing West Indian cultural ties to the island nations to the south, the islands' African heritage and European colonial history, as well as recent North American influences. Though the United States Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands are politically separate, they maintain close cultural ties. From its neighbors, the Virgin Islands has imported various pan-Caribbean genres of music, including calypso music and soca music from Trinidad and reggae from Jamaica. The major indigenous form of music is the scratch band (also called Fungi band in the British Virgin Islands), which use improvised instruments like gourds and washboards to make a kind of music called Quelbe. A Virgin Island folk song called 'cariso is also popular, as well as St. Thomas' bamboula. The quadrille is the traditional folk dance of the islands, and include varieties like St. Croix's Imperial Quadrille and St. Thomas' Flat German Quadrille. The Heritage Dancers are a respected dance troupe that perform traditional folk dances from the Virgin Islands and beyond. == Characteristics == Virgin Islander culture is syncretic, based primarily on African, European and North American cultures. Though the Danish controlled the present-day U.S. Virgin Islands for many years, the dominant language has been an English-based Creole since the 19th century, and the islands remain much more receptive to English language popular culture than any other. The Dutch, the French and the Danish also contributed elements to the island's culture, as have immigrants from the Arab world, India and other Caribbean islands. The single largest influence on modern Virgin Islander culture, however, comes from the Africans enslaved to work in canefields from the 17th to the mid-19th century. These African slaves brought with them traditions from across a wide swathe of Africa, including what is now Nigeria, Senegal, both Congos, Gambia and Ghana.Sheehy, pp 968-974 == Folk music == Virgin Islander folk music has declined since the mid-20th century, though some traditions, such as scratch bands, remain vibrant. Trends that contributed to this change include the rise of the tourism industry, the switch of American tourists from Cuba to the Virgin Islands following the 1959 revolution, and the growth of industries based on mass radio, television and recorded music. These changes "(diluted) local traditions and (diverted) younger generations" from becoming involved in folk music, because popular styles came to be viewed as having more prestige, class and income. === Scratch bands and fungi music === Scratch bands, also known as fungi bands and formerly string bands, are a distinctive form of folk ensemble; they have survived the decline of other Virgin Islander folk traditions, through adapting to newly imported instrumentation and songs, and becoming a part of a more general revival of interest in folk culture on the islands. The name scratch band may derive from the sound produced by scraping the squash, an instrument similar to the Puerto Rican guiro, but larger, or from the word squash itself, used to refer to the bands first by American visitors and then by locals.The sound of the instrument theory is from the Jamesie Project; Sheehy, pg. 969 is the source for the other claim The traditional scratch band ensemble varied, but always used a percussive instrument, either the squash, tambourine, or a local form of double-headed barrel drum similar to the Dominican tambora, as well as an accordion, cane flute or violin as a melodic instrument. String instruments were also common, including the banjo, ukulele or a six-string guitar. The ass pipe, made out of a car exhaust tube, often provided the bass, and was played similar to the tuba. Since about the 1980s, the instrumentation for scratch bands became more rigid. The alto saxophone became the most common melodic instrument, replaced sometimes by a silver flute. Conga drums, squash, electric guitar or bass guitar, and a steel (a triangle). Banjo or ukulele, keyboard and additional saxophones or other melodic instruments are more rarely found in modern bands. The music of scratch bands are a type of folk music that dates back to the days of slavery. The slaves on the islands used everyday objects in order to fashion instruments. However, this was not unique to slaves as individuals like James "Jamesie" Brewster, considered by many as the King of Scratch in the Virgin Islands, recalls making his first banjo from an old sardine can, old white pine wood, and an old sack of flour to make twine. Lyrics traditionally function as oral history, spreading news and gossip. Modern scratch bands play a wide range of dances, including calypsos, boleros, quadrilles, international pop songs, merengues, mazurkas, waltzes, jigs and other styles. They perform at church services, private parties, public festivals, local dances and fairs, christenings and weddings, and also perform for tourists. The scratch band tradition remains most vibrant on St. Croix, where the bands Bully & the Kafooners, Stanley & the Ten Sleepless Knights, and Blinky & the Roadmasters are well known. Scratch bands are less common on St. Thomas, and in the British Virgin Islands, though the popular Elmo & the Sparkplugs hail from Tortola. === Quelbe === Quelbe is a form of topical folk song, and is the official music of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Quelbe is commonly performed by scratch bands, Stanley & the Ten Sleepless Nights being the most popular throughout the Virgin Islands, though their folk origin lies in individuals, who sang the songs in informal settings, celebrations and festivals. The music in most cases involved true stories where the listeners can identify events that happen throughout a timeline. These songs typically contained sexual innuendos and double entendres, as well as other hidden meanings; common topics included political events, such as a boycott. One example from the early 20th century chastises a carousel owner for opposing a wage increase: I rather walk and drink rum whole night Before me go ride on LaBega Carousel I rather walk, man, and drink rum whole night Before me go ride on LaBega Carousel You no hear what LaBega say "The people no worth fifteen cent a day" You no hear what LaBega say, man "The people no worth more than half cent a day" cited in Sheehy, pg. 971 === Other folk styles === The quadrille is a folk dance that was formerly an important part of Virgin Islands culture; it is now rarely performed, except on St. Croix. There, locals dance the quadrille at public performance venues, such as St. Gerard's Hall, or as educational spectacles for schools, festivals and holidays, or as entertainment for tourists. Educational and entertainment quadrille troops both wear traditionally styled clothing reminiscent of authentic attire.Sheehy, pp 971-872 Sheehy describes folkloric ensembles' clothing as "color-coordinated traditional garb reminiscent of early generations (typified by the St. Croix Heritage Dancers as led by Bradley Christian). The Virgin Islands tea meetings, the David and Goliath play and masquerade jig all probably derive from elsewhere in the Caribbean. The masquerade jig uses elements of theater, dance, music and oratory, and functions as simple entertainment with improvised jigs alternated with humorous monologues. Tea meetings are now only performed as reconstructions in folkloric ensembles; they were evenings of speech-making, feasting and the singing of hymns and parlor songs. The David and Goliath play features music, dance, theater, and dramatic and witty speeches, all based on the biblical story of David and Goliath. The Afro-Virgin Islander bamboula tradition is now only performed in a reconstructed fashion. It was a style of song, drumming and folk dance, performed by two drummers on one drum; one drum used his hands and heel, and the other two sticks. African-styled dance and group song with refrains were a constant part, with verses frequently improvised by a soloist. Traditional Virgin Islander folk music festivals were performed until the late 1950s. Masquerading (mas'ing) was an important tradition, and consisted of groups wearing theme-based costumes, and playing melodies and rhythms that suggest their identity. Instruments included a fife-and-drum ensemble that featured a cane fife, double-headed bass drum (known as keg or boom-boom) and snare drum (known as kettledrum). The Virgin Islander cariso tradition is extinct in a true folk context, but remains an important symbol of Crucian culture, and is performed by folkloric ensembles for educational and holiday events. Carisos were still performed as late as the 1990s by several elderly singers, most famously Ethel McIntosh and Leona Watson. Though similar in some ways to quelbe, cariso is more African in its melodic style, frequent sustained syllables and traditional performance context, namely women singing in groups in call-and-response. Carisos, like quelbe, commemorate historical events, and spread news and opinions about important issues. One particularly famous cariso dates to 1848, and documents the emancipation of the slaves; the first segment is the refrain, sung by a chorus, which is followed by a verse performed by a soloist singer: Clear the road, all you clear the road, Clear the road, let the slave them pass, We a go for a-we freedom. Hardship in the morning, suffering at night. No one ever help us, it is only Father Ryan. They bring we ya from Africa, that we bornin' land; Bring we ya in slavery, in the land of Santa Cruz. ==The French Virgin Islander== In the early 1900s, small groups left the small French island of St. Barths and traveled to St. Thomas, VI in search of work. Known throughout St. Thomas as "Frenchies" many played instruments such as the accordion, harmonica, ukulele and guitar and made instruments such as the "Weero or Guiros" out of dried squash from their farms and cowbells from their livestock. Cyril Querrard of the Mountain Kings Band was a pioneer in promoting the music and sound of the French Virgin Islander. He had his own weekend show at the "Luau Club" on St. Thomas where he sang and played guitar for military personnel, tourists and locals alike. Because he lived on the peak of the island, he was once introduced as "The King of the Mountain" and the "Mountain Kings" band was later formed. Other local French descent bands later followed, such as, The Originals, Obsession Band and the Under Pressure band. These bands continued to have this unique sound as a result of this mix of cultures. Shawn Querrard, lead singer of the Obsession band and son of Cyril Querrard, is known for his song writing ability. Songs like "Gypsy Girl", "Cherry tree", "Chances", "I had to let you know" and "Music Medicine" has proven longevity and popularity in many of the Caribbean islands, particularly those of French influence. == Modern and recently imported styles == Until the mid-20th century, the Virgin Islands were largely culturally isolated from international popular music. In the 1960s, a growth in tourism caused an influx of immigrants to fill the service positions the tourism industry created. These immigrants brought with them many styles of popular music, which were popularized by the growth of mass media in the islands, including television and radio. By the 1980s, Virgin Islands was home to many imported styles, especially salsa, reggae, soca, merengue and rock. Jazz, Western classical music and musical theater, along with international pop stars, were common mainstream interests, while the islands' youth formed bands and dance troupes that played styles popular across the Caribbean, mainly Latin, Jamaican and Trinidadian influenced, such as salsa, reggae, steelpan and soca. The large Puerto Rican population in the Virgin Islands kept popular music from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic a major part of the islands' industry. === Calypso === The first calypso star from the Virgin Islands was Lloyd "Prince" Thomas, who moved to New York City in the mid-1940s and continued performing for some twenty years. Charles Harris, the Mighty Zebra (a well-known Trinidadian calypsonian) influentially performed in the Virgin Islands in the 1950s; he came for the Carnival in 1952, and stayed, playing at the Virgin Isles Hotel with the LaMotta Brothers Band. The LaMotta Band, led by Bill LaMotta, was a very popular group that recorded several albums and backed Mighty Zebra on a 1957 album for RCA Records. The remaining major early calypso band from the Virgin Islands was the Fabulous McClevertys, who toured widely across the East Coast of the United States at the height of the calypso craze in the late 1950s. Another popular Virgin Islands calypsonian is Irvin "Brownie" Brown, who has hosted the islands' Carnival and has been a leading singer, radio entertainer, MC and drummer for many years. Originally from St. Thomas, he learned the timbales as a young man, and joined his uncle's hotel band in 1949 or 1950. The band soon began performing in Florida and elsewhere, and Brownie became known as a calypso singer while also learning bongos, congas and a trap set. They recorded for Monogram and then Art Records, with Mighty Panther and the Haitian singer Calypso Mama. Brownie's return to St. Thomas was followed by joining up with Milo & the Kings, a well-known band, for whom he was a percussion for seventeen years, recording a number of albums and touring across North America and the Caribbean. He began working as a DJ for the WSTA radio station in 1966, and continued for more than three decades; he had a regular talk show with calypso performances, The Original Side of Walter and Brownie. ====Salsa==== In the 1950s through present day Milo and the Kings (Emile Francis - music director) kept Latin music alive, especially on St. Thomas. Milo and the Kings were famous for playing with such famous bands as El Gran Combo (Rafael Ithier - music director and Salsa Maestro to Milo), Tito Puente, Joe Cuba, Mongo Santa Maria, to name a few. Present day Milo's Kings sometimes attempt to honor Milo with Salsa. In 1998 Puerto Rico became the birthplace of Reggaeton music, a mix of Reggae and Latin music combined with Spanish Rap & Reggae. Prominent Reggaeton Artist from the Virgin Islands include Kamakazi, Nicky Jam, Nene Ganja, Panty Man. === Soca === The Virgin Islands has been home to a number of well-known soca bands. Among the oldest and most respected are: Milo & The Kings, Mandingo Brass, Imaginations Brass, & Eddie & the Movements (later renamed the "Awesome JamBand"). The "Jam Band" (formerly Eddie & the Movements) are 20 time Road March Champions. The original "Jam Band" slowed up with the death of the band's main front man Nick 'Daddy' Friday who died in 2005. The Enforcements band hailed out of Monbijou, St. Croix (many members branched out to form different bands). The Imaginations Brass was the first group to incorporate the used of electronic drums & keyboard sequencers into their music. They started the trend & other groups (such as Seventeen Plus & the JamBand) later advanced the technique. It demonstrated the full use of the drum machines, electronic keyboards, vocals, and a bass line working together to set a new standard for Caribbean Music. Other popular bands included: Seventeen Plus (17+); VIO International; Xpress Band (St. Croix Festival's 2006-2007 Roadmarch Champions); Starlites; P'your Passion Band; Xtaushun Band (St. Croix Festival two-time Road March Champions)."; Fusion Band(St. Croix Festival four-time Road March Champions); DJATC (Daddy Jones And The Crew); the Jammerz HP (formerly known as JDPP Jammerz); De Fabulous Stroka Band; Hyvoltage Band; Code 9; Xpress Band; Jam Tyme; UMB Soldiers; Rupsion Band; Spectrum Band (St. Thomas Carnival four-time Road March Champions); Kylo & Stylee Band; and Pumpa & The Unit have also made names for themselves. There is also the 5X Road March Champs Virgin Islands Based Entertainment [VIBE] out of the Virgin Islands, British to be exact. They are known for popular hit songs: Take Over, #Rule #Uno, Rock With Me, Jouvert Feeling, Speed Bumps, Dancing, Don't Catch No Feelings, Tuck and Roll, Hello, Flashlights, Show Me, One [Jougo, MacDaddy, TeeJaay, Ramon, Glenn, Zo, Tafari, Smudge] Management: Roger Frank @ 1 284 541 0546. To all our Fans, WE love ayo bad. Love Alone!! === Reggae === A reggae scene has been flourishing in the Virgin Islands, especially the island of St. Croix. The Virgin Islands reggae scene has achieved much popularity throughout the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, the United States, South America, Europe, and Africa. Prominent reggae artists from the Virgin Islands include Pressure, Midnite, Dezarie, Army, Abja, De Apostle, Niyorah, Emanuel, Bambu Station, Inner Visions, Sabbattical Ahdah, Eno, Revalation, Iba Wicked, Jah Rubal, Jah Croix, Exodus and many more. The reggae music of St. Croix has a distinct "roots" feeling and is strongly rooted in Rastafari. A prominent known reggae label in St. Croix is I Grade Records, who have released countless Midnite releases, two Dezarie albums, Niyorah albums, Army albums and Abja albums. Bambu Station guitarist Tuff Lion, along with Laurent Alfred of I Grade Records produce many of the tracks. St. Croix also boasts a reggae radio station, WSTX 100.3 FM, which features Virgin Islands reggae. === Band music === European-based military band music first came to the Virgin Islands through ship-based bands as well as the small military ensembles of the Danish troops based in the islands. Regular band concerts were given by Danish musicians in Charlotte Amalie at least as early as 1888 at the Emancipation Garden bandstand.Adams, 305 The Native Brass Band, reportedly the first official band of local musicians, was formed under the direction of Lionel Roberts in 1907, while the Adams Juvenile Band appeared in 1910 and would be inducted into the U.S. Navy when the service took over the administration of the islands from Denmark in 1917.Adams, 74–77 & 95 The induction of this all-black unit into the U.S. Navy was remarkable for its time and thus recognized the first black musicians in the U.S. Navy since the War of 1812.Adams, 295 The United States Navy Band of the Virgin Islands gave regular public concerts on St. Thomas until the departure of the naval administration in 1931, and not long after its founding two additional navy band units were stationed on St. Croix. Alton Augustus Adams Sr., the founder of the Juvenile Band and the bandmaster of the Navy ensemble, also wrote the Virgin Islands March (1919), now the official territorial anthem of the Virgin Islands, as well as The Governor's Own, the official march of the Virgin Islands Governor. With the exception of a single surviving bamboula arrangement, Adams's marches are entirely in the standard American march style of his idol, John Philip Sousa. === Hip-hop === There has been the development of a hip-hop scene in the Virgin Islands, specifically on the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and Tortola. There is also a burgeoning hip-hop scene among Virgin Islands artists in the Atlanta metropolitan area. Prominent Virgin Islands hip-hop artists include Iyaz from Tortola, Rock City, Verse Simmonds from St. Thomas, K'Are from Tortola, Virgin Islands, British of the CB 4 Lyfe camp who also does Solo but is still a member of CB and the VI centered hip hop group Dem Rude Boyz. == Institutions and festivals == The two most prominent music institutions in the Virgin Islands are the Island Center (on St. Croix) and the Reichold Center (on St. Thomas). Both these centers provide a venue for concerts of Western classical music, jazz, musical theater and international pop stars. St. Croix is also home to a public performance venue in St. Gerald's Hall in Frederiksted, where locals dance quadrilles and otherwise perform. thumb|right|200px|A St. Thomas Carnival troupe Traditional Virgin Islander folk music festivals were performed until the late 1950s, and featured costumed masquerading. With the advent of formal parades and village festivals, local folk traditions declined, replaced by pan-Caribbean elements like calypso, moko jumbie stilt dancers and visiting performers from other islands. == Education == There are Virgin Islander institutions that support and promote the islands' folk heritage. Bradley Christian's St. Croix Heritage Dancers, for example, are folkloric group, one of several quadrille ensembles that offer a "compact, staged rendition" of folk traditions, along with educational narration. Music education in the Virgin Islands is focused primarily on the Western classical tradition, particularly orchestral and concert band music. Local folk music is also a part of the music curriculum; quadrilles are taught in schools in St. Croix, and Charlotte Amalie High School on St. Thomas is home to a well-known student scratch band. == Historiography and musicology == There is a paucity of historical documentation and musicological research and analysis of Virgin Islander music. The sound recordist Mary Jane Soule and ethnomusicologist Margot Lieth- Philipp collaborated on an annotated CD, Zoop Zoop Zoop: Traditional Music and Folklore of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John; these liner notes are among the comprehensive descriptions of folk music known. Lieth-Phillipp has also published some other material, on bamboula (which she refers to as a "forgotten" style of Caribbean music) and other topics. The loca and the Smithsonian Institution have also documented some folk traditions, but their research remains largely unpublished.Sheehy, pg. 973 Carmen Nibbs-O'Garra, wife of well-known Antiguan calypsonian Figgy, is the author of In de Calypso Tent, which, though perhaps no longer available, contains information of calypso competitions of St. Thomas and also reproduces the lyrics of popular Virgin Islands calypsos, and historical programs from past calypso tents on the islands. While not a scholarly history of the islands' musical life, The Memoirs of Alton Augustus Adams Sr.: First Black Bandmaster of the United States Navy were recently published by the University of California Press in a scholarly edition by Mark Clague. This book offers a first-hand account of musical life in the Virgin Islands from the 1900s through the 1950s. Adams's remembrances are surprisingly precise as in addition to his musical activities, he worked as a journalist and much of his writing is based upon the articles and notes he penned for The St. Thomas Times and The Bulletin as well as The Pittsburgh Courier. ==See also== * Dutch Virgin Islands * British Virgin Islands ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * ==Further reading== * * Virgin Islands Virgin Islands Virgin Islands Category:United States Virgin Islands culture Category:Afro-Virgin Islander culture
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Warbelton v. Gorges was one of the earliest heraldic law cases brought concerning English armory, in 1347. It concerned the coat of arms blazoned Lozengy Or and azure, that is a field of yellow and blue lozenges. The arms were borne by the unrelated families of Warbelton, from Hampshire,The Warbeltons bearing these arms were from Preston Candover and Sherfield-on- Loddon, Hants., not the family of Warburton/Warbleton etc. from Cheshire, as Raymond Gorges op.cit relates. The Victoria County History, Hampshire, makes reference to John W. son of John W., matching with the reference in the Calais charter of 1347. No such related names feature in the pedigree of the Warburtons of Arley Hall, Cheshire and Gorges, from Somerset, apparently without knowledge of each other or their common usage, until John de Warbelton and Theobald de Gorges served together in the English army at the Siege of Calais in 1346/7. A gentleman's armorial bearings represented his very identity and were of enormous importance to him, both as a matter of family pride and for practical purposes of personal recognition in battle and in legal seals. Warbelton made a formal complaint to the officer appointed by the king to resolve such matters, namely Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster, seneschal of England, who was commanding the English forces. A 6-man court of honour was convened and the pair were cross-examined, with evidence being sought from knights of their own localities also serving at the siege. thumb|200px|New arms of Theobald Russell "de Gorges" adopted following the judgement of 1347, known as "Gorges Modern": Lozengy or and azure, a chevron gules The case was won by Warbelton, who proved a better title to the arms, and Gorges, in order not to contravene the judgement, retained the arms with the addition of a chevron gules (red chevron) for difference. The charter drawn up in 1347 to record the judgement is preserved in the College of Arms, from which an accurate drawing was made when it was in the possession of Peter Le Neve during his tenure as Norroy King of Arms (1704–1729),A footnote on the facsimile reads: C.V.? excudebat ab autographo penes Petr Le Neve armigerum Norroy Regem Armorum i.e. "C.V. (unknown artist) drew (this) from the document in possession of Peter Le Neve, esquire, Norroy King of Arms" which facsimile forms folio 144 of Ashmole manuscript 1137 preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. At the time of the drawing it still had appended to it 5 of the original 6 seals, which provide valuable heraldic information. The timing of the case is of importance, coming just one year before the very height of the "Age of Chivalry", symbolised by the founding by King Edward III of the Order of the Garter (1348), accompanied by a lavish tournament (which was heraldry's greatest showcase) at Windsor Castle. ==Charter== thumb|400px|Award dated 19 July 1347 of a court of honour convened before Calais in the matter of Warbelton v. Gorges. MS Ashmole 1137, f.144, Bodleian Library A transcript of the original mediaeval French charter follows: :Nous Henri counte de Lancastre de Derby de Leycestre et seneschal d'engletere William de Clynton counte de Huntyngdon Renaud de Cobham Gautier sire de Manney William Lovel Stevene de Cosinton comis de monseigneur le roi d'engletere et de ffraunce aoier trier et jugger toutes maniers de batz d'armes et heames de dayntz son host en son siege devant Caleys fessouns savoir as touz presens avenir cestes.....ou ….... come Johan fiz et heir monseigneur Johan de Warbelton se plaint devant nous / Tibaud fiz monseigneur Tibaud Russel se appela …... nom de Gorges porta ses armes cestassavoir lozenge d'or et d'aszeur ... sanz diffrence et ... les ditz Johan et Tibaud jurres et examinez personalement devant nous et … … … et evidences … … … come d'autre … fust... par sang come par tesmoignance d'aunciens chivalers de leurs pays / les auncestres le dit Johan d'auncestre en auncestre du temps... ...memoire ont porte les dites armes sanz chaunge / Et vu monsiegneur Rauf de Gorges ayel de cestuy Tibaud susdit lessa ses armes et (prist?) les armes susdites de volunte et vu de ses heirs morust sanz heir male / et fust le dit Tibaut fiz de sa soer augge fust par bon delib(er)acon et avis par nous les dits armes au dit Johan heritablement Et nous avant dit Henri et William countes Renaud Gautier baneretz et William Stevene chivaler susdites a cestes (lettres ouvertes?) avons fait mettre nos seaux en tesmoignance de vite et de perpetuel record Done au dite siege en la veille de seynte Margrete l'an du grace mill CCC qaraunte sept. Translation: > We Henry, Earl of Lancaster, Derby and Leicester, seneschal of England; > William de Clinton, Earl of Huntingdon; Reginald de Cobham; Walter Lord de > Manny; William Lovel; Steven de Cosinton; commissioned by the lord king of > England and of France to hear, try and judge all manner of disputes of arms > and helms (i.e.crests?) within his host in the siege before Calais, make > known to all present and future this (decree). Whereas John son & heir of > Sir John de Warbelton makes plaint before us; Theobald son of Sir Theobald > Russell calls himself by name of de Gorges carries his arms, that is to say > lozengy or and azure … without difference and … the said John & Theobald > have been sworn and examined personally before ourselves … and evidence … > (taken) … by blood as well as by witness of ancient knights of their > counties; the ancestors of the said John from ancestor to ancestor from time > (immemorial) have borne the said arms without change; and Sir Ralph de > Gorges uncle of the present Theobald herestated relinquished his arms and > took up the said arms voluntarily and his heirs died without male heir; and > the said Theobald was the son of his sister. It has been adjudged by good > deliberation and counsel by us that the said arms (belong to) the said John > hereditably. And we the foresaid Henry and William, earls; Reginald, Walter, > bannerets; and William, Steven, knights; above stated, to these (letters > patent?) have caused to be placed our seals in witness as present and > perpetual record. Given at the said siege on the eve of St Margaret (i.e. > 19th July) the year of grace one thousand three hundred and forty-seven. ==Members of court of honour== The members of the court of honour convened to resolve the dispute are as follows, with the blazon of the arms shown on the appended seals given for each, left to right: *Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster: England with a label of France of 3 points, that is in full: Gules, 3 lions passant guardant or charged with a label of 3 points azure each charged with 3 fleurs de lys or (see Armorial of the House of Plantagenet) *William de Clinton, 1st Earl of Huntingdon: Argent, 6 crosslets fitchees sable on a chief azure 2 mullets or (per Calais roll of arms, quoted by Boutell, Charles, Heraldry Historical and Popular, London, 1863, p. 171/2) *Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham: Gules, on a chevron or 3 estoiles sable (Calais Roll, quoted by Boutell op.cit., p. 167) *Walter de Manny, 1st Baron Manny: Or, 3 chevronels sable (quoted by Boutell, p. 137) *William Lovel, 7th Baron Morley jure uxoris: seal missing. *Steven de Cosinton: 3 roses. ==Background== As the charter records, the Warbelton family had borne the arms Lozengy or and azure from time immemorial, that is to say probably from about 1215 when the use of heraldic devices became widespread in England. At the same time the arms had also been adopted by the de Morville family of Knighton, Isle of Wight; Bradpole, Dorset; and Wraxall, Somerset. A cadet branch of the Gorges family had married the heiress of the last de Morville early in the 13th century, that is to say very shortly after the Morvilles had adopted these arms. Yet the Gorgeses had by then chosen their own canting arms of a whirlpool (Latin gurges) depicted by a blue whorl on a white field, blazoned Argent, a gurges azure. The senior branch of Gorges settled at Tamerton Foliot in Devon, whilst the cadet line, which had married the de Morville heiress, became seated in the former Morville manors in Somerset, Dorset and the Isle of Wight. It was perhaps to difference themselves from the Tamerton Foliot line that they relinquished the paternal arms of the gurges and take up the former Morville "lozengy" arms. Certainly this change had been made by Ralph III, 1st Baron Gorges (d.1324), before 1300 as the Caerlaverock roll of arms records, composed by heralds at the Siege of Caerlaverock, in which the alternative term "masculy" is used for "lozengy": > Ilucques vi-je Rauf de Gorges > Chevalier nouvel adoube > De peres a tere tumbe > E defoule plus de une foiz > Car tant estoit de grant bufoiz > Ke il ne s'en deignoit departir > Tout son harnois e son atire > Avoit masole de or e de asur > Rendered into English thusGorges, Raymond, op.cit., p.18 by Rev. Frederick Brown, FSA, from whose notes Raymond Gorges produced his "History of the Family of Gorges", 1944, op.cit.: > Sir Ralph de Gorges there I saw > One newly bound to knighthood's law > Down to the earth was prostrate thrown > More than once struck by some great stone > Or staggered by the rushing crowd > Still to recede he was too proud > Upon his arms and surcoat fold > Was masculy of blue and gold > The Calais charter of 1347 confirms that the Gorges family had made such change voluntarily. Yet the matter is made more complex by the fact that the cadet branch of the Gorges family had died out in the male line on the death of Ralph IV, 2nd Baron Gorges, without issue in 1331. The latter, seemingly in an effort to preserve his family name and arms, had made one of his younger nephews his heir, apparently on condition that he should adopt the name and arms of Gorges. This nephew was William Russell, the second son of his second sister Eleanor de Gorges who had married Sir Theobald Russell (d.1341) of Yaverland, Isle of Wight, and of Kingston Russell, Dorset. Yet on William's early death in 1342 the Gorges inheritance passed to his younger brother Theobald Russell "de Gorges", the defendant in the Calais court of honour. Theobald, who died in 1381, went on to found a notable line, seated at Wraxall, Somerset, which carried on the Gorges name and "modern arms" for several centuries, a member of which was Sir Ferdinando Gorges, founder of the American province of Maine. ==Sequel== thumb|100px|Gorges quartered escutcheon, 1512, Wraxall (detail) thumb|100px|Denys quartered escutcheon, 1505, Olveston (detail) Theobald lost no time in having a chevron cut into his existing seal-die, as the existence of a charter dated 1347 bearing his new arms proves, now held in the British Museum.Gorges, Raymond, op.cit., p.37 The arms of "Gorges Modern" are displayed in the dexter position on the tomb at Wraxall, of Sir Edmund Gorges (d.1512), K.B. (great-great-grandson of Theobald Russell "de Gorges") and his wife Ann Howard, daughter of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (d.1485). Also shown on the tomb in the sinister position are the arms of Russell: Argent, on a chief gules 3 bezants. The arms of "Gorges Modern" are also quartered in the Denys monumental brass at Olveston, Gloucestershire, commemorating Sir Walter Denys (d.1505), great-grandson of Sir Maurice Russell (d.1416) of Dyrham, Gloucestershire. The judgement of 1347 appears to have been applied retrospectively in this instance as Sir Maurice Russell was the son of Ralph Russell of Yaverland, Isle of Wight, the elder brother of Theobald Russell "de Gorges". Thus, the closest male Gorges ancestor of the Denys family was Ralph de Gorges III, 1st Baron Gorges (d.1324), grandfather of Theobald Russell "de Gorges". This seems to suggest that Sir Maurice Russell himself quartered "Gorges Modern", as the Denys family would no doubt have followed his precedent in their heraldic usage, and would have had many heraldically embellished heirlooms of his from which to make their escutcheons. ==Other famous cases== Other famous mediaeval heraldic disputes which came before the jurisdiction of the Earl Marshall are as follows:Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. 11, Heraldry, pp.686-7 *Poyntz v. FitzAlan, dispute mentioned in Roll of Caerlaverock (pre-1300) *Harding v. St. Loo (1312) *Sytsylt v. Fakenham (1333) *Hugh Maltby v. Hamon Beckwith (1339) *Scrope v Grosvenor (1385), the most famous, costly & lengthy case. ==See also== *High Court of Chivalry ==Sources== *Gorges, Raymond & Brown, Frederick, Rev., FSA. The Story of a Family through Eleven Centuries, Illustrated by Portraits and Pedigrees: Being a History of the Family of Gorges. Boston, USA (Merrymount Press privately published), 1944. *Boutell, Charles. Heraldry Historical and Popular, London, 1863. ==References== Category:English heraldry Category:English case law Category:Heraldry and law Category:1347 in England Category:1340s in law Category:United Kingdom intellectual property case law Category:Gorges family
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After the end of the disastrous Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, the Imperial Russian Navy needed several years to absorb the lessons of that war, particularly from the Battle of Tsushima. Design work continued during this period, but designs for dreadnought battleships evolved constantly as new requirements were made. By late 1907, a consensus had been reached by the Russian Naval General Staff and an international design competition was ordered after domestic protests arose after the selection of a design by the British firm of Vickers. A Russian design was ultimately selected, albeit with extensive support from foreign companies, but money was tight and the ships took over five years to complete. All four ships survived World War I, but one was badly damaged in a fire while in reserve a few years later and was hulked.McLaughlin, pp. 208–218, 225–27 The three intact ships were modernized before World War IIBreyer, pp. 224–38 and they all participated in the war, primarily by providing naval gunfire support. All four ships were scrapped after the war. Although the Black Sea Fleet had survived the Russo-Japanese War intact, it consisted solely of obsolete predreadnoughts that would be out- classed if the Ottoman Navy purchased any dreadnoughts. News of Turkish plans to do so from British shipyards in 1910 prompted the Naval General Staff to start design work on a class of dreadnoughts based on the s. A reduction in speed was accepted in order to increase the armor thickness, but the ships otherwise greatly resembled the previous class. One of these ships was destroyed during World War I by a magazine explosion, another was scuttled to avoid surrender and the third was captured by the Whites during the Russian Civil War and joined Wrangel's fleet in exile.McLaughlin, pp. 228–33, 241–42 Another dreadnought was ordered in 1914 after news was received that the Ottoman Turks had ordered another dreadnought in order to maintain superiority. To save time, the ship's design was derived from the previous , although with thicker armor. Her construction was suspended during the war and the ship was later scrapped in the 1920s.McLaughlin, pp. 255–58, 331 In the late 1930s, the Soviets began an ambitious plan of naval expansion in reaction to the naval construction program already begun by Nazi Germany. The centerpiece of this plan was a total of 16 very large battleships. Only four of these ships were begun, and one had already been cancelled, before Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Construction was suspended during the war and all four hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s.McLaughlin, pp. 355–59, 387–88, 411, 413 ==Key== Main guns The number and type of the main battery guns Armor Waterline belt thickness Displacement Ship displacement at full load Propulsion Number of shafts, type of propulsion system, and top speed in knots Service The dates work began and finished on the ship and its ultimate fate Laid down The date the keel began to be assembled Launched The date the ship was launched Completed The date the ship was finished ==Gangut class== right|thumb|Gangut in 1915|250px The Gangut-class battleships were the first dreadnoughts begun for the Imperial Russian Navy before World War I. They had a convoluted design history involving several British companies, evolving requirements, an international design competition, and foreign protests. Their role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans, who never tried to enter, so the ships spent their time training and providing cover for minelaying operations. Their crews participated in the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution in 1917, and joined the Bolsheviks the following year. The Russians were forced to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki after Finland became independent in December 1917.All dates used in this article are New Style The Gangut-class ships led the first contingent of ships to Kronstadt even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen. All of the dreadnoughts except for were laid up in October–November 1918 for lack of manpower. was severely damaged by a fire while laid up in 1919. Petropavlovsk was retained in commission to defend Kronstadt and Leningrad against the British forces supporting the Whites Russians although she also helped to suppress a mutiny by the garrison of Fort Krasnaya Gorka in 1919. Her crew, and that of the , joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of March 1921. After it was bloodily crushed, those ships were given proper 'revolutionary' names. , the former Sevastopol, was modified in 1928 to improve her sea-keeping abilities so that she could be transferred to the Black Sea Fleet which had nothing heavier than a light cruiser available. This proved to be the first of a series of modernizations where each ship of the class was progressively reconstructed and improved. A number of proposals were made in the 1930s to rebuild , ex-Poltava, to match her sisters or even as a battlecruiser by removing one turret, but these came to naught and she was hulked preparatory to scrapping. The two ships of the Baltic Fleet did not play a prominent role in the Winter War, but did have their anti-aircraft guns significantly increased before Operation Barbarossa in 1941. However this did not help either ship as they attempted to provide fire support for the defenders of Leningrad. Marat had her bow blown off and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya was badly damaged by multiple bomb hits in September. The former was sunk, but later raised and became a floating battery for the duration of the Siege of Leningrad while the latter spent over a year under repair, although this was lengthened by subsequent bomb hits while under repair. Both ships bombarded German and Finnish troops so long as they remained within reach, but Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya did not venture away from Kronstadt for the duration of the war. Parizhskaya Kommuna remained in Sevastopol until forced to evacuate by advancing German troops. She made one trip to besieged Sevastopol in December 1941 and made a number of bombardments in support of the Kerch Offensive during January–March 1942. She was withdrawn from combat in April as German aerial supremacy had made it too risky to risk such a large target. Sevastopol and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya remained on the active list after the end of the war although little is known of their activities. Both were reclassified as 'school battleships' (uchebnyi lineinyi korabl) in 1954 and stricken in 1956 after which they were slowly scrapped. There were several plans (Project 27) to reconstruct Petropavlovsk using the bow of Frunze, but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled on 29 June 1948. The ship was renamed in 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken in 1953 and subsequently broken up. Frunze was finally scrapped beginning in 1949.McLaughlin, pp. 225–227 Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Service Service Service Service Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Laid down Launched Completed Fate Gangut () 12 × McLaughlin, p. 207 4 screws, steam turbines, 16 June 1909 20 October 1911 11 January 1915 Stricken, 17 February 1956McLaughlin, p. 225 Petropavlovsk () 12 × McLaughlin, p. 207 4 screws, steam turbines, 16 June 1909 22 September 1911 5 January 1915 Stricken, 4 September 1953McLaughlin, pp. 413–14 Sevastopol () 12 × McLaughlin, p. 207 4 screws, steam turbines, 16 June 1909 10 July 1911 30 November 1914 Scrapped beginning in 1949.McLaughlin, p. 354 Poltava () 12 × McLaughlin, p. 207 4 screws, steam turbines, 16 June 1909 23 July 1911 30 December 1914 Stricken, 17 February 1956McLaughlin, p. 227 ==Imperatritsa Mariya class== The Imperatritsa Mariya-class () battleships were the first dreadnoughts built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy. All three ships were built in Nikolayev during World War I. Two ships were delivered in 1915 and saw some combat against ex-German warships that had been 'gifted' to the Ottoman Empire, but the third was not completed until 1917 and saw no combat due to the disorder in the navy after the February Revolution earlier that year.McLaughlin, pp. 241–42, 306–08, 323 was sunk by a magazine explosion in Sevastopol harbor in 1916. , having been renamed in 1917, was scuttled in Novorossiysk harbor in 1918 to prevent her from being turned over to the Germans as required by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The crew of , as had been renamed in 1917, voted to turn her over to the Germans. They were only able to make one training cruise before they had to turn her over the victorious Allies in 1918 as part of the armistice terms. The British took control of her, but turned her over to the White Russians in 1920 who renamed her . She only had one operable gun turret by this time and she provided some fire support for the Whites, but it was not enough. They were forced to evacuate the Crimea later that year and sailed for Bizerte where she was interned by the French. She was eventually scrapped there during the 1930s to pay her docking fees.McLaughlin, pp. 242, 306–08, 323 Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Service Service Service Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Laid down Launched Completed Fate Imperatritsa Mariya () 12 × 12 inMcLaughlin, p. 228 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 229 30 October 1911McLaughlin, p. 231 19 October 1913 10 June 1915 Exploded 20 October 1916; Stricken 21 November 1925McLaughlin, pp. 242, 310 Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya () 12 × 12 inMcLaughlin, p. 228 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 229 30 October 1911McLaughlin, p. 231 6 June 1913 18 October 1915 Scuttled, 19 June 1918McLaughlin, p. 308 Imperator Aleksandr III () 12 × 12 inMcLaughlin, p. 228 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 229 30 October 1911McLaughlin, p. 231 15 April 1914McLaughlin, p. 232 28 June 1917 Sold for scrap, 1936McLaughlin, pp. 241, 323 ==Imperator Nikolai I== right|thumb|Right elevation drawing of Imperator Nikolai I Imperator Nikolai I () was built during World War I for service in the Black Sea. She was designed to counter the multiple Ottoman orders for dreadnoughts which raised the possibility that the Russian dreadnoughts being built for the Black Sea Fleet could be out-numbered. The ship used the same main armament as the preceding , but was larger and more heavily armored. Imperator Nikolai I was launched in 1916, but construction was suspended on 24 October 1917. The Soviets considered completing her in 1923, but rejected the idea. She was towed to Sevastopol in 1927 and scrapped.McLaughlin, pp. 258–59, 331 Ship Main guns Armour Displacement Propulsion Service Service Service Ship Main guns Armour Displacement Propulsion Laid down Launched Fate Imperator Nikolai I () 12 × 12 inMcLaughlin, p. 255 4 screws, steam turbines, 28 April 1915McLaughlin, pp. 258–59 18 October 1916 Scrapped beginning 28 June 1927McLaughlin, pp. 258, 331 ==Sovetsky Soyuz class== The Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships (Project 23, ), also known as "Stalin's Republics", were a class of battleships begun by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s but never brought into service. They were designed in response to the battleships being built by Germany.Westwood, p. 202 These ships would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese in size if any had been completed, although with significantly weaker firepower: guns compared to the guns of the Japanese ships. However they would have been superior to their German rivals, the , at least on paper. The failure of the Soviet armor plate industry to build cemented armor plates thicker than would have negated any advantages from the Sovetsky Soyuz class's thicker armor in combat.McLaughlin, pp. 386–87 Construction of the first four ships was plagued with difficulties as the Soviet shipbuilding and related industries were not prepared to build such large ships. One battleship, Sovetskaya Belorussiya, was cancelled on 19 October 1940 to divert resources to an expanded army rearmament program, after serious construction flaws were found. Construction of the other three ships was suspended in June 1941, and never resumed. All three of the surviving hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s.McLaughlin, pp. 387–88, 411, 413 Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Service Service Service Ship Main guns Armor Displacement Propulsion Laid down Launched Fate Sovetsky Soyuz () 9 × McLaughlin, p. 379 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 380 15 July 1938Gribovskii, p. 166 Never Ordered scrapped, 29 May 1948McLaughlin, pp. 411–13 Sovetskaya Ukraina () 9 × McLaughlin, p. 379 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 380 31 October 1938 Never Ordered scrapped, 27 March 1947 Sovetskaya Rossiya () 9 × McLaughlin, p. 379 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 380 22 July 1940 Never Ordered scrapped, 27 March 1947 Sovetskaya Belorussiya () 9 × McLaughlin, p. 379 4 screws, steam turbines, McLaughlin, p. 380 21 December 1939 Never Cancelled, 19 October 1940McLaughlin, p. 387 ==Notes== ;Footnotes ;Citations ==References== * * * * * Dreadnoughts Russian dreadnoughts
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Blue Story is a 2019 British musical crime drama film written, directed, and narrated by Rapman (Andrew Onwubolu) through the medium of rap and starring Stephen Odubola and Micheal Ward, with Eric Kofi-Abrefa, Khali Best, Karla- Simone Spence, Richie Campbell, Jo Martin and Junior Afolabi Salokun in supporting roles. Serving as Rapman's feature directorial debut, the film is based on his 2014 YouTube series of the same name, which in turn is based on the real life gangs - the Peckham Boys and Ghetto Boys. The story follows best friends Marco (Ward) and Timmy (Odubola) who, from different areas of London (Peckham and Deptford), find themselves becoming enemies in a violent and insidious postcode war. Following the success of his three-part YouTube series Shiro's Story and signing with Jay-Z to Roc Nation, Rapman and BBC Films developed and co-financed the film, and in late 2018 Paramount Pictures bought worldwide distribution rights for the film. Principal photography began in February 2019 and lasted for 23 days. The film focuses on themes such as gang violence, friendship, betrayal, love, youth, and black masculinity. Blue Story was released in the United Kingdom on 22 November 2019 and was later released in the United States on 5 May 2020, after its original 20 March release date was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film received positive reviews from critics and grossed £4.7 million on a budget of £1.4 million, making it the highest grossing British urban film of all time. At the 73rd British Academy Film Awards, the film earned one nomination, winning the BAFTA Rising Star for Ward and was short-listed alongside nine other films by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for the category of the BAFTA Award for Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer but did not make it in the final nominations. At the 2020 NME Awards the film won two awards for Best Film and Best Film Actor for Ward. ==Plot== In London, a boy named Timmy starts secondary school in Peckham, Southwark despite living in Deptford, Lewisham. His mother wants him to go to this school because of its good curriculum and so Timmy cannot be with his old friend Kiron, a trouble maker. On his first day, he befriends a boy named Marco and later on, two others named Dwayne and Hakeem. Four years later, the boys are invited by classmate Karina to a party. Timmy, now 15, is reluctant to go but after he finds out that his longtime crush Leah is going, he reconsiders. Meanwhile in Deptford, the Ghetto Boys are attacked by the Peckham Boys on the former’s own grounds forcing them to flee. That night, Marco attempts to watch The Intent with his older brother Switcher who is the Peckham Boys leader but Switcher is called out to help fight the Ghetto Boys who have come for revenge. Later, the Peckham Boys are chased by the Ghetto Boys and the Ghetto second-in-command Galis is shot by Switcher in the back and is left to die when Ghetto leader Madder leaves due to the nearby police. At the party, Timmy has a slow dance with Leah but is interrupted after Marco gets into a fight with another boy causing Karina’s father to force everyone out. A few hours later, after Marco gets home, the police raid the apartment and arrest Switcher. The next day, Switcher is released after not having enough evidence against him and Timmy invites Leah to his house for the weekend to watch the final season of Game of Thrones while Marco goes to a college girl's house. Timmy and Leah have sex and the two start a relationship. Meanwhile, Marco runs into Kiron, who is now a Ghetto Boy nicknamed Killy, and has his arm broken by him. On Monday, Marco accuses Timmy of being an associate with Killy and ends their friendship after insulting Leah, who pushes him and is then slapped by Marco, who is then punched by Timmy. Three months later, Marco, Dwayne and Hakeem keep away from Timmy and Leah who are now celebrating their 3-month anniversary. Marco has now become a Peckham Boy alongside Switcher. That night, Timmy is attacked by a gang and Leah is killed by being pushed to the ground and hitting her head too hard when she tries to save him. Timmy then hits one of them who picks up a brick and hits Timmy on the head with it. He accidentally lets his hood slip and is revealed to be Marco. After that, Marco is arrested for Leah’s murder. Three years later, Timmy, now 18, is now a Ghetto Boy and replaces Galis as the second-in-command and is Madder’s younger sidekick Younger Madder. After Marco is released, he reveals he didn’t mean to kill Leah and he regrets it deeply. A few days later, Killy gets the drop on Marco, who is now nicknamed Bricker after hitting Timmy with a brick, the Ghetto Boys attack Marco and the Peckham Boys outside a nightclub. Madder is knocked out by Switcher who is stabbed by Timmy, who attempts to kill Marco but the gun jams, leaving him to escape. Switcher is now disabled and has to be in a wheelchair. Marco now vows to kill off Timmy. A week later, after many gunfights, Switcher is visited by his cousin Tyrone from Tottenham. He explains that every gang has a weak member and they just have to wait until the Ghetto Boys’ is revealed. Meanwhile, a Ghetto Boy nicknamed Tiny Madder who is a close friend of Timmy is encouraged by him to make music for Link Up TV. Madder plans an attack on Peckham but is stopped by Timmy saying it’s the wrong time of day. Madder argues with Timmy and insults Leah. The two then storm off. That night, Timmy and Madder reconcile and Killy gets the drop on Marco again. When they get there though, Madder finds his gun box empty. Killy is revealed to have betrayed Timmy and is joined by Tyrone. Killy explains that he was jealous that Timmy became Madder’s younger sidekick when he felt like he should’ve been. Timmy, who is trapped in the van, is approached by Marco who starts pouring petrol on the van. Madder knocks Tyrone out and wrestles with Killy before shooting him in the head. Marco sets the van alight and flees. Despite Madder’s best attempts, Timmy accepts his fate and goes to join Leah in the afterlife before dying by being asphyxiated by the fire. Madder finally gets the door open and pulls Timmy’s body out. The police arrive and arrest Madder. Later, as the film concludes, Madder becomes a youth worker and Switcher (his real name apparently revealed to be Jordan) commits suicide from a drug overdose after both Marco and Tyrone are arrested, and Timmy is buried with honours. In a credit scene, Tiny Madder’s music has become famous around the UK and vows to get revenge for Timmy by killing all the Peckham Boys. ==Cast== right|thumb|From left: Stephen Odubola and Micheal Ward discuss Blue Story in 2019 * Stephen Odubola as Timmy, a schoolboy from Deptford, Marco's best friend turned rival and Leah's love interest. After Leah's death, Timmy later become gang member as the second-in-command of Ghetto Boys leader Madder. **Micaiah Lewis portrays a younger version of Timmy. * Micheal Ward as Marco, a schoolboy from Peckham, Timmy's best friend turned rival and the younger brother of Peckham Boys leader Switcher. **Tyler Andrew portrays a younger version of Marco. * Khali Best as Killy/Kiron, Timmy's best friend from primary school and a member of the Ghetto Boys. * Karla-Simone Spence as Leah, Timmy's classmate turn love interest from Peckham. She aspires to be a singer. * Eric Kofi-Abrefa as Switcher, Marco's older brother and the leader of the Peckham Boys. *Junior Afolabi Salokun as Madder, the leader of the Ghetto Boys. Afolabi Salokun reprises his role from the short film series. *Kadeem Ramsey as Hakeem, one of Timmy and Marco's friends. *Richie Campbell as Tyrone *Ali Damiche as Dealer *Jo Martin as Marco's Mum *Rohan Nedd as Dwayne, one of Timmy and Marco's friends **Max Fincham as Young Dwayne *Andre Dwayne as Galis, Madder's former second-in-command of the Ghetto Boys. He was killed by Switcher. Additionally, Sean Sagar and Joshua Blisset play Skitzer and Daps, respectively, alongside Tuwaine Barrett as Striker, Duayne Boachie as Sneaks, Curtis Kantsa as Tiny Madder, Kemi Lofinmakin as Timmy's Mum, Giorgia Angelini Marquez as Karina and Jordan Peters as Cheddar. Deptford rapper DigDat cameos as the guy who beats up Marco at Karina's party and White Yardie appears as Karina's Dad. Comedian and rapper Michael Dapaah, who appeared in Shiro's Story Part 2, filmed a cameo appearance but it was cut from the final film. ==Production== Rapman, then known for his work on musical and short film projects, released the original Blue Story trilogy on YouTube in 2014, which was inspired by his real-life experiences as a working-class boy from Lewisham attending a school in Peckham, whilst both areas are in a postcode war. Following the feedback from the comments calling for it to be a movie, Rapman decided to write a feature length version, which took six months to complete. Once the script was finally finished, Rapman moved onto his next YouTube project, Shiro’s Story, a musical short film trilogy about a young black man from London who enters a violent life of crime after he learns that his girlfriend's daughter is actually his best friend's. Following the success of Shiro's Story, Rapman and BBC Films developed and co-financed the film, and in late 2018 Paramount Pictures bought worldwide distribution rights for the film. Damian Jones (of DJ Films) and Joy Gharoro-Akpojotor produced the film with Rose Garnett and Eva Yates of BBC Films; Charles Moore and Paul Grindey of Viewfinder, and Rapman were executive producers. Principal photography began on 28 February 2019 and lasted for 23 days. The film had a budget of £1.3 million and was primarily shot in the London Borough of Enfield after Lewisham and other London boroughs refused to allow shooting, due to instructions from the office of the London Mayor, Sadiq Khan, although the director says no one at the mayor's office had actually read the script. ==Release== The film was released on 22 November 2019. Vue Cinemas and Showcase Cinemas in the UK decided to stop showing the film after an outbreak of violence during a screening at a cinema in Birmingham. Showcase resumed screenings a few days later. The film was released through Premium VOD in the United States on May 5, 2020, after the limited theatrical release on March 20, 2020, was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ===Critical response=== On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's consensus reads, "Raw and riveting, Blue Story overcomes its somewhat prosaic story with powerful performances and an impressive clarity of purpose." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 69 out of 100 based on reviews from 15 critics, which indicates "generally favourable reviews". Mike McCahill of The Guardian gave the film three stars out of five and called it "An assured and capably performed morality play." BBC Films say the film "powerfully depicts the futility of gang violence". ===Awards and recognition=== At the 73rd British Academy Film Awards, Michael Ward won the BAFTA Rising Star for his performance. The film was short-listed alongside nine other films by short-listed alongside nine other films by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for the category of the BAFTA Award for Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer but did not make it in the final nominations. At the 2020 NME Awards the film won two awards for Best Film and Best Film Actor for Ward. == Birmingham machete incident == On 23 November 2019, The Independent reported that during a screening of Blue Story at Star City in Birmingham, England, police were attacked by a group armed with machetes. Police arrested five teenagers. Families were watching Frozen II when the disorder broke out, sparking an evacuation of the Star City complex, with police stating up to 100 teenagers were involved in the major disorder. A spokesperson for West Midlands Police stated that "Dozens of officers were sent to the complex after a 999 call just after 5.30pm reporting a group of youths with machetes. Two machetes were seized during the trouble, which saw pockets of fighting and seven police officers left with minor injuries as they dealt with the crowds in and around the cinema." On 24 November 2019, West Midlands Police reported that a sixth teenager had been added to those arrested, which had included a female aged 13, a male and female both aged 14 and a 19-year-old man. Following the disorder at Star City, the Vue Cinemas chain cancelled all screenings of Blue Story. A statement from Vue said that during the first 24 hours of the film more than 25 significant incidents were reported and escalated to senior management in 16 separate cinemas. Cinema chain Showcase subsequently also ceased showing the film, but the Odeon and Cineworld chains continued to screen it. The ban by Showcase and Vue was labelled as racist by some people on social media, with Showcase later reversing their decision. The film's director Rapman also questioned the reasons behind the ban. Vue also said they would restart showings, with increased security. ==See also== * List of black films of the 2010s == References == == External links == * * Category:2019 films Category:2019 crime drama films Category:BAFTA winners (films) Category:BBC Film films Category:Black British films Category:Black British cinema Category:Black British mass media Category:British crime drama films Category:British gangster films Category:Hood films Category:Films set in London Category:Films shot in London Category:Gangs in fiction Category:Paramount Pictures films Category:Film controversies Category:Obscenity controversies in film Category:Film controversies in the United Kingdom Category:Films about organised crime in the United Kingdom Category:2010s English-language films Category:2010s American films Category:2010s British films Category:English-language crime drama films
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k-means clustering is a method of vector quantization, originally from signal processing, that aims to partition n observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean (cluster centers or cluster centroid), serving as a prototype of the cluster. This results in a partitioning of the data space into Voronoi cells. k-means clustering minimizes within-cluster variances (squared Euclidean distances), but not regular Euclidean distances, which would be the more difficult Weber problem: the mean optimizes squared errors, whereas only the geometric median minimizes Euclidean distances. For instance, better Euclidean solutions can be found using k-medians and k-medoids. The problem is computationally difficult (NP- hard); however, efficient heuristic algorithms converge quickly to a local optimum. These are usually similar to the expectation-maximization algorithm for mixtures of Gaussian distributions via an iterative refinement approach employed by both k-means and Gaussian mixture modeling. They both use cluster centers to model the data; however, k-means clustering tends to find clusters of comparable spatial extent, while the Gaussian mixture model allows clusters to have different shapes. The unsupervised k-means algorithm has a loose relationship to the k-nearest neighbor classifier, a popular supervised machine learning technique for classification that is often confused with k-means due to the name. Applying the 1-nearest neighbor classifier to the cluster centers obtained by k-means classifies new data into the existing clusters. This is known as nearest centroid classifier or Rocchio algorithm. == Description == Given a set of observations , where each observation is a d-dimensional real vector, k-means clustering aims to partition the n observations into () sets so as to minimize the within-cluster sum of squares (WCSS) (i.e. variance). Formally, the objective is to find: \mathop\operatorname{arg\,min}_\mathbf{S} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \sum_{\mathbf x \in S_i} \left\| \mathbf x - \boldsymbol\mu_i \right\|^2 = \mathop\operatorname{arg\,min}_\mathbf{S} \sum_{i=1}^k |S_i| \operatorname{Var} S_i where μi is the mean (also called centroid) of points in S_i, i.e. \boldsymbol{\mu_i} = \frac{1}{|S_i|}\sum_{\mathbf x \in S_i} \mathbf x, |S_i| is the size of S_i, and \|\cdot\| is the usual L2 norm . This is equivalent to minimizing the pairwise squared deviations of points in the same cluster: \mathop\operatorname{arg\,min}_\mathbf{S} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \, \frac{1}{ |S_i|} \, \sum_{\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y} \in S_i} \left\| \mathbf{x} - \mathbf{y} \right\|^2 The equivalence can be deduced from identity |S_i|\sum_{\mathbf x \in S_i} \left\| \mathbf x - \boldsymbol\mu_i \right\|^2 = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y} \in S_i}\left\|\mathbf x - \mathbf y\right\|^2. Since the total variance is constant, this is equivalent to maximizing the sum of squared deviations between points in different clusters (between-cluster sum of squares, BCSS). This deterministic relationship is also related to the law of total variance in probability theory. == History == The term "k-means" was first used by James MacQueen in 1967, though the idea goes back to Hugo Steinhaus in 1956. The standard algorithm was first proposed by Stuart Lloyd of Bell Labs in 1957 as a technique for pulse-code modulation, although it was not published as a journal article until 1982. Published in journal much later: In 1965, Edward W. Forgy published essentially the same method, which is why it is sometimes referred to as the Lloyd–Forgy algorithm. == Algorithms == === Standard algorithm (naive k-means) === right|thumb|Convergence of k-means The most common algorithm uses an iterative refinement technique. Due to its ubiquity, it is often called "the k-means algorithm"; it is also referred to as Lloyd's algorithm, particularly in the computer science community. It is sometimes also referred to as "naïve k-means", because there exist much faster alternatives. Given an initial set of means (see below), the algorithm proceeds by alternating between two steps: # Assignment step: Assign each observation to the cluster with the nearest mean: that with the least squared Euclidean distance.Since the square root is a monotone function, this also is the minimum Euclidean distance assignment. (Mathematically, this means partitioning the observations according to the Voronoi diagram generated by the means.) S_i^{(t)} = \left \\{ x_p : \left \| x_p - m^{(t)}_i \right \|^2 \le \left \| x_p - m^{(t)}_j \right \|^2 \ \forall j, 1 \le j \le k \right\\}, where each x_p is assigned to exactly one S^{(t)}, even if it could be assigned to two or more of them. # Update step: Recalculate means (centroids) for observations assigned to each cluster. m^{(t+1)}_i = \frac{1}{\left|S^{(t)}_i\right|} \sum_{x_j \in S^{(t)}_i} x_j The algorithm has converged when the assignments no longer change. The algorithm is not guaranteed to find the optimum. The algorithm is often presented as assigning objects to the nearest cluster by distance. Using a different distance function other than (squared) Euclidean distance may prevent the algorithm from converging. Various modifications of k-means such as spherical k-means and k-medoids have been proposed to allow using other distance measures. ==== Initialization methods ==== Commonly used initialization methods are Forgy and Random Partition. The Forgy method randomly chooses k observations from the dataset and uses these as the initial means. The Random Partition method first randomly assigns a cluster to each observation and then proceeds to the update step, thus computing the initial mean to be the centroid of the cluster's randomly assigned points. The Forgy method tends to spread the initial means out, while Random Partition places all of them close to the center of the data set. According to Hamerly et al., the Random Partition method is generally preferable for algorithms such as the k-harmonic means and fuzzy k-means. For expectation maximization and standard k-means algorithms, the Forgy method of initialization is preferable. A comprehensive study by Celebi et al., however, found that popular initialization methods such as Forgy, Random Partition, and Maximin often perform poorly, whereas Bradley and Fayyad's approach performs "consistently" in "the best group" and k-means++ performs "generally well". File:K Means Example Step 1.svg|1. k initial "means" (in this case k=3) are randomly generated within the data domain (shown in color). File:K Means Example Step 2.svg|2. k clusters are created by associating every observation with the nearest mean. The partitions here represent the Voronoi diagram generated by the means. File:K Means Example Step 3.svg|3. The centroid of each of the k clusters becomes the new mean. File:K Means Example Step 4.svg|4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated until convergence has been reached. The algorithm does not guarantee convergence to the global optimum. The result may depend on the initial clusters. As the algorithm is usually fast, it is common to run it multiple times with different starting conditions. However, worst-case performance can be slow: in particular certain point sets, even in two dimensions, converge in exponential time, that is . These point sets do not seem to arise in practice: this is corroborated by the fact that the smoothed running time of k-means is polynomial. The "assignment" step is referred to as the "expectation step", while the "update step" is a maximization step, making this algorithm a variant of the generalized expectation-maximization algorithm. === Complexity === Finding the optimal solution to the k-means clustering problem for observations in d dimensions is: * NP-hard in general Euclidean space (of d dimensions) even for two clusters, * NP-hard for a general number of clusters k even in the plane, * if k and d (the dimension) are fixed, the problem can be exactly solved in time O(n^{dk+1}), where n is the number of entities to be clustered. Thus, a variety of heuristic algorithms such as Lloyd's algorithm given above are generally used. The running time of Lloyd's algorithm (and most variants) is O(n k d i), where: * n is the number of d-dimensional vectors (to be clustered) * k the number of clusters * i the number of iterations needed until convergence. On data that does have a clustering structure, the number of iterations until convergence is often small, and results only improve slightly after the first dozen iterations. Lloyd's algorithm is therefore often considered to be of "linear" complexity in practice, although it is in the worst case superpolynomial when performed until convergence. * In the worst-case, Lloyd's algorithm needs i = 2^{\Omega(\sqrt{n})} iterations, so that the worst-case complexity of Lloyd's algorithm is superpolynomial. * Lloyd's k-means algorithm has polynomial smoothed running time. It is shown that for arbitrary set of n points in [0,1]^d, if each point is independently perturbed by a normal distribution with mean and variance \sigma^2, then the expected running time of -means algorithm is bounded by O( n^{34} k^{34} d^8 \log^4(n) / \sigma^6 ), which is a polynomial in , , and 1/\sigma. * Better bounds are proven for simple cases. For example, it is shown that the running time of k-means algorithm is bounded by O(dn^4M^2) for points in an integer lattice \\{1, \dots, M\\}^d. See also here. Lloyd's algorithm is the standard approach for this problem. However, it spends a lot of processing time computing the distances between each of the k cluster centers and the n data points. Since points usually stay in the same clusters after a few iterations, much of this work is unnecessary, making the naïve implementation very inefficient. Some implementations use caching and the triangle inequality in order to create bounds and accelerate Lloyd's algorithm. === Variations === * Jenks natural breaks optimization: k-means applied to univariate data * k-medians clustering uses the median in each dimension instead of the mean, and this way minimizes L_1 norm (Taxicab geometry). * k-medoids (also: Partitioning Around Medoids, PAM) uses the medoid instead of the mean, and this way minimizes the sum of distances for arbitrary distance functions. * Fuzzy C-Means Clustering is a soft version of k-means, where each data point has a fuzzy degree of belonging to each cluster. * Gaussian mixture models trained with expectation-maximization algorithm (EM algorithm) maintains probabilistic assignments to clusters, instead of deterministic assignments, and multivariate Gaussian distributions instead of means. * k-means++ chooses initial centers in a way that gives a provable upper bound on the WCSS objective. * The filtering algorithm uses kd- trees to speed up each k-means step. * Some methods attempt to speed up each k-means step using the triangle inequality. * Escape local optima by swapping points between clusters. * The Spherical k-means clustering algorithm is suitable for textual data. * Hierarchical variants such as Bisecting k-means, X-means clusteringPelleg, D.; & Moore, A. W. (2000, June). "X-means: Extending k-means with Efficient Estimation of the Number of Clusters". In ICML, Vol. 1 and G-means clustering repeatedly split clusters to build a hierarchy, and can also try to automatically determine the optimal number of clusters in a dataset. * Internal cluster evaluation measures such as cluster silhouette can be helpful at determining the number of clusters. * Minkowski weighted k-means automatically calculates cluster specific feature weights, supporting the intuitive idea that a feature may have different degrees of relevance at different features. These weights can also be used to re-scale a given data set, increasing the likelihood of a cluster validity index to be optimized at the expected number of clusters. * Mini-batch k-means: k-means variation using "mini batch" samples for data sets that do not fit into memory. * Otsu's method === Hartigan–Wong method === Hartigan and Wong's method provides a variation of k-means algorithm which progresses towards a local minimum of the minimum sum-of-squares problem with different solution updates. The method is a local search that iteratively attempts to relocate a sample into a different cluster as long as this process improves the objective function. When no sample can be relocated into a different cluster with an improvement of the objective, the method stops (in a local minimum). In a similar way as the classical k-means, the approach remains a heuristic since it does not necessarily guarantee that the final solution is globally optimum. Let \varphi(S_j) be the individual cost of S_j defined by \sum_{x \in S_j} (x - \mu_j)^2, with \mu_j the center of the cluster. ;Assignment step: Hartigan and Wong's method starts by partitioning the points into random clusters \\{ S_j \\}_{j \in \\{1, \cdots k\\}}. ;Update step: Next it determines the n,m \in \\{1, \ldots, k \\} and x \in S_n for which the following function reaches a maximum \Delta(m,n,x) = \varphi(S_n) + \varphi(S_m) - \varphi(S_n \setminus \\{ x \\} ) - \varphi(S_m \cup \\{ x \\} ). For the x,n,m that reach this maximum, x moves from the cluster S_n to the cluster S_m. ;Termination: The algorithm terminates once \Delta(m,n,x) is less than zero for all x,n,m. Different move acceptance strategies can be used. In a first-improvement strategy, any improving relocation can be applied, whereas in a best- improvement strategy, all possible relocations are iteratively tested and only the best is applied at each iteration. The former approach favors speed, whether the latter approach generally favors solution quality at the expense of additional computational time. The function \Delta used to calculate the result of a relocation can also be efficiently evaluated by using equality \Delta(x,n,m) = \frac{ \mid S_n \mid }{ \mid S_n \mid - 1} \cdot \lVert \mu_n - x \rVert^2 - \frac{ \mid S_m \mid }{ \mid S_m \mid + 1} \cdot \lVert \mu_m - x \rVert^2. === Global optimization and meta-heuristics === The classical k-means algorithm and its variations are known to only converge to local minima of the minimum-sum-of-squares clustering problem defined as \mathop\operatorname{arg\,min}_\mathbf{S} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \sum_{\mathbf x \in S_i} \left\| \mathbf x - \boldsymbol\mu_i \right\|^2 . Many studies have attempted to improve the convergence behavior of the algorithm and maximize the chances of attaining the global optimum (or at least, local minima of better quality). Initialization and restart techniques discussed in the previous sections are one alternative to find better solutions. More recently, global optimization algorithms based on branch-and-bound and semidefinite programming have produced ‘’provenly optimal’’ solutions for datasets with up to 4,177 entities and 20,531 features. As expected, due to the NP-hardness of the subjacent optimization problem, the computational time of optimal algorithms for K-means quickly increases beyond this size. Optimal solutions for small- and medium-scale still remain valuable as a benchmark tool, to evaluate the quality of other heuristics. To find high-quality local minima within a controlled computational time but without optimality guarantees, other works have explored metaheuristics and other global optimization techniques, e.g., based on incremental approaches and convex optimization, random swaps (i.e., iterated local search), variable neighborhood search and genetic algorithms. It is indeed known that finding better local minima of the minimum sum-of-squares clustering problem can make the difference between failure and success to recover cluster structures in feature spaces of high dimension. == Discussion == thumb|650x650px|A typical example of the k-means convergence to a local minimum. In this example, the result of k-means clustering (the right figure) contradicts the obvious cluster structure of the data set. The small circles are the data points, the four ray stars are the centroids (means). The initial configuration is on the left figure. The algorithm converges after five iterations presented on the figures, from the left to the right. The illustration was prepared with the Mirkes Java applet. Three key features of k-means that make it efficient are often regarded as its biggest drawbacks: * Euclidean distance is used as a metric and variance is used as a measure of cluster scatter. * The number of clusters k is an input parameter: an inappropriate choice of k may yield poor results. That is why, when performing k-means, it is important to run diagnostic checks for determining the number of clusters in the data set. * Convergence to a local minimum may produce counterintuitive ("wrong") results (see example in Fig.). A key limitation of k-means is its cluster model. The concept is based on spherical clusters that are separable so that the mean converges towards the cluster center. The clusters are expected to be of similar size, so that the assignment to the nearest cluster center is the correct assignment. When for example applying k-means with a value of k=3 onto the well-known Iris flower data set, the result often fails to separate the three Iris species contained in the data set. With k=2, the two visible clusters (one containing two species) will be discovered, whereas with k=3 one of the two clusters will be split into two even parts. In fact, k = 2 is more appropriate for this data set, despite the data set's containing 3 classes. As with any other clustering algorithm, the k-means result makes assumptions that the data satisfy certain criteria. It works well on some data sets, and fails on others. The result of k-means can be seen as the Voronoi cells of the cluster means. Since data is split halfway between cluster means, this can lead to suboptimal splits as can be seen in the "mouse" example. The Gaussian models used by the expectation- maximization algorithm (arguably a generalization of k-means) are more flexible by having both variances and covariances. The EM result is thus able to accommodate clusters of variable size much better than k-means as well as correlated clusters (not in this example). In counterpart, EM requires the optimization of a larger number of free parameters and poses some methodological issues due to vanishing clusters or badly-conditioned covariance matrices. K-means is closely related to nonparametric Bayesian modeling. == Applications == k-means clustering is rather easy to apply to even large data sets, particularly when using heuristics such as Lloyd's algorithm. It has been successfully used in market segmentation, computer vision, and astronomy among many other domains. It often is used as a preprocessing step for other algorithms, for example to find a starting configuration. === Vector quantization === right|frame|Two-channel (for illustration purposes – red and green channels only) color image right|thumb|250x250px|Vector quantization of colors present in the image above into Voronoi cells using k-means k-means originates from signal processing, and still finds use in this domain. For example, in computer graphics, color quantization is the task of reducing the color palette of an image to a fixed number of colors k. The k-means algorithm can easily be used for this task and produces competitive results. A use case for this approach is image segmentation. Other uses of vector quantization include non-random sampling, as k-means can easily be used to choose k different but prototypical objects from a large data set for further analysis. === Cluster analysis === In cluster analysis, the k-means algorithm can be used to partition the input data set into k partitions (clusters). However, the pure k-means algorithm is not very flexible, and as such is of limited use (except for when vector quantization as above is actually the desired use case). In particular, the parameter k is known to be hard to choose (as discussed above) when not given by external constraints. Another limitation is that it cannot be used with arbitrary distance functions or on non-numerical data. For these use cases, many other algorithms are superior. === Feature learning === k-means clustering has been used as a feature learning (or dictionary learning) step, in either (semi-)supervised learning or unsupervised learning. The basic approach is first to train a k-means clustering representation, using the input training data (which need not be labelled). Then, to project any input datum into the new feature space, an "encoding" function, such as the thresholded matrix-product of the datum with the centroid locations, computes the distance from the datum to each centroid, or simply an indicator function for the nearest centroid, or some smooth transformation of the distance. Alternatively, transforming the sample-cluster distance through a Gaussian RBF, obtains the hidden layer of a radial basis function network. This use of k-means has been successfully combined with simple, linear classifiers for semi-supervised learning in NLP (specifically for named entity recognition) and in computer vision. On an object recognition task, it was found to exhibit comparable performance with more sophisticated feature learning approaches such as autoencoders and restricted Boltzmann machines. However, it generally requires more data, for equivalent performance, because each data point only contributes to one "feature". == Relation to other algorithms == === Gaussian mixture model === The slow "standard algorithm" for k-means clustering, and its associated expectation-maximization algorithm, is a special case of a Gaussian mixture model, specifically, the limiting case when fixing all covariances to be diagonal, equal and have infinitesimal small variance. Instead of small variances, a hard cluster assignment can also be used to show another equivalence of k-means clustering to a special case of "hard" Gaussian mixture modelling. This does not mean that it is efficient to use Gaussian mixture modelling to compute k-means, but just that there is a theoretical relationship, and that Gaussian mixture modelling can be interpreted as a generalization of k-means; on the contrary, it has been suggested to use k-means clustering to find starting points for Gaussian mixture modelling on difficult data. === k-SVD === Another generalization of the k-means algorithm is the k-SVD algorithm, which estimates data points as a sparse linear combination of "codebook vectors". k-means corresponds to the special case of using a single codebook vector, with a weight of 1. === Principal component analysis === The relaxed solution of -means clustering, specified by the cluster indicators, is given by principal component analysis (PCA). The intuition is that k-means describe spherically shaped (ball-like) clusters. If the data has 2 clusters, the line connecting the two centroids is the best 1-dimensional projection direction, which is also the first PCA direction. Cutting the line at the center of mass separates the clusters (this is the continuous relaxation of the discrete cluster indicator). If the data have three clusters, the 2-dimensional plane spanned by three cluster centroids is the best 2-D projection. This plane is also defined by the first two PCA dimensions. Well-separated clusters are effectively modelled by ball-shaped clusters and thus discovered by k-means. Non-ball-shaped clusters are hard to separate when they are close. For example, two half-moon shaped clusters intertwined in space do not separate well when projected onto PCA subspace. k-means should not be expected to do well on this data. It is straightforward to produce counterexamples to the statement that the cluster centroid subspace is spanned by the principal directions. === Mean shift clustering === Basic mean shift clustering algorithms maintain a set of data points the same size as the input data set. Initially, this set is copied from the input set. Then this set is iteratively replaced by the mean of those points in the set that are within a given distance of that point. By contrast, k-means restricts this updated set to k points usually much less than the number of points in the input data set, and replaces each point in this set by the mean of all points in the input set that are closer to that point than any other (e.g. within the Voronoi partition of each updating point). A mean shift algorithm that is similar then to k-means, called likelihood mean shift, replaces the set of points undergoing replacement by the mean of all points in the input set that are within a given distance of the changing set. One of the advantages of mean shift over k-means is that the number of clusters is not pre-specified, because mean shift is likely to find only a few clusters if only a small number exist. However, mean shift can be much slower than k-means, and still requires selection of a bandwidth parameter. Mean shift has soft variants. === Independent component analysis === Under sparsity assumptions and when input data is pre-processed with the whitening transformation, k-means produces the solution to the linear independent component analysis (ICA) task. This aids in explaining the successful application of k-means to feature learning. === Bilateral filtering === k-means implicitly assumes that the ordering of the input data set does not matter. The bilateral filter is similar to k-means and mean shift in that it maintains a set of data points that are iteratively replaced by means. However, the bilateral filter restricts the calculation of the (kernel weighted) mean to include only points that are close in the ordering of the input data. This makes it applicable to problems such as image denoising, where the spatial arrangement of pixels in an image is of critical importance. == Similar problems == The set of squared error minimizing cluster functions also includes the k-medoids algorithm, an approach which forces the center point of each cluster to be one of the actual points, i.e., it uses medoids in place of centroids. == Software implementations == Different implementations of the algorithm exhibit performance differences, with the fastest on a test data set finishing in 10 seconds, the slowest taking 25,988 seconds (~7 hours). The differences can be attributed to implementation quality, language and compiler differences, different termination criteria and precision levels, and the use of indexes for acceleration. === Free Software/Open Source === The following implementations are available under Free/Open Source Software licenses, with publicly available source code. * Accord.NET contains C# implementations for k-means, k-means++ and k-modes. * ALGLIB contains parallelized C++ and C# implementations for k-means and k-means++. * AOSP contains a Java implementation for k-means. * CrimeStat implements two spatial k-means algorithms, one of which allows the user to define the starting locations. * ELKI contains k-means (with Lloyd and MacQueen iteration, along with different initializations such as k-means++ initialization) and various more advanced clustering algorithms. * Smile contains k-means and various more other algorithms and results visualization (for java, kotlin and scala). * Julia contains a k-means implementation in the JuliaStats Clustering package. * KNIME contains nodes for k-means and k-medoids. * Mahout contains a MapReduce based k-means. * mlpack contains a C++ implementation of k-means. * Octave contains k-means. * OpenCV contains a k-means implementation. * Orange includes a component for k-means clustering with automatic selection of k and cluster silhouette scoring. * PSPP contains k-means, The QUICK CLUSTER command performs k-means clustering on the dataset. * R contains three k-means variations. * SciPy and scikit-learn contain multiple k-means implementations. * Spark MLlib implements a distributed k-means algorithm. * Torch contains an unsup package that provides k-means clustering. * Weka contains k-means and x-means. === Proprietary === The following implementations are available under proprietary license terms, and may not have publicly available source code. * Ayasdi * Mathematica * MATLAB * OriginPro * RapidMiner * SAP HANA * SAS * SPSS * Stata == See also == * BFR algorithm * Centroidal Voronoi tessellation * Head/tail Breaks * k q-flats * k-means++ * Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm * Self-organizing map == References == Category:Cluster analysis algorithms
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The Hainan Island incident occurred on April 1, 2001, when a United States Navy EP-3E ARIES II signals intelligence aircraft and a Chinese J-8II interceptor jet collided in mid-air, resulting in an international dispute between the United States and China (PRC). The EP-3 was operating about away from the PRC island province of Hainan, as well as about away from the China military installation in the Paracel Islands, when it was intercepted by two J-8 fighters. A collision between the EP-3 and one of the J-8s caused a PRC pilot to go missing (later presumed dead); the EP-3 was forced to make an emergency landing on Hainan without approved permission from the Chinese authorities. The 24 crew members were detained and interrogated by Chinese authorities until a statement was delivered by the United States government regarding the incident. The exact phrasing of this document was intentionally ambiguous and allowed both countries to save face while defusing a potentially volatile situation between the United States and the People's Republic of China. ==Background== This sea area includes the South China Sea Islands, which are claimed by the PRC and several other countries. It is one of the most strategically sensitive areas in the world. The United States and the People's Republic of China disagree on the legality of the overflights by U.S. naval aircraft of the area where the incident occurred. This part of the South China Sea comprises part of the PRC's exclusive economic zone based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Chinese claim that the Paracel Islands belong to China. This claim was acknowledged by Vietnam in 1958 but it has since reversed itself to contest the claim after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. The United States remains neutral in this dispute, but patrols the sea regularly with military ships and airplanes, during what it terms "freedom of navigation" operations. The PRC interprets the convention as allowing it to preclude other nations' military operations within this area, but the United States does not recognize China's claim for the Paracel Islands and maintains that the Convention grants free navigation for all countries' aircraft and ships, including military aircraft and ships, within a country's exclusive economic zone. Although the United States is not party to UNCLOS, it has accepted and complies with nearly all of the treaty's provisions. thumb|right|An EP-3E of VQ-1 A PRC Sukhoi Su-27 force is based at Hainan. The island also houses a large signals intelligence facility that tracks civil and military activity in the area and monitors traffic from commercial communications satellites. The United States has long kept the island under surveillance; on May 22, 1951, for example, RAF Spitfire PR Mk 19s out of Hong Kong's Kai Tak Airport flew photo-reconnaissance missions at the behest of U.S. naval intelligence.Peebles, Curtis, Shadow Flights: America's Secret Air War Against the Soviet Union: Presidio Press, 2001. pp. 16–18 ==In the air== On April 1, 2001, the EP-3 (BuNo 156511), assigned to Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron One (VQ-1, "World Watchers"), had taken off as Mission PR32 from Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan. At about 9:15 a.m. local time, toward the end of the EP-3's six-hour ELINT mission, it was flying at and , on a heading of 110°, about away from the island. Two Chinese J-8s from Hainan's Lingshui airfield approached. One of the J-8s (81194), piloted by Lt. Cdr. Wang Wei, made two close passes to the EP-3. On the third pass, it collided with the larger aircraft. The J-8 broke into two pieces; the EP-3's radome detached completely and its No. 1 (outer left) propeller was damaged severely. Airspeed and altitude data were lost, the aircraft depressurized, and an antenna became wrapped around the tailplane. The J-8's tail fin struck the EP-3's left aileron, forcing it fully upright, and causing the U.S. aircraft to roll to the left at three to four times its normal maximum rate. The impact sent the EP-3 into a 30° dive at a bank angle of 130°, almost inverted. It dropped in 30 seconds, and fell another before the pilot, Lt. Shane Osborn, got the EP-3's wings level and the nose up. In a September 2003 article in Naval Aviation News, Osborn said that once he regained control of the aircraft, he "called for the crew to prepare to bail out". He then managed to control the aircraft's descent by using emergency power on the working engines, allowing him to plan an emergency landing on Hainan. thumb|right|The Shenyang J-8 (81192) in another altercation with a U.S. reconnaissance aircraft in January 2001. For the next 26 minutes, the crew of the EP-3 performed an emergency plan which included destroying sensitive items aboard the aircraft, such as electronic equipment related to intelligence-gathering, documents and data. Part of this plan involved pouring freshly brewed coffee into disk drives and motherboards and using an axe from the plane's survival kit to destroy hard drives. The crew had not been formally trained on how to destroy sensitive documents and equipment, and so improvised. As a result of the destruction, the plane's interior was later described as resembling "the aftermath of a frat party". The EP-3 made an unauthorized emergency landing at Lingshui airfield, after at least 15 distress signals had gone unanswered, with the emergency code selected on the transponder. It landed at , with no flaps, no trim, and a damaged left elevator, weighing . After the collision, the failure of the nose cone had disabled the No. 3 (inner right) engine, and the No. 1 propeller could not be feathered, resulting in increased drag on that side. There was no working airspeed indicator or altimeter, and Osborn used full right aileron during the landing. The surviving Chinese interceptor had landed there 10 minutes earlier. Wang was seen to eject after the collision, but the Pentagon said that the damage to the underside of the EP-3 could mean that the cockpit of the Chinese fighter jet was crushed, making it impossible for the pilot to survive. Wang's body was never recovered, and he was presumed dead. ===Cause of collision=== thumb|right|Area of the collision in the South China Sea. Both the cause of the collision and the assignment of blame were disputed. The U.S. government stated that the Chinese jet bumped the wing of the larger, slower, and less maneuverable EP-3. After returning to U.S. soil, the pilot of the EP-3, Lt. Shane Osborn, was allowed to make a brief statement in which he said that the EP-3 was on autopilot and in straight-and-level flight at the time of the collision. He stated that he was just "guarding the autopilot" in his interview with Frontline.Frontline interview with Shane Osborn, retrieved August 28, 2009. The U.S. released video footage from previous missions which revealed that American reconnaissance crews had previously been intercepted by the same aircraft. Based on the account of Wang Wei's wingman, the Chinese government stated that the American aircraft "veered at a wide angle towards the Chinese", in the process ramming the J-8. This claim cannot be verified since the Chinese government did not release data from the flight recorders of either aircraft, both of which are in its possession. ==On the ground== For 15 minutes after landing, the EP-3 crew continued to destroy sensitive items and data on board the aircraft, as per protocol. They disembarked from the aircraft after soldiers looked through windows, pointed guns, and shouted through bullhorns. The Chinese offered them water and cigarettes. Guarded closely, they were taken to a military barracks at Lingshui where they were interrogated for two nights before being moved to lodgings in Haikou, the provincial capital and largest city on the island. They were generally treated well, but were interrogated at all hours, and so suffered from lack of sleep. They found the Chinese food unpalatable as it included fish heads, but this later improved. Guards gave them decks of cards and an English-language newspaper. To pass the time and keep spirits up, Lts. Honeck and Vignery worked up humorous routines based on the television shows The People's Court, Saturday Night Live and The Crocodile Hunter. These were performed as they went to meals, the only time they were together. They gradually developed good relations with their guards, with one guard inquiring of them the lyrics for the song "Hotel California" by the Eagles. Three U.S. diplomats were sent to Hainan to meet the crew and assess their conditions, and to negotiate their release. They were first allowed to meet with the crew three days after the collision. U.S. officials complained about the slow pace of the Chinese decision. The 24 crew members (21 men and 3 women) were detained for 10 days in total, and were released soon after the U.S. issued the "letter of the two sorries" to the Chinese. The crew was only partially successful in their destruction of classified material, and some of the material they failed to destroy included cryptographic keys, signals intelligence manuals, and the names of National Security Agency employees. Some of the captured computers contained detailed information for processing PROFORMA communications from North Korea, Russia, Vietnam, China and other countries. The plane also carried information on the emitter parameters for U.S.-allied radar systems worldwide. The fact that the United States could track People's Liberation Army Navy submarines via signal transmission was also revealed to China. ==Letter of the two sorries== The "Letter of the two sorries" was the letter delivered by the United States Ambassador Joseph Prueher to Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan of the People's Republic of China to end the incident. The delivery of the letter resulted in the release of the U.S. crew from Chinese custody, as well as the eventual return of the disassembled aircraft. The letter stated that the United States was "very sorry" for the death of Chinese pilot Wang Wei (), and was "very sorry" the aircraft entered China's airspace and that its landing did not have "verbal clearance".Lindsey, Daryl et al. "War of words". Salon.com, April 12, 2001, retrieved on March 21, 2009 The United States stated that it was "not a letter of apology", as some state-owned Chinese media outlets characterized it at the time, but "an expression of regret and sorrow". China had originally asked for an apology, but the U.S. explained, "We did not do anything wrong, and therefore it was not possible to apologize". There was further debate over the exact meaning of the Chinese translation issued by the U.S. Embassy. A senior administration official was quoted as saying "What the Chinese will choose to characterize as an apology, we would probably choose to characterize as an expression of regret or sorrow". Chinese President Jiang Zemin accepted the expression of "very sorry" as consistent with the formal apology it had sought and released the Americans thereafter. ==Aftermath== The crew of the EP-3 was released on April 11, 2001, and returned to their base at Whidbey Island via Honolulu, Hawaii, where they were subject to two days of intense debriefings, followed by a heroes' welcome. The pilot, Lt. Shane Osborn, was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for "heroism and extraordinary achievement" in flight. The J-8B pilot, Wang Wei, was posthumously honored in China as a "Guardian of Territorial Airspace and Waters". His widow received a personal letter of condolence from President George W. Bush. U.S. Navy engineers said the EP-3 could be repaired in 8–12 months, but China refused to allow it to be flown off Hainan island. The disassembled aircraft was released on July 3, 2001, and was returned to the United States by the Russian airline Polet in two Antonov An-124 Ruslans. The repairs were performed at Lockheed Martin in Marietta, Georgia, for reassembly and to make it flightworthy again. The aircraft was then flown to L3 in Waco, Texas, for missionization as they were the main provider of EP-3 maintenance and modernization at the time. The aircraft returned to duty prior to 2013. In addition to paying for the dismantling and shipping of the EP-3, the United States paid for the 11 days of food and lodging supplied by the Chinese government to the aircraft's crew, in the amount of $34,567. The Chinese had demanded one million dollars compensation from the U.S. for the lost J-8 and their pilot, but this was refused and no further negotiations were performed. The incident occurred ten weeks after the inauguration of George W. Bush as president and was his first foreign policy crisis. Both sides were criticized after the event; the Chinese for making a bluff which was called without any real concessions from the American side other than the "Letter of the two sorries", and the U.S. first for being insensitive immediately after the event and later for issuing the letter rather than being more oppositional. The United States tried to be conciliatory in order to try to avoid Chinese objections to U.S. foreign policy, which became more important after the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the War on Terror. Among the Chinese public, the incident created negative feelings towards the United States and increased feelings of Chinese nationalism. Despite the fact that the destroyed aircraft carried the serial number 81194, footage of Lt Cdr Wang Wei piloting airplane J-8B bearing serial number 81192 in a similar incident earlier in the year was popularised and to this day, has become a national icon for both the PLANAF and the Chinese nation. With the worsening Sino-American relations since the late 2000s, Lt Cdr Wang Wei and J-8B serial number 81192 is now enjoying a renewed wave of popularity amongst Chinese netizens and public. After the collision, China's monitoring of reconnaissance flights became less aggressive for a period of time. As of 2011, flights of U.S. surveillance aircraft near the Chinese coastline continued as before the incident. Hainan is currently the home of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Hainan Submarine Base, an underground facility capable of supporting nuclear ballistic missile submarines. During March 2009, the USNS Impeccable, an ocean surveillance ship of the U.S. Navy, was on several occasions approached by Chinese ships and aircraft while operating south of Hainan, actions Pentagon officials characterized as "aggressive" and "harassment". In August 2014, the U.S. protested when a Chinese Shenyang J-11BH came within of a patrolling Boeing P-8 Poseidon aircraft and performed aerobatic maneuvers including a barrel roll. In May 2016, the U.S. protested when two Chinese Shenyang J-11BH aircraft reportedly came within of a U.S. EP-3 on "a routine" patrol approximately east of Hainan Island; China responded by demanding an end to U.S. surveillance near China. ==See also== * List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (2000–09) == References == === Citations === === Sources === * ==Further reading== * Garver, John W. "Sino-American relations in 2001: the difficult accommodation of two great powers." International Journal 57.2 (2002): 283–310. online * Category:Espionage scandals and incidents Category:China–United States military relations Category:Signals intelligence Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in China Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 2001 Category:United States Navy in the 21st century Category:Diplomatic incidents Category:2001 in China Category:2001 in the United States Category:Conflicts in 2001 Category:Military history of Hainan Category:George W. Bush administration controversies Category:Accidents and incidents involving United States Navy and Marine Corps aircraft Category:Lockheed P-3 Orion Category:April 2001 events in Asia Category:Espionage in China
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The following is only a sample of natural gas and petroleum product accidents for this era. Gas and oil leaks and explosions were not tracked in an organized fashion except by fire marshals. Many leaks, fires, and explosions were not recorded unless they occurred in population centers with newspapers to report them.Many early twentieth-century newspapers have been digitized and are searchable online. The U.S. Library of Congress provides access to 2,493 newspapers at https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/newspapers/. Some states have digitized their newspapers; see Colorado Historic Newspapers at https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org and Utah Digital Newspapers at https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/. Many public libraries also provide online access to the early New York Times, Boston Globe and other newspapers, or databases such as ProQuest. Later in the twentieth century, the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), a U.S. Department of Transportation agency, would be established to develop and enforce regulations for the safe and environmentally sound operation of the United States' pipelines, and to collect data on pipeline leaks, accidents, and explosions.Data sets of PHMSA Pipeline Safety-Flagged Incidents for 1986-2001, 2002-2009, and 2010-2017 can be downloaded from the tab by that name on the PHMSA Pipeline Incident Flagged Files page, https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/data- and-statistics/pipeline/pipeline-incident-flagged-files, accessed 2018.01.10. ==1900s== * On December 20, 1900, at Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, two children were fatally burned and five injured in a gas explosion and fires that destroyed three houses. The explosions were caused by the breaking of a valve gate on the Fort Pitt Gas Line, which allowed leaking gas to seep into the houses' cellars, following water pipes from the street."Seven Persons Injured," Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 20 Dec 1900, p. 11, https://bklyn.newspapers.com/image/50364775/?terms=gas%2Bexplosion. * In May 1901, three teachers and a plumber were injured by a gas explosion at Saint Michael's Roman Catholic Church parish school in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."Latest News Notes," The Star (Reynoldsville, Pa.), 15 May 1901, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, , accessed 2018.01.19. * In October 1901 in Boston, Massachusetts, five women narrowly escaped being burned alive after a leaking gas meter exploded in the basement of their three-story tenement, starting a fire that ascended through the stairwells and drove them out the upper windows where they clung to the ledges until firefighters rescued them with extension ladders."Saved from Fire: Five Women Have Narrow Escape," Boston Globe, 18 Oct 1901: 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * On February 21, 1902 at Rochester, New York, an explosion destroyed a building at the works of the Rochester Gas and Electric Company. The loss was estimated at $20,000."Gas Explosion at Rochester, New York," Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), 21 Feb 1902, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, * In May 1903, an oil well driller in eastern Ohio struck gas which ignited and exploded after escaping from the well. The derrick burned, and three men and an eight-year-old boy were seriously injured by the explosion."Gas Explosion," Sistersville Daily Oil Review (Sistersville, W. Va.), 27 May 1903, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, * At Marion, Indiana in January 1904, three were killed, four fatally injured and eight dangerously injured when a hotel burned after a gas leak exploded, probably due to increased pressure in the mains. The loss was estimated at $50,000."Hotel Blown Up and Three Killed," Warren Sheaf (Warren, Marshall County, Minn.), 28 Jan 1904, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, . * At Winchester, Massachusetts, on December 1, 1904, a lighted match dropped into a sewer manhole by an employee of the Arlington gaslight company set off an explosion which injured five gas line repairmen and blew the steel manhole cover 30 feet into the air. The gas ignited along the sewer line into Rangeley, where two more manhole covers were blown into the air. The gas company's official statement was that the gas was ignited by a spark from a pickaxe."One Seems Likely to Die: Explosion of Gas in Manhole. Five Men Hurt," Boston Daily Globe, 1 Dec 1904, pg. 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * In February 1905 at Hastings, Pennsylvania, two employees of the Hope Gas Company were killed while repairing a leak in a 12-inch diameter natural gas pipeline, which exploded so violently that their clothes were blown off their bodies."Two Men Instantly Killed in Gas Explosion," Sistersville Daily Oil Review (Sistersville, W. Va.), 02 Feb 1905, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, * At Cherryville, Kansas, on November 22, 1906, five Australians working on the Kansas Natural Gas Company's pipeline to Joplin were badly burned by an explosion "through misunderstanding or neglect.""Gas Explosion Injures Five," Topeka State Journal (Topeka, Kan.), 22 Nov. 1906. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, * A gas explosion in August 1907 shook Boston's South End after new machinery ignited a gas leak in the one-story brick engine house of the Boston Consolidated Gas Company, where natural gas was pumped to three huge reservoirs holding 2,000,000 cubic feet of gas. The engineer, knowing the fire could spread to the reservoirs, ignored his burning clothes and rushed to close the valves between the engine house and the reservoirs, saving the South End from a disaster. Seven workmen including the engineer were seriously injured."Explosion of Gas Scares South End," Boston Daily Globe [Boston, Mass.], 16 Aug 1907: 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * At South Deerfield, Massachusetts, on March 28, 1908, a tank used for supplying gas to houses and stores exploded, killing two men and injuring two others. Hundreds of windows shattered from the force of the blast, and a small building near the tank was demolished. Leaking gas was thought to have been ignited by the flame from a lantern."Explosion Kills Two: Gas Tank Goes Up With Roar," Boston Daily Globe, Mar 29, 1908, pg. 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19 * At Haysville, Pennsylvania, on July 31, 1908, a gas explosion demolished a varnish factory building and broke 500 windows in the town, doing $6000 of damage."Terrific Gas Explosion," Boston Daily Globe, 1 Aug 1908, p. 12, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * On December 14, 1909 at Topeka, Kansas, six men were seriously injured when gas trapped in a fire cistern exploded. Two were cleaning out the cistern when another man struck a match to light a cigar and the explosion followed."Injured in Gas Explosion," Herald Democrat (Leadville, Colorado), December 15, 1909, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. ==1910s== * In Oklahoma on September 9, 1910, a cigar-smoking cashier inadvertently blew up his own bank when he walked into his workplace, which had a gas leak. The cashier was bruised and scorched but not seriously injured."Bank Wrecked by Gas Explosion, "Vinita Daily Chieftain (Vinita, Indian Territory [Oklahoma]), 09 Sept 1910, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, * On January 15, 1911, four persons were killed and four injured in a natural gas explosion at Niobrara, Nebraska. The explosion was caused by a leak from a gas plant in a hotel's cellar. The resulting fire burned the three-story frame hotel to the ground."Fatal Explosion," Herald Democrat (Leadville, Colorado), January 16, 1911, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * At Estes Park, Colorado, on June 26, 1911, an explosion of gas in the Stanley Hotel endangered the lives of 20 guests and fatally injured one. The Stanley, a new $500,000 four-story hotel lighted by electricity, had a gas plant for emergency use. Guests noticed the odor of gas the previous day and at night the leak was found on the second floor by employees with lighted candles who set off the explosion."Acetylene Gas Plant Explodes," Montrose Daily Press (Montrose, Colorado), June 26, 1911, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * At Schenectady, New York, on September 18, 1911, the explosion of a gas generating tank in the basement of the Exchange building resulted in the death of the owner of a confectionery store. The building was considerably damaged by the fire which followed the explosion. Firemen found the confectioner's body in the basement."Killed By Gas Explosion," Herald Democrat (Leadville, Colorado), September 19, 1911, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * On May 13, 1912, at Parkersburg, West Virginia, a gas explosion shook a woolen mill and injured three men, probably including the one searching for the gas leak with a lighted match. After the explosion, 200 mill girls employed on the fourth floor made their way down the fire escape in an orderly fashion. A fire followed but was quickly extinguished."Girls Escape from Mill: Gas Explosion at Parkersburg, W Va, injures Three Men--Match and Gas Leak the Cause," Boston Daily Globe [Boston, Mass.], 14 May 1912: 3, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * At Boston, Massachusetts, on October 2, 1912, gas escaping from a subbasement gas main in a Beacon Street apartment hotel affected 34 residents while they were sleeping; two nearly suffocated."Gas Scare in the Back Bay: 34 People Affected as Result of Leak. Discovery of Leaking Gas," Boston Daily Globe [Boston, Mass.], 02 Oct 1909: 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * On January 24, 1913 a natural gas explosion in an underground chamber of the Utah Light and Railway Company shattered a 200-pound cast iron manhole cover and threw the pieces into the air in downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, forcing pedestrians to take shelter as the debris rained down."Pedestrians Escape Explosion in Street," Salt Lake Tribune (Utah), 1913-01-25, and "Gas Explosion in Street," Salt Lake Telegram (Utah), 1913-01-25, Utah Digital Newspapers, https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/, accessed 2018.01.20. * Near Kansas City, Missouri, on February 17, 1913, twenty members of the Oak Grove Methodist Church were injured when a natural gas tank blew up in the basement of the church. The custodian, who had taken a lantern to find the source of the gas leak, was not expected to live."Church Wrecked by Gas Explosion," Salt Lake Telegram (Utah), 1913-02-17, Utah Digital Newspapers, https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/, accessed 2018.01.20. * On June 14, 1914, at Columbus, Ohio, 12 men were fatally injured and eight seriously burned when a gas main exploded while a group of workmen were repairing it. Four later died."Explosion in Gas Main," Boston Daily Globe, Jun 15, 1914: 2, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * On December 15, 1914, at Cleveland, Ohio, a two-story brick apartment house was demolished by a natural gas explosion. Seven were killed, nine hospitalized, three missing."Apartments Are Wrecked by Gas," Ogden Standard (Utah), 1914-12-15, Utah Digital Newspapers, https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/, accessed 2018.01.20. * At Kane, Pennsylvania on February 3, 1915, nine men were killed and six others injured in an explosion and fire caused by an exploding gas stove in a bunkhouse. All nine of the dead men were injured or rendered unconscious from the explosion and unable to help themselves by escaping from the fire."Nine Men Cremated And Six Injured In Explosion," Daily Journal (Telluride, Colorado), February 3, 1915, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * At Lafayette, Colorado on July 12, 1916, an explosion at the Western Light and Power Company injured none of the eight men in the building. Employees said the explosion was caused by accumulation of natural gas in the economizer in the fan room. The explosion did not interrupt gas service. The explosion in the feed pipes blew out the west wall of the fan house, causing about $1,000 in damage."Lafayette Light Plant is Damaged by Explosion," Morgan County Republican (Brush, Colorado), July 14, 1916, and "Blast Wrecks Part of Gas Plant," Oak Creek Times (Oak Creek, Routt County, Colorado), July 20, 1916, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * In South Boston, Massachusetts, on January 1, 1917, a paper boy was killed by a flying manhole cover, 11 persons were severely injured and property damage running into thousands of dollars was entailed in a terrific gas explosion that threw 13 manhole covers into the air. When gas company employees used pickaxes to uncover the leak to repair the pipe, it flamed up again."Explosion Kills A Boy: Eleven Hurt as 13 Manhole Covers Shoot Aloft," Boston Daily Globe, Jan 2, 1917, pg. 1, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * Near Ouray, Colorado, in January 1917, an untapped seep of natural gas near the ferry across the Green River exploded in a blast that was heard two miles away and hurled blocks of ice five feet square and more than a foot thick onto the riverbank."Mysterious Gas Explosion," Steamboat Pilot (Steamboat Springs, Colorado), January 31, 1917, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * On February 2, 1917, in Chicago, Illinois, a gas explosion wrecked a tenement house, killing seven residents and injuring 21. Another 27 were missing. After the explosion, a pillar of fire rose from the ruins, indicating that gas was still leaking."Seven Dead in Gas Explosion," Boston Daily Globe, 3 Feb 1917, p. 12, ProQuest, accessed 2018.01.19. * At Lebanon, New Jersey, on December 30, 1918, 12 people were killed and 12 others injured by two gas explosions in the post office's basement tank of artificial gas. The first explosion blew the roof from the building and the second caused the walls to collapse, burying victims in the debris. Nearly 20 persons were waiting in the post office for the evening mail when the explosions occurred, and everyone in the building was killed or injured. Several in the street were hurt by falling debris. Some of the injured were badly burned before they could be rescued from the wreckage."Explosion of Gas Twelve People Killed," Herald Democrat (Leadville, Colorado), December 31, 1918, Colorado Historic Newspapers, https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/, accessed 2018.01.20. * On February 16, 1919, at Salt Lake City, Utah, natural gas escaping into a home nearly suffocated two boys and their dog. When their mother returned to the house, a wave of gas met her as she opened the door: the dog could only crawl and the boys were nearly asphyxiated by the gas but revived when treated at the hospital."Police Seek Explanation of Gas Case," Salt Lake Herald (Utah), 1919-02-17, Utah Digital Newspapers, https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/, accessed 2018.01.20. * On March 8, 1919, at San Pedro, California, on a freighter under construction in a shipyard, gas in a tank exploded, perhaps ignited by nearby riveters. One workman died and 21 were injured."Explosion of Gas at Shipyard Kills One, Injures Many," Salt Lake Herald (Utah), 1919-03-09, Utah Digital Newspapers, https://newspapers.lib.utah.edu/, accessed 2018.01.20. ==1920s== * 1928 On February 4, a worker employed on a new gas pipeline was injured by an explosion, during welding on the pipeline, near Austin, Texas. * 1929 On July 22, two oil company patrolmen were killed by an explosion of a gas pipeline near Castaic, California. ==1930s== * 1930 On April 4, gas leaked into the sewer system in New York City, New York, and later exploded. 6 people were injured, 5,000 were evacuated from nearby buildings, and telephone cables were damaged. * 1930 A runaway horse smashed a wagon of lumber against a crude oil pipeline in Ripon, Wisconsin on May 24. The oil ignited and spread to nearby oil tanks, causing a blaze that destroyed a number of buildings. * 1930 Excavation in Fairport, New York caused a major gas explosion on July 30. 3 people were killed, 10 were injured, and a 4 family house was damaged by the blast and following fire. * 1931 Four campers near Kilgore, Texas were burned to death when they were surrounded by gas from a pipeline leak that caught fire on April 17. The flames also spread to brush and timber in the area, preventing rescuers from reaching the bodies for 3 hours. * 1936 On February 19, a worker inside a sewer in Utica, New York ignited natural gas that had leaked into the sewer system. An explosion was triggered, and the following fire burned for more than 24 hours. 4,000 people were evacuated. * 1936 On November 21, a pipeline serving a loading dock in Port Arthur, Texas, ruptured and ignited. The burning oil killed 3 people, and injured 6 others. * 1937 An oil pipeline being repaired by gas welding exploded near Pryor, Oklahoma on January 14. 2 of the repair crew, and 4 wives of the repairmen were killed by the explosion and following fire. * 1937 On February 5, a gas main thought to be damaged by flooding exploded in Louisville, Kentucky. At least 15 were injured, and a major fire swept through the area. * 1937 At 3:17 p.m. on March 18, 1937, with just minutes left in the school day and more than 500 students and teachers inside the building, a natural gas explosion leveled most of New London High School in Rusk County, Texas. Odorless natural gas had leaked into the basement and ignited, killing 298 children, most in grades 5 to 11. Dozens more later died of injuries. As a result of this disaster, Texas passed laws requiring that natural gas be mixed with a malodorant to warn of a gas leak. * 1937 On July 21, a gasoline explosion and fire hit a Phillips Pipeline pump station near Jefferson City, Missouri, injuring a truck driver there. * 1939 On December 12, a pipeline being tested ruptured for , near Wichita Falls, Texas, injuring one person. ==1940s== * 1940 On January 10, a gas pipeline exploded while being worked on, near Waskom, Texas, killing 2 workers, and injuring a third man. There was no fire. * 1940 A gas compressor plant exploded in Braintree, Massachusetts on April 4, killing four people and injuring 12 others. * 1940 On August 29, a newly hired crew of repairmen were working on fixing a pipeline leak near Buffalo, Oklahoma, when the pipeline exploded and started a fire. Seven of the crew were killed, 8 others were burned, and 10 horses burned to death. * 1942 On October 5, a crude oil pipeline broke near Wichita, Kansas, spilling crude oil into the Little Arkansas River. There was no fire or injuries. * 1943 On January 18, a grass fire near Tyler, Texas spread to a leak in an 8-inch diameter natural gas pipeline. The gas leak was initially small, but grew quickly, until the gas flames were about high. Gas service was cut to 28,000 people. * 1943 On May 17, flooding destroyed part of the "Big Inch" pipeline in Arkansas, causing nearly a week of shut down to build a bypass around the damaged area. There were no injuries reported. * 1943 On August 14, the recently built "Big Inch" crude oil pipeline developed a leak near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, delaying the first batch of crude oil from that pipeline from reaching Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. * 1943 On September 5, the "Big Inch" pipeline ruptured and burned near Lansdale, Pennsylvania, with burning crude oil spilling into a creek, and destroying over 100 trees. The creek had to have 2 temporary earth dams built on it to stop the burning crude from spreading further. There were no injuries reported. * 1943 On December 4, the "Big Inch" started leaking near Okeana, Ohio. There were no injuries reported. * 1944 The "Big Inch" crude oil pipeline ruptured in Connellsville, Pennsylvania on February 24, with the crude spill killing fish along a stretch of the Laurel Hill creek. * 1944 On July 31, The "Big Inch" crude oil pipeline leaked, then exploded, near Longview, Texas. 2 pipeline workers were killed, and 2 other injured. * 1946 A crew working to connect a new gas main in Peru, Illinois on July 4, when the old gas main exploded, killing 5 of the work crew, and injuring 7 others. * 1947 On July 27, the "Big Inch" pipeline sprung a gas leak, near Great Bend, Kansas. A passing truck ignited the fumes, causing a massive explosion and fire, killing the truck driver. * 1947 On November 30, an explosion hit a natural gas compressor station for a gas storage facility in Marion, Michigan. One worker was killed, and 6 others were injured, and gas service was interrupted in the area. * 1948 On February 28, crude oil spilled from a ruptured pipeline leading to storage tank in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Some teen boys in the area saw crude oil bubbling out of manhole covers, and thought that igniting the oil would be a good idea. This caused a string of sewer explosions, causing manhole covers to fly into the air. * 1948 On March 18, the 20 inch diameter "Little Big Inch" natural gas transmission pipeline near Petersburg, Indiana exploded and burned, throwing pieces of the pipe as far as away from the blast point. 3 homes were destroyed by the fire.For more information on this state's gas, see Bill Beck, Natural Gas for the Hoosier State: An Illustrated History of Indiana Gas Company, Inc., 1945-1995, (Indiana Gas Company, 1995). * 1948 On May 9, he "Little Big Inch" natural gas transmission pipeline exploded, near Woodson, Arkansas. There were no injuries. * 1948 A crude oil pipeline ruptured in Linden, New Jersey on September 7, coating roads in the area in oil. * 1948 On October 18, vapors from a leaking butane pipeline at a refinery in Texas City, Texas spread out along a nearby highway, causing a number of cars to stall. The gas then exploded, killing 4 people, and seriously burning 17 others. * 1948 On November 9, a pressure valve exploded during work on it, near Bald Knob, Arkansas. One worker was killed. * 1948 On November 19, a "Big Inch" gas pipeline pumping station had 2 explosions and caught fire near Seymour, Indiana, causing $3,000,000 in damage, and injuring 17 workers at the station. Flames reached 300 feet high. * 1949 On January 18, the "Big Inch" gas transmission pipeline ruptured and burned near Batesville, Indiana. The cause was an electrical arc at a compressor station. One worker at the compressor station had facial burns. * 1949 A section of the "Little Big Inch" exploded and burned in North Vernon, Indiana on March 4, burning a mother and her infant. It was the fourth explosion on that pipeline in Indiana that year. * 1949 On April 2, the "Little Big Inch' gas pipeline exploded and burned, near Jonesboro, Arkansas. There were no injuries reported. * 1949 During the extraction of a pipeline cleaning tool, the "Big Inch" pipeline exploded in West Chester, Pennsylvania on July 16. One worker was killed, and 2 others injured. There was no fire reported. * 1949 On October 6, the "Little Big Inch" gas pipeline exploded, near Marion, Illinois. There was no fire or injuries. * 1949 A road grader operator was seriously burned when his grader hit a 6-inch gas pipeline west of Mankato, Kansas on November 17. * 1949 On December 8, an explosion and fire occurred at a compressor station for a 24-inch natural gas pipeline in Centralia, Missouri. Flames could be seen for away. * 1949 A leaking gas line caused an explosion at a packing plant in Sioux City, Iowa on December 14. Eighteen workers were killed, and almost 100 injured. * 1949 On December 15, a 22-inch natural gas pipeline exploded and burned near Carthage, Tennessee, injuring two people. Flames shot into the air. * 1949 In Detroit, Michigan a high pressure gas main went "out of control" on December 15, when a new pressure regulator was being installed, leading to a number of large gas explosions. Police evacuated the area before the explosions, but, six people were injured, and 5 stores destroyed. ==References== Category:Lists of pipeline accidents in the United States
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The naval history of Japan began with early interactions with states on the Asian continent in the 3rd century BCE during the Yayoi period. It reached a pre-modern peak of activity during the 16th century, a time of cultural exchange with European powers and extensive trade with the Asian continent. After over two centuries of self-imposed seclusion under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan's naval technologies became outdated compared to Western navies. The country was forced to abandon its maritime restrictions by American intervention with the Perry Expedition in 1854. This and other events led to the Meiji Restoration, a period of frantic modernization and industrialization accompanied by the re-ascendance of the Emperor's rule and colonialism with the Empire of Japan. Japan became the first industrialized Asian country in 1868, by 1920 the Imperial Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world and arguably the most modern at the brink of World War II. The Imperial Japanese Navy had a history of successes, sometimes against much more powerful foes as in the 1894–1895 Sino-Japanese War, the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, and early naval battles during World War II. In 1945, towards the end of the conflict, the navy was almost completely destroyed by the United States Navy. Japan's current navy is a branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) called the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). In 2015, the JMSDF was ranked by Credit Suisse as the fourth most powerful military in the world. However, it is still denied any offensive role by the nation's post-war Constitution and public opinion. ==Prehistory== Japan was connected to the Asian continent via land during the glacial maximum of the last ice age around 20,000 BCE. This allowed for the transmission of flora and fauna, including the establishment of the Jōmon culture. The land bridges disappeared in the Jōmon period around 10,000 BCE. After that period however, Japan became an isolated island territory, depending entirely on sporadic naval activity for its interactions with the continent. The shortest seapath to the continent (besides the inhospitable northern path from Hokkaidō to Sakhalin) then involved two stretches of open water about 50 kilometers wide, between the Korean peninsula and the island of Tsushima, and then from Tsushima to the major island of Kyūshū. Various influences have also been suggested from the direction of the Pacific Ocean, as various cultural and even genetic traits seem to point to partial Pacific origins, possibly in relation with the Austronesian expansion. ==Early historical period== Ambassadorial visits to Japan by the later Northern Chinese dynasties Wei and Jin (Encounters of the Eastern Barbarians, Wei Chronicles) recorded that some Japanese people claimed to be descendants of Taibo of Wu, refugees after the fall of the Wu state in the 5th century BCE. History books do have records of Wu Taibo sending 4000 males and 4000 females to Japan. ===Yayoi Period=== The first major naval contacts occurred in the Yayoi period in the 3rd century BCE, when rice-farming and metallurgy were introduced, from the continent. The 14 AD incursion of Silla (新羅, Shiragi in Japanese), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is the earliest Japanese military action recorded in Samguk Sagi. According to that record, Wa (the proto-Japanese nation) sent one hundred ships and led an incursion on the coastal area of Silla before being driven off. ===Yamato Period=== During the Yamato period, Japan had intense naval interaction with the Asian continent, largely centered around diplomacy and trade with China, the Korean kingdoms, and other continental states, since at latest the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century. According to a mythological account in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Empress Jingū is claimed to have invaded Korea in the 3rd century, and to have returned victorious after three years. Whether a Japanese political entity actually ruled a part of Korea in ancient times is debated, but considered unlikely for that time period. Other than the expedition of Empress Jingū, battle of Hakusukinoe (白村江), one of the earliest historical events in Japan's naval history took place in 663. Japan sent 32,000 troops and possibly as many as 1,000 ships to Korea to support the declining Baekje kingdom (百済国; contemporary records suggest that Baekje and Yamato Japan were allies, and that their royal/imperial families were possibly related) against Silla and Tang-dynasty China. They were defeated by the T'ang-Silla combined force. The Azumi people were a warrior tribe from northern Kyushu. They were extremely skilled seafarers. The Azumi gained early contact with the Yamato Court and provided maritime trade links and influenced the Yamato Court's military and diplomatic approach in the seas. Thus the Japanese imperial government employed them as their naval force from the 3rd to 5th centuries. == Medieval period == Naval battles of a very large scale, fought between Japanese clans and involving more than 1000 warships, are recorded from the 12th century. The decisive battle of the Genpei War, and one of the most famous and important naval battles in pre-modern Japanese history, was the 1185 battle of Dan-no-ura, which was fought between the fleets of the Minamoto and Taira clans. These battles consisted first of long-range archery exchanges, then giving way to hand-to-hand combat with swords and daggers. Ships were used largely as floating platforms for what were largely land-based melee tactics. ===Mongol invasions (1274–1281)=== The first major references to Japanese naval actions against other Asian powers occur in the accounts of the Mongol invasions of Japan by Kublai Khan in 1281. Japan had no navy which could seriously challenge the Mongol navy, so most of the action took place on Japanese land. Groups of samurai, transported on small coastal boats, are recorded to have boarded, taken over and burned several ships of the Mongol navy. ===Wakō piracy (13th–16th century)=== During the following centuries, wakō pirates actively plundered the coast of the Chinese Empire. Though the term wakō translates directly to "Japanese pirates", Japanese were far from the only sailors to harass shipping and ports in China and other parts of Asia in this period, and the term thus more accurately includes non-Japanese pirates as well. The first raid by wakō on record occurred in the summer of 1223, on the south coast of Goryeo. At the peak of wakō activity around the end of the 14th century, fleets of 300 to 500 ships, transporting several hundred horsemen and several thousand soldiers, would raid the coast of China. For the next half- century, sailing principally from Iki Island and Tsushima, they engulfed coastal regions of the southern half of Goryeo. Between 1376 and 1385, no fewer than 174 instances of pirate raids were recorded in Korea. However, when Joseon dynasty was founded in Korea, wakō took a massive hit in one of their main homeland of Tsushima during the Ōei Invasion. The peak of wakō activity was during the 1550s, when tens of thousands of pirates raided the Chinese coast in what is called the Jiajing wakō raids, but the wakō at this time were mostly Chinese. Wakō piracy ended for the most part in the 1580s with its interdiction by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Official trading missions, such as the Tenryūji-bune, were also sent to China around 1341. ===Sengoku period (15th–16th century)=== thumb|A 16th-century Japanese atakebune coastal warship. thumb|Shogunate fleet, circa 1634 Various daimyō clans undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Sengoku period, when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. The largest of these ships were called atakebune. Around that time, Japan seems to have developed one of the first ironclad warships in history, when Oda Nobunaga, a Japanese daimyō, had six iron-covered Ō-atakebune ("Great Atakebune") made in 1576 . These ships were called , literally "iron armored ships", and were armed with multiple cannons and large caliber rifles to defeat the large, but all wooden, vessels of the enemy. With these ships, Nobunaga defeated the Mōri clan navy at the mouth of the Kizu River, near Osaka in 1578, and began a successful naval blockade. The Ō-atakebune are regarded as floating fortresses rather than true warships, however, and were only used in coastal actions. ===European contacts=== thumb|380px|Nanban ships arriving for trade in Japan. 16th-century painting. The first Europeans reached Japan in 1543 on Chinese junks, and Portuguese ships started to arrive in Japan soon after. At that time, there was already trade exchanges between Portugal and Goa (since around 1515), consisting in 3 to 4 carracks leaving Lisbon with silver to purchase cotton and spices in India. Out of these, only one carrack went on to China in order to purchase silk, also in exchange for Portuguese silver. Accordingly, the cargo of the first Portuguese ships (usually about 4 smaller-sized ships every year) arriving in Japan almost entirely consisted of Chinese goods (silk, porcelain). The Japanese were very much looking forward to acquiring such goods, but had been prohibited from any contacts with by the Emperor of China, as a punishment for wakō pirate raids. The Portuguese (who were called Nanban, lit. Southern Barbarians) therefore found the opportunity to act as intermediaries in Asian trade. From the time of the acquisition of Macau in 1557, and their formal recognition as trade partners by the Chinese, the Portuguese started to regulate trade to Japan, by selling to the highest bidder the annual "captaincy" (ito wappu) to Japan, in effect conferring exclusive trading rights for a single carrack bound for Japan every year. The carracks were very large ships, usually between 1000 and 1500 tons, about double or triple the size of a large galleon or junk. That trade continued with few interruptions until 1638, when it was prohibited on the grounds that the priests and missionaries associated with the Portuguese traders were perceived as posing a threat to the shogunate's power and the nation's stability. Portuguese trade was progressively more and more challenged by Chinese smugglers, Japanese Red Seal Ships from around 1592 (about ten ships every year), Spanish ships from Manila from around 1600 (about one ship a year), the Dutch from 1609, and the English from 1613 (about one ship per year). Some Japanese are known to have travelled abroad on foreign ships as well, such as Christopher and Cosmas who crossed the Pacific on a Spanish galleon as early as 1587, and then sailed to Europe with Thomas Cavendish. The Dutch, who, rather than Nanban were called , lit. "Red Hair" by the Japanese, first arrived in Japan in 1600, on board the Liefde. Their pilot was William Adams, the first Englishman to reach Japan. In 1605, two of the Liefde's crew were sent to Pattani by Tokugawa Ieyasu, to invite Dutch trade to Japan. The head of the Pattani Dutch trading post, Victor Sprinckel, refused on the grounds that he was too busy dealing with Portuguese opposition in Southeast Asia. In 1609, however, the Dutchman Jacques Specx arrived with two ships in Hirado, and through Adams obtained trading privileges from Ieyasu. The Dutch also engaged in piracy and naval combat to weaken Portuguese and Spanish shipping in the Pacific, and ultimately became the only Westerners to be allowed access to Japan. For two centuries beginning in 1638, they were restricted to the island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor. ===Invasions of Korea and the Ryūkyūs=== In 1592 and again in 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi organized invasions of Korea using some 9,200 ships.Nagoya UniversityThe Naval Organization in the Korean Expedition of the Toyotomi Régime From the beginning of the War in 1592, the supreme commander of Hideyoshi's fleet was Kuki Yoshitaka, whose flagship was the 33 meter-long Nihonmaru. Subordinate commanders included Wakisaka Yasuharu and Katō Yoshiaki. After their experience in the Ōei Invasion and other operations against Japanese pirates, the Chinese and Korean navies were more skilled than the Japanese. They relied throughout upon large numbers of smaller ships whose crews would attempt to board the enemy. Boarding was the main tactic of almost all navies until the modern era, and Japanese samurai excelled in close combat. The Japanese commonly used many light, swift, boarding ships called Kobaya in an array that resembled a rapid school of fish following the leading boat. This tactic's advantage was that once they succeeded in boarding one ship, they could hop aboard other enemy ships in the vicinity, in a wildfire fashion. Japanese ships at the time were built with wooden planks and steel nails, which rusted in seawater after some time in service. The ships were built in a curved pentagonal shape with light wood for maximum speeds for their boarding tactics, but it undermined their capability to quickly change direction. Also, they were somewhat susceptible to capsizing in choppy seas and seastorms. The hulls of Japanese ships were not strong enough to support the weight and recoil of cannons. Rarely did Japanese ships have cannons, and those that did usually hung them from overhead beams with ropes and cloth. Instead, the Japanese relied heavily on their muskets and blades. The Korean Navy attacked a Japanese transportation fleet effectively and caused extensive damage. Won Gyun and Yi Sun-sin at the Battle of Okpo has destroyed the Japanese convoy, and their failure enabled Korean resistance in Jeolla province, in the south- east of Korea, to continue. Wakisaka Yasuharu was ordered to dispatch a 1,200 man navy during the Keicho Invasion and annihilated the invading Korean navy led by Won Kyun during a counterattack in July 1597 (Battle of Chilcheollyang). Korean Admiral Yi Eokgi and Won Gyun of Korea were killed in this combat. Hansan Island was occupied by Japan, consolidating the Japanese hold on the west coast of Korea. To prevent Japan from invading China by way of the Korean peninsula west coast, China sent naval forces.History of Ming (列傳第二百八外國一 朝鮮) Vol.208 Korea "萬暦 二十五年(1597)七月(July) "七月，倭奪梁山、三浪，遂入慶州，侵閒山。夜襲恭山島，統制元均風靡，遂失閒山要害。閒山島在朝鮮西海口，右障南原，為全羅外藩。一失守則沿海無備，天津、登萊皆可揚帆而至。而我水兵三千，甫抵旅順。 In August 1597, the Japanese Navy was ordered to occupy the Jeolla. Japanese History Laboratory, Faculty of Letters, Kobe University In the Battle of Myeongnyang, the Joseon navy gave a huge damage to the Japanese navy, and the Japanese Navy have failed to counterattack the Joseon navy even after the Joseon side made a strategic withdrawal to the Northern side of the Jeolla province. While the Japanese navy have made a few of minor incursions in the southwestern coast of Jeolla province, including the capture of Gang Hang, they eventually have failed to occupy Jeolla province by the end of the war. Remnants of the Korean navy led by Yi Sun-sin joined the Ming Chinese fleet under Chen Lin's forces and continued to attack Japanese supply lines. Towards the end of the war, as the remaining Japanese tried to withdraw from Korea, they were beset by Korean and Chinese forces.「征韓録(Sei-kan-roku)」(Public Record of Shimazu clan that Shimazu Hiromichi(島津 久通) wrote in 1671) 巻六(Vol6) "日本の軍兵悉く討果すべきの時至れりと悦んで、即副総兵陳蚕・郭子竜・遊撃馬文喚・李金・張良将等に相計て、陸兵五千、水兵三千を師ゐ、朝鮮の大将李統制、沈理が勢を合わせ、彼此都合一万三千余兵、全羅道順天の海口鼓金と云所に陣し、戦艦数百艘を艤ひして、何様一戦に大功をなすべきと待懸たり。" To rescue his comrades, Shimazu Yoshihiro attacked the allied fleet. At the Battle of Noryang, Shimazu defeated Chinese general Chen Lin. And the Japanese army succeeded in escape from the Korean PeninsulaHistory of Ming (列傳第二百八外國一 朝鮮) Vol.208 Korea "石曼子(Shimazu)引舟師救行長(Konishi Yukinaga), 陳璘(Chen Lin)邀擊敗之"「征韓録(Sei-kan-roku)」 巻六(Vol6) "外立花・寺沢・宗・高橋氏の軍兵、火花を散して相戦ひける間に五家の面々は、順天の城を逃出、南海の外海を廻りて引退く。". Yi Sun-sin was killed in this action.Naver Battle of Noryang - Dusan EnCyber Japan's failure to gain control of the sea, and their resulting difficulty in resupplying troops on land, was one of the major reasons for the invasion's ultimate failure. After the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the main proponent of the invasion, the Japanese ceased attacks on Korea. ====Invasion of the Ryūkyūs==== In 1609, Shimazu Tadatsune, Lord of Satsuma, invaded the southern islands of Ryūkyū (modern Okinawa) with a fleet of 13 junks and 2,500 samurai, thereby establishing suzerainty over the islands. They faced little opposition from the Ryukyuans, who lacked any significant military capabilities, and who were ordered by King Shō Nei to surrender peacefully rather than suffer the loss of precious lives.Kerr, George H. (2000). Okinawa: the History of an Island People. (revised ed.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing. ===Oceanic trade (16th–17th century)=== Japan built her first large ocean-going warships at the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the Western nations during the Nanban trade period. ====William Adams==== In 1604, Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu ordered William Adams and his companions to build Japan's first Western-style sailing ship at Itō, on the east coast of the Izu Peninsula. An 80-ton vessel was completed and the shōgun ordered a larger ship, 120 tons, to be built the following year (both were slightly smaller than the Liefde, the ship in which William Adams came to Japan, which was 150 tons). According to Adams, Ieyasu "came aboard to see it, and the sight whereof gave him great content". The ship, named San Buena Ventura, was lent to shipwrecked Spanish sailors for their return to Mexico in 1610. ====Hasekura Tsunenaga==== In 1613, the daimyō of Sendai, in agreement with the Tokugawa shogunate, built Date Maru, a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy to the Americas, and then continued to Europe. ====Red Seal ships==== From 1604, about 350 Red seal ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, were authorized by the shogunate, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. Japanese ships and samurai helped in the defense of Malacca on the side of the Portuguese against the Dutch Admiral Cornelis Matelief in 1606. Several armed ships of the Japanese adventurer Yamada Nagamasa would play a military role in the wars and court politics of Siam. William Adams, who participated in the Red Seal ship trade, would comment that "the people of this land (Japan) are very stout seamen". ===Planned invasion of the Philippines=== The Tokugawa shogunate had, for some time, planned to invade the Philippines in order to eradicate Spanish expansionism in Asia, and its support of Christians within Japan. In November 1637 it notified Nicolas Couckebacker, the head of the Dutch East India Company in Japan, of its intentions. About 10,000 samurai were prepared for the expedition, and the Dutch agreed to provide four warships and two yachts to support the Japanese ships against Spanish galleons. The plans were cancelled at the last minute with the advent of the Christian Shimabara Rebellion in Japan in December 1637. ===Seclusion (1640–1840)=== thumb|A Japanese Junk, circa 1854 The Dutch's cooperation on these, and other matters, would help ensure they were the only Westerners allowed in Japan for the next two centuries. Following these events, the shogunate imposed a system of maritime restrictions (海禁, kaikin), which forbade contacts with foreigners outside of designated channels and areas, banned Christianity, and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. The size of ships was restricted by law, and design specifications limiting seaworthiness (such as the provision for a gaping hole in the aft of the hull) were implemented. Sailors who happened to be stranded in foreign countries were prohibited from returning to Japan on pain of death. A tiny Dutch delegation in Dejima, Nagasaki was the only allowed contact with the West, from which the Japanese were kept partly informed of western scientific and technological advances, establishing a body of knowledge known as Rangaku. Extensive contacts with Korea and China were maintained through the Tsushima Domain, the Ryūkyū Kingdom under Satsuma's dominion, and the trading posts at Nagasaki. The Matsumae Domain on Hokkaidō managed contacts with the native Ainu peoples, and with Imperial Russia. Many isolated attempts to end Japan's seclusion were made by expanding Western powers during the 19th century. American, Russian and French ships all attempted to engage in relationship with Japan, but were rejected. These largely unsuccessful attempts continued until, on July 8, 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy with four warships: Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna steamed into the Bay of Edo (Tokyo) and displayed the threatening power of his ships' Paixhans guns. He demanded that Japan open to trade with the West. These ships became known as the kurofune, or Black Ships. Barely one month after Perry, the Russian Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin arrived in Nagasaki on August 12, 1853. He made a demonstration of a steam engine on his ship the Pallada, which led to Japan's first manufacture of a steam engine, created by Tanaka Hisashige. The following year, Perry returned with seven ships and forced the shōgun to sign the "Treaty of Peace and Amity", establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States, known as the Convention of Kanagawa (March 31, 1854). Within five years Japan had signed similar treaties with other western countries. The Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858. These treaties were widely regarded by Japanese intellectuals as unequal, having been forced on Japan through gunboat diplomacy, and as a sign of the West's desire to incorporate Japan into the imperialism that had been taking hold of the continent. Among other measures, they gave the Western nations unequivocal control of tariffs on imports and the right of extraterritoriality to all their visiting nationals. They would remain a sticking point in Japan's relations with the West up to the start of the 20th century. ==Modernization: Bakumatsu period (1853–1868)== The study of Western shipbuilding techniques resumed in the 1840s. This process intensified along with the increased activity of Western shipping along the coasts of Japan, due to the China trade and the development of whaling. From 1852, the government of the shōgun (the Late Tokugawa shogunate or "Bakumatsu") was warned by the Netherlands of the plans of Commodore Perry. Three months after Perry's first visit in 1853, the Bakufu cancelled the law prohibiting the construction of large ships (大船建造禁止令), and started organizing the construction of a fleet of Western-style sail warships, such as the Hōō Maru, the Shōhei Maru or the Asahi Maru, usually asking each fief to build their own modern ships. These ships were built using Dutch sailing manuals, and the know-how of a few returnees from the West, such as Nakahama Manjirō. Also with the help of Nakahama Manjirō, the Satsuma fief built Japan's first steam ship, the Unkoumaru (雲行丸) in 1855.Technology of edo , p37 The Bakufu also established defensive coastal fortifications, such as at Odaiba. ===Birth of a modern navy=== As soon as Japan agreed to open up to foreign influence, the Tokugawa shōgun government initiated an active policy of assimilation of Western naval technologies. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the Kankō Maru, which was used for training, and established the Nagasaki Naval Training Center. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the Kanrin Maru. In 1860, the Kanrin Maru was sailed to the United States by a group of Japanese, with the assistance of a single US Navy officer John M. Brooke, to deliver the first Japanese embassy to the United States. Naval students were sent abroad to study Western naval techniques. The Bakufu had initially planned on ordering ships and sending students to the United States, but the American Civil War led to a cancellation of plans. Instead, in 1862 the Bakufu placed its warship orders with the Netherlands and decided to send 15 trainees there. The students, led by Uchida Tsunejirō (内田恒次郎), left Nagasaki on September 11, 1862, and arrived in Rotterdam on April 18, 1863, for a stay of 3 years. They included such figures as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki, Sawa Tarosaemon (沢太郎左衛門), Akamatsu Noriyoshi (赤松則良), Taguchi Shunpei (田口俊平), Tsuda Shinichiro (津田真一郎) and the philosopher Nishi Amane. This started a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders such Admirals Tōgō and, later, Yamamoto. In 1863, Japan completed her first domestically built steam warship, the Chiyodagata, a 140-ton gunboat commissioned into the Tokugawa Navy (Japan's first steamship was the Unkoumaru -雲行丸- built by the fief of Satsuma in 1855). The ship was manufactured by the future industrial giant, Ishikawajima, thus initiating Japan's efforts to acquire and fully develop shipbuilding capabilities. Following the humiliations at the hands of foreign navies in the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863, and the Battle of Shimonoseki in 1864, the shogunate stepped up efforts to modernize, relying more and more on French and British assistance. In 1865, the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japan's first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki. More ships were imported, such as the Jho Sho Maru, the Ho Sho Maru and the Kagoshima, all commissioned by Thomas Blake Glover and built in Aberdeen. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy already possessed eight Western- style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War, under the command of Admiral Enomoto. The conflict culminated with the Naval Battle of Hakodate in 1869, Japan's first large-scale modern naval battle. In 1869, Japan acquired its first ocean-going ironclad warship, the Kōtetsu, ordered by the Bakufu but received by the new Imperial government, barely ten years after such ships were first introduced in the West with the launch of the French La Gloire. ==Meiji restoration (1868): creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy== thumb|The British-built was the flagship of the Imperial Japanese Navy until 1881. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) () was the navy of Japan between 1868 and until 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's defeat and surrender in World War II. From 1868, the restored Meiji Emperor continued with reforms to industrialize and militarize Japan in order to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the United States and European powers. The Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established in 1869. The new government drafted a very ambitious plan to create a Navy with 200 ships, organized into 10 fleets, but the plan was abandoned within a year due to lack of resources. Internally, domestic rebellions, and especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877) forced the government to focus on land warfare. Naval policy, expressed by the slogan Shusei Kokubō (, "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses, a standing army, and a coastal Navy, leading to a military organization under the Rikushu Kaiju (Jp:陸主海従, Army first, Navy second) principle. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Japanese Navy remained an essentially coastal defense force, although the Meiji government continued to modernize it. In 1870 an Imperial decree determined that the British Navy should be the model for development, and the second British naval mission to Japan, the Douglas Mission (1873–79) led by Archibald Lucius Douglas laid the foundations of naval officer training and education. (See Ian Gow, 'The Douglas Mission (1873–79) and Meiji Naval Education' in J. E. Hoare ed., Britain & Japan: Biographical Portraits Volume III, Japan Library 1999.) Tōgō Heihachirō was trained by the British navy. During the 1880s, France took the lead in influence, due to its "Jeune École" doctrine favoring small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, against bigger units. The Meiji government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882, requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be torpedo boats. The naval successes of the French Navy against China in the Sino-French War of 1883–85 seemed to validate the potential of torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited resources of Japan. In 1885, the new Navy slogan became Kaikoku Nippon (, "Maritime Japan"). In 1886, the leading French Navy engineer Émile Bertin was hired for four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy, and to direct the construction of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo. He developed the Sankeikan class of three cruisers, which are named after Three Views of Japan, featuring a single but powerful main gun, the 12.6 inch Canet gun. This period also allowed Japan to adopt new technologies such as torpedoes, torpedo-boats and mines, which were actively promoted by the French Navy (Howe, p281). Japan acquired its first torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886. ===Sino-Japanese War=== Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially as China was also building a powerful modern fleet with foreign, especially German, assistance, and the pressure was building between the two countries to take control of Korea. The Sino-Japanese war was officially declared on August 1, 1894, though some naval fighting had already taken place. The Japanese navy devastated Qing's northern fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River at the Battle of Yalu River on September 17, 1894, in which the Chinese fleet lost 8 out of 12 warships. Although Japan turned out victorious, the two large German-made battleships of the Chinese Navy remained almost impervious to Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Japanese Navy (the Ting Yuan was finally sunk by torpedoes, and the Chen- Yuan was captured with little damage). The next step of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion would thus involve a combination of heavily armed large warships, with smaller and innovative offensive units permitting aggressive tactics. The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900, by participating together with Western Powers to the suppression of the Chinese Boxer Rebellion. The Navy supplied the largest number of warships (18, out of a total of 50 warships), and delivered the largest contingent of Army and Navy troops among the intervening nations (20,840 soldiers, out of total of 54,000). ===Russo-Japanese War=== Following the First Sino-Japanese War, and the humiliation of the forced return of the Liaotung peninsula to China under Russian pressure (the "Triple Intervention"), Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation for further confrontations. Japan promulgated a ten-year naval build-up program, under the slogan "Perseverance and determination" (Jp:臥薪嘗胆, Gashinshoutan), in which it commissioned 109 warships, for a total of 200,000 tons, and increased its Navy personnel from 15,100 to 40,800. These dispositions culminated with the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). The Japanese battleship Mikasa was the flagship of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō. At the Battle of Tsushima, the Mikasa led the combined Japanese fleet into what has been called "the most decisive naval battle in history". The Russian fleet was almost completely annihilated: out of 38 Russian ships, 21 were sunk, 7 captured, 6 disarmed, 4,545 Russian servicemen died and 6,106 were taken prisoner. On the other hand, the Japanese only lost 117 men and 3 torpedo boats. ==World War II== In the years before World War II the IJN began to structure itself specifically to fight the United States. A long stretch of militaristic expansion and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 had alienated the United States, and the country was seen as a rival of Japan. To achieve Japan's expansionist policies, the Imperial Japanese Navy also had to fight off the largest navies in the world (The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty allotted a 5/5/3 ratio for the navies of Great Britain, the United States and Japan). She was therefore numerically inferior and her industrial base for expansion was limited (in particular compared to the United States). Her battle tactics therefore tended to rely on technical superiority (fewer, but faster, more powerful ships), and aggressive tactics (daring and speedy attacks overwhelming the enemy, a recipe for success in her previous conflicts). The Naval Treaties also provided an unintentional boost to Japan because the numerical restrictions on battleships prompted them to build more aircraft carriers to try to compensate for the United States' larger battleship fleet. The Imperial Japanese Navy was administered by the Ministry of the Navy of Japan and controlled by the Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff at Imperial General Headquarters. In order to combat the numerically superior American navy, the IJN devoted large amounts of resources to creating a force superior in quality to any navy at the time. Consequently, at the beginning of World War II, Japan probably had the most sophisticated Navy in the world. Betting on the speedy success of aggressive tactics, Japan did not invest significantly on defensive organization such as protecting her long shipping lines against enemy submarines, which she never managed to do, particularly under-investing in anti-submarine escort ships and escort aircraft carriers. The Japanese Navy enjoyed spectacular success during the first part of the hostilities, but American forces ultimately managed to gain the upper hand through decrypting the Japanese naval codes, exploiting the aforementioned Japanese neglect of fleet defense, technological upgrades to its air and naval forces, superior personnel management such as routinely reassigning accomplished combat pilots to provide experienced training of new recruits, and a vastly stronger industrial output. Japan's reluctance to use their submarine fleet for commerce raiding and failure to secure their communications also added to their defeat. During the last phase of the war the Imperial Japanese Navy resorted to a series of desperate measures, including Kamikaze (suicide) actions, which ultimately not only proved futile in repelling the Allies, but encouraged those enemies to use their newly developed atomic bombs to defeat Japan without the anticipated costly battles against so fanatical a defence. ==Maritime Self-Defense Force== Following Japan's surrender to the Allied Forces at the conclusion of World War II, and the subsequent allied occupation, Japan's entire imperial military was dissolved with the 1947 constitution. The constitution states "The Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes." Japan only had a National Security Force and was totally reliant on the US for protection. However, by 1954 the Self-Defense Forces Act (Act No. 165 of 1954) reorganized the National Security Force as the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (GSDF) and The Coastal Safety Force was reorganized as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), the de facto Japanese Navy. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) was established as a new branch of the JSDF. General Keizō Hayashi was appointed as the first Chairman of Joint Staff Council—professional head of the three branches. Its offensive capabilities are still restricted due to the nation's constitution. The post-war Japanese economic miracle enabled Japan to regain great power and leading Maritime power status. Accordingly, the great powers after the Cold War are Britain, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States p.59 By 1992, the Maritime Self-Defense Force (MSDF) had an authorized strength of 46,000 and maintained some 44,400 personnel and operated 155 major combatants, including thirteen submarines, sixty-four destroyers and frigates, forty-three mine warfare ships and boats, eleven patrol craft, and six amphibious ships. It also flew some 205 fixed-wing aircraft and 134 helicopters. Most of these aircraft were used in antisubmarine and mine warfare operations. By 2015, the JSDF was ranked by Credit Suisse as the 4th most powerful military in the world. ==See also== * Strike South Group * Fleet Faction – Navy political group * Treaty Faction – Navy political group * May 15 Incident – coup d'état with Navy support * Imperial Way Faction * Japanese nationalism == References == *Boxer, C. R. (1993) "The Christian Century in Japan 1549–1650", *Delorme, Pierre, Les Grandes Batailles de l'Histoire, Port-Arthur 1904, Socomer Editions (French) *Dull, Paul S. (1978) A Battle History of The Imperial Japanese Navy *Evans, David C. & Peattie, Mark R. (1997) Kaigun: strategy, tactics, and technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941 Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland *Gardiner, Robert (editor) (2001) Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The Steam Warship 1815–1905, *Howe, Christopher (1996) The origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy, Development and technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War, The University of Chicago Press *Ireland, Bernard (1996) Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century *Lyon, D. J. (1976) World War II warships, Excalibur Books *Nagazumi, Yōko (永積洋子) Red Seal Ships (朱印船), (Japanese) *Tōgō Shrine and Tōgō Association (東郷神社・東郷会), Togo Heihachiro in images, illustrated Meiji Navy (図説東郷平八郎、目で見る明治の海軍), (Japanese) *Japanese submarines 潜水艦大作戦, Jinbutsu publishing (新人物従来社) (Japanese) ==Notes== # Video footage of the Sino-Japanese war: Video (external link) . # :魏略：「倭人自謂太伯之後。」 /晉書：「自謂太伯之後，又言上古使詣中國，皆自稱大夫。」 列傳第六十七 四夷 /資治通鑑：「今日本又云呉太伯之後，蓋呉亡，其支庶入海為倭。」 #Nagazumi Red Seal Ships, p21 # THE FIRST IRONCLADS In Japanese: , . Also in English: : "Iron clad ships, however, were not new to Japan and Hideyoshi; Oda Nobunaga, in fact, had many iron clad ships in his fleet." (referring to the anteriority of Japanese ironclads (1578) to the Korean Turtle ships (1592)). In Western sources, Japanese ironclads are described in CR Boxer "The Christian Century in Japan 1549-1650", p122, quoting the account of the Italian Jesuit Organtino visiting Japan in 1578. Nobunaga's ironclad fleet is also described in "A History of Japan, 1334-1615", Georges Samson, p309 . Korea's "ironclad Turtle ships" were invented by Admiral Yi Sun-sin (1545–1598), and are first documented in 1592. Incidentally, Korea's iron plates only covered the roof (to prevent intrusion), and not the sides of their ships. The first Western ironclads date to 1859 with the French Gloire ("Steam, Steel and Shellfire"). #Corbett Maritime Operations in the Russo- Japanese War, 2:333 #Howe, p286 == External links == * Nobunaga's ironclad navy * Hiroshi Nishida's IJN site * Imperial Japanese Navy Page * JSDF video commercial * the russojapanese war society homepage * Imperial Japanese Navy Awards of the Golden Kite in World War 2, a Note
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The Minister of Finance () is a member of the Hungarian cabinet and the head of the Ministry of Finance. The current minister is Mihály Varga. The position was called as People's Commissar of Finance () during the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, and as Minister of National Economy () between 2010 and 2018. This page is a list of Ministers of Finance of Hungary. ==Ministers of Finance (1848–1919)== ===Hungarian Kingdom (1848–1849)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894) 7 April 1848 12 September 1848 Opposition Party Batthyány Last Diet 1 (1848) — 80px Lajos Batthyány (1807–1849) acting 12 September 1848 28 September 1848 Opposition Party 2 80px Ferenc Duschek (1797–1872) 28 September 1848 2 October 1848 Independent 2 October 1848 14 April 1849 Committee of National Defence ===Hungarian State (1849)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Ferenc Duschek (1797–1872) 14 April 1849 2 May 1849 Independent Committee of National Defence 1 (1848) 2 May 1849 11 August 1849 Szemere After the collapse of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Kingdom became an integral part of the Austrian Empire until 1867, when dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was created. ===Hungarian Kingdom (1867–1918)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Menyhért Lónyay (1822–1884) 20 February 1867 21 May 1870 Deák Party Andrássy DP 3 (1865) 4 (1869) 2 80px Károly Kerkapoly (1824–1891) 21 May 1870 14 November 1871 Deák Party 14 November 1871 4 December 1872 Lónyay DP 5 (1872) 4 December 1872 19 December 1873 Szlávy DP — 80px József Szlávy (1818–1900) acting 19 December 1873 21 March 1874 Deák Party 3 80px Kálmán Ghyczy (1808–1888) 21 March 1874 2 March 1875 Left Centre Bittó DP–BK 4 80px Kálmán Széll (1843–1915) 2 March 1875 20 October 1875 Liberal Party Wenckheim SZP 20 October 1875 3 October 1878 K. Tisza SZP 6 (1875) 7 (1878) — Kálmán Széll (1843–1915) acting 3 October 1878 11 October 1878 — 80px Kálmán Tisza (1830–1902) acting 11 October 1878 5 December 1878 Liberal Party 5 80px Gyula Szapáry (1832–1905) 5 December 1878 11 February 1887 Liberal Party — 80px Kálmán Tisza (1830–1902) acting 11 February 1887 9 April 1889 Liberal Party 6 80px Sándor Wekerle (1848–1921) 1st term 9 April 1889 13 March 1890 Liberal Party 13 March 1890 17 November 1892 Szapáry SZP 11 (1892) 17 November 1892 15 January 1895 Wekerle I SZP 7 80px László Lukács (1850–1932) 1st term 15 January 1895 26 February 1899 Liberal Party Bánffy SZP 12 (1896) 26 February 1899 27 June 1903 Széll SZP 13 (1901) 27 June 1903 3 November 1903 Khuen-Héderváry I SZP 3 November 1903 18 June 1905 I. Tisza I SZP — 80px Géza Fejérváry (1833–1914) acting 18 June 1905 6 March 1906 Independent Fejérváry SZP 14 (1905) 8 80px Ferenc Hegedűs (1856–1909) 6 March 1906 8 April 1906 Independent (6) 80px Sándor Wekerle (1848–1921) 2nd term 8 April 1906 17 January 1910 National Constitution Party Wekerle II F48P–OAP–KNP–PDP 15 (1906) (7) 80px László Lukács (1850–1932) 2nd term 17 January 1910 22 April 1912 National Party of Work Khuen-Héderváry II NMP 16 (1910) 9 80px János Teleszky (1868–1939) 22 April 1912 10 June 1913 National Party of Work Lukács NMP 10 June 1913 15 June 1917 I. Tisza II NMP 10 80px Gusztáv Gratz (1875–1946) 15 June 1917 23 August 1917 National Party of Work Esterházy NMP–F48P–OAP–PDP–KNP 23 August 1917 16 September 1917 Wekerle III NMP–F48P–OAP–PDP–KNP — 80px Sándor Wekerle (1848–1921) acting 16 September 1917 11 February 1918 National Constitution Party 11 80px Sándor Popovics (1862–1935) 11 February 1918 31 October 1918 National Constitution Party — 120px János Grünn (1864–1932) 30 October 1918 31 October 1918 Independent Hadik not formed — 80px Mihály Károlyi (1875–1955) acting 31 October 1918 16 November 1918 F48P–Károlyi M. Károlyi F48P–Károlyi–PRP–MSZDP MNT (—) ===Hungarian People's Republic (1918–1919)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly — 80px Mihály Károlyi (1875–1955) acting 16 November 1918 25 November 1918 F48P–Károlyi M. Károlyi F48P–Károlyi–PRP–MSZDP MNT (—) 1 80px Pál Szende (1879–1934) 25 November 1918 19 January 1919 PRP 19 January 1919 21 March 1919 Berinkey F48P–Károlyi–PRP–MSZDP–OKGFP ==People's Commissars of Finance (1919)== ===Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Jenő Varga (1879–1964) 21 March 1919 3 April 1919 MSZP Central Executive Council MSZP/SZKMMP TOGY (—) 2 80px Béla Székely (1889–1939) serving with Gyula Lengyel 3 April 1919 24 June 1919 MSZP/SZKMMP (2) Béla Székely (1889–1939) 24 June 1919 1 August 1919 2 80px Gyula Lengyel (1888–1941) serving with Béla Székely 3 April 1919 24 June 1919 MSZP/SZKMMP ====Counter- revolutionary governments (1919)==== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly — 120px Lajos Solymossy 1st term 5 May 1919 31 May 1919 Independent Arad — — 80px Gusztáv Gratz (1875–1946) 31 May 1919 6 June 1919 Independent Szeged I — 120px Lajos Solymossy 2nd term 6 June 1919 12 July 1919 Independent Szeged II — 80px Antal Éber (1872–1950) 12 July 1919 12 August 1919 Independent Szeged III ==Ministers of Finance (1919–2010)== ===Hungarian People's Republic (1919)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Ferenc Miákits (1876–1924) 1 August 1919 6 August 1919 (deposed) MSZDP Peidl MSZDP — — 80px Gyula Peidl (1873–1943) acting for Ferenc Miákits 2 August 1919 6 August 1919 (deposed) MSZDP ===Hungarian Republic (1919–1920)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 120px János Grünn (1864–1932) 15 August 1919 12 September 1919 Independent Friedrich KNP/KNEP–OKGFP — 2 80px Frigyes Korányi (1869–1935) 12 September 1919 24 November 1919 OKGFP 24 November 1919 29 February 1920 Huszár KNEP–OKGFP–MSZDP–NDPP ===Hungarian Kingdom (1920–1946)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Frigyes Korányi (1869–1935) 1st term 29 February 1920 15 March 1920 OKGFP Huszár KNEP–OKGFP–MSZDP–NDPP — 15 March 1920 19 July 1920 Simonyi-Semadam KNEP–OKGFP 17 (1920) 19 July 1920 16 December 1920 Teleki I KNEP–OKGFP 2 80px Lóránt Hegedüs (1872–1943) 16 December 1920 14 April 1921 Independent 14 April 1921 27 September 1921 Bethlen (KNEP–OKGFP)→EP — 80px Lajos Hegyeshalmi (1862–1925) acting 27 September 1921 4 October 1921 KNEP — 80px István Bethlen (1874–1946) acting 4 October 1921 3 December 1921 KNEP 3 80px Tibor Kállay (1881–1964) 3 December 1921 2 February 1922 KNEP (3) 2 February 1922 20 February 1924 EP 18 (1922) — 80px Lajos Walko (1880–1954) acting 20 February 1924 25 March 1924 EP (1) 80px Frigyes Korányi (1869–1935) 2nd term 25 March 1924 15 November 1924 EP 4 80px János Bud (1880–1950) 15 November 1924 5 September 1928 EP 19 (1926) 5 80px Sándor Wekerle Jr. (1878–1963) 5 September 1928 24 August 1931 EP 20 (1931) — 80px Gyula Károlyi (1871–1947) acting 24 August 1931 16 December 1931 EP G. Károlyi EP–KGSZP (1) 80px Frigyes Korányi (1869–1935) 3rd term 16 December 1931 1 October 1932 EP 6 80px Béla Imrédy (1891–1946) 1 October 1932 6 January 1935 NEP Gömbös NEP 7 80px Tihamér Fabinyi (1890–1953) 6 January 1935 6 October 1936 NEP 21 (1935) 6 October 1936 9 March 1938 Darányi NEP 8 80px Lajos Reményi-Schneller (1892–1946) 9 March 1938 14 May 1938 NEP 14 May 1938 16 February 1939 Imrédy NEP (8) 16 February 1939 3 April 1941 MÉP Teleki II MÉP 22 (1939) 3 April 1941 9 March 1942 Bárdossy MÉP 9 March 1942 22 March 1944 Kállay MÉP 22 March 1944 29 August 1944 Sztójay MÉP–MMP 29 August 1944 16 October 1944 Lakatos MÉP ====Government of National Unity (1944–1945)==== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Lajos Reményi-Schneller (1892–1946) 16 October 1944 28 March 1945 Independent Szálasi NYKP–MMP — ====Soviet-backed provisional governments (1944–1946)==== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 60px István Vásáry (1887–1955) 22 December 1944 21 July 1945 FKGP Provisional National Government FKGP–MKP–MSZDP–NPP–PDP INGY (1944) 2 60px Imre Oltványi (1893–1963) 21 July 1945 15 November 1945 FKGP 3 60px Ferenc Gordon (1893–1971) 15 November 1945 1 February 1946 FKGP Tildy FKGP–MKP–MSZDP–NPP 23 (1945) ===Hungarian Republic (1946–1949)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Ferenc Gordon (1893–1971) 1 February 1946 26 August 1946 FKGP F. Nagy FKGP–MKP–MSZDP–NPP 23 (1945) 2 80px Jenő Rácz (1907–1981) 26 August 1946 14 March 1947 FKGP 3 80px Miklós Nyárádi (1905–1976) 14 March 1947 31 May 1947 FKGP 31 May 1947 10 December 1948 Dinnyés MKP–FKGP–MSZDP–NPP 24 (1947) — 80px Ernő Gerő (1898–1980) acting for Miklós Nyárádi 3 December 1948 10 December 1948 MDP — Ernő Gerő (1898–1980) acting 10 December 1948 18 February 1949 4 Ernő Gerő (1898–1980) 18 February 1949 11 June 1949 Dobi MDP–FKGP–NPP 25 (1949) 5 80px István Kossa (1904–1965) 11 June 1949 20 August 1949 MDP ===Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px István Kossa (1904–1965) 1st term 20 August 1949 24 February 1950 MDP Dobi MDP 25 (1949) 2 80px Károly Olt (1904–1985) 24 February 1950 14 August 1952 MDP 14 August 1952 4 July 1953 Rákosi MDP 4 July 1953 18 April 1955 I. Nagy I MDP 26 (1953) 18 April 1955 24 October 1956 Hegedüs MDP (1) 80px István Kossa (1904–1965) 2nd term 24 October 1956 3 November 1956 MDP I. Nagy II MDP/MSZMP–FKGP 4 November 1956 9 May 1957 MSZMP Kádár I MSZMP 3 80px István Antos (1908–1960) 9 May 1957 28 January 1958 MSZMP 28 January 1958 5 January 1960 (died in office) Münnich MSZMP 26 (1953) 4 80px Rezső Nyers (1923–2018) 5 January 1960 13 September 1961 MSZMP 13 September 1961 27 November 1962 Kádár II MSZMP 5 80px Mátyás Tímár (1923–2020) 27 November 1962 30 June 1965 MSZMP 28 (1963) 30 June 1965 14 April 1967 Kállai MSZMP 6 80px Péter Vályi (1919–1973) 14 April 1967 12 May 1971 MSZMP Fock MSZMP 29 (1967) 7 80px Lajos Faluvégi (1924–1999) 12 May 1971 15 May 1975 MSZMP 30 (1971) 15 May 1975 27 June 1980 Lázár MSZMP 31 (1975) 8 80px István Hetényi (1926–2008) 27 June 1980 31 December 1986 MSZMP 32 (1980) 33 (1985) 9 80px Péter Medgyessy (1942–) 1 January 1987 25 June 1987 MSZMP 25 June 1987 15 December 1987 Grósz MSZMP 10 80px Miklós Villányi (1931–) 15 December 1987 24 November 1988 MSZMP 24 November 1988 9 May 1989 Németh (MSZMP)→MSZP 11 80px László Békesi (1942–) 10 May 1989 7 October 1989 MSZMP (11) 7 October 1989 23 October 1989 MSZP ===Hungarian Republic (1989–2010)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly — 80px László Békesi (1942–) provisional 23 October 1989 23 May 1990 MSZP Németh MSZP — 1 60px Ferenc Rabár (1929–1999) 23 May 1990 19 December 1990 Independent Antall MDF–FKGP–KDNP 34 (1990) 2 80px Mihály Kupa (1941–) 20 December 1990 11 February 1993 MDF 3 80px Iván Szabó (1934–2005) 24 February 1993 21 December 1993 MDF 21 December 1993 15 July 1994 Boross MDF–EKGP–KDNP 4 80px László Békesi (1942–) 15 July 1994 28 February 1995 MSZP Horn MSZP–SZDSZ 35 (1994) 5 80px Lajos Bokros (1954–) 1 March 1995 29 February 1996 Independent 6 80px Péter Medgyessy (1942–) 1 March 1996 7 Jule 1998 Independent 7 60px Zsigmond Járai (1951–) 8 Jule 1998 31 December 2000 Independent Orbán I Fidesz–FKGP–MDF 36 (1998) 8 80px Mihály Varga (1965–) 1st term 1 January 2001 27 May 2002 Fidesz 9 60px Csaba László (1962–) 27 May 2002 15 February 2004 Independent Medgyessy MSZP–SZDSZ 37 (2002) 10 60px Tibor Draskovics (1955–) 15 February 2004 4 October 2004 Independent 4 October 2004 24 April 2005 Gyurcsány I MSZP–SZDSZ 11 80px János Veres (1957–) 24 April 2005 9 June 2006 MSZP 9 June 2006 16 April 2009 Gyurcsány II MSZP–SZDSZ 38 (2006) 12 80px Péter Oszkó (1973–) 16 April 2009 29 May 2010 Independent Bajnai MSZP ==Ministers of National Economy (2010–2018)== ===Hungarian Republic / Hungary (2010–2018)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px György Matolcsy (1955–) 29 May 2010 3 March 2013 Fidesz Orbán II Fidesz–KDNP 39 (2010) 2 80px Mihály Varga (1965–) 2nd term 3 March 2013 6 June 2014 Fidesz 6 June 2014 18 May 2018 Orbán III Fidesz–KDNP 40 (2014) ==Ministers of Finance (2018–present)== ===Hungarian Republic / Hungary (2018–present)=== Parties Portrait Name Term of office Term of office Political party Cabinet Assembly 1 80px Mihály Varga (1965–) 2nd term 18 May 2018 24 May 2022 Fidesz Orbán IV Fidesz–KDNP 41 (2018) 24 May 2022 Incumbent Orbán V Fidesz–KDNP 42 (2022) ==See also== *List of heads of state of Hungary *List of prime ministers of Hungary *List of Ministers of Agriculture of Hungary *List of Ministers of Civilian Intelligence Services of Hungary *List of Ministers of Croatian Affairs of Hungary *List of Ministers of Defence of Hungary *List of Ministers of Education of Hungary *List of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Hungary *List of Ministers of Interior of Hungary *List of Ministers of Justice of Hungary *List of Ministers of Public Works and Transport of Hungary *Politics of Hungary Finance Ministers
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Saadat Ali Khan Nishapuri (c. 1680 – 19 March 1739) was the Subahdar Nawab of Awadh (Oudh) from 26 January 1722 to 1739 and the son of Muhammad Nasir.HISTORY OF AWADH (Oudh) a princely State of India by Hameed Akhtar Siddiqui At age 25 he accompanied his father on the final campaign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb against the Marathas in the Deccan, and the emperor awarded him the title of Khan Bahadur for his service. ==Early life== Khan's date of birth has not been recorded. According to historian Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava, Khan was born in and his birth name was Mir Muhammad Amin. His father was Mir Muhammad Nasir, a merchant in Khorasan. Khan had one elder brother, Mir Muhammad Baqar. One of their ancestors was Mir Shamsuddin, a sayyid (descendant of Muhammad) and a kazi (Islamic judge) in Nishapur. He was a twenty-first-generation descendant of Musa al-Kadhim, the seventh imam of Shia Islam. No historian has recorded any events in Khan's early life. The Safavid dynasty began declining in the mid-seventeenth century. Sultan Husayn (the last Safavid monarch) alienated his court's nobility, and Khan's family was reduced to poverty. To try his luck in India, Khan's father and elder brother migrated to Bengal in late 1707 during the reign of Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I. From there they went to Bihar, settled in Patna and were granted an allowance by Murshid Quli Khan. At this time, Khan lived in Nishapur. According to historian Kamaluddin Haider, his wife ridiculed him for being a hanger-on in her father's house. Stung, Khan migrated to India in search of job. According to historian Ghulam Ali, he arrived in Patna in 1708 or 1709. Khan's father died before his arrival, and was buried "some distance away from his new home". In 1709, the brothers started for Delhi in search of employment. Khan was employed by an amil (village head), and lived in poverty during his first year in Delhi. In July 1710, he and his brother were employed by Sarbuland Khan. Sarbuland Khan, a fellow Persian and sayyid, was the faujdar (garrison commander) of Kara-Manikpur in Prayagraj and made Khan his mir manzil (camp superintendent). After the defeat and death of Azim-ush-Shan (Sarbuland Khan's employer), Jahandar Shah ascended the Mughal throne and transferred Sarbuland Khan to Ahmedabad; Khan accompanied him in November 1712. By the end of the year, the relationship between Khan and Sarbuland Khan had deteriorated. Heavy rain and high winds tore down Khan's tents; Sarbuland Khan had to spend the night in a bullock cart, and criticised Khan for putting the tents up in a poor place. Khan disagreed, and Sarbuland Khan accused him of behaving like a haft hazari (master of seven thousand troops). Khan replied that that was an "auspicious prophecy" of his career; after moving to Delhi and becoming a haft hazari, he would rejoin Sarbuland Khan's service. On 12 January 1713, Farrukhsiyar ascended the Mughal throne with the help of the Sayyid brothers. During his reign Khan arrived at Delhi. With the patronage of Muhammad Jafar, a friend of Farrukhsiyar, Khan succeeded in getting a mansab of a hazari (1,000 horses) and became the commander of the Wala-Shahi regiment. Jafar's death in 1716 left Khan without any patron in the royal court. He failed to get any promotion in the following three years. In 1719, Farrukshiyar was deposed by the Sayyid brothers. During the reign of Shah Jahan II, Khan accompanied Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha (the elder Sayyid brother) in his expedition against Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur. Khan's husn-i-akhlaq (elegance of manners) and military skill won him the patronage of Syed Hussain Ali Khan, the younger Sayyid brother. Hussain Ali Khan appointed him faujdar (garrison commander) of Hindaun and Bayana in present- day Rajasthan on 6 October 1719, and Khan took charge in November. The Rajput and Jat zamindars (landlords) were rebelling; Khan began recruiting more troops, and borrowed from the wazir (minister) of the province. With the help of auxiliary troops, Khan suppressed the rebellion in the area; the zamindars, attacked one by one, were forced to surrender. After restoring law and order within six months of his appointment, Khan was promoted to the rank of 15 sad- izat (commander of 1,500 horses) in the army. By the end of 1719, friction arose between Nizam-ul-Mulk and the Sayyid brothers. Nizam-ul-Mulk killed Dilawar Khan (Syed Hussain Ali Khan's agent) at the Asirgarh Fort in June 1720 and killed Sayyid Alam Khan, a relative (nephew, brother's son ) of the Sayyid brothers, in August. Hussain Ali Khan decided to march to the Deccan Plateau, and Hassan Ali Khan agreed to march towards Delhi. Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah also started for the Deccan from Agra. A few days before Shah began his journey, a conspiracy was hatched at the royal camp to kill Hussain Ali Khan. The chief conspirator was Muhammad Amin Khan Turani, an uncle of Nizam-ul- Mulk. Khan switched his allegiance to the conspirators, for reasons not documented in contemporary records. According to historian Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava, "worldly riches and power" were the reasons behind Khan's decision to change factions. Khafi Khan writes that Khan was incited to join the conspiracy due to his anger at the murder of Farrukhsiyar. The conspirators met frequently to outline a plan to assassinate Hussain Ali Khan, who was killed by Haider Begh Daulat on 8 October 1720. The following day, Muhammad Shah held a royal durbar and rewarded Khan and his co-conspirators. He was given the title Saadat Khan Bahadur (lord of good fortune), and was promoted to 5,000 zat and 3,000 horses. According to an anonymous Persian historian, Khan plundered Hussain Ali Khan's treasury with the consent of the Mughal emperor. ==Governor of Akbarabad== Khan was promoted to a rank of 6,000 zat and 5,000 horses, and was appointed governor of Akbarabad province (present- day Agra), on 15 October 1720. He received the title Burhan-ul-Mulk, and appointed Nilkanth as his deputy. When he reached Akbarabad, Khan decided to put down a Jat rebellion and defeated the Jats of Mathura and Bharatpur. They fled to their mud forts on the Delhi-Mathura road. Khan besieged them, capturing four of the forts. Nilkanth's troops fought Mukkam Singh (a son of Jat leader Churaman) in September 1721, and Nilkanth was killed in the battle. In October, Khan decided to fight Churaman. Churaman's nephew, Badan Singh, defected to the Mughal side. However, Khan Dauran dismissed Khan as governor of Akbarabad. ==Governor of Awadh== After his dismissal from Agra, Khan went to Delhi. He was appointed governor of Awadh (in present-day Uttar Pradesh) on 9 September 1722 after the transfer of provincial governor Girdhar Bahadur. Khan gathered his troops including Kalika Prasad Tandon and recruited more before leaving for the province. During his journey, he stayed at Farrukhabad. Muhammad Khan Bangash, the Hindustani Pathan chief, gave him information about the strength of Shaikhzadas (a community which ruled Lucknow). He advised Khan to befriend the sheikhs of Kakori, adversaries of the Shaikhzadas, before entering Lucknow. Khan did so, and the sheikhs informed him about the strengths and weaknesses of the Shaikhzadas of Lucknow. He then marched towards Lucknow, and camped on the city's outskirts. Khan crossed the Gomti River by night, and silently entered the city with his artillery. After pulling down the sword which hung on the gates of the city, he attacked the Shaikhzadas at the Akbari Gate. In the ensuing battle, the Shaikhzadas were defeated and driven from Panchmahala (their palace). At the start of Khan's governorship of Awadh, its zamindars refused to follow Mughal regulations. Khan tried to solve Awadh's fiscal and jagirdar problems, sending agents to assess crop yields. He soon realized that, except for the zamindars, no one (including the local officials) welcomed his scheme; jagirdar agents tried to prevent its implementation. The jagirdar amils (personal staff) viewed his scheme as an attempt by Khan to subvert the existing jagirdar system. This alarmed him, since he did not want to alienate the jagirdars. In response, he offered a discount on the jagir assessment paid by the jagirdars. Saiyad Ghulam Ali, author of Imad-us-Sadat, calls this system ijara. This scheme stabilised provincial administration, since the jagirdars no longer had to send their staff to the fields; the amils (appointed by the governor) were now accountable to him, and local officials were to approach them directly to resolve disputes. Thus, Khan ended the administrative authority of the jagirdars over their jagirs. In 1730, Burhan-ul-Mulk sent Mir Muhammad Salah Khan Baraha and Sayyid Munawwar Ali Tirmizi of Bilgram to the qasbahs around Lucknow to recruit men for his army. ==Confrontation with Nader Shah== In early 1739, Persian ruler Nader Shah invaded India. To help Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, Khan marched with a cavalry of 30,000 from Awadh. During his stay at Panipat, Nader Shah's army tried vainly to intercept him. On 12 February, Khan joined Muhammad Shah's forces at Karnal. When Nader Shah learned about the reinforcement, he moved his camp three miles from the Mughal side. The Persian army clashed with Khan's troops on 22 February. When he heard the news, Khan picked up the sword he had laid in front of Muhammad Shah and asked his permission to attack the Persian army. According to historian Hari Charan Das, the Mughal emperor distrusted the Persian Khan and made him swear allegiance in the name of the Quran. Nizam-ul-Mulk further delayed his advance by claiming that Khan's troops were tired from a month-long march, and Khan would soon have to retreat because there were only three hours of daylight left. Nusrat Jung told him that the Mughal forces were not ordered to fight during the day. Khan, refusing to heed their pleas, ordered his troops to assemble. Although they were tired and most were reluctant to fight, 4,000 cavalry and 1,000 infantry joined him. When the Persian soldiers saw Khan advancing, they pretended to flee the battlefield; Khan chased them two miles from the Mughal camp, and sent couriers to Muhammad Shah asking for reinforcements. Khan Dauran, commander of the right wing and nearest to Khan, was dispatched with 8,000 horses. During the afternoon, the Mughal emperor joined Khan on the battlefield. Khan formed the right wing of the imperial army, on the east. On 23 February 1739 at 1 pm, he began advancing towards Nader Shah's army. Shah's army shot arrows at Khan and his troops, and Khan charged them. The Persian army strategically retreated, leaving their weapons. Khan thought that they had fled, and again sent couriers to the Mughal emperor requesting reinforcements. The Persian army then began a cavalry attack, which killed many in Khan's army. Khan's nephew Sher Jung, lost control of his war elephant which charged khan's elephant and drove it into the Persian ranks. Khan started shooting arrow in to enemy ranks to avoid capture. A Turkmen soldier in the Persian army from Nishapur, Khan's birthplace, recognized him; he climbed to the howdah (seat on an elephant), hailed Khan and asked him to surrender. Khan was taken as a prisoner to Nader Shah's camp. After the Isha prayer, he was brought before Nader Shah. Asked why he fought against a Persian of the same religion (Shia Islam), Khan replied that he did not want to betray the Mughal emperor. During their conversation, Shah appreciated Khan's patriotism and love of his religion. He asked Khan to outline a plan in which he could extort money from Muhammad Shah and return to Persia to fight the Turks. Khan replied that Nizam-ul-Mulk "is the key of the empire of India", and advised Shah to negotiate with him. Shah and Khan wrote to the Nizam the next morning, and the Mughals agreed to pay to the Persian conqueror. On 25 February, Muhammad Shah made Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, the eldest son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, mir bakshi (equivalent to an army's paymaster general). This angered Khan, who desired the appointment and told Nader Shah that was a small portion of the Mughal treasury. He advised Nader Shah to conquer Delhi (where he could loot jewels, cash and other valuables), Shah gave Khan permission to attack the city. When Muhammad Shah arrived at the Persian camp, he was arrested and his harem was confiscated. Nader Shah made Khan the army's wakil-i-mutaliq (regent plenipotentiary), and Muhammad Shah was also forced to accept him. Khan and Tehmasp Khan Jalair started for Delhi with an army of 4,000 horses on 7 March. Khan carried a letter from Muhammad Shah to Lutfullah Khan Sadiq, the governor of Delhi, asking Sadiq to give Jalair the key to the palaces. Khan reached Delhi on 9 March, and welcomed both the emperors in Shalimar Bagh eight days later. On the night of 19/20 March he retired to his house, and died before dawn. There is no consensus amongst historians about his cause of death. According to historian Abul Qasim Lahori, Khan died of "bodily ailments". Haricharan Das believes that he succumbed to a cancer which had developed in his legs. Rustam Ali, the author of Tarikh-i-Hind, says that Khan committed suicide by drinking poison. ==Issue and succession== Khan had five daughters and no sons. He gave his eldest daughter in marriage to his nephew, Muhammad Muqim, better known as Safdar Jung. Khan's sister was Jung's mother; his father was Sayadat Khan, a descendant of Qara Yusuf. Jung succeeded Khan as ruler of Awadh.An Oriental Biographical Dictionary: Founded on Materials Collected by the Late Thomas William Beale (2nd edition). W. H. Allen (1894), pp. 336–337. All subsequent Nawabs of Awadh down to Wajid Ali Shah are thus descended from Khan through his daughter. ==Notes== ==References== ===Bibliography=== * * * * ==Further reading== * ==External links== * The National Information Centre in Lucknow maintains a page on him Category:1680 births Category:1739 deaths Category:Indian Shia Muslims Category:Indian people of Iranian descent Category:Mughal nobility Category:People from Faizabad Category:Nawabs of Awadh Category:Politicians from Nishapur Category:Mughal Empire Category:18th- century Iranian people
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The gens Silicia, possibly the same as Selicia, was an obscure plebeian family at ancient Rome. Hardly any members of this gens are mentioned in history, but a number are known from inscriptions, many of them from Roman Africa.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 823 ("Publius Silicius"). ==Origin== The nomen Silicius belongs to a class of gentilicia derived from words ending in -ex. The apparent root, silex, refers to flint.Chase, p. 126.New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. silex. ==Praenomina== The Silicii used a variety of praenomina, including Lucius, Gaius, Marcus, Publius, Quintus, Titus, and Aulus, all of which were amongst the most common names throughout all periods of Roman history. At least one of the family bore the praenomen Spurius, an old name that had all but vanished by imperial times. ==Members== * Publius Silicius Coronas, one of the judges who voted to acquit Brutus for his part in the murder of Caesar. He was proscribed and put to death by the triumvirs.Cassius Dio, xlvi. 49.Plutarch, "The Life of Brutus", 27.Appian, Bellum Civile, iv. 27. * Quintus Silicius Pausia, named in an inscription from Rome, dating to the first half of the first century.. * Silicius Rufus, named in a dedicatory inscription from Tergeste in Venetia and Histria, dating to the late first or early second century.. * Silicia Viola, buried at Julia Concordia in Venetia and Histria, in a tomb dating to the late first or early second century, together with Lucius Calventius Atticus.. * Lucius Silicius Nicon, dedicated a tomb at Rome, dating to the early second century, to his son, Lucius Silicius Nicon. * Lucius Silicius L. f. Nicon, a young man buried at Rome, aged twenty-two years, six months, and twenty days, with a monument from his father, Lucius Silicius Nicon, dating to the early second century. * Titus Silicius Fortunatus, a standard-bearer in the third legion at Lambaesis in AD 141.. * Lucius Silicius Fortunatus, a native of Puteoli in Campania, was a soldier in the Praetorian Guard, serving in the century of Firmus, in AD 143.. * Marcus Silicius Verus, a native of Urbinum in Umbria, was an officer in the Praetorian Guard, in AD 144. * Lucius Silicius, named in a second-century funerary inscription from Rome.. * Silicius Longus, a soldier in the Praetorian Guard, was buried at his native Misenum, aged forty, having served for twenty-one years, with a tomb built by Claudius Longinus, dating to the latter part of the second century.. * Gaius Silicius Januarius, a soldier serving in the third legion at Lambaesis in Numidia, in AD 173.. * Silicius Urbanus, a soldier serving in the third legion in Africa Proconsularis during the reign of Septimius Severus, in the century of Valerius Proculus.. * Silicius Quartus, a soldier serving in the third legion in Africa Proconsularis during the reign of Septimius Severus, in the century of Domitius Maximus. * Lucius Silicius Firmus Mandrogenes, a native of Magnesia on the Maeander, was the winner of the pankration at the 248th Olympiad, in AD 208. Philostratus mentions that he was descended from an aristocratic family on his mother's side.Philostratus, Gymnasticus, 23.Lynch, The Ancient Olympiads. * Quintus Silicius Victor, together with Gaius Tadius Fortunatus, dedicated a statue in honor of Julia Domna at Pagus Mercurialis in Africa Proconsularis, dating between AD 209 and 211.. * Titus Silicius Januarius, one of the officers in charge of the arsenal of the fifth cohort of the vigiles in AD 210.. * Titus Silicius Rutilianus, a prefect exempted from menial duties, serving in the fifth cohort of the vigiles in AD 210. * Lucius Silicius Augustalis, one of the officers of the day for a century in the fifth cohort of the vigiles in AD 210. * Gaius Silicius Crescentianus, a soldier in the fifth cohort of the vigiles in AD 210. * Lucius Silicius Rufus, one of the municipal duumvirs at Lambaesis, named in an inscription dating between AD 379 and 383.. ===Undated Silicii=== * Silicia, named in a funerary inscription from Ad Aquas Caesaris in Africa Proconsularis.ILAlg, i. 2960. * Silicia L. f., the daughter of Lucius Silicius Praenestinus, buried at Madauros in Africa Proconsularis, aged forty.ILAlg, i. 2700. * Marcus Silicius, the husband of Valeria and father of Marcus Silicius Catus.. * Lucius Silicius [...]ninus, buried at Lambaesis, aged forty, with a monument from his heir, Lucius Sextilius Felix.. * Silicia Agatha, the wife of Marcus Acutius Aegipas, a freedman named in an inscription from Puteoli.. * Gaius Silicius C. f. Argutus, named in an inscription from Thabraca in Africa Proconsularis.ILAfr, 603, 32. * Gaius Silicius Campus, one of the magistrates at Castellum Medianum in Mauretania Caesariensis.. * Quintus Silicius Q. f. Castus, buried at Thibilis in Numidia, aged thirty-five.ILAlg, ii. 2, 5841. * Marcus Silicius M. f. Catus, the son of Marcus Silicius and Valeria, was a soldier buried at Portus Magnus in Numidia, aged twenty-four, having served for two years. * Lucius Silicius L. f. Celer, buried at Aquileia in Venetia and Histria, along with Publius Avillius.InscrAqu, ii. 2483. * Silicius Donatus, one of the Sodales Augustales, was buried at Tarraco in Hispania Citerior, aged twenty- five years and nine days, with a monument from Marinius Catinianus.. * Silicia Euphrosyne, dedicated a monument at Rome to her daughter, Suatica, daughter of Heortenus.. * Gaius Silicius Exories, named in an inscription from Rome.. * Silicia Faustina, a little girl buried at Rome, aged four years, five months, and one day.. * Silicia Q. f. Felicula, the daughter of Quintus Silicius Hera, buried in a family sepulchre at Rome.. * Silicius Felix, the son of Silicius Secundus and Antilia Victorica, was buried at Thagura in Africa Proconsularis, aged twenty-five, in a tomb built by his mother.. * Silicius L. f. Felix, the son of Lucius Silicius and Rerricha, and grandson of Rusticius Romanus, dedicated a monument at Leptis Parva in Africa Proconsularis to his mother and brother, Lucius Silicius Saturninus.. * Quintus Silicius Felix, buried at Lamasba in Numidia, aged eighty-eight, along with his wife, Julia Rogatina.. * Quintus Silicius Q. f. Felix, the son of Quintus Silicius Hera, buried in a family sepulchre at Rome. * Gaius Silicius Fellis, buried at Thibilis.ILAlg, ii. 2. 5842. * Titus Silicius T. f. Firmus, the son of Titus Silicius Teleius and Ulpia Daphne, buried at Salona in Dalmatia, aged seven years, five months, and sixteen days.ILJug, ii. 715. * Silicia Fortunata, buried at Mustis in Africa Proconsularis, aged forty-seven.. * Lucius Silicius Fronto, buried at Rome, in a tomb built by his wife, Athenia Amanda.. * Titus Silicius Gorgia, a freedman named in an inscription from Buthrotum in Macedonia, together with Titus Silicius Suavis.CIA, 261. * Silicius Gudus, buried in Numidia, aged twenty-five.RAA, p. 176. * Quintus Silicius Hera, buried in a family sepulchre at Rome, together with his mother, Silicia Prima, and children, Quintus Silicius Felix and Silicia Felicula. * Aulus Silicius Hilaris, probably a freedman, named in an inscription from Castellum Dimmidi in Numidia.. * Silicia Honorata, buried at Thibilis, aged fifty-five.. * Lucius Silicius Honoratus, buried at Thibaris in Africa Proconsularis, aged sixty-five.. * Silicia Hospitalis, buried at Rusicade in Numidia, aged twenty-one.. * Gaius Silicius Ivennonius, buried at Thibilis, aged seventy-five.ILAlg, ii. 2. 5843. * Silicia Januaria, buried at Thuburnica in Africa Proconsularis, aged seventy.. * Silicius Januarius, buried at Madauros, aged seventy.ILAlg, i. 2699. * Lucius Silicius Julianus, buried at Castellum Celtianum in Numidia, aged forty.ILAlg, ii. 1. 3237. * Silicia C. f. Lucilla, buried at Thibilis, aged seventy-six.. * Marcus Silicius Marianus, buried at the present site of Oum Ladjoul, formerly part of Numidia, aged fifty.ILAlg, ii. 3, 7533. * Quintus Silicius Martialus, built a tomb at Hippo Regius in Africa Proconsularis for his wife, Clavacina.. * Silicia Matutina, buried at Sigus in Numidia, aged fifty.ILAlg, ii. 2, 6763. * Gaia Silicia Matutina, buried at Lambaesis, aged sixty-five.. * Silicius Messor, buried at Thibilis, aged three.ILAlg, ii. 2. 5844. * Silicia Namgidde, a native of Africa, buried at Fanum Martis in Gallia Lugdunensis, aged sixty-five, with a monument from her son, Gaius Flavius Januarius.. * Silicia Nampame, buried at Thibilis, aged forty-six.ILAlg, ii. 2, 5847. * Lucius Silicius Optatus, a veteran buried at Simitthus in Africa Proconsularis, aged fifty.. * Silicia C. f. Placida, dedicated a monument at Forum Julii in Gallia Narbonensis to her son, Gaius Valerius Placidus, a soldier in the fourteenth legion.. * Silicia Prima, the mother of Quintus Silicius Hera, buried in a family sepulchre at Rome. * Silicius Primus, made an offering to Saturn in Africa Proconsularis.ILAfr, 443. * Gaius Silicius Primus, a little boy buried at Lambaesis, aged three.. * Silicia Recepta, buried at Ausafa in Africa Proconsularis, aged twenty-five.. * Gaius Silicius Romanus Thacorensis, made an offering to the gods at Rome, together Frucia Victoria.. * Silicia P. f. Rustica, buried at Calama in Numidia, aged sixty.ILAlg, i. 404. * Lucius Silicius L. f. Saturninus, the son of Lucius Silicius and Rerricha, and grandson of Rusticius Romanus, was a soldier in the third legion, serving in the century of Julius Ligur. He died in battle while serving under the centurion Lucilius, and was buried at Leptis Parva, aged forty, having served for nineteen years, with a monument from his brother, Silicius Felix. * Quintus Silicius Saturninus, buried at Mustis, aged seventy-five.. * Silicius Secundus, the husband of Antilia Victorica, and father of Silicius Felix, was buried at Thagura, in a tomb built by his wife. * Silicius Silicianus, a flamen at Lambaesis.. * Quintus Silicius Silvanus, a native of Africa, and a soldier in the Praetorian Guard, was buried at Misenum, aged sixty, with a monument dedicated by his wife, Messea Januaria, and son, Quintus Silicius Silvanus.. * Quintus Silicius Q. f. Silvanus, son of Quintus Silicius Silvanus and Messea Januaria. * Silicus Solutor, buried at Thibilis, aged seventy-five.ILAlg, ii. 2. 5845. * Titus Silicius Suavis, a freedman named in an inscription from Buthrotum, together with Titus Silicius Gorgia. * Spurius Silicius Successus, buried at Curculum in Numidia, aged sixty.ILAlg, ii. 3, 8178. * Titus Silicius Teleius, the husband of Ulpia Daphne, and father of Titus Silicius Firmus, a boy buried at Salona. * Silicius Victor, a soldier buried at Misenum, aged twenty-eight years, having served for eight years, seven months, and five days.. * Gaius Silicius Victor, a priest mentioned in a devotional inscription from Numidia.ILAlg, ii. 2, 6348. * Quintus Silicius L. f. Victorinus Cornelianus Honoratianus, was flamen, duumvir, and aedile at Bulla Regia in Africa Proconsularis.. * Silicia P. Ɔ. l. Zosime, a freedwoman named in an inscription from Rome.. ==See also== * List of Roman gentes ==Footnotes== ==References== ==Bibliography== * Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Plutarch), Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. * Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bellum Civile (The Civil War). * Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. * Lucius Flavius Philostratus, Gymnasticus. * Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). * Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). * Gustav Wilmanns, Inscriptiones Africae Latinae (Latin Inscriptions from Africa, abbreviated ILAfr), Georg Reimer, Berlin (1881). * René Cagnat et alii, L'Année épigraphique (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated AE), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present). * Stéphane Gsell, Recherches Archéologiques en Algérie (Archaeological Investigations in Algeria, abbreviated RAA), Paris (1893); Inscriptions Latines de L'Algérie (Latin Inscriptions from Algeria, abbreviated ILAlg), Edouard Champion, Paris (1922–present). * George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103–184 (1897). * Anna and Jaroslav Šašel, Inscriptiones Latinae quae in Iugoslavia inter annos MCMXL et MCMLX repertae et editae sunt (Inscriptions from Yugoslavia Found and Published between 1940 and 1960, abbreviated ILJug), Ljubljana (1963–1986). * Giovanni Battista Brusin, Inscriptiones Aquileiae (Inscriptions of Aquileia, abbreviated InscrAqu), Udine (1991–1993). * John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). * Skender Anamali, Hasan Ceka, and Élisabeth Deniaux, Corpus des Inscriptions Latines d'Albanie (The Body of Latin Inscriptions of Albania, abbreviated CIA), École Française de Rome, Rome (2009). * James Lynch, The Ancient Olympiads: 776 BC to 393 AD, Warwick Press (2015). Category:Roman gentes
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Lengnau is a municipality in the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. It is notable for being one of two villages where residence was permitted for Swiss Jews between 1633 and 1874. Lengnau's synagogue is listed as a heritage site of national significance. ==History== The remains of a Roman era farm was discovered near Lengnau. The modern municipality of Lengnau is first mentioned in 798 as Lenginwanc. The Herrschaft rights were claimed by both the Bishop of Constance and the Habsburgs. After the conquest of the Aargau in 1415, the Bishop and the County of Baden continued to dispute the rights over the village. It wasn't until the late 15th century that the rights went over entirely to the Swiss Confederation. After 1269 the low court right was held by the Teutonic Knights through their Commandry of Beuggen. Until 1400 the Bishop's vogt in Klingnau was also involved in the low court. The hamlet of Husen was under the low court of the Knights Hospitaller Commandry of Leuggern. The Catholic parish of Lengnau was probably the proprietary church of the House of Regensberg. In 1269 the church and the other rights of the Lords of Regensberg passed to the Beuggen family. St. Martin's Church was built in 1977, incorporating the older baroque choir and tower. The Reformed Church members are part of the parish of Tegerfelden since 1940. Before that, it is unclear what parish they may have belonged to. The Jewish population built their first synagogue in 1750 and the second in 1847, which shaped much of the modern village. While the Christian residents mainly worked in agriculture (crops and increasingly in the 19th century, livestock farming), the Jews (who were forbidden land or cattle) worked in trade or peddling. Lengnau can be reached through a bus line which had run since 1921. In 1953 it was connected by the Surbtalstrasse road with Baden. In 1968, an industrial zone was opened, which in the decades that followed attracted about 80 companies. This has led to a population increase, and since the 1970s a number of new single-and multi-family neighborhoods have been built. ===Jewish history=== thumb|left|upright|Two separate doors (one for Jews and one for Christians) on a house in Lengnau In accordance with the resolution of the Tagsatzung in 1678, Jews were allowed to settle in the communities of the Surb valley. After 1776, they were further restricted to living in only Endingen and Lengnau. This immigration slowly but steadily changed the appearance of the communities. The village of Endingen never built a Christian church, only a Jewish synagogue. The local Christians traveled to neighboring villages for church. The Jewish and Christian families are often under one roof.Endingen municipal website - History accessed 16 June 2010 Beginning in 1603, the deceased Jews of the Surbtal communities were buried on a small Rhein river island, the so-called Judenäule ("Jew's island") which was leased by the Jewish community. As the island was repeatedly flooded and devastated, in 1750 the Surbtal Jews asked the Tagsatzung to establish a cemetery in the vicinity of their communities in the Surb valley. The Jewish population was fairly well tolerated (except for the Zwetschgenkrieg or "plum war" riots in 1802), self- managed and maintained its own school. However, the Jewish resident were only allowed to enter a few professions, such as trade. Houses were built with two separate entrances, one for Jews and one for Christians. They were under the high and low courts of the Baden bailiff and had to buy "protection and safety" letters from the authorities. It wasn't until 1876 that Jews were granted full equality in civil rights and allowed to travel. By 1920, most Jews had left the community. The members of the Jewish citizen's corporation were not included in the local citizen's corporation of Lengnau, but by a decree in 1879 they were formed into the local citizen's corporation of Neu- Lengnau. This was merged in 1983 with the local citizen's corporation of Lengnau and all common property was transferred into the merged citizen's corporation. In 1903 the Swiss Israelite retirement home of Lengnau opened. ===Plum war=== In 1798, the French under Napoleon I invaded Switzerland and set up the Helvetic Republic. The Republic attempted to modernize and centralize the Swiss Confederation. As part of this new, liberal state, Swiss reformers attempted to enforce the emancipation of the Jews in the new central Swiss Parliament in Aarau. When that failed, they attempted to get the French to force this change on the new Swiss government. The changes of the Republic were not embraced by many of the Swiss and the issue of emancipation for the Jews became another contentious issue between the old order and the new government. Finally in 1802 the population revolted and turned against the Jews. The mob looted the Jewish villages of Endingen and Lengnau. At the same time other revolts, such as the Stecklikrieg, stretched the French Army too far. Napoleon lacked the troops to bring peace to Switzerland, and also he needed the Swiss regiments for his campaigns. Seeking a peaceful resolution to the uprising, in 1803 he issued the Act of Mediation. The Act of Mediation was a compromise between the Ancien Regime and a Republic. One of the compromises in the Act was that no further rights were granted to the Jews.Swiss Jews website accessed 16 June 2010 ==Geography== thumb|Lengnau village Lengnau has an area, , of . Of this area, or 52.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 37.6% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 9.6% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.1% is either rivers or lakes.Swiss Federal Statistical Office-Land Use Statistics 2009 data accessed 25 March 2010 Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 5.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.6%. Out of the forested land, 36.1% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.5% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 37.6% is used for growing crops and 13.3% is pastures, while 1.4% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. The municipality is located in the Zurzach district, in the Surb river valley. It consists of the village of Lengnau and the hamlets of Degermoos, Husen, Himmelrich and Vogelsang. ==Coat of arms== The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Gules a Horse trippant Argent on a Base Vert.Flags of the World.com accessed 21-June-2010 ==Demographics== Lengnau has a population () of . , 44.3% of the population are foreign nationals.Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Superweb database - Gemeinde Statistics 1981-2008 accessed 19 June 2010 Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of 17.3%. Most of the population () speaks German (93.1%), with Albanian being second most common ( 1.8%) and Italian being third ( 1.2%).Swiss Federal Statistical Office accessed 21-June-2010 , the gender distribution of the population was 49.3% male and 50.7% female. The population was made up of 1,070 Swiss men (43.3% of the population), and 148 (6.0%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,106 Swiss women (44.8%), and 146 (5.9%) non-Swiss women. In there were 26 live births to Swiss citizens and 3 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 12 deaths of Swiss citizens. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 14 while the foreign population increased by 3. There were 4 Swiss men who immigrated from another country back to Switzerland, 1 Swiss women who immigrated from another country back to Switzerland, 4 non-Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland to another country and 10 non-Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland to another country. The total Swiss population change in 2008 was an increase of 4 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 7 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.4%. The age distribution, , in Lengnau is; 340 children or 13.8% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 335 teenagers or 13.6% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 251 people or 10.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 356 people or 14.4% are between 30 and 39, 436 people or 17.6% are between 40 and 49, and 324 people or 13.1% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 224 people or 9.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 150 people or 6.1% are between 70 and 79, there are 48 people or 1.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 8 people or 0.3% who are 90 and older.Statistical Department of Canton Aargau -Bevölkerungsdaten für den Kanton Aargau und die Gemeinden (Archiv) accessed 20 January 2010 the average number of residents per living room was 0.56 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.57 per room. In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics. About 57.7% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent- to-own agreement).Urban Audit Glossary pg 17 , there were 45 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 337 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 424 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. , there were 857 private households (homes and apartments) in the municipality, and an average of 2.6 persons per household. there were 449 single family homes (or 45.9% of the total) out of a total of 979 homes and apartments.Statistical Department of Canton Aargau accessed 20 January 2010 There were a total of 3 empty apartments for a 0.3% vacancy rate. , the construction rate of new housing units was 4.5 new units per 1000 residents. In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (27.56%), the SP (13.17%) and the FDP (9.32%). In the federal election, a total of 923 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 55.7%.Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Nationalratswahlen 2007: Stärke der Parteien und Wahlbeteiligung, nach Gemeinden/Bezirk/Canton accessed 28 May 2010 The historical population is given in the following table: ==Heritage sites of national significance== thumb|Lengnau Synagoge The Synagogue on Zürichstrasse is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The hamlets of Husen and Vogelsang and the entire village of Lengnau are designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.ISOS site accessed 21-June-2010 ==Economy== , Lengnau had an unemployment rate of 1.53%. , there were 128 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 51 businesses involved in this sector. 331 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 29 businesses in this sector. 415 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 71 businesses in this sector. there were 1,148 workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 866 or about 75.4% of the residents worked outside Lengnau while 423 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 705 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.Statistical Department of Canton Aargau-Bereich 11 Verkehr und Nachrichtenwesen accessed 21 January 2010 Of the working population, 14.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 54.7% used a private car. ==Religion== thumb|Church of Lengnau From the , 1,417 or 62.0% were Roman Catholic, while 475 or 20.8% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 6 individuals (or about 0.26% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic faith.Statistical Department of Canton Aargau - Aargauer Zahlen 2009 accessed 20 January 2010 ==Education== The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Lengnau about 82.4% of the population (between age 25 and 64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the school age population (), there are 262 students attending primary school, there are 203 students attending secondary school in the municipality. ==Notable people== *Meyer Guggenheim (1828-1905), businessman and patriarch of the wealthy Swiss- American Guggenheim family. ==References== ==External links== * Category:Municipalities of Aargau Category:Cultural property of national significance in Aargau
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Graphic design is a profession, academic discipline and applied art whose activity consists in projecting visual communications intended to transmit specific messages to social groups, with specific objectives. Graphic design is an interdisciplinary branch of design and of the fine arts. Its practice involves creativity, innovation and lateral thinking using manual or digital tools, where it is usual to use text and graphics to communicate visually. The role of the graphic designer in the communication process is that of encoder or interpreter of the message. They work on the interpretation, ordering, and presentation of visual messages. Usually, graphic design uses the aesthetics of typography and the compositional arrangement of the text, ornamentation, and imagery to convey ideas, feelings, and attitudes beyond what language alone expresses. The design work can be based on a customer's demand, a demand that ends up being established linguistically, either orally or in writing, that is, that graphic design transforms a linguistic message into a graphic manifestation. Graphic design has, as a field of application, different areas of knowledge focused on any visual communication system. For example, it can be applied in advertising strategies, or it can also be applied in the aviation world or space exploration. In this sense, in some countries graphic design is related as only associated with the production of sketches and drawings, this is incorrect, since visual communication is a small part of a huge range of types and classes where it can be applied. With origins in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, graphic design as applied art was initially linked to the boom of rise of printing in Europe in the 15th century and the growth of consumer culture in the Industrial Revolution. From there it emerged as a distinct profession in the West, closely associated with advertising in the 19th century and its evolution allowed its consolidation in the 20th century. Given the rapid and massive growth in information exchange today, the demand for experienced designers is greater than ever, particularly because of the development of new technologies and the need to pay attention to human factors beyond the competence of the engineers who develop them. == Terminology == William Addison Dwiggins is often credited with first using the term "graphic design" in a 1922 article, although it appears in a 4 July 1908 issue (volume 9, number 27) of Organized Labor, a publication of the Labor Unions of San Francisco, in an article about technical education for printers:Paul Shaw, Blue Pencil no. 46—Yet more on the early history of the term "graphic design" , 1 June 2020. > An Enterprising Trades Union > … The admittedly high standard of intelligence which prevails among > printers is an assurance that with the elemental principles of design at > their finger ends many of them will grow in knowledge and develop into > specialists in graphic design and decorating. … A decade later, the 1917–1918 course catalog of the California School of Arts & Crafts advertised a course titled Graphic Design and Lettering, which replaced one called Advanced Design and Lettering. Both classes were taught by Frederick Meyer.Paul Shaw, "The Definitive Dwiggins no. 81—Who Coined the Term 'Graphic Design'? ", Blue Pencil, 7 January 2018. ==History== In both its lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, the distinction between advertising, art, graphic design and fine art has disappeared. They share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression, and feeling to artifacts that document the human experience."Meggs, Philip B., 'A history of graphic design'. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983 ===The advent of printing=== In China, during the Tang dynasty (618–907) wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book. Beginning in the 11th century in China, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960–1279). In the mid-15th century in Mainz, Germany, Johannes Gutenberg developed a way to reproduce printed pages at a faster pace using movable type made with a new metal alloy that created a revolution in the dissemination of information. ===Nineteenth century=== In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design. From 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press was a leader in graphic design associated with the Arts and Crafts movement, creating hand-made books in medieval and Renaissance era style, in addition to wallpaper and textile designs. Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau.Fiona McCarthy, William Morris, London: Faber and Faber, 1996 Will H. Bradley became one of the notable graphic designers in the late nineteenth-century due to creating art pieces in various Art Nouveau styles. Bradley created a number of designs as promotions for a literary magazine titled The Chap-Book. ===Twentieth century=== In 1917, Frederick H. Meyer, director and instructor at the California School of Arts and Crafts, taught a class entitled "Graphic Design and Lettering". Raffe's Graphic Design, published in 1927, was the first book to use "Graphic Design" in its title. In 1936, author and graphic designer Leon Friend published his book titled "Graphic Design" and it is known to be the first piece of literature to cover the topic extensively. The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example of the modern era. Although he lacked artistic training, Frank Pick led the Underground Group design and publicity movement. The first Underground station signs were introduced in 1908 with a design of a solid red disk with a blue bar in the center and the name of the station. The station name was in white sans-serif letters. It was in 1916 when Pick used the expertise of Edward Johnston to design a new typeface for the Underground. Johnston redesigned the Underground sign and logo to include his typeface on the blue bar in the center of a red circle. In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc. Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as fascistic, but it remained influential. Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and László Moholy-Nagy and El Lissitzky greatly influenced graphic design. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art Design and Architecture, New York: St. Martin's Press. (cloth) (pbk) The professional graphic design industry grew in parallel with consumerism. This raised concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design community with the First Things First manifesto. First launched by Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-published as the First Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine Emigre 51 stating "We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communication – a mindshift away from product marketing and toward the exploration and production of a new kind of meaning. The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and resources of design." ==Applications == thumb|Colour Graphic design can have many applications, from road signs to technical schematics and reference manuals. It is often used in branding products and elements of company identity such as logos, colors, packaging, labelling and text. From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information – known as information design. With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools are increasingly used to illustrate the background to news stories. Information design can include data visualization, which involves using programs to interpret and form data into a visually compelling presentation, and can be tied in with information graphics. ==Skills== A graphic design project may involve the creative presentation of existing text, ornament, and images. The "process school" is concerned with communication; it highlights the channels and media through which messages are transmitted and by which senders and receivers encode and decode these messages. The semiotic school treats a message as a construction of signs which through interaction with receivers, produces meaning; communication as an agent. ===Typography=== Typography includes type design, modifying type glyphs and arranging type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using illustration techniques. Type arrangement is the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all characters used), kerning (the space between two specific characters) and leading (line spacing). Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers. Until the digital age, typography was a specialized occupation. Certain fonts communicate or resemble stereotypical notions. For example, 1942 Report is a font which types text akin to a typewriter or a vintage report.Butterick, Matthew. "Butterick's Practical Typography." Butterick's Practical Typography. Jones McClure, 2010–14. Web. 17 February 2015. ===Page layout=== thumb|Golden section in book design Page layout deals with the arrangement of elements (content) on a page, such as image placement, text layout and style. Page design has always been a consideration in printed material and more recently extended to displays such as web pages. Elements typically consist of type (text), images (pictures), and (with print media) occasionally place-holder graphics such as a dieline for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing. === Grids === A grid serves as a method of arranging both space and information, allowing the reader to easily comprehend the overall project. Furthermore, a grid functions as a container for information and a means of establishing and maintaining order. Despite grids being utilized for centuries, many graphic designers associate them with Swiss design. The desire for order in the 1940s resulted in a highly systematic approach to visualizing information. However, grids were later regarded as tedious and uninteresting, earning the label of "designersaur." Today, grids are once again considered crucial tools for professionals, whether they are novices or veterans.Tondreau, Beth (2009). Layout essentials 100 design principles for using grids. Quarto Publishing Group USA. . . == Tools == In the mid-1980s desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced computer image manipulation and creation capabilities that had previously been manually executed. Computers enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media. Traditional tools such as pencils can be useful even when computers are used for finalization; a designer or art director may sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process.Jacci Howard Bear, desktoppub.about.com Retrieved 19 March 2008 Styluses can be used with tablet computers to capture hand drawings digitally.Milton Glaser Draws & Lectures . Retrieved 31 January 2011 ===Computers and software=== Designers disagree whether computers enhance the creative process.Designtalkboard.com , topic 1030 and Designtalkboard.com , topic 1141. Retrieved 18 March 2007 Some designers argue that computers allow them to explore multiple ideas quickly and in more detail than can be achieved by hand-rendering or paste-up.Jann Lawrence Pollard and Jerry James Little, Creative Computer Tools for Artists: Using Software to Develop Drawings and Paintings, November 2001 Introduction While other designers find the limitless choices from digital design can lead to paralysis or endless iterations with no clear outcome. Most designers use a hybrid process that combines traditional and computer-based technologies. First, hand-rendered layouts are used to get approval to execute an idea, then the polished visual product is produced on a computer. Graphic designers are expected to be proficient in software programs for image-making, typography and layout. Nearly all of the popular and "industry standard" software programs used by graphic designers since the early 1990s are products of Adobe Inc. Adobe Photoshop (a raster- based program for photo editing) and Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing) are often used in the final stage. CorelDraw, a vector graphics editing software developed and marketed by Corel Corporation, is also used worldwide. Designers often use pre-designed raster images and vector graphics in their work from online design databases. Raster images may be edited in Adobe Photoshop, vector logos and illustrations in Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw, and the final product assembled in one of the major page layout programs, such as Adobe InDesign, Serif PagePlus and QuarkXPress. Many free and open-source programs are also used by both professionals and casual graphic designers. Inkscape uses Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) as its primary file format and allows importing and exporting other formats. Other open- source programs used include GIMP for photo-editing and image manipulation, Krita for digital painting, and Scribus for page layout. ==Related design fields== ===Interface design=== Since the advent of personal computers, many graphic designers have become involved in interface design, in an environment commonly referred to as a Graphical user interface (GUI). This has included web design and software design when end user-interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with an understanding of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create the look and feel of a web site or software application. An important aspect of interface design is icon design. ===User experience design=== User experience design (UX) is the study, analysis, and development of creating products that provide meaningful and relevant experiences to users. This involves the creation of the entire process of acquiring and integrating the product, including aspects of branding, design, usability, and function. UX design involves creating the interface and interactions for a website or application, and is considered both an act and an art. This profession requires a combination of skills, including visual design, social psychology, development, project management, and most importantly, empathy towards the end-users.Hamm, Matthew, J. (2014). Wireframing Essentials. ProQuest Ebook Central, CSULB: Packt Publishing, LimitedProQuest Ebook Central,. ===Experiential graphic design=== Experiential graphic design is the application of communication skills to the built environment. This area of graphic design requires practitioners to understand physical installations that have to be manufactured and withstand the same environmental conditions as buildings. As such, it is a cross-disciplinary collaborative process involving designers, fabricators, city planners, architects, manufacturers and construction teams. Experiential graphic designers try to solve problems that people encounter while interacting with buildings and space (also called environmental graphic design). Examples of practice areas for environmental graphic designers are wayfinding, placemaking, branded environments, exhibitions and museum displays, public installations and digital environments. ==Occupations== Graphic design career paths cover all parts of the creative spectrum and often overlap. Workers perform specialized tasks, such as design services, publishing, advertising and public relations. As of 2023, median pay was $50,710 per year. The main job titles within the industry are often country specific. They can include graphic designer, art director, creative director, animator and entry level production artist. Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as "DTP associate" or "Graphic Artist". The responsibilities may involve specialized skills such as illustration, photography, animation, visual effects or interactive design. Employment in design of online projects was expected to increase by 35% by 2026, while employment in traditional media, such as newspaper and book design, expect to go down by 22%. Graphic designers will be expected to constantly learn new techniques, programs, and methods. Graphic designers can work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within publishing, marketing or other communications companies. Especially since the introduction of personal computers, many graphic designers work as in-house designers in non-design oriented organizations. Graphic designers may also work freelance, working on their own terms, prices, ideas, etc. A graphic designer typically reports to the art director, creative director or senior media creative. As a designer becomes more senior, they spend less time designing and more time leading and directing other designers on broader creative activities, such as brand development and corporate identity development. They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example taking and interpreting briefs. ===Crowdsourcing in graphic design=== Jeff Howe of Wired Magazine first used the term "crowdsourcing" in his 2006 article, "The Rise of Crowdsourcing." It spans such creative domains as graphic design, architecture, apparel design, writing, illustration, and others. Tasks may be assigned to individuals or a group and may be categorized as convergent or divergent. An example of a divergent task is generating alternative designs for a poster. An example of a convergent task is selecting one poster design. Companies, startups, small businesses and entrepreneurs have all benefitted from design crowdsourcing since it helps them source great graphic designs at a fraction of the budget they used to spend before. Getting a logo design through crowdsourcing being one of the most common. Major companies that operate in the design crowdsourcing space are generally referred to as design contest sites.] == The role of Graphic design == Graphic design plays a critical role in advertising, branding, and marketing, and has a significant impact on consumer behavior. Effective graphic design can help companies to create strong and recognizable brands, communicate their message clearly, and influence consumer perceptions and behaviors. One way that graphic design influences consumer behavior is through the use of visual elements, such as color, typography, and imagery. Studies have shown that certain colors can evoke specific emotions and behaviors in consumers, and that typography can influence how information is perceived and remembered.Hassanien, A., Dale, C., Clarke, D., & Sinclair, M. (2020). The Impact of Graphic Design on the Effectiveness of Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 60(4), 419-433 For example, serif fonts are often associated with tradition and elegance, while sans-serif fonts are seen as modern and minimalistic. These factors can all impact the way consumers perceive a brand and its messaging.Koukova, V. (2019). The Influence of Typography on Consumer Behavior. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference "Contemporary Issues in Business, Management and Education", 153-158. Another way that graphic design impacts consumer behavior is through its ability to communicate complex information in a clear and accessible way. For example, infographics and data visualizations can help to distill complex information into a format that is easy to understand and engaging for consumers.Lee, S. (2018). Visualizing Consumer Behavior and Decision Making in the Age of Big Data. Journal of Business Research, 85, 262-267. This can help to build trust and credibility with consumers, and encourage them to take action. == Ethical consideration in Graphic design == Ethics are an important consideration in graphic design, particularly when it comes to accurately representing information and avoiding harmful stereotypes. Graphic designers have a responsibility to ensure that their work is truthful, accurate, and free from any misleading or deceptive elements. This requires a commitment to honesty, integrity, and transparency in all aspects of the design process. One of the key ethical considerations in graphic design is the responsibility to accurately represent information. This means ensuring that any claims or statements made in advertising or marketing materials are true and supported by evidence.AIGA. (2018). AIGA Standards of Professional Practice. For example, a company should not use misleading statistics to promote their product or service, or make false claims about its benefits. Graphic designers must take care to accurately represent information in all visual elements, such as graphs, charts, and images, and avoid distorting or misrepresenting data.Crowell, K. (2019). Ethics and Advertising. In The Advertising Handbook (pp. 51-66). Routledge. Another important ethical consideration in graphic design is the need to avoid harmful stereotypes. This means avoiding any images or messaging that perpetuate negative or harmful stereotypes based on race, gender, religion, or other characteristics.Berman, J. (2019). The Ethics of Graphic Design. The Design Journal, 22(3), 347-363. Graphic designers should strive to create designs that are inclusive and respectful of all individuals and communities, and avoid reinforcing negative attitudes or biases. == The future of Graphic design == The future of graphic design is likely to be heavily influenced by emerging technologies and social trends. Advancements in areas such as artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, and automation are likely to transform the way that graphic designers work and create designs. Social trends, such as a greater focus on sustainability and inclusivity, are also likely to impact the future of graphic design.Guffey, E. (2018). Building Bridges to the Future of Graphic Design Education. Visual Communication Quarterly, 25(2), 77-88. One area where emerging technologies are likely to have a significant impact on graphic design is in the automation of certain tasks. Machine learning algorithms, for example, can analyze large datasets and create designs based on patterns and trends, freeing up designers to focus on more complex and creative tasks. Virtual and augmented reality technologies may also allow designers to create immersive and interactive experiences for users, blurring the lines between the digital and physical worlds.Hassenzahl, M., Diefenbach, S., & Göritz, A. (2010). Needs, Affect, and Interactive Products: Facets of User Experience. Interacting with Computers, 22(5), 353-362. Social trends are also likely to shape the future of graphic design. As consumers become more conscious of environmental issues, for example, there may be a greater demand for designs that prioritize sustainability and minimize waste. Similarly, there is likely to be a growing focus on inclusivity and diversity in design, with designers seeking to create designs that are accessible and representative of a wide range of individuals and communities.Rolston, M. (2017). Graphic Design and Social Change: Raising Awareness of Gender-Based Violence through Advocacy Design. Communication Design Quarterly Review, 5(1), 32-43. ==See also== ===Related areas=== ===Related topics=== ==References== ==Bibliography== * Fiell, Charlotte and Fiell, Peter (editors). Contemporary Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers, 2008. * Wiedemann, Julius and Taborda, Felipe (editors). Latin-American Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers, 2008. ==External links== * * The Universal Arts of Graphic Design – Documentary produced by Off Book * Graphic Designers, entry in the Occupational Outlook Handbook of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor Category:Communication design
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Earth radius (denoted as R🜨 or R_E) is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or near its surface. Approximating the figure of Earth by an Earth spheroid, the radius ranges from a maximum of nearly (equatorial radius, denoted a) to a minimum of nearly (polar radius, denoted b). A nominal Earth radius is sometimes used as a unit of measurement in astronomy and geophysics, which is recommended by the International Astronomical Union to be the equatorial value. A globally-average value is usually considered to be with a 0.3% variability (±10 km) for the following reasons. The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) provides three reference values: the mean radius (R) of three radii measured at two equator points and a pole; the authalic radius, which is the radius of a sphere with the same surface area (R); and the volumetric radius, which is the radius of a sphere having the same volume as the ellipsoid (R). All three values are about . Other ways to define and measure the Earth's radius involve the radius of curvature. A few definitions yield values outside the range between the polar radius and equatorial radius because they include local or geoidal topography or because they depend on abstract geometrical considerations. ==Introduction== Earth's rotation, internal density variations, and external tidal forces cause its shape to deviate systematically from a perfect sphere.For details see figure of the Earth, geoid, and Earth tide. Local topography increases the variance, resulting in a surface of profound complexity. Our descriptions of Earth's surface must be simpler than reality in order to be tractable. Hence, we create models to approximate characteristics of Earth's surface, generally relying on the simplest model that suits the need. Each of the models in common use involve some notion of the geometric radius. Strictly speaking, spheres are the only solids to have radii, but broader uses of the term radius are common in many fields, including those dealing with models of Earth. The following is a partial list of models of Earth's surface, ordered from exact to more approximate: * The actual surface of Earth * The geoid, defined by mean sea level at each point on the real surfaceThere is no single center to the geoid; it varies according to local geodetic conditions. * A spheroid, also called an ellipsoid of revolution, geocentric to model the entire Earth, or else geodetic for regional workIn a geocentric ellipsoid, the center of the ellipsoid coincides with some computed center of Earth, and best models the earth as a whole. Geodetic ellipsoids are better suited to regional idiosyncrasies of the geoid. A partial surface of an ellipsoid gets fitted to the region, in which case the center and orientation of the ellipsoid generally do not coincide with the earth's center of mass or axis of rotation. * A sphere In the case of the geoid and ellipsoids, the fixed distance from any point on the model to the specified center is called "a radius of the Earth" or "the radius of the Earth at that point".The value of the radius is completely dependent upon the latitude in the case of an ellipsoid model, and nearly so on the geoid. It is also common to refer to any mean radius of a spherical model as "the radius of the earth". When considering the Earth's real surface, on the other hand, it is uncommon to refer to a "radius", since there is generally no practical need. Rather, elevation above or below sea level is useful. Regardless of the model, any radius falls between the polar minimum of about 6,357 km and the equatorial maximum of about 6,378 km (3,950 to 3,963 mi). Hence, the Earth deviates from a perfect sphere by only a third of a percent, which supports the spherical model in most contexts and justifies the term "radius of the Earth". While specific values differ, the concepts in this article generalize to any major planet. ===Physics of Earth's deformation=== Rotation of a planet causes it to approximate an oblate ellipsoid/spheroid with a bulge at the equator and flattening at the North and South Poles, so that the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius by approximately . The oblateness constant is given by :q=\frac{a^3 \omega^2}{GM}\,, where is the angular frequency, is the gravitational constant, and is the mass of the planet. For the Earth , which is close to the measured inverse flattening . Additionally, the bulge at the equator shows slow variations. The bulge had been decreasing, but since 1998 the bulge has increased, possibly due to redistribution of ocean mass via currents.Satellites Reveal A Mystery Of Large Change In Earth's Gravity Field , Aug. 1, 2002, Goddard Space Flight Center. 400px|right The variation in density and crustal thickness causes gravity to vary across the surface and in time, so that the mean sea level differs from the ellipsoid. This difference is the geoid height, positive above or outside the ellipsoid, negative below or inside. The geoid height variation is under on Earth. The geoid height can change abruptly due to earthquakes (such as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake) or reduction in ice masses (such as Greenland).NASA's Grace Finds Greenland Melting Faster, 'Sees' Sumatra Quake, December 20, 2005, Goddard Space Flight Center. Not all deformations originate within the Earth. Gravitational attraction from the Moon or Sun can cause the Earth's surface at a given point to vary by tenths of a meter over a nearly 12-hour period (see Earth tide). ===Radius and local conditions=== Given local and transient influences on surface height, the values defined below are based on a "general purpose" model, refined as globally precisely as possible within of reference ellipsoid height, and to within of mean sea level (neglecting geoid height). Additionally, the radius can be estimated from the curvature of the Earth at a point. Like a torus, the curvature at a point will be greatest (tightest) in one direction (north–south on Earth) and smallest (flattest) perpendicularly (east–west). The corresponding radius of curvature depends on the location and direction of measurement from that point. A consequence is that a distance to the true horizon at the equator is slightly shorter in the north–south direction than in the east–west direction. In summary, local variations in terrain prevent defining a single "precise" radius. One can only adopt an idealized model. Since the estimate by Eratosthenes, many models have been created. Historically, these models were based on regional topography, giving the best reference ellipsoid for the area under survey. As satellite remote sensing and especially the Global Positioning System gained importance, true global models were developed which, while not as accurate for regional work, best approximate the Earth as a whole. ==Extrema: equatorial and polar radii== The following radii are derived from the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) reference ellipsoid. It is an idealized surface, and the Earth measurements used to calculate it have an uncertainty of ±2 m in both the equatorial and polar dimensions. Additional discrepancies caused by topographical variation at specific locations can be significant. When identifying the position of an observable location, the use of more precise values for WGS-84 radii may not yield a corresponding improvement in accuracy. The value for the equatorial radius is defined to the nearest 0.1 m in WGS-84. The value for the polar radius in this section has been rounded to the nearest 0.1 m, which is expected to be adequate for most uses. Refer to the WGS-84 ellipsoid if a more precise value for its polar radius is needed. * The Earth's equatorial radius , or semi-major axis, is the distance from its center to the equator and equals . The equatorial radius is often used to compare Earth with other planets. * The Earth's polar radius , or semi-minor axis, is the distance from its center to the North and South Poles, and equals . ==Location-dependent radii== thumb|Three different radii as a function of Earth's latitude. is the geocentric radius; is the meridional radius of curvature; and is the prime vertical radius of curvature. ===Geocentric radius=== The geocentric radius is the distance from the Earth's center to a point on the spheroid surface at geodetic latitude : :R(\varphi)=\sqrt{\frac{(a^2\cos\varphi)^2+(b^2\sin\varphi)^2}{(a\cos\varphi)^2+(b\sin\varphi)^2}} where and are, respectively, the equatorial radius and the polar radius. The extrema geocentric radii on the ellipsoid coincide with the equatorial and polar radii. They are vertices of the ellipse and also coincide with minimum and maximum radius of curvature. ===Radii of curvature=== ====Principal radii of curvature==== There are two principal radii of curvature: along the meridional and prime-vertical normal sections. =====Meridional===== In particular, the Earth's meridional radius of curvature (in the north–south direction) at is: :M(\varphi)=\frac{(ab)^2}{\big((a\cos\varphi)^2+(b\sin\varphi)^2\big)^\frac32} =\frac{a(1-e^2)}{(1-e^2\sin^2\varphi)^\frac32} =\frac{1-e^2}{a^2} N(\varphi)^3\,. where e is the eccentricity of the earth. This is the radius that Eratosthenes measured in his arc measurement. =====Prime vertical===== thumb|The length PQ, called the prime vertical radius, is N(\phi). The length IQ is equal to \, e^2 N(\phi) . R = (X,\, Y,\, Z). If one point had appeared due east of the other, one finds the approximate curvature in the east–west direction.East–west directions can be misleading. Point B, which appears due east from A, will be closer to the equator than A. Thus the curvature found this way is smaller than the curvature of a circle of constant latitude, except at the equator. West can be exchanged for east in this discussion. This Earth's prime-vertical radius of curvature, also called the Earth's transverse radius of curvature, is defined perpendicular (orthogonal) to at geodetic latitude is defined as the radius of curvature in the plane that is normal to both the surface of the ellipsoid at, and the meridian passing through, the specific point of interest. and is: :N(\varphi)=\frac{a^2}{\sqrt{(a\cos\varphi)^2+(b\sin\varphi)^2}} =\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-e^2\sin^2\varphi}}\,. N can also be interpreted geometrically as the normal distance from the ellipsoid surface to the polar axis. The radius of a parallel of latitude is given by p=N\cos(\varphi). =====Polar and equatorial radius of curvature===== The Earth's meridional radius of curvature at the equator equals the meridian's semi-latus rectum: :=6,335.439 km The Earth's prime-vertical radius of curvature at the equator equals the equatorial radius, . The Earth's polar radius of curvature (either meridional or prime-vertical) is: :=6,399.594 km =====Derivation===== The principal curvatures are the roots of Equation (125) in: :(E G - F^2)\, \kappa^2 - ( e G + g E - 2 f F )\, \kappa + ( e g - f^2 ) = 0 =\det(A - \kappa\,B), where in the first fundamental form for a surface (Equation (112) in): :ds^2 = \sum_{ij} a_{ij} dw^i dw^j = E\, d\varphi^2 + 2 F\, d\varphi\, d\lambda + G\, d\lambda^2, E, F, and G are elements of the metric tensor: : A = a_{ij} = \sum_{ u} \frac{\partial r^{ u}}{\partial w^i} \frac{\partial r^{ u}}{\partial w^j} = \left[ \begin{array}{ll} E & F \\\ F & G \end{array} \right], r = [r^1, r^2, r^3]^T = [ x, y, z]^T, w^1 = \varphi, w^2 = \lambda, in the second fundamental form for a surface (Equation (123) in): : 2 D = \sum_{ij} b_{ij} dw^i dw^j = e\, d\varphi^2 + 2 f\, d \varphi\, d \lambda + g\, d \lambda^2, e, f, and g are elements of the shape tensor: :B = b_{ij} = \sum_{ u} n^{ u} \frac{\partial ^2 r^{ u}}{\partial w^i \partial w^j} = \left[ \begin{array}{ll} e & f \\\ f & g \end{array} \right], n = \frac{N}{|N|} is the unit normal to the surface at r, and because \frac{\partial r}{\partial \varphi} and \frac{\partial r}{\partial \lambda} are tangents to the surface, :N = \frac{\partial r}{\partial \varphi} \times \frac{\partial r}{\partial \lambda} is normal to the surface at r. With F = f = 0 for an oblate spheroid, the curvatures are :\kappa_1 = \frac{g}{G} and \kappa_2 = \frac{e}{E}\,, and the principal radii of curvature are :R_1 = \frac{1}{\kappa_1} and R_2 = \frac{1}{\kappa_2}. The first and second radii of curvature correspond, respectively, to the Earth's meridional and prime- vertical radii of curvature. Geometrically, the second fundamental form gives the distance from r + dr to the plane tangent at r. ====Combined radii of curvature==== =====Azimuthal===== The Earth's azimuthal radius of curvature, along an Earth normal section at an azimuth (measured clockwise from north) and at latitude , is derived from Euler's curvature formula as follows: :R_\mathrm{c}=\frac{1}{\dfrac{\cos^2\alpha}{M}+\dfrac{\sin^2\alpha}{N}}\,. =====Non-directional===== It is possible to combine the principal radii of curvature above in a non-directional manner. The Earth's Gaussian radius of curvature at latitude is: :R_\mathrm{a}(\varphi)= \frac{1}{\sqrt{K}} = \frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{0}^{2\pi}R_\mathrm{c}(\alpha)\,d\alpha\,=\sqrt{MN}=\frac{a^2b}{(a\cos\varphi)^2+(b\sin\varphi)^2} =\frac{a\sqrt{1-e^2}}{1-e^2\sin^2\varphi}\,. Where K is the Gaussian curvature, K = \kappa_1\,\kappa_2 = \frac{\det\, B}{\det\, A}. The Earth's mean radius of curvature at latitude is: :R_\mathrm{m}=\frac{2}{\dfrac{1}{M}+\dfrac{1}{N}}\,\\! ==Global radii== The Earth can be modeled as a sphere in many ways. This section describes the common ways. The various radii derived here use the notation and dimensions noted above for the Earth as derived from the WGS-84 ellipsoid; namely, :Equatorial radius: = () :Polar radius: = () A sphere being a gross approximation of the spheroid, which itself is an approximation of the geoid, units are given here in kilometers rather than the millimeter resolution appropriate for geodesy. ===Nominal radius=== In astronomy, the International Astronomical Union denotes the nominal equatorial Earth radius as \mathcal{R}^\mathrm N_\mathrm{eE}, which is defined to be . The nominal polar Earth radius is defined as \mathcal{R}^\mathrm N_\mathrm{pE} = . These values correspond to the zero Earth tide convention. Equatorial radius is conventionally used as the nominal value unless the polar radius is explicitly required. The nominal radius serves as a unit of length for astronomy. (The notation is defined such that it can be easily generalized for other planets; e.g., \mathcal{R}^\mathrm N_\mathrm {pJ} for the nominal polar Jupiter radius.) ===Arithmetic mean radius=== In geophysics, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) defines the Earth's arithmetic mean radius (denoted ) to beMoritz, H. (1980). Geodetic Reference System 1980, by resolution of the XVII General Assembly of the IUGG in Canberra. :R_1 = \frac{2a+b}{3}\,\\! The factor of two accounts for the biaxial symmetry in Earth's spheroid, a specialization of triaxial ellipsoid. For Earth, the arithmetic mean radius is . ===Authalic radius=== Earth's authalic radius (meaning "equal area") is the radius of a hypothetical perfect sphere that has the same surface area as the reference ellipsoid. The IUGG denotes the authalic radius as . A closed-form solution exists for a spheroid:Snyder, J.P. (1987). Map Projections – A Working Manual (US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1395) p. 16–17. Washington D.C: United States Government Printing Office. :R_2 =\sqrt{\frac{a^2+\frac{b^2}{e}\ln{\left(\frac{1+e}{b/a}\right)}}{2}} =\sqrt{\frac{a^2}2+\frac{b^2}2\frac{\tanh^{-1}e}e} =\sqrt{\frac{A}{4\pi}}\,, where and is the surface area of the spheroid. For the Earth, the authalic radius is . The authalic radius R_2 also corresponds to the radius of (global) mean curvature, obtained by averaging the Gaussian curvature, K, over the surface of the ellipsoid. Using the Gauss–Bonnet theorem, this gives : \frac{\int K\, dA}A = \frac{4\pi}A = \frac1{R_2^2}. ===Volumetric radius=== Another spherical model is defined by the Earth's volumetric radius, which is the radius of a sphere of volume equal to the ellipsoid. The IUGG denotes the volumetric radius as . :R_3=\sqrt[3]{a^2b}\,. For Earth, the volumetric radius equals . ===Rectifying radius=== Another global radius is the Earth's rectifying radius, giving a sphere with circumference equal to the perimeter of the ellipse described by any polar cross section of the ellipsoid. This requires an elliptic integral to find, given the polar and equatorial radii: :M_\mathrm{r}=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}\sqrt{{a^2}\cos^2\varphi + {b^2} \sin^2\varphi}\,d\varphi\,. The rectifying radius is equivalent to the meridional mean, which is defined as the average value of : :M_\mathrm{r}=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}\\!M(\varphi)\,d\varphi\,. For integration limits of [0,], the integrals for rectifying radius and mean radius evaluate to the same result, which, for Earth, amounts to . The meridional mean is well approximated by the semicubic mean of the two axes, :M_\mathrm{r}\approx\left(\frac{a^\frac32+b^\frac32}{2}\right)^\frac23\,, which differs from the exact result by less than ; the mean of the two axes, :M_\mathrm{r}\approx\frac{a+b}{2}\,, about , can also be used. ==Topographical radii== The mathematical expressions above apply over the surface of the ellipsoid. The cases below considers Earth's topography, above or below a reference ellipsoid. As such, they are topographical geocentric distances, Rt, which depends not only on latitude. ===Topographical extremes=== * Maximum Rt: the summit of Chimborazo is from the Earth's center. * Minimum Rt: the floor of the Arctic Ocean is from the Earth's center. ===Topographical global mean=== The topographical mean geocentric distance averages elevations everywhere, resulting in a value larger than the IUGG mean radius, the authalic radius, or the volumetric radius. This topographical average is with uncertainty of . ==Derived quantities: diameter, circumference, arc-length, area, volume == Earth's diameter is simply twice Earth's radius; for example, equatorial diameter (2a) and polar diameter (2b). For the WGS84 ellipsoid, that's respectively: *, *. Earth's circumference equals the perimeter length. The equatorial circumference is simply the circle perimeter: Ce=2πa, in terms of the equatorial radius, a. The polar circumference equals Cp=4mp, four times the quarter meridian mp=aE(e), where the polar radius b enters via the eccentricity, e=(1−b2/a2)0.5; see Ellipse#Circumference for details. Arc length of more general surface curves, such as meridian arcs and geodesics, can also be derived from Earth's equatorial and polar radii. Likewise for surface area, either based on a map projection or a geodesic polygon. Earth's volume, or that of the reference ellipsoid, is . Using the parameters from WGS84 ellipsoid of revolution, and , . ==Published values== This table summarizes the accepted values of the Earth's radius. Agency Description Value (in meters) Ref IAU nominal "zero tide" equatorial IAU nominal "zero tide" polar IUGG equatorial radius IUGG semiminor axis (b) IUGG polar radius of curvature (c) IUGG mean radius (R1) IUGG radius of sphere of same surface (R2) IUGG radius of sphere of same volume (R3) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, semi-major axis (a) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, semi-minor axis (b) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, polar radius of curvature (c) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, Mean radius of semi-axes (R1) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, Radius of Sphere of Equal Area (R2) IERS WGS-84 ellipsoid, Radius of Sphere of Equal Volume (R3) GRS 80 semi-major axis (a) GRS 80 semi-minor axis (b) Spherical Earth Approx. of Radius (RE) meridional radius of curvature at the equator Maximum (the summit of Chimborazo) Minimum (the floor of the Arctic Ocean) Average distance from center to surface ==History== The first published reference to the Earth's size appeared around 350 BC, when Aristotle reported in his book On the Heavens that mathematicians had guessed the circumference of the Earth to be 400,000 stadia. Scholars have interpreted Aristotle's figure to be anywhere from highly accurate to almost double the true value. The first known scientific measurement and calculation of the circumference of the Earth was performed by Eratosthenes in about 240 BC. Estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes's measurement range from 0.5% to 17%. For both Aristotle and Eratosthenes, uncertainty in the accuracy of their estimates is due to modern uncertainty over which stadion length they meant. Around 100 BC, Posidonius of Apamea recomputed Earth's radius, and found it to be close to that by Eratosthenes,Posidonius, fragment 202 but later Strabo incorrectly attributed him a value about 3/4 of the actual size.Cleomedes (in Fragment 202) stated that if the distance is measured by some other number the result will be different, and using 3,750 instead of 5,000 produces this estimation: 3,750 x 48 = 180,000; see Fischer I., (1975), Another Look at Eratosthenes' and Posidonius' Determinations of the Earth's Circumference, Ql. J. of the Royal Astron. Soc., Vol. 16, p. 152. Claudius Ptolemy around 150 AD gave empirical evidence supporting a spherical Earth, but he accepted the lesser value attributed to Posidonius. His highly influential work, the Almagest, left no doubt among medieval scholars that Earth is spherical, but they were wrong about its size. By 1490, Christopher Columbus believed that traveling 3,000 miles west from the west coast of the Iberian peninsula would let him reach the eastern coasts of Asia.John Freely, Before Galileo: The Birth of Modern Science in Medieval Europe (2013), However, the 1492 enactment of that voyage brought his fleet to the Americas. The Magellan expedition (1519–1522), which was the first circumnavigation of the World, soundly demonstrated the sphericity of the Earth, and affirmed the original measurement of by Eratosthenes. Around 1690, Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens argued that Earth was closer to an oblate spheroid than to a sphere. However, around 1730, Jacques Cassini argued for a prolate spheroid instead, due to different interpretations of the Newtonian mechanics involved. To settle the matter, the French Geodesic Mission (1735–1739) measured one degree of latitude at two locations, one near the Arctic Circle and the other near the equator. The expedition found that Newton's conjecture was correct: the Earth is flattened at the poles due to rotation's centrifugal force. == See also == * Earth's circumference * Earth mass * Effective Earth radius * Geodesy * Geographical distance * Osculating sphere * History of geodesy * Planetary radius ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Radius Category:Planetary science Category:Planetary geology
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The Indian Railways primarily operates a fleet of electric and diesel locomotives, along with several compressed natural gas (CNG) locomotives. Steam locomotives are operated on a few World Heritage Sites and also run occasionally as heritage trains. A locomotive is also known as a loco or more popularly as an engine. The country's first steam locomotive ran on the Red Hill Railway (built by Arthur Cotton to transport granite for road-building) from Red Hills to the Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. == Classification == Locomotives were classified by track gauge, motive power, function and power (or model number) in a four- or five-letter code. The first letter denotes the track gauge. The second letter denotes motive power (diesel or electric), and the third letter denotes use (goods, passenger, mixed or shunting). The fourth letter denotes a locomotive's chronological model number. In 2002, a new classification system was adopted. For newer diesel locomotives, the fourth letter denotes their horsepower range. Not all diesel locomotives were reclassified, and the fourth letter continues to denotes their model number. A locomotive may have a fifth letter, generally denoting a technical variant, subclass or subtype: a variation in the basic model or series, or a different motor or manufacturer. Under the new system, the fifth letter further refines horsepower in 100-hp increments: A for 100 hp, B for 200 hp, C for 300 hp and so on. A WDP-3A is a locomotive, and a WDM-3F is . The system does not apply to steam locomotives, which are no longer used on main lines. They retain their original class names, such as M- or WP-class. === Syntax === *First letter (gauge): **W – Broad gauge (wide) – **Y – Metre gauge (yard) – **Z – narrow gauge **N – narrow gauge (toy) *Second letter (motive power): **D – Diesel **C – DC electric (DC overhead line) **A – AC electric (AC overhead line) **CA – DC and AC (AC or DC overhead line); CA is considered one letter **B – Battery (rare) *Third letter (job type): **G – Goods **P – Passenger **M – Mixed (goods and passenger) **S – Shunting (switching) **U – Multiple unit (electric or diesel) **R – Railcar In WDM 3A, W denotes broad gauge; D denotes diesel power; M denotes mixed use (goods and passenger service), and 3A denotes (3,000 + 100). In WAP 5, W is broad gauge; A is AC electric; P is passenger service, and 5 indicates that the locomotive is the fifth model used. == Broad-gauge (5 ft 6 in) locomotives == === Electric === ==== AC electric ==== Broad-gauge AC electric classification codes are: * WAM – Wide AC electric mixed * WAP – Wide AC electric passenger * WAG – Wide AC electric goods * WAU – Wide AC electric multiple units'' ==== AC Mixed class (WAM Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WAM-1 KraussMaffei, Krupp, SFAC, La Brugeoise & Nivelle (50 cycles European group) B-B 100 1959-1960 3010 HP Retired 1 First mainline AC electric locomotive frameless WAM-2 Mitsubishi Bo-Bo 36 1960-64 2910 HP Retired None WAM-3 Mitsubishi Bo-Bo 2 1964 2400 HP Retired None WAM-4 CLW Co-Co 500 1970-1983 3850 HP In service, used in shunting process. 6 Earmarked frameless ==== AC Passenger class (WAP Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WAP-1 CLW Co-Co 65 1980-1996 3900 HP In service 1 Earmarked Numbers used: 22000 - 22076 Many are being converted to WAP-4 frameless WAP-2 Mitsubishi Bo-Bo 2 or 3, all rebuilt from WAM-2 1960–1964 2910 HP Retired None WAP-3 CLW Co-Co 9, all rebuilt from WAP-1 1987-1988 3900 HP Retired/ In service as WAP-1 None frameless WAP-4 CLW Co-Co 778 1993-2015 5350 HP In service Numbers used: 22201-22399, 22500-22999 & 25000-25051 frameless WAP-5 ABB / CLW Bo-Bo 237 1995–Present 6120 HP In service Numbers used: 30000-30200 & 35001+ frameless WAP-6 CLW Co-Co 17 1995-1998 5350 HP Retired/ In service as WAP-4 frameless WAP-7 CLW/BLW/PLW Co-Co 1424 2000– present 6350 HP In service The most commonly used passenger locomotive. Numbers used: 30201+, 37001+ and 39000+ File:WAP-7-LOCO.jpg ==== AC Goods class (WAG Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arrangement Quantity Built Built year(s) H.Power Current Status Preserve Picture WAG-1 Niv./SFAC/ CLW B-B 112 1963-1966 2930 HP Retired 1 unit frameless WAG-2 Hitachi /Toshiba /Mitsubishi B-B 45 1964-1965 3450 HP Retired None frameless WAG-3 Henschel/CLW B-B 10 1965 3300 HP Retired None frameless WAG-4 CLW B-B 186 1967-1969 3590 HP Retired None frameless WAG-5 CLW/BHEL Co- Co 1196 1978-1998 4360 HP In service 1 unit frameless WAG-6A ASEA Bo-Bo-Bo 6 1988-1989 6110 HP Retired 1 unit frameless WAG-6B Hitachi Bo-Bo-Bo 6 1988 6110 HP In Service 1 unit frameless WAG-6C Hitachi Co-Co 6 1988 6110 HP In service 1 unit frameless WAG-7 CLW/BHEL Co-Co 1970 1990-2015 5350 HP In service 1 unit earmarked frameless WAG-8 BHEL Co-Co 1 1990 5000 HP Retired/ Never went into service None WAG-9 ABB / CLW/BHEL/BLW/PLW Co-Co 3809 1996–present 6125/ 9000 HP In service frameless WAG-10 BLW Co-Co-Co-Co 1 2018–present 10000 HP In service frameless WAG-11 BLW Co-Co-Co-Co/Co-Co 4 2018–present 12000 HP Undergoing Trials frameless WAG-12 Alstom Bo-Bo-Bo-Bo 268 2017–present 12000 HP In service frameless ==== AC electric multiple unit (WAU series) ==== *Electric multiple units are designated WAU-1 to WAU-4. ==== DC electric ==== These locomotives, no longer in use, were used only in and around Mumbai with 1.5 kV DC power. All sections of Central Railway, including Thane to Mumbai CST (Main Line), Nerul to Thane (Trans-Harbour Line), Vadala Road to Mahim (Harbour Line, connecting Central and Western Railway) and Panvel to Mumbai CST (Harbour Line) have been converted to 25 kV AC. Broad-gauge DC electric classification codes are: * WCM – Wide DC electric mixed * WCP – Wide DC electric passenger * WCG – Wide DC electric goods * WCU – Wide DC electric multiple unit ==== DC Mixed class (WCM Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WCM-1 English Electric / Vulcan Foundry Co-Co 7 1954-1955 3700 HP Retired 1 India's first electric Co-Co locomotive frameless WCM-2 English Electric / Vulcan Foundry Co-Co 12 1956-1957 3120 HP Retired None frameless WCM-3 Hitachi Co-Co 3 1958 3600 HP Retired None frameless WCM-4 Hitachi Co-Co 7 1960 4000 HP Retired None frameless WCM-5 CLW Co-Co 21 1961-1963 3700 HP Retired 1 unit frameless WCM-6 CLW Co-Co 2 1995 5000 HP In service Converted to 25 kV AC operation 220x220px ==== DC Passenger class (WCP Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WCP-1 SLM / MetroVick 2-Bo-A1 22 1928-30 2160 HP Retired 1 unit First electric locomotive of India frameless WCP-2 SLM / MetroVick 2-Bo-A1 1 1938 2160 HP Retired 1 unit frameless WCP-3 Hawthorn Leslie, Marconi Company 2-Co-2 1 1928 2250 HP Retired None frameless WCP-4 Hawthorn Leslie, BBC 2-Co-2 1 1928 2390 HP Retired None frameless ==== DC Goods class (WCG series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WCG-1 SLM / MetroVick /Vulcan Foundry C+C 41 1928-1929 2600-2890 HP Retired 2 units frameless WCG-2 SLM / MetroVick Co-Co 57 1970-1976 4200 HP Retired 2 units frameless ==== DC electric multiple unit (WCU series) ==== WCU 1 to WCU 15 electric multiple units (EMU) were used in the Mumbai region. ==== Dual (DC and AC) ==== Broad-gauge DC and AC electric classification codes are: *WCAM – Wide DC and AC electric mixed *WCAG – Wide DC and AC electric goods ==== Dual Current Mixed class (WCAM Series) ==== These locomotives are used only in the Mumbai area. They were built to prevent the need to change locos. Mixed locomotives are: Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Comments Picture WCAM-1 CLW Co-Co 54 1975-1979 * 2930 HP DC * 3640 HP AC Retired First mainline with AC/DC electric locomotive and the only Indian electric loco with reversed pantographs frameless WCAM-2 BHEL Co- Co 20 1995-1996 * 3780 HP DC * 4720 HP AC In service frameless WCAM-3 BHEL Co- Co 53 1997-1998 * 4600 HP DC * 5000 HP AC In service. Specifically designed for use by Central Railways in the Ghat section towards Nashik and Pune. Converted To Run On 25kv AC And Renamed As WAG-7M frameless ==== Dual Current Goods class (WCAG Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Comments Picture WCAG-1 BHEL Co-Co 12 1999-2000 * 4600 HP DC * 5000 HP AC In service The only class of the WCAG series === Battery === Broad-gauge battery classification code is: * WBCS – Wide battery DC electric shunter * WCAS – Wide DC(Battery) AC Shunter ==== Battery shunter class (WBCS series) ==== In 1927, English Electric and WBC built two shunters for yard use in Bombay with Bo-Bo bogies. They were of the WBCS class. Rated at , they weighed 58 tons. These are now preserved in National Rail Museum in Delhi. They were charged using the 1500 V DC OHE which was available there. ==== Battery shunter class (WCAS series) ==== The locomotives are classified as WCAS. Where W means Wide Gauge, C means DC(Battery), A means AC power, S means Shunting. === Dual-mode === Broad-gauge diesel and electric classification code is: * WDAP – Wide Diesel and AC electric passenger ==== Dual mode passenger (WDAP series) ==== These locomotives are used on routes that can run on both electrified and non- electrified tracks. Their main purpose is to prevent the need of engine change in electrified routes. Passenger locomotives are: Name Manufacturer Wheel Arrg Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Comments Picture WDAP-5 BLW Co-Co 1 2019–present * 4500 HP Diesel * 5500 HP AC Undergoing Trials India's first and only dual-mode locomotive Number used: 71000 frameless === Diesel === Broad-gauge diesel classification codes are: * WDM – Wide diesel mixed * WDP – Wide diesel passenger * WDG – Wide diesel goods * WDS – Wide diesel shunter * WCDS – Wide converted diesel shunter * DEMU – Diesel electric multiple unit * DHMU – Diesel Hydraulic multiple unit ==== Mixed class (WDM Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WDM-1 ALCO Co-Co 100 1957-1959 1950 HP Retired 1 First mainline diesel locomotive frameless WDM-2 ALCO/ BLW Co-Co 2700 1962–1998 2600 HP In service 9 A few still in service frameless WDM-2G BLW Co-Co 2 2013 2400 HP In Service One of the rarest locomotives in India with only two units being produced by Patiala Locomotive Works. WDM-3 Henschel Bo-Bo 8 1970 2500 HP Retired None frameless WDM-3A BLW Co-Co 1402 1994–1998 3100 HP In service 1 Earmarked WDM-3B BLW Co-Co 8, all rebuilt back to WDM-3D 2005-2006 3100 HP In service All rebuilt back to WDM-3D frameless WDM-3C BLW Co-Co 10 2002 3300 HP In service None All rebuilt back to WDM-3A WDM-3D BLW Co-Co 500 2003-2013 3300 HP In service WDM-3E BLW Co-Co 8 2008 3500 HP In service WDM-3F BLW Co-Co 3 2008 3600 HP In service WDM-4 GM Co-Co 72 1962 2600 HP Retired 2 frameless WDM-6 BLW Bo-Bo 2 1981-1982 1350 HP Retired 2 Both units earmarked for preservation frameless WDM-7 BLW Co-Co 15 1987–1989 2000 HP In service 1 Earmarked Currently used for shunting uses only frameless ==== Passenger class (WDP Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WDP-1 BLW & ALCO Bo-Bo 69 1995–1999 2300 HP In service frameless WDP-3A BLW & ALCO Co-Co 44 1998–2002 3100 HP In service frameless WDP-4 EMD & BLW Bo1-1Bo 100 2002–2011 4000 HP In service frameless WDP-4B EMD & BLW Co-Co 86 2010–2014 4500 HP In service frameless WDP-4D EMD & BLW Co-Co 525 2010–2018 4500 HP In service frameless ==== Goods class (WDG Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WDG-3A BLW Co-Co 1998 1995–2010 3100 HP In service WDG-3B BLW Co-Co 4 2004 3200 HP In service WDG-3C BLW Co-Co 1 2001 3300 HP In service WDG-3D BLW Co-Co 1 2001 3400 HP In service WDG-4 EMD/BLW Co-Co 1188 1999–2012 4500 HP In service frameless WDG-4G GE Co-Co 410 2017–present 4500 HP In service frameless WDG-4D BLW Co-Co 583 2013–2018 4500 HP In service frameless WDG-5 BLW Co-Co 7 2012-2017 5500 HP In service frameless WDG-6G GE Co-Co 62 2018–present 6000 HP In service Gandhidham based WDG-6G at Ghaziabad outer station area|frameless ==== Shunter Class (WDS Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture WDS-1 GE Bo-Bo 15 1944-1945 386 HP Retired 1 India's first diesel locomotive frameless WDS-2 Kraus Maffei C 30 1954-1955 440 HP Retired None frameless WDS-3 Maschi- nenbau Kiel C 7 1961 618 HP Retired None frameless WDS-4 CLW C 27 1968-1969 600 HP Few are still in service 4 A few still in service frameless WDS-4A CLW C 5 1968 660 HP Retired frameless WDS-4B CLW C 450 1969 700 HP Retired frameless WDS-4C CLW C 7 1976-78 700 HP Retired frameless WDS-4D CLW C 120 1984-97 700 HP Retired frameless WDS-5 ALCO/BLW Co- Co 21 1967 1065 HP Retired None frameless WDS-6 BLW Co-Co 270 1975– 1400 In service 2 Earmarked WDS-6AD BLW Co-Co 270 1975– 1400 In service 2 Earmarked WDS-8 CLW Bo-Bo 5 1979-1982 800 HP Retired None frameless ==== Converted shunter class (WCDS series) ==== The WCDS6, a YDM4 locomotive, was converted to broad gauge by the Golden Rock Railway Workshop for large industrial companies; the first one was delivered to RITES. New water and air lines were added, the control stand was modified, and it has a dual brake system. ==== Diesel multiple units ==== A few routes have DMU service. Depending on their transmission system, they are classified as DEMU (diesel-electric transmission) or DHMU (diesel-hydraulic transmission). There is diesel railcar service (known as railbus) in several areas. === Steam === Nineteenth-century railway companies ordered custom-built locomotives, usually from British manufacturers. The multiplicity of similar-but-not-identical designs increased manufacturing cost and slowed production. During the 1890s, many British manufacturers were recovering from work outages, thus Indian railway companies looked to Germany and the United States for locomotives. Engines used were: *Bengal Nagpur Railway: **Class F: **Class GM: (probably modified) **BNR class HSG: Garratt locomotive, India's first successful Garratts **Class M: 4-6-2 (probably modified) **BNR class N: Garratt, India's largest locomotive. One is preserved at the National Rail Museum, New Delhi **BNR class NM: Similar to N class; ten were built in 1931 by Beyer, Peacock & Company, and it was withdrawn in the late 1960s. **BNR class P: Garratt; four were built by Beyer, Peacock & Company in 1939. During the early 1970s, they were at the Bhilai (BIA) shed before being withdrawn. *Bombay, Baroda & Central India Railway: **BB&CI; class P: **Class A: , probably an Atlantic; was at the Palej shed. **Class U36: , used on hauling suburban trains in Bombay **Class D1: ; one was named Princess May. **Class M: (probably modified) *East Indian Railway Company: **Class CT: , probably converted to a superheater. **EIR class G: . First two named Express and Fairy Queen. Built in 1855, the latter is the world's oldest locomotive to be in working order. Later rebuilt by Perambur Loco Works. Housed at East Indian Railway (EIR) **EIR class P: *Great Indian Peninsula Railway: **GIPR classes Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4: . Used on Thal Ghat as bankers for pushing trains up the Western Ghats. **GIPR Class F and F3: 2-6-0 **GIPR class J1: 0-6-0 **Class D4: 4-6-0; one is named Hero. **Class D5: 4-6-0 passenger locomotive **Class E1: 4-4-2 Atlantic built by the North British Locomotive Company in 1907–8. Rebuilt with a superheater between 1925 and 1928. **Class T: Tank locomotive used for hauling Mumbai suburban trains **Class Y: 2-8-4T **Crane tank: 0-6-0T; one is preserved at the National Rail Museum in New Delhi. *Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway: **M&SM; class V: 4-4-0; one is preserved. **Class BTC: 2-6-4T, based on BESA specifications **Class T: 0-4-2; one is preserved in Madras. *Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway: **NSR class A: 2-6-0T (No. 48, probably an Atlantic) preserved at the National Rail Museum, Delhi. *North Western State Railway: **Class EM: 4-4-2 (probably modified); one is preserved at the National Rail Museum **NWR class GAS: 2-6-2+2-6-2 Garratt; one built in 1925, and retired in 1937. **NWR class P: 2-4-0 **Class E1: 4-4-2 **Class N1: 4-8-0 *Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway: **Class B26: 0-6-0; one is preserved at the National Rail Museum. *Others: **Class B: 2-6-0 **Class E: 2-4-0 **Class F: 2-8-2, built between 1926 and 1950 by Nasmyth Wilson for service on Central Railway (CR). **Class G: 2-6-0, probably intended for freight **Class NA2 **Class PTC: 2-6-4T, owned by Northern Railway (NR); probably a converted passenger locomotive **Class Y2: 2-8-2T, reclassified L2 **Phoenix: 0-4-0T; one is at the National Rail Museum. **Ramgotty: 2-2-0T; the National Rail Museum's oldest locomotive, it was converted to broad gauge. **Sultan, Sahib and Sindh: Hauled the train from VT to Thana in 1853. ==== Designs ==== After acrimonious words in The Times and Parliament, the British Engineering Standards Committee (later the British Engineering Standards Association) began designing a series of locomotives for use by Indian railways. The first two designs emerged in 1903: a 4-4-0 passenger and 0-6-0 goods. They were revised in 1905 and 1906 with additional heavier, more-powerful locomotives: * Class SP: Standard passenger (4-4-0) * Class SG: Standard goods (0-6-0) * Class PT: Passenger tank (2-6-4T) * Class HP: Heavy passenger (4-6-0) * Class AP: Atlantic passenger (4-4-2) * Class HG: Heavy goods (2-8-0) * Class HT: Heavy tank (2-8-2T) These advisory BESA designs were customized by the railway companies, which used different classification systems; only the state-operated railways used the class designations SP, SG, PT, HP, AP, HG and HT. When superheating was accepted, superheated versions were classified SPS, SGS and so on (if built with superheaters) and SPC, SGC and so on (if converted from saturated to superheated). After World War I, larger and more-powerful locomotives were designed by British consulting engineers for the Indian government. They began to appear in 1927: * Class XA: branch passenger 4-6-2 design, 12.5-ton axle load * Class XB: light passenger 4-6-2 design, 17-ton axle load * Class XC: heavy passenger 4-6-2 design, 19.5-ton axle load * Class XD: Light goods 2-8-2 design, 17-ton axle load * Class XE: heavy goods 2-8-2 design, 22.5-ton axle load * Class XF: light shunting 0-8-0 design, 18-ton axle load * Class XG: heavy shunting 0-8-0 design, 23-ton axle load * Class XH: 4-cylinder 2-8-2, 28-ton axle load; none were built * Class XP: experimental passenger 4-6-2, 18.5-ton axle load * Class XS: experimental 4-cylinder 4-6-2, 21.5-ton axle load * Class XT: light tank 0-4-2T, 15-ton axle load During World War II, large numbers of 2-8-2 locomotives were acquired from the United States and Canada and classified AWD and CWD. The Baldwin Locomotive Works adapted the USATC S160 Class locomotive design for India, and it became class AWC. Sixty broad-gauge locomotives were built in 1944 as part of an order of 180 S160 engines. In addition to modified frame spreaders, axles, cylinders, and cab, the Indian locomotives had a turbo generator and electric lighting (not included in the standard European design). Many parts (including boilers) were identical to those in standard-gauge locomotives.Baldwin Locomotive Works drawing index and bill of materials for special order 43306, locomotive design 2-8-0 19S, numbers 666 to 845 for the U.S. Government, War Department. Although new classes were designed shortly before the war, many did not enter service until the post-war period. The new classes were indicated by the change of broad-gauge prefix from X to W, and plans were implemented to begin manufacturing locomotives in India. The new classes were: * Class WP: passenger 4-6-2, 18.50-ton axle load * Class WG: goods 2-8-2, 18.50-ton axle load * Class WL (1st): light 4-6-2, 16.00-ton axle load (four for North Western Railway in 1939; all to Pakistan during partition of India) * Class WL (2nd): light 4-6-2, 16.75-ton axle load * Class WM: 2-6-4T, 16.25-ton axle load * Class WT: 2-8-4T, 18.00-ton axle load * Class WU: 2-4-2T, 16.50-ton axle load * Class WV: 2-6-2T, 16.25-ton axle load * Class WW: 0-6-2T, 16.50-ton axle load All broad-gauge steam locomotives in India have been withdrawn from normal service, with only occasional steam specials continuing to operate. == Metre-gauge (3 ft 3⅜ in) locomotives == === Electric === Metre- gauge electric classification codes are: * YAM – Metre gauge AC electric mixed * YCG – Metre gauge DC electric goods * YAU – Metre gauge AC electric multiple units ==== AC mixed class (YAM Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture YAM-1 Mitsubishi B-B 20 1964-66 1740 Retired 2 units Twenty 1,740 hp (1,300 kW) locomotives, imported from Japan, were in service until 2004 in the Chennai area. frameless ==== DC goods class (YCG series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture YCG-1 HL / EE Bo+Bo 4 1930 640 Retired 2 units Among India's earliest electric locomotives, the class was imported to serve the Chennai area in the early 1930s frameless ==== AC multiple units (YAU series) ==== In the Chennai area. === Diesel === Metre-gauge diesel classification code is: * YDM – Metre gauge diesel mixed ==== Mixed class (YDM Series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture YDM-1 NBL B-B 20 1955-56 700 Retired India's first metre-gauge diesel locomotive frameless YDM-2 CLW B-B 41 1986-90 700 Retired None frameless YDM-3 GM B-B 30 1961-62 1390 Retired 1 unit frameless YDM-4 ALCO/BLW Co-Co 541 1961–1993 1400 In service Many frameless YDM-5 GM C-C 25 1964 1390 Retired 2 units frameless === Steam === *Nilgiri Mountain Railway X class *BESA designs: ** Passenger (4-6-0) ** Mixed (4-6-0) ** Goods (4-8-0) ** Tank (2-6-2T) *Indian Railway Standards designs of the late 1920s **Class YA: 4-6-2 with 9-ton axle load (none built) ** Class YB: 4-6-2 with 10-ton axle load (161 built for India and 50 for Burma) ** Class YC: 4-6-2 with 12-ton axle load (15 built for India and 13 for Burma) ** Class YD: 2-8-2 with 10-ton axle load (171 built for India, 61 for Burma, and 25 for East Pakistan) ** Class YE: 2-8-2 with 12-ton axle load (none built) ** Class YF: 0-6-2 with 8-ton axle load; later examples were 2-6-2 (111 built for India) ** Class YK: 2-6-0 version of the 2-6-2 YF, 8-ton axle load (25 built for India) **Class YT: 0-4-2T with 8-ton axle load (2 built for India) *Wartime designs: ** Class MAWD: 2-8-2 USATC S118 Class ** Class MWGX: 4-6-2+2-6-4 Garratt *Indian Railway Standards post war designs ** Class YL: 2-6-2 mixed traffic locomotive with 8-ton axle load (264 built 1953–1957) ** Class YG: 2-8-2 goods locomotive with 10-ton axle load (1074 built 1949–1972) ** Class YP: 4-6-2 passenger locomotive with 10-ton axle load (871 built 1949–1970) **Class YM 2-6-4T with 9-ton axle load (12 built 1956) == Narrow- gauge (2 ft 6 in and 2 ft) locomotives == === Diesel === Narrow-gauge diesel classification codes are: * ZDM – Narrow gauge 2 ft 6 in diesel mixed * NDM – Narrow gauge 2 ft diesel mixed ==== Mixed class (ZDM series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture ZDM-1 Arn. Jung B+B 5 1955 290 Retired ZDM-2 Maschi-nenbau Kiel B-B 25 1964-65 700 Retired ZDM-3 CLW B-B 40 1970-82 700 In service ZDM-4/4A CLW 1-B-B-1 10/39 1975-77/1982-90 700 In service ZDM-5 CLW B-B 41 1989+ 450 In service ==== Mixed class (NDM series) ==== Name Manufacturer Wheel Arr Quantity Built Built year(s) Power Current Status Preserved units Comments Picture NDM-1 Arn. Jung B+B 7 1955 290 In service frameless NDM-5 CLW B-B 11 1987-89 450 In service frameless NDM-6 (SAN) Engg. and Loco Co. B 6 1997 335 In service frameless === Steam === ==== 2 ft 6 in ==== *Barsi Light Railway: **Class A: 0-8-4T **Class B: 4-8-4T **Class C: 0-6-0ST **Class D: 0-4-0 **Class E: Sentinel railcars **Class F: 2-8-2 **Class G: 4-6-4 *Indian Railway Standards: **Class ZA: 2-6-2 with 4.5-ton axle load (none built) **Class ZB: 2-6-2 with 6-ton axle load **Class ZC: 2-8-2 with 6-ton axle load (none built) ** Class ZD: 4-6-2 with 8-ton axle load (none built) **Class ZE: 2-8-2 with 8-ton axle load **Class ZF: 2-6-2T with 8-ton axle load ==== 2 ft ==== *Darjeeling Himalayan Railway: ** DHR A Class: 0-4-0WT; ** DHR B Class: 0-4-0ST; #777 and #778 preserved ** DHR C Class: 4-6-2 ** DHR D Class: 0-4-0+0-4-0 Garratt *Indian Railway Standards (none built): ** QA: 2-6-2 with 4.5-ton axle load ** QB: 2-6-2 with 6-ton axle load ** QC: 2-8-2 with 6-ton axle load === Battery === Narrow-gauge battery classification code is: * NBM – Narrow gauge 2 ft battery mixed ==== Mixed class (NBM series) ==== *NBM-1: Designed by BHEL in 1987 == See also == * List of electric locomotives of India * List of diesel locomotives of India * Rail transport in India * Indian Railways * List of locomotive builders == References == === Notes === === Bibliography === * * * * * * * * * * == External links == *Indian railway fan club Category:Indian railway-related lists
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Tonic is an American rock band, formed in 1993 by Emerson Hart and Jeff Russo. Later members have included Dan Lavery, Kevin Shepard, and Dan Rothchild. Signed to a recording contract in 1995, the band released its debut album Lemon Parade in 1996. The single "If You Could Only See" reached No. 11 on the Billboard Airplay Hot 100 in 1997, and Lemon Parade itself reached platinum status. Tonic spent much of the next two years touring, adding to its reputation as a relentlessly gigging band. In addition to extensive touring Tonic produced other work, including songs for feature film soundtracks. After self-producing its 1999 album Sugar, Tonic released its third album Head on Straight in 2002. Tonic received two Grammy nominations from Head on Straight, including one for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "Take Me As I Am", and one for Best Rock Album. The band then went on hiatus beginning in 2004 while its members pursued other musical endeavors. It wasn't until late 2008 Tonic became active again, embarking on a tour and releasing a greatest-hits compilation, all of which served as a prelude to their fourth studio album, 2010's Tonic. After the release of that album, Tonic has continued to tour and remain active, utilizing direct funding from fans to make an all-acoustic version of Lemon Parade titled Lemon Parade Revisited in 2016, and debuting their first non-album single with 2021's "To Be Loved". ==History== Tonic was founded by Emerson Hart and guitarist Jeff Russo, long- separated childhood friends who randomly crossed paths at a Los Angeles, California area pool hall in 1993. The pair quickly began collaborating on music writing, and soon added bass player Dan Rothchild, whom they met at a venue named The Kibitz Room. The final addition to the band was drummer Kevin Shepard, who was recruited at an L.A. venue named Masker's Cafe. Hart later said the original choice for the band's name was Radio Flyer, but upon learning that name was unavailable, selected Tonic instead (the band later referenced the term Radio Flyer in their song "Top Falls Down"). The newly formed group performed gigs around the Los Angeles, California area prior to signing their first professional recording contract in 1995. Earning a reputation as a "relentlessly gigging" band, Tonic played over 300 shows in less than two years during the mid-to-late 1990s. Teaming with producer Jack Joseph Puig, Tonic released their debut album Lemon Parade on July 15, 1996. Music critic Shawn M. Haney said of the album that, "The record as a whole is full of the heavy, distortion-laden Tonic sound, and guitars that make them who they are." Singles for the songs "Open Up Your Eyes" and "If You Could Only See", were released in 1996 and 1997 respectively. The single "If You Could Only See" received the honor of being Rock Radio's most played song of 1997, and Lemon Parade as an album reached platinum status. Music videos were created for the songs "Open Up Your Eyes," "If You Could Only See," and "Soldier's Daughter." The Lemon Parade album spent 57 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart, reaching a peak of No. 28 during the week of August 2, 1997. By February 2003 Lemon Parade's running total of albums sold had reached 1.3 million copies. Dan Lavery replaced Rothchild on bass in December 1996, and around this same time period drummer Shepard ceased full-time activity with the band for family and personal reasons. The year 1997 marked the band's first contribution to an original soundtrack, recording the song "Eyes of Sand" for the Scream 2 soundtrack. Continuing their work on film soundtracks into 1998, Tonic recorded the song "Flower Man" for The X-Files: The Album, and performed a cover of the song Everybody's Talkin' for the Clay Pigeons soundtrack. Tonic also performed a cover of the song "Second Hand News" for the album "Legacy: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac's Rumours." The band finished 1998 by contributing a live version of the song "Open Up Your Eyes" to the charitable album Live in the X Lounge. On March 1, 1999 the band released the now out-of-print Live and Enhanced CD, which featured an acoustic version of "If You Could Only See" and the previously unreleased music video of "Soldier's Daughter". In 2000, Tonic allowed their song "Mean To Me" from their album Sugar to be released as a single from the soundtrack album for the Warner Bros. film Gossip, which was directed by Academy Award-winning director Davis Guggenheim. The band appeared in the music video for the song, which featured clips from the film as well as actors from it, who seemingly appear to be interacting with the band via webcam as they perform the song. ===1999–2003=== The band returned to the studio to self-produce their second album. Released on November 9, 1999, the album title Sugar shared the same name as the fifth track on the recording. The creative and collaborative process spanned several geographic locations including Austin, Texas, and a mansion in New Orleans, Louisiana, where actual recording for the album was performed. "Knock Down Walls" and "You Wanted More" were charting singles released off the record, with the latter having first appeared on the soundtrack to the movie American Pie. With Shepard no longer part of the band, Peter Maloney played drums on the album, although Joey Waronker filled in for the single "You Wanted More". Music videos for the songs "You Wanted More" and "Mean to Me" were created as part of the album's promotion. Tonic appeared on the television shows Late Night with Conan O'Brien and The Martin Short Show in late 1999 as part of additional promotion. Sugar spent eight total weeks on the Billboard 200 chart, reaching a peak of No. 81 in its first week of release. A cover of the song "East Bound and Down" for the King of the Hill original television soundtrack rounded out the group's output for the year 1999. The band later contributed a performance of "Mean To Me" to the fourth installment in the charitable Live in the X Lounge album series. Tonic took a break from constant touring and recording, time which Hart used to, "...make sure the next record would be coming from fresh eyes and ears" after he moved to a new home in Nashville, Tennessee. In 2002, the band began collaborating with producer Bob Rock on their next studio recording. In contrast to the "exhausting" experience of self-producing Sugar, producer Rock's "laid-back efficiency" and Hawaii studio location provided a welcome change. The resulting studio album, Head on Straight, was released on September 1, 2002. While still billed as a three-piece band, Joey Waronker performed much of the drumming on "Head On Straight," and the band also utilized drummer Kevin Murphy for some live performances during this time period. The band also enlisted the help of Keyboardist Will Holis. Hart and Russo both also played piano and Rhodes synth respectively on the record. Head on Straight charted on the Billboard 200 for one week, where it was No. 141. In its review of the album, Rolling Stone described it by saying it was, "...less rootsy and harder-rocking than previous efforts." In March 2003 Tonic embarked on an acoustic tour, and as band member Russo said, they were hoping to, "...bring things back to a level where we remember what it's all about." === Hiatus === While Head on Straight had sold 34,000 copies by February 2003, in 2003 the band received two Grammy nominations, one for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "Take Me As I Am", and one for Best Rock Album. While the band's activity began to diminish, they participated in the annual The Rock Boat music-themed cruise, performing there in 2004 for instance. The grind of constant touring over the previous seven years had taken its toll on the band, and each member needed some space. Tonic went on hiatus beginning in 2004, all three members began working on other projects unrelated to Tonic. Hart released a solo album entitled Cigarettes and Gasoline on July 17, 2007. Russo became part of the band Low Stars, who released a self-titled CD in 2007. Lavery did song writing for projects including the feature-length movies The Passion of the Christ and Elektra, and began playing bass on tour for The Fray in March 2007. Commenting on this time period, Russo said, "It wasn’t like we broke the band up. Everyone just went to their own corner and did their own thing. We figured when it was time to get back together it will happen." ===Band reactivation=== The first verifiable account that Tonic was reuniting came in November 2008 via an announcement from band member Russo, confirming new tour dates and a forthcoming studio album. "We're [planning on] getting together to write some new material," Russo said. "Over the last 6 months or so we've been talking about it. We've been doing different things for the last 6 years, and we all decided that we missed rocking." Officially active again, Tonic had already played their first show together in many years on September 16, 2008 at a venue in Antioch, Illinois. As part of the band's 2009 tour, a greatest hits compilation titled A Casual Affair: The Best of Tonic was released. The album featured live versions of the songs "Irish" and "Sugar" in addition to an acoustic version of "You Wanted More." November 2009 marked the band's inclusion in the video game Band Hero, as the track "If You Could Only See" was a playable song in the game. After the year 2010 began, Tonic announced that their self-titled fourth studio album, Tonic, would be released on May 4, 2010. The album was primarily recorded over the span of a month during fall 2009 at Conway Studios in Hollywood. Pete Maloney also continued his longtime association with the band by playing drums on the album. The album was jointly produced by Tonic and Nathaniel Kunkel, with the song "Release Me" chosen as the first single from the album. A promotional behind the scenes tour of Conway Studios hosted by Emerson Hart was made available on Amazon.com's Tonic store and YouTube at the time. In an official press release for the album, bandmember Hart said about Tonic that, "When we play music together it feels like going home. Getting together, playing some rock-n-roll, it's the best feeling in the world." The self-titled album spent one week on the Billboard 200 chart, where it ranked 150. Tonic continued to tour in conjunction with the release of their self-titled album into late 2011. ===2011 and beyond=== Tonic continued to actively tour into 2011. As 2012 began, the band made official announcements via their Twitter feed that writing and recording on new songs had begun. The band continued periodically playing shows throughout the course of 2012, with mention of some vocals for new songs being recorded on July 21. In June 2012, Tonic partnered with Hard Rock International to become "Artist Ambassadors," traveling to Haiti to raise awareness of hunger issues still affecting many residents of the country. Hart provided an update to the band's studio recording work in December 2012, saying the band was debating whether to release their upcoming studio recordings as either an EP or a full studio album. As the band continued to tour periodically into the start of the year 2014, Hart announced he was releasing a new solo album, and Russo began scoring the television series Fargo and various other film, TV and video game projects. In March 2016, Tonic announced that in celebration of Lemon Parade's 20th anniversary, they would utilize direct funding from fans via the PledgeMusic website to record and release an all-acoustic version of that album. This funding platform method allows purchasers to pre-order the album in various formats, including marking the first time any Tonic album has been commercially available as a vinyl record. Other incentives and items offered by the band included handwritten lyric pages for the purchaser's choice of one track from the album, access to exclusive video and content updates showing the behind-the-scenes creative process, and even an offer to purchase a private concert by the band. By 2021, the band was still periodically active while each member continued to find success individually, such as Russo's 2017 Emmy win for Outstanding Music Composition for a Limited Series, Movie, or Special (Original Dramatic Score) for his continued work scoring Fargo, and Hart releasing his 2019 solo album, 32 Thousand Days. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the band worked together to record new music. As the music industry continued to evolve, it had become increasingly common for artists to periodically release stand-alone digital music singles, especially on popular music streaming services such as Spotify and Amazon Music. To this end, Tonic released their first non-album single on February 12, 2021 with a track titled "To Be Loved", followed shortly after by the release of their first music video in nearly 20 years with the debut of the official lyric video for the track. This was followed shortly thereafter by the release of "If You Could Only See (25th Anniversary) as another single, consisting of a new recording of the band's single from Lemon Parade. ==Current members== *Emerson Hart - lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1993–2004, 2008–present) *Jeff Russo - lead guitar, backing vocals (1993–2004, 2008–present) *Dan Lavery - bass, backing vocals (1996–2004, 2008–present) ===Touring members=== *Pete Maloney - drums *Miles McPherson - drums *Ian O'neill - drums *Kasey Todd - drums *Jace Everett - bass *Rich Scannella - drums ===Former members=== *Dan Rothchild - bass, backing vocals (1993–1996) *Kevin Shepard - drums (1993–1996) ==Discography== ;Studio albums * Lemon Parade (1996) * Sugar (1999) * Head on Straight (2002) * Tonic (2010) * Lemon Parade Revisited (2016) ==References== ==External links== * * Category:429 Records artists Category:A&M; Records artists Category:Alternative rock groups from California Category:American post-grunge musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 1993 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2004 Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2008 Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles Category:Polydor Records artists Category:Universal Records artists
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Career finals Discipline Type Won Lost Total Singles Grand Slam – – – – ATP Finals – – – – Olympic Games – – – – ATP Masters 1000 – – – – ATP Tour 500 – - ATP Tour 250 4 7 11 0.36 Total 4 7 11 0.36 Doubles Grand Slam – – – – ATP Finals – – – – Olympic Games – – – – ATP Masters 1000 – 1 – – ATP Tour 500 – – – – ATP Tour 250 – – – – Total – 1 – – Total 4 8 12 0.33 João Sousa is the highest-ranked Portuguese tennis player by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) as of February 2022. He competes on the ATP Tour, where he has won four singles titles from a total of eleven finals. A professional player since 2005, Sousa peaked at number 61 in the world junior ranking in 2007, shortly after entering the main draw of the Orange Bowl. In June 2009, he won his first singles tournament, a Futures in Spain. Sousa started playing in the ATP Challenger Tour in 2008, winning his first tournament at this level in June 2011. Sousa debuted in the World Tour in 2008, playing that year's Estoril Open as a qualifier, and won his first top-tier ATP singles title in September 2013, at the Malaysian Open. He has participated in all four Grand Slams, having three third-round appearances at the US Open (2013) and Australian Open (2015 and 2016) as his best performances. While focusing on his singles career, Sousa has also competed in doubles; his best record is the quarterfinals of the 2015 US Open. Sousa holds several Portuguese men's tennis records. In October 2013, he became the first player to break into the ATP singles ranking top 50, and in 2015, he secured a year-end top-50 ranking (no. 33) for the second time in his career, with 38 wins. In 2014, Sousa was the first Portuguese to play exclusively on the ATP World Tour in a single season, and the first to be seeded in a Grand Slam main draw (2014 US Open). He was the fourth Portuguese player to reach the singles top 100, and the second to do it in both singles and doubles rankings (after Nuno Marques). Sousa is also the Portuguese tennis player with the largest career prize money ever and most wins at Grand Slam singles tournaments. ==Performance timelines== ===Singles=== Current through the 2022 Miami Open. Tournament 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 SR W–L Win% Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A A Q1 Q3 2R 1R 3R 3R 1R 2R 3R 1R A 1R 0 / 9 8–9 French Open A A A A 1R 2R 1R 2R 2R 2R 1R 1R 1R 1R 2R 0 / 11 5–11 Wimbledon A A A Q1 Q2 Q3 1R 1R 3R 1R 1R 4R NH 1R 1R 0 / 8 5–8 US Open A A A Q2 Q1 3R 2R 1R 3R 1R 4R 1R 1R Q1 2R 0 / 9 9–9 Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–1 4–3 1–4 3–4 7–4 1–4 4–4 5–4 0–3 0–2 2–4 0 / 37 27–37 National representation Summer Olympics A NH NH NH A NH NH NH 2R NH NH NH NH 1R 0 / 2 1–2 Davis Cup Z2 Z2 Z2 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2 Z1 Z1 Z1 QR QR WG1 0 / 13 27–16 ATP Masters 1000 Indian Wells Masters A A A A A Q1 2R 1R 2R 2R 3R 1R NH 1R 1R 0 / 8 4–8 Miami Masters A A A A A 1R 3R 1R 3R 2R 4R 3R NH 2R Q1 0 / 8 9–8 Monte-Carlo Masters A A A A A A 1R 2R 2R 2R A 1R NH Q2 Q1 0 / 5 3–5 Madrid Open A A A A A Q1 1R 2R QF 1R A 1R NH A Q1 0 / 5 4–5 Italian Open A A A A A A 1R 1R 2R 1R Q2 2R 1R A Q2 0 / 6 2–6 Canadian Open A A A A A A 1R 1R 1R A 1R A NH A Q1 0 / 4 0–4 Cincinnati Masters A A A A A Q2 2R 2R 1R 2R 1R 1R Q1 A A 0 / 6 3–6 Shanghai Masters A A A A A A 1R 1R 1R 1R Q2 2R NH 0 / 5 1–5 Paris Masters A A A A A Q1 1R A 2R 2R 2R A A A Q1 0 / 4 3–4 Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–1 4–9 3–8 7–9 4–8 6–5 4–7 0–1 1–2 0–1 0 / 51 29–51 Career statistics 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Career Tournaments 1 0 0 1 4 14 34 31 33 30 27 28 9 12 4 Career total: 228 Career total: 228 Career total: 228 Titles 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Career total: 4 Career total: 4 Career total: 4 Finals 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 4 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 Career total: 11 Career total: 11 Career total: 11 Hard win–loss 0–1 1–0 0–0 0–1 2–1 13–10 13–20 19–17 13–21 10–14 18–18 12–15 1–6 2–4 5–3 3 / 122 109–131 Clay win–loss 2–1 1–0 1–1 2–1 3–4 3–4 7–13 17–10 12–10 15–15 9–6 10–12 0–3 0–9 1–0 1 / 87 83–89 Grass win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 4–3 2–4 2–3 0–3 2–3 4–4 0–0 0–1 0–0 0 / 21 14–21 Overall win–loss 2–2 2–0 1–1 2–2 5–5 16–14 24–36 38–31 27–34 25–32 29–27 26–31 1–9 2–14 6–3 4 / 228 206–241 Win (%) Career total: Career total: Career total: Year-end ranking 592 443 244 192 101 49 54 33 43 57 44 60 90 137 82 $7,340,832 $7,340,832 $7,340,832 ===Doubles=== Tournament 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 SR W–L Win% Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open A A A A A A 1R 2R 1R 1R 2R SF 1R A A 0 / 7 6–7 French Open A A A A A A 3R 1R 2R 1R 3R 1R 1R A 1R 0 / 8 5–8 Wimbledon A A A A A Q1 1R 1R 1R 1R 3R 2R NH A 2R 0 / 7 4–7 US Open A A A A A A 2R QF 1R 1R 2R QF A A QF 0 / 7 11–7 Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 3–4 4–4 1–4 0–4 6–4 8–4 0–2 0–0 4–3 0 / 29 26–29 ATP Masters 1000 Indian Wells Masters A A A A A A A A 2R 1R A A NH A 0 / 2 1–2 33% Miami Masters A A A A A A A A 1R 2R A 2R NH A 0 / 3 2–3 40% Monte-Carlo Masters A A A A A A A A A A A QF NH A 0 / 1 2–1 67% Madrid Open A A A A A A A A A A A SF NH A 0 / 1 3–1 75% Italian Open A A A A A A A A 2R 2R F 1R A A 0 / 4 5–4 56% Canadian Open A A A A A A A A 1R A 2R A NH A 0 / 2 1–2 33% Cincinnati Masters A A A A A A A A A A 1R 1R A A 0 / 2 0–2 0% Shanghai Masters A A A A A A A A 1R A A 1R NH 0 / 2 0–2 0% Paris Masters A A A A A A A A 2R A A A A A 0 / 1 1–1 50% Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 3–6 1–2 4–3 6–6 0–0 0–0 0–0 0 / 18 15–18 48% National representation Summer Olympics A NH NH NH NH NH NH 2R NH NH NH NH 1R 0 / 2 1–2 % Davis Cup Z2 Z2 Z2 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2 Z1 Z1 Z1 QR QR WG1 0 / 13 11–10 Career statistics 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Career Tournaments 0 1 0 1 1 1 19 11 20 17 15 21 3 9 0 Career total: 119 Titles 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Career total: 0 Finals 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Career total: 1 Hard win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–2 1–0 8–11 5–6 5–14 1–6 6–10 12–7 1–2 0–3 0–0 0 / 52 39–61 Clay win–loss 0–0 0–1 0–0 0–1 0–1 1–1 7–8 4–4 4–4 3–10 12–5 9–11 0–1 7–5 0–0 0 / 53 47–52 Grass win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–2 0–1 1–3 1–2 3–2 1–3 0–0 0–1 0–0 0 / 14 6–14 Overall win–loss 0–0 0–1 0–0 0–1 0–3 2–1 15–21 9–11 10–21 5–18 21–17 22–21 1–3 7–9 0–0 0 / 119 92–127 Win (%) – 0% – 0% 0% 67% 42% 45% 32% 22% 55% 51% 25% Career total: Year-end ranking 607 706 281 403 299 633 80 138 133 236 45 37 75 141 145 ==Significant finals== ===Masters 1000 finals=== ====Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)==== Result Year Tournament Surface Partner Opponents Score Loss 2018 Italian Open Clay Pablo Carreño Busta Juan Sebastián Cabal Robert Farah 6–3, 4–6, [4–10] ==ATP Career finals== ===Singles: 12 (4 titles, 8 runners-up)=== {| class=wikitable style=font-size:90% Legend Grand Slam (0-0) ATP Masters 1000 (0-0) ATP 500 series (0-0) ATP 250 series (4–8) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score Win 1–0 Sep 2013 Malaysian Open, Malaysia 250 series Hard (i) Julien Benneteau 2–6, 7–5, 6–4 Loss 1–1 Jul 2014 Swedish Open, Sweden 250 series Clay Pablo Cuevas 2–6, 1–6 Loss 1–2 Sep 2014 Open de Moselle, France 250 series Hard (i) David Goffin 4–6, 3–6 Loss 1–3 May 2015 Geneva Open, Switzerland 250 series Clay Thomaz Bellucci 6–7(4–7), 4–6 Loss 1–4 Jul 2015 Croatia Open Umag, Croatia 250 series Clay Dominic Thiem 4–6, 1–6 Loss 1–5 Sep 2015 St. Petersburg Open, Russia 250 series Hard (i) Milos Raonic 3–6, 6–3, 3–6 Win 2–5 Nov 2015 Valencia Open, Spain 250 series Hard (i) Roberto Bautista Agut 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 Loss 2–6 Jan 2017 ASB Classic, New Zealand 250 series Hard Jack Sock 3–6, 7–5, 3–6 Loss 2–7 Aug 2017 Austrian Open Kitzbühel, Austria 250 series Clay Philipp Kohlschreiber 3–6, 4–6 Win 3–7 May 2018 Estoril Open, Portugal 250 series Clay Frances Tiafoe 6–4, 6–4 Win 4–7 Feb 2022 Maharashtra Open, India 250 series Hard Emil Ruusuvuori 7–6(11–9), 4–6, 6–1 Loss 4–8 May 2022 Geneva Open, Switzerland 250 series Clay Casper Ruud 6–7(3–7), 6–4, 6–7(1–7) ===Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)=== {|class="wikitable" style=font-size:90% Legend Grand Slam (0-0) ATP Masters 1000 (0–1) ATP 500 Series (0-0) ATP 250 Series (0-0) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Partner Opponents Score Loss 0–1 Italian Open, Italy Masters 1000 Clay Pablo Carreño Busta Juan Sebastián Cabal Robert Farah 6–3, 4–6, [4–10] ==ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals== ===Singles: 20 (12–8)=== {|class=wikitable style=font-size:90% Legend ATP Challenger (5–4) ITF Futures (7–4) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score Loss 0–1 Spain F18, Gran Canaria Futures Clay Sergio Gutierrez- Ferrol 6–1, 1–6, 5–7 Win 1–1 Spain F21, Puerto de la Cruz Futures Carpet Andrea Falgheri 6–7(2–7), 7–5, 6–3 Loss 1–2 France F12, Saint-Gervais Futures Clay Adrian Menendez-Maceiras 6–1, 4–6, 5–7 Loss 1–3 Spain F37, Vilafranca Futures Clay Pedro Clar 1–6, 3–6 Win 2–3 Spain F17, Valldoreix Futures Clay Ivan Nedelko 6–0, 6–3 Win 3–3 Spain F18, Adeje Futures Hard David Thurner 7–5, 6–4 Win 4–3 Spain F19, Lanzarote Futures Hard Michael Lammer 7–5, 6–4 Loss 4–4 Spain F35, Martos Futures Hard Adrian Menendez-Maceiras 5–7, 6–7(6–8) Win 5–4 Spain F14, Balaguer Futures Clay Taro Daniel 6–3, 6–1 Win 6–4 Spain F15, Lleida Futures Clay Roberto Carballes Baena 6–3, 6–3 Win 7–4 Furth, Germany Challenger Clay Jan-Lennard Struff 6–2, 0–6, 6–2 Win 8–4 Spain F38, Sabadell Futures Clay Marcel Zimmermann 3–6, 7–6(7–4), 6–4 Win 9–4 Mersin, Turkey Challenger Clay Javier Martí 6–4, 0–6, 6–4 Win 10–4 Tampere, Finland Challenger Clay Eric Prodon 7–6(7–5), 6–4 Loss 10–5 Como, Italy Challenger Clay Andreas Haider-Maurer 3–6, 4–6 Win 11–5 Furth, Germany Challenger Clay Wayne Odesnik 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 Loss 11–6 San Benedetto, Italy Challenger Clay Andrej Martin 4–6, 3–6 Win 12–6 Guimarães, Portugal Challenger Hard Marius Copil 6–3, 6–0 Loss 12–7 Brest, France Challenger Hard (i) Brandon Nakashima 3–6, 3–6 Loss 12–8 Helsinki, Finland Challenger Hard (i) Alex Molčan 3–6, 2–6 ===Doubles: 14 (11–3)=== {|class=wikitable style=font-size:90% Legend ATP Challenger (2–1) ITF Futures (9–2) Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Partner Opponents Score Win 1–0 Spain F4, Murcia Futures Clay Bartolome Salva- Vidal Alexandros Jakupovic Carlos Poch-Gradin 6–7(5–7), 6–1, [10–2] Loss 1–1 Spain F20, Valldoreix Futures Clay Frederico Marques Pedro Clar Carlos Poch-Gradin 1–6, 2–6 Win 2–1 Spain F30, Bakio Futures Hard Georgi Rumenov Payakov A. Boje-Ordonez A. Vivanco-Guzman 7–6(8–6), 6–4 Win 3–1 Spain F28, Irun Futures Clay Georgi Rumenov Payakov Gonçalo Falcão Saar Steele 6–2, 6–3 Win 4–1 Portugal F5, Espinho Futures Clay Gonçalo Falcão Jordi Marse-Vidri Allen Perel 7–5, 6–3 Win 5–1 Spain F18, Adeje Futures Hard Georgi Rumenov Payakov A. Boje-Ordonez M. Palacios-Siegenthale 6–1, 6–4 Win 6–1 Spain F19, Lanzarote Futures Hard Georgi Rumenov Payakov Michael Lammer Ludovic Walter 7–6(7–4), 6–0 Win 7–1 Spain F20, Puerto de la Cruz Futures Carpet Georgi Rumenov Payakov Carlos Gomez-Herrera Roberto Ortega-Olmedo 7–6(7–2), 6–2 Win 8–1 Tampere, Finland Challenger Clay Leonardo Tavares Andis Juška Deniss Pavlovs 7–6(7–3), 7–5 Win 9–1 Spain F36, Cordoba Futures Hard Israel Vior-Diaz Enrique Lopez-Perez Ivan Arenas-Gualda 7–6(8–6), 4–6, [10–3] Loss 9–2 Spain F36, Cordoba Futures Hard Gerard Granollers-Pujol M-A Lopez Jaen Gabriel Trujillo-Soler 4–6, 4–6 Win 10–2 Spain F38, Sabadell Futures Clay Steven Diez M-A Lopez Jaen Gabriel Trujillo-Soler 6–3, 3–6, [10–7] Win 11–2 Furth, Germany Challenger Clay Arnau Brugués-Davi Rameez Junaid Purav Raja 7–5, 6–7(4–7), [11–9] Loss 11–3 San Benedetto, Italy Challenger Clay Alessandro Giannessi Pierre-Hugues Herbert Maxime Teixeira 4–6, 3–6 ==Grand Slam singles seedings== Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open 2012 absent unseeded absent absent 2013 unseeded unseeded absent unseeded 2014 unseeded unseeded unseeded 32nd 2015 unseeded unseeded unseeded unseeded 2016 32nd 26th 31st unseeded 2017 unseeded unseeded unseeded unseeded 2018 unseeded unseeded unseeded unseeded 2019 unseeded unseeded unseeded unseeded 2020 unseeded unseeded not held unseeded 2021 absent unseeded unseeded absent ==Head-to-head against top 10 players== This section contains Sousa's win-loss record against players who have been ranked 10th or higher in the world rankings during their careers. Opponent Won Lost Win % Last match Number 1 ranked players Daniil Medvedev 3 1 2 % Lost (1–6, 1–6) at the 2019 Monte-Carlo Masters Lleyton Hewitt 1 0 1 % Lost (1–6, 6–7(3–7)) at the 2013 Miami Masters Roger Federer 2 0 2 % Lost (4–6, 3–6) at the 2019 Rome Masters Rafael Nadal 3 0 3 % Lost (2–6, 2–6, 2–6) at the 2019 Wimbledon Championships Novak Djokovic 6 0 6 % Lost (5–7, 1–6) at the 2018 Paris Masters Andy Murray 7 0 7 % Lost (2–6, 6–3, 2–6, 2–6) at the 2016 Australian Open Number 2 ranked players Alexander Zverev 2 1 1 % Won (7–5, 5–7, 6–4) at the 2018 Indian Wells Masters Casper Ruud 3 0 3 % Lost (6–7(3–7), 6–4, 6–7(1–7)) at 2022 Geneva Number 3 ranked players Stefanos Tsitsipas 1 1 0 % Won (6–4, 1–6, 7–6(7–4)) at the 2018 Estoril Open Grigor Dimitrov 3 1 2 % Lost (4–6, 1–6, 6–3, 2–6) at the 2016 US Open David Ferrer 3 1 2 % Lost (2–6, 2–6) at the 2018 Auckland Open Marin Čilić 5 1 4 % Won (6–4, 6–4, 6–4) at the 2019 Wimbledon Championships Dominic Thiem 8 1 7 % Lost (2–6, 0–6) at the 2022 Gijón Open Juan Martín del Potro 3 0 3 % Lost (2–6, 2–6) at the 2017 Paris Masters Stan Wawrinka 4 0 4 % Lost (6–7(1–7), 2–6) at the 2022 Metz Milos Raonic 4 0 4 % Lost (5–7, 6–4, 2–6) at the 2018 Indian Wells Masters Number 4 ranked players Kei Nishikori 4 1 3 % Lost (7–6(7–5), 3–6, 2–6) at the 2021 Indian Wells Masters Tomáš Berdych 3 0 3 % Lost (3–6, 6–3, 5–7) at the 2016 Paris Masters Number 5 ranked players Kevin Anderson 2 1 1 % Won (4–6, 6–7(6–8)) at the 2019 Miami Masters Andrey Rublev 2 1 1 % Lost (0–6, 4–6) at the 2018 Beijing Open Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 1 0 1 % Lost (6–7(1–7), 2–6) at the 2017 St. Petersburg Open Number 6 ranked players Gilles Simon 3 1 2 % Lost (4–6, 1–6) at the 2015 Nottingham Open Gaël Monfils 5 1 4 % Lost (2–6, 3–6) at the 2020 Rotterdam Open Number 7 ranked players Richard Gasquet 2 1 1 % Lost (6–7(7–9), 2–6, 6–4, 6–4, 3–6) at 2022 Wimbledon David Goffin 6 1 5 % Lost (3–6, 2–6) at the 2019 Estoril Open Number 8 ranked players Mikhail Youzhny 2 2 0 % Won (4–6, 6–4, 7–6(10–8)) at the 2018 Indian Wells Masters Janko Tipsarević 1 1 0 % Won (4–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–2, 6–2) at the 2017 French Open Marcos Baghdatis 1 1 0 % Won (6–1, 7–5) at the 2017 Auckland Open Felix Auger-Aliassime 1 1 0 % Won (6–4, 6–7(5–7), 6–4) at 2019 Chengdu Diego Schwartzman 1 1 0 % Won (4–6, 6–3, 6–4) at the 2018 Indian Wells Masters Jürgen Melzer 4 3 1 % Won (6–4, 6–4) at the 2015 Geneva Open Karen Khachanov 2 1 1 % Won (7–6(7–6), 6–4) at the 2019 St. Petersburg Open Jack Sock 2 1 1 % Lost (3–6, 7–5, 3–6) at the 2017 Auckland Open John Isner 1 0 1 % Lost (5–7, 3–6) at the 2015 Rome Masters Cameron Norrie 3 0 3 % Lost (4–6, 4–6, 6–7(4–7)) at the 2022 US Open Number 9 ranked players Roberto Bautista Agut 5 3 3 % Won (4–6, 6–3, 7–5 ) at the 2019 Swiss Open Hubert Hurkacz 2 1 1 % Lost (3–6, 5–7) at 2020 Kitzbühel Fabio Fognini 6 1 5 % Lost (4–6, 4–6) at the 2017 Madrid Masters Jannik Sinner 1 0 1 % Lost (4–6, 5–7, 1–6) at the 2022 Australian Open Nicolás Almagro 1 0 1 % Lost (6–4, 1–6, 2–6) at the 2016 Estoril Open Number 10 ranked players Lucas Pouille 1 1 0 % Won (7–6(7–5), 4–6, 7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–5)) at the 2018 US Open Pablo Carreño Busta 4 2 2 % Lost (3–6, 1–6, 2–6) at the 2019 French Open Denis Shapovalov 2 1 1 % Lost (6–2, 3–6, 2–6) at the 2019 Cincinnati Masters Juan Mónaco 1 0 1 % Lost (2–6, 6–7(4–7)) at the 2014 Shanghai Masters Ernests Gulbis 3 0 3 % Lost (2–6, 5–7, 3–6) at the 2016 French Open Total 131 34 97 Statistics correct as of 11 October 2022 ==Wins over top 10 players== ===Singles=== *Sousa has a record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10. Type 2013 ... 2016 2017 2018 2019 Total Wins 1 1 0 2 1 5 # Player Rank Event Surface Score 2013 1\. David Ferrer 4 Malaysian Open, Malaysia Hard QF 6–2, 7–6(8–6) 77 2016 2\. Kei Nishikori 5 Japan Open, Japan Hard 2R 3–4 ret. 34 2018 3\. Alexander Zverev 5 Indian Wells Masters, United States Hard 2R 7–5, 5–7, 6–4 85 4\. David Goffin 9 Miami Open, United States Hard 2R 6–0, 6–1 80 2019 5\. Karen Khachanov 9 St. Petersburg Open, Russia Hard (i) 2R 7–6(7–2), 6–4 64 ===Doubles=== *Sousa has a record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10. Type 2014 ... 2018 2019 Total Wins 2 1 1 4 # Partner Opponent Rank Event Surface Score 2014 1\. Lukáš Rosol Bob Bryan Mike Bryan 1 1 Sydney International, Australia Hard QF 3–6, 6–3, [14–12] 633 2\. Leonardo Mayer Alexander Peya Bruno Soares 5 5 Valencia Open, Spain Hard 1R 3–6, 6–1, [10–7] 97 2018 3\. Leonardo Mayer Oliver Marach Mate Pavić 2 3 US Open, New York, US Hard 1R 3–6, 7–6(7–5), 7–5 54 2019 4\. Guido Pella Łukasz Kubot Marcelo Melo 4 7 Madrid Open, Madrid, Spain Clay QF 6–2, 6–2 29 ==Career earnings== Year Major titles ATP titles Total titles Earnings 2007 0 0 0 $3,610 2008 0 0 0 $16,613 2009 0 0 0 $13,010 2010 0 0 0 $28,768 2011 0 0 0 $56,847 2012 0 0 0 $128,391 2013 0 1 1 $496,684 2014 0 0 0 $771,828 2015 0 1 1 $919,929 2016 0 0 0 $1,084,466 2017 0 0 0 $776,600 2018 0 1 1 $1,233,369 2019 0 0 0 $191,550 2020 0 0 0 $307,454 2021 0 0 0 $255,169 Career 0 3 3 $7,340,832 ==National participation== ===Davis Cup (37 wins, 26 losses)=== Sousa debuted for the Portugal Davis Cup team in the 2008 season and has played 52 matches in 25 ties. His singles record is 23–12 and his doubles record is 8–9 (31–21 overall). {|class=wikitable Group membership World Group (0–0) WG Play-off (1–5) Group I (21–17) Group II (15–4) Group III (0–0) Group IV (0–0) * indicates the result of the Davis Cup match followed by the score, date, place of event, the zonal classification and its phase, and the court surface. Rubber result Rubber Match type (partner if any) Opponent nation Opponent player(s) Score 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 18–20 July 2008; Lawn Tennis Club da Foz, Porto, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface Victory IV Singles (dead rubber) Cyprus Eleftherios Christou 6–3, 6–3 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface 0–5; 19–21 September 2008; Megaron Tennis Club, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard (i) surface Defeat V Singles (dead rubber) Ukraine Illya Marchenko 3–6, 3–6 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 March 2009; National Tennis Centre, Nicosia, Cyprus; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard surface Victory V Singles (dead rubber) Cyprus Philippos Tsangaridis 6–3, 6–1 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface 5–0; 10–12 July 2009; Office des parc Omnisport Wilaya d'Oran, Oran, Algeria; Group II Europe/Africa relegation play-off; clay surface Victory V Singles (dead rubber) Algeria Sid-Ali Akkal 6–3, 6–0 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 5–0; 9–11 July 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface Victory IV Singles (dead rubber) Cyprus Eleftherios Christou 6–1, 6–0 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 17–19 September 2010; Centro de Tenis do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface Defeat V Singles (dead rubber) Bosnia and Herzegovina Damir Džumhur 6–4, 4–6, 1–6 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface 4–1; 4–6 March 2011; Centro Desportivo Nacional do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay surface Victory V Singles (dead rubber) Slovakia Martin Kližan 6–2, 4–1, ret 0–5; 8–10 July 2011; PostFinance-Arena, Bern, Switzerland; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard(i) surface Defeat IV Singles (dead rubber) Switzerland Marco Chiudinelli 3–6, 4–6 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface 2–3; 6–8 April 2012; Canada Stadium, Ramat HaSharon, Israel; Group I Europe/Africa quarterfinal; hard surface Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Israel Andy Ram / Jonathan Erlich 4–6, 4–6, 3–6 Victory IV Singles (dead rubber) Israel Andy Ram 7–5, 6–0 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–3; 14–16 September 2012; Aegon Arena, Bratislava, Slovakia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface Victory II Singles Slovakia Lukáš Lacko 6–4, 6–4, 6–3 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Slovakia Michal Mertiňák / Filip Polášek 5–7, 6–4, 6–7(5–7), 3–6 Defeat IV Singles Slovakia Martin Kližan 2–6, 5–7, 7–6(11–9), 1–6 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 1–3 February 2013; Club Internacional de Football, Lisbon, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface Victory I Singles Benin Loic Didavi 6–1, 6–3, 6–0 Victory III Doubles (with Pedro Sousa) Benin Alexis Klegou / Loic Didavi 6–2, 6–1, 6–1 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface 3–2; 13–15 September 2013; Manejul de Atletica Usoara, Chișinău, Moldova; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; hard(i) surface Victory II Singles Moldova Maxim Dubarenco 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–4), 6–1, 6–4 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Moldova Andrei Ciumac / Roman Borvanov 6–3, 6–4, 6–3 Defeat IV Singles Moldova Radu Albot 6–3, 6–3, 3–6, 4–6, 9–11 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 2–3; 31 January – 2 February 2014; Teniski klub Triglav Kranj, Kranj, Slovenia; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface Victory I Singles Slovenia Janež Semrajč 6–1, 6–4, 4–6, 6–0 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Slovenia Blaž Kavčič / Grega Žemlja 3–6, 5–7, 6–7(5–7) Defeat IV Singles Slovenia Blaž Kavčič 5–7, 5–7, 2–6 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play- off; hard(i) surface 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface 1–4; 12–14 September 2014; Olympic Stadium, Moscow, Russia; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard(i) surface Defeat II Singles Russia Evgeny Donskoy 6–7(7–9), 4–6, 6–3, 1–6 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Russia Konstantin Kravchuk / Andrey Rublev 3–6, 4–6, 4–6 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 4–1; 6–8 March 2015; Centro Desportivo do Jamor, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface Victory I Singles Morocco Yassine Idmbarek 6–0, 6–0, 6–2 Victory III Doubles (with Frederico Ferreira Silva) Morocco Lamine Ouahab / Younès Rachidi 7–6(8–6), 6–0, 6–1 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface 4–1; 17–19 July 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa quarterfinal; clay surface Victory I Singles Finland Henrik Sillanpää 6–0, 6–2, 6–0 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Finland Henri Kontinen / Jarkko Nieminen 3–6, 7–6(7–5), 6–3, 6–4 Victory IV Singles Finland Jarkko Nieminen 6–3, 6–3, 6–4 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface 3–2; 18–20 September 2015; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group II Europe/Africa semifinal; clay surface Defeat I Singles Belarus Egor Gerasimov 6–0, 6–1, 2–6, 2–6, 4–6 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Belarus Sergey Betov / Max Mirnyi 7–6(7–3), 4–6, 6–3, 6–7(5–7), 6–3 Victory IV Singles Belarus Uladzimir Ignatik 6–1, 6–1, 6–4 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface 1–4; 4–6 March 2016; Pavilhão Vitória Sport Clube, Guimarães, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; hard(i) surface Victory I Singles Austria Gerald Melzer 6–1, 7–5, 6–2 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Austria Alexander Peya / Dominic Thiem 7–6(8–6), 7–6(7–4), 1–6, 3–6, 4–6 Defeat IV Singles Austria Dominic Thiem 2–6, 4–6, 2–6 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface 5–0; 16–18 September 2016; Clube de Ténis de Viana, Viana do Castelo, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round playoffs; clay surface Victory I Singles Slovenia Tom Kočevar-Desman 6–7(5–7), 7–6(7–3), 6–2, 6–1 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Slovenia Tom Kočevar-Desman / Grega Žemlja 6–4, 6–4, 6–4 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface 5–0; 3–5 February 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa first round; clay(i) surface Victory I Singles Israel Yishai Oliel 6–1, 6–1, 6–2 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Israel Jonathan Erlich / Dudi Sela 7–5, 6–7(4–7), 4–6, 6–2, 6–4 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot- ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface 4–1; 7–9 April 2017; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa second round; clay(i) surface Victory II Singles Ukraine Nikita Mashtakov 6–0, 6–3, 6–0 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Ukraine Denys Molchanov / Artem Smirnov 7–5, 1–6, 3–6, 4–6 Victory IV Singles Ukraine Artem Smirnov 7–6(7–3), 7–6(7–2), 6–2 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play- off; clay surface 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play-off; clay surface 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play-off; clay surface 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play-off; clay surface 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play-off; clay surface 2–3; 15–17 September 2017; Clube de Ténis do Jamor, Oeiras, Portugal; World Group play-off; clay surface Defeat I Singles Germany Cedrik-Marcel Stebe 6–4, 3–6, 3–6, 0–6 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Germany Tim Pütz / Jan-Lennard Struff 2–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–5), 4–6, 4–6 Defeat IV Singles Germany Jan-Lennard Struff 0–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–3, 6–7(6–8), 4–6 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface 2–3; 6–7 April 2018; Kungliga tennishallen, Stockholm, Sweden; Group I Europe/Africa second round; hard (i) surface Victory I Singles Sweden Mikael Ymer 6–4, 6–4 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Sweden Markus Eriksson / Robert Lindstedt 6–7(6–8), 2–6 Victory IV Singles Sweden Elias Ymer 6–4, 6–4 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface 1–3; 14–15 September 2018; Campa Tennis Club, Bucha, Ukraine; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off first round; hard surface Victory I Singles Ukraine Illya Marchenko 4–6, 6–2, 6–3 Defeat III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Ukraine Denys Molchanov / Sergiy Stakhovsky 4–6, 6–3, 6–7(5–7) Defeat IV Singles Ukraine Sergiy Stakhovsky 2–6, 6–4, 4–6 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface 4–0; 19–20 October 2018; Club Internacional de Foot-ball, Lisbon, Portugal; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off second round; clay surface Victory II Singles South Africa Nicolaas Scholtz 6–3, 6–2 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) South Africa Raven Klaasen / Ruan Roelofse 6–4, 6–7(4–7), 6–2 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface 1–3; 1–2 February 2019; Daulet National Tennis Centre, Astana, Kazakhstan; qualifying round; hard (i) surface Defeat I Singles Kazakhstan Alexander Bublik 7–6(7–1), 4–6, 4–6 Victory III Doubles (with Gastão Elias) Timur Khabibulin / Aleksandr Nedovyesov 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 Defeat IV Singles Mikhail Kukushkin 4–6, 1–6 2–3; 13–14 September 2019; Republic Olympic Tennis Center, Minsk, Belarus; Group I Europe/Africa relegation play-off; hard (i) surface Victory I Singles Belarus Ilya Ivashka 4–6, 6–1, 6–2 Victory III Doubles (with Pedro Sousa) Ilya Ivashka / Andrei Vasilevski 6–3, 7–6(8–6) Defeat IV Singles Egor Gerasimov 6–7(3–7), 4–6 4–0; 6–7 March 2020; Šiauliai Tennis Academy, Šiauliai, Lithuania; World Group I play-off; hard (i) surface Victory II Singles Lithuania Julius Tverijonas 6–1, 6–3 Victory III Doubles (with Pedro Sousa) Laurynas Grigelis / Lukas Mugevičius 6–3, 6–1 1–3; 18–19 September 2021; Horia Demian Sports Hall, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; World Group I; hard (i) surface Victory I Singles Romania Filip Jianu 6–3, 7–5 Defeat III Doubles (with Nuno Borges) Marius Copil / Horia Tecău 4–6, 3–6 Defeat IV Singles Marius Copil 3–6, 6–2, 4–6 == Notes == ==References== ;General sources Information about career finals and earnings, Grand Slam seedings, singles and doubles performance timelines, head-to-head records against top-20 players, and national team participation have been taken from these sources: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Citations Category:Tennis career statistics
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Nokia is a Finnish multinational corporation founded on 12 May 1865 as a single paper mill operation. Through the 19th century the company expanded, branching into several different products. In 1967, the Nokia corporation was formed. In the late 20th century, the company took advantage of the increasing popularity of computer and mobile phones. However, increased competition and other market forces caused changes in Nokia's business arrangements. In 2014, Nokia's mobile phone business was sold to Microsoft. ==19th century== The name "Nokia" is derived from the town Nokia and the Nokianvirta River which was aside the factory. The commercial entities that preceded the modern-day Nokia company included Nokia Ab (Nokia company); Suomen Gummitehdas Oy (Finnish Rubber Works Ltd); and Suomen Kaapelitehdas Oy (Finnish Cable Works Ltd).Our Story Nokia Corporation 1 May 2014. In 1865, the mining engineer, Fredrik Idestam established a ground wood pulp mill on the banks of the Tammerkoski rapids in the town of Tampere, in southwestern Finland. Tampere was then part of the Russian Empire. In 1868, Idestam built a second mill near the town of Nokia. Nokia lies west of Tampere, by the Nokianvirta river. The river had better hydropower resources than those at Tampere. In 1871, Idestam and Leo Mechelin, a statesman and Idestam's friend, transformed Idestam's enterprises into a public limited company called Nokia Ab. In the late 1800s, Mechelin wanted to expand the company into the electricity business. However, Idestam refused. In 1896, Idestam retired and Mechelin became the company's chairman. He remained chairman from 1898 to 1914. During this time, Mechelin persuaded shareholders to allow the company to enter the electricity business. In 1902, Nokia commenced electricity generation. ==20th century== thumb|Portrait of Eduard Polón by Eero Järnefelt. Eduard Polón (1866 1960), was a Finnish business leader.Martin Häikiö Nokia Corporation 's official history Edita 2001, p.12 and 13. In 1898, Polón founded Suomen Gummitehdas Oy (Finnish Rubber Works) - a manufacturer of galoshes and other rubber products. In the early 1900s, the Finnish Rubber Works established factories near Nokia and used the town's name in the company's branding. After World War I, the Nokia Company was nearing bankruptcy and was acquired by the Finnish Rubber Works. In 1932, the Finnish Rubber Works also acquired the Suomen Kaapelitehdas Oy (Finnish Cable Works). The cable works had been founded in 1912 by Arvid Wickström. His company produced telephone, telegraph, and electrical cables. In 1963, after 16 years as a technical director, Verner Weckman became the president of the Finnish Cable Works company. Weckman was a wrestler and was Finland's first Olympic Gold medallist. After World War II, Finnish Cable Works supplied cables to the Soviet Union as part of its war reparations. This gave the company a foothold for later trade. ==Nokia corporation== thumb|upright=0.5|A capacitor made by Nokia Capacitors In 1967, Nokia Corporation was formed through the merger of the three companies. The new company manufactured products including paper items, car and bicycle tires, rubber boots, communications cables, televisions and other consumer electronics, personal computers, generators, robotics, capacitors, Military technology and equipment (such as the SANLA M/90 device and the M61 gas mask for the Finnish Army), plastics, aluminum and chemicals. In 1960, a cable division of the Nokia group had been formed. In 1962, it produced a pulse height analyzer used in nuclear power plants. In 1967, an electronics division within the Nokia corporation was formed. It operated for the next fifteen years, sometimes at a loss. Nokia researchers were encouraged to develop their own projects. This may have contributed to Nokia's focus on mobile phone technologies. ===Network equipment=== In the 1970s, Nokia produced the Nokia DX 200, a digital switch for telephone exchanges. The DX 200 became the workhorse of the network equipment division. Its architecture allowed it to be further developed into other switching products. For example, in 1984, the development of an exchange for the Nordic Mobile Telephone network was begun. The network equipment division was merged with a Finnish State entity to form "Telefenno". In 1987, the state sold its shares in Telefenno to Nokia and in 1992, the name was changed to Nokia Telecommunications. In 1998, the Israeli multinational company, Check Point which was founded in 1993, established a partnership with Nokia. Check Point's software was bundled with Nokia's network security tools. ===Mobile radio telephony=== Prior to cellular mobile telephony, there was mobile radio telephony. In the 1960s, Nokia had started producing commercial and military mobile radio telephones. From 1964, Nokia had developed VHF radios in collaboration with Salora Oy. From 1966, Nokia and Salora had developed ARPs (Autoradiopuhelin or radio car phones). In 1971, this technology became the first commercially available mobile phone network in Finland and in 1978, it offered 100 percent coverage in Finland. In the 1970s and 1980s, Nokia developed the Sanomalaitejärjestelmä (messaging system), a digital, portable and encrypted text-based communications device for the Finnish Defence Forces. ===Nokia mobile telephone (1G) === In 1979, Nokia and Salora established a joint venture, "Mobira Oy". Mobira developed mobile phones for the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) network, called the "1G" and was the first fully automatic cellular phone system. It became commercially available in 1981. In 1982, Mobira introduced its first car phone, the "Mobira Senator" for NMT 450 networks. In 1984, Nokia purchased Salora. Nokia's telecommunications division was renamed "Nokia-Mobira Oy". In the same year, the "Mobira Talkman", an early portable phone was launched. In 1987, Nokia introduced its first mobile phone, the "Mobira Cityman 900" for NMT 900 networks. In comparison to the NMT 450 network, there was a better signal strength but less coverage. While the Mobira Senator of 1982 had weighed and the Talkman just under , the Mobira Cityman weighed only including its battery. The phone, which was considered expensive, became an item indicating a high status. In 1987, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev was seen using a Mobira Cityman in Helsinki. The phone developed the nickname, the "Gorba". In 1989, Nokia-Mobira Oy was renamed "Nokia Mobile Phones". ===Global system for mobile communications (2G)=== Nokia contributed to the development of the GSM 2G. It was able to carry data (computing) as well as voice traffic. Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT) was an early provider of international roaming. In 1987, GSM 2G became the new European standard for digital mobile technology. In 1989, Nokia delivered its first GSM network to the Finnish operator Radiolinja. On 1 July 1991, in Helsinki, the first telephone call on the GSM G2 network was made by Harri Holkeri, the Prime Minister of Finland. He used a prototype Nokia GSM phone to make the call. In 1992, the first GSM phone, the Nokia 1011, was made commercially available. The model number, "1011" refers to its launch date on 10 November 1992. In 1994, a branding ringtone, the Nokia tune, was included with the Nokia 2100 series. The GSM 2G network and mobile phones provided improved voice calls, international roaming and support for new services such as text messaging (Short Message Service (SMS)). In 2008, the GSM 2G network had approximately 3 billion users. There were at least 700 mobile phone commercial providers in 218 nations or territories. There were 15 mobile phone connections per second and 1.3 million mobile phone connections per day. ===Personal computers=== In the 1980s, Nokia's computer division "Nokia Data" produced a series of personal computers called the "MikroMikko". It was aimed at the business market. MikroMikko 1, was released on 29 September 1981. Its competitor was the IBM personal computer. In 1991, Nokia Data was sold to a British company, International Computers Limited (ICL). Nokia produced Cathode ray tubes (CRT) and thin film transistor liquid crystal displays (|TFT LCDs) for personal computers and other applications. In 2000, Nokia sold its display products division to ViewSonic. However, in August 2009, Nokia released the Nokia Booklet 3G mini laptop which it continued for a short time. Other abandoned Nokia products include DSL modems and digital set-top boxes. ===Telecommunications=== In the 1980s under the chief executive officer (CEO) Kari Kairamo, Nokia expanded, mostly through acquisitions. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, Nokia corporation experienced financial difficulties. Losses were made in the television manufacturing division. In 1988, Nokian Tyres became a separate entity. Nokia's paper division was sold in 1989. In 1990, Nokian Footwear was a separate entity. During the rest of the 1990s, Nokia divested itself of all other businesses. In 1988, Kairamo committed suicide. Following his death, Simo Vuorilehto became Nokia's chairman and CEO. From 1990 to 1993, Finland was in recession. Vuorilehto made major changes to the Nokia corporation. The telecommunications division was stream-lined. The television and personal computing divisions were sold. In 1992, Jorma Ollila became CEO. He made telecommunications Nokia's sole concern. International sales increased relative to those in Finland. By the mid-1990s, Nokia's supply of mobile telephones could not meet demand. Changes to Nokia's supply chain were made. Between 1996 and 2001, Nokia's revenue increased from 6.5 billion euros to 31 billion euros and between 1998 and 2012, Nokia was the world's largest mobile phone manufacturer. Nokia's logistics and economies of scale advantaged the company. ==21st century== In 2000, Nokia launched the Nokia 3310. In 2003, the Nokia 1100 handset was launched. Nokia combined a video game console and a mobile phone in the "N-Gage". In April 2008, Nokia Productions started a mobile movie-making project. The movie which was presented at the Nokia Theater Los Angeles on 14 October 2008 was directed by Spike Lee. It was approximately 15 minutes long and comprised short segments made on phones contributed by the public. The theme of the movie was "humanity".Holson L. Spike Lee and Nokia team up for film New York Times 24 April 2008.Premiere Getty Images 14 October 2008. In 2009, Nokia reentered the personal computing market. Its product, the Nokia Booklet 3G was a Windows-based netbook. The company also entered the smartphone market. The Series 40 was a phone platform used in feature phones, mainly running Java-based applications. Nokia acquired Smarterphone, a company making the Smarterphone OS for "low end" phones and merged it with Series 40 to form the Asha Platform, which also used some user interface characteristics from Nokia's MeeGo platform. The Asha 501 used this new operating system. The Series 40 was discontinued in late 2014. ===Symbian OS=== Until 2011, Symbian was Nokia's main smartphone operating system. The devices using the Symbian operating system included the Nokia 7650, Nokia N-Gage, Nokia N96, Nokia 6600, Nokia 7610, Nokia 6630, Nokia N90, Nokia N95, Nokia N82, Nokia E71, Nokia 5800 XpressMusic, Nokia N97, Nokia X6 and the Nokia N8. The 2012 Nokia 808 PureView had a 41-megapixel camera. It was the last phone using the Symbian platform. File:Nokia6600.png|Nokia 6600 (2003) with a VGA camera, Bluetooth and expandable memory. File:Nokia N73.jpg|Nokia N73 (2006) with 3G and a front camera. File:Nokia N95 Front 1.jpg|Nokia N95 (2007) with a 5-megapixel camera and sliding multimedia keys. File:Nokia E71.JPG|Nokia E71 (2008) with a QWERTY keyboard. File:Nokia 5800 XpressMusic 3Q.jpg|Nokia 5800 XpressMusic (2008), with a full touchscreen. File:Nokia N8 (front view).jpg|Nokia N8 (2010) the first Symbian^3 device, and the first to feature a 12-megapixel autofocus lens. (Symbian^3/Anna/Belle) File:Nokia 808 PureView front and back view.JPG|Nokia 808 PureView (2012) with a 41-megapixel camera and a 1.3 GHz CPU. ===Linux devices=== Nokia's first Linux devices were the Nokia Internet tablets and the Nokia N900, which ran the Debian-based Maemo. The Maemo project merged with Intel's Moblin to create MeeGo. The Nokia N9 was released before MeeGo was abandoned in favour of Windows Phone. The final products using Linux were the Nokia X series which had an Android operating system. ===Reorganizations=== On 5 May 2000, Nokia opened a mobile phone factory in Komárom, Hungary. In April 2003, difficulties in Nokia's division of network equipment led to restructuring and layoffs. Nokia's public image in Finland was diminished. litigation was brought against Nokia and a critical documentary television program was broadcast. In June 2006, CEO of Nokia Jorma Ollila, resigned and became the chairman of Royal Dutch Shell Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo was the new CEO. In March 2007, Nokia signed an agreement with Cluj County Council, Romania to open a plant near the city in Jucu commune. Moving the production from the Bochum, Germany factory to a low wage country created an uproar in Germany. In 2008, Nokia ceased its mobile phone distribution in Japan. In 2009, Check Point purchased Nokia's network security division. In February 2012, Nokia announced that 4,000 employees would be dismissed. This was to allow its manufacturing centres to move from Europe and Mexico to Asia. In March 2012, Nokia dismissed 1,000 employees at its Salo, Finland factory. In June 2012, research facilities in Ulm, Germany and Burnaby, Canada closed. By the end of 2013, 10,000 employees had been dismissed. In January 2013, Nokia dismissed 1,000 employees from its internet technology, production and logistics divisions. ===Acquisitions=== On 22 September 2003, Nokia acquired "Sega.com", a branch of Sega in order to develop the N-Gage device. On 10 February 2006, Nokia purchased the Intellisync Corporation, a provider of data and Personal information management (PIM) synchronization software. On 19 June 2006, Nokia and Siemens AG announced the merger of their mobile and fixed-line phone network equipment businesses with equal holdings. This created the entity "Nokia Siemens Networks" located in Espoo, Finland. Approximately 20,000 Nokia employees were employed by the new company. On 8 August 2006, Nokia purchased the online music distributor "Loudeye Corporation" for approximately US$60 million. In July 2007, Nokia purchased the media sharing service "Twango". In September 2007, Nokia purchased "Enpocket", a supplier of mobile advertising technology and services. On 10 July 2008, Nokia purchased "Navteq", a U.S. based supplier of digital mapping data, for $8.1 billion. In September 2008, Nokia purchased "OZ Communications" of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. OZ was a private company with approximately 220 employees. On 5 August 2009, Nokia purchased some of the assets belonging to "Cellity", a privately owned mobile software company. In September 2009, Nokia purchased some of the assets belonging to "Plum Ventures corporation" to complement Nokia's social location services. In March 2010, Nokia purchased "Novarra", a mobile web browser firm. In April 2010, Nokia acquired MetaCarta, a local search technology firm. In 2012, Nokia purchased "Smarterphone", a feature phone operating system developer, and the imaging company Scalado. ===Loss of smartphone market share=== Apple's iPhone (2007) did not immediately outsell the Nokia smartphones such as the Nokia N95. At the end of the 2007 financial year, Symbian had 62.5 percent of the market share while Microsoft's Windows Mobile had 11.9 percent and BlackBerry (RIM) had 10.9 percent. However, at the end of the 2008 financial year, Nokia's market share had fallen to 40.8 percent. The Nokia N96, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic and the Nokia E71 did not compete against Apple's iPhone 3G. On 24 June 2008, Nokia bought the Symbian operating system and in 2009 made it open source. In early 2009, Nokia released several devices such as the Nokia N97, a touchscreen device with a landscape QWERTY slider keyboard that was focused on social networking which received mixed reviews and the Nokia E52 which received positive reviews. At the end of the 2008 financial year, Symbian's market share was 52.4 percent and at the same time in 2009, it was 46.1 percent with the loss going to Blackberry, iOS and Android. In 2010, the commercial pressure on Nokia increased. Original equipment manufacturers such as Samsung Electronics and Sony Ericsson chose to make Android based smartphones, not Symbian based smartphones. Nokia developed "Symbian^3" to replace the S60 platform but it never became popular. At the end of the 2010 financial year, Symbian's market share was 32 percent while Android's was 30 percent. Despite losing market share, Nokia's smartphones were profitable. Sales in 2010 steadily increased quarter by quarter. In the last quarter of 2010, Nokia sold 4 million N8 smartphones. In February 2010, Nokia and Intel announced "MeeGo". MeeGo was a merger of their Linux based Maemo and Moblin projects. The project aimed to create one mobile operating system suitable for many types of device including tablets and smartphones. Nokia planned to use MeeGo on its smartphones. This was only achieved on the Nokia N9 (2011). In February 2011, Elop wrote to his employees. He said Nokia was on a "burning platform". Elop said the "war of ecosystems" (software ecosystem) between iOS and Android was part of Nokia's commercial difficulties. ===Partnership with Microsoft=== thumb|Market share of Symbian, Windows Mobile and Windows Phone 7 among US smartphone owners from Q1 2011 to Q2 2012 according to Nielsen Company. In February 2011, Stephen Elop and Microsoft's CEO Steve Ballmer formed a business partnership. (Elop had worked at Microsoft.) Nokia adopted Windows Phone as the operating system on its smartphones and accessed the Bing search engine for its devices. The "Here" Nokia maps software was integrated into Microsoft's "Bing" mapping services. In June 2011, Apple was making more smartphones than Nokia and a successful partnership with Microsoft became imperative for Nokia's business. In September 2011, Nokia dismissed 3,500 employees and closed its factory in Cluj, Romania. On 26 October 2011, at the Nokia World conference, the first Nokia Windows Phone 7 based devices were launched. They were the Nokia Lumia 710 and the more expensive Nokia Lumia 800. After the launch, Nokia's share price fell approximately 14 percent and Nokia's smartphone sales rapidly decreased. Between 2011 until 2013, Nokia's sales of smartphones fell from first in the market to tenth. In the second quarter of the 2011 financial year, Nokia made a loss of 368 million Euros. On 26 January 2012, Nokia reported its sales of the Lumia smartphones was "well above one million", two million sales in the first quarter of the 2012 financial year and four million sales in the second quarter of the 2012 financial year. However, in the second quarter of the 2012 financial year, in North America, Nokia sold 600,000 Symbian and Windows phones combined. In the same period, 26 million iPhones and 105 million Android phones were sold. In August 2012, while announcing an alliance with Groupon, Elop identified Google as a competitor. On 8 February 2012, Nokia dismissed 4,000 employees from smartphone manufacturing plants in Europe. Smartphone assembly was moved closer to component suppliers in Asia. On 14 June 2012, Nokia a further 10,000 dismissals. Production and research sites in Finland, Germany and Canada were closed. On 18 June 2012, Moody's downgraded Nokia's bond rating to junk. On 4 May 2012, a group of Nokia investors filed a class action against the company as a result of disappointing sales. On 22 August 2012, there were calls for Elop's dismissal. In December 2012, Nokia sold its headquarters, Nokia House, for €170 million and then leased the property. In the fourth quarter of the 2012 financial year, Nokia sold 6.6 million smartphones (2.2 million Symbian and 4.4 million Lumia devices). In May 2013, Nokia released the Asha platform on its inexpensive smartphone devices. The American media company Vox Media speculated Nokia was not fully committed to Windows. In the same month, Nokia entered a partnership with China Mobile, the Chinese mobile service provider to make the Lumia 920 (Lumia 920T) available in China. In the second quarter of the 2013 financial year, Nokia recorded an operating loss of €115m. Nokia's revenue fell to €5.7bn. In the same period, sales of the Lumia smartphone exceeded those of BlackBerry's handsets. Nokia's sales results were especially poor in China and the US. In the second quarter of the 2013 financial year, 7.4 million Lumia devices were sold. ===Sale of mobile phone business to Microsoft=== On 25 April 2014, Nokia sold its mobile phone business to Microsoft for approximately €3.79bn. €1.65bn was paid by Microsoft for a ten- year license to Nokia's patents. Nokia's mobile phone assets became a part of Microsoft Mobile, based in Finland. The purchase was delayed from March 2014 to April 2014 while a taxation dispute in India was resolved. Microsoft acquired the Asha, X and Lumia brands, but had only a limited license to the Nokia brand. Microsoft could only use the Nokia brand to promote Asha, X and Lumia products until December 2015, and feature phones for 10 years. Microsoft did not acquire any rights to the Nokia tune but can use it as the default ringtone on Nokia branded devices. Nokia was prohibited from manufacturing any Nokia branded smartphones until December 2015. Microsoft also took over Nokia's website and social media outlets for a minimum of one year. Microsoft used Nokia branding until October 2014. Elop became the head of Microsoft's devices division. Risto Siilasmaa became acting CEO of Nokia until the appointment of Rajeev Suri. Nokia continued Nokia Networks, its infrastructure division and Nokia Technologies, its development and licensing division. In July 2014, Microsoft dismissed 12,500 former Nokia employees.Tu, Janet I., "Microsoft layoffs signal a changing culture: The cuts are partly related to Microsoft’s acquisition of Nokia’s phone business and partly a reflection of Nadella’s vision of a Microsoft that’s less management heavy and more agile", The Seattle Times, 17 July 2014 Microsoft also ended development of Nokia's non-Windows Phone product lines. ===Sale of licenses=== In October 2014, Nokia and China Mobile signed a $970 million framework deal for delivery between 2014 and 2015. On 17 November 2014, Ramzi Haidamus, head of the Nokia technologies division said the company planned to re-enter the consumer electronics business by licensing in-house hardware designs and technologies to third-party manufacturers. On 18 November 2014, the N1, an Android tablet manufactured by Foxconn was released. ===Alcatel-Lucent=== On 3 November 2016, Nokia purchased the French telecommunications equipment company Alcatel-Lucent for approximately €15.6 billion. At completion, Nokia shareholders held 66.5% of the new company and Alcatel-Lucent shareholders held 33.5% of the new company. Alcatel-Lucent's Bell Labs and submarine cables division were maintained in the new company. The Alcatel-Lucent brand was no longer used. The purchase required approval by China's Ministry of Commerce and French regulators.Daniel Thomas, Financial Times. "Nokia-Alcatel Lucent deal wins approval of Chinese regulator." October 19, 2015. October 19, 2015. On August 3, 2015, Nokia announced that it had reached a deal to sell its Here digital maps division to a consortium of three German automakers—BMW, Daimler AG and Volkswagen Group, for €2.8 billion. ===Foxconn and HMD Global=== On 18 May 2016 Microsoft sold the Nokia-branded featurephone division to FIH Mobile, a division of Foxconn, and HMD, a new company in Finland.Microsoft sells Nokia brand to Foxconn and HMD Global Slashgear website. Nokia provided its brand and patent licensing to HMD, and took a seat on the board of directors.Nokia signs etc Nokia website 18 May 2016.HMD Global Nokia smartphone Gadgets.ndtv website. On 8 January 2017, Nokia 6, a mid-range smartphone based on the Qualcomm Snapdragon 430 system-on-chip running Android was launched. The Nokia 5, Nokia 3, Nokia 3310 and Nokia 6 Arte were also released. ==References== Category:Nokia Nokia
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The Honan Chapel (, formally Saint Finbarr's Collegiate Chapel and The Honan Hostel Chapel) is a small Catholic church built in the Hiberno-Romanesque revival style on the grounds of University College Cork, Ireland. Designed in 1914, the building was completed in 1916 and furnished by 1917. Its architecture and fittings are representative of the Celtic Revival movement and evoke the Insular art style prevalent in Ireland and Britain between the 7th and 12th centuries. Its construction was initiated and supervised by the Dublin solicitor John O'Connell, a leading member of the Celtic Revival and Arts and Crafts movements. He was funded by Isabella Honan (18611913), the last member of a wealthy Cork family, who made a significant donation towards the construction of the chapel. O'Connell oversaw both the design and the commissioning of its building and furnishings. He guided the architect James F. McMullen, the builders John Sisk and Sons, and the craftsmen and artists involved in its artwork. The Honan Chapel is known for its interior which is designed and fitted in a traditional Irish style, but with an appreciation of contemporary trends in international art. Its furnishings include a mosaic flooring, altar plate, metalwork and enamels, liturgical textiles and sanctuary furnishings, and especially its nineteen stained glass windows. Of these, fifteen depict Irish saints, the remainder show Jesus, Mary, St. Joseph and St. John. Eleven were designed and installed by Harry Clarke, while the other eight are by A. E. Child, Catherine O'Brien and Ethel Rhind of An Túr Gloine cooperative studio. In 1986, the sculptor Imogen Stuart was commissioned to oversee the installation of a new altar and other carvings, furnishings and fittings. ==Background and construction== thumb|upright=1.0|The Honan Hostel Population growth and urbanisation in early 20th-century Ireland led to the development of a number of suburbs around Cork, which necessitated the building of churches to serve these new areas; the Honan Chapel was the first church to be built in Cork in the new century. Its genesis was rooted in a longstanding educational disagreement between the Protestant and Catholic hierarchies. Queen's College Cork (today known as University College Cork, or UCC) was incorporated in 1845 as part of a nationwide series of new universities known as the Queen's Colleges. Although the Colleges were intended to be non-denominational,Lord Stanley, House of Lords Hansard, 2nd Reading of Colleges (Ireland) Bill - 21 July 1845, col 279 the lack of provision for any religious instruction made them unacceptable to the Irish Catholic bishops, who strongly discouraged Catholics from attending, and in 1851 founded the Catholic University of Ireland. In 1911, the Queen's Colleges ceased as legal entities. The Irish Universities Act of 1908 forbade government funding for any "church, chapel, or other place of religious worship or observance"; thus any centre for Catholic students would have to be built with private funding. Isabella Honan (born Isabella Cunningham in 1861) was the sister-in-law of Robert Honan, the last male heir of a wealthy Catholic family of butter merchants. Robert and his brother Matthew had both died by 1909, and Robert had left his estate to Isabella. When she died in 1913, she left £40,000 (equivalent to £ in 2019) to the city of Cork, including £10,000 which her executor, a Dublin solicitor John O'Connell, was instructed to use to establish a centre of worship for Catholic students in UCC, along with other charitable and educational purposes. These monies became known as the Honan Fund. O'Connell used part of the funds to provide scholarships for Catholic students at UCC and acquired the site of St. Anthony's Hall (also known as Berkeley Hall) from the Franciscan order to develop an accommodation block for male Catholic students known as the Honan Hostel. The Honan Chapel was one of the first modern Irish churches conceived with a thematic design not directed by the clergy. O'Connell entered the priesthood in 1929, after the death of his wife. He was an active member of the Celtic Revival movement, a member of both the Irish Arts and Crafts Committees and the Royal Irish Academy, a fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, and chairman of the Arts and Crafts Society of Ireland in 1917. He was deeply interested in ecclesiastical archaeology and sought to construct a chapel that was "something more than merely sufficient... a church designed and fashioned on the same lines and on the same plan as those which their forefathers had built for their priests and missioners all over Ireland nearly a thousand years ago." He disliked the contemporary, international approach to church buildingwhich he described as "machine made"preferring a localised and uniquely Irish approach to style and form, which he sought from the most skilled local craftsmen available. He wanted work on the chapel to be "carried out in Cork, by Cork labour and with materials obtained from the City or County of Cork". O'Connell was assisted in the project by the university president, Sir Bertram Windle. The art historian Virginia Teehan describes O'Connell and Windle as not only devout Catholics, but especially single- minded, creative and energetic. O'Connell employed the firm of Cork architects James Finbarre McMullen and Associates. The building's plans were drawn up in 1914. The contractor John Sisk, also from Cork, was the principal builder and undertook the work at a cost of £8,000. The foundation stone, laid on 18 May 1915 by Thomas A. O'Callaghan D.D., Bishop of Cork, records that the chapel was built "by the charity of Isabella Honan for the scholars and students of Munster". It was consecrated on 5 November 1916 and dedicated to Saint Finbarr (also spelled as Finbar, Finnbarr, Finnbar, or Fin Barre), patron saint of Cork and of the Diocese of Cork, on grounds believed to be close to an early Christian monastic site founded by the saint. ==Architecture== upright=0.8|thumb|The nave, looking west from the chancel towards the main entrance, with pipe organ in view O'Connell was mainly inspired by medieval architecture, and the Honan Chapel's architectural style is Hiberno-Romanesque revival. Compared to the decorative and sculpted elements of the interior, its architecture, austere and modest, was described by architectural historian and conservationist Frank Keohane in 2020 as "a little too commonplace and formulaic". The chapel is located on a hillside overlooking the valley of the River Lee, near a site thought to contain one of Finbarr's original churches. The western entrance is approached through double-hinged wrought iron gates. Its façade was influenced by the 12th-century St. Cronan's Church, Roscrea and features an arcade and gabled wall. The side walls project slightly beyond the gables to form antae, described by Keohane as "surmounted by improbable pinnacles...and probably better regarded as clasping buttresses". The chapel's interior has a simple layout consisting of a main entrance, a six-bay nave, and a two-bay square chancel. It does not contain either lateral aisles or transepts. The oblong nave measures 72 by 28 feet (22 by 8.5 m). Above, a timber barrel vaulted ceiling ends at the chancel; this is 26 by 18 feet (7.9 by 5.5 m). The nave lacks shrines where worshippers normally light candles or place flowers near devotional images; in this sense, it is similar to a Protestant church. The plain, round bell tower is based on the 12th-century Irish round tower on Teampull Finghin (Fineen's church) in Clonmacnoise, County Offaly. The mouldings around the tops of the five arches on the west façade are carved with lozenge and pellet decoration. The doorway at one point had an iron grille which has since been removed. It is capped by three limestone ribbed vaults, supported by capitals carrying reliefs of the heads of six Munster saints: Finbarr of Cork, Coleman of Cloyne; Gobnait of Ballyvourney; Brendan of Kerry, Declán of Ardmore and Íte of Killeedy. The reliefs were sculpted by Henry Emery, assisted by students at the nearby Cork School of Art. The tympanum over the door was designed by the sculptor Oliver Sheppard and is dominated by the figure of St. Finbarr, dressed in bishop's vestments. The timber doors hang on wrought iron strapwork hinges designed by the architect William Scott in (according to the writer Paul Larmour) a "Celticized art nouveau" style. The sacristy is on the north side (left, looking towards the altar) under the bell tower. The building is listed as a protected structure under Section 51 of the Irish Planning and Development Act. ===Altar=== The original altar table was built from a slab of local limestone, chosen as a reaction against the ornately carved Italian marble then in fashion with church builders. It contained silver ornaments fitted by the Dublin gold and silversmith Edmond Johnson and William Egan and Sons of St Patrick's Street, Cork. The altar was positioned on a five-legged table, each leg of which was embedded with an Irish crucifix formed from simple geometric designs, including zig-zag patterns in lozenge and saltire, continuous dots and chevrons. The altar was replaced in 1986 when the chapel was considered to contravene the requirements of the Second Vatican Council in several ways: it was based on medieval churches and the old rites; it was built with a large spatial divide between the nave and chancel; and the altar was positioned at the very back of the chancel with the priest facing away from the congregation. That year, the chapel authorities commissioned the architect Richard Hurley to redesign elements of its fixtures. He in turn employed the German-Irish sculptor Imogen Stuart, aided by John and Teresa Murphy, to undertake a redevelopment, including replacement of the altar, pulpit, ceremonial chairs and baptismal font. Stuart works with other materials but favours wooden carvings, as exemplified by those at the front of the Honan altar. Her replacement altar, constructed in oak, depicts two of the Evangelists. Being movable, it allowed clergy and attendants to be closer to the congregation. Although the altar was first intended for the centre of the chancel at the focal point of the mosaic floor, this arrangement proved to be too far back and was impractical during ceremonies. ===Tabernacle=== The tabernacle is positioned at the far end of the chancel and is the chapel's focal point. It is formed from carved stone and shaped in a manner reminiscent of the arched roofs and entrances of medieval Irish churches. Its upper, triangular panel is set in the gable of the "entrance" and shows the Trinity of God the Father, Jesus crucified, and the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove; around them, two angels carry the sun, moon and other symbols of creation. The lower, rectangular panel represents the doorway and is set against a background of branches and leaves attached in silver-gilt; it shows the Lamb of God standing on a brightly coloured altar decorated with three-ringed crosses and two angels acting as servers kneeling before it. The dove is surrounded by what Teehan describes as "the deep blue void of Heaven". Here, he is accompanied by flights of angels, carrying instruments of the Passion. The enamel embellishments are by the Irish craftsman and stained glass specialist Oswald Reeves and described by Teehan as the best of his work. ===Mosaic floor=== The mosaic flooring was designed and installed by the UK- based artist Ludwig Oppenheimer. It contains symbols of the zodiac, images based on the mythological "River of Life", and depictions of flora, fauna and river scenes. These designs celebrate the Genesis creation narrative and illustrate passages from the Old Testament including the "Benedicite" (also known as "A Song of Creation") from the Book of Daniel, which was sung during the office of lauds on Sundays and feast days. The pattern at the entrance contains a verse from Psalm 148 ("Praise to the Lord from Creation"). thumb|left|upright=1.0|Sea creature The floor consists of four sections. The main entrance on the west side is dominated by a sunburst and stars surrounded by signs of the zodiac, while the imagery on the aisle depicts the head of a beast, his jaws open to form a river in which fish swim toward the chancel. The east side of the nave shows a large coiled sea creature which is part- serpent, part dragon and part whale. There are stags, deer, sheep and other animals, drinking from a river in a forest, while exotic birds fly around them. The section inside the chancel shows a globe and symbols of creation, including animals, plants and imagery of planets. The four sections are unified by interlaced Celtic and zoomorphic border designs. The representations of the sun and night stars at the entrance signify both the new day and the resurrection, as Jesus is traditionally believed to have risen at dawn. Reflecting 12th-century Christian art, the presence of signs of the zodiac symbolises God's dominion over time. The beast's head in the aisle contains a series of tripartite motifs representing the Trinity: spirals, trefoil knots and interlace containing three saltire crosses. The sea creature at the east end of the nave is mentioned in the verse on the floor by the entrance dracones et omnes abyssi ("Dragons and all the depths"); alongside are the words cete et omnia quae moventur in aquis ("whales and all that move in the water"), which in medieval exegesis conjured images of death and reference the Biblical story of Jonah. The colouring on the floor by and inside the chancel is more subdued and restrained. The imagery depicts a paradise which can be interpreted both as the Garden of Eden and the eternal paradise promised at the end of time. The imagery includes the seasons, the classical elements and symbols of the Resurrection. A similar representation on a 5th-century sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum shows Jonah swimming towards the open jaws of a whale with horned ears and a long, coiled tail. In both examples the imagery emphasises how Jesus overcame death. This connection is further made by the inclusion of trees in reference to the tree of life, which in mythology grows in paradise and represents Christ, and the surrounding animals at rest, presented as symbols of Christ's followers. ==Stained glass windows== thumb|upright=0.9|Sarah Purser O'Connell planned that Sarah Purser's studio, An Túr Gloine, at that time the leading proponent in the production of stained glass in Ireland, would provide all of the windows for the chapel. However, he also commissioned designs by the emerging stained glass artist Harry Clarke, and eventually set him and Purser's studio in competition against each other. When O'Connell viewed Clarke's cartoon for the Brigid window, he commissioned him to produce five for the chapel. Later, having viewed the design for St Gobnait, he requested a further six from him. Although Purser was upset with the younger artist being awarded the majority of windows, An Túr Gloine ended up producing the original eight planned for them. Both studios were asked to depict Gaelic saints from the early-medieval, so-called "golden age", of Christianity in Ireland. The nineteen stained glass windows in the chapel are: Our Lord (or "Christ in Majesty") (Child), Mary as Our Lady of Sorrows (Clarke), St. John (O'Brien) and St. Joseph (Clarke). To the right of the chancel looking down are: St. Finbarr (Clarke), St. Albert (Clarke), St. Declan (Clarke), St Ailbe (Child), St Fauchtna (Child) and St Munchin (O'Brien). To the left are: St Ita (Clarke), St Coleman (Child), St. Brendan (Clarke), St Gobnait (Clarke), St Flannan (O'Brien) and St Carthage (Rhind). The windows in the west gable are all by Clarke and represent St Patrick, St Brigid and St Columcille. Six are on each side of the nave; four are within the chancel and three are above the west gable. Eleven were designed by Harry Clarke, and eight by An Túr Gloine. Of the latter, four are by Child, three by Catherine O'Brien, and one by Ethel Rhind. Four windows depict female saints, each in a deep royal blue colour scheme. Although the windows from each studio contain comparable imagery, their styles differ greatly. Clarke's are highly detailed while An Túr Gloine's are deliberately simple. Both studios displayed their cartoons in Dublin before they were transferred to glass and installed in Cork; both shows were highly praised, and critics debated which group was superior. Following the Honan's opening, the art historian and collector Thomas Bodkin wrote that "nothing like Mr Clarke's windows had been seen before in Ireland" and praised their "sustained magnificence of colour... intricate drawing [and] lavish and mysterious symbolism". ===Harry Clarke=== thumb|left|upright=0.85|Harry Clarke Clarke was 21 years old and working in his father's studio when commissioned by O'Connell. The Honan windows became his first works for a public space and went on to establish his reputation as a significant international artist. A contemporary reviewer, comparing the windows to French medieval glass, including those in the Gothic royal chapel of Sainte-Chapelle, described them as "remarkable" and a "distinct advance on anything which has been heretofore done in Ireland in stained glass". Clarke's windows are all single-light (that have just one opening, or vertical panel), each consisting of nine separate panels. They are decorated with simplified, often whimsical forms which are nevertheless highly stylised. The windows contain Celtic designs and motifs, as well as figures and incidents from the life of each saint. The most obvious Celtic embellishments are Mary's red hair and green halo, and Brendan's pampooties. The writer M. J. O'Kelly suggests they evoke "the spirit of the ancient Celt". His designs blend Catholic iconography with motifs from Celtic mythology in a style that draws heavily from Art Nouveau, in particular the darker, fin de siècle works of Gustav Klimt, Aubrey Beardsley and Egon Schiele. His blending of bold and dark colours has been praised, especially for the effects they achieve in morning light. The designer Percy Oswald Reeves highlighted Clarkes' windows for their "beauty of... colour, quality and treatment of each piece of glass". His individualised depictions of saints and merging of Catholic and early medieval imagery in a modern and individualised style was at odds with prevailing trends in Irish church art, which were still favouring soft, Raphael-like imagery. According to the scholar Luke Gibbons, Clarke's break "from episcopal interference... enabled [him] to exploit vernacular traditions of local saints... that belonged more to legend and folklore... and whose popular appeal lay outside the highly centralised power of post-famine ultramontane Catholicism." ====Patrick, Brigid and Columcille==== Designed in 1915 and the first of Clarke's designs to be completed, the Triadis Thaumaturga windows of Ireland's three patron saints, Brigid, Saint Patrick and Columcille, are positioned on the west wall above the main entrance door. The Patrick window was the first of Clarke's windows. He worked on it for two months beginning on 18 March 1915, the day after his 21st birthday. The window, at 11.6 x 2.10 inches (29.5 x 5.3 cm) the largest in the chapel, is positioned on a base of five lilies, and the deep blue and green hues in the window were achieved using sheets of "antique" pot metal glass which were specially ordered from Chance Glasswork in Birmingham. Patrick wears a bishop's mitre and holds a crosier in one hand and a shamrock in the other. The upper panel shows the saint's birth, the lower panel his death. The borders are decorated with what O'Connell described as "symbols of his learning, his justice, his kingly dignity, of truth, of spiritual fire, of light overcoming darkness, of the serpent typical of the reptiles which he banished from Ireland". Clark depicts Brigid in a blue cloak and robe, wearing a white headdress decorated with spirals. A large angel wearing a multi- coloured robe is positioned above her, while another four hover at her feet. She holds a representation of Kildare Cathedral, which she is said to have founded. A lamb alongside her represents faith, while the calf signifies innocence. The window was well received by critics when first shown in Clarke's studio in Dublin, and was a key element in his attaining the commission for the Honan windows. Columcille, whose name translates as "Church Dove" (Colm Cille), lived in the 6th-century and is said to have founded Iona Abbey. Clarke shows him as accompanied by the dove O'Connell describes as his "daily adviser and companion", and the white horse said to have "comforted him in his last days". He is dressed in red, green and blue vestments, and holds a silver and gold mitre. ====Brendan, Declan and Gobnait==== thumb|upright=1.0|Judas Iscariot, lower register of the Brendan window The Brendan, Declan and Gobnait windows were completed as a group from August to October 1916. Following the Easter Rising that year, Clarke and his wife, Margaret Quincey, had left Dublin to move into a cottage in Mount Merrion, Blackrock. Clarke was under considerable pressure to complete and install the three windows in time for the chapel's 5 November consecration. St Brendan's window illustrates episodes from the "Voyage of Saint Brendan the Abbot", first recorded c.900AD. Brendan wears a robe of blue, purple, greens and gold hues, and fishnet gloves. In his left hand he holds a paddle as a reference to his reputation as a seaman and voyager. In the lower panel a grotesque, claw- limbed Judas Iscariot appears, described by the writer Lucy Costigan as a "devilish figure surrounded by red and yellow flames", his lower body transformed into that of a goat. According to legend, Brendan found Judas abandoned on a rock in the ocean, condemned to be tormented for eternity by demons. In another traditional recounting, he arrives at an island referred to as the "Paradise of Birds", where birds sing psalms "as if with one voice" in praise of God; Clarke reflects this in the depictions of birds on the window's borders. As with several of Clarke's windows at Honan, Brendan's panels reflect the artist's taste for the macabre, especially in what Costigan describes as "the woefully metamorphosed fallen angels from the Paradise of Birds island" and "Brendan's sore-tried contemporaries" lining the window's borders. thumb|left|upright=1.2|Declan facing Patrick, lower panel Declán of Ardmore lived in the 5th century and is the patron saint of the Decii clan of County Waterford. The main image is dominated by mustard yellow hues, and shows Declán wearing a hooded cloak in red and gold. He holds a long cross and is surrounded by a patchwork of red, purple, gold and black glass shards. The upper panels detail his return to Ireland from Wales and show the saint carrying a bell, one of his attributes. According to legend, the bell, sent to Declán as a gift from heaven, was inadvertently left behind on a rock, but in response to his prayers, it miraculously reappeared in Ardmore. In the lower panel Declán, his assistant Ruamus, and followers are shown meeting Patrick on their return from Rome where Declán had studied and been consecrated bishop. Declán wears a red and gold cloak, and opposite him, Patrick is dressed in green, purple and fawn. On either side of them are Ruamus, holding the bell, and an unidentified attendant, holding a candle. The Saint Gobnait window was described by the curator and writer Audrey Whitty as the "most remarkable" of the Honan windows and a high point of Clarke's career. While a number of the early Honan windows were completed by assistants working from his designs, Clarke designed the cartoon, the final window, oversaw the installation in Cork. It is located on the north side of the chapel, and depicts scenes from the life of Gobnait, a healer who established a convent in Ballyvourney and became the patron saint of bees. In the main panel, Gobnait is shown in half- profile with a pale, thin and ascetic face and individualistic, unmistakably Irish features. She wears royal blue and purple robes adorned with lozenged jewels, a veil and a silver cloak. Her clothing draws on Léon Bakst's costume for Ida Rubinstein's 1911 performance of Le Martyre de saint Sébastien. Her right arm is outstretched in a pose influenced by Beardsley's facial and figurative types, Alesso Baldovinetti's c.1465 Portrait of a Lady in Yellow, and portraits by Donatello. In the upper panel, the victims of a plague flee to her for sanctuary and protection. The image shows her drawing the sign of the cross on the road and marking a line around her church with her crosier. According to O'Connell, the line represents the point beyond which "the infection did not come, so that none of those who lived and served with her suffered from the plague". Clarke and his assistant Kathleen Quigly completed the window's modello under considerable time pressure over five weeks in 1914, during the offer period for the commission. A monochrome study was made in pencil, pen, inks, and watercolour on board, before the cartoon, now at the Corning Museum of Glass, was completed and eventually transferred to glass. During this process, each panel was cut up, waxed and painted. This was an expensive process for the largely unknown artist, and was funded by both his father and his friend Austin Malloy. The window is described by Teehan as "kaleidoscopically sumptuous" and "filled with a wealth of art historical allusions, often unexpected". According to the Irish novelist E. Œ. Somerville, it evokes late 19th-century decadence in its resemblance to a Beardsleytype female face, which "though horrible [is] so modern and conventionally unconventional... [Clarke's] windows have a kind of hellish splendour." File:Alesso Baldovinetti 002.jpg|Alesso Baldovinetti, Portrait of a Lady in Yellow, c.1465. National Gallery, London File:St. Gobnait stained glass window design (crop2).jpg|Detail from Clarke's preparatory Gobnait modello, 1914. Pencil, pen, inks and watercolor on board. Corning Museum of Glass, New York. File:St. Gobnait Clarke modello detail lower panel.jpg|Gobnait modello, lower panel ====Finbarr and Ita==== upright=0.8|thumb|St Finbarr, central panel The chapel is dedicated to Finbarr, patron saint of Cork. His window was completed in 1916 alongside Ita's, and is located on the north wall of the nave. Its colour scheme is dominated by a series of red hues. The upper panel depicts his parents who, by legend, were sentenced to death by burning after his mother refused to marry the chieftain Tyagerlach of Rathluin. The panel shows them rescued by the divine hurricane said to have put out the fire about to engulf them. Finbarr, like his mother in the upper panel, has blond hair. He wears a chasuble coloured in a variety of red and rosepink colours. He holds an ornately decorated crosier in his left hand, and on his right hand is the glove he is said to have worn continuously since the day he met with Christ, who, according to O'Connell "raised the kneeling saint by his right hand, after which it ever glowed with a celestial radiance which could not be obscured, and which was only to be borne if the hand were kept covered with a glove". In the lower register, Finbarr prays alongside bishop Maccuirp, under whom he studied in Macroom. The little-known ascetic Íte of Killeedy (sometimes "The Brigid of Munster") was born as either Deirdre or Dorothy in the 6th century to a local chieftain, probably in Decies-within-Drum in County Waterford, and thought to have been a descendant of Fedlimid Rechtmar and Conn of the Hundred Battles. She is in places referred to as Ita the Wise, and having changed her name to Ita due to her "extraordinary thirst for divine love", later becoming the patron saint of Killeedy in County Limerick. Her window is dominated by shades of blue, a colour usually associated with Brigid. thumb|left|upright=1.2|St Ita, lower register Íte wears royal blue clothes and her facial features are based on representations of the Eastern Roman Empress Theodora, who died in 548. The white glass surrounding her head is intended to represent a halo. The upper register shows Mary enthroned as Queen of Heaven. She is dressed in red, gold and blue robes, and shards of white glass interwoven with painted oak colours radiating from her head, representing a halo. which according to O'Connell, "symbolizes the spiritual fire which Ita spent her life in enkindling and keeping burning". Clarke wrote of the window that "in the border and wherever possible emblems are introduced symbolising Ita's great devotion to the Holy Trinity". Three jewels representing the holy trinity are sewn into her gown. The lower panel shows her, alongside her maids, in prayer to the Trinity, with, according to O'Connell, their "prayers ascending through the firmament to the Throne of God". Clarke's preparatory notes describe the lower register as depicting "St. Ita with her holy maids [who pray] with St Coleman and St. Brendan", while the borders show "the heads of four Irish saints over whom St. Ita exercised spiritual influence". ====Albert of Cashel==== thumb|upright=0.8|Albert of Cashel, central panel The window of the little-known 8th-century missionary saint Albert of Cashel was designed immediately after the Finbarr and Ita windows. It was installed in 1916 in the chapel's north wall. Albert is shown preaching in the upper panel, with red hair and a purple chasuble, crimson stole and a mitre. He sits on an elaborately decorated green, blue and golden throne, which is positioned underneath a large cross. His shoes are decorated with blue and grey diamonds, while the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven are shown at his feet. The window is adorned with Celtic motifs, including the bronze spirals around his beard. The lower register shows him in the act of blessing as he walks in a procession with his followers, who include St. Erhard and St. Hildulph, both of whom he is said to have met while in Regensburg in Bavaria, Germany. ====Our Lady of Sorrows and Joseph==== The last two of Clarke's windows depict Mary and Joseph, and were installed in Cork in April 1917, a year after the chapel's opening. Both were favourably reviewed when previewed in his Dublin studio. Mary's window is located to the right of the altar. Due to its mournful tone, it is said to depict Our Lady of Sorrows. She is shown as "Mary of the Irish", with red hair and an emerald halo. She wears a deep royal blue and turquoise robe, and is shown holding a pink rose. The uppermost panel contains a star representing of the Holy Family, below which is the Holy Spirit indicated by tongues of fire. In the lower panel, St. Cronan of Roscrea holds a scroll inscribed with notation and lyrics from "Cronan na Magdine", an Irish lullaby. He is surrounded by four early Christian martyrs, each bearing emblems. Around these figures are four Japanese seals, influenced by work from Henry Payne's students at the Birmingham School of Art. The upper panel of Joseph's window shows the saint wearing a crown of fire, and standing beside the Holy Family and four angels. In the main panel, he wears a gold and red cloak, and is given a blue and green halo. Clarke's depiction of Joseph is based on a 14th- century representation of the prophet Zephaniah now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. In contrast to contemporary Catholic representations of Joseph which depict him as a healthy and strong middle-aged man, Clarke shows him in the medieval tradition, as an old and frail man. The lower panel illustrates Joseph's death, with Mary, Jesus, Finbarr, Columcille and a number of other saints kneeling in prayer at his deathbed. ===An Túr Gloine=== thumb|upright=0.8|Honan window, An Túr Gloine, c.1916 Sarah Purser and Edward Martyn formed An Túr Gloine ("The Glass Tower") in 1902 as a workshop to advance the artistic quality of stained glass production in Ireland. The workshop was managed by Sarah Purser's pupil A. E. Child, who was then teaching at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin. The studio's eight windows are attributed to Child, O'Brien and Ethel Rhind. The cartoons, like those from Clarke's studio, were designed and realised in Dublin before installation in Cork. Although their subject matter is similar to Clarke's, An Túr Gloine window's are very different in style and not of the same quality, being somewhat conventional by comparison. They are minimalist in line and colour, consisting of a dominating but simply rendered and naturalistic central figure in pale hues, surrounded by uncomplicated, largely empty opaque sub-panels. The most prominently placed window is Child's "Our Lord" on the east gable above the altar. Child depicts the risen Christ in simple forms, subdued colours and with a strong but dignified facial expression. O'Kelly's describes the portrait of Christ's eyes "as look[ing] out on humanity with a welcoming and understanding sympathy". ====Our Lord (Child)==== The central single-light window was designed by Alfred Child and is located directly above the altar. It is set in pale and subdued tones, and shows the risen Christ holding the banner of the Resurrection. He is marked apart from the other saints by the window's stone frames, the splendour of his crown, his crimson robe and his royal jewels. O'Connell described the window as a "touching and appealing figure marked apart in its frame of stone [which] forms the centre of such rich but restrained decoration as the chapel contains". O'Kelly wrote that his "bearded countenance is calm and dignified and the eyes look out on humanity with a welcoming and understanding sympathy". ====St John (O'Brien)==== thumb|right|upright=0.8|St Fachtna, Child c.1916 Catherine O'Brien, who came from an Anglo-Irish and devout Church of Ireland family, joined An Túr Gloine in 1904 and is credited with three of the chapel's windows. The "St John" window is the only window in the chapel to portray a biblical narrative and is usually considered the strongest of An Túr Gloine's windows. It is divided into three registers, each containing pairs of medallions. Its imagery mostly comes from the life of Christ as told in the Gospel of John and draws more from close readings of scripture than traditional Catholic iconography. The upper panel is based on Revelations 1:1, and shows a vision of the glorified Christ in Majesty, with the Alpha and Omega symbols and the seven candles. The crucifixion scene in the central panel is more richly coloured than the other panels and follows tradition in showing Mary and John at the foot of the cross. More characteristic of Protestant than Catholic iconography is the depiction of a serpent with its mouth open, coiled around the cross below Jesus' feet; the serpent probably refers to Genesis 3:15: "And I will put enmity between thee (the serpent) and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel." The medallions below the crucifixion reflect two accounts of John's brother James. The lowest register is again in bright colours and shows the calling of James and John. The images stay with scriptural tradition; James and John are accompanied by their father, and are the second pair to be called, after St. Peter and St Andrew, who are already at Jesus' side. The eagle at the foot of the window is John's usual symbol. ==Furnishings, textiles and objects== O'Connell was keen that the chapel's artwork would draw from Ireland's ancient culture and was heavily influenced by 19th-century antiquarian research into early Christian and early medieval art, in particular early medieval metal and stone works and illuminated manuscripts. He wanted the chapel to reflect the earlier period's influence on Irish culture, while maintaining a relatively simple physical outlay, comprising what Teehan describes as a "peaceful, dignified space". The chapel's furniture includes circular iron ventilation ceiling panels and the oak chair and kneeler reserved for the president. The majority of the fittings were designed by McMullen or Sisk & Sons. The original furnishings and oak pews were designed to blend into the chapel's Celtic Revival style and (according to Teehan) create "a way that represented the spirit and skill of earlier times [that] could nonetheless be fully appreciated by contemporary society. The overall effect is one of simplicity and restfulness." Changes in liturgy following Vatican II meant that a number of furnishings had to be replaced, a project overseen by the chapel's then dean, Gearóid Ó Súilleabháin. The Honan has a large collection of metalwork and enamel pieces built by Edmond Johnson's and Egan & Sons, all in the Celtic Revival style. The most well-known piece is a large processional cross, a replica of the 12th-century ornamented processional Cross of Cong, which contains a number of inscriptions, including a remembrance for the chapel's benefactors, Mathew, Robert and Isabella Honan; and for John and Mary O'Connell. Other items include further processional crosses, chalices, candlesticks, dishes, bells, hinges, and the iron gates at the entrance. O'Connell commissioned Egan & Sons for the altar plate and vestments. Most of the textile collection was designed by the Dun Emer Guild co-founded in Dublin by Evelyn Gleeson, with her niece Kitty MacCormack working on the textile designs for the chapel. Their additions include vestments, chasubles, burses, veils, stoles, maniples, altar cloths, wall hangings and altar fronts. The tapestry dossal on the east wall, designed and woven by Gleeson, contains Celtic symbols borrowed from the Book of Durrow. Materials vary from silk embroidery, gold braid, gold thread, linen, poplin and cotton. In general the textiles follow the usual liturgical colours for the seasons of the liturgical year. Most of the designs are centred around the Life of Mary, or the Passion, or Crucifixion, with black and white being the predominant colours. The pipe organ is on the west wall in a timber frame. It was built by Wicklow native Kenneth Jones and installed in 1996. Michael Barry Egan's firm designed and sewed many of the vestments. A highlight is the Y-shaped, silver threaded chasuble in black poplin cloth, made for use at funerals. Covering the altar is a violet altar cloth with an altar frontal that is decorated with Celtic interlacing, realised in shades of purple silk with orange and yellow highlights, and a border of lemon and violet cotton satin. The "Black set" of Honan textiles includes an altar frontal with a Celtic cross based on a gravestone from Tullylease Church in Cork, and a black hooded cope with a crown of thorns design, and a black chasuble designed for funeral masses containing Celtic interlace patterns. ==Administration and liturgical services== The chapel's day-to-day operations are run in conjunction with UCC's chaplaincy department, while management and funding is provided by the Honan Trust, established in 1915. The Honan is a separate legal entity from the university and holds the title for its demise, bounded by its back wall and chapel gates. Its dean is secretary to the Board of Governors of the trust, manages the staff and finances, and is responsible for the chapel's conservation and maintenance. The chapel holds daily and Sunday masses as well as memorial services for deceased students and staff. Morning prayers are held each Monday and daily during Advent and Lent. It hosts an average of 150 wedding services per year for graduates, which are a funding source for the chapel. It also holds a number of musical and other cultural events. ==Footnotes== == References == === Citations === === Sources === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Category:Harry Clarke Category:University College Cork Category:University and college chapels Category:Romanesque Revival architecture in Ireland Category:Romanesque Revival church buildings Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1916 Category:20th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Ireland Category:Roman Catholic churches in Cork (city) Category:20th-century churches in the Republic of Ireland
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KDGE () is a commercial radio station licensed to both Fort Worth and Dallas, Texas. It is owned and operated by iHeartMedia, and broadcasts a mainstream adult contemporary radio format, switching to Christmas music for much of November and December. The station's studios are located along Dallas Parkway in Farmers Branch, Texas (although it has a Dallas address). The transmitter site is off West Belt Line Road in Cedar Hill. KDGE broadcasts using HD Radio technology. Its HD2 digital subchannel carries an alternative rock format, known as The Edge. ==History== ===Easy Listening format=== 102.1 FM was authorized by the Federal Communications Commission in 1960 to broadcast as KFMF, but the station was not immediately built. KJIM AM 870 (now KFJZ) purchased the KFMF construction permit and it signed on the air on April 10, 1962, as KJIM-FM.Broadcasting Yearbook 1977 page C-204 At first, KJIM-FM simulcast the daytime-only AM sister station, to allow programming to be heard after sunset. Later, KJIM-FM switched to an automated easy listening instrumental format. KJIM-AM-FM acquired a UHF-TV permit in the mid-1960s to construct Channel 21 (today KTXA). The company sold off AM 870 to raise capital. ===Move to Album Rock=== In 1966, KJIM-FM changed their call letters to KFWT-FM and improved its signal, going from 2900 watts at 165 feet to 100,000 watts at 1,000 feet HAAT from the antenna tower that would also transmit Channel 21. (Channel 21 went on the air in 1967 and signed off in 1970, returning under new ownership in 1980.) KFWT-FM was sold to Marsh Media of Amarillo, Texas and subsequently changed its call letters to KFWD. In 1973, the station flipped to album rock, and was bought by the Southern Media Company in 1975. ===Switch to Q102=== In October 1978, new General Manager Bud Stiker led the change of the call sign to KTXQ and the branding to "Q102" (to launder the station of a Fort Worth image, and to lessen confusion with then- CBS network affiliate KDFW-TV Channel 4). In 1983, CBS Radio bought the station. Through the 1980s and 1990s, the station aired variations on the rock format, including classic rock and mainstream rock. The "Q102" branding has nothing to be confused with Top 40/CHR station KDSQ in Sherman-Denison. Morning hosts Bo and Jim were popular Q102 DJs for most of Q102's existence. Though KTXQ maintained high ratings for years, by the mid-1990s, the station fell into a steep decline, particularly after the debut of KRRW's similar- sounding classic rock format. In its final book in the summer of 1998, KTXQ was ranked 19th with a 2.4 share of the market. In early 1997, CBS sold the station to New York-based SFX Broadcasting. By August of that year, however, Austin-based Capstar merged with SFX. Six months later, locally based Chancellor Media acquired KTXQ through a series of trades with Capstar. ===Magic 102=== At Noon on August 27, 1998, on the same day that Chancellor announced that they would merge with Capstar to form AMFM, Inc., KTXQ discontinued its long-running rock format and began stunting with simulcasts of other AMFM stations from across the country (including KYLD, WHTZ, KYSR, and WUBE-FM), as well as redirecting listeners to KZPS. On August 31, at 3 p.m., KTXQ flipped to rhythmic oldies as "Magic 102." The first song on "Magic" was "Shotgun" by Jr. Walker & the All Stars.http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive- RandR/1990s/1998/RR-1998-09-04.pdf ===102.1 The Edge=== In 2000, as a condition of Clear Channel's purchase of AMFM, sister station 94.5 FM, along with the intellectual property of Magic 102, were sold to Radio One. When Radio One moved the rhythmic oldies format to 94.5 at 6 a.m. on November 9, 2000, Clear Channel moved 94.5's alternative rock format to 102.1 as KDGE, "102.1 the Edge." ====KDGE history==== Created by Founder and original owner Steve Allison in 1989 (Allison Broadcast Group, Inc.), the EDGE was basically an evolution of Allison's Phoenix radio station, KEYX "KEY 100.3" an alternative station which he founded in 1986. Allison bought then-KZRK for $3.6 million cash. KZRK programmed the syndicated heavy metal format ZRock. Soon after debuting KDGE, Allison then immediately took on the construction of a 2,000-foot tower in Collinsville, Texas in order to improve the station's signal. Steve Allison chose the name "The EDGE" and changed the call letters to KDGE. He also designed the station's logo and chose and developed its format. Larry Neilson, the former program director of KEYX in Phoenix was chosen as the original EDGE Program Director. Wendy Naylor, who had worked for Allison at his various stations in Phoenix since 1982, was chosen as the music director and morning show co-host along with KEYX alumni Roger King. Also relocating to Dallas from Phoenix was Tom Duran as the Sales Manager and a major player in helping create The EDGE's promotion and concerts. Months before The EDGE debut in June 1989, the KEYX Phoenix crew was formulating the station's format, promotions, etc. from a temporary suite while the EDGE studios were being built out next door. Two weeks before the EDGE debut, Program Director Larry Neilson was contacted by Dallas local George Gimarc about possibly doing a speciality show on The EDGE. Neilson was impressed by Gimarc's music knowledge, consulted with Owner/General Manager Steve Allison, and made the decision to put Gimarc on as the afternoon drive air personality. Gimarc proved to be a good hire and his influence on the station over time was invaluable, but he had nothing whatsoever to do with the "founding" of "The Edge". "The Edge" became an important force in the local music scene in Dallas, is the only station to play local and national "alternative" styles. (KEGL had switched to a more modern format around 1982 but by 1989, that station was largely playing hits from national playlists.) Coinciding with the KDGE start-up, Steve Allison and Tom Duran formed a separate event promotion company called "Cutting Edge Events", which was the promotion force behind the station. They along with the station's Promotion Director, Tara Allison (Steve Allison's wife) created unusual events and promotions from 1989 through 1992. A collaborative effort by the Allisons, Duran, Neilson, Wendy Naylor and George Gimarc was the driving force in making The Edge a player in the Dallas market. From "Take the Edge on Vacation," to "Dinner on the Mayflower," the group kept the Edge on the cutting force of promotions in Dallas. Important contributions were made by Gimarc, Naylor, and almost all staff members. Gimarc also assembled a series of 11 compilation CDs of local bands under the name Tales from the Edge. Released between 1990 and 1996, each CD featured between 15 and 20 bands, mostly from Dallas, Austin and Denton. The CDs were value-priced: the first four include the prominent slogan "Still Only $2.94!" (sponsorships and advertising paid for the bulk of production). Several later issues were double-CD compilations, with one CD featuring current local bands, and the other being more specialized, including one focused on the area's earliest punk bands, including tracks by The Nervebreakers, The Telefones, Stickmen With Rayguns, and The Hugh Beaumont Experience, while another, put together by DJ Jeff K, featuring the (then-)newer styles of dance-club music including techno, trance and electropop (a direction the station was increasingly taking in 1994–95, after the departure of Gimarc, and with the increasing prominence of Jeff K). Notable artists featured on the CDs early in their careers included Course of Empire, Horton Heat, Deep Blue Something, Tripping Daisy, Sister 7 (as "Little Sister"), and Poi Dog Pondering. All told, over 100,000 CDs were sold in the series. The station featured an annual music festival called Edgefest once a year, plus an annual EDGE B-Day party concert and party. Past Edgefest acts included Pearl Jam, The Charlatans, Sugarcubes, Tripping Daisy, Seether, The Origin, Nickelback, Staind, My Chemical Romance, Muse, The Killers, Placebo, Kaiser Chiefs, Weezer, The Toadies, Blue October, INXS, Beck, Social Distortion, Everclear, Sponge, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Default, KoRn, Deftones, Hole, Phoenix, The Black Keys, Cage the Elephant, Cake, Flogging Molly and Drowning Pool. The first Edgefest was documented in the Jerry Lentz film "Angry Blue Planet." There were also seven editions of The Edge Home Movie, a free rental - full hour of music videos hosted by Edge DJs. One was filmed at Edgefest in 1994, and another at Lollapalooza that same year. Other notable jocks during this time include Alex Luke, Brian the Butler, Jerry Lentz, Roger King, Ernie Mills, Jeff K, Josh Venable, DJ Merritt, and Valerie Knight. In 1994, Steve Allison sold KDGE for $16 million to the broadcast-arm of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which also owned classic rock station KZPS. After that ownership change, Gimarc, Naylor, and the entire Phoenix contingent were shown the door and the station changed direction dramatically, now being "corporate" programmed. A year later, Clear Channel Communications bought all of the Mormon broadcasting company's stations nationally. Clear Channel later changed their name to IHeart Radio. The station's 'unofficial' 20th Anniversary party was on July 3, 2009, at the Lakewood Theatre with performances from Zac Malloy of the Nixons, John Easdale of Dramarama, Deep Blue Something, Pop Poppins, and the Bat Mastersons. Specialty programming included the Saturday night electronic/dance music show called "Edgeclub" with DJ Merritt (nation's longest-running and highest-rated mixshow), and Sunday shows "The Old School Edge" with Jeff K, "The Adventure Club" with Josh, and "The Local Show" with Mark, which features music made in the Dallas/Ft. Worth Metroplex. Edgeclub was taken off the air in 2010. Josh Venable became the Program Director in 2011. In January 2013, KDGE was briefly re-branded as "102-1 KDGE"; it later returned to the "Edge" moniker. ===Star 102.1=== right|thumb|200px|Logo for "Star" used during November/December 2016; alternate version is red and green, with a Santa hat over the S. On November 16, 2016, at 3 p.m., after playing "Out of My League" by Fitz and the Tantrums, KDGE began stunting with a continuous loop of "Closing Time" by Semisonic (for the first few hours, it was interspersed with "It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)" by R.E.M.), while redirecting Edge listeners to KEGL and that a new format would debut the following day at 5 p.m. on KDGE. KDGE Dallas Drops Alternative After 27 Years; Flips to Mainstream AC as "Star 102.1"102.1 The Edge Signs Off At that time, the station shifted the stunting to Christmas music with the new branding of "Star 102.1." The first song played under the Christmas music stunting was "Last Christmas" by Wham!.Star 102.1 Debuts At Midnight on December 26, after playing "Same Old Lang Syne" by Dan Fogelberg, KDGE officially debuted their permanent Mainstream Adult Contemporary format (under the "Star" branding), with "Lucky Star" by Madonna as the first song played. The flip brought the format back to the Dallas-Fort Worth media market for the first time since 2014, when former longtime AC station KVIL evolved to Hot AC, and then to Top 40/CHR. KVIL has since flipped to Alternative as "Alt 103.7", picking up the same format one year after KDGE dropped the format. On January 4, 2022, it was announced that KDGE will be adding Delilah's nightly show to their schedule starting January 10. This makes Delilah's return to the Dallas/Fort Worth market since being dropped by longtime affiliate KVIL in January 2014 during its gradual evolution to CHR/Top 40.Star 102.1 Dallas Adds Delilah - RadioInsight (January 4, 2021) ==KDGE-HD2== 102.1 HD-2 originally broadcast "The Cutting Edge," a version of the station's alternative rock format with reduced commercials and some tracks never before played on the radio. In July 2012, KDGE-HD2 switched formats and began airing a Classic Alternative format, renamed as "Old School Edge", with the playlist leaning toward adult alternative. In October 2013, it flipped to airing recent episodes of "Sixx Sense with Nikki Sixx" in addition to a mainstream rock format via iHeartRadio until the show's end. On February 1, 2018, it simulcast iHeartRadio's "Rock Workout" station, with an upbeat Mainstream Rock format.http://hdradio.com/station_guides/widget.php?id=5 HD Radio Guide for Dallas-Ft. Worth As of April 2018, the former alternative rock format was revived on KDGE-HD2 as "102.1-HD2 The Edge." ==External links== * * *EdgeClub w/ DJ Merritt *DFW Radio Archives * DFW Radio/TV History ==References== DGE Category:Radio stations established in 1962 Category:IHeartMedia radio stations Category:1962 establishments in Texas Category:Mainstream adult contemporary radio stations in the United States
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Qualin Dont'a Hightower (born March 12, 1990) is an American former football linebacker who played in the National Football League (NFL) for nine seasons with the New England Patriots. He played college football at the University of Alabama, receiving consensus All-American honors and winning two BCS National Championships. Hightower was selected in the first round of the 2012 NFL Draft by the Patriots, where he was named to two Pro Bowls and won three Super Bowl titles. ==Early years== Hightower was born in Lewisburg, Tennessee. He attended Marshall County High School in Lewisburg, where he played for the Marshall County Tigers high school football team. He first drew recognition his sophomore year when the team's starting running back quit the team. In the last four games of the season, he rushed for over 1,000 yards and seven touchdowns. After growing to prior to his junior year, Hightower was moved to linebacker and tight end. He collected 98 tackles, two sacks, and seven forced fumbles as a linebacker and caught 18 passes for 253 yards and four touchdowns at tight end. Having grown to six feet, three inches tall as a senior, Hightower again switched positions to defensive end. After recording 168 tackles (14 for loss), five forced fumbles, five interceptions and four fumble recoveries, he was named 3A Mr. Football Lineman of the Year and The Tennesseans Defensive Most Valuable Player in 2007. He also added 875 yards and 19 touchdowns on offense. Hightower was selected to play in the U.S. Army East West All-Star Game in San Antonio, Texas. Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Hightower was listed as the No. 15 inside linebacker in the nation in 2008. He chose Alabama over Auburn, Georgia Tech, Tennessee, and Vanderbilt. ==College career== Hightower attended the University of Alabama, where he played for the Crimson Tide football team from 2008 to 2011. ===2008 season=== As one of only two true freshmen to be regular starter for the Crimson Tide in 2008, Hightower started 12 games while playing in all 14 at weakside inside linebacker ("Will") in the Alabama's 3–4 defense, next to Rolando McClain who occupied the other inside linebacker spot ("Mike"). Hightower recorded 64 tackles (4th on the team) and 2.5 tackles for loss, while also having one forced fumble and two fumble recoveries. He had at least one tackle in each game and had five or more stops in seven of 14 games, including 10 against Tulane and a career-high 11 at LSU. He was subsequently named to numerous Freshman All-American teams. ===2009 season=== For the 2009 season, during the Arkansas game, Hightower suffered a knee injury in the first quarter when he was cut blocked by an Arkansas lineman. He was diagnosed a torn anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee and missed the rest of the season with surgery. True freshman Nico Johnson replaced him at weak side linebacker. Hightower recorded 16 tackles including four tackles for loss. Having played only four games, he was granted a medical redshirt making him a redshirt sophomore in 2010. ===2010 season=== Returning for the 2010 season, Hightower was expected to "be the nucleus of a young defense". He replaced McClain as Alabama's middle linebacker. ===2011 season=== In 2011, he captained a defense that ranked No. 1 nationally in all five major categories—scoring defense (8.8 ppg), total defense (191.3 ypg), rushing defense (74.9 ypg), pass efficiency defense (83.9 ypg) and pass defense (116.3 ypg). Hightower led the team with a career-best 81 tackles, including 37 solo stops, as well as three sacks (−16 yards) and 9.5 tackles for loss (−35 yards). He also registered eight quarterback hurries, one interception, one blocked field goal and three pass breakups. Hightower was a consensus first- team All-American by the Associated Press, AFCA and Walter Camp as well as Rivals.com and Pro Football Weekly. He was also a finalist for the Lombardi Award, Chuck Bednarik Award, the Butkus Award, and the Lott Trophy. ===College statistics=== Season Games Tackles Sacks Interceptions Fumbles Kick Blk GP GS Cmb Solo Ast TfL Yds Sck Yds QBH Int Yds BU PD FF FR Yds 2008 14 12 64 26 38 2.5 6 0.0 0 6 0 0 0 0 1 2 8 0 2009 4 4 16 5 11 4.0 7 1.0 4 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2010 14 14 70 30 40 3.5 8 0.0 0 9 1 2 3 5 1 0 0 0 2011 13 13 85 40 45 11.0 46 4.0 26 8 1 29 3 4 1 0 0 1 Total 55 53 235 101 134 21.0 67 5.0 30 25 2 31 7 10 3 2 8 1 ==Professional career== As early as April 2011, Hightower was projected a potential first-round draft pick in the 2012 NFL Draft. Shortly after the 2012 BCS National Championship Game, he announced his decision to forgo his final year of eligibility. Right after the season ended, he was projected a late first-round selection. After solid performances at the NFL Combine and Alabama Pro Day, he was still regarded as a late first-rounder. ===2012=== The New England Patriots selected Hightower in the first round (25th overall) of the 2012 NFL Draft. He was the third linebacker selected in 2012, behind Boston College's Luke Kuechly (9th overall) and South Carolina's Melvin Ingram (18th overall). On July 19, 2012, the New England Patriots signed Hightower to a four-year, $7.72 million contract that includes $6.28 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $4.05 million. Throughout training camp, he competed for the job as the starting strongside linebacker against Rob Ninkovich. Head coach Bill Belichick named him the opening day starter, alongside Jerod Mayo and middle linebacker Brandon Spikes. He made his first career start and professional regular season debut in the New England Patriots' season-opener at the Tennessee Titans and recorded five combined tackles and returned a fumble recovery for a six-yard touchdown during their 34–13 victory. His touchdown in the second quarter marked the first of his career. On September 30, 2012, he recorded two solo tackles and made his first career sack on quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick, before leaving in the first half of their 52–28 victory at the Buffalo Bills due to a hamstring injury. The injury sidelined him for the next two games (Weeks 5–6). In Week 7, Hightower collected a season-high seven solo tackles and sacked Mark Sanchez as the Patriots defeated the New York Jets 29–26 in overtime. On December 16, 2012, Hightower made a season-high eight combined tackles and broke up a pass during their 41–34 loss to the San Francisco 49ers. He finished the season with 60 combined tackles (43 solo), four sacks, three pass deflections, two fumble recoveries, and a touchdown in 14 games and 13 starts. The New England Patriots finished the 2012 season atop the AFC East with a 12–4 record, clinching home field advantage and a first round bye. On January 13, 2013, Hightower started his first career playoff game and recorded three combined tackles in the Patriots' 41–28 victory against the Houston Texans in the Divisional Round. The following week, he made three combined tackles as the Patriots lost 28–13 to the eventual Super Bowl champions, the Baltimore Ravens, in the AFC Championship. ===2013=== Defensive coordinator Matt Patricia retained Hightower, Mayo, and Spikes as the starting linebackers to begin the 2013 regular season. On October 20, 2013, Hightower recorded 11 combined tackles (seven solo) during a 30–27 loss at the New York Jets. The following week, he collected ten combined tackles (five solo) and sacked quarterback Ryan Tannehill in the Patriots' 27–17 win against the Miami Dolphins. In Week 14, he tied his season-high of 11 combined tackles (seven solo) in a 27–26 win against the Cleveland Browns. He finished the season with 97 combined tackles (55 solo), three pass deflections, and a sack in 16 games and 14 starts. The New England Patriots clinched another AFC East title with a 12–4 record and received a first round bye. On January 11, 2014, Hightower collected eight combined tackles, broke up a pass, and intercepted a pass by Andrew Luck during a 43–22 win against the Indianapolis Colts in the Divisional Round. The following week, he made eight combined tackles as the Patriots lost 26–16 to the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship game. ===2014=== During training camp, Hightower was moved to weakside linebacker, replacing Jerod Mayo who was named the starting middle linebacker after the departure of Brandon Spikes. Head coach Bill Belichick named Hightower and Jamie Collins Sr. the starting outside linebackers to start the regular season with Jerod Mayo starting at middle linebacker. On September 14, 2014, Hightower recorded eight combined tackles, broke up a pass, and had two sacks on Matt Cassel during the Patriots' 30–7 victory at the Minnesota Vikings. It marked his first career multi-sack game. Hightower missed two consecutive games (Weeks 5–6) due to a knee. In Week 7, he recorded a season-high 13 combined tackles (nine solo) and a sack in the Patriots' 27–25 win against the New York Jets. In Week 13, Hightower recorded ten combined tackles (four solo) and a sack on Aaron Rodgers during a 26–21 loss at the Green Bay Packers. He missed the following game (Week 14) due to a shoulder injury he sustained against the Packers. Hightower also missed the Patriots' Week 17 loss against the Buffalo Bills after aggravating his shoulder injury. Hightower finished the season with 89 combined tackles (51 solo), six sacks, two pass deflections, and a forced fumble in 12 games and 12 starts. The New England Patriots finished atop the AFC East with a 12–4 record and clinched home field advantage and a first round bye. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in the AFC Divisional Round and the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Championship and went on to Super Bowl XLIX. On February 1, 2015, Hightower started in Super Bowl XLIX and recorded five combined tackles during the Patriots' 28–24 victory against the Seattle Seahawks. He made a key play near the end of the fourth quarter, tackling Marshawn Lynch at the one-yard line to prevent a touchdown that would have given the Seahawks the lead, and likely the title. The Patriots secured their victory on the next play after teammate Malcolm Butler intercepted a pass by Russell Wilson. Because Butler caught the ball inside the one yard line, Hightower ensured he got out of the end zone to prevent a safety. ===2015=== On April 30, 2015, the New England Patriots exercised the fifth-year, $7.751 million option on Hightower's rookie contract. In Week 2, Hightower recorded a season-high 12 combined tackles (eight solo) and was credited with half a sack during a 40–32 win at the Buffalo Bills. On November 29, 2015, Hightower collected three combined tackles, but left the Patriots' 30–24 loss at the Denver Broncos after suffering a sprained MCL in his left knee. He went on to miss the next two games (Weeks 13–14) due to the injury to his MCL. Hightower was inactive for the Patriots' Week 17 loss at the Miami Dolphins due to a sprained MCL injury he aggravated the previous week. He finished the season with 61 combined tackles (51 solo), 3.5 sacks, two passes defended, and a fumble recovery in 12 games and 12 starts. The Patriots clinched another AFC East title with a 12–4 record and had a rematch with the Broncos in the AFC Championship, but lost to the eventual Super Bowl champions by a score of 20–18. ===2016=== Hightower entered training camp as the starting middle linebacker after Jerod Mayo announced his retirement. Head coach Bill Belichick officially named Hightower the starting middle linebacker to start the regular season, alongside outside linebackers Jamie Collins and Jonathan Freeny. The New England Patriots announced Hightower was selected to be one of four team captains to represent the Patriots for the season. He started the New England Patriots' season-opener at the Arizona Cardinals, but left in the second quarter of their 23–21 victory with an MCL injury. The following day, it was reported that Hightower had suffered a slight tear to his meniscus and was sidelined for the next two games (Weeks 2–3). On October 16, 2016, Hightower registered 13 combined tackles (ten solo), 1.5 sacks, and recorded his first career safety on a sack on Bengals' quarterback Andy Dalton during their 35–17 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals. He was voted as the AFC Defensive Player of the Week for his Week 6 performance against the Bengals. On December 20, 2016, it was announced that Hightower was named to the 2017 Pro Bowl, marking the first of his career Hightower finished the season with 65 combined tackles (31 solo), 2.5 sacks, two passes defensed, and a safety in 13 games and 13 starts. Hightower received enough votes from his peers to finish 94th on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017. The New England Patriots finished atop the AFC East and clinched a first round bye and a playoff berth with a 14–2 record. They went on to defeat the Houston Texans in the Divisional Round and the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship. On February 5, 2017, Hightower appeared in Super Bowl LI and helped the Patriots overcome a 25-point deficit and defeat the Atlanta Falcons 34–28 in overtime. Hightower recorded two solo tackles, one sack, and forced a fumble deep in Atlanta territory which was recovered by the Patriots to help make it a one- possession game. ===2017=== On March 15, 2017, the New England Patriots signed Hightower to a four-year, $35.5 million contract that includes $17 million guaranteed and a $10 million signing bonus. It was later reported that Hightower met with the Pittsburgh Steelers and New York Jets, but failed a physical with the Jets due to a slight tear in his pectoral muscle. Head coach Bill Belichick named him the starting middle linebacker, along with outside linebackers David Harris and Kyle Van Noy. Hightower was the only returning starter after the Patriots traded Jamie Collins and Jonathan Freeny departed in free agency. He started the New England Patriots' season-opener against the Kansas City Chiefs, but left their 42–27 loss in the second quarter after sustaining a knee injury. The knee injury unfortunately sidelined Hightower for the next two games (Weeks 2–3). On October 15, 2017, Hightower recorded a season-high seven combined tackles and a sack as the Patriots defeated the New York Jets 24–17. In Week 7, he made one solo tackle in the Patriots' 23–7 win against the Atlanta Falcons before leaving in the third quarter with a shoulder injury. The following day, it was announced that it was discovered to be a torn pectoral muscle and would likely sideline Hightower for the remainder of the season. On November 7, 2017, the New England Patriots placed Hightower on injured reserve for the remainder of the season. Hightower finished the season with 14 combined tackles (12 solo) and two sacks in five games and five starts. The Patriots replaced Hightower with Elandon Roberts and managed to finish the season atop the AFC East with a 13–3 record. They went on to defeat the Tennessee Titans in the AFC Divisional Round and the Jacksonville Jaguars in the AFC Championship game before losing 41–33 to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII. ===2018=== Hightower returned as a starter in 2018, alongside Kyle Van Noy and rookie Ja'Whaun Bentley. In Week 7, He blocked a punt that was recovered by Van Noy and returned for a touchdown, earning him AFC Special Teams Player of the Week. He finished the 2018 season with one sack, 48 total tackles, one interception, one pass defensed, and one fumble recovery in 15 starts. The Patriots finished the season 11–5, again clinching the AFC East. During Super Bowl LIII against the Los Angeles Rams, Hightower finished with two sacks and a pass deflection as the Patriots won 13–3. ===2019=== In Week 5 against the Washington Redskins, Hightower recorded a team-high eight tackles and sacked Colt McCoy 1.5 times in the 33–7 win. In Week 8 against the Cleveland Browns, Hightower recovered a fumble lost by running back Nick Chubb and returned it for a touchdown in the 27–13 win. This was his first touchdown since Week 1 of the 2012 season. In the 2019 season, Hightower appeared in and started 15 games. He recorded 5.5 sacks, 71 total tackles, four passes defensed, and one fumble recovery for a touchdown. ===2020=== On August 2, 2020, Hightower announced his intention to opt out of the 2020 season, due to concerns over the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. === 2021 === In 2021, Hightower returned to the Patriots and played in 15 of the 17 regular season games and their Wild Card Round game against Buffalo. He finished with 64 total tackles, 1.5 sacks, and one pass defensed on the year. His contract expired on March 16, 2022. === Retirement === After not playing the entire 2022 season, Hightower announced his retirement on March 21, 2023. == NFL career statistics == Legend Won the Super Bowl Bold Career high === Regular season === Year Team Games Tackles Interceptions Fumbles GP GS Cmb Solo Ast Sck Sfty PD Int Yds Avg Lng TD FF FR TD 2012 NE 14 13 60 43 17 4.0 0 3 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 2 1 2013 NE 16 14 113 65 48 1.0 0 3 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 2014 NE 12 12 105 61 44 6.0 0 2 0 0 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 2015 NE 12 12 61 51 10 3.5 0 2 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 0 2016 NE 13 13 65 31 34 2.5 1 2 0 0 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 2017 NE 5 5 14 12 2 2.0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 2018 NE 15 15 48 24 24 1.0 0 1 1 27 27.0 27 0 0 1 0 2019 NE 15 15 71 47 24 5.5 0 4 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 1 2020 NE 0 0 did not play due to Covid-19 opt-out 2021 NE 15 15 64 39 25 1.5 0 1 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 117 114 569 353 216 27.0 1 18 1 27 27.0 27 0 2 5 2 == References == ==External links== * Alabama Crimson Tide bio Category:1990 births Category:Living people Category:Alabama Crimson Tide football players Category:All-American college football players Category:American Conference Pro Bowl players Category:American football linebackers Category:New England Patriots players Category:People from Lewisburg, Tennessee Category:Players of American football from Tennessee
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is a Japanese judoka.IJF profile Abe rose to prominence after becoming Youth Olympic champion in 2014. He won the Tokyo Grand Slam later that year, at just 17-years-old, beating then-World Champion Masashi Ebinuma. He was the silver medalist at the junior World Championships in Fort Lauderdale. Abe is the current national half-lightweight champion at the All-Japan Judo Championships and won the gold medal in the 66 kg competition at the 2020 Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan. ==Early life== Abe began training judo in 2003, at the age of 6, in his hometown of Kōbe in Hyōgo prefecture. He began competing in elementary school. His father, Koji, is a firefighter at the Kobe City Fire Department. He was often thrown by Nami Nabekura when they were in elementary school. He said, "such an experience made me what I am". His name in kanji reads, "one, two, three". Abe won his first national tournament while attending Kobe Ikuta junior high school, winning in the under 55 kg category. He then embarked on his junior career while attending Shinko Gakuen Shinko high school. While still a high school student, he had won the national Inter-High School championships multiple times. He graduated in 2016. Abe is presently training at the Nittaidai. He has been coached by Atsushi Nobukawa since elementary school. His sister, Uta Abe, is the youngest circuit winner in IJF history. ==Career== ===Junior career: 2012–2014=== ====Cadet and high school competitions==== Abe had won several competitions as a cadet including the Asian U17 Championships in 2012, and the European Cup Cadets in 2012. The World Cadet Championships in Miami was Abe's first high-level international tournament. He reached the final, meeting Georgia's Koba Mchedishvili, and lost by ippon, settling for silver. The tournament was held on Abe's 16th birthday. Abe defeated the son of Japanese legend Toshihiko Koga, Hayato, at the 2015 Inter-High School Championships. ====2014 All-Japan Junior Championships==== The junior national tournament was held in Saitama. Abe defeated Takamasa Sueki in the final. ====2014 Youth Olympic Games==== Abe transitioned from cadet to junior level at the Youth Olympics in Nanjing. He played ippon judo throughout the tournament, and defeated Ukraine's Bogdav Iadov by waza-ari using sode tsurikomi goshi, and then seoi nage for ippon, securing a gold medal for Japan. Both throws that were showcased in the final are his favourite techniques. ====2014 World Junior Championships==== Abe was a favourite coming into the 2014 World Junior Championships in Fort Lauderdale. He was one of the few youth Olympic champions in the tournament. En route to the final, he defeated all his opponents by ippon in two and a half minutes or less, with the exception of future World Champion An Baul in Round 2. They were separated by a single shido. In the final, Abe was against Russia's Egor Mgdsyan. Abe was ahead in the first two and a half minutes, scoring a waza-ari and a yuko. However, Mgdsyan managed to gain two waza-aris in just 45 seconds, effectively securing ippon and defeating Abe, leaving the latter to settle for silver. ===Senior career=== ====Rise to prominence and transition to senior level: 2014 Kodokan Cup and Grand Slam ==== Abe rose to national prominence at the Kodokan Cup, his first senior tournament, where he became the youngest winner at 16-years-old, and the first high school student to win the Cup in ten years since Satoshi Ishii in 2004. His win was a surprise, especially in the third round when he defeated Masaaki Fukuoka in less than two minutes by ippon, with an uki otoshi. He defeated Yuki Nishiyama in the final. Abe transitioned to senior level internationally at the Grand Slam in Tokyo, one of the most prestigious and high-level tournaments of the IJF circuit. It was his first time being officially coached by a national team coach, namely legendary heavyweight Keiji Suzuki. Abe dominated his opening fight against Peru's Alonso Wong, scoring a waza-ari and pinning with a kesa- gatame for ippon. He also won his second fight by ippon. Abe won grand slam Tokyo December 2016 in 66 kg. Following his second fight, Abe found himself facing tough opponents, amongst who were two world champions. He competed against five-time World Championships medalist and 2009 World Champion Georgii Zantaraia in the quarter-final, and surprisingly managed to score a waza-ari. Abe tried to pin Zantaraia, however the latter escaped. Abe was nevertheless through to a semi-final match up against triple and reigning World Champion, fellow Japanese Masashi Ebinuma. Ebinuma scored a yuko in 30 seconds, and looked to be winning the bout. However, Abe almost threw Ebinuma for a score twice, but was unable to due to the senior's solid defense. Abe then caused an upset by scoring waza-ari in the last minute with ushiro goshi, defeating Ebinuma and reaching the final. In the final, Abe faced Israel's Golan Pollack. Abe scored a yuko with an ouchi gari, and Pollack landed on his side outside the mat, hitting his head on the barrier. Abe then attempted to pin him, and Pollack was unable to escape, possibly ending the bout with a win to Abe, but was voided by the referee as the second skill was out of play. There were no scores after that, therefore crowning Abe as the winner of the tournament. ====2015 Grand Prix Düsseldorf==== Abe competed in his first tournament of the year at the 2015 Grand Prix in Düsseldorf. He struggled in his first fight, scraping through by yuko. In the second round, Abe defeated the Netherlands' Junior Degen by ippon using his favourite ashi waza, ouchi gari. Abe then faced Asian Games champion Davaadorjiin Tömörkhüleg in the third round, and was defeated by waza-ari, ending his tournament. ====2015 Grand Prix Ulaanbaatar==== Abe then returned to the tour at the Grand Prix in Ulaanbaatar. Abe's first fight was against Georgia's Masha Margvelashvili. Abe won by two waza-aris, the first of which using kosoto gari and the second using his main skill sode tsurikomi goshi. He then faced Mongolia's Batgerel Battsetseg, and won by ippon and yuko. Abe faced budding rival Tomorkhuleg in the final, and scored first for a waza-ari, however was defeated by ippon in the final minute when Tomorkhuleg threw him using kosoto gari. ====2015 All- Japan Championships==== The All-Japan Championships in Fukuoka was Abe's first senior national championships. It was his final year competing nationally as a high school student. Abe defeated Yuki Hashiguchi by shido in his first fight, then subsequently lost to Kengo Takaichi in just a minute and half when Takaichi pinned him using ushiro-kesa-gatame for ippon, leaving him to settle for a bronze medal. ====2015 Kodokan Cup==== Abe competed in his second Kodokan Cup and entered as the defending champion. However, Abe looked off- form, not scoring a single point until the bronze medal match, where he used osoto gari and kosoto gari for an awasete ippon. His bid to defend his title failed in the third round when eventual finalist Joshiro Maruyama scored a yuko with tomoe nage. According to Abe, he felt that with this tournament loss, he would be unable to qualify for the 2016 Olympics. ====Continued successes and first national title: Grand Prix Tashkent and 2016 All-Japan Championships==== Abe played all-ippon judo for the first time in a senior tournament at the Grand Prix in Tashkent. In his first fight, he defeated Turkey's Sinan Sandal by ippon, again using his main ashi waza, ouchi gari. He then defeated local Dostonjon Holikulov using a powerful double sleeve grip osoto gari for ippon. In the quarter-final, Abe faced France's Alexandre Mariac, and scored a yuko using sode-tsurikomi-goshi. He sealed his win using tai otoshi for waza-ari, and connecting to pin Mariac with kesa-gatame for ippon. Abe then had another versatility showcase in the semi-final against Mongolia's Altansukh Dovdon. Abe scored a yuko in just 17 seconds, and then scored a waza-ari with tai otoshi. He then attempted to pin Dovdon, but was unsuccessful. Abe scored another yuko with his signature skill drop seoi nage, and again attempted to pin, but his leg was latched on by Dovdon. He scored ippon with a second drop seoi nage and sealed his win. Abe defeated China's Ma Duanbin with another powerful double sleeve grip osoto gari to end the fight in just 36 seconds by ippon, becoming tournament champion. In his first tournament of 2016, and the first as a university student, Abe competed at his second All-Japan Championships. He looked to be on form and reached the semi- final, where he met budding rival Ebinuma. It was a critical match as the national championships also serves as a potential qualifier for the Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, and both were potential contenders as Japan's half- lightweight representative. Abe was the first to attempt a skill, and managed to throw Ebinuma with sode-tsurikomi-goshi, but was unable to gain a score. Abe again attempted a skill, and this time was successful with osoto gari. He then connected to kesa gatame to pin Ebinuma, but the senior was able to escape before an ippon could be achieved, but scoring a waza-ari. Abe then threw Ebinuma again with sode-tsurikomi-goshi, initially scoring another waza- ari for ippon, but was voided by the referees. Abe again attempted a back throw, and was successful for a waza-ari, sending him through to the final and causing an upset. With Ebinuma watching from the sidelines, Abe faced Maruyama in the final. The fight was very close, and both were level with a shido each, sending the match to golden score. After nearly two minutes, a second shido was awarded to Maruyama, earning Abe his first national title. ====Injury and failure to qualify for the 2016 Olympics==== Abe planned to compete at the 2016 Asian Championships, but was sidelined with a knee ligament injury. It was reported he needed at least three weeks of recovery time. Abe is currently ranked 25th in the second last IJF World Rankings before the Olympics, and only the top 22 would be able to qualify. He is also the fourth Japanese in the rankings. With head coach Inoue recalling Ebinuma for his second Olympics as Japan's half-lightweight representative, Abe officially did not qualify. Abe has been chosen as an ambassador for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. ====Return to IJF circuit and continued undefeated record in Grand Slams: 2016 Tyumen and Tokyo==== Abe entered the Grand Slam in Tyumen as the number one seed, and was considered favourite for gold. He was coached by Yusuke Kanamaru and Keiji Suzuki from the sidelines. The competition was vacated by majority of top 30 fighters, being only 20 days before the Olympics. With the small number of fighters, Abe fought in the quarter-final against Azerbaijan's Iskandar Talishinski. He opened his first bout on fire, throwing Talishinski with his signature ouchi gari for waza-ari. He then scored another waza-ari for awasete ippon with a powerful seoi otoshi. Abe faced teammate Sho Tateyama in an All- Japan semi-final. He threw Tateyama for waza-ari with deashi barai and earned several shidos, but continued on to the final with the former unable to score any throws. He met local Anzaur Ardanov in the final, and threw him for waza- ari with a solid osoto gari. Abe earned his first Grand Slam title since 2014. Abe entered the Grand Slam in Tokyo following senior and rival Ebinuma's absence as the top ranked half-lightweight from Japan. An and Basile, who were largely considered the favourites as finalists at the 2016 Olympics, also competed. Abe faced Japanese-based Korean Kim Limhwan in his first fight and scored a waza-ari with an ippon seoi nage. He then tried to connect with osaekomi waza but was unsuccessful. Abe finally sealed the fight with ippon with a phenomenal single sleeve grip sode-tsurikomi-goshi. In his second fight, Abe was against Russia's Mikhail Pulyaev. Abe played with one of his most used ashi waza ouchi gari for a waza-ari. No throws were scored after that, sending Abe to the semi-final against countryman Norihito Isoda. It was a fierce fight for grips, with Abe being penalised twice with shido. He attempted a seoi nage which was initially scored an ippon but then relegated to a waza-ari. However, it was enough to send him to the final. He faced another countryman in Yuuki Hashiguchi. It was another aggressive grip fight, but Abe had the upper hand with another seoi nage attempt, scoring a yuko. Abe followed with an osoto gari but Hashiguchi was able to escape the attack. Abe then won his second Grand Slam in Tokyo with a stunning tai otoshi for ippon. Abe was considered as a major contender at the World Championships following his win, as well as one of judo's top half-lightweights. ====Tokyo Olympics==== In 2021, Abe won the gold medal at the 2020 Olympics on the same day that his younger sister Uta won the gold medal in her judo division. ====Return to IJF World Tour and The 2022 Tashkent World Championships==== Abe Hifumi returned to the IJF World Tour on 8 July 2022 winning the Budapest Grand Slam. After the Grand Slam, he competed in the World Judo Championships in Tashkent on 7 October. He won five fights, including semi-final against the world number one Denis Vieru and the final against his country-man Joshiro Maruyama with an ashi-waza footsweep. ==Fighting style== Abe is known for a more modern style of Japanese judo, like fellow lightweight and World Champion Naohisa Takato. He is right-handed. A seoi nage and sode-tsurikomi-goshi specialist, he is aggressive, physical and dynamic with his fighting, often preferring a fast pace of judo, with an average winning time of two and half minutes. He prefers a double sleeve grip when executing throws. Abe often connects skills using ashi waza like osoto gari and ouchi gari to set up his nage waza, and also uses osoto gari and ouchi gari as a lone skill for ippon. Japanese legend and current head coach Kōsei Inoue has described him as, "way beyond his years... I'm looking forward to how much he can compete nationally and internationally." Abe considers Tadahiro Nomura as his favourite fighter and main influence in his judo. ==Competitive record== Judo Record Total 28 Wins 25 (89.3%) by Ippon 18 (64.3%) Losses 3 (10.7%) by Ippon 2 (7.14%) (does not include Youth Olympic Games and national tournaments) ==Medals== ;2014 : All-Japan Junior Championships : Youth Olympic Games : World Junior Championships : Kodokan Cup : Grand Slam, Tokyo ;2015 : Grand Prix Ulaanbaatar : All-Japan Championships : Kodokan Cup : Grand Prix, Tashkent ;2016 : All- Japan Championships : Grand Slam, Tyumen : Grand Slam, Tokyo ;2017 : Grand Slam, Paris : 2017 World Judo Championships, Budapest : Grand Prix, Tokyo ;2018 : Grand Prix, Yekaterinburg : Grand Prix, Zagreb : 2018 World Judo Championships, Baku : Grand Slam, Osaka ;2019 : 2019 World Judo Championships, Tokyo : Grand Slam, Osaka ;2020 : Grand Slam, Düsseldorf ;2021 : Grand Slam, Antalya : Olympic Games −66 kg, Tokyo ;2022 : Grand Slam, Budapest : 2022 World Judo Championships, Tashkent ;2023 : 2023 World Judo Championships, Doha ==See also== *List of Youth Olympic Games gold medalists who won Olympic gold medals ==References== ==External links== * * * * Category:Japanese male judoka Category:Sportspeople from Kobe Category:1997 births Category:Judoka at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics Category:Judoka at the 2020 Summer Olympics Category:Living people Category:World judo champions Category:Youth Olympic gold medalists for Japan Category:Olympic gold medalists for Japan Category:Olympic silver medalists for Japan Category:Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic judoka for Japan Category:Olympic medalists in judo Category:21st-century Japanese people
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Rugby union in South Africa is centrally administered by the South African Rugby Union, which consists of fourteen provincial unions – the Blue Bulls Rugby Union, the Boland Rugby Union, the Border Rugby Football Union, the Eastern Province Rugby Union, the Free State Rugby Union, the Golden Lions Rugby Union, the Griffons Rugby Union, the Griqualand West Rugby Union, the KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union, the Leopards Rugby Union, the Mpumalanga Rugby Union, the South Western Districts Rugby Football Union, the Valke Rugby Union and the Western Province Rugby Football Union. Each of these unions administers a senior professional rugby team that participates in the domestic Currie Cup and Rugby Challenge (previously Vodacom Cup) competitions. In addition, these unions are responsible for amateur club rugby in their region. Clubs participate in provincial leagues organised by the unions; university sides also participate in the annual Varsity Cup competition, while non- university sides participate in the annual Gold Cup. ==Franchises== The eight franchises – teams that will participate in professional international competitions – and their constituent rugby unions are: United Rugby Championship Franchises United Rugby Championship Franchises United Rugby Championship Franchises United Rugby Championship Franchises Franchise Base Rugby union Pretoria Blue Bulls Rugby Union Johannesburg Golden Lions Rugby Union Durban KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union Cape Town Western Province Rugby Union Other Franchises Other Franchises Other Franchises Other Franchises Franchise Base Rugby union Bloemfontein Free State Rugby Union Port Elizabeth Eastern Province Rugby Union Kimberley Griqualand West Rugby Union Nelspruit Mpumalanga Rugby Union ==Provincial Rugby== right|thumb|500px|Map of South Africa displaying the borders of the 14 Currie Cup teams The fourteen provincial unions each have a professional team that play in the annual Currie Cup and Rugby Challenge (previously Vodacom Cup) competitions, plus youth sides in the Under-21 and Under-19 provincial competitions and youth tournaments such as the Under-18 and Under-13 Craven Week tournaments, the Under-18 Academy Week tournament and the Under-16 Grant Khomo Week tournament. South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams South African provincial teams Union Base Professional team Blue Bulls Rugby Union Pretoria Boland Rugby Union Wellington Border Rugby Football Union East London Eastern Province Rugby Union Port Elizabeth Free State Rugby Union Bloemfontein Golden Lions Rugby Union Johannesburg Griffons Rugby Union Welkom Griqualand West Rugby Union Kimberley KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union Durban Leopards Rugby Football Union Potchefstroom Mpumalanga Rugby Union Nelspruit South Western Districts Rugby Football Union George Valke Rugby Union Kempton Park Western Province Rugby Union Cape Town Since 2013, a team participated in the Vodacom Cup competition. Limpopo is a sub-union that forms part of the Blue Bulls Rugby Union. ==Varsity Rugby== In 2008, a Varsity Cup competition was created, with eight universities competing. In 2011, a second tier called the Varsity Shield was added, consisting of a further five side and the collective was rebranded as "Varsity Rugby". In addition to playing in the Varsity Rugby competitions, these sides also take part in the provincial unions' championships. Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams Varsity Rugby teams University Team Union Central University of Technology Free State Rugby Union Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Eastern Province Rugby Union North-West University Leopards Rugby Union Tshwane University of Technology Blue Bulls Rugby Union University of Cape Town Western Province Rugby Union University of Fort Hare Border Rugby Football Union University of Johannesburg Golden Lions Rugby Union University of KwaZulu-Natal KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union University of Pretoria Blue Bulls Rugby Union University of Stellenbosch Western Province Rugby Union University of the Free State Free State Rugby Union University of the Western Cape Western Province Rugby Union University of the Witwatersrand Golden Lions Rugby Union ==Provincial championships== Each of the provincial unions have a number of amateur clubs playing in the respective club championships. The highest-placed non-university sides qualify to the annual Gold Cup. ===Blue Bulls Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Blue Bulls Rugby Union are: * Atteridgeville * Brits * Bronkhorstspruit * Centurion * Correctional Services * Cullinan * Dragons * Eersterust * Hartbeespoort * Mabopane * Mamelodi * Nellmapius * Medunsa Campus * Naka Bulls * Noordelikes * Oostelike Eagles * Pretoria * Pretoria Military * QBR * Silver Valke * Soshanguve * Transwerk Parke * Tswaing * Tuine * * * Westelikes ====Blue Bulls Limpopo Sub-Union==== The club sides that form part of the Blue Bulls Limpopo Sub-Union are: * Atok * Bosveld * Kwagga * Letaba * Levubu * Loskop * Louis Trichardt * Mac Musina * Mankweng * Mogol * Naboomspruit * Noordelikes * Northam Platinum * Nylstroom * Phagameng Rugby Club * Phalaborwa * Pietersburg * Police * Potgietersrus * Seshego * Thabazimbi * Union * University of Limpopo * University of Venda * Vaalwater * Winterveldt Updated 8 May 2014. ===Boland Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Boland Rugby Union are: * Abbotsdale * Adelaars * All Stars * Ashton United * Atlantics * Attackers * Aurora * Bella Vista * Black Leaves * Blue Swallows * Bonnievale United * Botrivier * Broodkraal * Caledon * Cederberg Leopards * Ceres * Cheetahs * Citrusdal * Coronations * CPUT * Darling * De Doorns * Delicious * Delicious * Dennegeur * Die Dorings * Doringbaai Young Spurs * Eagles * Elandsbaai * Elandskloof * Elim * Evergreens Paarl * Evergreens Wellington * Excelcior * Flying Eagles * Flying Eagles * Genadendal * Goedverwacht * Gold Stars * Golden Eagles * Golden Swallows * Good Hopes * Grabouw * Green Lillies * Greyton * Growing Stars * Hamlet * Hawston * Hillcrest United * Hopefield * Invincibles * Kleinmond * Klipdrift * Koringberg * Laingsburg * Langebaan * Malmesbury * Mamre * Marines * Mbekweni United * McGregor * Miracles * Montagu * Môrester * Mountain Stars * Napier * Never Despair * Newtons * Oak Valley * Op-die-Berg * Orchard * Overhex * Paardekloof * Paternoster * Piketberg * Porseleinberg * Porterville * Protea De Doorns * Protea Worcester * Rangers Bredasdorp * Rangers De Hoop * Rangers Robertson * Rawsonville United * Red Roses * Red Roses * Red Stars * Riebeeck United * Riviersonderend * Robertson RFC * Rooi Tiere * Rooiberg United * Rosendal * Roses United * Safcol * Saldanha * Saldanha Tigers * Samoa Moorreesburg * Saron * Sea Hawks * Spring Roses * St Helenabaai * Standards * Struisbaai * Temperance * Thistles * Titans * Touwpark * Tulbagh * United Stars * United Stones * Universals * Universals * Velddrif * Verenigde Ceres * Villagers Breërivier * Villagers Citrusdal * Villagers Montagu * Villagers Newton * Villagers Wittewater * Villagers Worcester * Villiersdorp * Voorberg * Vredenburg * Wamakers * Wellington * Wesbank * Wolseley * Worcester Perseverance * Young Black Arrows * Young Blues * Young Blues * Young Diggers * Young Eagles * Young Eagles * Young Eagles Robertson * Young Good Hopes * Young Hamiltons * Young Hearts * Young Proteas * Young Proteas * Young Stars * Young Tigers * Young Tigers * Young Turbos * Young Westlyans * Zebras Updated 8 May 2014. ===Border Rugby Football Union=== The club sides that recently played in the top-level domestic competition organized by the Border Rugby Football Union are: * Africans * Berlin Tigers * Buffalo * Breakers * Black Eagles * Busy Boys * Cambridge * East London Police * Evergreen * Moonlight * Ngculu Zebras * Ntlaza Lions * Ncerha Leopards * Ocean Sweepers * Old Collegians * Old Selbornians * Ready Blues * Shining Stars * Swallows * * United Brothers * Wallabies * Winter Rose * WSU All Blacks * WSU Eagles * Young Leopards Updated 12 May 2014. ===Eastern Province Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Eastern Province Rugby Union are: * Aberdeen * Adelaide Rangers * African Bombers * Alderonians * All Blacks * Auckland Tigers * Black Lions * Born Fighters * Central * Coldstream Crusaders * Colesberg Wanderers * Cookhouse United * DB Blues * Despatch * Despatch Oostelikes * Easterns * Evergreens (Cradock) * Evergreens (Krakeel) * Excelsior * Gardens * Gelvan Wallabies * Gladiators * Glen Roses * Grahamstown Brumbies * Grootfontein * Hamilton * Hampshire * Hankey Villagers * Harlequins * Hilltop Eagles * Humansdorp RC * Humansdorp United * Jansenville * Karoo Springbokke * Khyelitsha United * Kirkwood * Klipfontein UT * Kliplaat * Kowie * Kruisfontein * Kuya * Kuyga * Kwaru * Lily White * Loerie Blues * Middleberg Eagles * Mighty Blues * Mission * Motherwell * Murraysburg * * Noupoort Diamonds * Old Grey * Orlando Eagles * Park * Paterson Lions * Pearston Villagers * Pirates * Port Elizabeth College * Port Elizabeth Crusaders * Port Elizabeth Harlequins * Port Elizabeth Police * Port Elizabeth Villagers * Progress * Red Lions * Rhodes * Rosebuds * Scorpions * Siyakhula * Spring Rose * St Cyprian's * St Francis Sharks * St Mark's * Star of Hope * Steytlerville Dolphins * Steytlerville United * Suburban * Sunday Stars * Thistles * Trying Stars * Union * United Barbarians * Visitors * Walmer Wales * Walmer Wallabies * Wanders * Windvogel United * Winter Rose * Winter Rose (UIT) Updated 8 May 2014. ===Free State Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Free State Rugby Union are: * Bloemfontein Collegians * Bloemfontein Crusaders * Bloemfontein Defence Force * Bloemfontein Police * * Mangaung * Old Greys * Steyners * * Warriors Reserve teams also play in the league, as well as youth sides of CUT and UFS. Updated 6 May 2015. ===Golden Lions Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Golden Lions Rugby Union are: * Alberton * Alexandra * Diggers * Eldoronians * Germiston Simmer * Harlequins * Jabulani * Johannesburg Police * Khosa * Pirates * Raiders * Randfontein * Roodepoort * Soweto * Titans * * Union * Wanderers * Wasps * Wes Wits * Updated 8 May 2014. ===Griffons Rugby Union=== The club sides that recently played in the top two domestic competitions organised by the Griffons Rugby Union are: * Beatrix * Bethlehem Collegians * Bethlehem Oud Skoliere * Bobbies * Bothaville * Bultfontein * Ficksburg * Frankfort * Harmony * Harmony Tigers * Henneman * Kroonstad * Harrismith * Hoopstad * Kestell * Koppies * Klutwanong * Ladybrand * Lindley * Parys * Welkom * Welkom Rovers Updated 12 May 2014. ===Griqualand West Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Griqualand West Rugby Union are: * Aggeneys RFC * Desert Daisies Rugby Club * Douglas RFC * Elevations * Gladiators RFC * Hartswater Rugby Club * Hope Town * Hurricanes * Jacobsdal * Kakamas, Rugby Klub * Kenhard * Kenhardt, Rugby Klub * Kimberley Polisie Rugby Club * Klipfontein United Rugby Club * Kuruman Rugby Club * Marrigolds * Nababeep Rugby Club * Ocean Collegians Rugby Club * Okiep Thistles R.F.C * Orania Rugby Club * Oranjemund RFC * Phantoms Rugby Club * Pofadder Rugby Klub * Postmasburg * Prieska Rugby Club * Protea United * Protea United Rugby Club * Rangers RFC * Riverton's * Rosh-Pinah Rugby Club * Sishen Rugby Club * Springbok Rugby Klub * Steinkopf United RFC * Sutherland Rugby Club * Tigers RFC × Victoria Western Force * United Rugby Football Club * Universals * Warrenton Rugby Club * Warriors Rugby Football Club * Young Blues Rugby Club * Young Blues/Williston * Young Lions * Young Removers Rugby Club * Young Stars Rugby Club Updated 8 May 2014. ===KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union are: * Amabhubesi * Amangcesha * Amanzimtoti * Ballito Dolphins * Bergville Zebras * Black Knights RFC * Bulls * Cedara * Clermont * College Rovers * Drakensberg * Durban Collegians * Durban Crusaders * Durban Mets * Eshowe * Esikhawini * Flying Eagles * Gamalakhe * Harding * Harlequins * Hillcrest Villagers * Hluhluwe * Howick Eagles * Ixopo * Izinyathi * Jaguars * Kapaailand * Kokstad * Kwantu * Ladysmith * Ladysmith United * Mandini * Mangosuto University of Technology * Matatiele * Melmoth * Mtubatuba * Nagle Dam Rhinos * Newcastle Highlanders * Newlands East Brumbies * Noodsberg * Obhejane * Ogwini Bafana * Pietermaritzburg Collegians * Pietermaritzburg Waratahs * Piet Retief * Pinetown Raiders * Pongola * Queensburgh * Rhinos * Richards Bay * Scottburgh * Sentraal * South Coast Warriors * University of KwaZulu-Natal Howard College * * University of KwaZulu-Natal Westville * University of Zululand * Ushaka Warriors * Utrecht * Varsity College * Volksrust * Voortrekker Old Boys * Vryheid * Young Lions * Westville Old Boys * Zululand Rhinos Updated 8 May 2014. ===Leopards Rugby Football Union=== The club sides that recently played in the top-level domestic competition organised by the Leopards Rugby Football Union (or teams from the region playing in other competitions) are: * Hartbeesfontein * Klerksdorp2 * Leeudoringstad * Lichtenburg * Matlosana Rugby Club * 1 * Potch Dorp * Rustenburg Impala3 * Vaal Reefs2 * Vryburg 1 play club rugby in the Golden Lions Pirates Grand Challenge. 2 Klerksdorp and Vaal Reefs play club rugby in the Valke Peregrine League. 3 Rustenburg Impala play club rugby in the Blue Bulls Carlton League. ===Mpumalanga Rugby Union=== The club sides that recently played in the top- level domestic competition organised by the Mpumalanga Rugby Union are: * Barberton * Bethal * Carolina * Ermelo * Groblersdal * Impala Komatipoort * Hurricanes * Kriel * Lydenburg Rooikatte * Malelane * Matla * Middelburg * Nelspruit * Ratels * Sasol * Standerton * Tigers * White River * Witbank Ferros Updated 12 May 2014. ===South Western Districts Rugby Football Union=== The club sides that form part of the South Western Districts Rugby Football Union are: * Adias * Albertinia * All Blacks * Arrows * Barrydale * Beaufort * Bitou * Black Lions * Black Warriors * Blanco * Bonnievale Blue Birds * Bridgton * Buffaloes * Calitzdorp * Collegians * Crusaders * DKD Mosselbaai * DKD Oudtshoorn * Dysselsdorp * Eagle Stars * Evergreens * Excelciors * Gamka United * Garden Route * George * Glen Roses * Greater Knysna * Grootbrak * Happy Hearts * Harlequins * Heidelberg * Hungry Lions * Jaguars * Kango United * Knysna United * Ladismith * Maoris * Mossel Bay * Mossel Bay Barbarians * Mountain Stars * NMMU George * Oudtshoorn * Perseverance * Plett United * Prince Albert * Progress George * Progress Suurbraak * Proteas * PSP Timbers * Rheenendal * Riversdal Barbarians * Riversdal Dorp * Riversdale Blues * Seagulls * Shamrocks * Silverstars * Spring Roses * Super Stars * Swellendam * Swings * Thistles * Uniondale * United Stars * Van Wyksdorp * Vleesbaai * Willowmore * Winter Roses * Young Leaves * Young Roses * Zoar *Sibanye kings Updated 6 May 2014. ===Valke Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Valke Rugby Union are: * Benoni * Boksburg * Brakpan * Buffels * Delmas * East Rand Police * East Rand United * Edenpark * Edenvale * Elsburg * Heidelberg * Kempton Wolwe * Meyerton * Nigel * * Sasolburg * Springs * Vaal * VUT * Vereeniging Updated 8 May 2014. ===Western Province Rugby Union=== The club sides that form part of the Western Province Rugby Union are: * Albions * All Saints * Allandale * Atlantis * Belhar * Bellville * Bishop Lavis * Blakes * Blue Jets * Blue Stars United * Brackenfell * Busy Bees * Caledonian Roses * Cities * Cloetesville * Collegians * Delft United Rugby Club * Durbanville- Bellville * Eersterivier * Elsies River United * False Bay * False Bay Cobras * Franschhoek United * Goodwood * Goodwood Gazelles * Hamediehs * Hamiltons * Hamlets * Hands & Heart * Helderberg * Imiqhayi * Khaya Rose * Khayelitsha * Koshuis * Kraaifontein * Kuilsrivier * Kylemore * Lagunya * Langa * Lower Paarl * Macassar * Manenberg Rangers * Masiphumelele * * Mitchells Plain Utd * Mountain Rocks * NNK * Noordelikes * Paarl * Paarl Rangers * Peninsula * Perel United * Perseverance * Pniel Villagers * Polisie * Primrose * Progress * Raithby Universals * Rangers * Retreat * Richmond Rangers * Riverstones * Rocklands * Scottsdene Central * Silverleaf * Silvertree * Simondium * Sir Lowrians * SK Walmers * St George's * Stellenbosch Coronations * Strand * Strand Pioneers * Strand United * Technikon-tuine * Temperance * Thistles * Titans * Tygerberg * * Unimilrfc * United brothers * * Van der Stel * Vikings Police * Villager * Vineyards * Violets * Violets (Paarl) * Watsonia * Whistling Wheels * Windmeul United * Young Brothers * Young Gardens * Young Ideas * Young Peoples * Young Standards * Young Stars * Young Wesleys Updated 8 May 2014. ==See also== * Currie Cup * Vodacom Cup * Varsity Rugby * Gold Cup ==References== * Teams
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Mexico participated at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires, Argentina from 6 October to 18 October 2018. == Medalists == Medal Name Sport Event Notes Luis Avilés Athletics 400 metres Randal Willars Diving 10 m platform Nicole Meyer (El Capricho Champion) Equestrian Team Jumping Mixed NOC Sofía Ramos Athletics 5000 metre walk Jennifer Yazmin Carrillo Boxing Natalia Botello Fencing Sabre Stephanie Rodríguez Canoeing C1 sprint Gabriela Agúndez Diving 10 m platform Natalia Botello Fencing Mixed team Mixed NOC ==Archery== Mexico qualified two archers based on its performance at the 2017 World Archery Youth Championships. ; Individual Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Rank Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Carlos Daniel Vaca Cordero Boys' Individual 680 4 W 6–0 W 6–0 L 4–6 did not advance 5 Valentina Vázquez Cadena Girls' Individual 659 7 W 6–2 W 7–1 W 6–0 L 4–6 L 3–7 4 ; Team Athletes Event Ranking round Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Rank Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Mixed team 1288 26 W 6–0 W 5–1 L 2–6 did not advance 5 1305 2 W 6–2 L 2–6 did not advance 9 ==Athletics== Boy's Events Track and Field Athlete Event Stages Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Martin Troera 100 metres 11.39 24 10.88 23 22.27 23 Luis Avilés 400 metres 47.45 1 46.78 2 1:34.23 Axel Vázquez 800 metres 1:52.44 10 1:53.84 11 3:46.28 9 Alejandro Gil 400 metres hurdles 54.89 10 54.29 7 1:49.18 9 Leopoldo Rincon 1500 metres 4:00.28 14 12:30 8 22 pts 11 Cesar Gómez 2000m steepleachase 5:53.05 11 12:14 7 18 pts 10 Jesus Macho 3000 metres 14:46 14 14:40 14 28.86 14 César Córdova 5000 metre walk 20:39.90 5 DQ Jose Manuel López shot put 17.13 15 17.20 12 34.33 14 Girl's Events Track and Field Athlete Event Stages Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Alejandra Ortiz 100 metres 12.52 19 11.82 10 24.34 14 Lorena Rangel 400 metres 57.08 11 56.86 13 1:53.94 12 María Fernanda Patrón 100 metres hurdles 14.14 12 13.68 7 27.82 8 Yara Amador 400 metres hurdles 1:01.63 8 59.91 4 2:01.54 6 Arian Chia 2000m steepleachase 6:52.87 11 14:56 14 25 pts 13 Sofía Ramos 5000 metre walk 22:29.52 2 23:29.45 4 45:58.97 Sara Solano long jump 5.00 13 5.23 14 10.14 14 Claudina Díaz high jump 1.70 12 1.72 14 3.42 12 Xochitl Montoya javelin throw 41.74 15 42.03 14 83.77 14 ==Basketball== Mexico qualified a girls' team based on the U18 3x3 National Federation Ranking. * Girls' tournament - 1 team of 4 athletes Event Group stage Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Girls' tournament W 17–14 L 8–15 L 15–20 W 21–7 5 did not advance ; Shoot-out contest Athlete Event Qualification Final Points Rank Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Total Rank Karina Esquer Shoot-out contest 7 4 did not advance Martha Tapia ==Boxing== ; Girls Athlete Event Preliminaries Semifinals Final / Rank Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Jennifer Yazmin Carrillo -57 kg W 5-0 W R2 0:48 L 0–5 ==Canoeing== Mexico qualified four boats based on its performance at the 2018 World Qualification Event. * Boys' C1 - 1 boat * Boys' K1 - 1 boat * Girls' C1 - 1 boat * Girls' K1 - 1 boat Athlete Event Qualification Repechage Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Rank Time Rank Time Rank Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Miguel Adrian Figueroa Vargas Boys' C1 sprint 1:54.98 5 1:55.00 4 L 1:55.20 did not advance Boys' C1 slalom 1:38.38 12 1:35.39 6 did not advance Alberto Chávez Contreras Boys' K1 sprint 1:48.75 9 1:46.75 5 did not advance Boys' K1 slalom 1:28.52 12 1:24.63 9 did not advance Stephanie Angie Rodríguez Guzmán Girls' C1 sprint 2:16.69 2 W 2:18.53 W 2:16.52 L 2:16.22 W 2:16.04 Girls' C1 slalom 2:11.69 16 2:11.69 7 L 2:02.98 did not advance Andrea Rocha Donias Girls' K1 sprint 2:01.13 9 2:01.10 1 L 2:02.15 did not advance Girls' K1 slalom 1:42.49 19 1:42.96 10 did not advance ==Cycling== Mexico qualified a boys' and girls' combined team based on its ranking in the Youth Olympic Games Junior Nation Rankings. They also qualified a mixed BMX racing team based on its ranking in the Youth Olympic Games BMX Junior Nation Rankings. Athletes Event Cross-Country Eliminator Time Trial Criterium Cross-Country Race Road Race Total Pts Rank Time Rank Points Time Rank Points Rank Points Time Rank Points Time Rank Points Brian Joshua Ivan García Barrón Tomas Aguirre Garza Boys' Team 1:45.651 1:53.442 14 33 8 8:50.65 6 30 7 50 17:17 17:09 11 11 0 1:31:03 1:31.03 12 17 1 221 5 Fatima Anahi Hijar Marin Katia Elizabeth Martínez Miñarro Girls' Team 2:01.051 2:08.222 14 24 8 10:27.56 16 1 14 3 16:05 17:42 10 15 0 1:42:19 1:42:19 8 25 20 32 13 Mixed Events Athletes Event Semifinals Total Pts Rank Rank Points Eduardo Vargas Mixed Racing 10 10 12 14 Dayana Hernández 15 2 ==Diving== ; Boys' Athlete Event Preliminary Final Points Rank Points Rank Randal Willars 3 m springboard 497.70 8 528.10 5 10 m platform 544.80 2 609.80 ; Girls' Athlete Event Preliminary Final Points Rank Points Rank Gabriela Agundes 3 m springboard 408.20 6 427.70 5 10 m platform 435.05 2 405.55 ; ; Mixed Team Athlete Event Preliminary Final Points Rank Points Rank Mixed team colspan=2 rowspan=2 309.00 10 301.10 11 ==Equestrian== Mexico qualified a rider based on its performance at the FEI North American Junior Championships. * Individual Jumping - 1 athlete Nicole Meyer Robredo Athlete Horse Event Round 1 Round 2 Total Jump off Penalties Rank Penalties Total Rank Penalties Rank Penalties Total Rank Nicole Meyer Robredo El Capricho Champion Individual Jumping 4 2 8 8 20 12 20 did not advance North America El Capricho Champion Quid Du Plessis Canal Del Bajo Kithira Llavaneras Genquina Santa Rosa Valery Team Jumping 4 # 0 0 0 0 # 0 4 # 0 0 4 # 0 0 0 4 # 0 # 0 0 0 0 38.07 # 34.55 # 34.07 32.16 31.66 97.89 ==Fencing== Mexico qualified two athletes based on its performance at the 2018 Cadet World Championship. ; Girls' Athlete Event Pool Round Seed Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Rank Opposition Result Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Natalia Botello Sabre Jolien Corteyn (BEL) 1 BYE Kliuchnikova W 15-9 Corteyn W 15-3 Pusztai L 9-15 Lee Ju-eun (KOR) Chaima Benadouda (ALG) Alina Kliuchnikova (RUS) Ma Ho Chee (HKG) Boy's Athlete Event Pool Round Seed Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Rank Opposition Result Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Diego Cervantes Foil Jonas Winterberg-Poulsen (DEN) 1 BYE Bem L 12-25 did not advance 5 Loaay Marouf (EGY) Matthew Lim (SGP) Maciej Bem (POL) Chan Pak Hei (HKG) ; Mixed Team Athletes Event Quarterfinals Semifinals / Bronze Final / Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Americas 1 Emily Vermeule (USA) (5) May Tieu (USA) (3) Natalia Botello (MEX) (2) Isaac Herbst (USA) (8) Kenji Bravo (USA) (2) Robert Vidovszky (USA) (4) Mixed team Americas 2 W 30-15 Asia-Oceanía 1 L 22-23 Europe 3 W 30-24 (6) (4) (7) (9) (5) (10) Americas 1 L 15-30 did not advance 7 ==Field hockey== === Boys'=== ; Preliminary round ; Ninth and tenth place game ===Girls'=== ; Preliminary round ; Eleventh and twelfth place game ==Golf== ; Individual Athlete Event Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Total Score Rank Score Total Rank Score Total Rank Score Par Rank Maria Fernanda Martinez Almeida Girls' Individual 71 (+1) 2 77 (+7) 148 19 74 (+4) 222 12 222 +12 11 Alejandro Madariaga Couttolenc Boys' Individual 74 (+4) 16 75 (+5) 149 17 71 (+1) 220 6 220 +10 13 ; Team Athletes Event Round 1 (Fourball) Round 2 (Foursome) Round 3 (Individual Stroke) Total Score Rank Score Rank Girl Boy Total Rank Score Par Rank Maria Fernanda Martinez Almeida Alejandro Madariaga Couttolenc Mixed team 65 (-5) 10 79 (+9) 25 74 70 144 (+4) 7 288 +8 17 ==Gymnastics== ===Artistic=== Mexico qualified one gymnast based on its performance at the 2018 American Junior Championship. Athlete Event Apparatus Total Rank Stephanie Hernández Qualification 12.400 11.966 11.966 9.266 45.598 23 ===Rhythmic=== Mexico qualified one gymnast based on its performance at the 2018 American Junior Championship. Athlete Event Apparatus Total Rank Xitlali Santana All-around 10.800 12.650 10.900 10.650 45.000 31 ===Trampoline=== Mexico qualified one gymnast based on its performance at the 2018 American Junior Championship. Athlete Event 1st Routine 2nd Routine Total Rank Score Rank Score Rank Michelle Mares individual 41.755 9 48.675 10 90.430 10 ==Modern pentathlon== Mexico qualified two pentathletes based on its performance at the Pan American Youth Olympic Games Qualifier. Athlete Event Fencing Ranking Round (épée one touch) Swimming (200 m freestyle) Fencing Bonus Round (épée one touch) Combined: Shooting/Running (10 m air pistol)/(3000 m) Total Points Final Rank Results Rank Time Rank Points Rank Points Time Rank Points Sergio Flores Boys' Individual 202 19 2:11.89 14 287 18 0 11:34.64 5 606 1095 11 Melissa Mireles Girls' Individual 210 16 2:32.75 22 245 13 0 12:53.74 8 527 982 11 Team 10 Mixed Team 195 14 2:09.37 58.67 1:10.70 19 292 16 1 11:58.42 12 582 1069 15 Team 16 215 6 2:23.77 1:18.87 1:04.90 22 263 6 0 13:40.04 22 480 959 22 ==Rowing== Mexico qualified one boat based on its performance at the 2017 World Junior Rowing Championships. They also qualified a boat in girls' single sculls based on their performance at the American Qualification Regatta. * Boys' pair – 2 athletes * Girls' single sculls - 1 athlete ==Sailing== Mexico qualified two boats based on their performance at the North American Windsurfing Championship. * Boys' Techno 293+ - 1 boat * Girls' Techno 293+ - 1 boat ==Shooting== Mexico qualified four sport shooters based on its performance at the American Qualification Tournament. * Boys' 10m Air Rifle - 1 quota * Boys' 10m Air Pistol - 1 quota * Girls' 10m Air Rifle - 1 quota * Girls' 10m Air Pistol - 1 quota ; Individual Athlete Event Qualification Final Points Rank Points Rank Edson Ismael Ramírez Ramos Boys' 10 m air rifle 615.3 15 did not advance Gabriela Fernanda Martínez López Girls' 10 m air rifle 615.1 14 did not advance Sebastian Hernández García Boys' 10 m air pistol 547 19 did not advance Andrea Victoria Ibarra Miranda Girls' 10 m air pistol 559 9 did not advance ; Mixed Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final Points Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Mixed 10 metre air pistol 738 16 Q W 10-5 W 10-8 L 3-10 W 10-4 Mixed 10m air rifle 825.1 6 Q W 10–4 W 10–4 W 10–8 L 9–10 823.0 10 Q W 10–7 W 10–8 L 8–10 L 7–10 4 ==Swimming== ==Triathlon== Mexico qualified two athletes based on its performance at the 2018 American Youth Olympic Games Qualifier. ; Individual Athlete Event Swim (750m) Trans 1 Bike (20 km) Trans 2 Run (5 km) Total Time Rank Javier Antonio de la Peña Schott Boys 9:40 0:32 28:40 0:26 16:27 55:45 12 Sofia Rodríguez Moreno Girls 10:39 0:50 31:14 0:34 17:49 1:01:06 12 ; Relay Athlete Event Total Times per Athlete (Swim 250m, Bike 6.6 km, Run 1.8 km) Total Group Time Rank Americas 1 Mixed Relay 22:11 (3) \- \- \- DNF Americas 2 23:23 (11) 21:26 (6) 23:49 (6) 22:01 (7) 1:30:39 1P 6 ==Weightlifting== Mexico qualified two athletes based on its performance at the 2017 World Youth Championships. ; Boy Athlete Event Snatch Clean & Jerk Total Rank Result Rank Result Rank Mauricio Cristofer Canul Facundo −69 kg 127 3 156 2 283 ; Girl Athlete Event Snatch Clean & jerk Total Rank Result Rank Result Rank Yesica Yadira Hernández Vieyra −48 kg 74 2 97 1 171 ==Wrestling== Key: * – Victory by Fall * – Without any points scored by the opponent * – With point(s) scored by the opponent * – Without any points scored by the opponent * – With point(s) scored by the opponent ; Boys Athlete Event Group stage Final / Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Axel Salas Greco-Roman −51kg L 1 – 10 W 10 – 8 2 W 5 – 3 Miguel Ugalde Greco-Roman −60kg W 8 – 0 L 6 – 9 2 L 0 – 9 4 Luis Orozco freestyle −110kg L 1 – 4 W 4 – 0 2 L 2 – 6 4 ; Girls Athlete Event Group stage Final / Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Andrea López freestyle −57kg L 2 – 8 W 8 – 2 W 4 – 0 L 0 – 2 3 W 7 – 0 5 Sandra Escamilla freestyle −65kg L 1 – 4 L 1 – 2 L 0 – 3 L 0 – 10 5 W 9 ==References== Category:2018 in Mexican sports Category:Nations at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Category:Mexico at the Youth Olympics
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Chicago Med is an American medical drama television series created by Dick Wolf and Matt Olmstead, and is the third installment of Wolf Entertainment's Chicago franchise. The series premiered on NBC on November 17, 2015. Chicago Med follows the emergency department (ED) doctors and nurses of the fictional Gaffney Chicago Medical Center. On February 27, 2020, NBC renewed the series for a sixth, seventh, and eighth season. The sixth season premiered on November 11, 2020. The seventh season premiered on September 22, 2021. The eighth season premiered on September 21, 2022. In April 2023, the series was renewed for a ninth season. ==Premise== Set in Chicago, Chicago Med is the third series in Dick Wolf's Chicago franchise. It focuses on the emergency department at Gaffney Chicago Medical Center and on its doctors and nurses as they work to save patients' lives. It sometimes crosses over with characters from Chicago Fire and Chicago P.D. ==Cast== ===Main=== * Nick Gehlfuss as Dr. Will Halstead (seasons 1–8), a former plastic surgeon, who at the start of the series becomes an ED supervising attending physician. He is originally from Chicago and is the older brother of Chicago P.D. character Detective Jay Halstead. He was engaged to Dr. Natalie Manning from seasons three to four. He resigns from Chicago Med at the end of the eighth season after sabotaging Jack Dayton's OR 2.0 to prove its defects, and moves to Seattle to reunite with Natalie and her son. * Yaya DaCosta as April Sexton (seasons 1–6; recurring season 8), a first-generation Brazilian-American ED nurse. She has a younger brother, Noah, who began as a third-year medical student at the hospital. She is also a childhood friend of Chicago Fire character Lieutenant Kelly Severide. In the sixth season, she applies and gets accepted into a nurse practitioner program in order to do more in caring for patients and in the seventh-season premiere "You Can't Always Trust What You See", it is revealed that she has started the program. She later returns in the eighth season after completing the program. She and Dr. Ethan Choi rekindle their relationship during this time, and marry in the middle of the season, with the intent of starting a mobile clinic for the impoverished people in the community. * Torrey DeVitto as Dr. Natalie Manning (seasons 1–7; guest season 8), an ED pediatrician who did a fellowship in emergency medicine in the first season and becomes an attending in the emergency pediatrics division in the fifth season. She is a widow, coping with the loss of her husband, Jeff, who was killed in action while serving in the U.S. military. In the first-season episode "Bound", she gives birth to her son Owen. In the seventh-season premiere "You Can't Always Trust What You See", she is fired by Sharon Goodwin and moves back to Seattle with Owen after admitting that she stole drugs from her ex-fiancé Dr. Will Halstead's trial for her sick mother. She later reunites with Will following his resignation at the end of the following season. * Rachel DiPillo as Dr. Sarah Reese (seasons 1–3; guest season 4), originally a fourth-year medical student, who does not feel inclined to emergency medicine, and would rather become a pathologist. After she graduates from medical school, she immediately quits being a pathologist and becomes a resident in psychiatry, thanks to Dr. Daniel Charles in the season 2 premiere. In the fourth-season premiere "Be My Better Half", she transfers from Chicago Med to Baylor after Dr. Daniel Charles finds out her father is a suspected serial killer and they have a falling out. * Colin Donnell as Dr. Connor Rhodes (seasons 1–5), a cardio-thoracic fellow from Chicago, who spent some time in Riyadh following his residency. In the first season, he is a trauma surgery fellow, but switches his specialty to cardio-thoracic. In the fifth- season premiere "Never Going Back to Normal", he leaves Med, and Chicago completely for a fresh start after the deaths of his father Cornelius Rhodes and his rival and ex-girlfriend Dr. Ava Bekker, who committed suicide after murdering Cornelius to win Connor back. * Brian Tee as LCDR Dr. Ethan Choi, United States Navy Reserve (seasons 1–8), the Chief of Emergency Medicine and former ED chief resident with an expertise in infectious diseases who just returned to the United States after serving on the as a medical officer. He marries April Sexton in the middle of the eighth season and leaves Chicago Med afterwards to start a mobile clinic for the impoverished people in the community with her. * S. Epatha Merkerson as Sharon Goodwin, a former OR nurse and the Chief of Patient and Medical Services (chief administrator) of Gaffney Chicago Medical Center. * Oliver Platt as Dr. Daniel Charles, the chief of the psychiatry department, who is usually tasked with helping the other doctors deal with the psychological nuances of medicine or difficult patients. He is a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania. * Marlyne Barrett as Maggie Lockwood (season 1 – present), the ED's charge nurse who is not afraid to speak her mind when it comes to schooling the residents. In the fifth season, she is diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer, but is later cured and she marries former cancer patient Ben Campbell. * Norma Kuhling as Dr. Ava Bekker (seasons 3–5; recurring season 2), a South African trauma surgeon. She butts heads with Dr. Connor Rhodes on professional boundaries, and eventually their rivalry becomes a romantic relationship, which eventually ends after Connor's father alleges that Ava seduced and slept with him to persuade him to fund Connor's hybrid OR. In the fourth-season finale "With a Brave Heart", Connor turns her down in reconciling their relationship and then suspects her of killing his father. In the fifth-season premiere "Never Going Back to Normal", she commits suicide after admitting to killing Connor's father in a last-ditch effort to win him back. * Dominic Rains as Dr. Crockett Marcel (season 5 – present), a new trauma surgeon fellow at Chicago Med. * Steven Weber as Dr. Dean Archer (season 7 – present; recurring season 6), an experienced trauma surgeon and emergency physician and a mentor to Dr. Ethan Choi having formerly served in the Navy together. * Guy Lockard as Dr. Dylan Scott (seasons 7–8), a new ED pediatrician. He is a former Chicago police officer, who switched his career to medicine. In the eighth-season premiere "How Do You Begin to Count the Losses?", after the death of his lover Jo, an undercover cop whom he had crossed paths multiple times with during her assignment, he realizes that he will never be able to let go of his past as a police officer as long as he remains in Chicago and leaves Med, and the city altogether for a new start. * Kristen Hager as Dr. Stevie Hammer (season 7), a new attending physician, who has a past with Dr. Will Halstead. After many ups and downs in dealing with her homeless, addicted, and mentally-ill mother, she moves back to Michigan halfway through the seventh season to give her marriage another chance. * Jessy Schram as Dr. Hannah Asher (season 7 – present; recurring seasons 5–6), a returning physician from Los Angeles who previously struggled with substance abuse before getting sober. ===Recurring=== * Julie Berman as Dr. Samantha "Sam" Zanetti (season 1), an attending trauma surgeon who briefly dates Dr. Connor Rhodes * Deron J. Powell as Tate Jenkins (seasons 1–2), a retired NFL player who begins dating Nurse April Sexton when she helps treat his son in season one. They become engaged in season two, but break it off shortly after she is infected with tuberculosis and miscarries their child. * Jeremy Shouldis as Dr. Marty Peterson (season 1–present), an anesthesiologist with a silky, deep voice. * Peter Mark Kendall as Joey Thomas, a lab tech who dates Dr. Sarah Reese in seasons one and two. * Roland Buck III as Dr. Noah Sexton (seasons 1–6; guest season 8), a first-year ED resident and Nurse April Sexton's younger brother. In the sixth-season episode "When Your Heart Rules Your Head", he is fired by Dr. Ethan Choi for negligence, due to assisting in Dr. James Coleman's suicide, and he leaves Chicago to take over Dr. Coleman's clinic in Atlanta. He later returns in the eighth season for April and Ethan's wedding. * Brennan Brown as Dr. Sam Abrams, a blunt attending neurosurgeon. * Gregg Henry as Dr. David Downey (season 1), a high-profile heart surgeon who takes an interest in Dr. Connor Rhodes, and dies of cancer in the first-season finale "Timing". * D. W. Moffett as Cornelius Rhodes (seasons 1–4), the father of Dr. Connor Rhodes. He runs the family business Dolen Rhodes, a high-end department store started by his father. Connor's choice to go into medicine lead to a bitter estrangement between father and son. He is murdered by Dr. Ava Bekker, Dr. Rhodes' ex-girlfriend, via insulin overdose in fourth-season episode "Forever Hold Your Peace" in an attempt to win Dr. Rhodes back, which is revealed later in the fifth-season premiere "Never Going Back to Normal", resulting in Dr. Bekker's suicide. * Christina Brucato as Claire Rhodes (season 1), the sister of Dr. Connor Rhodes. * Lorena Diaz as Nurse Doris (season 1–present), ED nurse. * Casey Tutton as Nurse Monique (season 2–5), ED nurse. * Marie Tredway as Nurse Trini (season 5-present), ED nurse. * Amanda Marcheschi as Nurse Dina (season 1-present), ICU charge nurse, sometimes assists in surgical ward. * Jeff Hephner as Jeff Clarke (seasons 1–2), a medical student, a former Marine and Iraq veteran, and Dr. Natalie Manning's old family friend. Clarke was briefly a firefighter at Firehouse 51 before returning to medical school after an injury. Clarke briefly dates Natalie until he confesses that her late husband did not approve of his feelings for her. Clarke matches with a hospital in Honolulu, Hawaii, after graduating from medical school. * Ato Essandoh as Dr. Isidore Latham (season 2–present), the attending cardio-thoracic surgeon who supervises Dr. Connor Rhodes' fellowship after Dr. Downey's death from seasons two to five when Connor leaves Chicago Med. Latham has autism spectrum disorder, which sometimes makes it difficult for him to understand the emotional responses of the medical staff. * Mekia Cox as Dr. Robin Charles (seasons 2–5), an epidemiologist and Dr. Daniel Charles' previously estranged daughter. She dates Dr. Connor Rhodes from seasons two to three. * Eddie Jemison as Dr. Stanley Stohl (seasons 2–4), the chief of the emergency department, derisively referred to as "The Troll" by the staff because of his condescending and publicity-courting ways. He is fired from Chicago Med after an arbitrary decision by Gaffney Chicago Medical Center's COO. * Alexandra Grey as Denise Lockwood (season 2–present), Nurse Maggie Lockwood's transgender sister. * James Vincent Meredith as Barry (season 3), a paramedic who is Nurse Maggie Lockwood's on-again/off-again ex- boyfriend. * Nate Santana as Dr. James Lanik (season 3–present), Chief of Trauma Surgery, formerly the interim head of the Emergency Department. * Michel Gill as Robert Haywood (seasons 3–4), Dr. Sarah Reese's estranged father who was an astrophysics professor and a suspected serial killer. * Arden Cho as Emily Choi (seasons 3–4), Dr. Ethan Choi's younger and previously estranged recovering–drug addict sister * Molly Bernard as Dr. Elsa Curry (season 4–5), a first-year ED resident who ends up working closely with Dr. Daniel Charles. * Ian Harding as Phillip Davis (seasons 4–5), a widowed father who is left to raise his daughter alone after his wife dies from an aneurysm in childbirth. He dates Dr. Natalie Manning from seasons four to five. * Jodi Kingsley as DCFS Officer Madeline Gastern (season 1-present), a Department of Child and Family Services social worker attached to Gaffney Medical Center * Tehmina Sunny as Dr. Sabeena Virani (season 6), a cardiologist who supervises a clinical trial for a new medication and approaches Dr. Will Halstead to lead the project. * Asjha Cooper as Dr. Vanessa Taylor (season 6–present) is a first year resident, who initially had friction with Maggie due to her being her biological mother and she doesn't want anyone to know. * Sarah Rafferty as Dr. Pamela Blake (season 7), is a transplant surgeon who has friction with Dr. Marcel after he did not want her daughter to be operated on. * Bonita Friedericy as Terri Hammer (season 7), is the mother of Dr. Hammer. * Michael Rady as Dr. Matt Cooper (season 7), is a doctor who uses Vas-com a lot and who Will is investigating to find out if he is doing illegal use in the hospital. * Johanna Braddy as Avery Quinn (season 7) is the daughter of Dr. Pamela Blake who has an interest in Dr. Marcel. * Kristof Konrad as Pawel Wapniarski (season 8) is the brother of Liliana Wapniarski, a girlfriend of Dr. Charles ==Episodes== ===Crossovers=== * "The Beating Heart" (Chicago Fire Season 4, Episode 10) / "Now I'm God" (Chicago P.D. Season 3, Episode 10) – In the first crossover with Fire and P.D., continuing on "Malignant", a member of Firehouse 51 is rushed to Chicago Med for a stabbing while an attempted suicide uncovers four cases of chemo overdose, leading to an investigation that becomes personal for Voight. * "Going to War" (Chicago Fire Season 7, Episode 2) / "Endings" (Chicago P.D. Season 6, Episode 2) – In the second crossover with Fire and P.D., continuing on "When to Let Go", the victims of an apartment complex fire are rushed into Chicago Med and Intelligence races to find the culprit. * "Infection" (Chicago Fire Season 8, Episode 4/Chicago Med Season 5, Episode 4/Chicago P.D. Season 7, Episode 4) – In the third crossover with Fire and P.D., a bioterrorist spreads a deadly virus throughout Chicago. ==Production== ===Development=== The series was greenlighted by NBC for the show's pilot episode on May 1, 2015. On August 21, 2015, Andrew Dettman stepped down as showrunner due to "creative differences" following his appointment in June. Andrew Schneider and Diane Frolov were appointed as new showrunners on August 27, 2015. NBC originally ordered 13 episodes for season one; on December 11, 2015, an additional 5 episodes were ordered, bringing the season to 18 episodes. On February 1, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a second season. On May 15, 2016, it was announced that the series would be moving to Thursdays. The second season premiered on September 22, 2016. On May 10, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a third season but opted to remove it from the fall schedule to midseason, after the premiere of Dick Wolf's sixth Law & Order series Law & Order True Crime. The series moved back to Tuesdays after spending one season on Thursdays. On March 13, 2020, Universal Television shut down production on the series due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 10, 2023, NBC renewed the series for a ninth season. ===Casting=== The Walking Dead star Laurie Holden was originally cast as Dr. Hannah Tramble, but dropped out due to "family reasons". On May 29, 2015, Arrow star Colin Donnell was cast as Dr. Connor Rhodes, the hospital's newest trauma surgeon. In July 2015, Jurassic World star Brian Tee joined the cast as Dr. Ethan Choi, an expert in infectious disease prevention and a Navy Reserve medical officer. Pretty Little Liars star Torrey DeVitto was cast on August 13, 2015, as Dr. Natalie Manning, the ED pediatrician. On August 14, 2015, Jane the Virgin star Rachel DiPillo was cast as Sarah Reese, a fourth-year medical student. On April 19, 2019, NBC announced that original cast member Colin Donnell and Norma Kuhling would be written out of the series at the end of the fourth season for creative reasons. On May 12, 2021, NBC announced that original cast members Yaya DaCosta and Torrey DeVitto would leave the series at the end of the sixth season after deciding not to renew their contracts to pursue new roles. On July 21, 2021, it was announced that Steven Weber would be promoted to a series regular after recurring in the sixth season, and Guy Lockard and Kristen Hager would join the main cast. On October 12, 2022, NBC announced that Tee would leave the series after eight seasons. ==Reception== ===Ratings=== Season Timeslot (ET) Episodes Premiered Ended TV season Overall rank 18–49 rank Overall viewership Date Viewers (in millions) Date Viewers (in millions) 1 Tuesday 9:00 pm 18 8.64 ' 7.86 2015–16 No. 37 No. 30 9.83 2 Thursday 9:00 pm 23 7.02 7.01 2016–17 No. 28 No. 28 9.47 3 Tuesday 10:00 pm 20 6.19 5.62 2017–18 No. 27 No. 26 10.10 4 Wednesday 8:00 pm 22 7.78 7.55 2018–19 No. 15 No. 25 11.04 5 20 7.53 9.33 2019–20 No. 12 No. 15 11.22 6 16 7.83 7.26 2020–21 No. 9 No. 14 9.74 7 22 6.81 6.43 2021–22 No. 11 No. 11 9.11 8 22 6.59 5.55 2022–23 ===Reviews=== On Metacritic, season 1 has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "mixed or average" reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 50% of critics have given the season 1 of the show a positive review based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.52/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "While adding nothing new to the established medical procedural formula, Dick Wolf's Chicago Med hits its familiar beats forcefully enough to satisfy a few genre enthusiasts." ==Broadcast and streaming== Chicago Med airs on NBC and is available through the network's streaming platforms, on demand and Hulu with previous season "stacking rights" on the former, and pay-per-episode purchase via electronic sell-through platforms. The series will be available for streaming on Peacock along with Chicago Fire, Chicago P.D., Law & Order, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. In Canada, the series aired on the Global Television Network for four seasons, then moved to CityTV. Season three aired at the start of the week ahead of the NBC air date later in the week. In Malaysia, the series aired on PRIMEtime for five seasons, then moved to Sony Channel Asia. In the UK, Chicago Med premiered on March 20, 2016, on Universal Channel in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The second season aired on October 23, 2016. Since the fifth season, it has aired on Sky Witness. In Australia, the series debuted on November 23, 2016, on the Nine Network. In Romania, the series debuted on February 16, 2017, on the channel Diva under the title "Camera de gardă" (The guard room). The sixth season premiered on March 7, 2021. ==Awards== Year Award Category Nominee Result Ref 2017 Young Artist Awards Best Performance in a TV Series - Guest Starring Teen Actress Haley Brooke Walker ==References== ==Notes== ==External links== * * * on Wolf Entertainment * on NBC * * * Category:Chicago (franchise) Category:2015 American television series debuts Category:2010s American drama television series Category:2020s American drama television series Category:2010s American medical television series Category:2010s American workplace drama television series Category:2020s American medical television series Category:2020s American workplace drama television series Category:American television spin- offs Category:Television series by Universal Television Category:Television series by Wolf Films Category:Television shows set in Chicago Category:Television shows set in Illinois Category:Television shows featuring audio description Category:Fictional hospitals
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Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe (UK title: The Marriage of Likeness: Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe) is a historical study written by the American historian John Boswell and first published by Villard Books in 1994. Then a professor at Yale University, Boswell was a specialist on homosexuality in Christian Europe, having previously authored three books on the subject. It proved to be his final publication, released in the same year as his death. Boswell's primary argument is that throughout much of medieval Christian Europe, unions between figures of the same sex and gender were socially accepted. Outlining the problems with accurately translating Ancient Greek and Latin terms regarding love, relationships, and unions into English, he discusses the wider context of marriage and unions in the classical world and early Christian Europe. The book attracted widespread academic and popular attention on publication. Reviews in academic, peer-reviewed journals were mixed, with some scholars arguing that Boswell's translation of key terms was incorrect. The book was also widely reviewed in the mainstream media and the Christian media, with some conservative reviewers claiming that it was written to support the "gay agenda". ==Summary== In the introduction, Boswell highlights the subjectivity of marital unions, which differ between societies in their function and purpose. He explains his use of "same-sex unions" over "gay marriage", outlining the epistemological problems of the latter in a historical context. Noting that same-sex unions have been ethnographically and historically recorded in Africa, Asia and the Americas, he remarks that there is no reason why they should not have been found in Europe. He acknowledges that the book focuses on male same-sex unions, explaining that the historical evidence from pre-modern Europe predominantly discusses men, the socially dominant gender of the time. Chapter one, "The Vocabulary of Love and Marriage", highlights the problems in translating words describing both emotions and unions from Ancient Greek and Latin into Modern English, and explains that "marriage" carries with it many associations for contemporary westerners that would have been alien to pre-modern Europe. The second chapter, "Heterosexual Matrimony in the Greco-Roman World", explains the multiple forms of mixed-sex union found in classical Europe. Wealthy men could enter into one or more different types of erotic, sexual or romantic relationships with women; they could use those who were slaves or servants who were under their domination for sexual gratification, hire a prostitute, hire a concubine, or marry a woman (either monogamously, or in many cases, polygamously). In chapter three, "Same-Sex Unions in the Greco-Roman World", Boswell argues that between circa 400 BCE and 400 CE, male same-sex relationships were treated much the same as mixed-sex relationships, albeit being "more fluid and less legalistic". He cites historical examples such as those of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and Hadrian and Antinous, as well as literary examples such as Nisus and Euryalus in Virgil's Aeneid, and characters in Petronius' Satyricon and Xenophon of Ephesus' Ephesian Tale. He dismisses the counter-argument that these men were friends rather than lovers, and argues that the Latin term for "brother" was a euphemism for "lover". Moving on to the evidence for consecrated same-sex unions in classical Europe, he discusses Nero's union with Sporus, Martial's description of a male–male "marriage" in the early second century, and a female–female union in Lucian's Dialogues of the Courtesans. Boswell argues that these same-sex unions were not "imitative" of mixed-sex marriage, but perhaps represented an attempt by same-sex couples to "participate in" the wider culture. He subsequently deals with the introduction of legal prohibitions against such same-sex unions in the late Empire. Chapter four, "Views of the New Religion", looks at the influence of early Christianity on relationships. Noting that the faith encouraged asceticism and celibacy, he discusses the devalued role of marriage in Christian society, and the increased popularity of asexual marriage. He moves on to look at the evidence for same-sex "paired saints" in early Christianity, such as Nearchos and Polyeuct, Ruth and Naomi, and Serge and Bacchus, arguing that these couples were perhaps romantically involved. The fifth chapter, "The Development of Nuptial Offices", opens by explaining that the early Christian Church was uninterested in marriage ceremonies, which were largely left secular; he notes that the Western Church only declared marriage a sacrament and developed canonical laws to regulate ceremonies at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. He then discusses Barberini 336, a circa-eighth- century Greek liturgical manuscript containing four ceremonies for sacramental union, one of which is between two men. Discussing this and similar recorded ceremonies, Boswell questions what they represent, if they reflect homosexuality, and ponders if these are "marriage" ceremonies, in doing so rejecting the idea that they represent ceremonies of adoption or "spiritual fraternity". The sixth chapter, "Comparisons of Same-Sex and Heterosexual Ceremonies of Union", looks at these ceremonies, and their varying similarities and differences. Chapter seven, "The History of Same-Sex Unions in Medieval Europe", looks at further evidence for such ceremonies in the Byzantine Empire, including stories such as those of Nicholas and Basil, and then examines the Christian prohibitions that were later introduced to put a stop to them. ==Reception== ===Academic reception=== Speculum, the journal of the Medieval Academy of America, published a review by the historian Joan Cadden of Kenyon College, in which she described the book as a monument to Boswell's "prodigious accomplishments", providing an opportunity to celebrate his life and mourn his death. Although largely positive of it, she thought that Boswell's choice of the term "same-sex union" was unsuccessful, because in its usage it became a "transparent euphemism" for "homosexual marriage", the very term that Boswell sought to avoid. She also thought he was unwilling to deal with the views of theorists of social construction, as evidenced by his description of the North American berdache as "homosexuals". Ultimately she thought that the book greatly added to the continuing debate on the issue. The sociologist Lutz Kaelber of Indiana University, Bloomington, reviewed Boswell's text for the Contemporary Sociology journal. He considered it a "dazzling study" and thought that Boswell had overcome "some very formidable obstacles" in assembling his information. He noted that Boswell's main argument relies on his controversial translation of Greek terms which have already been criticised in the scholarly community. Speculating that Boswell's arguments will spark debate for decades to come, Kaelber suggested that even if his ideas were rejected by future scholarship, the book would still be very important for showing how "social arrangements and processes can shape and sometimes bend normative perceptions of the boundaries between friendship, affection, and love." Concluding his review, he praised the book as "an admirable, challenging, seminal work", although he lamented that it did not make use of sociology. The classicist and critic Daniel Mendelsohn, himself openly gay, published a scathing and detailed review of Boswell's book in the scholarly journal Arion. According to Mendelsohn, judged as a work of philology Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe is a "bad book", and "its arguments are weak, its methods unsound, its conclusions highly questionable". Mendelsohn argued that Boswell failed to establish his two basic contentions: that adelphopoiesis (literally "creation of brothers") was a ceremony akin to marriage rather than a celebration of a ritualized friendship, probably intended for the reconciliation of heads of households, as argued by previous scholars who had considered the matter (such as Giovanni Tamassia and Paul Koschaker), and that homosexual lovers were commonly characterized in the classical and early medieval worlds as "brothers". Moreover, Mendelsohn impugned Boswell's decision to pitch his work at a general audience incapable of critically evaluating the philological and documentary evidence adduced, arguing that the work as a whole rested on "a rhetorical strategy whose disingenuousness verges on fraud." The sexologists Timothy Perper and Martha Cornog reviewed Same-Sex Unions for The Journal of Sex Research, noting that Boswell was clearly aware of the social repercussions of his work for contemporary lesbian and gay people. They believed that its direct effect on American political and social thought would be its greatest influence, far beyond that which it had within medieval scholarship. Although stating that they were not convinced by all of Boswell's arguments, and were unqualified to judge many others, they thought that the book constituted a "major work of historiography" by bringing many neglected primary sources to a wider audience. In the International Gay and Lesbian Review, Elisabeth J. Davenport positively reviewed Boswell's book, remarking that it "appears to leave no imaginable ground upon which his accusers can challenge him." Noting that the book had been criticised before it had even been published by those opposed to its findings, she states her belief that while the case he presents is not infallible, the evidence "leans in his favour". Praising his use of footnotes, she considered it meticulously researched, and ultimately notes that it "adds both liveliness and dignity to the debate" regarding same-sex unions in pre- modern Europe, as such providing a "fitting memorial" for Boswell.Davenport 2006. The historian Robin Darling Young disputed Boswell's thesis as well. Brent Shaw has also criticized Boswell's methodology and conclusions. "Boswell's tendency to misconstrue evidence extends beyond simple matters of definition, however, to the very social institutions that are central to his analysis." In Shaw's view, Boswell's analysis compares unfavorably to that of Gabriel Herman who studied "ritualized kinship" in the 1987 Ritualized Friendship and the Greek City. "The kinds of words used to express the new relationship of 'brothers' (words that are also found in Boswell's ecclesiastical rituals) were employed precisely because the men often entered into these relationships not out of love, but out of fear and suspicion. Hence the effusive emphasis on safety and trust." Judge John T. Noonan of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reviewed the book for The Catholic Historical Review alongside John W. Baldwin's The Language of Sex: Five Voices from Northern France Around 1200. Briefly dismissing Boswell's work as unsuccessful at placing his interpretations within the "customs, language, and theology" of the time, he urges the reader to read Shaw's review in The New Republic. Traditio, the publication of the Jesuit Fordham University in New York, produced a special issues dedicated to responding to Boswell's claims. ===Wider reception=== By July 1994, the book had gone through four printings and sold 31,000 copies, something far in excess of most works on medieval history. General media reviewing the book in 1994–95 included The New Yorker, The Economist, People Weekly, The Spectator, the Los Angeles Times, The Boston Globe, the Chicago Tribune, The Times Literary Supplement, The Washington Post, The New Republic, the New Statesman & Society, The New York Times, and Newsweek. The book was also widely reviewed within Christian media in the United States. Writing in The Christian Century magazine, the historical theologian Philip Lyndon Reynolds expressed "profound problems" with Boswell's positions, which he claims rest largely on "ambiguity and equivocation" and "conceptual slipperiness". He is particularly critical of Boswell's use of "same-sex unions" as a translation of terms like adelphopoiesis, believing that this was an "ill-chosen and dangerously slippery term" because it has been widely interpreted in the media as an innuendo for "gay marriage" and therefore lacks neutrality. He also rejects Boswell's argument that the same-sex ceremonies were found in Western Christianity as well as Eastern Christianity, stating that the "heterogeneous bits of evidence" assembled to argue for this position were insufficient. Reynolds wrote: On her Christian apologetics website, the American Roman Catholic journalist Marian Therese Horvat pejoratively accused Boswell of being a historical revisionist, claiming that his book was "obviously shaped by his personal lifestyle and convictions", having been written to "further the gay rights agenda". Maintaining that all of the church blessings between two men described in the book were ceremonies of "spiritual brotherhood" and not of "same-sex unions", she highlighted the law codes that prohibited same- sex sexual activity during this period, information she claims Boswell ignored. Labelling Same-Sex Unions as "bad history", she attacked it as a threat to "the very soul of Christian Civilization." ==Subsequent scholarship== In 2003, The Friend by the scholar Alan Bray was published. Continuing Boswell's line of research, it served as a defense of his thesis, confirming that, a very long period, formal amatory unions, conjugal, elective and indissoluble, between two members of the same sex were made in Europe, publicly recognised and consecrated in churches through Christian ritual." == See also == * Homosexuality in ancient Rome ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * Category:1990s LGBT literature Category:1994 non-fiction books Category:American non-fiction books Category:Books about same-sex marriage Category:Books by John Boswell Category:English-language books Category:LGBT literature in the United States Category:Books about LGBT history Category:Villard (imprint) books
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The development of the inner German border took place in a number of stages between 1945 and the mid-1980s. After its establishment in 1945 as the dividing line between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of Germany, in 1949 the inner German border became the frontier between the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany). The border remained relatively easy to cross until it was abruptly closed by the GDR in 1952 in response to the large-scale emigration of East Germans to the West. Barbed-wire fences and minefields were installed and draconian restrictions were placed on East German citizens living near the border. Thousands were expelled from their homes, with several thousand more fleeing to the West. From the late 1960s, the border fortifications were greatly strengthened through the installation of new fences, detectors, watchtowers and booby-traps designed to prevent attempts to escape from East Germany. The improved border defences succeeded in reducing the scale of unauthorised emigration to a trickle. ==Origins== The inner German border owed its origins to the agreements reached at the Tehran Conference in November–December 1943. The conference established the European Advisory Commission (EAC) to outline proposals for the partition of a defeated Germany into British, American and Soviet occupation zones (a French occupation zone was established later).Buchholz, p. 56 At the time, Germany was divided into the series of gaue – Nazi administrative subdivisions – that had succeeded the administrative divisions of Weimar Germany. The demarcation line was based on a British proposal of 15 January 1944. It envisaged a line of control along the borders of the old states or provinces of Mecklenburg, Saxony, Anhalt and Thuringia, which had ceased to exist as separate entities when the Prussians unified Germany in 1871;Faringdon, p. 282 minor adjustments were made for practical reasons. The British would occupy the north-west of Germany, the United States the south, and the Soviet Union the east. Berlin was to be a separate joint zone of occupation deep inside the Soviet zone. The rationale was to give the Soviets a powerful incentive to see the war through to the end. It would give the British an occupation zone that was physically close to the UK and on the coast, making it easier to resupply it from the UK. It was also hoped that the old domination of Prussia would be undermined. The United States envisaged a very different division of Germany, with a large American zone in the north, a smaller zone for the Soviets in the east (the American and Soviet zones meeting at Berlin) and a smaller zone for the British in the south. President Franklin D. Roosevelt disliked the idea of a U.S. occupation zone in the south, because its supply routes would depend on access through France, which it was feared would be unstable following its liberation. One version of events (of at least two distinct versions of the circumstances of American approval), has it that to forestall anticipated American objections, the British proposal was presented directly to the EAC without the prior agreement of the Americans. The Soviets immediately accepted the proposal and left the U.S. with little choice but to accept it. The final division of Germany was thus mainly along the lines of the British proposal, with the Americans given the North Sea port-cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven as an enclave within the British zone to ease President Roosevelt's concerns about supply routes. The division of Germany came into effect on 1 July 1945. Because of the unexpectedly rapid Allied advance in central Germany in the final weeks of the war, British and American troops occupied large areas of territory that had been assigned to the Soviet occupation zone. This included a broad area of what was to become the western parts of East Germany, as well as parts of Czechoslovakia and Austria. The redeployment of Western troops at the start of July 1945 was an unpleasant surprise for many German refugees, who had fled west to escape the Soviet advance. A fresh wave of refugees headed further west as the Americans and British withdrew and Soviet troops entered the areas allocated to the Soviet occupation zone.Shears, p. 29 left|thumb|alt=Weathered, lichen-covered stone standing in a field with "K.P." carved on one face|Border marker of the Kingdom of Prussia. The inner German border largely followed historic boundaries such as this one. Following Germany's unconditional surrender in May 1945, the Allied Control Council (ACC) was formed under the terms of the Declaration on the Defeat of Germany, signed in Berlin on 5 June 1945. The council was "the highest authority for matters concerning the whole of Germany", on which the four powers - France, the UK, the U.S., and the USSR - were each represented by their supreme commander in Germany. The council functioned from 30 August 1945 until it was suspended on 20 March 1948, when cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets had broken down completely over the issue of Germany's political and economic future. In May 1949, the three western occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), a democratically governed federal state with a market economy. The Soviets responded in October 1949 with the establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), a highly centralised communist dictatorship organised along Stalinist lines. The former demarcation lines between the western and eastern zones had now become a de facto international frontier – the inner German border. From the outset, West Germany did not accept the legitimacy of the East German state,Joint statement of the Allied powers, 3 October 1954. Quoted by Kindermann, Gottfried Karl, "Recent ROC-PRC unification policies in the light of the German experience", Chapter 12 in Contemporary China and the changing international community. Lin, Bih-jaw and Myers, James T. (eds) (1994). Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 220–21. and for many years regarded the East German government as an illegal organisation intent on depriving Germans of their constitutional rights. It had not been freely or fairly elected, and the creation of East Germany itself was a fait accompli by the East German Communists and their Soviet allies. This had important consequences for the inner German border. West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as unitary, applying equally to East and West German citizens alike. An East German who escaped or was released to the West automatically entered into full enjoyment of those rights, including West German citizenship and social benefits. A would-be immigrant from another country who could get to East Germany could not be barred from entering West Germany across the internal border, which had great significance in later decades. West German laws were deemed to be applicable in the East; violations of human rights in East Germany could be prosecuted in the West. East Germans thus had a powerful incentive to move to the West, where they would enjoy greater freedom and economic prospects. By contrast, the East German government defined the country as a legitimate state in its own right, not merely the "Soviet occupation zone" (sowjetische Besatzungszone) as West Germany referred to it. In the terminology of the GDR's rulers, West Germany was enemy territory (feindliches Ausland). It was portrayed as a capitalist, semi-fascist state that exploited its citizens, sought to regain the lost territories of the Third Reich, and stood opposed to the peaceful socialism of the GDR.Schweitzer, p. 50 ==1945–52: the "Green Border"== right|thumb|240px|alt=Two adults and two children carrying suitcases across an open field|Illegal border crossers near Marienborn, 3 October 1949In the early days of the occupation, the Allies maintained controls on the traffic between the zones within Germany as well as movements over Germany's international frontiers. The aim was to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former Nazi officials and intelligence officers.Stacy, p. 6 Travel restrictions in the western zones were gradually lifted as the western German economy improved. In the Soviet zone, however, the poverty and lack of personal freedom led to significant westward emigration. Between October 1945 and June 1946, 1.6 million Germans left the Soviet zone for the west.Stacy, p. 8 In response, the Soviets persuaded the Allied Control Council to close all zonal borders on 30 June 1946 and introduce a system of interzonal passes.Stacy, p. 9 The interzonal and international borders were initially controlled directly by the Allies. The situation was initially somewhat anarchic immediately after the war, with large numbers of refugees still in transit. On a number of occasions, Soviet and American troops mounted unauthorised expeditions into each other's zones to loot and kidnap, and there were incidents of unauthorised shooting across the demarcation line.Stacy, p. 7 It became apparent that the Allies by themselves could not effectively seal off the borders and interzonal boundaries. From the first quarter of 1946, newly trained German police forces under the control of the individual German states took on the task of patrolling the borders alongside Allied troops.Stacy, p. 13 (The pre-war Grenzpolizei (German national border police service) had been abolished because of its wartime takeover by the Nazis and infiltration by the SS.Stacy, p. 11) left|thumb|240px|alt=Two people standing either side of a lowered border pole on a dirt road with a sign in the foreground|The border before fortification: inter-zonal barrier near Asbach in Thuringia, 1950 The east–west interzonal border became steadily more tense as the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviets broke down.Stacy, p. 31–32 From September 1947 an increasingly strict control regime was imposed on the eastern boundary. The number of Soviet soldiers on the boundary was increased and supplemented with border guards from the newly established East German Volkspolizei ("People's Police").Stacy, p. 40 The West Germans also stepped up border security with the establishment in 1952 of the Bundesgrenzschutz or BGS (Federal Border Guard), of 20,000 men. Allied troops (the British in the north, the Americans in the south) retained responsibility for the military security of the border.Stacy, pp. 67, 69 The boundary line was nonetheless still fairly easy to cross. Local inhabitants could cross to maintain fields on the other side, or even to live on one side and work on the other. Those who were unable to obtain passes could usually bribe the border guards or sneak across. Refugees from the east, many of them Germans expelled from other countries in central and eastern Europe, were guided across the boundary by villagers in exchange for hefty fees. Other locals on both sides smuggled goods across to supplement their meagre incomes.Berdahl, p. 144 The number of border migrants remained high despite the increase in East German security measures; 675,000 people fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952.Cramer, p. 15 There were major differences between how the Western and Eastern sides tackled illegal border crossings. Until the GDR officially acknowledged the inner German border as a "state border", those who were caught trying to cross it illegally could not be punished under passport control legislation; instead they were punished for crimes against the economy, principally sabotage. The Western side did not attempt to punish unauthorised crossings by civilians.Stacy, p. 71 ==1952–67: the "Special Regime"== right|thumb|240px|alt=A hillside with multiple barbed-wire fences running parallel to each other, with fruit trees, a barn and a watchtower in the background.|The newly strengthened border in 1962, with barbed-wire fences, watchtowers and minefields.The border remained largely unfortified for several years after the East and West German republics were established in 1949, although by this time the GDR had already blocked many unofficial crossing points with ditches and barricades. This changed abruptly on 26 May 1952 when the GDR implemented a "special regime on the demarcation line", justified as a measure to keep out "spies, diversionists, terrorists and smugglers".Stacy, p. 50 In reality, though, the decision to fortify was taken because the GDR was haemorrhaging citizens at the rate of 10,000–20,000 a month, many of them from the skilled, educated and professional classes. The exodus threatened the viability of East Germany's already beleaguered economy.Shears, p. 37 This was also of concern to the Soviets, who proposed a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin and advised the East Germans to significantly improve their border defences.Joseph Stalin (orally), quoted by The introduction of the "special regime" was carried out as abruptly as the construction of the Berlin Wall nine years later. A ploughed strip 10 m (32.8 ft) wide was created along the entire length of the inner German border. An adjoining "protective strip" (Schutzstreifen) 500 m (1,640 ft) wide was placed under severe restrictions. A "restricted zone" (Sperrzone) a further wide was created in which only those holding a special permit could live or work. Trees and brush were cut down along the border to clear lines of sight for the border guards and eliminate cover for would-be border crossers. Houses adjoining the border were torn down, bridges were closed and barbed-wire fencing was put up in many places. Tight restrictions were placed on farmers, who were permitted to work their fields along the border only in daylight hours and under the watch of armed border guards. The guards were authorised to use "weapons ... in case of failure to observe the orders of border patrols". left|thumb|240px|alt=A road and behind it, at a somewhat higher level, a large, three-storey white house with a red roof; a wooded hill is in the background. The main house has an extension to the left, and a separate three-storey wing leading off to the right; the colour of the road surface changes abruptly at the point where the main house ends and the wing to the right begins.|The Hoßfeld family house in Philippsthal was divided in two by the border, the line of which can be seen in the road surface. The sudden closure of the border caused acute disruption for communities on both sides. Because the border had previously been merely an administrative boundary, homes, businesses, industrial sites and municipal amenities had been constructed straddling it, and some were now literally split down the middle. In Oebisfelde, residents could no longer access the shallow end of their swimming pool; in Buddenstedt, the border ran just behind the goal posts of a football field, putting the goalkeeper at risk of being shot by the border guards. An open-cast coal mine at Schöningen was split in half, causing Western and Eastern engineers to race to cart away equipment before the other side could seize it. Workers on both sides found themselves cut off from their homes and jobs. Farmers with land on the other side of the border effectively lost it, as they could no longer reach it. In Philippsthal, a house containing a printing shop was split in two by the border, which ran through the middle of the building. The doors leading to the East German portion of the building were bricked up and blocked until 1976.Cramer, p. 143. The disruption on the eastern side of the border was far worse. Some 8,369 civilians living in the Sperrgebiet were forcibly resettled in the GDR interior in a programme codenamed "Operation Vermin" (Aktion Ungeziefer). Those expelled from the border region included foreigners and those who had a criminal record, had failed to register with the police or "who because of their position in or toward society pose[d] a threat".Berdahl, p. 67 Another 3,000 residents, realising that they were about to be expelled from their homes, fled to the West. By the end of 1952, the inner German border was virtually sealed. The border between East and West Berlin was also significantly tightened, although it was not fully closed at this stage. By the end of September 1952, about 200 of the 277 streets which ran from the Western sectors to the East were closed to traffic and the remainder were subjected to constant police observation. Railway traffic was routed around the Western sectors and all employees of nationalised factories had to pledge not to visit West Berlin on pain of dismissal. However, even with these restrictions the border in Berlin remained considerably easier to cross than the main inner German border; consequently, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West. The outflow of people remained considerable despite the new restrictions. Between 1949 and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, an estimated 3.5 million East Germans – a sixth of East Germany's entire population – emigrated to the West. Events such as the crushing of the 1953 uprising and the shortages caused by the introduction of collectivisation resulted in major increases in refugee numbers. In August 1961, the Berlin Wall was built, finally putting an end to the stream of refugees. With the erection of the Wall, Berlin quickly went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult.Keeling, Drew (2014) "Berlin Wall and Migration," Migration as a travel business A further expansion of the border regime in July 1962 made the GDR's entire Baltic coast a border zone. A wide strip on the eastern side of the Bay of Mecklenburg was added to the tightly controlled protective strip, while restrictions were imposed on coastal activities that might have been useful to would-be escapees. The use of boats at night was curtailed and they were required to moor only in designated areas. Camping and visitor accommodation in the coastal zone required official permission, and residents of the coastal zone required special passes to live there. ==1967–89: the "Modern Frontier"== Towards the end of the 1960s, the GDR decided to upgrade the border to establish what East German leader Walter Ulbricht termed the "modern frontier" (die moderne Grenze). The redeveloped border system took advantage of the knowledge that had been obtained in building and maintaining the Berlin Wall: the border defences were systematically upgraded to make it far harder to cross; barbed-wire fences were replaced with harder-to-climb steel mesh; directional anti-personnel mines and anti-vehicle ditches were introduced to block the movement of people and vehicles; tripwires and electric signals were introduced to make it easier for the border guards to detect escapees; all-weather patrol roads were built to enable rapid access to any point along the border; and wooden guard towers were replaced with prefabricated concrete towers and observation bunkers.Rottman, p. 20 Construction of the new border system started in September 1967. The first phase, from 1967 to 1972, was initially seen as a strengthening of weak points in the existing system; subsequently, it became a general rolling programme of work along the entire length of the border.Stacy, p. 185 Nearly of new fencing was built, usually further back from the geographical border line than the old barbed-wire fences had been. The entire system was expected to be completed by 1975, but it continued well into the 1980s.Stacy, p. 189 The new border system had an immediate effect in reducing the number of escapes. During the mid-1960s, an average of about 1,000 people a year had made it across the border. Ten years later, that figure had fallen to about 120 per year. At the same time, tensions between the two German states eased with the inauguration of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik. The Brandt government sought to normalise relations between West Germany and its eastern neighbours, and produced a series of treaties and agreements. Most significantly, on 21 December 1972 the two German states signed a treaty recognising each other's sovereignty and supporting each other's applications for UN membership (achieved in September 1973). Reunification remained a theoretical objective for West Germany, but in practice the issue was put to one side by the West and was abandoned entirely by the East.Stacy, p. 176 The agreement had significant implications for the border. The two Germanies established a border commission (Grenzkommission) which met from 1973 to the mid-1980s to resolve practical problems related to the border. The normalisation of relations also led to a slight relaxation in the regulations for crossing the border legally, although the border fortifications were as rigorously maintained as ever.Jarausch, p. 17 In 1988, the increasingly unsustainable costs of maintaining the border led the GDR leadership to propose replacing them with a high-technology system codenamed Grenze 2000. Drawing on technology used by the Red Army during the Soviet–Afghan War, it would have replaced the border fences with a network of signal tripwires, seismic detectors to detect footsteps, infrared beams, microwave detectors and other electronic sensors. It was never implemented, not least because of the high costs of construction, which were estimated at 257 million East German marks. ==See also== * Border guards of the inner German border * Crossing the inner German border * Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border * Fortifications of the inner German border ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * Category:Inner German border
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Augustus Heinrich Petermann (18 April 182225 September 1878) was a German cartographer. ==Early years== Petermann was born in Bleicherode, Germany. When he was 14 years old he started grammar school in the nearby town of Nordhausen. His mother wanted him to become a clergyman, but his excellence in the drawing of maps and his love for geographic readings made his choice of another career inevitable. Heinrich Berghaus, with support of Alexander von Humboldt, had started the 'Geographische Kunstschule' (Geographical School of Art) in 1839 in Potsdam, close to Berlin, following the example of the school for engravers at the Archives Militaires Generales in Paris (founded in 1811). During its existence Berghaus's academy offered only three courses, and only a few students attended: * 1839–1844: August Petermann, Heinrich 'Henry' Lange (1821–1893), and Otto Göcke, who died one year later of tuberculosis * 1844–1847: Amandus Sturmhöfel (1823–?) and Theodor Schilling * 1845–1850: Hermann Berghaus (1828–1890), his nephew Petermann's father, August Rudolf Petermann, who was a registrar at Bleicherode, could not pay for the further education of his son. When he read the advertisement for Berghaus' school he sent his son's maps and other work for evaluation. One of the maps, drawn when he was 16, shows South America, and was later published in the journal which was to carry his name.Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen 106(1962), table 123 Berghaus recognized the quality of Petermann's work, and therewith his potential and soon took him in as a foster-son. As Berghaus already had a large family to feed however, he requested an annual subsidy of 60 thaler from the king to support Petermann, which was granted. During the 3rd course, Berghaus treated his nephew Hermann Berghaus the same way. Only Lange paid for the courses, the rest followed them at Berghaus's own expense. Petermann started his education in Potsdam on 7 August 1839. The education with Berghaus was scientifically cartographic, consisting of mathematical geography (map projections and grids), physical geography (meteorology, hydrology and geology) and political geography (knowledge of borders and administrative division of European states especially). Physical training was aimed at surveying, drafting and engraving. Berghaus's pupils learned only the rudiments of surveying, even less than he himself had learned: their work in this area can be seen in the plan of Potsdam (Neüester Plan von der Königlichen Residenzstadt Potsdam / nach trigonometrischen Vermessungen, so wie geo- und hydrometrischen Aufnahmen ausgearbeitet in der Geographischen Kunstschule zu Potsdam unter der Leitung ihres Direktors, des Professors Dr. Heinrich Berghaus. 1845). They were not topographers and only used topography as published in the large-scale maps of that era as a general basis for their later, more generalized works. They were taught more to draft and engrave medium-scale geographic maps of states, continents etc., or their parts (e.g. the map of upper- and middle-Italy in 1847 for Stielers Handatlas, which was based on Attilio Zuccagni-Orlandini's 1844 topographic map in nearly 100 sheets), small-scale generalised school maps, and especially applied geography and cartography as shown in their collaboration on the Physikalischer Atlas and the maritime atlas. During their study lithography, though not cutting as fine a portrayal as copper engraving, was on the rise because it was much cheaper. Though some experiments were made by Berghaus, e.g. for geological maps, by mixing copper engraving for the line- and other features and lithography for coloured polygons, there was no technology which could replace the exquisite expression copper engravings could reach. So the students mainly learned this art. Only at the end of his life did Petermann become more enthusiastic for lithography, which had advanced by then. Up to and including the 10th edition of the Stieler Handatlas (1920–1925) the Perthes institute, where he worked from 1854 onwards, used copperplate engravings as the basis for its maps. Some 460 copperplates of this edition are currently preserved in the Perthes collections in Gotha. Berghaus had been riding numerous hobbyhorses (terrain representation, isolines, scale indicators, map projections, etc.) without much success, but now he could finally put them to work with his pupils. He very successfully disseminated many of his ideas and concepts. Moreover, his students somehow learned better than he to limit their endeavors in order to bring more of them to full fruition. Though the school itself had but few students, its residency in Potsdam, connected by rail to Berlin, and the fame of Berghaus attracted many geographers (e.g. Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter and Zeune), cartographers and explorers. Petermann spoke highly of his encounters with von Humboldt and drew several maps for his Atlas von Asien, on which the rendering of the Asiatic mountain-chains was of a quality corresponding to the then current view of the geographic sciences. Because of all these contacts the students were confronted with many opinions and views on the state of science and the world that would not normally have been part of their curriculum. Besides, we may take Poggendorff seriously when he sees Petermann as 'private secretary and librarian of H.K.W. Berghaus' in the years 1839–45, so we can assume that Petermann was at least quite up to date on many affairs to do with geography and cartography, for Berghaus had large collections of maps, books and notes to draw on.From his early years he had excerpted 'everything new, which becomes available in the geographical sciences', and these excerpts were sorted and well organised in his Kollectaneen. This habit led to his 'geographischen Hefte' (geographic notebooks) ... (Engelmann, Gerhard. 1960. August Petermann als Kartographenlehrling bei Heinrich Berghaus in Potsdam. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 106, p. 178). They also contained hundreds of pages of lectures by Von Humboldt, Ritter, Hoffman, Pöppig, Erdman, etc. which he later plagiarised in some of his books. He used this word himself in his schoolbook Ersten Elementen der Erdbeschreibung: Plagiatoren sind die Gladiatoren auf den Tooneel-Brettern der Geographentruppe (Plagiarists are the gladiators on the stage floor of the geographers' company') (Engelmann, Gerhard. 1977. Heinrich Berghaus, der Kartograph von Potsdam, p. 167). He alluded here to the way Ortelius had conceived the Theatre oft Tooneel des Aerdtbodems in 1571, though to be fair to Ortelius one should note he cited his sources in his Catalogus auctorum tabularum geographicarum. During and after their training, students were obliged to take part in most of the school's enterprises. In the years 1839–1848 the school produced maps for Stieler's school atlas, and Berghaus's Physikalischer Atlas,Geographische verbreitung der menschen-rassen. ubersicht der nahrungsweise und der volksdichtigkeit in den ackerbaulandern, Auch manches zur physik des menschen. 7te abtheilung: Anthropographie no 1. gezeichnet u. gestochen in der geogr. Kunstschule zu Potsdam. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1848. school atlases, the Atlas von Asien, the Prussian atlas, and the maritime atlas. ==British experience== ===Scotland=== August Petermann gained commercial insight during his years in the cartography business in Edinburgh and London from 1845 to 1854. Normally he would have been obliged to work in Berghaus' school until 1849, as it was laid down in the contracts the students had to sign. These stated that the students had to work for five years after they finished their studies to pay for their tuition. In 1842 Alexander Keith Johnston (1804–1871) visited Gotha to discuss several projects with Perthes. These negotiation first resulted in the publication of the National Atlas of General Geography, which contained 4 maps by Berghaus. Though Berghaus deemed the commercial and scientific climate in England not ready for scientific maps Johnston persisted in wanting to publish a translation of the Physikalischer Atlas, on which he requested aid from Berghaus. With a letter of recommendation by von Humboldt in October 1844 Heinrich 'Henry' Lange joined Johnston in Edinburgh for this purpose. Petermann stayed behind in Gotha and became a teacher in the 2nd course of Berghaus' school. In April 1845 he followed Lange, who received him in his house in Edinburgh and acquainted him with the friends he had made. Together they went on a tour through the Grampians, applying what they had learned by using barometers for height measurements and taking geological and botanical samples. Meanwhile, they also worked on Johnston's Physical atlas (Physical geography, illustrating in a series of original designs, the elementary facts of geology, hydrology, meteorology and natural history etc.) and several other cartographic publications. left|thumb|400px|Portion of Petermann's map of Abessinia During his time in Edinburgh he may have come into contact with the publisher G.H. Swanston, for whom he constructed several maps for The Royal Illustrated Atlas, Of Modern Geography, 1st edition published in 27 parts 1854–62. and republished probably in 1872. He also may have met John Bartholomew Jr. (1831–1893) in Edinburgh, who created many maps in the same atlas. John Bartholomew became Petermann's student in Gotha in 1855 until he was recalled to his father's firm in 1856. The German school of cartography was pre-eminent, and four generations of Bartholomews widened their knowledge by studying with the German masters. John George's son Ian studied in Leipzig (1907–08) with Oswald Winkel. His grandson John Christopher carried on the tradition, studying with Eduard Imhof, the great Swiss cartographer, in Berne and Zurich in 1960, and his son John Eric followed in 1977 with Imhof's pupil, Ernst Spiess. "Bartholomew is best known for the development of colour contouring (or hypsometric tints), the system of representing altitudes on a graduated colour scale, with areas of high altitude in shades of brown and areas of low altitude in shades of green. He first showcased his colour contouring system at the Paris Exhibition of 1878; although it initially met with skepticism, it went on to become standard cartographical practice". However, he might have picked up this idea during his time in Gotha as the colour scheme was first introduced by Emil von Sydow (1812–1873) in 1838 when he developed a color methodology for landscape features using hachures, where green was depicted for lowlands and brown used for highlands.Charles P. Daly, president of the American Geographical Society criticized this behavior in his address to the society while speaking of Anaximander's introduction of the gnomen to Greece: "He may have introduced it into Greece, which was enough to have the invention of it attributed to him, for the Greeks were like our English brethen – if any one of their countrymen was connected with the introduction among them of a new art or a discovery, he was frequently declared to be the inventor." Daly, Charles P. (1879). On the early history of cartography, or what we know of maps and map-making, before the time of Mercator. In: Journal of the American Geographical Society, XI, p. 5. The white for the higher reaches might later have been used by Hermann Haack (1872–1966) for his Perthes' wall maps. Several maps were co-constructions of Petermann and Bartholomew. ===London=== In 1847, Petermann moved to London with the intention of furthering his geographical studies and then returning to Germany. Soon, however, he decided to follow a professional career there as the environment he moved into seemed to be favorable for his prospects. In London, he worked as a reporter for a London periodical (Athenaeum, journal of literature, science and the fine arts. London, 1828–1921), and in 1850 founded his own establishment: The Geographical Establishment, Engraving, Lithographic and Printing Office, 9 Charing Cross.http://letters.nialloleary.ie/index.php?letters_function=4&letters;_idno=406585 In 1852 the young Ernst Georg Ravenstein (1834–1913) was apprenticed to him, before he went in 1855 into the service of the Topographical Department of the British War Office. Petermann's firm published, among other things, the Atlas of physical geography with descriptive letter press (1850, with Thomas Milner), and the Physical statistical maps of the British Isles, showing the geographical distribution of the population and inland hydrography. His productions for the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society included the map Survey of the Sea of Aral by commander A. Butakoff, 1848 & 1849\. He also established lifelong relationships with many scientists, politicians and explorers, mainly through his membership of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) of London. In 1847, he became a member of the RGS. When he was 28 in 1850 he was elected under-Secretary. In 1868 he was awarded with the prestigious 'Founders medal' of the RGS. Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Robert Bunsen, appointed him 'physical geographer-royal'. Early in his career, Petermann already wanted to further the cause of geographical exploration as shown by his concern for and interference with James Richardson's expedition. The purpose of this expedition, which was supported by the British government, was to negotiate trade treaties with the rulers of the middle Sudan. Petermann, supported by Carl Ritter and Robert Bunsen, pleaded with the British government to let Heinrich Barth and Adolf Overweg join up with Richardson's expedition to assure that geographical and scientific aspects which they might encounter were taken care of. When still affiliated with the Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Erdkunde, he published their progress in this journal, and when he started Petermanns geographische Mitteilungen he followed this through. ===Maps and articles published in English media=== His long stay in Britain made him familiar with the best in British and German geography, and he was fluent in both German and French, which knowing both was a prerequisite to attend Berghaus' school. That helped him to read as widely as necessary for his further career. His love for the exploration of the polar regions probably started in London, for many of the polar explorers, especially after the disappearance of the Franklin expedition, presented their discoveries to the Royal Geographical Society. From 1848 onward he published, among other things, the following articles and maps with English publishers or in English language journals: * On the Fall of the Jordan, and of the Principal Rivers in the United Kingdom. In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 18, (1848), pp. 89–104, 2 diagrams. * Geological map of the world showing the distribution of active volcanoes and the regions visited by earthquakes / constructed by Augustus Petermann ; engraved by I. Dower, Pentonville, London. London : Published by Orr and Comy., Amen Corner, Paternoster Row, [1849] * The Atlas Of Physical Geography: Constructed By Augustus Petermann, F.R.G.S. ... With Descriptive Letter-Press, Embracing A General View Of The Physical Phenomena Of The Globe. By The Rev. Thomas Milner, M.A., F.R.G.S. ... * Mr. Petermann's note, containing tabular summary, &c.; In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 20, (1850), pp. 232–235. * A descriptive atlas of astronomy, and of physical and political geography, by the Rev. Thomas Milner M.A., F.R.G.S. ..., The maps of physical and political geography constructed, or carefully revised and corrected by August Petermann F.R.G.S., London, Wm. S. Orr and co, c. 1850 * Zoological Map Showing the distribution of the principal mammiferous animals (class mammalia) over the globe. London, Orr and Co., c.1850 * Survey of the Province of Tarapaca in the Department of Arequipa Peru commenced in 1827 by Wm. Bollaert and Geo. Smith with additions to 1851 by W.B. In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 21, (1851). * Progress of the African Mission, Consisting of Messrs. Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, to Central Africa. In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 21, (1851), pp. 130–221, 2 maps. * Notes on the Distribution of Animals Available as Food in the Arctic Regions. In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 22, (1852), pp. 118–127. * Sir John Franklin, the Sea of Spitzbergen, and Whale-Fisheries in the Arctic Regions. In: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 23, (1853), pp. 129–136, 2 maps. * Map of part of northern Africa showing the routes of the expedition under Messrs. Richardson, Barth, Overweg & Vogel in the years 1850 and 1853. London, E. Stanford, 1854. * Australia and New Zealand according to Arrowsmith and Mitchell. Edinburgh ; London ; Dublin : A. Fullarton & Co., [1858?]. (several editions). * The Grecian Archipelago according to the English Admiralty Survey 1828–1849, drawn by Augustus Petermann, engraved by G.H.Swanston, published by Fullerton circa 1860. * Australia and New Zealand. Edinburgh ; London : A. Fullarton & Co., [1872]. * Peru-Bolivian Tablelands; Chiefly according to Pentland, Parish, Fitzroy Meyen, Arrowsmith &c.; &c.; Constructed by Augustus Petermann, F.R.G.S. Engraved by G.H. Swanston. Maps 2–4: Chile according to Admiralty Surveys, United States Expn. by J. Bartholomew Junr. F.R.G.S. * Journey of M. Gerhard Rohlfs Through Marocco and Tuat, 1863–64. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1864–1865), pp. 79–80 * On the Proposed Expedition to the North Pole. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1864–1865), pp. 90–104. * Second Letter to Sir Roderick I. Murchison, on the Subject of North Polar Exploration. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 9, No. 4 (1864–1865), pp. 114–125. * The Northern and Central states of Germany, drawn by Augustus Petermann, F.R.G.S., engraved by J. Bartholomew, published by A. Fullarton & Co, London & Edinburgh, c. 1870. * On the Exploration of the North Polar Region. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1867–1868), pp. 92–113. * British Guayana / according to Sir Robert Schomburgk drawn by Augustus Petermann F.R.G.S. Engraved by G.H. Swanston. A. Fullarton & Co. London, Edinburgh & Dublin, 1872. * Caucausus & Crimea with the Northern Portions of the Black & Caspian Seas, IX. (with) Crimea according to Huot & Demidoff. Drawn & Engraved by J. Bartholomew, Edinburgh. (with) The Caucasus according to Profr. Dr. Karl Koch, with additions from other Sources by Augustus Petermann, F.R.G.S. Engraved by G.H. Swanston. A. Fullarton & Co. London, Edinburgh & Dublin. 1872. * Danish Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean. XII. (with) Iceland according to the Trigon Survey of Gunnlaugsson drawn by Augustus Petermann F.R.G.S. Engraved by G.H. Swanston. 1872. * Exploration of the Arctic Regions. In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 19, No. 2 (1874–1875), pp. 173–180 * "Important Points in Central African Explorations". In: Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, Vol. 7, (1875), pp. 324–328. * Germany = Deutschland / Constructed by Augustus Petermann ; Peter & Galpin ; engraved by I. Dower. London, Ward & Lock. 1880. It is no surprise to see that his sphere of interest in 'current' geography, was only sharpened when paired with his updating of Stieler's Hand- Atlas. In stressing the geographic nature of cartography, he showed himself more a Humboldtian than a follower of Ritter's political-historical school. M. Linke et al.Linke, M., M. Hoffman and J.A. Hellen (1986). Two hundred years of the geographical-cartographical institute in Gotha. In: The geographical Journal, vol. 152, no 1, pp. 75–80. wrote in 1986: "There seems to be no doubt that Petermann’s work contributed to the high standards of British cartography during these years". T.W. Freeman has noted that "Fine maps had been produced in the 1851 Census by August Heinrich Petermann during his long stay in Britain (1845–54) with the Johnston map firm in Edinburgh and later in London, but since his departure the standard has declined'Freeman, T.W. (1980). History of modern British geography. London. ". In 1852 and 1853 Petermann published some maps on cholera in Britain, explaining that the map, better than tables, can show the progress and victim density of the disease, following the example set by Heinrich Berghaus in his Physikalischer Atlas, Band II, Abt. VIII, no. 2 (1847). These were later followed by Keith Johnston in the second edition of The physical atlas of natural phenomenaGilbert, E.W. (1958). Pioneer Maps of Health and Disease in England. In: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 124, No. 2 (Jun. 1958), pp. 172–183. (1856). Maps in the Journal (Proceedings) of the Royal Geographical Society can be viewed through JSTOR. ==Petermanns geographische Mitteilungen (PGM)== See footnote(1855–2004) ===Start-up of the journal=== "From the early 1850s Petermann maintained private and business contacts with the two Gotha publishers Wilhelm and Bernhardt Perthes, and in June 1853 he actually spent a short time in Gotha.".Dreyer-Eimbcke, Oswald. 1997. Two cartographers who made mapping history in Gotha: Heinrich Berghaus and August Petermann. IMCOS Journal 70, p. 23. Financial difficulties and several other factors prompted him to accept the Perthes' offer of work in 1854. Early in his German career here Petermann was appointed first professor (1854) and later honorary doctor (1855) of the University of Göttingen by the Duke of Gotha. Bernhardt Perthes hired him with the prospect of playing an important role in the establishment of his geographical institute. At the same time his friend Henry Lange also started to work with Perthes. When he was refused a position equal to Petermann he left Perthes and started to work for Brockhaus in Leipzig. When Petermann went to the Gotha Institute part of the original plan was that he would revive the Geographisches Jahrbuch (Geographical Yearbook), which Heinrich Berghaus had edited from 1850 to 1852. At the suggestion of the manager Adolf Müller (1820–1880) it was decided instead to publish the monthly Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes Geographischer Anstalt über wichtige neue Erforschungen auf dem Gesamtgebiet der Geographie von Dr. A. PetermannThis would be the title till his death in 1878. Then the journal was renamed in Dr. A. Petermann's Mitt[h]eilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt and in 1938 it became Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. (PGM) (Communications from the Justus Perthes Geographical Institute concerning important new studies in the whole field of geography, by Dr. A. Petermann). These were to be published in 'casual issues'. Their relation to several of the Perthes atlases was plainly expounded in the preface to the first issue of 1855: "Our 'Communications' will differ from all similar publications in that they will summarise and graphically illustrate the results of new geographic explorations in precisely executed and carefully detailed maps. Every issue of our periodical will therefore include one or more map supplements, and their design will guarantee a continuous and easily accessible supplement in easy-to-manage form with special regard for those who own Stielers Hand-Atlas, Berghaus's Physical Atlas, and other map publications of the (Perthes) Institute. We will take special care to always present our readers with important new discoveries immediately or as fast as possible."When an issue was published, most reports during his lifetime were not older than a fortnight. Stams, Werner (1978). Die Kartographie in den ersten 30 Jahrgängen von 'Petermanns Geographischen Mitteilungen'. In: Petermanns Geographischen Mitteilungen, 122, p. 189. In the same preface he put the main focus of the 'Mittheilungen' on physical and bio- geography, geology and other natural phenomena, and to a lesser degree on ethnography. Its greatest strength lay in the accompanying maps, for it was thought these would show best the results of geographic exploration. In an age hungry for adventure, but not yet totally scientifically literate, this was the best way to attract the largest possible group of interested readers. The maps not only supplemented several of the Perthes atlases, but were also used as a forum to elaborate on new themes, thus widening the thematic scope of cartography. He expresses his emphasis on maps anew when he writes in the Geographisches Jahrbuch: "In first instance the end result and final goal of all geographic investigations, explorations, and surveys is the depiction of the earth’s surface: the map. The map is the basis for geography. The map shows us what we know about our earth in the best, clearest and most exact way. The contemporary map should so depict the earth’s surface that one can not only measure the horizontal positions of and distances between all points and localities, but also clearly distinguish vertical variations, from sea level to the highest summits."Petermann (1866) p. 581. Petermann was responsible for drawing most of the maps in the first few years of the journal. His strength was in the analysis and evaluation of all sources available. As such one can say that the indication 'Originalkarte' (original map) in many titles was well earned, for few slavishly copied what explorers or other experts had sketched. German geographers, like Hermann Wagner (1840–1929), claimed that in other geographical journals explorer's maps were just copied instead of having them evaluated by cartographers first. Maps based on recent exploration reports were always, when possible, complemented with route maps from previous expeditions. He did not like to infer or extrapolate from the sources, for that might give inaccurate measurements, so many of his maps show large blank spaces. How right he was in this respect was demonstrated in 1911 when Julien Thoulet drafted bathymetric maps for the territory of France.Thoulet, Julien. 1911. Densités de sondages et véracité des cartes bathymétriques sous-marines. Annales de l’Institut Océanographique. Paris. Republished as: Bathymetrische Karte von Frankreich zur Veranschaulichung der Richtigkeit bathymetrischer Karten überhaupt. In: Petermann’s Geographische Mitteilungen, 59(1913), table 40. In these four maps he draws hypothetical isobaths, which are based on respectively 15, 31, 154, and 308 altitude measurements per for France and the adjacent territories. (A reasonable number of measuring points for precipitation and temperature maps would be 1,500 and 600 per 100,000 km² respectively to create acceptable isoline maps for these phenomenaJ. Bollmann and W.G. Koch, eds., Lexikon der Kartographie und Geomatik. Heidelberg, etc.: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2001–2002, A bis Karti, p. 414.). These give schematic negative relief maps, which hardly even approximate the true relief of the territory. Thoulet wanted to show that the few bathymetric measurements available for the vast oceans would only vaguely approximate the true relief of the ocean floors. Petermann must have had the same idea intuitively for his exploratory maps. He was keen, however, to introduce spot heights and spot depths in the maps he drafted in order that others could benefit from them. ===Technical innovations=== Having understood well from his teacher, Heinrich Berghaus, the merit of the metric scale he introduced the representative fraction as map scale, without discarding, however, the verbal better known or local scale. The popular acceptance of the metric system and Greenwich as prime meridian was slower in the uptake. Only with the ninth edition of Stieler's Hand-Atlas (1900–1905) was this process completed. In 1870 Petermann advocated the use of a red and blue color scheme for temperature maps of the oceans. Although the number of projection methods increased at a reasonable rate, a few well-known sorts, like the stereographic and orthographic equatorial projections and the projections of Lambert, Flamsteed and Mercator, remained the most popular. Petermann did publish reports on the new projection methods of J. Babinet (1854) and J. James (1857), and G. Jäger, but he hardly used them. Though Petermann and Ernst Behm (1830–1884; like many of the famous Gothaer geographers and cartographers Behm had first another profession. He was a physician, who learned the geographic trade in practice) wrote many articles about geodesy and surveying, they rarely got involved in other technical and theoretical cartographic issues. Petermann concerned himself much more with printing technology, especially colour-lithography. Although they produced many color maps in this way in the 1870s, more and more maps returned to hand coloring, for it then became cheaper than lithography. According to Stams,Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 122, 1978, p. 279. the Gotha Institute may have produced some 2,500,000 hand-colored maps for all its cartographic products in a decade, or 800 per day! In his last article published before his death, Petermann speaks enthusiastically about the newly developed photogravure, which considerably reduced costs per map while also increasing production speed. In his opinion the 715-sheet Austrian map was probably twenty times more efficiently produced than an engraved version would have been, for its production took only a fifth of the time and a fourth of the costs. In 1857 the President of the Royal Geographical Society, Sir Roderick Murchison, praised PGM for its fast reporting of diverse explorations, and spoke against the jealousy of those in his own Society who felt that exploration supported primarily by the British should first be published in Britain: he thought the Perthes Institute enriched the scientific geographic discourse.Sir R.I. Murchison's Bericht über den Fortschritt der Geographie während des Jahres Mai 1856 bis Mai 1857. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 3(1857), pp. 338–339. ==='Petermann school' also known as 'Gotha school'=== Since he was not appointed head of the Perthes establishment Petermann could only guide the other skills available. Fortunately he could call on cartographers and engravers who had developed their skills through long experience with men like Adolf Stieler, Stülpnagel, Heinrich Berghaus, Emil von Sydow, etc., as well as new cartographers like Carl Vogel and Hermann Berghaus. According to Hermann Wagner it was not felt wise to have any of these employees appointed as head of the establishment. Instead the firm was led by Adolf Müller, not a cartographer, but an economic manager.It was thought that established cartographers would develop better if they were of equal rank with Petermann rather than his subordinates. Wagner, Hermann (1912). Zur Geschichte der Gothaer Kartographie. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 58, p. 77. The cartographers Petermann trained included Bruno Hassenstein (1839–1902), Hermann Habenicht (1844–1917, who from 1897 onwards trained Hermann Haack, the 20th-century editor of PGM), Ernst Debes (1840–1923. He could have come to rival Carl Vogel, but in 1868 he left the Gotha Institute to co-found his own firm, [Heinrich] Wagner & Debes, which published one of the six famous families of German reference atlases E. Debes neuer Handatlas, later called Grosser Columbus Weltatlas), Carl Barich, Arnim Welcker (1840–1859), Ludwig Friederichsen (who worked on the Stieler and PGM from 1859 to 1863, and later founded the geographical society of Hamburg and became very active in German colonial politics.) in the 1850s, and Fritz Hanemann (1847–1877), Christian Peip (1843–1922), Bruno Domann and Otto Koffmahn (1851–1916) in the 1860s.For extensive descriptions of the lives and work of these cartographers and others and their works see: * Horn, Werner (1960). Die Geschichte der Gothaer Geographischen Anstalt im Spiegel des Schrifttums. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 104: 272–287, with portraits. It gives also an extensive literature list concerning the Institute (items 1–33), the staff (items 34-296), and the publications (items 297–402). * Witthauer, Kurt (1960). 100 Jahre 'Ergänzungshefte' zu Petermanns Geographischen Mitteilungen. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 104: 288–290. Lists the titles of the 269 Ergänzungshefte (Supplements) and the volumes to which they belong up to 1960. After 1944 the Ergänzungshefte (243–286) became so voluminous that they were no longer bound together into volumes. * Suchy, Gottfried (ed.) (1985). Gothaer Geographen und Kartographen: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Geographie und Kartographie. Gotha: Hermann Haack. 144 pp., portraits. * Köhler, Franz (1987). Gothaer Wege in Geographie und Kartographie. Gotha: Hermann Haack. 416 pp., maps. They soon learned to produce maps as good as their teacher's, and eventually even better. But they had probably listened well when Petermann pointed out the need for an improvement in map lettering, in elevation figures (though elevation and bathymetric figures were common in topographic maps and charts, Petermann was the first to include them in geographic maps), more accurate engraving and better coloring, for under his directions the maps of the Stieler became more uniform in expression. In this they were also guided by the more than consistent work of Vogel, and Von Sydow's critical remarks concerning the advantages and disadvantages of certain styles in his Kartographischen Standpunkt Europas. Petermann was also keen to use physical characteristics as background for thematic maps, an idea followed by his pupils. When Herbert Louis demanded in 1960 that the terrain underlying thematic maps should indicate elevations, hydrological networks, settlements and traffic roads, he cited Petermann as the first cartographer who used a terrain map as basis for population maps.Louis, H. (1960). Die thematischen Karte und ihre Beziehungsgrundlage. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 104: 54–62. By using hachuring as a basis for his Karte des Österreichischen Kaiserstaates zur Übersicht der Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung nach dem Census von 1857 (Map of the Austrian imperial state as an overview of the population density after the 1857 census, 1860) and the map Die Ausdehnung der Slaven in der Türkei und den angrenzenden Gebieten (Expansion of the Slavic populations in Turkey and adjacent territories, 1869) Petermann continued the representation of geological, climatological and ethnographical data that his teacher Heinrich Berghaus had begun two decades before. ===Sections=== From the start, the journal contained small messages concerning developments in geography under the heading Geographische Notizen/Monatsbericht (1855–....). Some of these were concerned with recently published literature, mainly book citations. In 1860 Petermann decided that these should be listed in a more structured way, the latter temporarily as Geographischer Literatur Bericht für ****(1886–1909), maybe inspired by Kroner's literature lists in the Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde of the 'Gesellschaft für Erdkunde'. Books and maps would not merely be listed, but also reviewed, if they were part of the Perthes library. Unlike most listings it would also cover articles from the main journals, for these, he noted, were the primary sources reflecting the most recent developments in geography. This would keep the readers of PGM up to date. Other sections of the journal were: Geographische Nekrologie des Jahres **** (1858–1884), Geographie und Erforschung Polar-Regionen (nr. 51/1871-nr. 135/1878), Monatsbericht über Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kolonisation (1885), Kleinere Mitteilungen (1889–1939), Geographischer Anzeiger (1899–1902), Kartographischer Monatsbericht aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt in Gotha (1908–1911), Militärkartographie (1909–1914), Staaten und Völker (1923), Neue Forschung im Felde (1935–1939), (Wehr- und) Militärgeographie (1935–1936), Kartographie (1941–1945). ==Mapping the unknown== Though Petermanns name appears on hundreds of maps, Wagner suggests he stopped drafting maps himself after 1862.Wagner, Hermann (1912). Zur Geschichte der Gothaer Kartographie. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 58, p. 77. The report concerning the Nordenskiöld voyage to the Lena, and the maps of the United States and Australia, suggest this may not be true. Perhaps he no longer designed, constructed and drafted the maps, as he had with the Barth maps, but he most likely continued to play a role in the conception and design of the maps, especially those in his fields of interest. Petermann was very well aware that even topographic maps were not yet a true representation of reality (this is illustrated by the depiction of the Liparian Isles, which were not securely situated until Darondeau's French survey in 1858Petermann (1866) p. 582.), let alone medium- and small-scale maps of the interior of continents and the polar regions. One could still hardly speak of dense topographic, orographic and hydrological information. Though the maps in the Stieler looked dense with information, they were mainly filled out with information where space in the image allowed, and the cartographers had little choice what to depict by the lack of known phenomena. The density of information did not indicate how thoroughly an area had been explored, for the cartographers selected their data and drafted the maps in such a way as to give a balanced image as possible. As Petermann put it in 1866: "In fact, our cartographic knowledge of the territories of the earth is far less than is generally supposed. ... [In the maps,] even the African and Australian terrae incognitae shrink more and more, and there remain [only] a few blank spots, maybe 'wild territories', where there is 'nothing'. In reality everything we see on our maps is just the first step, the beginning of a more accurate knowledge of the earth’s surface." Only in the detailed maps in PGM, where many spaces were left blank, could one really judge how haphazard and incomplete the geographic knowledge was. J.G. Bartholomew in 1902 phrased Petermann's drive as: "The filling up of the blank spaces of the unknown in his maps had such a fascination for him that rest seemed impossible to him while any country remained unexplored".Bartholomew, J.G. (1902). "The philosophy of map-making and the evolution of a great German atlas". In: Scottish geographical magazine, XVIII, p. 37. The results of the exploratory expeditions cried out for presentation in map form, and PGM published exploration results as quickly and accurately as possible. Petermann had all results he received from explorers checked against the considerable information and maps available in the Perthes Institute. This fund of knowledge grew to be so large that the Institute soon had a large library of manuscripts, books, atlases, and maps at its disposal that could vie with any university or society collection. In the 1980s it was thought that the Perthes-archives contained 180,000 printed maps and around 2,800 atlases.Kretschmer, Ingrid et al. (1986). Lexikon zur Geschichte der Kartographie, von den Anfängen bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg. Wien, Deuticke, p. 387 In the 1990s the estimate was 1,000 m of archive, some 400,000 maps (including manuscripts), and some 120,000 geographical works. All collections (currently estimated at 185,000 sheets of maps, 120,000 geographical works, and 800 m of archives) were acquired in 2003 by the Free State of Thüringen and deposited with the library of the University of Erfurt in its research center in Gotha. But the maps went beyond a simple presentation of the itinerary by also describing the area explored with all knowledge available and pointing out gaps that remained to be filled in the current knowledge. So the impact was reciprocal. Moreover, Petermann gave directions to explorers in exchange for which he was allowed to publish their results as soon as possible. ===Richardson's African expedition=== The influence Petermann tried to wield, even as a young man, can best be illustrated by his interference, together with Bunsen and Ritter, on behalf of Heinrich Barth, who wished to take part in the Richardson expedition. He later also persuaded the English government to send Eduard Vogel after them for scientific research and astronomical observations. Petermann published the results under the title Account of the expedition to Central-Africa. When first Barth and later Vogel failed to return at the expected time Germany frantically tried to discover their fate, much as Britain had with Franklin in the Arctic area. This led to many new German expeditions to Africa (by Theodor von Heuglin, Hermann Steudner, Theodor Kinzelbach, Karl Moritz von Beurmann, Gerhard Rohlfs, Karl Mauch and others), most financed by gifts due largely to Petermann's agitating actions and publications. Many found their death in Africa as shown in the map with the subtitle Four martyrs of German science in Inner-Africa shows, i.c. Overweg, Vogel, Beurmann and Steudner. Petermann first drafted maps of Barth & Overweg's routes for the journal of the German Geographical Society and followed these up with maps in PGM in 1855, 1857, and 1859. These were later worked into the maps for Barth's voluminous work on his African voyage of 1850–55. The route maps were used in new maps up to 1893. When we compare the maps in Barth's work and in PGM we may get an idea of how the information was turned into images. The first map in Barth's work gives an overview of his routes. The routes of Livingstone have already been engraved, but have not been highlighted by coloring. The 1857 issue of PGM uses the same copperplate, but with both routes highlighted and another title. Sheets 2–14 of Barth's work are route maps on the scale 1:800,000 and 1:1,000,000. In 1855 PGM gives only a summary of the routes of the first half of the total tour, on scale of 1:2,100,000, with added profiles along the borders that do not appear on the detail maps. This was a corrected issue of a map first published in London.Petermann, August (8154). Map of part of northern Africa showing the routes of the expedition under Messrs. Richardson, Barth, Overweg & Vogel in the years 1850 and 1853 . London, E. Stanford. In the 1857 issue the map of Touareg-country is a copy, but mainly uncolored. Maps 15 and 16 of Barth's work form a beautifully drafted and colored two-sheet map at a scale of 1:6,000,000 and measures 57 x 85 cm. It depicts the approximate territories of the indigenous tribes. The other maps in the 1857 issue show rather small details of the routes, not beautifully executed, while in the text a plan of Agades is inserted (I do not know if it exists in Barth's work). All in all, there is little overlap, also because the scales used for the different works are mostly different. But the smaller maps are clearly generalizations of the maps in Barth's work. The images in Barth's look sharper, but of course that is also because they are engraved on a larger scale, while all the areas outside the routes, of which nothing or not enough is known are blank. These routes, like many others, were reused in many new maps, such as Barth's route, supplemented with the 1828 routes of René-Auguste Caillé (1799–1838) and Léopold Planet (1850). ===Invitation for exploring Africa=== PGM not only reported the findings of explorers but also was proactive in instigating new explorations. Ergänzungsband II of 1863 contains a 10-part map (210x102 cm) of Africa (Karte von Inner-Afrika,Karte von Inner Afrika nach den Quellen bearbeitet von A. Petermann und B. Hassenstein, autographiert von E. Debes & A. Welcker, scale 1:2,000,000 that contained all routes of explorers between 1701 and 1863. The most important parts of the map are the blank areas, hoping that they would stimulate explorers to go on expeditions to find out what new things there could be. But it was also a case of marketing PGM, as shown in the memoire that accompanied the map, where Petermann wrote: "The basic idea of our map was to give travellers a sure support for the choice of their routes and guarantee the direction of the explorations, to resolve doubts and stimulate the elucidation of the unknown, and to offer a means for friends at home to follow their moves and to judge the value of their labour. This by creating a cartographic representation of the least known central regions of Africa utilizing all material at hand as completely as possible, to display the range of our contemporary knowledge as well as the way this knowledge is acquired and the degree of its reliability."Hassenstein, B. (1863). Memoire zur Karte von Inner-Africa. In: Petermanns geographische Mitteilungen, Egänzungsband II, p. XIII. ===Arctic explorations=== Petermann spent a lot of time on the active promotion of his exploratory missions, especially the polar regions.August Petermann und die Anfänge der Deutschen Polarforschung. In: Petermann Geographische Mitteilungen, 145(2000), p. 84-85. For this he wrote more articles than for any of his other ventures. Up to 1871 he published seventeen maps of the Arctic and Antarctic in the regular issues and eight in the 'supplement' issues. He began publishing notices on the geography and exploration of the polar regions in PGM 38, 1871 (Geographie und Erforschung der Polar-Regionen started in 1865 and nos. 51–135 appeared in PGM volumes 16, 1871 to 23, 1878), and from that time onwards 195 maps covered the polar regions, but none appeared in the supplements of that period. He actually started to push his interest in this subject in the 1865 issue of PGM and with the publication of supplement 16 (Ergänzungsband IV) in 1865. In the PGM-issue he recites the correspondence he has with the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) concerning the proposal of capt. Sherard Osborn (1822–1875) to send another English expedition to the North pole starting from Baffin Bay. In several articles he tries to persuade the RGS to support his plan to start the expedition from Spitsbergen and use steamships instead of sledges for transport. In one article he stresses his love for Arctic expeditions by reminiscing: "Who, like us, e.g. has attended the accounts of one capt. Inglefield (Edward Augustus Inglefield (1820–1894)) during the session of the Royal Geographical Society of London on 22 November 1852, would be persuaded to know that the natural beauty of the Arctic regions cannot be surpassed by any other in the world."Petermann, A. (1865). Der Nordpol und Südpol, die Wichtigkeit ihrer Erforschung in geographischer und kulturhistorischer Beziehung. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilingen, 11, p. 148. Though the accompanying map shows his theory concerning an extended Greenland he doesn't write about this, but mainly about his errouneous theory concerning the behavior of the Gulf Stream. Supplement IV gives an overview of the knowledge of the area around Spitsbergen and the central Arctic. It contains articles by Petermann, R. Werner, N. Dunér and A.E. Nordenskiöld, Dr. Malmgrén, Barto von Löwenigh, and G. Jäger, and is accompanied by three maps. Petermann published this supplement issue to encourage people and institutes to support German efforts to explore the central Arctic. The first map, scale 1:40,000,000 covers both the Arctic and Antarctica, with the routes of the explorers from Cook to 1861. He measures the unexplored area in the Arctic as 140,000 German square miles (approximately 7,700,000 km²), comparing it to Australia's total of 138,000. The unexplored Antarctic he calculates as 396,000 German square miles (approximately 21,800,000 km²). Petermann uses the map specifically to show the benefits of using ships for exploration, rather than the sledges usually used by the Americans and the British. He must have been convinced that the central Arctic contained vast expanses of open water and land, the latter presumably extensions of Greenland and Spitsbergen. Though the routes in the Antarctic map have been engraved, they are not highlighted in color. Instead Petermann has colored the polygons that encompass the areas covered by the several explorers. This highlights the unexplored area clearly, even though it is blank. But Petermann is definitely more interested in having the Germans explore the Arctic than the Antarctic, presumably because the costs of an Arctic expedition can be met more easily than those of an Antarctic one. The more detailed map of Spitsbergen not only shows the Swedish surveys of 1861 to 1864, but also the presence of coal fields, coastal areas with driftwood, and areas where reindeer can normally be found. Petermann's last map is in the modified polar projection first proposed by G. Jäger of Vienna. Jäger had developed this projection specifically to facilitate the palaeontological analysis of the inventory of animal life in the Arctic area. Petermann thought this the best projection for planning the laying of telegraph lines. ====North-East passage==== He not only promoted explorations, but also actively collected funds to realize them, and gave an account of the receipts and expenditures in several issues of PGM. In 1865, Otto Volger of the FDH (Freies Deutsches Hochstift für Wissenschaft, Künste und allgemeine Bildung, founded in 1859) organised the 'Allgemeine Deutsche Versammlung von Freunden der Erdkunde' (General German Assembly of Friends of Geography). During this two-day meeting Georg von Neumayer stressed the fact that Germany needed a German maritime institute to be independent of other nations. One of the programmed issues to be discussed was the issue of guidelines for the use of a homogeneous meteorological logbook for the German merchant navy. In later years the maps in PGM made much use of the data thus gathered. Petermann jealously reported on the marine surveys in Britain and America, which were realized with governmental support, and he dearly wished such was possible in other nations, especially Germany. Furthermore, he pointed out that Germany had much to gain by exploring the Arctic region, especially the Northeast Passage, since the English and Americans were concentrating on the Northwest Passage. Though he even tried to get Bismarck involved in an Arctic exploration project, it was shelved for some time because of the Austro- Prussian War and the consequent expansion of the Prussian realm. In PGM that same year, he again turned to the FDH for support. In 1868 Petermann roused so much support for his idea in the German public that his Arctic expedition actually took place. He proposed to follow a course east of Greenland, for he and other geographers were convinced that Greenland stretched much farther North than was known in that time. Though Ferdinand von Wrangel started a four-year-long expedition in 1820 to find possible land north of Cape Shelagskiy and could not find any land, he noted a Chukchi chief saying: "One might in a clear summer's day descry snow-covered mountains at a great distance to the north."Quoted in: p. 240. This statement most likely referred to Wrangel Island. Heinrich Berghaus, Petermann's teacher, included this information in the right hand corner on his isotherm map of 1838 for his Physikalische Atlas with the text 'possible polar land' [Wahrscheinliches Polar-Land]. So it might be that Petermann based his views on this information. He published the same map of the Arctic and Antarctic as in 1865, but now with Greenland stretching over the Arctic and ending in Wrangel Island close to the Bering Strait. It shows the possible route of the German expedition. The Antarctic map now uses only two colors to delimit the areas covered by James Cook and others. Later in that volume he published two maps of the route sailed by the German expedition. Unfortunately, they discovered a finger of permanent pack ice stretching from the north to approximately 76°, which made progress further north impossible. Petermann was undaunted in his endeavors to reach the North Pole and demonstrate a possible passage to the Pacific Ocean, even after this expedition had failed in that respect. In 1869 he published a map of the Arctic Ocean north of Wrangel Island with all exploration routes between 1648 and 1867 and a map with sea-temperatures in the Greenland Sea and the Norwegian Sea as observed by the German expedition, and again two maps of the German expedition in Ergänzungsheft 28. In 1874 he again published an overview map of the Arctic at a scale of 1:16,000,000, this time with exploration routes from 1616 to the end of 1874, complemented by the new meteorological weather stations. Strangely enough, the route of the 1868 German expedition is not engraved in the image. Petermann still believed however, that Greenland stretched far into the Polar region. The text in the map reads: 'Unerforscht, wahrscheinlich Land oder Inseln (Petermann's Hypothese)' [unexplored, probably land or islands (Petermann's hypothesis)]. In the case of the polar regions, Petermann's point of view deviated from most contemporary views. While many, especially the Americans and British, saw a possible passage in the Northwest, where they expected to find a passage after rounding Greenland, Petermann thought this not a viable option. But this did not prevent him from publishing many reports and maps of the American and British explorations in this area, sometimes translated from the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and other geographical societies. Though he was right in hypothesizing that the warm Gulf Stream complemented the cold Labrador Stream and that the warm stream extended far north of Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla, his thesis that it warmed the Arctic needed serious revision. Although he thought it to be a deep stream, he overestimated the effect of the warmth from that depth on surface ice east of Svalbard. On the other hand, he was wrong about the extension of Greenland. He wrote: "... but such an enormous glacier like the one named after Von Humboldt points at extensive eternal snow and glacier regions and this speaks for an extension of Greenland to the North ..."Petermann, August (1865). Die projektirte Englische Expedition nach dem Nordpol. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 11. P. 96. His view may have been reinforced by some explorers who sighted land at higher latitudes than the tip of Greenland. While Petermann was honored in 1876 by the American Geographical Society, during the last of 3 weeks visiting the US, Dr. Isaac I. Hayes disputed the hypothesis of Petermann's land tongue stretching from Greenland to the Bering Sea, though he agreed that the Arctic Ocean would possibly have open water.Berendt, C.H. (1876). Reception of Dom Pedro D'Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil; Dr. Augustus Petermann, of Gotha; Prof. A. E. Nordenskjold, of Stockholm, and Dr. C. H. Berendt, of Guatemala. The Centers of Civilization in Central America and Their Geographical Distribution. In: Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, Vol. 8, (1876), p 161. The Northwest Passage indeed proved to be challenging. Only in 1904 did Roald Amundsen achieve its navigation. As to the Northeast Passage, Nordenskiöld's trip to the Yenisei river in 1875 hinted at this being the easier route. The successful completion of the passage during Nordenskiöld's expedition with the steamship Vega was published in 1879 in PGM shortly after Petermann's death. The map was drafted on top of Petermann's 1873 map of Siberia. The route of the Vega had also appeared on a Russian copy of Petermann's 1873 map. The PGM editors also added it in their 1879 map. This might have been a way to honour Petermann. The map shows clearly to what degree the descriptive data of older explorations (i.e. Vasili Pronchishchev, 1735–36; Hariton Laptev, 1739–43; Semyon Čeluskin, 1735–43; Fyodor Minin and Dmitriy Sterlegov, 1740; and Alexander Theodor von Middendorff, 1843) could be trusted when drafting a map from many sources and trying to amalgamate them into a single image. The difference between the coastlines on the two maps sometimes can be as much as ½° latitude and 1° longitude.Petermann had already pointed out in 1866 that coastal surveys from ships that sometimes came no nearer to the coast than 10 German miles could not always be trusted. Petermann (1866) p. 594. Looking at the Taimyr peninsula, the channel between it and the mainland is reduced from approximately 10 km to a few kilometres by the Swedish exploration. The only exception was the information derived from P.F. Anjou (1823), which was based on astronomical observations, and is the same in both maps. The article (translations from Swedish and Danish with a preamble by Behm) and map appeared four months after the Vega had arrived in Irkutsk. Hassenstein drafted the new map, maybe using the older draft. The title was hammered out of the old copperplate and replaced by a new one, while Nordenskiöld's data were engraved, and printed in red, making it look like an overlay on the old map. Because of the use of lighter background colors the newer map looks much fresher than the older one, though only six years lay between the two. ===Australia=== Petermann kept his promise, made in the preface of the first issue of PGM, when he was responsible for the new edition of Stieler's Hand-Atlas. He also had a weakness for Australia. Up to his death he published some 48 maps concerning exploration in (parts of) Australia, though hardly any of the expeditions bore any German influence. In 1866, when he gave an account of the first issue of the fifth edition (1866–67) of the Stieler, he frequently referred to maps or articles published in PGM. Furthermore, he mentions that he is working on four other maps of Australia or parts of it. One of these is his famous eight-sheet map of Australia, scale 1:3,500,000, and the other three are concerned with exploration or based on land-property maps. (Spezialkarte von Neu-Süd-Wales nach den Kataster- Aufnahmen, later published as Spezialkarte eines Theiles von New South Wales (PGM, 12, 1866, table 13); Spezialkarte vom See’ngebiet im Inneren von Australien, later published as Das See’n-Gebiet (Lake District) und die Steinige Wüste (Great Stony Desert) im Innern von Australien (PGM, 13, 1867, table 4); Karte der Entdeckungen im Inneren Australiens, scale 1:2,500,000, which he probably chose not to publish in PGM due to all the new discoveries). In 1871/72 he published the eight-sheet map as Specialkarte von Australien in 8 Blättern in Ergänzungsheft 29 (volume VI) and 30 (volume VII). It is a superb effort to compile all available knowledge in a colored map-image that measures 194x118 cm altogether, and it reminds us of the ten-sheet map of Africa of 1863. Being Petermann he would have liked to have accompanied it with a volume containing its ten-year history of exploration and discoveries, but in order not to raise the retail price of the map he satisfied himself with merely citing the volumes of PGM where the information could be found and providing an accompanying 43-page geographical-statistical compendium by C.E. Meinicke. In 1875 a second revised edition appeared, with a small sample in PGM. We unfortunately do not find his famous six-sheet map of the United States (Neue Karte der Vereinigten Staaten vor Nord-Amerika in 6 Blättern) in the issues of PGM. It was produced for the sixth edition of the Stieler on scale 1:3,700.000, though a small part appeared in the next annual as an illustration of the exploration of Northwest Texas. ===Source interpretations=== Several times Petermann indicated that he disagreed with the reports of explorers, probably basing his arguments on reports and literature at his disposal or on sound geographic reasoning. In a map, concerning among other things lake Uniamesi, he tends to disagree with Jakob Erhardt, one of the missionaries of the Church Mission Society of London, concerning its situation and extension. Erhardt was erroneous in that he situated the lower tip of the lake around 13° South 36° East and made it bend westward to 28° East, with a probable extension to 24° East. Furthermore, he thought that Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyassa were one inland sea extending to 6° North. A lack of data led Petermann to agree with his erroneous shape of the lake or lakes, but he was not convinced of its wide extension to the west and north. As for the sources of the Nile he was not so much mistaken, as they were indicated by a text near the equator between 30° and 36° East, but this was not so hard to induce. When one views the ethnographic and trade information in the map and interprets them from a relative topological point of view we can see this as the strength of the missionaries' reports. As their mission was focused on people and not on the natural environment this kind of information was of great importance to them. But geometrically their information could not be trusted, in part because most of their information was based on verbal reports of the native tribes.Depending on the difficulty of the terrain a day's march could be easily between 5 and 20 km, which can make for a lot of distortion. At other times he depicted maps of the same area from several authors together in one supplement map to show the authors' different interpretations. This was the case with, for example, the map of the Kerguelen and McDonald Islands sighted by John Heard (1853), William MacDonald (1854), Hutton (1854), Attway (1854), Rees (1854), and Neumayer (1857), with several comparisons of explorations since James Cook. The same with small maps (scale ca. 1:33,000,000) of the central part of southern Africa, which shows different interpretations by Heinrich Kiepert (1855), J. McQueen (1857) and David Livingstone (1857). Or with the representation of the Gabon countries, which show interpretations by August Petermann, Thomas E. Bowdich, William D. Cooley, Heinrich Kiepert, Paul Belloni du Chaillu and Heinrich Barth. Many times he included an outline map of Germany, or parts thereof or other countries to show the vastness through which the explorers had to travel. This must have contributed to the understanding and compassion the readers felt for the sacrifice and hardships the explorers had to go through to come to the results presented in the articles and maps. ==Stieler-Handatlas== Since the first edition Friedrich von Stülpnagel had been mainly responsible for the drafting of the maps of Stieler-Handatlas. When Stülpnagel died in 1865 Petermann became responsible for the Stieler. He drafted some maps (e.g. Russland und Skandinavien, Süd- Polar Karte, Neu-Seeland, Australien, Süd-Ost Australien ) for the 4th edition (1863–1867), which reached 83 maps. In the 5th edition (1868–1874) we can see the hand of the master clearer, as the maps become more uniform and the style of the 'Gotha School' becomes more distinct. ==Fame for the armchair traveller== Petermann was sometimes accused of being an 'armchair' geographer as he never traveled wide or experienced new discoveries with his own eyes, but the quality of the maps and geographic ideas he produced proves the accusation unfair. Some people are better at observing and describing circumstances and phenomena, others are better at interpretation of data. Petermann's greatest accomplishment lay in the interpretation and evaluation of sometimes contradictory sources, and his great legacy is that he was able to develop this faculty in most of his pupils in such a fine way that geography at large has profited from it ever since. Should one criticize the journal under his direction for not being geographically innovative then one may come nearer to the truth. Many articles are of a descriptive physical nature, with many intimate details in the explorers' colloquial style, and hardly any tries to find explanations for the physical phenomena. Most emphasis is laid on geomorphology and geology — old disciplines by then with their own technical language already — meteorology, botany and biology. Articles on anthropogeography usually reach no further than ethnographic descriptions of regions. It is still the era of data-gathering and in this they were not far beyond the cameralistic nature of the first half of the nineteenth century. One should have expected more articles concerning (parts of) Europe, but a count in the annuals for 1860–1864 shows that only 16% of the articles and 22% of the Kleinere Mitteilungen (small communications) concerned Europe. As accommodation one might say that the journal, though geographic by nature, was aimed at popular use. That was one of its strengths, as shown by its large circulation. "Petermann’s achievement falls in a period in which raw material was gathered, especially through explorations. It was the flowering of geographic dilettantism. Interest was not only stirred by news as such, but the news in itself was interesting, because every educated person without special prior knowledge could understand it."Supan, A. (1904). Zum Abschluß des 50. Bandes von Petermanns Mitteilungen. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 50, p. 276. According to Weller, Petermann signed 226 articles in Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, including 41 on Africa, 98 on the Polar regions and 37 on the history and use of cartography. The same source puts his total production of maps at 535, including his maps for the Stieler, the Physical atlas and several miscellaneous items. Stams, using the ten-year indexes, counts 280 maps in Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen that can be said to have been constructed and edited by him. ==Slipping and death== At the end of the 1870s geography started to change its objects and goals, which upset the previously important position of what was then called the 'Gotha Academy'. When Charles Darwin published The Descent of Man it was the beginning of the expansion of human geography, which till then was only rarely focused upon, except in the field of ethnography. The physical- deterministic view of humanity that followed led to the rise of the branch of geography we now call anthropogeography, especially after 1875, when Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904) was the first new professor of geography appointed in München and later Leipzig (only Carl Ritter ever before had been professor of geography worldwide). In 1856 Petermann had married Clara Leslie and had two daughters with her. They were divorced in 1875. A year later he married for the second time. As time wore on he seemed to have suffered more and more from family problems. It is also supposed that for many years he suffered from manic-depressive moods and he seemed to have always kept a revolver in close proximity. All these changes and troubles may have contributed to the fact that Petermann died by his own hand at Gotha on 25 September 1878. The fact that Gotha was becoming less exclusively the center of exploration – which so enchanted the large masses—and became more scientifically focused might also have played a role. In 1902 J.G. Bartholomew wrote: "It is only a fair tribute to Augustus Petermann to say that no one has done more than he to advance modern cartography, and no man has ever left a more fitting monument to himself than his Mitteilungen, which still bears his name, and under the editorship of Dr. Supan, is the leading geographical authority in all countries. But to the absorbing fascination of his work Petermann sacrificed all other interests in life and died a martyr to geography". That fame perished quickly was shown by Hermann Wagner in his article of 1912, when he commemorates the merits of the Gotha epoch under Petermann and finds that nobody up till then had written about the making of the history of geography and cartography and that all those pioneers were all but forgotten, even though the journal carried Petermann's name since 1879. In 1909 a monument with Petermann's effigy from the workshop of Max Hoene-München of Gotha was erected in the Ducal gardens of Gotha, a stone's throw away from the institute where he had worked for so many years. The monument was offered by the German geographical societies. Petermann in his time was well paid by Perthes as is shown by his beautiful villa close to Gotha's railway station. ==Legacy== Because Petermann provided so much supporting work during his lifetime, several physical features, especially in the Arctic, were named after him. In the NIMA-database the following seven toponyms are listed: Petermann Ranges (Antarctica), Petermann Island, also in Antarctica, Petermann Ranges (Australia), Petermann Peak, Petermann Fjord, Petermann Glacier, Petermann Peninsula, Kapp Petermann. According to Hugo Wichmann, Capt. Bullock was probably the first to name a physical feature after Petermann, on a printed English chart of 1860.Wichmann, H. (1922). Petermanns Name auf der Landkarte. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 68. p. 91. In the same report he counts thirteen features in Asia, Australia and New Zealand, and the Arctic and Antarctic regions, named between 1860 and 1874. Some of them were renamed by other explorers and one turned out not to exist. Petermann Land, which Julius Payer thought to have sighted from Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land, later proved nonexistent. A crater on the Moon was given the name Petermann crater, situated halfway between Mare Humboldtianum and Peary in the northern polar region. Petermann thought that the naming of newly discovered physical features was one of the privileges of a map-editor, especially as he was fed up with encountering toponyms like 'Victoria', 'Wellington', 'Smith', 'Jones', etc. He writes: "While constructing the new map to specify the detailed topographical portrayal and after consulting with and authorization of messr. [[Theodor von Heuglin|[Theodor] v[on] Heuglin]] and count Karl Graf von Waldburg-Zeil I have entered 118 names in the map: partly they are the names derived from celebrities of arctic explorations and discoveries, arctic travellers anyway as well as excellent friends, patrons, and participants of different nationalities in the newest northpolar expeditions, partly eminent German travellers in Africa, Australia, America ..."Koldewey, K. (1871. Die erste Deutsche Nordpolar-Expedition im Jahre 1868. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, Ergäzungsband VI, p. 182. So the accompanying map of Svalbard is larded with features named after Barth, Behm, Berghaus, Bessel, Brehm, Breusing, Heuglin, Hochstetter, Koldewey, Lange, Mauch, Oetker, Payer, Perthes, Petermann, Ravenstein, Weyprecht, and Wilhelm. ==The end of an era== In 1992 Justus Perthes Verlag, the publisher of PGM, was taken over by Ernst Klett Schulbuchverlag in Stuttgart, altogether with 'Justus Perthes Geographische Verlagsanstalt Darmstadt' (1953-1994). Ernst Klett Verlag continued to run the Perthes publishing house until 2016 in Gotha. In 2003 the Perthes archives (185,000 maps, incl. abt. 11,000 sea charts and abt. 4,000 large size school wall maps, 120,000 geographic publications incl. a few thousand atlases, and 800 m of business archives) were bought by the Free State of Thüringen. In 2004, after 149 years of publication, the journal Petermann’s Geographische Mitteilungen ceased to be published. The municipality of Gotha bought in 2010 the former business premises and the accompanying grounds on Justus-Perthes-Strasse 1–9 and Gotthardstrasse 6. Since 2015, the huge Perthes archive is located at Perthesforum in Gotha, one of the most modern archive facilities in Germany, with around 11,000 square meters of total space for multiple users. The investment in what was then "Thuringia's largest cultural project" amounted to more than 18 million euros. built with funding from the EU, the German federal government and the Thuringian state government. The Perthes family villa at Gotthardstrasse nevertheless was demolished in July 2012 for lack of development options. Many of the letters Petermann sent or received have been saved for future study, as also are the drafts he made for many maps, and are kept in the Perthes Collection of the University of Erfurt Gotha Research Library at 'Perthesforum'. ==Gallery== File:Suez1856.jpg|Petermann's map of the bay of Suez (1856) File:India and Inner Asia.jpg|A page from Stielers Handatlas with credit, "Von A. Petermann." Many of his maps are credited in German as "Von A. Petermann." meaning, "By A. Petermann." File:Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes' geographischer Anstalt über wichtige neue Erforschungen auf dem Gesammtgebiete der Geographie.jpg|Front page of the 1st edition of Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (1855) File:August Petermann Geburtshaus Bleicherode.jpg|The house where Petermann was born: Neue Straße 3, Bleicherode File:Grab Petermann.jpg|Petermann's grave at the cemetery of Gotha File:Südharzreise 26 – August Petermann in Bleicherode.jpg|Memorial for August Petermann in his hometown Bleicherode File:Gotha-Perthesforum-1-CTH.JPG|Perthesforum ==See also== *Germania (ship, 1869) ==Notes== ==References== * Petermann, A. 1866. "Notiz über den kartographischen Standpunkt der Erde." Geographisches Jahrbuch, hrsg. v. E. Behm 1 ==Further reading== * Jan Smits (2004). Petermann's Maps: Carto-Bibliography of the Maps in Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 1855–1945. Hes & De Graaf Pub B V. . * D.T. Murphy, German Exploration of the Polar World. A History, 1870–1940 (Nebraska 2002). More private data concerning August Petermann may be found in : * Weller, E. 1911. August Petermann: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der geographischen Entdeckungen der Geographie und der Kartographie im 19. Jahrhundert. Leipzig: Wigand. *Haim Goren, Mapping the Holy Land: The Foundation of a Scientific Cartography of Palestine, London New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017. ==External links== * 1872 map by August Petermann, published by Justus Perthes, [Map of Texas, Indian Territory, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas] / bearbeitet v. H. Habenicht. hosted by the Portal to Texas History. * DIGMAP Search: "Petermann" gives as of 5 December 2010 some 102 (descriptions of) maps from various libraries and collections in Europe. * Sketch Map of Africa with a Comparative Overview of the Journeys of Dr. Barth and Dr. Livingstone is a map by Petermann *"Dr. August H. Petermann, Ph.D., D.D.", Scientific American, 19 October 1878, p. 243 Category:1822 births Category:1878 deaths Category:People from Bleicherode Category:People from the Province of Saxony Category:German cartographers Category:Map publishing companies Category:1870s suicides
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The Green Ring () is a four-act play by Zinaida Gippius written in January 1914 and premiered at the Alexandrinsky Theatre on 18 February 1915, directed by Vsevolod Meyerhold. The Moscow Art Theatre production, directed by Vakhtang Mchedelov, opened on 7 December 1916. The play was first published in Petrograd in 1916 by the Ogni Publishers.Arzamastseva, Irina The Three Souls of a Russian Provincial Gymnasium Girl // Три души провинциальной гимназистки (пьеса З.Н. Гиппиус «Зеленое кольцо»). ==Background== The Green Ring, a play about 'fathers and sons' of the new generation, was written in January 1914. In 1933 Gippius remembered: "It was about the pre-War youth, the teenagers of the time. The concocted storyline aside, it all came out of my own communication with the young people of Saint Petersburg, the ones who attended my 'Sundays'." As the director Vsevolod Meyerhold and the Alexandrinka cast started to rehearse the play, the major setback occurred. The play had to be taken through the Theatrical Committee. "Since Merezhkovsky was a member of it in Saint Petersburg, we sent it anonymously to its Moscow department. To our utter amazement the local old geezers, while praising its literary merits, refused to accept it as 'immoral', on the grounds that children there read Hegel and behave without proper respect to their elders," Gippius wrote in her 1933 memoirs. "This was scandalous. The director instantly wanted to see this joke of a protocol, we started to think of how to appease these old men with as little fuss as possible. Then the War broke out, everything turned upside down, I stopped even thinking of plays," she remembered in her Blue Book of memoirs. "...Then, before Christmas, something extraordinary happened. Savina who'd read my play (which Meyerhold had sent her) decided she was eager to have a part in it!.. There was not much to play for her in it, the part of an ageing youngish mother was small and confined to just one single act, although it was hardly an easy one... But whatever the queen of Alexandrinka demands, is hers for the taking! And the whole thing has got a re-start."Zinaida Gippius. The Blue Book. 29 April 1914. Savina insisted upon meeting the author and, much to Gippius surprise, subjected her to detailed questioning as to the nature of her character. "Apparently Gippius' play had awakened in her deep memories of the youth spent in a dysfunctional family, with her own mother, no dissimilar to Elena Ivanovna," the theatre historian Irina Arzamastseva suggested. Gippius enjoyed these conversations a lot. In her memoirs on Savina she remarked how off-stage the actress was so much more intriguing and exciting than even when actually acting.Zinaida Gippius. Meeting Savina // Гиппиус З. Встречи с Савиной // Возрождение. 1950. № 7. The Green Ring was not the first Russian play to feature troubled teenagers. Its 'spiritual' predecessor was considered to be Spring Awakening by Frank Wedekind, staged and directed in 1907 by Vsevolod Meyerhold. Later critics found parallels in it to Ivan Turgenev's A Month in the Country, in which the very young Savina excelled as Verochka, notably in her 1879 benefit showcase. Not only did Gippius' play look like a development of Turgenev's ideas concerning the right of the youngsters to make their own decisions in life, but it was also close to it stylistically, having been described as the psychological drama with elements of satire and featuring fragments written as if they were pieces of prose. Also, the play's storyline echoed those of the Christmas tale "Young Heroine" (Маленькая героиня) by the children's author Alexander Fyodorov- Davydov, as well as, to some extent, Netochka Nezvanova by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, both featuring a 'strong schoolgirl' who arrives into the adult world to bring to it radical change. ==Plot summary== Finochka, an emotionally disturbed 16-year-old expelled from a gymnasium for violent behaviour, lives in Saratov with Elena Ivanovna, her neurasthenic mother, slowly recuperating after a botched suicide attempt. She arrives at Moscow (with her mother who needs medical treatment) and visits her father Vozhzhin in his place which he shares with a middle-aged journalist friend Uncle Mika. The latter has no place of his own, "has lost interest in life" and now seeks solace in co-hosting a circle of schoolchildren, friends of Seryozha (the son of Vozhzhin's female partner Anna Dmitriyevna who lives next door) and his own niece Rusya, calling themselves The Green Ring. Finochka arranges for her parents' meeting, Vozhzhin is determined now that the girl should live with him. The boys and girls of the Green Ring are engaged in earnest (even not entirely congruous) discussions, trying to find their own ways to sort out their future. Determined to break up with the corrupt world they live in, they decide they should be 'lenient' and 'merciful' towards the old and will build up their own new world having taken from the past only things that matter. Finochka, shaken by the scandal given her by jealous Elena Ivanovna who hates the idea of being left alone (and whose 'suicide' now appears to be more like a 'botched fake', intended to draw sympathy from her ex-husband) is eagerly accepted by the Ring. Its members are now keen to help out of the domestic hell the girl who is now in such a bad way that she steals her mother's revolver, even if still being unsure, apparently, as to how she's going to use it. More distress is caused when Vozhzhin tells Anna Dmitriyevna that's he is through with her, while the girl is shocked to learn that her father has a lover who lives next door. Finally, the Ring hits upon a radical solution for Finochka's troubles: she is to enter the marriage of convenience with Uncle Mika, her father's flatmate. This way she will be able to stay with her dad, attend regularly the meetings of the Green Ring (which she's turned dependent on, too) and bring her own mother in too, so that she won't be left alone. Uncle Mika, slowly succumbing to his young friends' scheme, is torn by conflicting emotions. Marveling at how his teenage friends have decided his fate for him, he still wonders if this new generation of 'idealists' whom he'd been doting on (and always expressed his desire to be 'useful' to), haven't turned a bit too pragmatic for his liking, by inventing for him such a peculiar 'use'. == Characters == * Uncle Mika, Mikhail Arsenyevich Yasvein, a journalist, known among his young friends as "the man who lost all interest in life." * Hyppolit Vasilyevich Vozhzhin, an engineer, Uncle Mika's friend and flatmate * Elena Ivanovna, Vozhzhin' ex-wife * Anna Dmitriyevna Lebedeva, Vozhzhin's close friend, living next door * Seryozha, her son, the gymnasium student * Finochka (Fina, Sofina), the daughter of Vozhzhin and Elena Ivanovna, who lives with her mother in Saratov * Rusya, the gymnasium student, Uncle Mika's niece * Nike, her brother * Valeryan, Petya, Lida, Vera, Andrey and several others, the members of the Green Ring * Mathylda and Marfusha, women servants ==Production history== thumb|left|170px|In Alexandrinka the 16-year-old Finochka was played by the 32-year-old Ekaterina Roschina-Insarova The play premiered at the Alexandrinsky Theatre on 18 February 1915, directed by Vsevolod Meyerkhold. The premiere, according to Gippius, was "nothing out of the ordinary. Some were raving with delight, others spat hatred, and the press got berserk. Gippius, Meyerhold, Savina! - what's not to get mad over, especially when the censorship is so fierce, there is little else to write about?.. Savina played of course her own heroine, not mine, but did it brilliantly." The author (like many reviewers) noted the extraordinary Second Act with its masterfully staged 'youth assembly'. According to Arzamastseva, a host of hidden conflicts and undercurrents marked this rather troubled Alexandrinka production. The part of the 16-year-old Finochka was somewhat inexplicably given to Alexandrinka's second prima, Ekaterina Roshchina- Insarova, who was 32 at the time. It was her interpretation of the part, bearing strong resemblance to Savina's 1880s Verochka from A Month in the Country, that upset the critics most, who hated the "horrid theatricality" of some scenes. Savina, not just a turn of the centuries Russian theatre superstar, but also the legendary 'Turgenev's last true love'Бриллиант, оправленный в хомут. Мария Савина и Иван Тургенев has been following Stanislavski throughout the 1900s trying (unsuccessfully) to convince him she could be useful to his MAT troupe, making much of her 'Turgenev connection'. Her having the Elena Ivanovna's part in the Alexandrinka's production promised to become a statement of defiance and provide the final chord to her artistic career. Indeed, this happened to become the final part for the actress, who died in November 1915. Gippius too, apparently, had her own old 'unsettled scores' with Stanislavki in mind. In 1904, as Anton Krainy, she panned both Alexandrinka and Moscow Art Theatre for what she saw as their 'overdramatized' attitude towards Russian classics. She chose the Stanislavski-directed Cherry Orchard as an example, concentrating on this play's young characters. The Green Ring for Gippius looked like an attempt to finally implement her own views on how the new generation of young people should be portrayed on stage. "In this respect Finochka looks like the lost child of Chekhov's last dysfunctional loafers, a daughter of 'the eternal student' and the degraded landlady [Ranevskaya]," the critic argued. This, as well as a host of smaller matters, gave the press a lot to insinuate about. More ominous and significant, bearing in mind the political context, was the 'German factor'. In the days when another wave of anti-decadence campaign (and Gippius's reputation of a 'decadent' lingered on) coincided with the wave of jingoistic feelings, with calls being given in the press to throw all ethnic Germans out of Russia, the play by Gippius (who was half-German) looked close to Wedekind's Spring Awakening which Meyerhold (another German) directed in 1907. The attacks from the 'patriotic' camp continued throughout the play's run in Alexandrinka. The final straw was provided by the article in Novoye Vremya by Viktor Burenin who, while ignoring the play as such, launched a personal attack on the Merezhkovskys and Filosofov.Буренин В. Торжество провала // 1915. № 14044. Новое время. 17 (30) апреля. After that the play was performed only once, on 22 April. In her Afterword to the 1916 Ogni edition Gippius described The Green Ring as a "dream play", consciously 'underwritten' so as to provide little more than guidelines "for actors yet unborn..." According to the author, "Meyerhold totally understood [this], while Savina perceived the play as nothing more than a chance to grab this precious part and create another beautiful character to add to her gallery." In Alexandrinka, the director failed to build anything 'revolutionary' out of this material. Instead, it flourished in the Moscow Art Theatre's Second Studio production, where the directors and young cast used its sparseness to the full extent, according to the (then) art critic Lev Vygotsky.Lev Vygotsky Notes on Theatre // Sobkin V.S., Mazanova V.S. Comments on L.S. Vygotsky's Theatrical Reviews. Cultural and Historical Psychology 2014. Vol. 10, no. 3 ===The Green Ring in Moscow Art Theatre=== On 7 December 1916 The Moscow Art Theatre Second Studio opened with the premiere of The Green Ring, directed by Vakhtang Mchedelov (Stanislavki conducting several final rehearsals), featuring Alexey Stakhovich as Uncle Mika, Alla Tarasova as Finochka, Sofia Holliday as Zoya, Nikolai Batalov as Petya, and Nina Litovtseva as Elena Ivanovna, among others. The inclusion of it in the repertoire was itself a controversial decision, for the material differed radically from two other children's play that it had, Firebird and Tom Sawyer. The Mchedelov-directed project in which all the teenagers' parts were to be played by real teenagers, looked from the start like a doomed affair. All the more astounding was its enormous success. The Second Studio premiere was a triumph, according to the actor and the Studio administrator Vsevolod Verbitsky. "The public for five minutes was calling for the director, but [Mchedelov], being an extremely shy man, preferred to hide away," he remembered.Vsevolod Verbitsky. The Second Studio. Memoirs's extracts // Вербицкий В. А. Вторая студия. Из воспоминаний // Ежегодник Московского Художественного театра. 1946 г. — М., 1948. — С. 523—556. Central to the history of this production was the inspired performance given by the 18-year old Alla Tarasova, whose choice for the role of Finochka, the emotionally troubled heroine, proved to be a contentious issue right from the start. Greatly disappointed with it was, for one, Nina Litovtseva, who played the girl's mother. Giving credit to the young Tarasova as being an undeniably gifted actress, she still deemed her unattractive and cold, wanting in charisma, something that many 'charmful' young actresses of the Second Studio had in abundance. She confided her doubts to Alexey Stakhovich, cast in the role of Uncle Mika, who in turn got much distressed, by the fellow veteran's failure to see how perfectly the angular 'ugly duckling' fitted into the role. Indeed, Finochka had to be a 'perfect androgyn', in equal parts childish, womanly and masculine, full of well-balanced inner strength. Tarasova was exactly that," argued Arzamastseva.Shverubovish, Vadim. On the Artistic Youth of Alla Tarasova. The Old Art Theatre // Шверубович В.В. О творческой юности Аллы Константиновны Тарасовой // Шверубович В.В. О старом Художественном театре / Вступ. статья В.Я. Виленкина. М.: Искусство, 1990 633—634. Tarasova's performance, lauded by the critics, kickstarted what has been described as 'The Finochka Cult' in Moscow. "Never in my life have I seen such an embodiment of clarity, serenity and chastity on stage. Her quiet grey eyes looked straight into the soul of mine. And that was not just myself: hundreds, then thousands of people rushed to MAT to see her on stage and soon it seemed as if the whole Moscow has fell under the spell of Tarasova's Finochka," the theatre critic Vadim Shverubovich remembered.Shverubovich, Vadim. On the People, Theatre and Myself. О людях, о театре и о себе. P. 34 The Green Ring ran in the Moscow Art Theatre up until 1922, which was in itself remarkable, considering that Stakhovich had committed suicide, outraged by the atrocities of the new regime, and the Merezhkovskys left the country in December 1919 to become extremely harsh critics of the Bolsheviks. Gippius later expressed great regret with the fact that she failed to see the production which, she knew from many people who wrote to her "something quite outstanding." "There it was a completely different matter, for the real 17-year-old teenagers were engaged in it... We were sent photographs, invitations to their 100th run but how could we, in the times like those?" she wrote in her memoirs. The Green Ring was revived on stage in 1933 in Warsaw and Prague, as well as Paris, where the teenage actors of the Mchedelov-directed production were now cast as the adults, like Vera Grech, once a schoolgirl, now Elena Ivanovna, the troubled mother. == Critical reception == thumb|left|180px|It was Viktor Burenin's vicious attack upon the Green Ring that buried the Alaxandrinka production in 1915 The play divided the critics the majority of whom left negative reviews, although later, in retrospect, it received a more sympathetic treatment. This had been predicted by Dmitry Merezhkovsky who, writing for the 1 March 1915 issue of Birzhevye Vedomosti (Stockbroker's News) suggested that "the opinions will be polarized due not to the generations' divide portrayed in the play, but rather the schism that exists in the public and among the so-called critics." Alexey Gvozdev criticized the author's "cold, strictly intellectual approach to life, which freezes the thought lifeless in abstract schemes," and "the false joys of optimistic hope for 'happy Renaissance'," – the drawbacks which in his opinion "stifled even the possibility of there being created in it some lively characters."Birzhevyie Vedomosti, 13 January 1917, No. 16036 A. Lyubimov in Nashi Dni called the play "faulty, dull and talentless,"Nashi Dni, 8 March 1915, No.2 while A. Chebotaryova described it as "mawkish, preposterous and tendentious."Otechestvo / Отечество. 1915. No. 5/6 Nikolai Asheshov in the March 1915 issue of Sovremenny Mir called The Green Ring "completely unripe play" while Viktor Burenin expressed his attitude towards the production by calling his Novoye Vremya review "The Triumph of Failure" (Торжество провала).Novoye Vremya (New Times)/Новое время. 1915. 17 апр. No 14044 Lyubov Gurevich (in Retch) while giving the author some credit for championing the notions of personal freedom and 'lenience’, as well as "having faith in the unity of the people," considered the play 'schematic' and 'tendentious'. This, in her opinion, prevented Meyerhold from "making the action look as real and simple as, apparently, the author might have wished to see it."Retch, 20 February 1915, No.49 The similar view was expressed by Elena Koltonovskaya who noted that the play, "written by a gifted and intelligent author," was still 'concocted', 'arty' and far removed from reality. Another Retch-published review praised the play for "addressing the future" while "digging deep into the issues of today". Signed D.F., it obviously belonged to Dmitry Filosofov, a close friend of the Merezhkovskys.Retch (Speech) newspaper // Речь. 1915. 15 февр. No. 44 Both sympathetic and optimistic was the review by the young Nikolai Slonimsky who expressed his delight with the way The Green Ring totally succeeded both in "highlighting all the most urgent questions" and "suggesting the new, exciting answers, providing the material for endless discussions."Golos Zhizny (Voice of Life) // Голос жизни. 1915. 11 марта. No 11 Several reviewers, including Gurevich, noted the way Meyerhold had for once abandoned his experimentations and, by trying to totally serve the purpose of the play, has probably saved the production from being the utter disaster. The second act with its impressive scene of the whole of the Green Ring meeting, masterfully staged by the director, has been seen by many as the centerpiece of the production at the Alexandrinka.Ptrogradskaya Gazeta // Петроградская газета. 1915. 18 февр. No 48 Writing for Gorky's Letopis in February 1917 Lev Vygotsky (the future renowned psychologist, then a theatre critic) made much of the text's sparseness which enabled the cast to create the masterpiece of their own out of it. "The play, totally non-engaging in itself, enjoys total re-birth in theatre... turning into something quite captivating. Somehow all its weaknesses disappear, the author's personality vanishes, and all the things 'underwritten' and only sketched get a new life on stage... In through those holes left by the author unfilled, the actors bring in each something of their own." The critic described the production as the great victory of the Second Studio over "this stiltedness that has become common for all children's parts in theatre... The major secret of the [actual] Green Ring, according to the author, is the 'joy of togetherness', and that is exactly what the secret of this whole production turned out to be," the critic asserted. Georgy Chulkov, writing in 1922, praised the play (which he called 'bizarre') as highly exiting and original, "defying aesthetic characterizations." He found the charm of the play in its "overwhelming sense of direction," with "the author's soul engaged in a flight." "[Gippius's] disgust with the [modern forms] of 'marriage and famuily' is so sheer and intense in The Green Ring, there's almost something monastic about it," he opined, going so far as to interpret it as a true implementation of the "be like children" testament. While the contemporary critics' reaction was in many ways determined by the political climate in Russia at the time, more recent reviewers approached it bearing a broader social and artistic context in mind. According to Temira Pachmus, "The central idea and the secret of The Green Ring is the joy of the social instinct."Pachmus T. Zinaida Gippius. An Intellectual Profile. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1971. Pp. 189—190 The Russian literary historian Irina Arzamastseva analyzed the play in the context of her own concept of "Three ages of a Russian Schoolgirl" (that was how she called her essay), trying to trace the development of a Russian woman from the Turgenev type of the 1840 ('pure', naive and courageous), through the emancipated, art-loving lady (the actress Maria Savina as an epitome), to the early 20th century's 'a girl with a revolver'. ==References== ==External links== * Зелёное кольцо. The Green Ring at the Moshkov Library. (Russian) * The Green Ring from Archive.org. (English translation) Category:1916 plays Category:Russian plays Category:Moscow Art Theatre
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Kathleen Norris Stark (born April 26, 1956), better known as Koo Stark, is an American photographer and actress, known for her relationship with Prince Andrew. She is a patron of the Julia Margaret Cameron Trust, which runs the museum of the Victorian pioneer photographer. ==Early life and education== Stark was born in New York. Her parents were Wilbur Stark, a writer and producer, and Kathi Norris, a writer and television presenter in New York City. She is the youngest of three children, the others being Pamela and Brad. At the time of her birth, the family was living in the city's Manhattan borough.TV Personalities: Biographical Sketch Book Volume 3 (1957), p. 148 Her grandfather, Edwin Earl Norris, was a cabinetmaker and musician, playing the French horn and the viola in the Newark Symphony Orchestra. Her mother's family were Presbyterians.Andrew Devore Boyd, Joseph Boyd, Sr. (died 1799) of Prince George's County, Maryland, and his family through six generations' (2010), p. 34: '221. Lena A. Loyd''Edwin Earl Norris, 80, widely known cabinetmaker and musician', obituary in Newark Advocate dated February 27, 1957 After a divorce in the 1960s, her mother remarried.Andrew Morton, Mick Seamark, Andrew, the Playboy Prince (1983), p. 137 Koo Stark attended the Hewitt School in New York and the Glendower Preparatory School in Kensington, London. After training at a stage school, she began her acting career.Wilbur Stark, TV Producer, 81 , dated August 14, 1995, at nytimes.com, accessed 12 November 2017 ==Career== === Acting === Her first film role was in the comedy All I Want Is You... and You... and You... (1974), produced by her father. In 1975 she appeared in Las adolescentes (The Adolescents), opposite Anthony Andrews,"Adolescentes, Las", in Luis Gasca, Un siglo de cine español (Planeta, 1998), p. 17 and starred in an episode of Shades of Greene.Quentin Falk, Travels in Greeneland: The Complete Guide to the Cinema of Graham Greene (2000), p. 149 Also that year she had an uncredited role as a bridesmaid in The Rocky Horror Picture Show."Metropolitan Life: Why Are They Famous?". The Independent. 8 August 1996. Retrieved 21 February 2020. Her best-remembered performance is the lead role in the erotic film Emily (1976), directed by Henry Herbert, 17th Earl of Pembroke.Christopher Neame, A Take on British TV Drama: Stories from the Golden Years (Scarecrow Press, 2004), p. xiv-xv Uncertain whether to accept the part, Stark did so on the advice of Graham Greene, with whom she had worked the year before. Of working with her in Emily, actor Victor Spinetti later wrote "I found Koo Stark to be an enchanting girl and terribly bright and interesting".Beatlefan, volume 7 (Goody Press, 1985), p. 12 She also appeared in Cruel Passion (1977), a film based on the novel Justine. Around the same time, she played the part of Camie Marstrap in Star Wars (1977); the scenes in which she appeared were cut from the film before its original release,Marcus Hearn, The Cinema of George Lucas (2005), p. 106 but can be seen in Star Wars: Behind the Magic (1998).Newsweek, Volume 132 (1998), p. 122 Stark also began to work as a fashion model, particularly for Norman Parkinson.Hugh Montgomery Massingberd, The Daily Telegraph Third Book of Obituaries: Entertainers (1998), p. 122 In February 1981, she was at the National Theatre as an understudy in the Edward Albee play Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? She appeared in the comedy Eat the Rich (1987), and then featured in "Timeslides", an episode of the sci-fi show Red Dwarf (1989), playing Lady Sabrina Mulholland-Jjones, the fiancée of a more successful Dave Lister. Paul Green, Encyclopedia of Weird War Stories: Supernatural and Science Fiction Elements (2017), p. 148 In September 1987, she returned to the stage, taking the part of Vera Claythorne in Agatha Christie's And Then There Were None at the Duke of York's Theatre.And Then There Were None at theatricalia.com, accessed 7 November 2017 The London Theatre Record posed the question "Why has a girl so obviously three- dimensional chosen a part so obviously two-dimensional?"London Theatre Record, Volume 8, Issues 1-13, p. 184. She played Miss Scarlett in the 1991 series of Cluedo, succeeding Toyah Willcox and befriending Rula Lenska.Karen Louise Hollis, The Other Side of the Table (2011), p. 61 ===Photography=== Stark has worked as a photographer since the 1980s, and may have been the first person to turn the tables on the pursuing paparazzi by taking photos of them.Liam Clifford, Koo Stark returns to London for first exhibition in 23 years dated April 12, 2017 at amateurphotographer.co.uk, accessed 12 November 2017 Prince Andrew has told how in 1983 a photographic printer, Gene Nocon, invited Stark to take photographs of people taking photos of her, for his exhibition, Personal Points of View, planned for October. She persuaded Nocon to include Andrew's work as well.Prince Andrew, Photographs (Hamilton, 1985), p. 8: "The next step in my development as a photographer, apart from my trial and error experimenting, came when Koo Stark, now Jefferies, came back to the U.K. with some pictures of herself for printing, taken by Norman Parkinson. She went to see photographic printer Gene Nocon. At this time Gene was organising an exhibition planned for October 1983. The theme was photographs taken by people who were the subjects of photographers. He invited her to take part. It was called "Personal Points of View". Koo came to see me and suggested that I should take part as well. I replied that I was sure that I wouldn't be allowed to. Koo then went back to see Gene without my knowledge and asked him if a friend of hers could also take part. Although Koo was reluctant to name names and Gene was equally reluctant to agree to an unknown person taking part, it seems they came to an understanding..." Her early photographs led to a book deal, for which she took lessons from Norman Parkinson. She travelled to Tobago, where he lived, and he became her mentor. Her book Contrasts (1985) included about a hundred of her photographs. She went on to study the work of leading photographers, including Angus McBean, whom she met and photographed,Phil Coomes, In pictures: Koo Stark on both sides of the lens dated 8 May 2017 at BBC.co.uk developing her interests in photography to include reportage, portraits, landscapes, still life, and other work. The book Contrasts was launched at Hamiltons Gallery, London, in September 1985, at an exhibition of the same name.British Journal of Photography, Volume 132 (Henry Greenwood & Co., 1985), p. 1022 In 1994, the Gallery Bar at the Grosvenor House Hotel in Park Lane hosted an exhibition called 'The Stark Image', forty photographs by Stark, including several previously unpublished.British Journal of Photography, Volume 141 (Henry Greenwood & Co., 1994), p. 58 In 1998, her work was featured at the Como Lario in Holbein Place, Belgravia.Jim Ainsworth, The Good Food Guide 1998 (Which? Books, 1998), p. 87 In July 2001 she had an exhibition called 'Stark Images" at the Fruitmarket Gallery in Edinburgh,British Journal of Photography, Volume 148 (Henry Greenwood & Co., 2001), issue 7346 duplicated from June to July 2001 at Dimbola Lodge on the Isle of Wight.Harriet Lane, The Stark ages , in The Observer dated 17 June 2001, accessed 12 November 2017 A solo exhibition of portraits was at the Winter Gardens, Ventnor, from September to October 2010,David Bartlett, Koo Stark Exhibition At Winter Gardens dated 8th September, 2010, at onthewight.com, accessed 12 November 2017 and another at Dimbola Lodge from February to April, 2011.Events February 2011 at iwcp.co.uk, Isle of Wight County Press, accessed 19 November 2017: "Koo Stark Contrasts Art Exhibition at Dimbola Lodge Museum, Freshwater, closed Mondays." On 22 April 1987, a charity auction at Christie's, St James's, for the Campaign to Protect Rural England, featured signed work by David Bailey, Patrick Lichfield, Don McCullin, Terence Donovan, Fay Godwin, Heather Angel, Clive Arrowsmith, Linda McCartney, Koo Stark, and fifteen others,British Journal of Photography, Volume 134 (Henry Greenwood & Co., 1987), p. 234BBC Wildlife, Volumes 4-5 (1986), p. 201Arts Review, Volume 39, Issues 1-13 (Richard Gainsborough Periodicals, 1987), p. 136 Views by Stark, including some of Kirby Muxloe Castle, were in G. H. Davies's England's Glory (1987), a CPRE book launched at the same time.Review of G. H. Davies's England's Glory: a Photographic Journey through England's Threatened Landscape in Antiquity, Volume 61 (Antiquity Publications, 1987), p. 476 Pictures by Stark have appeared in Country LifeBritish Design Strikes a Winning Pose by Jennifer Guerrini-Maraldi, photographs by Koo Stark in Country Life volume 191 (1997) and other magazines. Several of her portraits are in the National Portrait Gallery,Koo Stark (1956-) at npg.org.uk, accessed 12 November 2017 and work is also in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, both in London. A Leica user, Stark has said her camera transcends mere function and is a personal friend. A solo exhibition hosted by the Leica gallery in Mayfair in May 2017 was entitled Kintsugi, a Japanese word for a way of renovating things that have been broken. Stark explained the title: "Kintsugi is a way of learning to see individual beauty, and to appreciate the value of experience and honesty. It is the antithesis of digital, airbrushed, Photoshop-homogenised 'beauty'." In August the exhibition was repeated in Manchester, to mark the opening of a new Leica store there.Nigel Barlow, Koo Stark exhibition comes to Manchester dated August 11, 2017, at aboutmanchester.co.uk, accessed 12 November 2017 ==Personal life== Stark has been a practising Buddhist since meeting the Dalai Lama.Time, Volume 149 (Time Incorporated, 1997), p. 19 She continues to live in London and is a member of the Chelsea Arts Club. She is a Patron of the Julia Margaret Cameron Trust, at Dimbola Lodge on the Isle of Wight, home of the Victorian pioneer photographer Julia Margaret Cameron. ===Relationships=== Stark met Prince Andrew in February 1981, and they were close for some two years, before and after his active service in the Falklands War.Alastair Burnet, The ITN book of the royal wedding (Michael O'Mara Books, 1986), p. 38: "The actress Miss Koo Stark was a regular girlfriend of Prince Andrew for several years." Tina Brown has claimed that this was Andrew's only serious love affair.Tina Brown, The Diana Chronicles (2011), p. 228 In October 1982 they took a holiday together on the island of Mustique.Kim McNamara, Paparazzi: Media Practices and Celebrity Culture (2015), p. 29 According to Lady Colin Campbell, Andrew was in love, and the Queen was "much taken with the elegant, intelligent, and discreet Koo".Lady Colin Campbell, The Real Diana, p. 161 However, in 1983, after 18 months of dating, they split up under pressure from the Queen. In 1997, Prince Andrew became the godfather of Stark's daughter,Newsweek, Volume 128 (1997), p. 76 and in 2015, when the Prince was accused by Virginia Roberts over the Jeffrey Epstein connection, Stark came to his defence, stating that he was a good man and she could help to rebut the claims. Stark married Tim Jefferies, manager of a photographic gallery, in August 1984,Milestones, in Time dated Aug. 27, 1984 at St Saviour's, Chalk Farm, with the minister, Christopher Neil-Smith, commenting that "It was such a quiet affair you wouldn't have known it was happening."'Stark weds Green Shield heir', AP report in The Daily Register dated August 17, 1984, page A2, col. 1 They stayed together for a year, later divorcing. She was later engaged to Warren Walker, an American banker, but he cancelled their wedding before the birth of their daughter, Tatiana, in May 1997."Koo's praise for her daughter's father" in The Independent (London), dated August 18, 1998, accessed October 7, 2007 ===Legal cases=== In 1988, Stark brought a successful libel action against The Mail on Sunday over an untrue story headed 'Koo dated Andy after she wed'.'Koo Stark v Mail on Sunday (1988) unreported', in Vivienne Harpwood, ed., Modern Tort Law, 6th edition (2005), p. 340 In 1989, The Spectator reported that she had received £300,000 from one newspaper "for years of inaccurate persecution" and was also collecting money from others.The Spectator, Volume 262 (1989), p. 19 In another libel action in 2007, Stark won an apology and substantial damages from Zoo Weekly magazine, which had described her as a porn star. She commented "I am relieved that my name has been cleared of this false, highly damaging and serious allegation which has been proved to be completely untrue."Koo Stark news release at carter-ruck.com, accessed 25 May 2018 In 2011 The Daily Telegraph called her an early "Kate Middleton prototype" and suggested that if she had not appeared in the film Emily early in her career she might have gone on to become the Duchess of York. In November 2012, Stark appeared at Hammersmith magistrates court accused of stealing a painting by Dutch master Anthonie van Borssom, worth £40,000, from the home of her ex- partner, American financier Warren Walker. In November 2022, Stark was awarded substantial damages and received an apology in a court case brought against Daily Mails parent company for a 2019 article which falsely referred to her as "a soft porn actress". ===Health=== About 1993, Stark was hit by a taxi in Old Compton Street, London, losing two teeth and also suffering a deep wound to her forehead, after a collision with her camera. This accident left her temporarily disfigured, but the wound eventually healed leaving a small scar just under the hair-line. In 2002 Stark was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a double mastectomy and chemotherapy, causing her to lose her hair for a time.Koo's battle against cancer in Evening Standard dated 23 March 2004, accessed 17 November 2017 ==Films and television== === Film === Year Title Role Notes 1974 All I Want Is You... and You... and You... Jennifer Ready 1975 The Rocky Horror Picture Show Bridesmaid Uncredited 1975 The Adolescents Ana 1976 Emily Emily / Daughter 1977 Cruel Passion Justine Jerome 1984 Electric Dreams Girl in Soap Opera 1987 Eat the Rich Hazel === Television === Year Title Role Notes 1975 Shades of Greene Girl Episode: "The Blue Film" 1977 The Sunday Drama Deborah Episode: "The Cuckoo Calls" 1986 The Two Ronnies Alice Episode #12.2 1989 Red Dwarf Lady Sabrina Mulholland-Jjones Episode: "Timeslides" 1991 Cluedo Miss Scarlett 6 episodes == Publications == * ==Photographic exhibitions== *'Contrasts', Hamiltons Gallery, Carlos Place, London, September 1985 *'The Stark Image', Gallery Bar at Grosvenor House Hotel, London, 1994 *'Stark Images', Dimbola Lodge, Isle of Wight, June to July 2001 *'Stark Images', Fruitmarket Gallery, Market Street, Edinburgh, July 2001 *'Portraits by Koo Stark', Winter Gardens, Ventnor, Isle of Wight, September to October 2010 *'Koo Stark: Contrasts', Dimbola Lodge, Isle of Wight, February to April, 2011 *'Kintsugi', Leica gallery, Bruton Place, Mayfair, May 2017 *'Kintsugi', Leica store, Police Street, Manchester, August 2017 *'Kintsugi Portraits', San Lorenzo, Beauchamp Place, London SW3, November 2017'Kintsugi Portraits' by Koo Stark exhibition launch at San Lorenzo, London, 23 November 2017, accessed 29 November 2017 ==References== ==External links== *Koo Stark Pictures and Images at gettyimages.co.uk * *Koo Stark exhibition at Dimbola Lodge, Isle of Wight, Feb 2011, by Birgit Cunningham Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:Actresses from New York City Category:American Buddhists Category:American emigrants to England Category:American female models Category:American film actresses Category:American women photographers Category:Hewitt School alumni Category:Fine art photographers Category:American portrait photographers
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A League of Their Own is a British television comedy panel game created by Paul Brassey which was hosted by actor and comedian James Corden for the first 13 series. Due to his commitments hosting The Late Late Show, Corden hosted only two episodes of series 14 with the remainder hosted by guests. Travel restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic prevented Corden returning for series 15 as expected, the series was predominately hosted by regular panellist Romesh Ranganathan, with team captains Andrew "Freddie" Flintoff and Jamie Redknapp hosting one episode each. Ranganathan was confirmed as the new permanent host, starting from series 16. It premiered on Sky One on 11 March 2010 and remained on the channel until September 2021 when Sky One was closed and replaced with Sky Max where the show is now broadcast. A regular episode of A League of Their Own sees two teams of three – Blue and Red – competing in a quiz about notable sports along with physical challenges; at the show's debut the captains of each team were been retired England cricketer Andrew "Freddie" Flintoff (Blue) and former Liverpool captain and England midfielder Jamie Redknapp (Red). For the first four series both teams had a regular panellist alongside the captain, journalist and presenter Georgie Thompson (Blue) and comedian John Bishop (Red). From series 5 until series 12, the Blue team had a regular panellist with comedian Jack Whitehall joining Flintoff. From series 13 to series 15, comedian Romesh Ranganathan was a regular panellist for the Red team alongside Redknapp, albeit with Ranganathan hosting most episodes in series 15. With Ranganathan's promotion to host from series 16, neither team had a regular panellist. Flintoff left the show following the Dingle to Dover road trip and has since been replaced by a guest captain each episode, retired footballer Micah Richards joined the Blue team as a regular panellist. Special episodes have also been produced where there is no quiz instead they feature compilations of clips either from recordings that have been broadcast in a series (labelled "The Best Bits from..."), material that was not broadcast (labelled "The Unseen Bits from...") or even from a particular challenge from an individual episode (labelled "The Best of..."). The first series consisted of twelve episodes. The second series consisted of thirteen episodes including a Christmas special. The third series had twelve episodes and saw the first occasion of a regular team captain being unable to attend an individual recording and being replaced by a guest, it also saw the introduction of splitting both "The Best Bits" and "The Unseen Bits" over two episodes therefore having four episodes of compilation clips; this technique was used on and off for future series. The fourth series consisted of ten episodes including an End of Year special. For the fifth series there were eleven episodes. The sixth series had ten episodes. The seventh series had twelve episodes including a compilation episode entitled "Rally Special" focussing solely on the rally car challenge from the series opener. The eighth series consisted of thirteen episodes. The ninth series had twelve episodes. The tenth series had ten episodes. As of 24 March 2023, 138 regular episodes and 54 compilations or specials have been broadcast across sixteen series, 192 episodes have been aired in total. There has also been seven Road Trip spin off series, two in the US, two in Europe, one in the UK, one in the UK & Ireland and one in Southeast Asia. There have been 27 regular episodes and 14 compilations for a total of 41 Road Trip episodes. Contents __NOTOC__ Series: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Road Trips: US US 2.0 Europe 1 Europe 2 Loch Ness to London Dingle to Dover Scores Notes References External links ==Episode list== ===Key=== * – Episodes with this background, and when the number on the left in the scores column is greater than the one on the right, were won by the Blue team (Flintoff with Thompson up to series four, Flintoff with Whitehall from series 5-12, Flintoff individually from series 13-16 and guest captains with Micah Richards from series 17) * – Episodes with this background, and when the number on the right in the scores column is greater than the one on the left, were won by the Red team (Redknapp with Bishop up to series four, Redknapp individually from series 5-12, Redknapp with Ranganathan from series 13-14 and Redknapp individually from series 15) * – Episodes with this background, and when the numbers on the left and right are equal, ended in a draw * When a guest is listed in bold with a dagger symbol (†) it means they were team captain for that team in the episode as the regular captain was unable to make the recording or presented the show as guest host * No. = The episode's order in the overall show ===Series 1=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Georgie's guest Jamie and John's guests Scores 01x01 11 March 2010 Neil Morrissey David Haye 9–5 01x02 18 March 2010 Alastair Campbell Ruth Jones 12–9 01x03 25 March 2010 Neil Morrissey Abbey Clancy 7–8 01x04 1 April 2010 Dara Ó Briain Steve Harmison 13–7 01x05 8 April 2010 Jack Whitehall Amir Khan 9–8 01x06 15 April 2010 Jimmy Carr Karen Pickering 8–5 01x07 22 April 2010 Dara Ó Briain Claudia Winkleman 7–8 01x08 29 April 2010 Bob Mortimer Tom Daley 4–7 01x09 6 May 2010 Ardal O'Hanlon Gabby Logan 6–8 01x10 13 May 2010 Stephen Mangan Matthew Le Tissier 9–11 01x11 20 May 2010 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 1" 01x12 27 May 2010 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 1" ===Series 2=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Georgie's guest Jamie and John's guests Scores 02x01 7 October 2010 Jimmy Carr Lily Allen 11–9 02x02 14 October 2010 Chris Evans Tim Henman 9–9 02x03 21 October 2010 Rob Brydon Jessica Ennis 4–3 02x04 21 October 2010 Jack Whitehall Michael Owen 9–9 02x05 28 October 2010 Clare Balding Tinchy Stryder 9–5 02x06 28 October 2010 Dermot O'Leary Phillips Idowu 10–11 02x07 4 November 2010 Amanda Holden Kevin Pietersen 1–4 02x08 4 November 2010 Patrick Kielty Joe Calzaghe 4–10 02x09 11 November 2010 Eamonn Holmes David James 9–8 02x10 11 November 2010 Jimmy Carr Theo Paphitis 10–9 02x11 12 November 2010 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 2" 02x12 19 December 2010 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 2" 02x13 23 December 2010Christmas special Ruth Jones Ricky Hatton 6–9 ===Series 3=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Georgie's guest Jamie and John's guests Scores 03x01 4 March 2011 Jimmy Carr Phil Taylor 4–4 03x02 11 March 2011 Dara Ó Briain Gaël Clichy 5–6 03x03 25 March 2011 Lee Mack Rio Ferdinand 7–8 03x04 1 April 2011 Clare Balding Boris Becker 6–3 03x05 8 April 2011 Jimmy Carr Mike Tindall 3–9 03x06 15 April 2011 Robbie Fowler Christine Bleakley 7–9 03x07 22 April 2011 Jack Whitehall Amy Williams 5–6 03x08 29 April 2011 Kevin Bridges Dermot O'Leary † Alastair Cook 7–5 03x09 6 May 2011 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 3 (Part 1)" 03x10 13 May 2011 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 3 (Part 1)" 03x11 20 May 2011 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 3 (Part 2)" 03x12 27 May 2011 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 3 (Part 2)" ===Series 4=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Georgie's guest Jamie and John's guests Scores 04x01 7 October 2011 Jason Manford Andy Murray 8–6 04x02 14 October 2011 Lee Mack † Frank Lampard Gabby Logan 5–7 04x03 21 October 2011 Jack Whitehall Rory McIlroy 6–7 04x04 28 October 2011 Phill Jupitus Peter Crouch 8–6 04x05 4 November 2011 Jimmy Carr James Anderson 6–7 04x06 11 November 2011 David Walliams Gary Neville 9–9 04x07 18 November 2011 Jimmy Carr Mark Webber 9–6 04x08 16 December 2011End of Year special Stacey Solomon Gabby Logan 7–5 04x09 6 January 2012 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 4" 04x10 13 January 2012 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 4" ===Series 5=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 05x01 20 April 2012 Georgie Thompson Steven Gerrard John Bishop 8–8 05x02 27 April 2012 Louise Hazel Peter Crouch † Jimmy Carr John Bishop 7–7 05x03 4 May 2012 Jessica Ennis Gabby Logan Micky Flanagan 8–6 05x04 11 May 2012 Zoë Ball Jermain Defoe John Bishop 4–4 05x05 18 May 2012 Mo Farah Clare Balding David Walliams 5–8 05x06 25 May 2012 Ronnie O'Sullivan Christine Bleakley Jimmy Carr 12–10 05x07 1 June 2012 Gabby Logan Graeme Souness Kevin Bridges 4–4As the game ended in a draw an arm wrestling tiebreaker was played between Whitehall (Blue) and Souness (Red). Souness won making the red team the winners. 05x08 8 June 2012 Claudia Winkleman Joe Hart John Bishop 14–12 05x09 15 June 2012 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 5 (Part 1)" 05x10 22 June 2012 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 5 (Part 2)" 05x11 29 June 2012 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 5" ===Series 6=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 06x01 26 October 2012 Claudia Winkleman Mo Farah John Bishop 6–3 06x02 2 November 2012 Rebecca Adlington Sir Chris Hoy David Walliams 6–10 06x03 9 November 2012 Charlotte Jackson Harry Redknapp Johnny Vegas 6–4 06x04 16 November 2012 Jimmy Carr Jessica Ennis Micky Flanagan 8–8 06x05 23 November 2012 Frank Lampard Gabby Logan † Shane Warne Jason Manford 6–8 06x06 30 November 2012 Laura Trott Zara Phillips Micky Flanagan 9–19 06x07 7 December 2012 Sarah Millican Victoria Pendleton John Bishop 4–7 06x08 14 December 2012 Vincent Kompany Billie Piper Lee Mack 9–4 06x09 21 December 2012 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 6 (Part 1)" 06x10 28 December 2012 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 6 (Part 2)" ===Series 7=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 07x01 23 August 2013 Amy Williams Edgar Davids Jimmy Carr 6–11 07x02 30 August 2013 Sara Cox Harry Styles Louis Tomlinson Niall Horan 13–14 07x03 6 September 2013 Sarah Storey Sam Allardyce David Walliams 9–7 07x04 13 September 2013 Paula Radcliffe Chris Ashton Richard Ayoade 10–9 07x05 20 September 2013 Gabby Logan Joleon Lescott Jon Richardson 9–11 07x06 27 September 2013 Matt Smith Kriss Akabusi Perri Shakes-Drayton Jonathan Ross 13–8 07x07 4 October 2013 Richard Ayoade Nicola Adams David Walliams 6–11 07x08 11 October 2013 Alan Shearer Frankie Sandford Jason Manford 13–12 07x09 18 October 2013 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 7 (Part 1)" 07x10 25 October 2013 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 7 (Part 2)" 07x11 1 November 2013 Compilation episode – "The Best of the Rally Car Special" 07x12 8 November 2013 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 7" ===Series 8=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 08x01 29 August 2014 Frank Lampard Judy Murray Kevin Bridges 6–7 08x02 5 September 2014 Laura Whitmore Andros Townsend Micky Flanagan 2–9 08x03 12 September 2014 Joe Hart Kevin Pietersen Josh Widdicombe 9–11 08x04 19 September 2014 Una Foden Kevin Keegan Russell Howard 12–11 08x05 26 September 2014 Jamie Carragher Kirsty Gallacher Jimmy Carr 15–14 08x06 3 October 2014 Lennox Lewis Christine Ohuruogu Sean Lock 7–7 08x07 10 October 2014 Pixie Lott Robbie Fowler David Walliams 13–14 08x08 17 October 2014 Jenny Jones Gianfranco Zola Johnny Vegas 8–9 08x09 17 October 2014 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 8 (Part 1)" 08x10 24 October 2014 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 8 (Part 2)" 08x11 31 October 2014 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 8 (Part 3)" 08x12 31 October 2014 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 8 (Part 4)" 08x13 24 December 2014 Compilation episode – "The Best of Series 1–8" ===Series 9=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 09x01 15 May 2015 Olivia Wayne Ian Poulter Josh Widdicombe 7–6 09x02 22 May 2015 Jennifer Saunders Wojciech Szczęsny Alex Brooker 8–13 09x03 29 May 2015 Jenny Jones Robbie Savage Anthony Joshua Jimmy Carr 2–2 09x04 5 June 2015 Heather Watson Patrick Kluivert Trevor Noah 10–8 09x05 12 June 2015 Peter Schmeichel Jenny Jones Josh Widdicombe 8–4 09x06 19 June 2015 Amanda Holden John Barnes Aisling Bea 7–4 09x07 26 June 2015 Tom Daley Katarina Johnson-Thompson Romesh Ranganathan 5–6 09x08 3 July 2015 Gabby Logan Kevin Nolan Micky Flanagan 6–8 09x09 10 July 2015 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 9 (Part 1)" 09x10 17 July 2015 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 9 (Part 2)" 09x11 24 July 2015 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 9 (Part 1)" 09x12 31 July 2015 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 9 (Part 2)" ===Series 10=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 10x01 7 January 2016 Melanie C Andy Carroll David Walliams 7–12 10x02 14 January 2016 Aisling Bea Jade JonesJones and Merrigold only joined for the Right Guard Challenge Ashley Cole Noel Fielding Aston Merrygold 6–9 10x03 21 January 2016 Kate Abdo Aaron Ramsey Romesh Ranganathan 7–14 10x04 28 January 2016 Claudia Winkleman Jimmy Carr Micah Richards 8–7 10x05 4 February 2016 James DeGale Rob Beckett Denise Lewis 8–7 10x06 11 February 2016 Sir Chris Hoy A. P. McCoy Katherine Ryan 12–6 10x07 18 February 2016 Ricky Ponting Joel Creasey Jon RichardsonWhitehall appeared on Redknapp's team in this episode. 19–11 10x08 25 February 2016 Nicole Scherzinger Noel Fielding James Haskell 15–8 10x09 3 March 2016 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 10" 10x10 10 March 2016 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 10" ===US Road Trip=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie's points Jack's points Jamie's points USx01 10 May 2016 7 8 7 USx02 17 May 2016 8 4 11 USx03 24 May 2016 12 6 4 USx04 31 May 2016 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits" ===Series 11=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 11x01 22 September 2016 Anthony Joshua Roisin Conaty Rob Beckett 10–15 11x02 29 September 2016 Alesha Dixon John McEnroe Jimmy Carr 4–4 11x03 6 October 2016 Johanna Konta Harry Redknapp David Walliams 13–13 11x04 13 October 2016 Niall Horan Kirsty Gallacher Nick Grimshaw 9–5 11x05 20 October 2016 David Baddiel Tony Adams Aisling Bea 11–9 11x06 27 October 2016 Alex Scott Ruud Gullit Kevin Bridges 8–6 11x07 3 November 2016 Judy Murray Daniel Ricciardo Rob Beckett 6–8 11x08 10 November 2016 Joey Barton Katherine Ryan John Bishop 10–5 11x09 17 November 2016 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 11" 11x10 24 November 2016 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 11" 11x11 24 December 2016 Compilation episode ===US Road Trip 2.0=== No. Episode First broadcast US2x01 5 June 2017 US2x02 12 June 2017 US2x03 19 June 2017 US2x04 26 June 2017 US2x05 3 July 2017Unseen Bits compilation episode US2x06 10 July 2017 US2x07 17 July 2017Best Bits compilation episode ===A Premier League of Their Own=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores Sp. 10 August 2017 Kelly Cates Thierry Henry Jeff Stelling ===Series 12=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie and Jack's guest Jamie's guests Scores 12x01 14 September 2017 Rob Beckett Dele Alli Stephen Mangan 17–9 12x02 21 September 2017 Emma Bunton Mo Farah Anthony Joshua 4–13 12x03 28 September 2017 Sam Quek Tony Bellew Romesh Ranganathan 6–6 12x04 5 October 2017 Charlotte Dujardin Cesc Fàbregas Romesh Ranganathan 5–3 12x05 12 October 2017 Piers Morgan Paul Merson Roisin Conaty 9–13 12x06 19 October 2017 Sara Cox Bradley Wiggins Jimmy Carr 11–9 12x07 26 October 2017 Jessica Ennis-Hill Robbie Keane Romesh Ranganathan 10–10 12x08 5 December 2017 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 12" 12x09 12 December 2017 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 12" 12x10 21 December 2017 Compilation episode ===Series 13=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie's guests Jamie and Romesh's guest Scores 13x01 30 August 2018 Alan Carr Lizzy Yarnold Tony Bellew 8–9 13x02 6 September 2018 Rob Beckett Judy Murray Jack Wilshere 14–7 13x03 13 September 2018 David Walliams Helen Skelton Adam Peaty 27–22 13x04 20 September 2018 Rob Beckett Patrice Evra Roisin Conaty 13–4 13x05 27 September 2018 Rob Beckett Mo Farah Tracey Neville 20–18 13x06 4 October 2018 Tom Davis Wladimir Klitschko Nicola Adams 8–8 13x07 11 October 2018 Josh Widdicombe Geri Horner John Terry 9–9 13x08 18 October 2018 Rob Beckett Ellie Simmonds Ashley Cole 11–7 13x09 25 October 2018 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 13" 13x10 1 November 2018 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 13" 13x11 20 December 2018 Compilation episode ===European Road Trip=== No. Episode First broadcast EUx01 10 January 2019 EUx02 17 January 2019 EUx03 24 January 2019 EUx04 31 January 2019 EUx05 7 February 2019 EUx06 14 February 2019 ===Series 14=== No. Episode First broadcast Host Freddie's guests Jamie and Romesh's guest Scores 14x01 15 August 2019 James Corden Fearne Cotton James Anderson Joe Cole 11–14 14x02 22 August 2019 James Corden Laura Woods Robin van Persie Tony Bellew 3–5 14x03 29 August 2019 Jack Whitehall Tom Davis Helen Skelton David Ginola 6–3 14x04 5 September 2019 Clare Balding Rob Beckett Chemmy Alcott Harry Winks 10–9 14x05 12 September 2019 Romesh Ranganathan Rob Beckett Lauren Steadman Jermaine Jenas Tom Allen 4–6 14x06 19 September 2019 Freddie Flintoff Lee Mack † Sam Quek Dina Asher-Smith Kevin Bridges 9–8 14x07 26 September 2019 Amanda Holden Guz Khan Alex Scott Harry Redknapp 9–11 14x08 3 October 2019 David Walliams Jimmy Carr Max Whitlock Helen Skelton 7–5 14x09 10 October 2019 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 14" 14x10 17 October 2019 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 14" 14x11 19 December 2019 Christmas Special ===European Road Trip 2=== No. Episode First broadcast EU2x01 9 January 2020 EU2x02 16 January 2020 EU2x03 23 January 2020 EU2x04 30 January 2020 EU2x05 6 February 2020 EU2x06 13 February 2020 ===Series 15=== No. Episode First broadcast Host Freddie's guests Jamie's guests Scores 15x01 20 August 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Rob Beckett Jimmy Carr Andy Murray Helen Skelton 2–6 15x02 27 August 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Alan Carr Kerry Godliman Anthony Joshua Jimmy Carr 10–9 15x03 3 September 2020 Jamie Redknapp Rob Beckett Dina Asher-Smith Micah Richards † Rhys James Romesh Ranganathan The red team were announced as winners, but no score was shown. 15x04 10 September 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Tom Davis Heather Watson Eric Dier Tom Allen 8–9 15x05 17 September 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Joel Dommett Adam Peaty Dina Asher-Smith Tom Davis 9–10 15x06 24 September 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Alan Carr Jade Jones Tony Bellew Jonathan Ross 11–9 15x07 1 October 2020 Romesh Ranganathan Jesse Lingard Sam Quek Eddie Hearn Mo Gilligan 11–7 15x08 8 October 2020 Freddie Flintoff Ally McCoist† Josh Widdicombe Laura Woods Alex Brooker 12–11 15x09 15 October 2020 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 15" 15x10 22 October 2020 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 15" 15x11 17 December 2020 Christmas Special ===Road Trip: Loch Ness to London=== No. Episode First broadcast LLx01 8 April 2021 LLx02 15 April 2021 LLx03 22 April 2021 LLx04 29 April 2021 LLx05 6 May 2021 LLx06 13 May 2021 ===Series 16=== No. Episode First broadcast Freddie's guests Jamie's guests Scores 16x01 19 August 2021 Laura Woods George North Maisie Adam Tom Davis 9–11 16x02 26 August 2021 Jimmy Carr Jamie Vardy Chelcee Grimes Kerry Godliman 9–8 16x03 2 September 2021 Micah Richards Katarina Johnson-Thompson Josh Taylor Maisie Adam 12–8 16x04 9 September 2021 Jo Brand Catherine Bohart Ashley Cole Nish Kumar 21–20 16x05 16 September 2021 Chris Ramsey Kadeena Cox Teddy Sheringham Sue Perkins 18–12 16x06 23 September 2021 Alan Carr † Josh Widdicombe Denise Lewis Jimmy Carr † Andrew Johnston Kerry Godliman 11–12 16x07 30 September 2021 Roisin Conaty †Flintoff and Redknapp were in self isolation but participated in the entire show via video link. AJ Odudu Alex Brooker Tom Allen † Troy Deeney Geoff Norcott 18–11 16x08 7 October 2021 David Walliams † Joel Dommett Kelly Somers Jonathan Ross † Joe Marler Shanthi Ranganathan 7–9 16x09 14 October 2021 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 16" 16x10 21 October 2021 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 16" 16x11 13 December 2021 Christmas Special ===Road Trip: Dingle to Dover=== No. Episode First broadcast DDx01 7 April 2022 DDx02 14 April 2022 DDx03 21 April 2022 DDx04 28 April 2022 DDx05 5 May 2022 DDx06 12 May 2022 ===Series 17=== No. Episode First broadcast Micah's guests Jamie's guests Scores 17x01 18 August 2022 Declan Rice † Josh Widdicombe Jo Brand Jordan North 19–18 17x02 25 August 2022 Gary Neville † Dara Ó Briain Katherine Ryan Joel Dommett 15–6 17x03 1 September 2022 Laura Kenny † Jimmy Carr Maisie Adam Joel Dommett 10–9 17x04 8 September 2022 Aaron Ramsdale † Emily Atack Michael Sheen Alex Brooker 10–6 17x05 15 September 2022 Kyle Walker † Maisie Adam David Walliams Russell Howard 12–4 17x06 22 September 2022 Patrice Evra † Jimmy Carr Angela Scanlon Richard Ayoade 13–11 17x07 29 September 2022 Eve Muirhead † Joel Dommett Nish Kumar Tom Davis 8–12 17x08 6 October 2022 Michail Antonio † Jonathan Ross Hannah Waddingham Guz Khan 10–14 17x09 13 October 2022 Compilation episode – "The Unseen Bits from Series 17" 17x10 20 October 2022 Compilation episode – "The Best Bits from Series 17" 17x11 12 December 2022 Christmas Special ===Road Trip: Southeast Asia=== No. Episode First broadcast SAx01 17 February 2023 SAx02 24 February 2023 SAx03 3 March 2023 SAx04 10 March 2023 SAx05 17 March 2023 SAx06 24 March 2023 ==Scores== ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Category:Lists of British comedy television series episodes Category:Lists of British non-fiction television series episodes
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The Indigo Tribe is a fictional organization that appears in DC Comics publications, primarily those of the Green Lantern series. In the DC Universe, it is one of the seven major groups known as the Corps of the emotional spectrum. The group was created by comic book writer Geoff Johns and comic book artist Ethan Van Sciver. It made its debut in the issue #25 of Green Lantern (vol. 4) in December 2007. ==Background== The Indigo Tribe is one of the nine Corps of the emotional spectrum within the DC Universe setting. Each "Emotional Spectrum" Corps has both a corresponding color of the rainbow and an emotional theme attached to it, with several of the Corps (e.g. the Green Lantern Corps and Red Lantern Corps) being named after their respective color; the Indigo Tribe, which is one of the Corps named after their associated color, uses indigo-light-powered rings and staffs. Its emotional theme is compassion. The group first appeared in issue #25 of Green Lantern (vol. 4), published in December 2007, where it is described as having a reclusive nature that makes it the most elusive group among its peers; the Tribe's stated purpose is to spread goodwill throughout the universe. In a March 2009 interview with Newsarama, creator Geoff Johns said that the Indigo Tribe would be introduced within the upcoming Blackest Night series. "I've been very careful with Indigo because they're not what everyone expects, and they act very differently than what everyone expects." In April 2009, artist Ed Benes posted the artwork for the companion mini-series Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps, which features a member from each of the Seven Corps; the solicitation copy announced "the first appearance of the mysterious Indigo, leader of the Indigo Tribe!" Johns later revealed the leader's name to be Indigo-1. The June 2009 Blackest Night #0 promotional material describes the group as being unknown to the DC Universe at large. The Indigo Tribe made its first extended appearance in the July 2009 issue Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1. Ethan Van Sciver, who created the initial design for the Indigo Tribe, said that members of the group abandon everything and devote themselves to compassion. Their uniforms have a basic, hand-made appearance, their bodies are adorned with the Indigo Lantern symbol written in body paint, and they carry carved, lantern-like staffs with them. Van Skiver also designed the staff, which he wanted to look "lovingly handmade by people who had better things to do than make themselves look good," and said that his initial thoughts were that the Tribe would be opposites to the Orange Lanterns. ==Group history== The Indigo Tribe is a major participant in the Blackest Night crossover storylines, covered by Blackest Night #0-#8 (May 2009-March 2010), and Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1-#3 (July 2009). The group is involved in one of the arcs in the follow-up Brightest Day storyline, specifically in Green Lantern (vol.4) #53-62, where it and other representatives of the Lantern Corps attempt to find the Entities of the emotional spectrum. Indigo-1 participates in the War of the Green Lanterns storyline that is covered in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #63-67, Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #58-60, and Green Lantern: Emerald Warriors #8-10 The Indigo Tribe is active in The New 52 storylines from Green Lantern (vol. 5). ===Blackest Night=== A group of Indigo Tribesmen, led by Indigo-1, traverses a desert landscape in Sector 3544, where it observes explosive displays of green and yellow light in the distance. The group investigates the site and finds a wounded porcine Green Lantern Corps member lying on the ground. He reports that he was in a conflict with a "being who knows no mercy," and despite his coughing up blood, difficulty speaking, and open head injuries, he tells the group to stay away so as to not attract the being's attention. Indigo-1 says something, but when the Green Lantern member asks his ring to translate, it replies that it cannot, despite having a catalog of known languages in the DC Universe. Indigo-1 kneels and places her hand on his heart; her indigo power ring responds with the word "will". Drawing power from him, she creates a simple green light construct that smothers him. Although he struggles, she persists, and smothers him until he is dead. The attacker, a member of Sinestro Corps, emerges and exclaims that he will not be taken down as easily as he fires a beam of yellow energy at Indigo-1; however, Indigo-1 is not fazed by his threat; her power staff absorbs the beam. As her power ring says "fear", she creates a monstrous yellow light construct that frightens her attacker away. Indigo-1 and Munk arrive on Earth to help Hal Jordan, the Flash, and the Atom escape from a group of Black Lanterns, which are former superheroes that have been reanimated. Indigo-1 channels Jordan's green light through her staff, and turns Black Lanterns Elongated Man and Sue Dibny to ash by destroying their rings. Indigo-1 and Munk teleport the group to the Hall of Justice where it is revealed that they can speak English "when they wish to." Indigo-1 explains that, in the beginning, the DC Universe is only darkness until light becomes strong enough to suppress it. As the darkness fights back, it shatters the light into the seven colors of the emotional spectrum. She explains that the Black Lanterns can only truly be defeated if the Corps work together. If all seven Corps cooperate, they can recreate the white light of creation and permanently destroy the Black Lanterns and their power source. As a group of Black Lanterns infiltrates the Hall of Justice, Indigo-1 and Munk escape with Jordan. They go to the planet Zamaron, where they save Carol Ferris and Sinestro from a Black Lantern onslaught. Indigo-1 brings Jordan, Ferris, and Sinestro to Korugar, where Sinestro defeats Mongul and becomes the leader of Sinestro Corps. Meanwhile, Munk transports himself to Oa, and assists the Green Lanterns against their fallen comrades, who have been reanimated as Black Lanterns. Indigo-1, along with Hal Jordan, Sinestro, Carol Ferris and Saint Walker, go to Okaara to recruit Atrocitus and Larfleeze. After the pair agrees, the group travels to Ryut but discovers that the Black Central Power Battery has been moved to Earth. The group goes to Earth; Indigo-1 and the allied members combine powers to make the white light of creation to try to destroy the battery; however, the light is insufficient. Meanwhile, Nekron, the leader of the Black Lanterns, expands his army by resurrecting more former superheroes and converting them into Black Lanterns. Indigo-1 and her allies encounter "the Entity" which is explained as the embodiment of life itself in the DC Universe. Hal Jordan bonds with the Entity; they convert the Black Lanterns into White Lanterns, and bring back Black Hand. Without Black Hand as a tether, Nekron is eventually defeated and destroyed. Afterwards, Saint Walker says that the Indigo Tribe has disappeared. The Indigo Tribe is shown in a vast procession led by Indigo-1 and Munk. The tribe members tow a shackled Black Hand, who bears an imprint of the Indigo Tribe symbol and carries a power staff. ===Brightest Day=== During the search for the emotional entities, Indigo-1 returns to Earth to infuse Proselyte, the Indigo Tribe's emotional entity, into Shane Thompson, a paramedic who prioritized the care of a mortally wounded patient over a less-wounded man that had insurance. Indigo-1 and Black Hand revisit Hal Jordan, Barry Allen, Sinestro, Saint Walker and Larfleeze. Black Hand explains that the ring has "cured" him of William Hand's sickness. The others realize that the Indigo Tribe cannot feel any emotion without the rings. Given Hand's role in Blackest Night, Jordan suspects that other Indigo Tribe members may have committed evil deeds in the past. The Indigo Tribe offers to take the remaining emotional entities into protective custody, but Jordan declines. Parallax takes over Flash, and wants to take over Jordan. Adara, the entity of hope, fights a cloaked villain who reveals himself to be Krona, who has been planning on capturing all of the Entities with the gathering. Proselyte frees Flash from Parallax's control by reigniting his emotion for compassion over his fear. ===War of the Green Lanterns=== In the War of the Green Lanterns storyline, Krona has trapped Indigo-1 and the allied Corps members in the Book of the Black, where they are forced to re-live their lives prior to acquiring their current rings. Meanwhile, John Stewart, whose Green Lantern ring has been contaminated by Krona and Parallax, bears Indigo-1's ring, but has trouble trying to wield its power. When Sinestro tries to break free of the book, he finds in a prison cell Indigo-1, who went by the name Iroque prior to joining the Indigo Tribe. Iroque angrily proclaims that she will escape whatever Abin Sur has planned for her. When Kyle Rayner frees her from the book, Iroque does not remember her Indigo-1 identity until she puts on her indigo ring. ===The New 52=== In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, the Indigo Tribe learns that Sinestro is returning to Earth to assume his old role of Green Lantern. Sinestro asks Hal Jordan to work with him as the Guardians are planning to replace the Green Lantern Corps with the Third Army; however, the Indigo Tribe goes to Earth and captures Sinestro. Jordan follows them to Nok, the Indigo homeworld, but he is captured and delivered to Indigo Tribe member Black Hand. Jordan tricks Black Hand into recharging his ring, and escapes; however, he discovers that Sinestro has been forcibly inducted into the Indigo Tribe. As he flees into the jungles of Nok, Jordan finds the Indigo Central Battery and meets its guardian, Natromo, who tells him of the Indigo Tribe's history. The group is originally created to fight the Guardians in case they ever become mad with power. Abin Sur discovers the Indigo light on the planet Nok during a mission; he and Natromo forge it into a battery. Sur brings Iroque, his mortal enemy who killed his daughter, and converts her to become the first Indigo Tribe member. The others are selected from the most dangerous criminals and psychopaths of their worlds. Sur foresees the danger that the Guardians would pose once the Blackest Night passes, and seeks a way to stop the Guardians by converting them instead of fighting them. However, when Jordan reveals that Sur is dead, Natromo destroys the battery, believing that there is no hope with Abin Sur dead. This restores Sinestro to normal, just as Jordan is discovered, but leaves them at the hands of the once-again- psychotic former Tribesmen. Jordan and Sinestro are pursued by the former Tribesmen through the forests of Nok. They run into Natromo, who is on his way back to his people. Jordan asks Natromo to reforge the Indigo Central Battery, but Natromo says that it is an impossible task since the compassion within the battery has already dissipated throughout the universe, and it will take weeks to forge more out of the rivers of Nok. They are then approached by Iroque, who begs Natromo to find a way to restore their rings. The sadness and compassion she feels for what she did to Abin Sur and his daughter is the spark that enables Natromo to reforge the battery. As a result, the former Tribesmen and Sinestro become members of the Tribe again, although Black Hand refuses to submit to the process by leaping to his death. Jordan implores the Indigo Tribe to release Sinestro; Indigo-1 agrees, but only on the condition that Jordan swear that Sinestro can be redeemed without having to use an indigo ring. Meanwhile, Munk has joined the New Guardians as the representative for the Indigo Tribe. He works alongside Fatality as they investigate the Orrery that has turned Kyle Rayner into a ring magnet. In the New Guardians' fight against Larfleeze, Munk duplicates Larfleeze's ring, which proves to be the New Guardians' only effective weapon against Larfleeze. ==Members== 150px|right|thumb|Indigo-1, leader of the Indigo Tribe ===Prominent members=== In Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1, the Indigo Tribe is presented as a Corps that travels in a large nomadic procession. Indigo-1 explains that the group eschews everything associated with individualism, including names. However, while interacting with others, some members allow themselves to be addressed by name: * (Iroque) (Sector unknown): A violet-skinned female humanoid who serves as the chosen leader of the Indigo Tribe. Unlike the other members of the tribe, Indigo-1 wears indigo-colored garments. During Blackest Night, she helps Hal Jordan assemble members from each of the Lantern Corps to combat the Black Lanterns. She claims to have once met Abin Sur at a time when she was "self-centered and self-important". Sinestro later encounters a pre-Tribe version of her in the Book of the Black where she waits in a prison cell for Abin Sur to pass judgment on her. Her original identity is revealed to be Iroque, Sur's greatest enemy, who is responsible for the death of his daughter. She becomes the first person to convert to the Indigo Tribe. When she is freed from her ring, she initially reverts to her old, violent personality; however, because of the previous influence of the Indigo power of compassion, she comes to regret her actions, and begs to have her ring and status returned. * (Sector unknown): A humanoid who acts as the Indigo Tribe's second-in-command. He accompanies Indigo-1 to Earth, and then to Zamaron, before teleporting himself to Oa in order to assist the Green Lantern Corps. Munk represented the Indigo Tribe in the Green Lantern: New Guardians series before the team was disbanded. * Natromo: An inhabitant of planet Nok, Natromo is the Keeper of the Indigo Light; however, he does not wield an Indigo Power Ring or Staff, so the light of compassion has no influence over him. He and Sur created the first Indigo Tribe ring. While Sur leaves the planet, Natromo remains and forges more rings to convert the worst beings from the other worlds into Indigo Tribe members. * Kreaven (Sector unknown): A bird-like alien, who was the worst psychopath on his world. * Slog the Slayer (Sector unknown): Slog is also a former psychopath who was converted to a member of the Indigo Tribe. ===Former members=== * John Stewart (of Sector 2814): During the Brightest Day and War of the Green Lanterns storyline, after Krona launches his attack on Oa and restores Parallax to the Green Central Battery, Stewart is forced to remove his green power ring to avoid being contaminated by the yellow impurity. Later Hal Jordan gives Stewart Indigo-1's ring so he can fight Krona, and while at first he cannot control the Indigo power properly, he later masters the ability to the point that he can tap into the remnants of the Black Lantern Corps around Mogo's core. * Atom (Ray Palmer) (of Sector 2814): A professor at Pace University, who is the second variation of the superhero known as the Atom and selected by an Indigo Power Ring as a deputy member of the Indigo Tribe during the Blackest Night crisis. He is later discharged from the Tribe after the final battle. He is the only known Indigo Tribe member selected by a ring because of his abundance of compassion instead of his lack of it. * (of Sector 2814): A paramedic who was pinned under an ambulance in an accident, yet still attempted to help the wounded. Instead of becoming a regular member of the Indigo Tribe, Thompson becomes the host for Proselyte, the Indigo Tribe's entity of compassion. He is later discharged after Krona captures Proselyte. * Thaal Sinestro (of Sector 1417): In The New 52 storyline, he is captured by and forcibly recruited into the Indigo Tribe. He is freed when guardian Natromo destroys the Indigo Central Battery. When Natromo later restores the battery, Sinestro becomes a member again, but Hal Jordan implores the Indigo Tribe to release Sinestro, so he can be redeemed without the aid of an indigo ring. * Black Hand (William Hand) (of Sector 2814): In the final issue of Blackest Night, Black Hand is seen with the Indigo Tribe as a prisoner and recently converted member. In Green Lantern (vol.4) #56, he is with the Tribe on Earth. In The New 52 storyline, he is tricked by Hal Jordan into recharging Jordan's ring. He is freed when guardian Natromo destroys the Indigo Central Battery. When the battery is later restored, he kills himself rather than return to the Indigo Tribe. A Black Power Ring later emerges from his corpse and revives him as a Black Lantern. * Krona (of sector 0): Krona temporarily becomes a member of the Indigo Tribe during the War of the Green Lanterns story line when he puts on Indigo-1's power ring. After he's killed, the power ring returns to Indigo-1. ==Oath== As with the other Corps of the emotional spectrum, the Indigo Tribe charges its rings by reciting an oath, but uses a power staff instead of a power battery. In its first extended appearance, the Indigo Tribe speaks a language that the power ring cannot translate, although Indigo-1 later explains that her Tribe can speak languages others can understand. Regardless, the oath has only been rendered in the aforementioned fictional language. Johns has said that the Corps oaths have a tempo regardless of what language they are spoken in, adding: "But speaking of languages, the Indigo Tribe speaks an interesting one." ==Entity: Proselyte== thumb|150px|Proselyte is the embodiment of compassion; it is the emotional spectrum entity for the Indigo Tribe. The entity is revealed during the Blackest Night storyline. In Green Lantern (vol. 4) #52, Proselyte's origins is explained as: "Rage grows from murder. Hope from Prayer. And at last, compassion is offered to us all." It takes the form of a cephalopod with four visible appendages, which represent its reaching out to offer itself to all living beings. Its inner surface is lined with features that resemble the Indigo Tribe's insignia. In the Brightest Day storyline, Proselyte is attracted by the Entity to Earth, where it is heavily sought after by the Indigo Tribe, the allied Corps members and Krona. Atrocitus uses a divining ritual and locates Proselyte in the mid-Atlantic United States. The Indigo Tribe finds Proselyte and uses its powers to convert Black Hand to the Tribe. Proselyte possesses the body of Shane Thompson, a paramedic who cares full- heartedly for his dying patients. In human form, it is able to "exorcise" Parallax from Barry Allen's body by using the energy of the various spectra. Proselyte and the emotional entity Adara are captured by Krona. After he invades Oa, Krona forces Proselyte to possess one of the Guardians of the Universe. Proselyte is eventually freed when Hal Jordan kills Krona. Afterwards, it remains at large in the Universe. While the Indigo Tribe members are capable of channeling only one emotion at a time, Proselyte is capable of channeling all emotions in the area at once. Proselyte soon began suffering from a strange illness, later revealed to be the reservoir of the emotional spectrum was becoming exhausted. After Relic wiped out the Blue Lantern Corps and forcefully drained the green light from Oa's Central Power Battery and destroying the planet in the process, Proselyte sacrifices himself by passing into the Source Wall in order for the reservoir to be refilled. ==Powers and abilities== upright|right|thumb|Indigo Lantern power ring The Indigo Tribe harnesses the indigo light of compassion. Robin S. Rosenberg, a clinical psychologist and editor of the anthology The Psychology of Superheroes, describes compassion as being able to have empathy for someone while maintaining enough distance to understand their motivations. The indigo ring has basic power ring abilities such as flight and aura projection, as shown on the cover of Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #3. Members can use indigo light to teleport themselves and others over vast intergalactic distances; this drains much of the ring's power, so the wearer uses it sparingly. The indigo light can also heal individuals with great empathy but exposes people to the pain they have inflicted on others. The Indigo Tribe distinguishes itself from the other Corps in that a member uses a power staff instead of power battery to charge the indigo ring, as depicted in Blackest Night #5. Unlike the power battery lanterns, the staff appears to be a part of the Indigo Tribe's uniform, appearing whenever a user puts on the ring and transforms into costume. The Indigo ring not only stores indigo light energy, but also is capable of channeling the energy of other emotional lights; the ring can therefore emulate the abilities from other Corps. In Blackest Night, Indigo-1 and Munk use a combination of different emotional lights to destroy members of the Black Lantern Corps. Black Hand is able to charge Hal Jordan's ring with green light although it is not as powerful as a standard charging. In Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #42, Munk explains that this ability is only effective from "direct and intimate discharges." Whereas a Corps member projects a light display in front of the emblem on the uniform when using abilities, the Indigo Tribe member projects the Corps symbol in an indigo light display from the "pod" on the staff. When the Tribe member manipulates another light, the symbol of the Corps corresponding to that light is projected in front of the Indigo Tribe emblem painted on his or her forehead. In the bonding process, the indigo ring forces its wearer to feel nothing but compassion. By blocking out all other emotions, the wearer can channel other emotions without being affected by them. The ring is classified as a parasite type like the orange ring, but differs in that it bonds most effectively with a user that lacks compassion. A wearer who has compassion before the bonding is unable to block out the other emotions, and either becomes heavily influenced by the channeled emotion or is unable to channel the emotion. When the ring is removed, the wearer loses the memories of the time with the ring and reverts to his or her old behavior, although this can be undone by re- donning the ring. If the ring is removed for a longer term, the wearer may gradually regain some memories without the emotional modifications. The ring appears to only "brainwash" those who are reluctant to accept it; in the cases where the person voluntarily dons the ring, such as Ray Palmer in Blackest Night and John Stewart in War of the Green Lanterns, the wearer can use the powers without being mentally altered. ==Other versions== ===The Lightsmiths=== In the universe prior to the current one, groups managed to tap into the wellspring of power created by the Emotional Spectrum. In this universe those who tapped into the indigo light were known as the Lightsmiths of the Indigo Light of Empathy.Green Lantern #23.1 ===Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War=== In a possible future, when Nekron launches a new assault on the universe, rapidly recruiting the dead as his agents against the living as his forces claim even more lives, Ganthet triggers a 'last light' protocol that uses the last of his energy to send himself, the rings of six of the seven Corps (Minus a Green Lantern ring) and the last surviving members of the seven Corps to another universe to try and escape Nekron's assault, the various ring-wielders and the rings arriving in the new Star Trek universe. Although the Blue, Violet and Indigo rings find wielders in Pavel Chekov, Nyota Uhura and Leonard McCoy, the Yellow, Red, and Orange rings choose Klingon general Chang,Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War #1 a Gorn leader and a Romulan councillor as their wielders.Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War #2 While other members of the other Corps survive, McCoy's ring is apparently the only Indigo ring to make it into the new universe, as no other members of the Indigo Tribe are witnessed in the storyline. In the final confrontation with Nekron, McCoy transfers his ring to Spock on Captain Kirk's request, Kirk realising that Spock alone has sufficient emotional and psychological strength to channel all seven Corps and restore the White entity to vanquish Nekron.Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War #6 ==In other media== ===Video games=== *The Indigo Tribe appear in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, with Indigo-1 appearing as a playable character voiced by Kari Wahlgren. She was captured by Brainiac, who sought to use her and other Lanterns to power his shrink ray so he can use it on Earth. However, the device overloads and teleports Indigo-1 to Nok. When Martian Manhunter, Cyborg, and the Flash arrive on the planet, they find the Indigo Tribe acting violent due to their Power Battery being damaged. Once the battery is rebuilt, the Indigo Tribe are cured of their violence and help the Justice League restore Earth to its normal size. *Proselyte appears in Injustice 2 as part of Atrocitus' ending. *The Indigo Tribe's homeworld appears in loading screens and background images depicted in DC Universe Online. ===Merchandise=== * Indigo-1 was featured in the DC Comics Super Hero Collection in 2010. * Indigo-1 received a six-inch figure in the "Blackest Night" toyline. * A six- inch Munk figure was included in the "Blackest Night" toyline four-pack. * A light-up Indigo Ring was released by DC Direct along with rings for all the other Corps. ==References== Category:DC Comics aliens Category:DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes Category:DC Comics superhero teams Category:Green Lantern characters Category:Characters created by Geoff Johns Category:Characters created by Ethan Van Sciver Category:Comics characters introduced in 2008
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The Cape dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion pumilum) is a chameleon native to the South African province of the Western Cape, where it is restricted to the region around Cape Town. As with most chameleons, its tongue is twice the length of its body and it can be shot out of its mouth using a special muscle in the jaw. This gives the chameleon the ability to catch insects some distance away. ==Description== thumb|left|A Cape dwarf chameleon, drinking water from a rose leaf in a Cape Town garden The Cape dwarf chameleon grows to over in length, including the tail, with males and females reaching similar adult sizes. They are ovoviviparous, but examination in controlled captivity has shown the very soft egg-like membrane around the young is discarded immediately on birth. The young resemble miniature versions of the adults, with muted colours, and typically reach no more than 2 cm in length at birth. Adults can vary quite significantly in colour variety, saturation and pattern, some appearing much more vibrant than others. Like most chameleons, the tail is prehensile, and the feet are well evolved to grasping twigs, with minute claws on the end that improve grip. Normally very slow moving, chameleons have a characteristic shake, which may make them look more like leaves to prey and predators. When provoked, they can speed up to several centimetres a second. When further provoked, they may inflate themselves, hiss, change colour dramatically, and bite. They do not have sharp teeth, so their bites rarely inflict more than a slight pinch. Male and female are difficult to differentiate. However males tend to have brighter colours, slightly larger head crests, and slightly narrower stomach area around the hips. The Cape dwarf chameleon is classified as a medium-sized chameleon with an average adult body size of 50–70 mm body size. This species has a restricted distribution within regions of southwestern South Africa that receive rainfall during winter months. This species is viviparous, meaning it gives live birth rather than eggs, and can have one to several clutches of about 10-15 offspring in any given year. Mortality rates of neonates are expected to be high due to an intense reproduction schedule and a high fecundity rate.Feldheim, Kevin A., Lucas F. Chauke, Kevin P. Hopkins, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Characterization of Microsatellite Loci from a South African Endemic, the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum)." Conservation Genetics Resources 2.S1 (2010): 165-68. Web. ==Functional consequences of morphological differentiation== Different populations within Cape dwarf chameleons were found to have different preferences regarding perch diameter. The two main populations, Kogelberg and Stellenbosch, were seen to have different behavior. Kogelberg tended to use perches that were significantly wider on average than perches used by the Stellenbosch site which chose perches by random. Hand size has a direct correlation with grip strength on both broad and narrow dowels, rod-like structures, in both populations. The longer the tail length, the greater the strength. This species prefers to sleep on perches of specific diameters that correspond to their specific morphology. Animals from habitats characterized by wider perches are also stronger than their counterparts living in habitats with narrow branches. This has led to sexual selection for chameleons with specific traits like hand size and tail length.Herrel, Anthony, G. John Measey, Bieke Vanhooydonck, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Functional Consequences of Morphological Differentiation between Populations of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum)." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 104.3 (2011): 692-700. Web. Bradypodion pumilum has two ecomorphs: a large, brightly coloured, ornate version often found in closed habitats, and a small, dull version with less ornamentation often found in open vegetation. Casque size is known to be used to communicate fighting ability, but it is yet to be known whether this size is an honest signal and if it is related to bite force. Bite force is significantly related to head size and the best way to tell the strength of the bite force is measuring the head width.Stuart-Fox, Devi M., David Firth, Adnan Moussalli, and Martin J. Whiting. "Multiple Signals in Chameleon Contests: Designing and Analysing Animal Contests as a Tournament." Animal Behaviour 71.6 (2006): 1263-271. Web. Open habitat males tend to have larger heads thus having stronger bite force. Larger chameleons have a high casque (parietal crest) and are brightly coloured with pink patches on their flank. The smaller chameleons found in open habitats have reduced casques and lack flank colour patches at all. Battles between males can lead to severe injuries through biting.Measey, G. John, Kevin Hopkins, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Morphology, Ornaments and Performance in Two Chameleon Ecomorphs: Is the Casque Bigger than the Bite?" Zoology 112.3 (2009): 217-26. Web. ==Taxonomy== In the past, most South African dwarf chameleons were considered a subspecies of the Cape species(e.g. Klaver & Böhme 1997) This is now known to be wrong, however; B. pumilum does not appear to have any particularly close living relatives. Like the Knysna dwarf chameleon, it seems to be a basal offshoot of the ancestral stock, which gave rise to all Bradypodion species.(Tolley et al. 2004) ==Structure and movement== Cape dwarf chameleons have a much higher survival rate in a metropolitan area if they are bigger in size. Their survival rate was dependent on body size, and the larger the size, the greater the chance that the individual would survive a ten-day period. Larger, older chameleons tend to be more sedentary compared to the smaller younger ones which means that the larger ones likely have smaller home ranges. Smaller chameleons inhabit grasses while larger chameleons are found mainly in bushes and trees. This is territorial, because it is believed that larger males would cannibalize smaller ones intruding on their territory. An alternative thought is that the smaller chameleons simply do not have big enough limbs to grasp larger branches correctly. When fighting contests occur, the outcome is influenced by the height of the ornamental casque, the relative size of the pink patch in the center of the flank, and previous experience. The ornamental casque is the protruding head piece of the chameleon, usually with a rounded end. The height of this piece is an honest signal to other male chameleons representing its total size. Similarly with the pink patch in the center of the flank, this is an honest signal showing that the chameleon has a healthy diet correlating to the strength of the individual.Arnott, Gareth, and Robert W. Elwood. "Assessment of Fighting Ability in Animal Contests." Animal Behaviour 77.5 (2009): 991-1004. Web. The turnover rate in males is thought to be higher than females.Tolley, Krystal A., Robert N.v. Raw, Res Altwegg, and G. John Measey. "Chameleons on the Move: Survival and Movement of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon,Bradypodion Pumilum, within a Fragmented Urban Habitat." African Zoology 45.1 (2010): 99-106. Web. When it comes to foraging, males and juveniles are more active than females. Females are only equally or more active than males during the reproductive season. Males may be more active due to seeking mates and defending territories. Bradypodion pumilum is a sit-and- wait forager which means they will rarely move and wait for prey to cross their paths, only then striking out. Low rates of prey capture are often seen in this species.Butler, Marguerite A. "Foraging Mode of the Chameleon, Bradypodion Pumilum: A Challenge to the Sit-and-wait versus Active Forager Paradigm?" Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 84.4 (2005): 797-808. Web ==Distribution== thumb|right|Cape dwarf chameleon in its preferred type of vegetation - dense, fine and thin. thumb|right|Cape dwarf chameleon in garden habitat thumb|right|Baby Cape dwarf chameleon in garden habitat thumb|Moulting Cape dwarf chameleon The Cape dwarf chameleon is restricted to the area around Cape Town, the Boland, and the mountainous coastline as far as Agulhas. Like many other reptiles, chameleons are poikilotherms meaning their body temperature is completely dependent on environmental temperature. A large number of lizards are expected to be affected by climate change in the near future, especially in Southern Africa where this species is found. If temperatures rise by 1-3 degrees Celsius, then it is expected that Cape dwarf chameleon running speed will increase as well. Although speed would be better, bite and grip force would become worse. Chameleons are adapted to current habitat temperatures and conditions, but shifting to a higher temperature would actually benefit some of their traits and abilities. This shows that future persistence of this species is very likely even with the advancement of global warming.Segall, M., K. A. Tolley, B. Vanhooydonck, G. J. Measey, and A. Herrel. "Impact of Temperature on Performance in Two Species of South African Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion Pumilum and B. Occidentale." Journal of Experimental Biology 216.20 (2013): 3828-836. Web. ==Habitat== ===Habitat in wilderness areas=== This species inhabits a range of different habitats and vegetation types, from fynbos and renosterveld, to indigenous Afrotemperate forest and wetlands. It is less common in extremely fire-prone and low-growing fynbos, and in open sandy or rocky areas. It is more usually found in areas such as river valleys, which are sheltered to some degree from the region's seasonal fires, and where more dense vegetation has developed. It prefers certain plant species to reside on too, especially favouring Restios. This adaptable species has also diversified into different forms and colours, depending on their habitat. Those that live in open, low-lying fynbos vegetation tend to be smaller and dull-coloured with smaller crests. Those in denser, closed vegetation areas tend to be larger and brightly coloured, with a longer tail and larger casque. In the wild, its predators are mainly snakes and predatory birds such as fiscal shrikes.E. Katz; K.A. Tolley; R. Altwegg: Survival and abundance of Cape dwarf chameleons, Bradypodion pumilum, inhabiting a transformed, semi-urban wetland. Herpetological Journal. Volume 23 (October 2013), 179–186. ===Habitat structure differences=== When looking at open habitats, chameleons with smaller body sizes are favored. Differences between habitats include certain traits found in the chameleons. This includes limbs, feet, tail, and head width. Open habitats commonly see longer limbs but smaller feet compared to chameleons found in closed habitats. Smaller feet in the open habitat are more accustomed to grasping the narrower branches. Natural and sexual selection in open and closed habitats have different intensities which directly affects the morphological variation found within the species.Hopkins, Kevin P., and Krystal A. Tolley. "Morphological Variation in the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum) as a Consequence of Spatially Explicit Habitat Structure Differences." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 102.4 (2011): 878-88. Web. ===Habitat loss=== The Cape dwarf chameleon is currently experiencing habitat loss and fragmentation of its natural habitat through causes such as urbanization and agriculture. The historical habitat of Bradypodion pumilum has recently become severely fragmented due to intense urbanization and agricultural transformation. This trend is continuing with approximately 6.5 square kilometers of undeveloped land becoming lost to transformation in the Cape Town municipal area per year. Additional losses are expected to occur because of rapid climatic changes near Cape Town which is where the species is primarily distributed. In urban areas, Cape dwarf chameleons are limited to planted vegetation, usually nonindigenous species, and patches of highly disturbed habitat. Populations are often found living in the overgrowth of exotic vegetation on road verges, abandoned urban ground, riverine thickets, or residential areas. Part of the species distribution lies in habitats that are protected by provincial parks, national parks, and private reserves. This protected area only amounts to 40% of the total area of occupancy. Most of the shrubland found in these protected areas is fire-prone, and natural fires are known to be detrimental to dwarf chameleon populations.Feldheim, Kevin A., Lucas F. Chauke, Kevin P. Hopkins, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Characterization of Microsatellite Loci from a South African Endemic, the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum)." Conservation Genetics Resources 2.S1 (2010): 165-68. Web. ===Habitat in urban areas=== With much of their former habitat now covered in suburbs, this little species has shown itself partially adaptable to suburban gardens. They can serve as a natural insect control for gardens. However, not all gardens are suitable. ====Urban habitat requirements==== Chameleons survive only in sunny gardens with much varied bushy vegetation. Direct sunlight is a prerequisite for cold- blooded reptiles like chameleons. Chameleons also require vegetation for a habitat—preferably with foliage they can easily grasp with their small claws, and perch on. Therefore, most suitable are bushes and small trees with some fine foliage or thin twigs for climbing. Favoured local shrub species include: Restio reeds, daisy bushes, Leonotis bushes, Cape Honeysuckle, Plumbago, Bitou bushes, Psoralea pinnata and many others. Favoured trees are those which provide low and accessible foliage, such as Karee trees, Willows, Pepper trees, Virgilia and others. Terrains with no suitable habitat include lawns, paved areas, brickwork, or higher trees with trunks too wide for chameleons to climb. Foliage should also not be pruned or trimmed, or exposed to insecticide poisons, as this usually kills or injures chameleons.Tolley, K. & Burger, M. 2007. Chameleons of Southern Africa. Struik, Cape Town Chameleons naturally wander and, in suburbs with smaller gardens, they also avoid properties that don't connect to larger "green corridors" that join several properties.K.A. Tolley; R. Raw; R. Altwegg; J. Measey: Chameleons on the move: survival and movement of the Cape dwarf chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum, within a fragmented urban habitat. African Zoology 45(1): 99–106 (April 2010)Chameleon-friendly Gardens. Cape Town - Scenic South article from SANBI. ====Urban threats==== In urban areas, its predators are mainly domestic cats. Cats are a non-native, introduced predator that chameleons are defenceless against. More importantly, the growing density of cats kept in suburban areas causes an unnaturally high ratio of predators to prey, leading to the collapse of populations of chameleons and many other species. Other predators include a range of urban and introduced bird species such as crows. Certain gardening practices such as using insecticides or hedge trimmers can also kill off urban populations. Garden clearing removes habitat, especially when greenery is replaced with paving, brickwork or lawns. Occasionally chameleons are also known to transported on garden waste, to waste disposal sites.A.D.Rebelo: Movement of the Cape dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion pumilum): are they vulnerable to habitat fragmentation? Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town. 2014Chameleon-friendly Gardens FAQ - Prof. Krystal Tolley. SANBI [404 not found]Chameleons in Garden Waste - South African National Biodiversity Institute. [404 not found] ==Behaviour== People often think chameleons change their colour for camouflage so to blend into the environment, but this is false. Chameleons change colour as a way of expressing mood and communicating as well as to thermoregulate, turning a darker colour to absorb more heat or very pale pastel colours to reflect light and absorb less heat. Courtship involves small, quick head twitches by the male, who exhibits brighter courtship colours. If the female rejects the male's advances, she assumes a much darker colour, sway from side to side, and often open her mouth threateningly. Darker colours are often associated with stress, and lighter colours with relaxation or sleep. During the night, the species tends to move higher, to the tips of branches (nocturnal predators are primarily terrestrial) and assume a white colour when they sleep. During the day they spend more time lower down in denser vegetation (daytime predators include several species of birds). They feed primarily on small insects and other arthropods. They drink by licking dew or rain drops from leaves or other surfaces.E. Katz; K.A. Tolley; R. Altwegg: Survival and abundance of Cape dwarf chameleons, Bradypodion pumilum, inhabiting a transformed, semi-urban wetland. Herpetological Journal. Volume 23 (October 2013), 179–186. ==Special cases== The taxonomy of Bradypodion is based largely on morphological characteristics. There is a lack of a comprehensive assessment of sexual ontogenetic and population variation of these characters. Some common characters used to define Bradypodion species is casque development, scale shape and size in crests, lateral tubercles, and others.Tolley, Krystal A., Colin R. Tilbury, William R. Branch, and Conrad A. Matthee. "Phylogenetics of the Southern African Dwarf Chameleons, Bradypodion (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae)." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30.2 (2004): 354-65. Web. 26 Mar. 2017. ==Chameleons in captivity== thumb|right|Juvenile Cape dwarf chameleon While it is not normally legal to keep these chameleons, it is possible to obtain special permission from the South African government to do so. These chameleons are better admired than handled. However, taming is possible through gentle and consistent (almost daily) contact, allowing trust to build up. This is typically achieved through careful and slow hand-based feeding of flies, small spiders, grasshoppers, etc. In cold weather, a sensitively handled B. pumilum commonly becomes eager to perch on a human hand for the warmth. To maintain them out of their natural environment requires advanced skills and is a demanding project; they require the right amount and type of ultraviolet exposure and large supplies of specific types of live food that are not easy to supply. They also require moisture, even just tap water sprayed gently onto the foliage with a hose. In most urban environments, the amount of naturally occurring suitable insect food is insufficient. They should remain outdoors where they are able to regulate their own body temperatures using sunlight (like most reptiles, they die if deprived of, or overexposed to the sun). Cat owners should be aware that domestic cats are introduced predators, and usually kill all chameleons in the immediate area. Consequently, one should not bring chameleons into a garden frequented by cats. It also is important to be cautious of the activity of shrikes, in particular the southern fiscal, which, if they get into the chameleon-hunting habit, will rapidly strip a garden. ==References== * (1997): Liste der rezenten Amphibien und Reptilien - Chamaeleonidae. Das Tierreich 112: i-xiv, 1-85. * (2004): Phylogenetics of the southern African dwarf chameleons, Bradypodion (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30: 354–365. PDF fulltext *Arnott, Gareth, and Robert W. Elwood. "Assessment of Fighting Ability in Animal Contests." Animal Behaviour 77.5 (2009): 991-1004. Web. *Butler, Marguerite A. "Foraging Mode of the Chameleon, Bradypodion Pumilum: A Challenge to the Sit-and-wait versus Active Forager Paradigm?" Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 84.4 (2005): 797-808. Web. *Feldheim, Kevin A., Lucas F. Chauke, Kevin P. Hopkins, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Characterization of Microsatellite Loci from a South African Endemic, the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum)." Conservation Genetics Resources 2.S1 (2010): 165-68. Web. *Herrel, Anthony, G. John Measey, Bieke Vanhooydonck, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Functional Consequences of Morphological Differentiation between Populations of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum)." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 104.3 (2011): 692-700. Web. *Hopkins, Kevin P., and Krystal A. Tolley. "Morphological Variation in the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion Pumilum) as a Consequence of Spatially Explicit Habitat Structure Differences." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 102.4 (2011): 878-88. Web. *Measey, G. John, Kevin Hopkins, and Krystal A. Tolley. "Morphology, Ornaments and Performance in Two Chameleon Ecomorphs: Is the Casque Bigger than the Bite?" Zoology 112.3 (2009): 217-26. Web. *Segall, M., K. A. Tolley, B. Vanhooydonck, G. J. Measey, and A. Herrel. "Impact of Temperature on Performance in Two Species of South African Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion Pumilum and B. Occidentale." Journal of Experimental Biology 216.20 (2013): 3828-836. Web. *Stuart-Fox, Devi M., David Firth, Adnan Moussalli, and Martin J. Whiting. "Multiple Signals in Chameleon Contests: Designing and Analysing Animal Contests as a Tournament." Animal Behaviour 71.6 (2006): 1263-271. Web. *Tolley, Krystal A., Colin R. Tilbury, William R. Branch, and Conrad A. Matthee. "Phylogenetics of the Southern African Dwarf Chameleons, Bradypodion (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae)." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30.2 (2004): 354-65. Web. 26 Mar. 2017. *Tolley, Krystal A., Robert N.v. Raw, Res Altwegg, and G. John Measey. "Chameleons on the Move: Survival and Movement of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon,Bradypodion Pumilum, within a Fragmented Urban Habitat." African Zoology 45.1 (2010): 99-106. Web. ==External links== * * Search for Distribution of Bradypodion pumilum Category:Bradypodion Category:Lizards of Africa Category:Endemic reptiles of South Africa Category:Fynbos Category:Renosterveld Category:Natural history of Cape Town Category:Reptiles described in 1789 Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
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thumb|An upright fluorescence microscope (Olympus BX61) with the fluorescence filter cube turret above the objective lenses, coupled with a digital camera. thumb|upright=1.5|Fluorescence and confocal microscopes operating principle A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence instead of, or in addition to, scattering, reflection, and attenuation or absorption, to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. "Fluorescence microscope" refers to any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a simple set up like an epifluorescence microscope or a more complicated design such as a confocal microscope, which uses optical sectioning to get better resolution of the fluorescence image. ==Principle== The specimen is illuminated with light of a specific wavelength (or wavelengths) which is absorbed by the fluorophores, causing them to emit light of longer wavelengths (i.e., of a different color than the absorbed light). The illumination light is separated from the much weaker emitted fluorescence through the use of a spectral emission filter. Typical components of a fluorescence microscope are a light source (xenon arc lamp or mercury- vapor lamp are common; more advanced forms are high-power LEDs and lasers), the excitation filter, the dichroic mirror (or dichroic beamsplitter), and the emission filter (see figure below). The filters and the dichroic beamsplitter are chosen to match the spectral excitation and emission characteristics of the fluorophore used to label the specimen. In this manner, the distribution of a single fluorophore (color) is imaged at a time. Multi-color images of several types of fluorophores must be composed by combining several single- color images. Most fluorescence microscopes in use are epifluorescence microscopes, where excitation of the fluorophore and detection of the fluorescence are done through the same light path (i.e. through the objective). These microscopes are widely used in biology and are the basis for more advanced microscope designs, such as the confocal microscope and the total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRF). ===Epifluorescence microscopy=== thumb|right|Schematic of a fluorescence microscope. The majority of fluorescence microscopes, especially those used in the life sciences, are of the epifluorescence design shown in the diagram. Light of the excitation wavelength illuminates the specimen through the objective lens. The fluorescence emitted by the specimen is focused to the detector by the same objective that is used for the excitation which for greater resolution will need objective lens with higher numerical aperture. Since most of the excitation light is transmitted through the specimen, only reflected excitatory light reaches the objective together with the emitted light and the epifluorescence method therefore gives a high signal-to-noise ratio. The dichroic beamsplitter acts as a wavelength specific filter, transmitting fluoresced light through to the eyepiece or detector, but reflecting any remaining excitation light back towards the source. ==Light sources== Fluorescence microscopy requires intense, near-monochromatic, illumination which some widespread light sources, like halogen lamps cannot provide. Four main types of light source are used, including xenon arc lamps or mercury- vapor lamps with an excitation filter, lasers, supercontinuum sources, and high-power LEDs. Lasers are most widely used for more complex fluorescence microscopy techniques like confocal microscopy and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy while xenon lamps, and mercury lamps, and LEDs with a dichroic excitation filter are commonly used for widefield epifluorescence microscopes. By placing two microlens arrays into the illumination path of a widefield epifluorescence microscope, highly uniform illumination with a coefficient of variation of 1-2% can be achieved. ==Sample preparation== [[File:3D-animation of the diatom Corethron sp.ogg|thumb|upright=1.7| (a) Green: [DiOC6(3) fluorescence] - stains cellular membranes indicating the core cell bodies (b) Cyan: [PLL-A546 fluorescence] - generic counterstain for visualising eukaryotic cell surfaces (c) Blue: [Hoechst fluorescence] - stains DNA, identifies nuclei (d) Red: [chlorophyll autofluorescence] - resolves chloroplastsColin, S., Coelho, L.P., Sunagawa, S., Bowler, C., Karsenti, E., Bork, P., Pepperkok, R. and De Vargas, C. (2017) "Quantitative 3D-imaging for cell biology and ecology of environmental microbial eukaryotes". eLife, 6: e26066. . 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. ]] In order for a sample to be suitable for fluorescence microscopy it must be fluorescent. There are several methods of creating a fluorescent sample; the main techniques are labelling with fluorescent stains or, in the case of biological samples, expression of a fluorescent protein. Alternatively the intrinsic fluorescence of a sample (i.e., autofluorescence) can be used. In the life sciences fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool which allows the specific and sensitive staining of a specimen in order to detect the distribution of proteins or other molecules of interest. As a result, there is a diverse range of techniques for fluorescent staining of biological samples. ===Biological fluorescent stains=== Many fluorescent stains have been designed for a range of biological molecules. Some of these are small molecules which are intrinsically fluorescent and bind a biological molecule of interest. Major examples of these are nucleic acid stains such as DAPI and Hoechst (excited by UV wavelength light) and DRAQ5 and DRAQ7 (optimally excited by red light) which all bind the minor groove of DNA, thus labeling the nuclei of cells. Others are drugs, toxins, or peptides which bind specific cellular structures and have been derivatised with a fluorescent reporter. A major example of this class of fluorescent stain is phalloidin, which is used to stain actin fibers in mammalian cells. A new peptide, known as the Collagen Hybridizing Peptide, can also be conjugated with fluorophores and used to stain denatured collagen fibers. Staining of the plant cell walls is performed using stains or dyes that bind cellulose or pectin. The quest for fluorescent probes with a high specificity that also allow live imaging of plant cells is ongoing. There are many fluorescent molecules called fluorophores or fluorochromes such as fluorescein, Alexa Fluors, or DyLight 488, which can be chemically linked to a different molecule which binds the target of interest within the sample. ===Immunofluorescence=== Immunofluorescence is a technique which uses the highly specific binding of an antibody to its antigen in order to label specific proteins or other molecules within the cell. A sample is treated with a primary antibody specific for the molecule of interest. A fluorophore can be directly conjugated to the primary antibody. Alternatively a secondary antibody, conjugated to a fluorophore, which binds specifically to the first antibody can be used. For example, a primary antibody raised in a mouse which recognises tubulin combined with a secondary anti-mouse antibody derivatised with a fluorophore could be used to label microtubules in a cell. ===Fluorescent proteins=== The modern understanding of genetics and the techniques available for modifying DNA allow scientists to genetically modify proteins to also carry a fluorescent protein reporter. In biological samples this allows a scientist to directly make a protein of interest fluorescent. The protein location can then be directly tracked, including in live cells. ==Limitations== Fluorophores lose their ability to fluoresce as they are illuminated in a process called photobleaching. Photobleaching occurs as the fluorescent molecules accumulate chemical damage from the electrons excited during fluorescence. Photobleaching can severely limit the time over which a sample can be observed by fluorescence microscopy. Several techniques exist to reduce photobleaching such as the use of more robust fluorophores, by minimizing illumination, or by using photoprotective scavenger chemicals. Fluorescence microscopy with fluorescent reporter proteins has enabled analysis of live cells by fluorescence microscopy, however cells are susceptible to phototoxicity, particularly with short wavelength light. Furthermore, fluorescent molecules have a tendency to generate reactive chemical species when under illumination which enhances the phototoxic effect. Unlike transmitted and reflected light microscopy techniques, fluorescence microscopy only allows observation of the specific structures which have been labeled for fluorescence. For example, observing a tissue sample prepared with a fluorescent DNA stain by fluorescence microscopy only reveals the organization of the DNA within the cells and reveals nothing else about the cell morphologies. Computational techniques that propose to estimate the fluorescent signal from non-fluorescent images (such as brightfield) may reduce these concerns. In general, these approaches involve training a deep convolutional neural network on stained cells and then estimating the fluorescence on unstained samples. Thus by decoupling the cells under investigation from the cells used to train the network, imaging can performed quicker and with reduced phototoxicity. ==Sub-diffraction techniques== The wave nature of light limits the size of the spot to which light can be focused due to the diffraction limit. This limitation was described in the 19th century by Ernst Abbe and "limits an optical microscope's resolution to approximately half of the wavelength of the light used." Fluorescence microscopy is central to many techniques which aim to reach past this limit by specialized optical configurations. Several improvements in microscopy techniques have been invented in the 20th century and have resulted in increased resolution and contrast to some extent. However they did not overcome the diffraction limit. In 1978 first theoretical ideas have been developed to break this barrier by using a 4Pi microscope as a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope where the light is focused ideally from all sides to a common focus which is used to scan the object by 'point-by-point' excitation combined with 'point-by-point' detection. However, the first experimental demonstration of the 4pi microscope took place in 1994. 4Pi microscopy maximizes the amount of available focusing directions by using two opposing objective lenses or two-photon excitation microscopy using redshifted light and multi-photon excitation. Integrated correlative microscopy combines a fluorescence microscope with an electron microscope. This allows one to visualize ultrastructure and contextual information with the electron microscope while using the data from the fluorescence microscope as a labelling tool. The first technique to really achieve a sub-diffraction resolution was STED microscopy, proposed in 1994. This method and all techniques following the RESOLFT concept rely on a strong non-linear interaction between light and fluorescing molecules. The molecules are driven strongly between distinguishable molecular states at each specific location, so that finally light can be emitted at only a small fraction of space, hence an increased resolution. As well in the 1990s another super resolution microscopy method based on wide field microscopy has been developed. Substantially improved size resolution of cellular nanostructures stained with a fluorescent marker was achieved by development of SPDM localization microscopy and the structured laser illumination (spatially modulated illumination, SMI). Combining the principle of SPDM with SMI resulted in the development of the Vertico SMI microscope. Single molecule detection of normal blinking fluorescent dyes like green fluorescent protein (GFP) can be achieved by using a further development of SPDM the so-called SPDMphymod technology which makes it possible to detect and count two different fluorescent molecule types at the molecular level (this technology is referred to as two-color localization microscopy or 2CLM). Alternatively, the advent of photoactivated localization microscopy could achieve similar results by relying on blinking or switching of single molecules, where the fraction of fluorescing molecules is very small at each time. This stochastic response of molecules on the applied light corresponds also to a highly nonlinear interaction, leading to subdiffraction resolution. ==Fluorescence micrograph gallery== File:Depth Coded Phalloidin Stained Actin Filaments Cancer Cell.png|A z-projection of an osteosarcoma cell, stained with phalloidin to visualise actin filaments. The image was taken on a confocal microscope, and the subsequent deconvolution was done using an experimentally derived point spread function. Image:Dividing Cell Fluorescence.jpg|Epifluorescent imaging of the three components in a dividing human cancer cell. DNA is stained blue, a protein called INCENP is green, and the microtubules are red. Each fluorophore is imaged separately using a different combination of excitation and emission filters, and the images are captured sequentially using a digital CCD camera, then overlaid to give a complete image. Image:FluorescentCells.jpg|Endothelial cells under the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue with DAPI, microtubules are marked green by an antibody bound to FITC and actin filaments are labeled red with phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine pulmonary artery endothelial (BPAE) cells File:3D Dual Color Super Resolution Microscopy Cremer 2010.png|3D dual-color super-resolution microscopy with Her2 and Her3 in breast cells, standard dyes: Alexa 488, Alexa 568. LIMON microscopy Image:FISH 13 21.jpg|Human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybridized (Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)) Image:Yeast membrane proteins.jpg|Yeast cell membrane visualized by some membrane proteins fused with RFP and GFP fluorescent markers. Imposition of light from both of markers results in yellow color. File:Single_YFP_molecule_superresolution_microscopy.png|Super-resolution microscopy: Single YFP molecule detection in a human cancer cell. Typical distance measurements in the 15 nm range measured with a Vertico- SMI/SPDMphymod microscope File:GFP Superresolution Christoph Cremer.JPG|Super- resolution microscopy: Co-localization microscopy (2CLM) with GFP and RFP fusion proteins (nucleus of a bone cancer cell) 120.000 localized molecules in a wide-field area (470 µm2) measured with a Vertico-SMI/SPDMphymod microscope File:Expression of Human Wild-Type and P239S Mutant Palladin.png|Fluorescence microscopy of DNA Expression in the Human Wild-Type and P239S Mutant Palladin. File:Bloodcell sun flares pathology.jpeg|Fluorescence microscopy images of sun flares pathology in a blood cell showing the affected areas in red. ==See also== *Fluorescence imaging *Fluorescence in the life sciences *Correlative Light-Electron Microscopy *Elizabeth Harry, pioneer of fluorescence microscopy techniques for visualization of bacterial subcellular proteins *Green fluorescent protein (GFP) *Mercury-vapor lamp *Microscope *Scanning electron microscope#Cathodoluminescence *Stokes shift *Xenon arc lamp ==References== ==External links== *Fluorophores.org, the database of fluorescent dyes *Microscopy Resource Center *animations and explanations on various types of microscopes including fluorescent and confocal microscopes (Université Paris Sud) Category:Fluorescence Category:Cell imaging Category:Laboratory equipment Category:Optical microscopy techniques Category:Microscopes
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{{Infobox comics genre |image = BillyTheKidNo9.png |imagesize = |caption = Charlton Comics' Billy the Kid #9 (November 1957). Cover art by Dick Giordano and Vince Alascia. |alt = |genre = Western fiction |pub1 = Marvel Comics |pub2 = Charlton Comics |pub3 = DC Comics |pub4 = Fawcett Comics |pub5 = Magazine Enterprises |pub6 = Sergio Bonelli Editore |title1 = Kid Colt Outlaw |title2 = Billy the Kid |title3 = All-Star Western |title4 = Two-Gun Kid |title5 = Rawhide Kid |title6 = Tex Willer |person3 = Paul S. Newman |person1 = Tom Gill |person4 = Carl Pfeufer |person2 = Fred Guardineer |person5 = Pete Tumlinson |person6 = Gaylord DuBois |series# = |base1 = |subs1 = Weird West |related1 = |cat = Western (genre) comics |cattop = }} Western comics is a comics genre usually depicting the American Old West frontier (usually anywhere west of the Mississippi River) and typically set during the late nineteenth century. The term is generally associated with an American comic books genre published from the late 1940s through the 1950s (though the genre had continuing popularity in Europe, and persists in limited form in American comics today). Western comics of the period typically featured dramatic scripts about cowboys, gunfighters, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, and Native Americans. Accompanying artwork depicted a rural America populated with such iconic images as guns, cowboy hats, vests, horses, saloons, ranches, and deserts, contemporaneous with the setting. == Origins == Western novels, films, and pulp magazines were extremely popular in the United States from the late 1930s to the 1960s. Western comics first appeared in syndicated newspaper strips in the late 1920s. Harry O'Neill's Young Buffalo Bill (later changed to Buckaroo Bill and then, finally, Broncho Bill), distributed by United Feature Syndicate beginning in 1927, , and was a pioneering example of the form.Markstein, Don. "Broncho Bill," Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Accessed Nov. 23, 2011. Starting in the 1930s, Red Ryder, Little Joe, and King of the Royal Mounted were syndicated in hundreds of newspapers across the United States. Garrett Price's White Boy (later changed to Skull Valley) was another syndicated strip from the 1930s.Markstein, Don. "Whiteboy," Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Accessed Nov. 23, 2011. The first Western stories to appear in the comics were in the mid-1930s: National Allied's New Fun Comics #1 (Feb. 1935) ran the modern-West feature "Jack Woods" and the Old West feature "Buckskin Jim"; Centaur Publications' The Comics Magazine #1 (May 1936) ran the feature "Captain Bill of the Rangers"; and David McKay Publications's Feature Book #1 (May 1937) and a single issue of King Comics (also 1937) featured King of the Royal Mounted reprints before Dell took over licensing of the character. Dell Comics' The Funnies published a run of short adaptations of B-movie Westerns starting in vol. 2, issue #20 (May 1938). Whitman Comics' Crackajack Funnies ran regular Western features (including Tom Mix stories) beginning with issue #1 in June 1938. The first stand-alone Western comics titles were published by Centaur Publications. Star Ranger and Western Picture StoriesSexton, Lansing and Sexton, Andrea. "Cowboy Comic Books - an Overview: Tim Holt," The Old Corral. Accessed July 25, 2011. both debuted from the publisher in late 1936, cover- dated Feb. 1937. Star Ranger ran for 12 issues, becoming Cowboy Comics for a couple of issues, and then becoming Star Ranger Funnies. The series ended in October 1939. Western Picture Stories ran four issues in 1937. Dell Comics published Western Action Thrillers #1 shortly thereafter (cover-date Apr. 1937), and began publishing Red Ryder Comics,Schelly, Bill and Keith Dallas. American Comic Book Chronicles: The 1950s (TwoMorrows Publishing, 2013), p. 17. initially reprinting the long-running comic strip, in 1941. == "Golden Age": 1948–1960 == Western comics became popular in the years immediately following World War II, when superheroes went out of style. Adult readership had grown during the war years, and returning servicemen wanted subjects other than superheroes in their books. The popularity of the Western genre in comic strips and other media gave birth to Western comics, many of which began being published around 1948.Rhoades, Shirrel (2008). A Complete History of American Comic Books. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, p. 47. Most of the larger publishers of the period jumped headfirst into the Western arena during this period, particularly Marvel Comics and its forerunners Timely Comics and Atlas Comics. Kid Colt Outlaw debuted in 1948, running until 1979 (though it was primarily a reprint title after 1967). The company soon established itself as the most prolific publisher of Western comicsMarkstein, Don. "Two-Gun Kid," Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Accessed Dec. 19, 2011. with other notable long- running titles, including Rawhide Kid, Two-Gun Kid, and Wild Western. The six- issue 1950 Harvey Comics series Boys' Ranch, by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, was a seminal example of the Western comics genre. DC Comics published the long- running series All-Star Western and Western Comics. Charlton Comics published Billy the Kid, Cheyenne Kid, Outlaws of the West, Texas Rangers in Action, and the unusual title Black Fury, about a horse that roamed the West righting wrongs. Both Dell Comics and Fawcett Comics published a number of Western titles, including The Lone Ranger (Dell) and Hopalong Cassidy (Fawcett, later continued by DC after Fawcett folded in 1953). Many issues of Dell's Four Color featured Western stories during the 1950s. Avon Comics published a number of Western comics, the most notable titles being based on historical figures like Jesse James and Wild Bill Hickok. Youthful published the Western titles Gunsmoke, Indian Fighter, and Redskin (later known as Famous Western Badmen). And Toby Press published its own Billy the Kid Adventure Magazine. === Characters === The first Western hero to have his adventures published in the comics was the Masked Raider, published by Timely Comics beginning in 1939. Timely/Atlas/Marvel favored Western characters with the word "Kid" in their name, including the Apache Kid, Kid Colt, the Outlaw Kid, the Rawhide Kid, the Ringo Kid, the Two-Gun Kid, and the Western Kid—as well as the more obscure heroes the Prairie Kid, the Arizona Kid, and the Texas Kid. Other companies followed suit, with DC's Stuff the Chinatown Kid and the Wyoming Kid; Charlton Comics' Billy the Kid and the Cheyenne Kid; and Dell's the Cisco Kid. Black Rider and Phantom Rider were two other Marvel company characters from the genre's peak. Other early DC Comics Western characters included Johnny Thunder, Nighthawk, Pow Wow Smith, Tomahawk, the Trigger Twins, and Vigilante. Dell Comics featured the Lone Ranger, and Dell's Lobo (debuting in 1965) was the medium's first African-American character to headline his own series. ==== Cowboy actor comics ==== The years 1946–1949 saw an explosion of titles "starring" Western film actors and cowboy singers. Almost every star, major or minor, had their own title at some point; and almost every publisher got in on the action: Fawcett published Allan Lane, Monte Hale, Gabby Hayes, Lash LaRue, Tex Ritter, and Tom Mix comics; Dell published Gene Autry, Rex Allen, Roy Rogers, and Wild Bill Elliott comics; Magazine Enterprises published Charles Starrett and Tim Holt comics; Toby Press published a John Wayne title; and DC produced short-lived Dale Evans and Jimmy Wakely titles. (Dale Evans and Reno Browne were the only two Western actresses to have comics based on their characters.) Most of the cowboy actor titles featured photo covers of the stars; most series had been canceled by 1957. === Creators === Since Westerns were such a popular genre in the 1950s, many of the period's notable creators spent at least some time doing Western comics. Writer Paul S. Newman and artist Tom Gill had an 11-year stretch on Dell's The Lone Ranger, a 107-issue run that marks one of the longest of any writer/artist team on a comic-book series. Larry Lieber spent nine years as writer-artist of Marvel's Rawhide Kid. France Herron and Fred Ray were the long-time writer and artist of DC's Tomahawk. Gaylord DuBois excelled in writing Western comics featuring realistic animals: he wrote the entire run of The Lone Ranger's Famous Horse Hi-Yo Silver, the entire run of National Velvet under both the Dell and Gold Key imprints, and many other animal stories for a number of publishers. Carl Pfeufer was the longtime artist of Fawcett's Tom Mix comics. Artist Fred Guardineer had a long run on Magazine Enterprises' The Durango Kid. Pete Tumlinson illustrated most of Kid Colt's early stories. Later, Tumlinson drew Western stories for Atlas Comics' Outlaw Fighters, Two-Gun Western, and Wild Western. Russ Heath drew a corral-full of Western stories for such Marvel titles as Wild Western, All Western Winners, Arizona Kid, Black Rider, Western Outlaws, and Reno Browne, Hollywood's Greatest Cowgirl. Vic Carrabotta worked on such Marvel Westerns as Apache Kid, Kid Colt: Outlaw, The Outlaw Kid, and Western Outlaws. Artist John Severin was known for his 1950s Western comics art for Atlas. Artist Mike Sekowsky drew such characters as the Apache Kid, the Black Rider, and Kid Colt for Atlas; he later freelanced for other companies, drawing the TV-series spin-offs Gunsmoke and Buffalo Bill, Jr. for Dell Comics. Artist Rocke Mastroserio specialized in Western stories for such Charlton Comics series as Billy the Kid, Black Fury, Jim Bowie, Rocky Lane's Black Jack, Sheriff of Tombstone, Six-Gun Heroes, Texas Rangers in Action, and Wyatt Earp, Frontier Marshal. Pat Boyette worked on such Charlton Western series as Billy the Kid, Cheyenne Kid, and Outlaws of the West. == 1960s decline == The Western genre in general peaked around 1960, largely due to the tremendous number of Westerns on American television. Increasingly, the genre reflected a Romantic view of the American West—and American history in general. As the country grappled with the cultural issues of the 1960s and the Vietnam War, the genre seemed increasingly out of touch. As the American public's interest in the genre waned, Western literature—including comics—began to lose its appeal as well. At the same time, the comics industry was shifting back to superheroes (entering its "Silver Age") and away from some of the other genres which had flourished during the 1950s. In fact, of the original Western comics series begun in the late 1940s and early 1950s, only a handful of titles survived the 1950s. Charlton's low production costs enabled it to continue producing a number of Western titles, but otherwise Dell's The Lone Ranger, and Marvel's Gunsmoke Western, Kid Colt Outlaw, and Rawhide Kid were the only Western titles to make it through the 1960s. Gary Friedrich, Mike Esposito, and Ogden Whitney are three of the few notable Western comics creators from the 1960s. == Weird West and continuing appeal == The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the rise of revisionist Western film. Elements include a darker, more cynical tone, with focus on the lawlessness of the time period, favoring realism over romanticism, and an interest in greater historical authenticity. Anti-heroes were common, as were stronger roles for women and more-sympathetic portrayal of Native Americans and Mexicans. The films were often critical of big business, the American government, and masculine figures (including the military and their policies). Reflecting the trend, in 1968 DC debuted the new character Bat Lash, who starred in a short- lived series. They also revived the All-Star Western title, starting volume two of the series in 1970. In 1972, All-Star Western changed its name to Weird Western Tales, with many stories featuring the newly created Western antihero Jonah Hex (debuting in 1975 in his own title). Weird Western Tales (sister title of Weird War Tales) defined a new multi-genre form: "Weird West," a combination of the Western with another literary genre, usually horror, occult, or fantasy. Other Western characters DC created during this period include the heroes Scalphunter and El Diablo, and the villains El Papagayo, Terra-Man, and Quentin Turnbull. Marvel also attempted to capitalize on the renewed interest in the Western with two mostly reprint titles, The Mighty Marvel Western (1968–1976) and Western Gunfighters vol. 2 (1970–1975). The short-lived publisher Skywald Publications attempted a line of Western titles in the early 1970s, but nothing came of it. Weird Western Tales survived until 1980, and Jonah Hex until 1985. By then no major publishers were producing Western titles, though iconic characters from the DC and Marvel canons would occasionally make cameo appearances in other books. The DC Comics imprint Vertigo reintroduced the Western genre in 1995 with Preacher, set in a contemporary version of the West. In the 1990s and 2000s, the Western comic leaned toward the Weird West subgenre, usually involving supernatural monsters. However, more traditional Western comics are found throughout this period, from Jonah Hex to Loveless. Series like Desperadoes, High Moon, and Scalped demonstrate the genre's continuing appeal. Creators like Joe R. Lansdale, Michael Fleisher, and Tony DeZuniga were notable contributors to Western comics from this period. In addition, publishers like America's Comics Group and AC Comics have reprinted a number of Western comics from the genre's "Golden Age." The Goodbye Family, about a family of Weird West undertakers, started in 2015 and continues in both online and print formats. == Outside of the United States == The Western genre's overall popularity in Europe spawned a Western comics trend, particularly in Italy, France, Belgium, and England. Many European countries published reprints of American-made Western comics (translated into the respective country's native language). The Italian publishers Sergio Bonelli Editore and Editorial Novaro led the field—Editorial Novaro's Gene Autry title ran 424 issues from 1954 to 1984. The Norwegian publisher Se-Bladene and the British publisher L. Miller & Son were also particularly known for their Western comics reprint titles. Se-Bladene's Texas ran 606 issues between 1954 and 1975. The Australian publishers Ayers & James, Cleland, Federal Publishing, Gredown, and Horwitz Publications all published reprints of American Western comics during the 1950s and 1960s. === Italy === The most popular and long-running Italian-produced Western comic is Gian Luigi Bonelli and Aurelio Galleppini's Tex (starring Tex Willer), first published in 1948. Tex is among the most popular characters in Italian comics, and has been translated into numerous languages, including Portuguese, Finnish, Norwegian, Tamil, Turkish, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian and Hebrew. Captain Miki, by the trio EsseGesse, was published in Italy (and translated into many other languages) throughout the 1950s. Characters in the comic were inspired by Gabby Hayes and the popular 1939 Western film Stagecoach. EsseGesse also produced the popular series Il Grande Blek. Benito Jacovitti's Cocco Bill is a Western humor comic produced since the mid-1950s. Sergio Bonelli and Gallieno Ferri's Zagor was first published in Italy by Sergio Bonelli Editore in 1961. Carlo Boscarato and Claudio Nizzi's Larry Yuma was a popular character in the Italian magazine Il Giornalino throughout the 1970s. Giancarlo Berardi and Ivo Milazzo's Ken Parker is a popular Western hero appearing in Italian comics since 1977. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, writer Gianfranco Manfredi's Magico Vento was a popular title from Sergio Bonelli Editore. Since the late 1990s, Enrico Teodorani's Djustine has been featured in erotic "Weird West" stories in Italy and the United States. === Franco-Belgian Western comics === The Western humor comic Lucky Luke, published since 1946, debuting in Spirou magazine, is one of the most popular and best-selling comics series in continental Europe. Popular in Canada, about half of the series' adventures have been translated into English. Lucky Luke comics have been translated into 23 languages, including many European languages, and some African and Asian languages. Tintin magazine featured Western-themed comics starting in 1947 with Le Rallic's various series, and later, between 1955 and 1980 the humor- based Chick Bill by Greg and Tibet. The competing magazine Spirou published Jijé's Jerry Spring, in a realistic vein, beginning in 1954. Albums from the Jerry Spring series were published until 1990. Jean-Michel Charlier and Jean Giraud's Blueberry is a Western series published beginning in 1963 and continuing until 2005. The series were inspired by Jerry Spring, and the artist Giraud had been mentored by Jijé. Charlier and Giraud created the Jim Cutlass series in 1981; subsequent volumes were written by Giraud and drawn by Christian Rossi. Greg and Hermann Huppen's Comanche was published from 1972 to 1983 (with the series being continued by Rouge for four more stories). The Belgian publisher Le Lombard produced the title Buddy Longway, by Swiss comics creator Derib, from 1972 to 1987, and from 2002 to 2006. Durango is a western series created by the Belgian Yves Swolfs in 1981. Currently 17 tomes are available. === Other countries === England's L. Miller & Son's original Western comics titles included Colorado Kid, Davy Crockett, Kid Dynamite Western Comic, Pancho Villa Western Comic, and Rocky Mountain King Western Comic, all published in the 1950s. Jim Edgar and Tony Weare's "Matt Marriott" was a daily strip which ran in the London Evening News from 1955 to 1977. Spanish cartoonist Manuel Gago Garcia's The Little Fighter was a popular series of Western comics between 1945 and 1956. Yuki the Bold (debuting in 1958) is another popular Spanish series, as were the shorter-lived series Apache and Red Arrow. Other Spanish Western comics include Sheriff King (beginning in 1964), Sunday (1968), and Kelly Hand (1971). Hugo Pratt and Héctor Germán Oesterheld's Sergeant Kirk was a popular Western comics title in Argentina during the 1950s. Additional Sergeant Kirk stories were published into the early 1970s. Western comics were popular in Japan in the early 1950s, both translations of American titles like Straight Arrow, the Durango Kid, and Tim Holt; and original Japanese manga. The story goes that during the American occupation of Japan directly after World War, General Eisenhower forbade Japanese publishers to publish samurai comics, and that the next best thing were Western stories of adventure.FALK, RAY. "Howdy! Pardner-San," New York Times (May 3, 1953), p. 296. Hyung Min-woo's manhwa series Priest was published in Korea and the U.S. from 1998 to 2007. == Notable American Western comics == ===Golden Age of Comic Books=== Title Publisher Issues published Publication dates Notes All-Star Western DC 62 1951–1961 vol. 1 (vol. 2, published from 1970 to 1972, became Weird Western Tales) Billy the Kid Charlton 145 1957–1983 Mostly a reprint title from issue #125 (Jan. 1979) onward Black Fury Charlton 57 1955–1966 Gunfighter EC 9 1948–1950 Continued as The Haunt of Fear Cheyenne Kid Charlton 92 1957–1973 The Cisco Kid Dell 41 1951–1958 Crack Western Quality 22 1949–1953 took over the numbering of Quality's Crack Comics Gene Autry Comics Dell 121 1946–1959 title changed to Gene Autry and Champion with issue #102 Gunsmoke Western Marvel 46 1948–1963 began as All Winners Comics, vol. 2, before being retitled and reformatted as the Western anthology All-Western Winners (#2–4), Western Winners (#5–7), Black Rider (#8–27), Western Tales of Black Rider (#28–31), and, finally, Gunsmoke Western (#32–77), the last primarily starring Kid Colt, Outlaw Hopalong Cassidy Fawcett/DC 134 1946–1959 DC takes over titles in 1953 after Fawcett's demise Kid Colt Outlaw Marvel 225 1949–1979 Mostly a reprint title from issue #130 (Sept. 1966) onward The Lone Ranger Dell 145 1948–1962 Gold Key picked up the character, sporadically publishing 28 issues from 1964 to 1977, making heavy use of reprint material from the Dell comics, adding in new material toward the end of the run. The Lone Ranger's Famous Horse Hi-Yo Silver Dell 34 1952–1960 Outlaws of the West Charlton 71 1957–1980 numbering continues in 7-issue reprint series published in 1979–1980 Prize Comics Western Prize 51 1948–1956 Rawhide Kid Marvel 151 1955–1957 1960–1979 Mostly a reprint title from issue #116 (Oct. 1973) onward Red Ryder Dell 151 1941–1956 Initially reprints of the long-running syndicated newspaper strip. With issue #47 (June 1947), began producing original material.Sexton, Lansing and Sexton, Andrea. "Cowboy Comic Books - an Overview: Red Ryder," The Old Corral. Accessed July 25, 2011. Straight Arrow Magazine Enterprises 55 1950–1956 Adapted from a popular radio program Texas Rangers in Action Charlton 75 1956–1970 Tomahawk DC 140 1950–1972 Two-Gun Kid Marvel 126 1948–1962 Mostly a reprint title from issue #93 (July 1970) onward Western Comics DC 85 1948–1961 Wild Western Marvel 55 1948–1957 Published by the Marvel forerunner Atlas Wrangler Great Moments in Rodeo American Comics Group 50 1955–1966 === Cowboy actor comics === * Charles Starrett as the Durango Kid, 41 issues (Magazine Enterprises, 1949–1955) * Dale Evans Comics, 24 issues (DC, 1948–1952) * Gabby Hayes Western, 50 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1948–1957) * Gene Autry, 121 issues (Dell, 1946–1955) * Jimmy Wakely, 18 issues (DC, 1949–1952) * John Wayne Adventure Comics, 31 issues (Toby Press, 1949–1955) * Lash LaRue Western, 84 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1949–1961) * Monte Hale Western, 60 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1948–1956) * Rex Allen, 30 issues (Dell, 1951–1959) * Rocky Lane Western, 87 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1949–1959) – many issues featured Slim Pickens backup stories * Roy Rogers Comics, 91 issues (Dell, 1948–1961) * Six-Gun Heroes, 83 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1950–1965) – featured cowboy actors like Allan "Rocky" Lane, Lash LaRue, Monte Hale, Smiley Burnette, and Tex Ritter * Tex Ritter Western, 46 issues (Fawcett/Charlton, 1950–1959) * Tim Holt, 41 issues (Magazine Enterprises, 1948–1954) * Tom Mix Western, 61 issues (Fawcett, 1948–1953) * Western Hero, 112 issues (Fawcett, 1948–1952) – featured cowboy actors like Tom Mix and Monte Hale; formerly known as Real Western Hero * Wild Bill Elliott, 14 issues (Dell, 1950–1955) === Contemporary titles === * Weird Western Tales (DC, 1972–1980) – began in 1970 as volume two of All-Star Western * Jonah Hex (DC, 1977–1985; DC/Vertigo, 2005–2011) * Preacher (DC/Vertigo, 1995–2000) * Desperadoes (Homage/Wildstorm, 1997–2002; IDW, 2005–2007) * Loveless (DC/Vertigo, 2005–2008) * Scalped (DC/Vertigo, 2007–2012) * High Moon (DC/Zuda, 2007–2017) * The Goodbye Family (2015–present) == References == === Notes === === Sources === * Grand Comics Database * Horn, Maurice. Comics of the American West (New Win Publishing, 1977) == External links == * Grost, Michael E. "Western Comics," MikeGrost.com. Accessed July 4, 2011. * Smith, Troy D. "The Top Ten Western Comics — and a whole slew of runners-up," Western Fictioneers: Official Blog of the Western Fictioneers, Professional Authors of Traditional Western Novels and Short Stories (Apr. 25, 2011) * "Cowboy Comic Books - an Overview," The Old Corral. Accessed July 10, 2011. Category:Comics genres
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George Pérez (; At the 0:02 mark. June 9, 1954 – May 6, 2022) was an American comic book artist and writer, who worked primarily as a penciller. He came to prominence in the 1970s penciling Fantastic Four and The Avengers for Marvel Comics. In the 1980s he penciled The New Teen Titans, which became one of DC Comics' top-selling series. He penciled DC's landmark limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, followed by relaunching Wonder Woman as both writer and penciller for the rebooted series. In the meantime, he worked on other comics published by Marvel, DC, and other companies into the 2010s. He was known for his detailed and realistic rendering, and his facility with complex crowd scenes. ==Early life== George Pérez was born on June 9, 1954,"Contributors: George Pérez," The New Teen Titans Archives, Volume 1 (DC Comics, 1999). in the South Bronx, New York City, to Jorge Guzman Pérez and Luz Maria Izquierdo, who were both from Caguas, Puerto Rico, but met after settling in New Jersey while searching for job opportunities. They married in October 1954 and subsequently moved to New York, where Jorge worked in the meat packing industry while Luz was a homemaker. George's younger brother David was born in May 1955. Both brothers aspired at a young age to be artists with George beginning to draw at the age of five. ==Career== ===Early career=== Pérez's first involvement with the professional comics industry was as artist Rich Buckler's assistant in 1973, and he made his professional debut in Marvel Comics' Astonishing Tales #25 (Aug. 1974) as penciler of an untitled two-page satire of Buckler's character Deathlok, star of that comic's main feature. Soon Pérez became a Marvel regular, penciling a run of "Sons of the Tiger", a serialized action-adventure strip published in Marvel's long-running Deadly Hands of Kung Fu magazine and authored by Bill Mantlo. He and Mantlo co- created the White Tiger (comics' first Puerto Rican superhero),"Micromails: Meet the Micro-Makers: Bill Mantlo," Micronauts #7 (Marvel Comics, July 1979). a character that soon appeared in Marvel's color comics, most notably the Spider-Man titles. Pérez came to prominence with Marvel's superhero-team comic The Avengers, starting with issue #141. In the 1970s, Pérez illustrated several other Marvel titles, including Creatures on the Loose, featuring the Man-Wolf; The Inhumans; and Fantastic Four. Writer Roy Thomas and Pérez crafted a metafictional story for Fantastic Four #176 (Nov. 1976) in which the Impossible Man visited the offices of Marvel Comics and met numerous comics creators.Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 176: "In a venture into metafictional comedy, the mischievous Impossible Man visited the Marvel offices, where he met his creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, as well as the collaborators on his current story, writer Roy Thomas and artist George Pérez." While most of Pérez' Fantastic Four issues were written by Roy Thomas or Len Wein, it would be a Fantastic Four Annual where he would have his first major collaboration with writer Marv Wolfman. Pérez drew the first part of writer Jim Shooter's "The Korvac Saga", which featured nearly every Avenger who had joined the team up to that point.Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 184: "Writer Jim Shooter and artist George Pérez began their saga pitting their seemingly omnipotent villain, Michael Korvac against Earth's Mightiest Heroes in The Avengers #167." Shooter and Pérez introduced the character of Henry Peter Gyrich, the Avengers' liaison to the United States National Security Council in the second chapter of that same storyline. Writer David Michelinie and Pérez created the Taskmaster in The Avengers #195 (May 1980).DeFalco, Tom "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 197: "Created by writer David Michelinie and artist George Pérez, Taskmaster could mimic any physical skill he had ever seen." ===The New Teen Titans=== In 1980, while still drawing The Avengers for Marvel, Pérez began working for their rival DC Comics. Offered the art chores for the launch of The New Teen Titans, written by Wolfman, Pérez's real incentive was the opportunity to draw Justice League of America (an ambition of Pérez's which "seemed like a natural progress from the Avengers").O'Neill, Patrick Daniel. "Career Moves" (Pérez interview), Wizard #35 (July 1994). Long-time Justice League artist Dick Dillin died right around that time, providing an opportunity for Pérez to step in as regular artist. While Pérez's stint on the JLA was popular with fans, he received greater attention for his work on The New Teen Titans, which was launched in a special preview in DC Comics Presents #26 (October 1980). This incarnation of the Titans was intended to be DC's answer to Marvel's increasingly popular X-Men comic, and it became highly successful.MacDonald, Heidi D. "DC's Titanic Success," The Comics Journal #76 (October 1982), pp. 46–51. A New Teen Titans drug awareness comic book sponsored by the Keebler CompanyThe New Teen Titans (Keebler Company) #1 at the Grand Comics Database and drawn by Pérez was published in cooperation with The President's Drug Awareness Campaign in 1983. In August 1984, a second series of The New Teen Titans was launched by Wolfman and Pérez.Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 209: "As one of DC's most popular team books, The New Teen Titans was a natural choice to receive the deluxe paper quality and higher price point of the new Baxter format. With the regular newsstand title having already changed its name to Tales of the Teen Titans with issue No. 41, the path was clear for a new comic to once again be titled The New Teen Titans. Featuring the trademark writing of Marv Wolfman and the art of George Pérez, this second incarnation was a success from the start, providing readers with the perfect blend of high-quality paper with high- quality storytelling." Moreover, Pérez's facility with layouts, details, and faces improved enormously during his four years on the book, making him one of the most popular artists in comicsRiggenberg, Steven. "An Interview with the Most Popular Artist in Comics," The Comics Journal No. 79 (January 1983), pp. 72–85.Riggenberg, Steven and Kelvin Nueva. ""An Interview with the Most Popular Artist in Comics: George Pérez Part 2," The Comics Journal #80 (March 1983), pp. 55–68. as evidenced by the numerous industry awards he would receive during this time. (See Awards section below.) ===Crisis on Infinite Earths=== Pérez took a leave of absence from The New Teen Titans in 1984"George Pérez signs contract with DC, Takes leave of absence from Titans," The Comics Journal No. 92 (August 1984), p. 16. to focus on his next project with Marv Wolfman, DC's 1985 50th-anniversary event, Crisis on Infinite Earths. Crisis purportedly featured every single character DC owned, in a story which radically restructured the DC universe's continuity.Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 213 "Comics didn't get any bigger than this. Crisis on Infinite Earths was a landmark limited series that redefined a universe. It was a twelve-issue maxiseries starring nearly every character in DC Comics fifty-year history and written and drawn by two of the industry's biggest name creative talents – writer Marv Wolfman and artist George Pérez." Pérez was inked on the series by Dick Giordano, Mike DeCarlo, and Jerry Ordway.Crisis on Infinite Earths at the Grand Comics Database After Crisis, Pérez inked the final issue of Superman (issue #423) in September 1986, over Curt Swan's pencils, for part one of the two-part story "Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?" by writer Alan Moore. The following month, Pérez was one of the artists on Batman #400 (October 1986).Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 221 "Batman celebrated the 400th issue of his self-titled comic with a blockbuster featuring dozens of famous comic book creators and nearly as many infamous villains. Written by Doug Moench, with an introduction by novelist Stephen King...[it was] drawn by George Pérez, Bill Sienkiewicz, Arthur Adams, Joe Kubert, Brian Bolland, and others." Wolfman and Pérez teamed again to produce the History of the DC Universe limited series to summarize the revised history of their fictional universe.Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 220: "In an effort to organize the status quo of the DC Universe after the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths maxiseries, artist George Pérez and writer Marv Wolfman collaborated on a two-part prestige-format history of the DCU." Pérez drew the cover for the DC Heroes roleplaying game (1985) from Mayfair Games as well as the cover for the fourth edition of the Champions roleplaying game (1989) from Hero Games. ===Wonder Woman=== right|thumb|175px|Cover of Wonder Woman vol. 2 #1 (February 1987) Pérez played a key role in the 1987 reboot of the Wonder Woman franchise. Writer Greg Potter spent several months working with editor Janice Race. on new concepts for the character, before being joined by Pérez. Inspired by John Byrne and Frank Miller's work on refashioning Superman and Batman, Pérez came in as the plotter and penciler of the series, which tied the character more closely to the Greek godsManning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 227: "With the help of Pérez's meticulous pencils, as well as his guidance as co- plotter, Wonder Woman was thrust further into the realm of Greek mythology than she'd ever been before." and jettisoned many other elements of her history. Pérez at first worked with Potter. and Len Wein. on the stories, but eventually took over the full scripting chores. Later, Mindy Newell joined Pérez as co-writer for nearly a year.. While not as popular as either Titans or Crisis, the series was a very successful relaunch of one of DC's flagship characters. Pérez would work on the title for five years, leaving as artist after issue #24, but remaining as writer up to issue #62, leaving in 1992. Pérez returned to the character in 2001, co-writing a two-part story in issues #168–169 with writer/artist Phil Jimenez. Pérez also drew the cover for Wonder Woman #600 (Aug. 2010) as well as some interior art. For the successful 2017 Wonder Woman feature film, director Patty Jenkins would credit Pérez's work on the title character as a major influence, on par with the work of the original creator, William Moulton Marston. ===The New Titans=== Pérez returned as co- plotter/penciller of The New Teen Titans with issue #50 (Dec. 1988), with the series being renamed The New Titans, rewriting the origin of Wonder Girl, following the retcons in Crisis on Infinite Earths. Pérez remained as penciller with the book through to issue #55, 57, and 60, while only providing layouts for issues 58–59, and 61, with artist Tom Grummett finishing pencils and Bob McLeod as inker. The storyline "A Lonely Place of Dying" crossed over with the Batman series and introduced Tim Drake as the new Robin.Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 241: "With the pencils of [George] Pérez, Jim Aparo, and Tom Grummett, [Marv] Wolfman concocted the five-issue 'A Lonely Place of Dying'... In it, Tim Drake... earned his place as the new Robin." Pérez remained as inker for the cover art to issues #62–67 and co-plotted the stories for #66–67 before departing from the Titans series once again. ===Superman=== Pérez was involved with Superman in various times over his career, including his tenure on Justice League of America years before. In Action Comics #544 (June 1983), he designed Lex Luthor's trademark battlesuit. These new designs for the villain were featured as part of the licensed action figure toyline the Super Powers Collection and remain in use in today's DC Comics continuity. Pérez pencilled DC Comics Presents #61 (Sept. 1983) which featured a Superman/OMAC team-up. A few years later, Pérez inked John Byrne's pencils for the Superman/Wonder Woman story in Action Comics #600 (March 1988). He drew portions of Action Comics Annual #2 (1989) before taking over the title with issue #643 (July 1989). His work duties on Action Comics would change from writer/penciller, to co-writer/breakdowns, to providing breakdowns, with writer Roger Stern scripting stories and artists Brett Breeding and Kerry Gammill provided finishing art, while Pérez drew all covers during his run on the title, with the exception for issue #646 with interior pencils by Keith Giffen. With writer Stern, he co-created the character Maxima who first appeared in Action Comics #645 (September 1989). In the double-size anniversary issue #650 in February 1990, Pérez penciled and inked an eight page flashback story depicting Superman's first post-Crisis encounter with the Justice League of America. Pérez briefly wrote Adventures of Superman, providing plots for issues #457–59 (Aug. 1989 – Oct. 1989), and inks for issue #461 (Dec. 1989). Due to an already heavy workload while doing both Wonder Woman and Superman at the same time, he left Action Comics with issue #652 (April 1990). ===War of the Gods / Infinity Gauntlet=== It was during this run in 1991 that Pérez encountered problems working with DC. Pérez has stated that since the storyline's inception, which ran through the Wonder Woman comic and crossed over into others, he had trouble writing the War of the Gods storyline, mostly due to editorial problems.O'Neil, Patrick Daniel David Anthony Kraft's Comics Interview #104 (Winter 1991) pp. 21–35. Cover title: "Pérez Quits DC!" Pérez felt that DC was not doing enough to celebrate Wonder Woman's 50-year anniversary. To make matters worse in his eyes, DC did not place War of the Gods in newsstand distribution, which meant that the comic book could only be found in comics specialty shops. Pérez had built up a plot to marry the characters Steve Trevor and Etta Candy in his final issue. When he discovered that DC editors had decided to not only pass the Wonder Woman title's writing to William Messner-Loebs and have Messner-Loebs write the final wedding scene, Pérez quit the title and separated himself from DC for several years. In 1992, he was guest inker on Deathstroke the Terminator issues #10–11. Also in 1991, Pérez signed on to pencil the six-issue limited series Infinity Gauntlet for Marvel Comics, which was written by Jim Starlin.Manning, Matthew K. "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 254: "Written by Jim Starlin, and with pencils by George Pérez and Ron Lim, The Infinity Gauntlet was born." However, due to the turbulence happening concurrently with War of the Gods, this was a very stressful personal period for Pérez, and he was not able to finish penciling the entire run of Infinity Gauntlet, leaving the project part way through issue #4. The Infinity Gauntlet editorial team decided to find a replacement artist to finish the miniseries, and Ron Lim was the artist chosen (although Pérez offered to remain on as the inker over Lim's cover art for the remainder of the miniseries). Because of the debacles over War of the Gods and The Infinity Gauntlet, Pérez began to gain a reputation as a creator who could not finish projects as planned. Furthering that impression, he worked with independent comic book publishers Malibu Comics, drawing Break-Thru and Ultraforce (both titles were part of Malibu's Ultraverse imprint), and then working at Tekno Comix drawing I-Bots. However, despite being paid well by both publishers, he had no enthusiasm drawing the characters, and lost interest in drawing the titles. ===1990s and return to The Avengers=== thumb|right|150px|Cover of Hulk: Future Imperfect #1 (December 1992) In the 1990s, Pérez left the spotlight, although he worked on several projects, including working on the Jurassic Park comic book adaptation of the movie for Topps Comics in 1993, adapted by Walt Simonson and pencilled by Gil Kane, with Pérez as inker, but most notably at Marvel Comics with Sachs and Violens and Hulk: Future Imperfect, both written by Peter David. David has named Pérez his favorite artistic collaborator,David, Peter (March 7, 2014). "Getting by with a little help from his friends…". peterdavid.net. Reprinted from Comics Buyer's Guide #1383 (May 19, 2000). and one of the three artists whose art has mostly closely matched the visuals he conceived when writing a comic book script (the others being Leonard Kirk and Dale Keown). Pérez returned to DC Comics in October 1996 for another incarnation of the Teen Titans. Teen Titans vol. 2 was written and penciled by Dan Jurgens, with Pérez as inker for the first 15 issues of its twenty four-issue run. The series ended in September 1998. Pérez had a stint as writer of Silver Surfer vol. 2 #111–123 (December 1995 – December 1996). He would also write the crossover special Silver Surfer/Superman in 1996. Pérez finally returned to a major ongoing title for the third series of The Avengers, written by Kurt Busiek,Manning "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 289: "At the top of [Marvel's] short list of dream artists for the Heroes Return project was George Pérez...But when asked to both write and draw the title, Pérez declined the invitation, stating he would rather just pencil the book...He did, however, suggest a writer that he wanted to work with – Kurt Busiek." where he remained for nearly three years, again receiving critical and fan acclaim for his polished and dynamic art. After leaving the series, he and Busiek produced the long-awaited JLA/Avengers inter-company crossover, which saw print in late 2003.Cowsill, Alan "2000s" in Dolan, p. 311 "[JLA/Avengers] was an event that...proved to be one of the biggest and best of the DC and Marvel crossovers, incorporating many of the two companies' greatest heroes and villains." A JLA/Avengers crossover was to have been published in the 1980s, but differences between DC and Marvel forced the comic to be canceled. As the artist on the story, Pérez had drawn approximately 21 pages of the original crossover, which were not published until the 2004 hardcover edition of JLA/Avengers: The Collector's Edition.JLA/Avengers: The Collector's Edition (DC Comics, 2004) ===Gorilla Comics and CrossGen=== In 1997, Pérez began writing and illustrating Crimson Plague, a creator-owned science fiction story about an alien with ultra-toxic blood, with the first issue published by Event Comics. In June 2000, that issue was re-published by Gorilla Comics – a publishing imprint he co-owned with several other creators – with additional material and pages, with a follow-up issue published in September. Pérez cited the debt he'd acquired self-publishing as the reason for discontinuing the series. Artwork from the unpublished third issue was included in George Pérez Storyteller. Pérez worked for new publisher CrossGen early in the 2000s, penciling four issues of CrossGen Chronicles.CrossGen Chronicles #25 (March 2001 – December 2001) His main project for the company was penciling Solus,Solus #1–4 (April 2003 – July 2003) and #6 (Sept. 2003) which was intended to be an ongoing series, but was cancelled after eight issues due to CrossGen's bankruptcy. ===Return to DC=== In May 2006, Pérez illustrated the cover art to one of the alternative covers to the direct market release of the annual Official Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide (36th edition) featuring Wonder Woman. He was guest artist for an issue of JSA #82 (April 2006) and was cover artist from issues #82–87. He drew the first ten issues of DC's The Brave and the Bold (vol. 2) in 2007 with writer Mark Waid.Cowsill "2000s" in Dolan, p. 329 "Writer Mark Waid and artist George Pérez teamed up to relaunch one of DC's best-loved titles, The Brave and the Bold." Pérez worked on Infinite Crisis, a follow-up to Crisis on Infinite Earths, as a fill-in artist. He worked on Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds in 2008–2009, thus contributing to every chapter of DC's Crisis trilogy. He worked with Marv Wolfman on a direct-to-DVD movie adaptation of the "Judas Contract" story arc from Teen Titans, scheduled for 2017. He was co-chair of the board of the comic industry charity The Hero Initiative"Guests of Honor," New York Comic- Con No. 4 program booklet (Reed Exhibitions, 2009), p. 12. and served on its Disbursement Committee. In 2005, an animated version of Pérez made a cameo appearance in the Teen Titans episode titled "Go", which was an adaptation of his The New Teen Titans #1. In the episode "For Real" André LeBlanc attacks a bank called "Bank of Pérez". In City of Heroes, an MMORPG about superheroes, an entire zone within the game (Pérez Park) is named after him. ===2010s=== In September 2011, DC launched a new Superman series written by Pérez, who also provided breakdowns and cover art, with interior art by Jesús Merino and Nicola Scott. Pérez remained until issue #6. The New Teen Titans: Games hardcover graphic novel was published the same month reuniting the creative team of Wolfman and Pérez. He was the inker of the new Green Arrow series, also launched in the same timeframe, over artist Dan Jurgens' pencils, reuniting the mid-1990s Teen Titans art team. Pérez and Kevin Maguire were alternating artists on a Worlds' Finest revival written by Paul Levitz. In July 2012, Pérez explained his departure from Superman as a reaction to the level of editorial oversight he experienced. This included inconsistent reasons given for rewrites of his material, the inability of editors to explain to him basic aspects of the New 52 Superman's status quo (such as whether his adoptive parents were still alive), and restrictions imposed by having to be consistent with Action Comics, which was set five years earlier than Superman, a situation complicated by Action writer Grant Morrison having not been forthcoming about their plans. From September 2014 to December 2016, Pérez wrote and drew six issues of his own creation Sirens, published by BOOM! Studios. It is a science fiction miniseries dedicated to a group of women with extraordinary powers, who fight against evil across time and space. In January 2019, Pérez announced that he was formally retiring due to various health issues, and would continue to produce only a limited number of convention- style head sketches on commission, and attend a limited number of conventions. ==Personal life and death== Pérez was married to Carol Flynn. He had no children. He had a brother David, and a niece and nephew.Pacesetter: the George Perez Magazine #4 In October 2013, Pérez revealed that he would soon undergo laser and injection surgeries to address hemorrhaging in his left eye that had effectively made him blind in that eye. By the following June, the procedures were not yet completed, but his condition had improved to the point that he was able to resume his work. In May 2017, he was admitted to a hospital with chest pains due to a heart attack while traveling to a convention, and had a coronary stent fitted. By January 2019, Perez was dealing with multiple health issues, including diabetes and problems with his vision and his heart. In December 2021, he revealed that after undergoing surgery for a blockage in his liver, he had been diagnosed with inoperable pancreatic cancer. Given a prognosis of 6 to 12 months, he chose not to pursue treatment. In early 2022, both DC and Marvel included tributes to him and his work in their comics, and jointly approved a limited-run reprint of the 2003 JLA/Avengers story he illustrated (long tied up by disagreements between the rival publishers), as a benefit for The Hero Initiative. Pérez died on May 6, 2022, due to complications from pancreatic cancer. His friend Constance Eza wrote the next day that the 67-year-old artist "passed away yesterday, peacefully at home" with his wife Carol and their family by his side. An open memorial service was held at MegaCon Orlando on May 22. ==Awards== Pérez won a 1979 Eagle Award (with Jim Shooter, Sal Buscema, and David Wenzel) for Best Continued Story for his work on The Avengers #167–168 and 170–177. In 1980 he won the Eagle Award for Best Comicbook Cover for Avengers #185. He won the Eagle Award for Favourite Artist (penciller) in 1986. Pérez received an Inkpot Award in 1983. In 1985, DC Comics named Pérez as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great. His work (with Marv Wolfman and Romeo Tanghal), earned The New Teen Titans #50 a nomination for the 1985 Jack Kirby Award for Best Single Issue. His collaboration with Wolfman earned Crisis on Infinite Earths the Jack Kirby Award for Best Finite Series in both 1985 and 1986. Pérez has won several Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Awards.Comics Buyer's Guide 1996 Annual. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications 1995 pp. 30–31 He won the "Favorite Artist" award in 1983 and 1985 and "Favorite Penciler" in 1987. In addition, he won the "Favorite Cover Artist" award three consecutive years 1985–1987. Crisis on Infinite Earths won the award for "Favorite Limited Series" in 1985. Pérez worked on several stories which won the CBG award for "Favorite Comic-Book Story": *1984 "The Judas Contract" in Tales of the Teen Titans #42–44 and Annual #3 *1985 "Beyond the Silent Night" in Crisis on Infinite Earths #7 *1989 "A Lonely Place of Dying" in Batman #440–442 and The New Titans #60–61 In 2022, Pérez was awarded the Inkwell Awards Stacey Aragon Special Recognition Award (SASRA) for his lifetime achievement in inking."First Comics News - 2022 Inkwell Awards Lifetime Achievement Winners" ==Bibliography== ===Interiors=== Pencil art in all cases, except where noted: ====BOOM! Studios==== *Sirens miniseries, #1–6 (2014–2016) ====DC Comics==== *52 #25 (Nightwing backup story) (2006) *Action Comics #643–645 (full pencils); #647-649, 651-652 (layouts only, Kerry Gammill pencils); #650 (8 pages, pencil & inks; among other artists) (1989–1990) *Action Comics Annual #2 (inks over Mike Mignola, among other artists) (1989) *Adventures of Superman #457-459 (plots with Dan Jurgens), 461 (inks over Dan Jurgens) (1989) *All-Star Squadron Annual #3 (among other artists) (1984) *Batman #400 (among other artists) (1986) *The Brave and the Bold vol. 2 #1–10 (2007–2008) *Crisis on Infinite Earths #1–12 (1985–1986) *DC Comics Presents #26 (New Teen Titans preview story), #61 (Superman/OMAC) (1980, 1983) *DC Universe #0 (among other artists) (2008) *DC Universe: Legacies #5–6 (2010) *Deathstroke the Terminator #10–11 (inks over Art Nichols) (1992) *The Flash (Firestorm backup stories) #289–293 (1980–1981) *Flashpoint: Secret Seven, miniseries, #1 (pages 1-15) (2011) *Green Arrow vol. 5 #1–4 (inks over Dan Jurgens) (2011) *Heroes Against Hunger (among other artists) (1986) *Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds, miniseries, #1–5 (2008–2009) *History of the DC Universe #1–2 (1987) *Infinite Crisis, miniseries, #3–4, 6–7 (among other artists; 2006) *Justice League of America #184–186, 192–197, 200 (1980–1982) *Justice League of America vol. 2 #0 (among other artists; 2006) *Justice Society of America vol. 2 #82 (2006) *Justice Society of America vol. 3 #50 (among other artists) (2011) *New Teen Titans (title then changes to Tales of the Teen Titans) #1–4, 6–34, 37–50; Annual #1–3 (1980–1985) *New Teen Titans vol. 2 (then New Titans) #1–5 (1984–85); #50–55, 57–61 (1988–1989) *New Teen Titans: The Drug Awareness (1983) *New Teen Titans: Games, graphic novel (2011) *Secret Origins vol. 2 (Robin) #50 (1990) *Secret Origins Annual #3 (writer/artist/inker, among other artists/cover art) (1989) *Supergirl vol. 6 #8 (2012) *Supergirl Annual #1 (inks over Dick Giordano) (1996) *Superman #423 ("Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?" story, Part One) (inks over Curt Swan) (1986) *Superman vol. 3 #1–6 (2011–2012) (writer, layout breakdowns, and cover artist) *Swordquest miniseries, #1–3 (1982–1984) *Tales of the New Teen Titans, miniseries, #1–4 (1982) *The Titans #25 (five pages, among other artists) (2001) *Teen Titans vol. 2 #1–15 (inks over Dan Jurgens) (1996–1997) *Teen Titans vol. 3 #50 (among other artists) (2007) *T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents #4 (with Cafu) (2011) *Wonder Woman #600 (among other artists) (2010) *Wonder Woman vol. 2 #1–24 (writer/pencils), #25–62 (writer), 168, 169, Annual #1 (writer/pencils, among other artists) (1987–1992) *War of the Gods, miniseries, #1–4 (1991) *Worlds' Finest #1–7 (with Kevin Maguire), #8–9 (with Cafú) (2012–2013) *World's Finest Comics (Teen Titans) #300 (1984) ====Image Comics==== *Crimson Plague #1–2 (2000) *Empire #1 (backup-story, writer/artist) (2000) *Witchblade #92 (two pages, among other artists) (2005) ====Marvel Comics==== *Astonishing Tales (Deathlok #25 (1974) *The Avengers #141–144, 147–151, 154-155, 160–162, 167-168, 170-171, 194–196, 198–202; Annual #6, 8 (1975–1980); #379-382 (writer for Double Feature flip-book) (1994-1995) *The Avengers vol. 3 #1–15 (pencils), 18 (inks), 19–25, 27–34 (pencils) (1998–2000) *Bizarre Adventures (Iceman) #27 (1981) *Creatures on the Loose (Man-Wolf) #33–37 (1975) *Deadly Hands of Kung Fu (Sons of the Tiger) #6–14, 16–17, 19–21, 30 (1974–1976) *Fantastic Four #164–167, 170–172, 176–178, 184–188, 191–192, Annual #14–15 (1975–1980) *Hulk: Future Imperfect, miniseries, #1–2 (1992–1993) *Infinity Gauntlet, six-issue miniseries, #1–3 (full pencils); #4 (with Ron Lim) (1991) *Inhumans #1–4, 8 (1975–1976) *Logan's Run #1–5 (1977) *Luke Cage, Power Man #27 (1975) *Marvel Comics Super Special #4 (1978) *Marvel Fanfare (Black Widow) #10–13 (1983–1984) *Marvel Premiere (Man-Wolf) #45–46 (1978–1979) *Marvel Preview #20 (1980) *Marvel Two- in-One #56–58, 60, 64–65 (1979–1980) *Monsters Unleashed (Gullivar Jones) #8 (1974) *Sachs and Violens, miniseries, #1–4 (1994) *Silver Surfer vol. 3 #111–123 (1995–1996) (writer) *Thunderbolts Annual 1997 (three pages, among other artists) (1997) *Ultraforce/Avengers (1995) *Unknown Worlds of Science Fiction #2–3 (1975) *What If (Nova) #15 (1977) *X-Men Annual #3 (1979) ====DC Comics and Marvel Comics together==== *JLA/Avengers, miniseries, #1–4 (2003) ==== Pacific Comics ==== * Alien Worlds #7 (1984) — short story, "Ride the Blue Bus" * Vanguard Illustrated #6 (1984) — short story, "The Trains Belong to Us" ===Covers only=== ====DC Comics==== *Action Comics #529, 602, 643–652 (1982–1990) *Adventure Comics #484–486, 490 (1981–1982) *Amethyst, Princess of Gemworld #5–11 (1983–1984) *Batman #436–442 (1989) *Batman and the Outsiders #5 (1983) *Best of DC Blue Ribbon Digest #17–18, 21–24, 35, 50, 61, 69 (1981–1986) *Blackest Night: Titans, miniseries, #3 (2009) *The Brave and the Bold vol. 2 #11-12 (2007–2008) *Crisis on Infinite Earths HC slipcase (1998; with artist Alex Ross) *Crisis on Infinite Earths: The Absolute Edition (2005; new dust jacket cover) *Crisis on Multiple Earths Volume 5 TPB (2010) *DC Special Blue Ribbon Digest #19 (1982) *DC Comics Presents #38, 94 (1981–1986) *The Flash vol. 2 #15–17 (cover artist), Annual #2 (cover art inker only) (1988) *Flashpoint: Secret Seven #1–3 (cover artist) (2011) *Green Lantern #132, 141–144 (1980–1981) *Infinite Crisis #1–7 (variant covers; 2005–2006) *JSA #82–87 (2006) *Justice League of America #201–205, 207–209, 212–215, 217–220 (1982–1983) *Justice Leagues of: **JL? (2001) **Aliens (2001) **Amazons (2001) **Arkham (2001) **Atlantis (2001) **JLA (2001) *Legion of Super-Heroes #268, 277–281, 300 (1980–1983) *New Teen Titans #5 (1981) *New Teen Titans Archives Volume 1 HC (1999) *New Teen Titans: The Judas Contract TPB (1988 edition) *New Teen Titans: Who is Donna Troy? TPB (2005) *Secret Origins Annual #3 (cover art) (1989) *Superman #364 (1981) *Teen Titans Spotlight #1, 19 (1986–1988) *Wonder Woman #283–284 (1981), #300 (b&w; illustration on inside front cover) (1983) *Wonder Woman vol. 2 #25–32, 45–60, 120, Annual #2 (1988–1997) *Wonder Woman: Gods and Mortals TPB (2004) *Wonder Woman: Challenge of the Gods TPB (2004) *Wonder Woman: Beauty and the Beasts TPB (2005) *Wonder Woman: Destiny Calling TPB (2006) *World's Finest Comics #271, 276–278 (1981–1982) ====Marvel Comics==== *The Avengers #163–166, 172–174, 181, 183–185, 191–192, (1977–1980) *Captain America #243, 246 (1980) *Defenders #51, 53, 54, 59, 64 (1977–1978) *Fantastic Four #183, 194–197 (1977–1978) *FOOM #19 (1977) – wraparound Defenders cover *Iron Man #102, 103 (1977) *Man Called Nova #14 (1977) *Marvel Holiday Special #1 (1994) *Marvel Team-Up #65 (1978) *Marvel Two-in-One #32–33, 42, 50–52, 54, 61–63, 66, 70 (1977–1980) *Mighty Mouse #4 (1991) *Ultraforce/Avengers: Prelude (1995) *X-51 #5 (1999) *X-Men #112, 128 (1979) ====DC Comics and Marvel Comics together==== *Crossover Classics: The Marvel/DC Collection vol. 1 TPB (1991) ==See also== *List of Puerto Rican writers *List of Puerto Ricans *Puerto Rican literature ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * "DC Profiles #80: George Pérez at the Grand Comics Database * * * George Pérez at Mike's Amazing World of Comics * George Pérez at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators * Video interview with George Pérez by Galacticast * Interview with George Pérez on (re)Search my Trash * Category:1954 births Category:2022 deaths Category:American comics artists Category:American comics writers Category:American male writers Category:American people of Puerto Rican descent Category:Artists from the Bronx Category:Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award winners Category:DC Comics people Category:Deaths from pancreatic cancer Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:Marvel Comics people Category:Role- playing game artists Category:Deaths from cancer in Florida
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is a 2006 motorcycle racing game. It was designed by Polyphony Digital, the developers of the popular Gran Turismo auto racing series. Tourist Trophy is one of only four titles for the PlayStation 2 that is capable of 1080i output, another being Gran Turismo 4, the game engine of which is also used by Tourist Trophy. Tourist Trophy was first released in China on January 26, 2006, then in Japan on February 2, 2006. The North American version was officially released on April 4, 2006 with seven extra motorcycles, new riding gear, seven bonus background music tracks, enhanced visual effects, an exclusive "Semi-Pro Mode", and bike profiles. The game was launched in Australia on June 1, 2006, and in Europe the next day. The PAL version offered two additional motorcycles and five new BGM tracks from European artists Infadels, Vitalic and Hystereo. ==Gameplay== === TT Mode === ==== License School ==== Tourist Trophy's core "Race Event" mode requires licenses, obtained after completing riding lessons on various circuits using various motorcycles. There are four licenses to unlock, and each following license is progressively more difficult to obtain and allows the player to unlock faster motorcycles in Challenge Mode upon completion. ====Challenge Mode==== Unlike the Gran Turismo games, Tourist Trophy does not contain a currency system. The player must obtain licenses in order to complete short races in "Challenge Mode", which award motorcycles to add to their garage. Motorcycles won by the player are used and tuned to compete in championships, and are unlocked for use in the game's Arcade mode. Tourist Trophy has 135 motorcycles with engine displacements from 124 cc to 1670 cc, including both road and race versions, from years 1961 through 2005. Dedicated racing bikes exist as semi-licensed "RacingModified" versions of street bikes, as well as five official fully licensed 2005 Suzuka 8 Hours endurance bikes. Motorcycles from many major manufacturers, as well as two specialized Japanese tuners, Moriwaki and Yoshimura, are included; bikes from the latter two can only be obtained as prizes in Race Events. 37 different track layouts are present in the game, including 22 original courses, the Tsukuba Circuit motorcycle layout, and two versions of Fuji Speedway as it appeared in the 1980s and 1990s. The motorcycle selection covers a broad range of modern motorcycles, including scooters, enduros, motards, sports bikes and naked bikes, as well as any respective "RacingModified" versions. For "RacingModified" bikes, a racing number from 5 through 99 can be selected—numbers 1 through 4 must be won in Race Events. ==== Race Event ==== Race Events are championships that consist of multiple races. Winning all races within a championship will award the player with new motorcycles and riding gear, and finishing an entire championship will grant the player's motorcycle a special racing number depending on their overall position. Prize bikes include "RacingModified" variants unavailable in Challenge Mode, and a classic racing motorcycle, the 1961 Honda RC162. Completing all 22 Race Events initially available will unlock a bonus 23rd Race Event. Completing the game will unlock an ending cinematic and add the "Clover Crown" ending theme to the "Music Theater". ==== Riding Gear ==== A feature exclusive to Tourist Trophy is "Riding Gear" (named "Closet" in the Asian editions). The player can unlock and collect 186 different riding accessories for their rider, including different helmets, gloves, boots or shoes, pants, jackets, and one-piece racing suits commercially available from more than a dozen manufacturers (Simpson, Vanson Leathers, Alpinestars, Arai, Shoei, Kushitani, RS Taichi, Dainese, AGV, Lewis Leathers, Bell, SPIDI, and XPD). Up to four different combinations can be saved, including two racing suits and two street riding outfits. The Suzuka 8 Hours racing motorcycles have their own respective racing suits, which can only be used with said bikes selected. The player cannot use any other riding gear with these motorcycles. ===Riding Form=== The "Riding Form" option is available in both Arcade Mode and TT Mode. Before an Arcade Mode race, the user can choose among four Riding Form presets: "Lean Body", "Neutral", "Lean Bike" and "Motard/Dirt". Lean Body focuses on quick cornering, Neutral focuses on handling, and Lean Bike prioritizes slow cornering. The Motard/Dirt form with one leg out in turns is dedicated to enduro and naked bike riding; however, the user is free to use it on all bikes. This mode is named after the mode in Gran Turismo games. In TT Mode, the user can enter the Garage Riding Form settings with up to four fully customizable forms to save. They are saved as "Form A", "Form B", "Form C" and "Motard/Dirt". Each one has eleven unique parameters and four presets: "Neutral", "Lean Body", "Lean Bike" and "Motard/Dirt" from which to choose. The adjustable parameters are as follows: * "Head Roll Angle" dictates how far to the side the rider's head turns in corners. * "Head Pitch Angle" dictates how far up or down the rider's head is positioned. * "Lateral Slide" determines how far the rider's hips slide towards the inside of a turn. Increasing this value raises cornering speed at the cost of stability and responsiveness (as a result of the change in center of mass). * "Vertical Slide" dictates how much the rider tucks their body in towards the bike in corners. * "Body Lean (Full Bank)" dictates the extent to which the rider leans into corners. * "Torso Roll Angle" determines how far the rider's torso leans into corners. Decreasing this value results in increased responsiveness at the cost of stability. * "Torso Yaw Angle" determines how far the rider's torso twists toward corners. Decreasing this value results in increased responsiveness. * "Arm Angle" determines how far in or out the rider's elbows are positioned. Decreasing this value results in increased cornering speed (due to lower drag) at the cost of responsiveness. * "Seat Position (Forward/Back)" determines how far forward or back the rider sits, influencing their posture and the extent to which they tuck. * "Leg Angle" works much the same as the "Arm Angle" setting; a high value offers increased responsiveness while sacrificing cornering speed. * "Body Lean (Upright)" dictates the extent to which the rider tucks on straights. An increased value results in lower drag, and thus higher acceleration and top speed. === Gameplay settings === Tourist Trophy's default setting is "Normal". Using the Normal setting, the player can perform maneuvers such as wheelies and stoppies on powerful-enough bikes. These possibilities are disabled with the "Professional" setting. Enabling "Professional" over the arcade-oriented "Normal" will enhance the simulation aspect and difficulty level of the game. The "Professional" setting is intended to allow a more realistic experience, with manual tucking and separate front and rear brake controls instead of the default double-brake system. The in-between "Semi-Pro Mode" is an exclusive feature of the North American edition. Other options augmenting difficulty are "Strict Judgment"—a 10-second slowdown penalty for shortcuts as seen in Gran Turismo 4—and a "Best Line" display. ===Other features=== ====Photo Mode and Best Shot==== Pre- generated photos can be taken from a race replay and saved on a PS2 memory card or a connected USB flash drive, like in Gran Turismo 4. This function is known in the game as "Best Shot". Using various replay angles from different parts of the course as a digital camera, the game is able to produce a selection of screenshots with variable compression (Normal, Fine, or Super Fine) and size (up to 1280 x 960 px @ 72 dpi). Outside of Best Shot, the game's Photo Mode allows the player to take a photo at a particular moment in a replay; its parameters are almost fully adjustable, giving the player the opportunity to compose their own photographs. The user can choose to save the photo to the PS2 memory card or a USB flash drive, print it with a USB- compatible Epson printer, or display it in-game using the "Musical Diaporama" feature. Saved game screenshots can be exchanged with friends or published to the Internet. Formatting the USB device in Photo Mode or Best Shot will create the "DCIM/100PDITT" folder, allowing Tourist Trophy to store, upload and download game picture files generated under the form "IMG_00X.JPG". Standard USB 2.0 flash drives (including MP3 players and mobile phones) can be used to manage game JPEG files instead of the official I-O Data model. ====Replay/ghost files==== A memory card or USB flash drive can store Tourist Trophy replay/ghost files downloaded from either the official game website or elsewhere online, and can be used to exchange files with another USB device. Once the files are in the flash drive, the user can upload them from within the game in order to compete with a ghost (in "Time Attack" mode) or to watch a replay (in the "Replay Theater"). Each file can be used as a Replay or as a Ghost. Formatting the USB device from Theater Mode will create the "PDI" folder, allowing Tourist Trophy to store, upload and download files generated under the name "replay.dat". Standard third-party USB devices are also compatible with such files. ==Development== Polyphony Digital reused the physics engine, graphical user interface design, and all but one circuit from Gran Turismo 4. However, the number of NPC opponents was reduced from five in existing Gran Turismo games to only three. Tourist Trophy also uses the License School feature that was popularized by the Gran Turismo series, as well as the Photo Mode introduced in Gran Turismo 4. The B-spec mode, which appeared in Gran Turismo 4, is absent in Tourist Trophy. While wet, dirt, and reverse racing conditions and tracks such as the Circuit de la Sarthe were removed, a unique course was recreated specifically for Tourist Trophy. The Circuit de la Comunitat Valenciana Ricardo Tormo is an official track appearing in the Superbike World Championship and MotoGP, which sees extensive use as a test circuit during the off season. It reappeared in Gran Turismo (PSP) due to its presence in Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters and the World Touring Car Championship, but did not appear in Gran Turismo 5. Polyphony ostensibly planned to add this track to Gran Turismo 5 (as it remains unused within the game's files), but it was left out for unknown reasons. ==Original soundtrack== The Tourist Trophy original game soundtrack was released on March 15, 2006 by For Life Music Entertainment. ===Track listing=== *Composed by: Sun Paulo and Makoto *Performed by: Sun Paulo, Quadra, Makoto, KASAI and Mitsuo Okada #"I against a speed" (Short Mix) – 3:14 #"Discommunication" (Short Mix) – 3:32 #"Who I am?" (Short Mix) – 3:46 #"Forest" (Short Mix) – 8:00 #"Fiber Optics" (Sun Paulo Remix) – 11:10 #"Five Silver Rings" – 2:36 #"Mystery" – 2:20 #"Low Sky" – 2:30 #"Mind Visions" – 2:31 #"Introduction" – 2:34 #"Far West" – 2:45 #"Blue on Black" – 2:52 #"Your Soul" – 2:23 #"Take Your Soul" – 2:04 #"Inside My Love" – 2:07 #"Peaces of Mind" – 2:32 #"OKINAWA WIND" – 3:00 #"BRAZILIAN WIND" – 3:02 #"CALIFORNIA WIND" – 3:32 #"Digital Mononoke Beat PT.1" – 3:09 #"Digital Mononoke Beat PT.2" – 2:49 == Reception == In October 2003, Sony Computer Entertainment's announcement of a Polyphony- developed motorcycle racing game generated excitement among Gran Turismo fans, and the debut of Tourist Trophy at the 2005 Tokyo Game Show was met with good reviews. The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of all four eights for a total of 32 out of 40. The game won IGN's award for Best PS2 Simulation of 2006. ==Possible sequel== In 2015, when asked about the possibility of a sequel to Tourist Trophy, Kazunori Yamauchi said: "I am aware that the game is expected by many fans, so I can't deny a Tourist Trophy 2". While such a sequel has not yet come to fruition, Yamauchi later admitted in an interview in 2018 that it was "still [in] the back of his mind". ==References== ==External links== * * Tourist Trophy official website, Global * Category:2006 video games Category:Gran Turismo (series) Category:Motorcycle video games Category:PlayStation 2 games Category:PlayStation 2-only games Category:Sony Interactive Entertainment games Category:Racing simulators Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Video games set in California Category:Video games set in Germany Category:Video games set in Hong Kong Category:Video games set in Italy Category:Video games set in Japan Category:Video games set in Monaco Category:Video games set in New York City Category:Video games set in Seattle Category:Video games set in Seoul Category:Video games set in Tokyo
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Nigel Ernest James Mansell, (; born 8 August 1953) is a British retired racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship (1992) and the CART Indy Car World Series (1993). Mansell was the reigning F1 champion when he moved over to CART, becoming the first person to win the CART title in his debut season, and making him the only person to hold both the World Drivers' Championship and the American open-wheel National Championship simultaneously. His career in Formula One spanned 15 seasons, with his final two full seasons of top-level racing being spent in the CART series. Mansell is the second most successful British Formula One driver of all time in terms of race wins with 31 victories, (behind Lewis Hamilton with wins), and is eighth overall on the Formula One race winners list, behind Hamilton, Michael Schumacher, Sebastian Vettel, Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna, Max Verstappen and Fernando Alonso. He held the record for the most poles set in a single season, which was broken in by Sebastian Vettel. Mansell raced in the Grand Prix Masters series in 2005, and won the championship title. He later signed a one-off race deal for the Scuderia Ecosse GT race team to drive their number 63 Ferrari F430 GT2 car at Silverstone on 6 May 2007. He has since competed in additional sports car races with his sons Leo and Greg, including the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, and was inducted to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. ==Early life and career== Nigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, where his parents, Eric and Joyce Mansell, ran a tea shop. He grew up in Hall Green, Birmingham. Mansell had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won six of the nine races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park. He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch. Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned from his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford.Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography page 88 Collins Willow Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone. He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula.King Nigel Mansell Statistics . Nigelmansell.free.fr. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. Mansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a second-place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph Dolomite engines that were vastly inferior to the Toyota engines used by the leading teams. After three seventh-place finishes and a fourth in his last race, he parted from the team. The next season saw him drive for David Price Racing. Following a first win in the series at Silverstone in March, he went on to finish eighth in the championship. His racing was consistent, but a collision with Andrea de Cesaris resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash which he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae. His driving was noticed by Colin Chapman, owner of Lotus, and shortly after his accident, hiding the extent of his injury with painkillers, Mansell performed well enough during a tryout at the Paul Ricard circuit with Lotus, where he was pitted against a number of other drivers to determine who was going to take the second seat for the 1980 season alongside Mario Andretti, as Argentine Carlos Reutemann was leaving to go to Williams. Driving a 79, the seat eventually went to Italian driver Elio de Angelis, but Mansell was selected to become a test driver for the Norfolk-based Formula One team. ==Formula One== ===1980–1984: Lotus=== ;1980 and 1981 Mansell's skill as a test driver, including setting the fastest lap around Silverstone in a Lotus car at the time, impressed Chapman enough to give him a trio of starts in F1 in , driving a development version of the Lotus 81 used by the team, the Lotus 81B. In his Formula One debut at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix, a fuel leak in the cockpit that developed shortly before the start of the race left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. An engine failure forced him to retire from that race and his second, however an accident at his third event at Imola meant he failed to qualify. Team leader Mario Andretti wrote his car off in a start-line accident during the Canadian Grand Prix at Montreal, so Mansell had to give up his car for Andretti to compete in for his home race, the final race of the season at Watkins Glen in the United States. Andretti announced he was leaving to move to Alfa Romeo at the end of the season leaving Lotus with a vacant race seat. Despite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season that the seat would be filled by Mansell. Mansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable and he was continually out-performed by teammate Elio de Angelis. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Teammate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix, and was frequently faster than his less-experienced colleague Mansell. ;1982 During the season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans sportscar event in order to earn extra money. At the time Mansell was paid £50,000 a year and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell was exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 not to take part in the race. Chapman extended Mansell's contract to the end of the season in a deal that made him a millionaire.Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography page 120 Collins Willow As a result of the gestures, such as described above, Mansell became very close to Chapman, who made him equal number one in the team with de Angelis, and was devastated by Chapman's sudden death in 1982. In his autobiography Mansell stated that when Chapman died, "The bottom dropped out of my world. Part of me died with him. I had lost a member of my family." Following Chapman's death, relationships at Lotus became strained, as replacement team principal Peter Warr did not have a high regard for him as a driver or person. Warr in his book titled Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall stated about the 1982 season: > "After carefully analysing the season just finished, it was completely clear > who was the number one. It was Elio. He was faster, he had out-qualified > Nigel ten times to three. Elio had seven points scoring finishes to Nigel's > two and in addition to Elio's win in Austria, had a tally of more than three > times the number of points gained by Nigel. What is more, the margin by > which Elio eclipsed his team-mate in qualifying overall was a huge 4.5 per > cent. And all this in the year when, as near as can be reasonably achieved, > the two drivers were given equal equipment and treatment." ;1983 De Angelis was then promoted back to outright number one for the 1983 season. This was demonstrated by the fact that he had exclusive use of the quick but unreliable Renault turbo-charged 93T for the whole season, and Mansell did not get to drive a turbocharged car until the ninth round, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, a race where he climbed from 16th to second and eventually finished fourth in a brand-new, hastily designed 94T. Due to their tumultuous relationship and a lack of decent results, Warr was not keen on honouring the last year of the contract that Mansell had signed with Chapman. However, with encouragement from Lotus's sponsors, John Player Special (who allegedly preferred a British driver), and with the only other remaining top British driver (Derek Warwick, after John Watson's retirement) already confirmed to be joining the factory Renault team, it was announced Mansell would be staying with the team. ;1984 In 1984, Mansell finished in the championship top 10 for the first time, and took his first career pole position but still finished behind teammate de Angelis, who finished third, in the championship. At the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix Mansell surprised many by overtaking Alain Prost in a wet race for the lead, but soon after retired from the race after losing control on the slippery painted lines on the road surface on the run up the hill on lap 15. Late in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year, leaving Mansell with no race seat at Lotus. After receiving offers from Arrows and Williams, and first turning down Williams's offer, it was announced before the Dutch Grand Prix that he would indeed be joining Williams. Mansell was remembered by many that year when he collapsed while pushing his car to the finish line after the transmission failed on the last lap of the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix. The race was one of the hottest on record, and after two hours of driving in 104 °F (about 40 °C) conditions Mansell fainted while pushing his car over the line to salvage a sixth-place finish (and thus one championship point) in a race of which he had led half, having started from pole.United States GP, 1984. grandprix.com. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. In his autobiography, Mansell claimed that his final race with the Lotus team—the 1984 Portuguese Grand Prix—was heavily compromised by Warr's unwillingness to give Mansell the brake pads he desired for the race. With 18 laps of the race remaining, and with Mansell in second position, the brakes on his car failed. On Mansell's departure, Warr was quoted as saying "He'll never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse".Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography page 141 Collins Willow ===1985–1988: Williams=== ;1985 In Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying "We have the greatest respect for each other." Mansell was given the "Red 5" number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker for the BBC. Rosberg, the World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and in an interview while on the podium publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race, which earned Rosberg a round of boos from the crowd who had appreciated Mansell's courage in trying to push his Lotus to the finish in the extreme heat). Other factors were what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second-hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship. 1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season. During practice for the 1985 French Grand Prix, Mansell unwillingly broke the record for the highest speed crash in Formula One history. At the end of the Paul Ricard Circuit's 1.8 km long Mistral Straight he went off at the fast Courbe de Signes at over in his Williams FW10. Mansell suffered a concussion, which kept him out of the race. Teammate Rosberg claimed the pole for the race and finished second behind the Brabham-BMW of Nelson Piquet. Mansell achieved second place at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, and followed this with his first victory in 72 starts at the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in England. He achieved a second straight victory at the South African Grand Prix in Kyalami. These triumphs helped turn Mansell into a Formula One star. ;1986 Going into , the Williams-Honda team had a car, the FW11 which was capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had a new confidence that led to establishing himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new teammate in twice World Champion Nelson Piquet who had joined Williams looking to be a regular winner and contender again after the Brabham-BMWs had become increasingly unreliable and uncompetitive. The Brazilian publicly described Mansell as "an uneducated blockhead" and had also criticised Mansell's wife Roseanne's looks, later retracting these statements following threats of legal action.Malcolm Folley: Senna versus Prost Century, 2009, , p. 221 Mansell won five Grand Prix in 1986 and also played a part in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history, finishing second to Ayrton Senna in the Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez by a mere 0.014 seconds (Mansell later jokingly said they should give himself and Senna 7½ points each). The 1986 season was led mostly by Mansell in championship points, and it went down to the wire in Adelaide, Australia for the Australian Grand Prix with Prost, Piquet and Mansell all still in contention for the title. The equation was simple, Prost and Piquet needed to win and have Mansell finish no higher than fourth. After aiming for a third-place finish which would guarantee him the title, Mansell would narrowly miss out on winning it after his left-rear tyre exploded in spectacular fashion on the main straight with only 19 laps of the race to go. In a 2012 interview for Sky Sports Legends of F1 Mansell revealed that, had he hit the wall rather than wrestling the car safely to a halt in the run-off area at the end of the straight, the stewards would most likely have red flagged the race. As the race was over two thirds distance, he would have kept his position and won his first F1 world title. Instead Mansell ended the season as runner-up to Alain Prost. His efforts in 1986 led to his being voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year. 1986 proved to be a tough year for both Mansell and the Williams team, off the track at least. After a pre- season test session at the Paul Ricard Circuit in the south of France, team owner Frank Williams was involved in a horrific road accident which left him a tetraplegic. Williams would not return to the scene until making a surprise appearance at the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch where Mansell and Piquet finished 1–2. Williams's absence from the day-to-day running of the team actually created tension between the team and engine supplier Honda. The Japanese giant regarded dual World Champion Nelson Piquet as the team's number one driver (they were reportedly paying the bulk of Piquet's multimillion- dollar retainer) and were reportedly unhappy that the team's co-owner and Technical Director Patrick Head did not rein in Mansell during races and allowed him to take both points and wins from Piquet. As it was, while Williams dominated the Constructors' Championship, the two drivers took enough points from each other to allow McLaren's Alain Prost to sneak through and win the Drivers' Championship. Before the season had started Honda had reportedly attempted to persuade Frank Williams to replace Mansell with their own test driver Satoru Nakajima. Williams, who was always more interested in the Constructors' title than the Drivers' as it showed that his team was the best, refused to do this, rightly believing that having two proven F1 winners in Piquet and Mansell would better-serve the team than Nakajima would as an F1 rookie. ;1987 Six more wins followed in , including an emotional and hugely popular victory at Silverstone for the British Grand Prix in which he came back from 28 seconds behind in 30 laps to beat teammate Piquet, with his car running out of fuel on the slowing down lap. A serious qualifying accident at Suzuka in Japan for the penultimate race of the season severely injured Mansell's back (a spinal concussion). Trying to beat Piquet's lap time, Mansell made a mistake and hit the guardrail.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: As a result of Mansell's absence from the remaining two races, Piquet became champion for the third time. Piquet called his win over Mansell "a win of intelligence over stupidity". The Brazilian also added that he won because he was more consistent than his teammate, racking up points and podiums where Mansell often ran into trouble. Piquet's was a percentage driving policy which worked well in the ultra-competitive Williams-Honda, whereas Mansell was a hard charger who many felt often pushed his luck too far. ;1988 In , for the first time in his career, Mansell was a team's first driver, having won more races in the previous two seasons than any other driver. However, Williams lost the turbo power of Honda to McLaren, and had to settle with a naturally aspirated Judd V8 engine in its first season in F1. A dismal season followed, which saw Mansell's Williams team experiment with a terribly unreliable (but extremely innovative) active suspension system (the system had worked well when introduced by the team in 1987 where it could draw on approximately 5% of the reported produced by the Honda turbo, but struggled with the Judd V8). Mansell would complete only two of the 14 races in which he appeared in 1988, both being podium finishes. One of these was a second place at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where, overnight, the team had stopped using its active suspension (after months of Patrick Head telling Mansell and teammate Riccardo Patrese that it would take many months of work to do so), and reverted to a passive suspension set-up. Mansell contracted chickenpox in the summer of 1988 and after a competitive (but ill-advised) drive in the very hot conditions of the 1988 Hungarian Grand Prix the illness became worse, forcing him to miss the next two Grands Prix in Belgium where he was replaced by Martin Brundle, and Italy where he was replaced by Frenchman Jean-Louis Schlesser. By missing the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Mansell missed the traditional welcome by the Tifosi for a newly signed Ferrari driver after he had announced he would be leaving Williams to join the Maranello- based team for . ===1989–1990: Ferrari=== ;1989 In preparation for the season, Mansell became the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honour Mansell described as "one of the greatest in my entire career". Enzo Ferrari presented a 1989 Ferrari F40 as a gift to Mansell.Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography page 199 Collins Willow In Italy he became known as "il leone" ("the lion") by the tifosi because of his fearless driving style. The season was one of change in the sport, with the banning of turbo engines by the FIA and the introduction of the electronically controlled semi-automatic transmission by Ferrari. Mansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix at the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track, and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps (as it had done throughout pre-season testing and in qualifying for the race). Mansell became the first driver to win a race in a car with a semi-automatic gearbox. The race saw him as the first driver to win in their debut race for the Scuderia since Mario Andretti had won the 1971 South African Grand Prix and he would remain the last man to win on his Ferrari debut until Kimi Räikkönen won the 2007 Australian Grand Prix. The rest of 1989 was characterised by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian Grand Prix and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese Grand Prix for reversing in the pit lane, which resulted in a ban for the next race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the Championship with the help of a second win for Ferrari at the tight and twisty Hungaroring for the Hungarian Grand Prix. Early in practice Mansell had seen that trying to qualify the car high on the grid was a pointless exercise and he decided instead to concentrate on a good race set-up. After qualifying 12th (0.681s behind teammate Gerhard Berger in sixth and 2.225s behind pole man Riccardo Patrese in his Williams-Renault) and not even being considered a chance for the race, he charged his way through the field until he pulled off a sensational passing manoeuvre on the McLaren-Honda of World Champion Ayrton Senna on lap 58 to take a lead he would not lose. ;1990 A tough followed with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired with Alain Prost, (who was also the reigning World Champion), and who took over as the team's lead driver. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix, the car he drove did not handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position. On confronting the mechanics, it transpired that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and as a result, they were swapped without telling Mansell.Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography page 222 Collins Willow After retiring from the race, he announced he was retiring from the sport altogether at the end of the season. This, combined with the fact that Frenchman Prost was not only a triple World Champion and the winner of more Grands Prix than anyone in history, but also spoke fluent Italian, whereas Mansell's Italian was only conversational at best, gave Prost greater influence within the Maranello-based team. According to Prost, Mansell only attended two or three mechanical briefings throughout the season, preferring playing golf. One notable highlight of the season was a daring pass on Gerhard Berger around the daunting high speed Peraltada corner that was later renamed in his honour. Approaching the corner for the penultimate time Mansell was bobbing from side to side in Berger's mirrors. Heading into one of the quickest corners on the calendar at the time, where the Ferraris had registered forces of 4.7g during practice, Mansell launched to the outside of Berger and flashed past to take second place. Mansell scored only a single win, at the 1990 Portuguese Grand Prix, and finished a thrilling second to Nelson Piquet in Australia, and finished fifth in the World Championship. Mansell then announced his retirement from Formula One.Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams page 186 Macmillan ===1991–1992: Return to Williams=== ;1991 Mansell's retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams stepped in. Mansell's return to Williams was not straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status over Riccardo Patrese (who had remained with the team through 1989 and 1990), guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible'; Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver. Williams signed Mansell on 1 October 1990 after Mansell was assured the contract stated that he would be the focus of the team, having experienced being the 'Number Two' driver at Ferrari. Mansell would be paid £4.6 million a season, a deal which made him the highest paid British sportsman at the time.Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams page 186 Macmillan His second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in , including the Spanish Grand Prix. In this race he went wheel-to-wheel with Ayrton Senna, with only centimetres to spare, at over on the main straight. Quite a different spectacle was offered following Mansell's victory in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Senna's car had stopped on the final lap, but, rather than leave his rival stranded out on the circuit (the two had come to blows in the pits following their first lap tangle during the 1987 Belgian Grand Prix and were hardly close friends), Mansell pulled over on his victory lap and allowed Senna to ride on the Williams sidepod back to the pits. The Williams team's decision to develop their new semi-automatic gearbox by racing with it at the start of the season was at the cost of points in the opening rounds of the championship. Senna was on 40 points with four straight wins to open the season by the time Mansell gained his first finish with a second in Monaco. Mansell then had the next race in Canada practically won when his Williams FW14 stopped half a lap from the finish with what was reported to be transmission failure, though it was claimed by designer Adrian Newey that Mansell had let his engine revs drop too low while he was waving to the crowd in celebration and stalled his engine. This handed Nelson Piquet his 23rd and last F1 race win. Despite a good mid-season, which included a hat-trick of victories, Senna's consistency and Mansell's retirements at key races meant that he finished second in the Championship for the third time in his career, this time behind Senna. ;1992 Mansell started the season with five straight victories (a record not equalled until Michael Schumacher in ). At the sixth round of the season in Monaco, he took pole and dominated much of the race. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren-Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just 0.2 seconds behind the Brazilian.Autocourse 1992 pp.150, 153 Mansell became the most successful British driver of all time when he won the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, as he surpassed Jackie Stewart's record of 27 wins with his 28th. Mansell was finally crowned Formula One World Champion at the age of 39 early in the season at the Hungarian Grand Prix, the 11th round of that season, where his second-place finish clinched the Drivers' Championship, securing the title in the fewest Grands Prix since the 16-race season format started. Mansell also set the then-record for the most wins in one season (9); both records stood until broken by Schumacher in 2002. He managed 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011 in the Brazilian Grand Prix on 26 November. He also held the record for the most races before becoming World Champion with 180 races; this record was broken by Nico Rosberg in 2016 with 206 races. Other Formula One records set in 1992 that he still holds are the highest percentage of pole positions in a season (88%), most wins from pole position in a season (nine) and most runner-up championship finishes before becoming World Champion (three). Mansell also holds the record for obtaining pole position and scoring the fastest lap and subsequently retiring from the race (1987 German Grand Prix, 1990 British Grand Prix, 1992 Japanese Grand Prix, and 1992 Italian Grand Prix). He is the driver having the most wins (31) without ever winning Monaco. He won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award again in 1992, one of only four people to have won the award twice. During this season, Mansell gained a reputation for a psychological competitiveness and mind games. After the announcement by the FIA that the organization would be weighing drivers, Mansell, known for ignoring diet, starved and dehydrated himself the day prior to weigh-ins. This measure led to Mansell weighing less than his teammate Riccardo Patrese by half a kilogram. ==CART IndyCar World Series== Despite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of his former teammate Alain Prost, who had sat out the 1992 season, joining the Renault-powered team. Despite Mansell's early and subsequent success during 1992, his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. According to Patrick Head (in an interview many years later), Mansell pushed for a contract extension to be agreed early in the season. Despite this being unusual for the team, Mansell's perseverance purportedly paid off, and met with both Frank Williams and Patrick Head at the Williams Motorhome in Jerez, where they discussed and subsequently shook hands on a deal for a further two seasons (1993 and 1994). They followed this up with a written contract sent to Nigel's home address in the Isle of Man for final review and signature. According to Head, Mansell procrastinated on returning the signed agreement however, whilst winning back- to-back races over the upcoming months, finally resulting in Mansell asking for more money, which infuriated and frustrated the Williams leadership team. According to Mansell however, Williams had initially neglected to tell him that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari in 1990. To boot, Ayrton Senna had expressed a strong desire to drive for Williams and even offered to drive for them at no salary (only to later be rebuffed as Prost, whose rivalry with the Brazilian was more intense as the one he had with Mansell, had a clause written into his contract which enabled him to block Senna's effort). Williams decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand, and told him that he needed to sign on the original deal or Senna was ready to instead. When Mansell discovered this to be untrue and a ruse, he decided to move on and called a press conference to announce his retirement. An 11th hour offer was made to him at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done - Mansell retired from F1. Mansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair with Mario Andretti in the CART series, replacing Mario's son Michael who moved to F1 and McLaren. At the season opener at Surfers Paradise, Australia, he became the first "rookie" to take pole position and win his first race. A few weeks later however, he suffered a substantial crash at the Phoenix International Raceway, severely injuring his back. At the 1993 Indianapolis 500, Mansell would lead the race only to finish third after losing the lead to Emerson Fittipaldi and Arie Luyendyk after a poor restart. On his 40th birthday, however, Mansell would avenge his loss at Indianapolis to score a 200-mile race victory at New Hampshire International Speedway, perhaps his most exciting CART victory. He would go on to score five wins for the 1993 CART season, which, with more high-placed finishes, was good enough to earn him the championship. This enabled Mansell to become the only driver in history to hold both the Formula One and CART championships at the same time; when he won the 1993 CART championship he was still the reigning F1 world champion, the 1993 F1 championship not yet having been decided. thumb|right|Mansell competing in the 1994 Indianapolis 500 Following this successful season in CART, Mansell received several awards, including a Gold Medal from the Royal Automobile Club and the 1994 ESPY Award for Best Driver. His Newman/Haas car was much less reliable the following year, 1994, and results suffered. It was during this season that Mansell "wore out his welcome" in the United States with glimpses of rude behaviour, particularly after he was knocked out of the Indianapolis 500. After the crash, he stormed out of the track hospital, and refused medical care. When reporter Dr. Jerry Punch asked Mansell if he had spoken with Dennis Vitolo, the driver who had crashed into him, Mansell replied, "You speak to him" and shoved the camera away. Subsequently, Mansell was due to sign autographs at a K-mart store (the primary sponsor of his car), but because of a lack of demand the event was cancelled. Mansell was also the catalyst for the breakdown in the relationship between himself and Mario Andretti. Mario has since remarked "I guess if Ronnie Peterson was the best team-mate I ever had, Nigel Mansell was the worst" and "I had a lot of respect for him as a driver, but not as a man". ==Brief return to Formula One== ===1994: Williams=== In , after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to F1 and re-joined the Williams team. Since he had left it in 1993, the team had undergone some significant changes. Damon Hill had been promoted from test driver and was running full-time in one car. Prost, Mansell's replacement, won the 1993 Drivers' Championship and then retired after the season. This allowed Williams and Ayrton Senna to finally work out an agreement, and the team received a new sponsor in Rothmans International for a season in which they were expected to remain as champions. However, the car proved unreliable and tricky to handle early in the season, leading Senna to retire from the opening rounds despite claiming pole. In the third race at Imola, Senna was killed in a crash on the Tamburello curve. Williams test driver David Coulthard took over Senna's seat for the majority of 1994 and Williams got permission from Newman/Haas Racing to bring back Mansell at the French Grand Prix and the final three races of 1994 in Europe, Japan and Australia. Mansell was paid approximately £900,000 per race, compared to teammate Damon Hill being paid £300,000 for the entire season.Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams page 244 Macmillan Mansell's return was helped by Bernie Ecclestone helping unravel his contracts in the United States. It was important for F1 to have a world champion driving that season and with worldwide TV viewing figures starting to decline, they needed Mansell. The 41-year-old was not as quick as Hill in race trim but signs that his speeds were coming back were evident in Japan during a battle with the Ferrari of Jean Alesi. Mansell took his final Grand Prix victory in Adelaide, the last race of the season, having out-qualified the two title contenders at the time, Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher, in the process (helped out by the second qualifying session being held on a wet track, with the times from the first session making up the grid). The plan initially was for Mansell to protect Hill from Schumacher, but both drivers passed him at the start and eventually collided (causing the retirement of both), handing Schumacher his first world title. Mansell purportedly agreed a new contract to drive for Williams again in 1995, but later claimed this was rescinded.Nigel Mansell: Motor Sport magazine podcast Williams ultimately opted for youth over experience and hired Coulthard for the 1995 season. ===1995: McLaren=== After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in . McLaren's title sponsors Marlboro wanted a world champion, whereas McLaren and their engine suppliers Mercedes wanted a lower-profile driver for what was Mercedes' second year back in Formula One since abandoning it in . Before the season started, Mansell could not fit into the narrow car and was deputised by Mark Blundell for the opening two rounds in Brazil and Argentina. Mansell's car was completed in 33 days and in time for Imola, where despite being in the top six late in the race, a clash with Eddie Irvine saw him finish 10th and out of the points. The Spanish Grand Prix saw Mansell become frustrated over his car's handling characteristics, he chose to retire after just two races with the team. Mansell cited the decision to retire as his not wanting to make up the numbers and with no hope of the McLaren MP4/10 being competitive. In 2015, Mansell stated that he was wrong to leave McLaren so soon and that in hindsight he should have continued with the team for the season and help improve the car. ===Comeback considered=== A few testing sessions with F1 teams including Jordan suggested another comeback could be on the cards, but it never happened. Reports at the time suggested that the Mansell–Jordan partnership for 1997 was a real possibility with Eddie Jordan's title sponsor willing to pay for the deal. The Jordan team said after the tests in Barcelona in December 1996 that Mansell decided against it. ==British Touring Car Championship== Mansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with six laps remaining. He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell's Vauxhall Cavalier, resulting in a spin and a bad crash into the concrete wall under the bridge.Motorsportmad.com: 1993 TOCA Shootout Donnington Park – Mansell massive crashMansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship, driving in a Ford Mondeo for three rounds. With the number 5 already taken by James Thompson, Mansell raced with the red number 55.James Thompson – Honda Accord 1998. Redshoes Archive (26 April 1998). Retrieved on 11 June 2011.Nigel Mansell – Ford Mondeo 1998. Redshoes Archive (20 September 1998). Retrieved on 11 June 2011. At his first event at Donington Park, he retired three laps into the sprint race, meaning he would start the feature race in 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track became wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps, and he finished in fifth position.Donington Park 14 June 1998 . BTCC Pages. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. The race was regarded by many fans as one of the greatest in touring car history.Reid 150 Not Out . Crash.net (1 January 1980). Retrieved on 11 June 2011. It was to be his best finish in the series, as he failed to finish either race at the next round he participated in at Brands Hatch, and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place.Brands Hatch 31 August 1998 . BTCC Pages. Retrieved on 11 June 2011.Silverstone 20 September 1998 . BTCC Pages. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. Having competed in three of the 13 rounds, he finished 18th out of 21 in the Drivers' Championship.BTCC 1998 Season . Btccpages.com. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. ==Subsequent appearances== On 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a Race of Legends exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM. He competed against other Formula One World Champions Jody Scheckter, Alain Prost and Emerson Fittipaldi, as well as Motorcycle Grand Prix World Champions Mick Doohan and Johnny Cecotto (himself a former F1 driver), each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi, Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers.. Note: In-depth information on times set by each driver do not appear to have been formally published by the organisers. Mansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005 (Mansell had won at the old Kyalami circuit in 1985 and had also won at the new circuit in 1992).Mansell secures GP Masters glory. BBC News (13 November 2005). Retrieved on 11 June 2011. After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race.Odds against Mansell in GP Masters Also in 2006 he appeared at Brands Hatch, scene of his first Grand Prix win, in October 1985, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring, as part of the World Touring Car Championship event. On the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing seventh in class and 21st overall. Mansell, with his son Leo, tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola-AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit. The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, although neither driver was in the final field. On 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit, setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session. Mansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson. Mansell raced a Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, alongside his two sons. According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed after only five laps, following a tire puncture. Reports at the time indicated that he had suffered a concussion, but Mansell later revealed that the accident left him unable to talk or recognize his wife and children. To recover, he took up magic in order to “get [his] brain to work in different ways.” Since taking up the hobby, Mansell has become a member of the Magic Circle and gone on to perform around the world, as he explained in a special video interview to mark 30 years since his F1 world- title win in 2022. For the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 British Grands Prix. Also Monaco GP 2012, US GP 2013, Brazil GP 2015. ===Biographies=== Mansell has written several autobiographies and books on racing in general: *In the Driving Seat (1989) (with Derick Allsop) *Driven to Win (1990) *Mansell and Williams: Challenge for the Championship (1991) *Indycar Racing (1993) (with Jeremy Shaw) *My Story (1995) (with James Allen) *Staying on Track (2015) ==Television and video games== Mansell participated in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament (1987). There were three video games endorsed by Mansell: Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix (1988, Martech), Nigel Mansell's World Championship Racing (1993, Gremlin Graphics), and Newman/Haas IndyCar (1994). Mansell also appeared as a playable driver for Williams in Codemasters' F1 2013. A wax figure of Mansell was "stolen" from a museum in Poland by the crew of the Amazon show The Grand Tour in season 5 episode 2 "Eurocrash" (2023) and subsequently joined the host trio on their road trip across central Europe. ==Personal life== Mansell has been married to Roseanne since 1975 after meeting as students. He lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995.BBC SPORT | Motorsport | Formula One | Mansell makes Isle of Man return. BBC News (20 December 2007). Retrieved on 11 June 2011. Mansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. He spent 11 years of his life as a Special Constable on the Isle of Man during his driving career, and in Devon after he retired from racing. During this period, he also developed a golf course in Devon. A keen golfer, Mansell revealed a desire to compete in the The Open Championship and briefly participated in the 1988 Australian Open. Mansell is the owner of the Team UK Youth cycling team. Mansell appeared without his moustache in the first half of the 1988 season. After his official retirement from Formula One in 1995, he shaved it off. The moustache made a re-appearance when Mansell was interviewed by the BBC at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix. His sons Leo and Greg are also former racing drivers, while his daughter Chloe is a designer. ==Helmet== Mansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the front a drawing resembling the Union Jack with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U' with the white chin area, when he entered Williams, a blue ring was added on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelops the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline. ==="Red 5"=== Although teams in motor racing series are generally allocated numbers, Mansell has been associated with the number 5 for many years. This began when he joined Williams in 1985 and was allocated car number 5, as at the time Formula One racing numbers were allocated by constructor and Williams received numbers 5 and 6. For the first four races of the 1985 season, both Williams cars had white numbers, but from a distance the numerals "5" and "6" resembled each other. As a consequence, it was decided to give Mansell's car a red number to make it more distinctive. While this was initially just for recognition, BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker began describing Mansell's car as "Red Five", leading to Mansell retaining the red coloured number throughout his first spell at Williams. On his return to the team in 1991, Williams had retained the number 5 car, allowing Mansell to race as "Red Five" once again. After his departure to CART in 1993 to drive for Newman/Haas, he again retained the red number 5. In addition, "Red Five" fitted well into the livery of his Indy car, as Newman Haas's main sponsors Texaco and Kmart both shared corporate colors of black, white and red. When he returned to Williams for four races in 1994 the team's numbers were 0 and 2 as they had won the Drivers' and Constructors' titles in 1993 but would not run #1 as Alain Prost had retired. Damon Hill drove car #0 while Mansell raced the #2 with the number on the nose of the car painted red (the #2 was white when the car was driven by Ayrton Senna and David Coulthard). So associated with the red 5 is Mansell that, in 2004, he purchased a yacht from Sunseeker, one of his longtime sponsors, which he named Red 5. ==Awards and honours== Mansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992.1986 bbc.co.uk: BBC Sports Personalility of the year. BBC News. Retrieved on 11 June 2011.1992 bbc.co.uk: BBC Sports Personality of the year. BBC News. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. Only four other people have won the award more than once, including fellow racing drivers and former F1 World Champions Damon Hill and Lewis Hamilton. Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005.Waltrip Heads Class of 2005 at Motorsports Hall of Fame. Motorsportshalloffame.com. Retrieved on 11 June 2011. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in F1 each year seven times. Already an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people (as president of UK Youth). He has also received the Special Constabulary Long Service Medal. In 2015 turn 17 of the Autodromo Hermanos Rodríguez was renamed in honour of Mansell, twice winner of the Mexican Grand Prix (1987 and 1992). He received The London Classic Car Show Icon Award in 2018. He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2006.Nigel Mansell at the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America ==Racing record== ===Career summary=== Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 1977 Formula Ford 1600 BRDC 15 5 ? ? ? ? 1st 1977 British Formula Three Alan McKechnie Racing 2 0 0 0 0 10 17th 1978 Super Visco British Formula Three March Racing Team 4 0 0 0 0 3 19th 1978 Vandervell British Formula Three 1 0 1 0 1 15 15th 1979 British Formula Three Championship Unipart Team 15 1 0 0 2 24 8th FIA European Formula 3 Championship 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC Formula One Martini Racing Team Lotus Test driver 1980 British Formula Three Championship March Racing Team 8 0 0 1 0 15 9th European Formula Two Ralt 4 0 0 0 1 8 12th Formula One Team Essex Lotus 3 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1981 Formula One Team Essex Lotus 4 0 0 0 1 8 14th 1981 John Player Team Lotus 10 0 0 0 0 8 14th 1982 Formula One John Player Team Lotus 13 0 0 0 1 7 14th 1983 Formula One John Player Team Lotus 15 0 0 1 1 10 13th 1984 Formula One John Player Team Lotus 16 0 1 0 2 13 10th 1985 Formula One Canon Williams Honda 15 2 1 1 3 31 6th 1986 Formula One Canon Williams Honda 16 5 2 4 9 72 2nd 1987 Formula One Canon Williams Honda 14 6 8 3 7 61 2nd 1988 Formula One Canon Williams 14 0 0 1 2 12 9th 1989 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari 16 2 0 3 6 38 4th 1990 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari 16 1 3 3 5 37 5th 1991 Formula One Canon Williams Renault 16 5 2 6 9 72 2nd 1992 Formula One Canon Williams Renault 16 9 14 8 12 108 1st 1993 PPG Indy Car World Series Newman/Haas Racing 16 5 7 4 10 191 1st 1994 PPG Indy Car World Series Newman/Haas Racing 16 0 3 2 3 88 8th 1994 Formula One Rothmans Williams Renault 4 1 1 0 1 13 9th 1995 Formula One Marlboro McLaren Mercedes 2 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1998 British Touring Car Championship Ford Mondeo Racing 6 0 0 0 0 7 18th 2005 Grand Prix Masters Team Altech 1 1 1 0 1 N/A 1st 2006 Grand Prix Masters Team Altech 2 1 1 0 1 10 2nd 2007 FIA GT Championship - GT2 Scuderia Escosse 1 0 0 0 0 2 30th 2009 Le Mans Series - LMP1 Team LNT 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 2010 Le Mans Series - LMP1 Beechdean Mansell 1 0 0 0 0 12 19th 24 Hours of Le Mans - LMP1 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC ===Complete European Formula Two Championship results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Pts Chevron Cars Chevron B42 Hart THR HOC NÜR PAU MUG VAL ROU DON NOG PER MIS HOC NC 0 Ralt Cars Ralt/RH6 Honda THR HOC NÜR VAL PAU SIL ZOL MUG ZAN PER MIS HOC 12th 8 ===Complete Formula One World Championship results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Pts 1980 Team Essex Lotus Lotus 81B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ARG BRA RSA USW BEL MON FRA GBR GER AUT NED ITA CAN USA DNA NC 0 1981 Team Essex Lotus Lotus 81B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 USW BRA ARG SMR BEL 14th 8 1981 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 87 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 MON ESP FRA GBR GER AUT NED ITA CAN CPL 14th 8 1982 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 87B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 RSA 14th 7 1982 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 91 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 BRA USW SMR BEL MON DET CAN NED GBR FRA GER AUT SUI ITA CPL 14th 7 1983 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 92 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 BRA USW 13th 10 1983 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 92 Ford Cosworth DFY 3.0 V8 FRA SMR 12† MON BEL DET CAN 13th 10 1983 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 94T Renault-Gordini EF1 1.5 V6 t GBR AUT NED ITA EUR RSA 13th 10 1983 John Player Team Lotus Lotus 93T Renault-Gordini EF1 1.5 V6 t GER 13th 10 1984 John Player Special Team Lotus Lotus 95T Renault-Gordini EF4 1.5 V6 t BRA RSA BEL SMR FRA MON CAN DET DAL 6† GBR GER AUT NED ITA EUR POR 10th 13 1985 Canon Williams Honda Williams FW10 Honda RA164E 1.5 V6 t BRA POR SMR MON CAN 6th 31 1985 Canon Williams Honda Williams FW10 Honda RA165E 1.5 V6 t DET FRA GBR GER AUT NED ITA 11† BEL EUR RSA AUS 6th 31 1986 Canon Williams Honda Williams FW11 Honda RA166E 1.5 V6 t BRA ESP SMR MON BEL CAN DET FRA GBR GER HUN AUT ITA POR MEX AUS 2nd 70 (72) 1987 Canon Williams Honda Williams FW11B Honda RA167E 1.5 V6 t BRA SMR BEL MON DET FRA GBR GER HUN 14† AUT ITA POR ESP MEX JPN AUS 2nd 61 1988 Canon Williams Williams FW12 Judd CV 3.5 V8 BRA SMR MON MEX CAN DET FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS 9th 12 1989 Scuderia Ferrari Ferrari 640 Ferrari 035/5 3.5 V12 BRA SMR MON MEX USA CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS 4th 38 1990 Scuderia Ferrari Ferrari 641 Ferrari 036 3.5 V12 USA BRA SMR MON 5th 37 1990 Scuderia Ferrari Ferrari 641/2 Ferrari 037 3.5 V12 CAN MEX FRA 18† GBR GER HUN 17† BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS 5th 37 1991 Canon Williams Renault Williams FW14 Renault RS3 3.5 V10 USA BRA SMR MON CAN 6† MEX FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS 2nd 72 1992 Canon Williams Renault Williams FW14B Renault RS3C 3.5 V10 RSA MEX BRA ESP SMR MON CAN FRA GBR GER 1st 108 1992 Canon Williams Renault Williams FW14B Renault RS4 3.5 V10 HUN BEL ITA POR JPN AUS 1st 108 1994 Rothmans Williams Renault Williams FW16 Renault RS6 3.5 V10 BRA PAC SMR MON ESP CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR 9th 13 1994 Rothmans Williams Renault Williams FW16B Renault RS6 3.5 V10 EUR JPN AUS 9th 13 1995 Marlboro McLaren Mercedes McLaren MP4/10B Mercedes FO 110 3.0 V10 BRA ARG SMR ESP MON CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR EUR PAC JPN AUS NC 0 Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. ===American open-wheel racing=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) ====PPG Indy Car World Series==== Year Team Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Pts 1993 Newman/Haas Racing Lola T93/00 Ford XB V8 t SRF PHX LBH INDY MIL DET POR CLE TOR MCH NHA ROA VAN MDO NAZ LAG 1st 191 1994 Newman/Haas Racing Lola T94/00 Ford XB V8 t SRF PHX LBH INDY MIL DET POR CLE TOR MCH MDO NHA VAN ROA NAZ LAG 8th 88 =====Indianapolis 500===== Year Chassis Engine Start Finish Team 1993 Lola Ford-Cosworth 8 3 Newman/Haas Racing 1994 Lola Ford-Cosworth 7 22 Newman/Haas Racing ===Complete British Touring Car Championship results=== (key; Races in bold indicate pole position – 1-point awarded all races; Races in italics indicate fastest lap; * signifies that driver led feature race for at least one lap – 1-point awarded) Year Team Car 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Pos Pts 1998 Ford Mondeo Racing Ford Mondeo THR 1 THR 2 SIL 1 SIL 2 DON 1 DON 2 BRH 1 BRH 2 OUL 1 OUL 2 DON 1 DON 2 CRO 1 CRO 2 SNE 1 SNE 2 THR 1 THR 2 KNO 1 KNO 2 BRH 1 BRH 2 OUL 1 OUL 2 SIL 1 SIL 2 18th 7 ===Complete Grand Prix Masters results=== (key) Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap. Year Team Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 2005 Team Altech Delta Motorsport GPM Nicholson McLaren 3.5 V8 RSA 2006 Team Altech Delta Motorsport GPM Nicholson McLaren 3.5 V8 QAT ITA GBR MAL RSA ===Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results=== Year Team Co-Drivers Car Class Laps 2010 Beechdean Mansell Greg Mansell Leo Mansell Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S LMP1 4 DNF DNF ==Notes== ==References== * Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams Macmillan * Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography Collins Willow * Warr, Peter Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall Haynes Publishing * BTCC Pages * Crash.net ==External links== * * * * Category:Mansell family Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:People from Upton-upon-Severn Category:Jersey athletes Category:English racing drivers Category:BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Category:European Formula Two Championship drivers Category:British Formula Three Championship drivers Category:Champ Car champions Category:Champ Car drivers Category:International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees Category:Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year Category:Indianapolis 500 drivers Category:English Formula One drivers Category:Ferrari Formula One drivers Category:Team Lotus Formula One drivers Category:McLaren Formula One drivers Category:Williams Formula One drivers Category:Formula One race winners Category:Formula One World Drivers' Champions Category:FIA GT Championship drivers Category:British Touring Car Championship drivers Category:Sportspeople from Birmingham, West Midlands Category:Segrave Trophy recipients Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:BRDC Gold Star winners Category:Grand Prix Masters drivers Category:Formula Ford drivers Category:British special constables Category:24 Hours of Le Mans drivers Category:European Le Mans Series drivers Category:Manx police officers Category:Sportspeople from Worcestershire Category:Newman/Haas Racing drivers Category:David Price Racing drivers
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In Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood ( jamāʿat /al-ikhwan/el-ekhwan al-muslimīn, ) is a Sunni Islamist religious, political, and social movement,*Eric Trager, "The Unbreakable Muslim Brotherhood ", Foreign Affairs, September October 2011, p. 114–222. (full text not available for free on internet) with adherents estimated to number between 2 and 2.5 million.Atran, Scott (2 February 2011). "In Egypt today, the Brotherhood counts perhaps some 2 million adherents" "Egypt's Bumbling Brotherhood" . The New York Times Founded by Hassan al-Banna in 1928, the group spread to other Muslim countries but has its largest organization in Egypt, despite government crackdowns in 1948, 1954, 1965 and 2013, after plots, or alleged plots, of assassination and overthrow were uncovered."'Shariah in Egypt is enough for us,' Muslim Brotherhood leader says" . Hürriyet Daily News, 23 May 2011Egypt global security.org Following the 2011 Egyptian revolution, it launched a political party—the Freedom and Justice Party—to contest elections, which it described as having "the same mission and goals, but different roles" than the Brotherhood,Ian Black, Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood poised to prosper in post- Mubarak new era , The Guardian, 19 May 2011 and agreeing to honor all Egypt's international agreements. The party won 42% of the seats in the 2011–12 parliamentary elections, and its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, the June 2012 presidential election. Morsi was overthrown after mass protests within a year, and a crackdown ensued that some have called more damaging to the movement than any "in eight decades". Hundreds of members were killed and imprisoned, including Morsi and most of the Brotherhood's leadership. Among the general Egyptian population, a "huge hostility" was felt towards the MB. In September 2013, an Egyptian court banned the Brotherhood and its associations, and ordered that its assets be seized; and in December the military-backed interim government declared the movement a terrorist group following the bombing of security directorate building in Mansoura. The Brotherhood denied being responsible for the attack and Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, an al-Qaeda-linked group, claimed responsibility. They also issued a statement condemning violence. ==History== === Under the monarchy === The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher, who preached implementing traditional Islamic Sharia law in all aspects of life, from everyday problems to the organization of the government.Küntzel, 2002, pp. 17–19. Inspired by Islamic reformers Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, he believed that Islam had lost its social dominance to corrupt Western influences and British imperial rule. The organisation initially focused on educational and charitable work, but quickly grew to become a major political force as well. (Sources disagree as to whether the Brotherhood was hostile to independent working-class and popular organisations, or supported efforts to create trades unions and unemployment benefits.A History of the Modern Middle East, William Cleveland, p.200) It championed the cause of poor Muslims, and played a prominent role in the Egyptian nationalist movement, fighting the British, Egypt's occupier/dominator. It engaged in espionage and sabotage, as well as support for terrorist activities orchestrated by Haj Amin al-Husseini in British Mandate Palestine, and up to and during World War II some association with Britain's enemy, the German Nazis,See: Ian Johnson, A Mosque in Munich: Nazis, the CIA and Rise of the Muslim Brotherhood in the West (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010); Matthias Küntzel, Jihad and Jew-hatred: Islamism, Nazism and the Roots of 9/11 (New York: Telos Press, 2007); Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers, Halbmond und Hakenkreuz: Das 'Dritte Reich', die Araber und Palästina (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006), and Klaus Gensicke, Der Mufti von Jerusalem und die Nationalsocialisten: Eine politische Biographie Amin el-Husseinis (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2007). dissemination of anti-Jewish, and anti-Western propaganda.In addition to the studies listed in the previous note, see the detailed and richly documented analysis by Jeffrey Herf, Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World (New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 2009). Over the years, the Brotherhood spread to other Muslim countries, including SyriaKhaled Yacoub Oweis "Syria's Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes", Reuters (6 May 2012)."Syria Muslim Brotherhood Issues Post-Assad State-for-All Commitment Charter", ikhwanweb.com (The Muslim Brotherhood's Official English web site) (7 April 2012). Jordan, Tunisia, etc. as well as countries where Muslims are in the minority. These groups are sometimes described as "very loosely affiliated" with the Egyptian branch and each other.Syria's Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt Liz Sly, The Washington Post, 12 May 2012 In November 1948, following several bombings and assassination attempts, the government arrested 32 leaders of the Brotherhood's "secret apparatus" and banned the Brotherhood.Chamieh, Jebran, Traditionalists, Militants and Liberal in Present Islam, Research and Publishing House, [1994?], p.140 At this time the Brotherhood was estimated to have 2000 branches and 500,000 members or sympathizers.Wright, Robin, Sacred Rage 1985, p.179 In succeeding months Egypt's prime minister was assassinated by Brotherhood member, and following that Al-Banna himself was assassinated in what is thought to be a cycle of retaliation. In 1952, members of the Muslim Brotherhood were accused of taking part in an event that marked the end of Egypt's "liberal, progressive, cosmopolitan" era – an arson fire that destroyed some "750 buildings" in downtown Cairo – mainly night clubs, theatres, hotels, and restaurants frequented by British and other foreigners."The Rebellion Within, An Al Qaeda mastermind questions terrorism. by Lawrence Wright" . The New Yorker, 2 June 2008 ===After the 1952 revolution=== In 1952, the monarchy was overthrown by nationalist military officers of the Free Officers Movement. While the Brotherhood supported the coup it vigorously opposed the secularist constitution that the coup leaders were developing. In 1954 another unsuccessful assassination was attempted against Egypt's prime minister (Gamal Abdel Nasser), and blamed on the "secret apparatus" of the Brotherhood. The Brotherhood was again banned and this time thousands of its members were imprisoned, many of them held for years in prisons and sometimes tortured. One of them was the very influential theorist, Sayyid Qutb, who before being executed in 1966, issued a manifesto proclaiming that Muslim society had become jahiliyya (no longer Islamic) and that Islam must be restored by the overthrow of Muslim states by an Islamic vanguard, also revitalising the ideal of Islamic universalism. Qutb's ideology became very influential outside of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, but the Brotherhood's leadership distanced itself from Qutb and adhered to nonviolent reformist posture. Imprisoned Brothers were gradually released after Anwar Sadat became president of Egypt in 1970, and were sometimes enlisted to help fight Sadat's leftist opposition. Brethren were allowed to publish the magazine Al Dawa, though the organization remained illegal. During this time, more radical Qutb-inspired Islamist groups blossomed, and after Sadat signed a peace agreement with Israel in 1979, the Muslim Brotherhood became confirmed enemies of Sadat. Sadat was assassinated by a violent Islamist group Tanzim al-Jihad on 6 October 1981, shortly after he had Brotherhood leaders (and many other opposition leaders) arrested. ===Mubarak era=== Again with a new president, (Hosni Mubarak), Brotherhood leaders (Supreme Guide Umar al- Tilmisani and others) were released from prison. Mubarak cracked down hard against radical Islamists but offered an "olive branch" to the more moderate Brethren. The brethren reciprocated, going so far as to endorse Mubarak's candidacy for president in 1987.John Walsh. Harvard International Review: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood. Perspectives on the United States, Vol. 24 (4) Winter 2003 The Brotherhood dominated the professional and student associations of Egypt and was famous for its network of social services in neighborhoods and villages. However, the government did not approve of the Brotherhood's renewed influence (it was still technically illegal), and resorted to repressive measures starting in 1992. In the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Muslim Brotherhood won 17 parliamentary seats.Shenker, Jack; Whitaker, Brian (8 February 2011). "The Muslim Brotherhood uncovered" . The Guardian. In 2005, it won 88 seats (20% of the total compared to 14 seats for the legally approved opposition parties) to form the largest opposition bloc, despite the arrest of hundreds of Brotherhood members. It lost almost all but one of these seats in the much-less-free 2010 election, which was marred by massive arrests of both Brethren and polling place observers.Bayoumi, Alaa (29 November 2010). Egypt's winners and losers . Al Jazeera. Under Egypt's emergency law Brethren could only stand as independents, but were easily identified since they campaigned under the slogan – 'Islam Is the Solution'. During and after the 2005 election the Brethren launched what some have called a "charm offensive". Its leadership talked about its "responsibility to lead reform and change in Egypt". It addressed the `Coptic issue', insinuating that the Brethren would do away with Egypt's decades-old church building-permit system that Coptic Christians felt was discriminatory.Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.101 Internationally the Brethren launched an English-language website and some of the Muslim Brotherhood's leaders participated in an Initiative to 'Re-Introduc[e] the Brotherhood to the West', "listing and addressing many 'Western misconceptions about the Brotherhood.'" Seeing this campaign as a direct threat to its position as an indispensable ally of the west against radical Islamism, the Egyptian government introduced an amendment to the constitution that removed the reference to Islam as 'the religion of the state,` and would have allowed women and Christians to run for the presidency. Brotherhood MPs responded by walking out of parliament rather than voting on the bill.Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.102 In addition, the movement has also reportedly played into the government's hands provoking non-Islamist Egyptians by staging a militia-style march by masked Brotherhood students at Cairo's Al Azhar University,YAROSLAV TROFIMOV. "Muslim Brotherhood Falters as Egypt Outflanks Islamists" . The Wall Street Journal, 15 May 2009Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, 103 complete with uniforms and martial arts drills, reminding many of the Brotherhood's era of 'secret cells'.Jameel Theyabi (18 December 2006). The Brotherhood's Power display Dar Al-Hayat According to another observer: > after a number of conciliatory engagements and interactions with the West", > the Brotherhood retreated into its comfort zone of inflammatory rhetoric > intended for local consumption: all suicide bombers are `martyrs`; `Israel` > regularly became `the Jews`; even its theological discourse became more > confrontational and oriented to social conservatism.Osman, Tarek, Egypt on > the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.113 Two years later the Egyptian government amended the constitution, skewing future representation against independent candidates for parliament, which are the only candidates the Brotherhood can field. The state delayed local council elections from 2006 to 2008, disqualifying most Muslim Brotherhood candidates. The Muslim Brotherhood boycotted the election. The government incarcerated thousands of rank-and-file Muslim Brotherhood members in a wave of arrests and military trials, the harshest such security clampdown on the Brotherhood "in decades". ===2011 revolution and Morsi=== Following the 2011 revolution that overthrew Hosni Mubarak, the Brotherhood was legalized and emerged as "the most powerful"Brotherhood Denies Seeking Egypt Power , 7 September 2011 and "most cohesive political movement" in Egypt. Its newly formed political party won two referendums, far more seats than any other party in the 2011–12 parliamentary election, and its candidate Mohamed Morsi won the 2012 presidential election. However within a year there were mass protests against his rule and he was overthrown by the military. In the January–February 2011 uprising itself, the Brotherhood remained "on the sidelines",Shenker, Jack; Whitaker, Brian (8 February 2011), The Muslim Brotherhood Uncovered , The GuardianFadel, Leila (7 July 2011). Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood could be unraveling , The Washington Post. but even before it was officially legalized it launched a new party called the Freedom and Justice Party.Egypt: Muslim Brotherhood sets up new party , BBC, 30 April 2011 The party rejected "the candidacy of women or Copts for Egypt's presidency", although it did not oppose their taking cabinet positions.Freedom and Justice Party Open to Copt as Deputy , Ikhwan Web 11 May 2011 In its first election the party won almost half of 498 seats in the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election,. In the first couple of years after the revolution, critics speculated about both secret collusion between the Brotherhood and the powerful (secular oriented) military,Egyptian-American intellectual Mamoun Fandy claimed that as early as February 2011, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) and the MB had struck a deal, orchestrated by former Egyptian intelligence chief 'Omar Suleiman, to involve the MB in the government. According to Fandy, SCAF intends to ensure the MB's victory in the elections, in return for an MB effort to draft a constitution guaranteeing the military a central role in running the country, as in the Turkish model. Al-Sharq Al-Awsat (London), 4 July 2011. quoted in Muslim Brotherhood Prepares for Parliamentary, Presidential Elections by L. Azuri. 25 October 2011 and a looming showdown between the two. The Brotherhood and the military both supported the March constitutional referendum which most Egyptian liberals opposed as favoring established political organizations.El Rashidi, Yasmine, "Egypt: The Victorious Islamists", The New York Review of Books, 4 July 2011, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2011/07/14/egypt-victorious-islamists/ It was said to have stopped the "second revolution" against military rule by remaining uninvolved during violent clashes between revolutionaries and the military in late 2011, and protests over the thousands of secretive military trials of civilians. Egyptian author Ezzedine C. Fishere worried that the Brotherhood had > managed to alienate its revolutionary and democratic partners and to scare > important segments of society, especially women and Christians. Neither the > Brotherhood nor the generals showed willingness to share power and both were > keen on marginalising the revolutionary and democratic forces. It is as if > they were clearing the stage for their eventual showdown. While the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) dissolved the parliament dominated by the Brotherhood and other Islamic parties, the Brotherhood won the presidential election, defeating Ahmed Shafik, a former military officer and prime minister of Mubarak. Within a short period, serious public opposition developed to President Morsi. In late November 2012, he issued a temporary constitutional declaration granting himself the power to legislate without judicial oversight or review of his acts, on the grounds that he needed to "protect" the nation from the Mubarak-era power structure. He also put a draft constitution to a referendum that opponents complained was "an Islamist coup". These issues—and concerns over the prosecutions of journalists, the unleashing of pro-Brotherhood gangs on nonviolent demonstrators; the continuation of military trials; and new laws that permitted detention without judicial review for up to 30 days, and impunity given to Islamist radical attacks on Christians and other minorities—brought hundreds of thousands of protesters to the streets starting in November 2012. During Morsi's year-long rule there were 9,000 protests and strikes. By April 2013, Egypt had "become increasingly divided" between President Mohamed Morsi and "Islamist allies" and an opposition of "moderate Muslims, Christians and liberals". Opponents accused "Morsi and the Muslim Brotherhood of seeking to monopolize power, while Morsi's allies say the opposition is trying to destabilize the country to derail the elected leadership". Adding to the unrest were severe fuel shortages and electricity outages—which evidence suggests were orchestrated by Mubarak-era Egyptian elites."Sudden Improvements in Egypt Suggest a Campaign to Undermine Morsi" by Ben Hubbard and David D. Kirkpatrick, The New York Times, 10 July 2013 By 29 June, the Tamarod (rebellion) movement claimed it had collected more than 22 million signatures calling for Morsi to step down. A day later, mass demonstrations occurred across Egypt urging Morsi to step down. Demonstrations in support of him were organized as a response. ===After the July 2013 overthrow of Mohamed Morsi=== On 3 July, the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi responded to the demands of the protesters in Tahrir Square during the 30 June Demonstration and after discussing the issue with the main political parties and religious leaders of the country removed President Mohamed Morsi and suspended the constitution. Brotherhood supporters staged sit-ins throughout the country, setting up camps and shutting down traffic. The crackdown that followed has been called the worst for the Brotherhood's organization "in eight decades". On 14 August, the military declared a month-long state of emergency in response to their violence after removing the camps. In retaliation Brotherhood supporters looted and burned police stations and dozens of churches. The sit-in dispersal lead to clashes, resulting in the deaths of 638 people and injury of some 4000. By 19 August, al Jazeera reported that "most" of the Brotherhood's leaders were in custody. On that day Brotherhood Supreme Leader Mohammed Badie was arrested, crossing a "red line", as even Hosni Mubarak had never arrested him. On 23 September, a court ordered the group outlawed and its assets seized. Two days later security forces shuttered the main office of the newspaper of the Freedom and Justice Party, and confiscated its equipment.Egypt Shuts Down Muslim Brotherhood Newspaper | AP |25 September 2013 Muslim Brotherhood criticized the decision to seize its assets and those of MB linked charities as opening the door to Christian charities and part of a campaign against Islam.Seizing charities helps church; Muslim Brotherhood | almasryalyoum.com| 26 December 2013|(translated article ) Some question whether the military and security services can effectively crush the Brotherhood. Unlike the last major crackdown in the 1950s, when Egypt's "public sphere and information space" was tightly-controlled, the Brotherhood has a larger and broader international presence beyond the reach of Egypt's government to sustain itself. Others—such as Hussein Ibish and journalist Peter Hessler—believe its "unlikely" that the Brotherhood will return to political prominence soon, because of its aggressive but incompetent performance while in power. According to Hessler, the group antagonized the powerful entrenched government institutions, the news media and millions of non-supporters, acting "with just enough aggression to provoke an outsized response", while not having nearly enough military resources to defend itself against that response. It "no longer leads the anti-government movement" and has even lost its "religious credibility", such that "at mosques, even staunch opponents of the coup told me that they wouldn't vote for the Brotherhood again". Hessler also argues that "the strong showing for the party in post- revolution elections exaggerated MB strength, noting that in one Upper Egyptian district (El Balyana), the MB party had dominated the Presidential vote and nearly won a parliamentary seat, but the Brotherhood itself had only ten local members in a district of approximately six hundred thousand. Since then its support has declined drastically.". According to one Islamist but non-member quoted in the Africa Report in 2021, Hussein Ibish believes the Brotherhood is being challenged by the Salafi movement, and is undergoing a crisis so severe that "what ultimately emerges from the current wreckage [may] be unrecognisably different" from the traditional Brotherhood. A day after the 2013 bombing of a security directorate building in Mansoura, the interim government declared the Muslim Brotherhood movement a terrorist group—despite the fact that another group, the Sinai-based Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, claimed responsibility for the blast.According to Rifaat Laqoushah, who is a political analyst, stated that the declaration is "procedural" and has the potential to be overruled. On 24 March 2014, an Egyptian court sentenced 529 members of the Muslim Brotherhood to death, an act described by Amnesty International as "the largest single batch of simultaneous death sentences we've seen in recent years anywhere in the world". On 15 April 2014, an Egyptian court banned current and former members of the Muslim Brotherhood from running in the presidential and parliamentary elections. ===Division=== In 2015, a split appeared in the Brotherhood between an old guard afraid that resorting to violence could mean the annihilation of the Brotherhood, and a new leadership, joined by the rank and file, that believed that "only by bleeding" the regime could it "be brought to its knees". In May, Mahmoud Hussein, the (former) secretary general of the Muslim Brotherhood, reported on his Facebook page that Mahmoud Ezzat had "taken over" the Muslim Brotherhood. On the official Brotherhood website a spokesperson replied: "We affirm that the group's institutions, which was elected by its base last February, manages its affairs and that only the official spokesman of the group and its official outlets represent the group and its opinion." Observers attribute the dispute to a number of factors. Robert Worth notes the disastrous situation into which the old leadership had led the MB, the disruption of the MB hierarchy by the "decapitation" of the leadership through arrests and imprisonment, and the dislocation of exile (often to Turkey and Qatar) of much of the rank and file. Samuel Tadros credits changes in the MB to the influence of Revolutionary Salafists, many of whom allied with the Brotherhood in the year before the As- Sisi coup. When Islamists broke through security barriers to join the Brotherhood at Nahda and Rab'a squares, "ideas flowed freely and bonds were created", with the Salafists influencing MB more than vice versa. Salafist joined the anti-coup alliance of the MB, and its youth moved from using molotov cocktails in self-defense to offense. The MB structure broken, young members are now influenced by "takfiri sheikhs" on satellite channels. Members blamed President Morsi not for alienating non-members with his non-inclusive rule, but for being insufficiently revolutionary and not crushing the state institutions that would later overthrow him. The slogan "Our peacefulness is stronger than bullets" has been replaced by "All that is below bullets is peacefulness." A new body, the Administrative Office for Egyptians Abroad, clashed with the Old Guard of Ibrahim Munir, Deputy Supreme Guide Mahmoud Ghozlan and others. At the same time as the split, a statement titled Nidaa al-Kinana (Egypt Call) signed by 159 international MB and Egyptian Salafist Islamic scholars and endorsed by the Brotherhood was released. It declared the As-Sisi regime criminal and murderous and stated that the current regime was an enemy of Islam, and it was the religious duty of Muslims to "eliminate it by all legitimate means. ... Any leaders, judges, officers, soldiers, media figures or politicians, and anyone [else] who is definitely proved to be involved (even if only through incitement) in violating the honor of women, shedding the blood of innocents and unlawful killing – [all these] are murderers according to the shari'a, and must be punished according to the shari'a." (The punishment for murderers per sharia is death.) As of mid-2015 over 600,000 people had "endorsed" the petition. In June 2015, the "Revolutionary Punishment" movement celebrated six months of attacks, including the killing of 157 and wounding of 452 security personal, the destruction of 162 military cars and 53 buildings."The Harvest of Punishment ... What is coming is more sour", el3qab.wordpress.com, 14 June 2015. == General leaders == Supreme guides or General leaders (G.L.) of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt have been: Image Name Term 1 80px Hassan al-Banna () 1928–1949 2 80px Hassan al-Hudaybi () 1949–1972 3 80px Umar al-Tilmisani () 1972–1986 4 80px Muhammad Hamid Abu al-Nasr () 1986–1996 5 Mustafa Mashhur () 1996–2002 6 Ma'mun al-Hudaybi () 2002–2004 7 80px Mohammed Mahdi Akef () 2004–2010 8 80px Mohammed Badie () 16 January 2010–present ==Beliefs, policies, strategy== ===Stated platform and goals=== The Brotherhood itself describes the "principles of the Muslim Brotherhood" as including firstly the introduction of the Islamic Sharia as "the basis controlling the affairs of state and society;" and secondly work to unify "Islamic countries and states, mainly among the Arab states, and liberating them from foreign imperialism". It denounces the "catchy and effective terms and phrases" like "fundamentalist" and "political Islam" which it claims are used by "Western Media" to pigeonhole the group, and points to its "15 Principles" for an Egyptian National Charter, including "freedom of personal conviction... opinion... forming political parties... public gatherings... free and fair elections..." In October 2007, the Muslim Brotherhood issued a detailed political platform. Amongst other things it called for a board of Muslim clerics to oversee the government, and for limiting the office of the presidency to Muslim men. In the 'Issues and Problems' chapter of the platform, it declared that a woman was not suited to be president because the post's religious and military duties 'conflict with her nature, social and other humanitarian roles'. While underlining 'equality between men and women in terms of their human dignity,` the document warned against 'burdening women with duties against their nature or role in the family.' ===Political strategy=== In his writing, Hassan Al-Banna outlined a strategy for achieving power of three stages: * the initial propaganda stage (preparation), * the organization stage (in which the people would be educated by the Muslim Brotherhood), and * finally, the action stage (where power would be taken or seized). Analyzing the movement's communiqués according to the framework of the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA), the institute found the communiqués served goals of #discrediting the current military regime; # winning the hearts and minds of Egyptians; and, # establishing themselves as a legitimate political actor. ===Political viewpoints=== The Brotherhood's self- description as moderate and rejecting violence has created disagreement among observers.Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Sticks With Bin Laden . The Atlantic. 3 May 2011 Political moderation is a contested concept, and various authors have a put forth a range of opinions on the issue. For some, this is a question of using violence or not: a Western author, (Eric Trager), interviewing 30 current and former members of the Brotherhood in 2011 and found that the Brethren he talked to emphasised "important exceptions" to the position of non-violence, namely conflicts in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Chechnya, Iraq, and Palestine. Trager quotes the former Supreme Guide Mohammed Mahdi Akef as telling him > We believe that Zionism, the United States, and England are gangs that kill > children and women and men and destroy houses and fields. .... Zionism is a > gang, not a country. So we will resist them until they don't have a country. Trager and other have also noted the MB's use of the honorific "sheikh" to refer to Osama bin Laden. While the Brotherhood differs with bin Laden and al- Qaeda, it has not condemned them for the 9-11 attacks because it does not believe they were responsible. A recent statement by the Brotherhood on the issue of violence and assassinations condemned the killing of "Sheikh Osama bin Laden" by the United States, saying: "The whole world, and especially the Muslims, have lived with a fierce media campaign to brand Islam as terrorism and describe the Muslims as violent by blaming the September 11th incident on al-Qaeda." However, according to authors writing in the Council on Foreign Relations magazine Foreign Affairs: "At various times in its history, the group has used or supported violence and has been repeatedly banned in Egypt for attempting to overthrow Cairo's secular government. Since the 1970s, however, the Egyptian Brotherhood has disavowed violence and sought to participate in Egyptian politics." Jeremy Bowen, BBC Middle East editor, calls the Brotherhood "conservative and non-violent". According to the Israeli- affiliated media-watchdog group MEMRI (Middle East Media Research Institute), the Arabic language (but not the English language) website of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood has displayed much anti-Semitic and anti-Israel content. A report by MEMRI found articles engaging in Holocaust denial, praising jihad and martyrdom, condemning the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, calling for the destruction of Israel, and condemning negotiations with non-Muslims to regain lands lost by Islam. A "common motif" of the website is Antisemitic conspiracy theories warning Muslims against "the covetous and exploitative nature of the 'Jewish character'". On 13 March 2013, the Muslim Brotherhood released a statement opposing the UN declaration 'End Violence against Women' on the grounds that it would "undermine Islamic ethics and destroy the family", and "would lead to complete disintegration of society". In the book Secret of the Temple, written by Tharwat al-Khirbawy, a former member of the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt, Khirbawy "explores the ideology of Mursi and the small group of leaders at the top of the movement, examining their devotion to Sayyid Qutb, a radical ideologue executed in 1966 for plotting to kill president Gamal Abdel Nasser". The book has been "dismissed by Brotherhood leaders as part of a smear campaign". During the reign of President Mohamed Morsi, the Muslim Brotherhood experienced good relations with Iran, in which the IRGC was approached to establish a similar version in Egypt. After the overthrow of Morsi, leaders from the Muslim Brotherhood and IRGC met in a hotel in Turkey in 2014 to cooperate an alliance against Saudi Arabia. In April 2021, a Muslim Brotherhood delegation led by Hammam Ali Youssef met Temel Karamollaoğlu, leader of Saadet Partisi, during a period of diplomatic contacts between Turkey and Egypt, after breaking off relations since 2013. ===Relations with non-Muslims=== Talking to television channel France 24 shortly before he was elected president, Mohammed Morsi stated: "The majority of the people are Muslims and the non-Muslims, our brothers, are citizens with full responsibilities and rights and there is no difference between them. If any Muslim says anything other than this, he is not understanding Sharia."Interview. Dr. Mohammed Morsy, president of Egypt's 'Freedom and Justice' party , France 24, 19 June 2011 However, after Morsi took power as president, critics complained that attitudes of and actions by Brotherhood leaders concerning non-Muslims changed. In late April 2013 a fatwa issued by a member of the MB general guide's office -- 'Abd Al-Rahman Al-Barr (who is often referred to as the movement's mufti) -- forbade Muslims from greeting Christians on their Easter holiday,It also noted some Salafi leaders forbade Muslims to greet Christians on any Christian holiday, but that the Egyptian Muslim establishment opposed these fatwas and stated greetings were allowed. explaining that Easter and resurrection were contrary to the Muslim faith. "Jesus did not die and was not crucified, but rather Allah gave him protection from the Jews and raised [Jesus] up to Him... which is why we do not greet anyone for something we strongly believe is wrong. ..." This was a change in practice from past MB leaders and even Al-Barr himself who had not only allowed but practiced the greeting of Christians on Easter, according to Coptic and opposition leaders. Columnist A'la Al-'Aribi in the daily Al-Wafd attacked the fatwa as "politics disguised as shari'a..." Al-Barr's previous "view reflected the position of the MB at that time – but now that circumstances have changed [and the MB is in power], he has changed his position..." Another article in newsobserver.com noted President and former MB official Mohammed Morsi "has done little to assuage concerns" of Christians by being "slow to condemn the latest round of sectarian violence" in April 2013, not attend the naming of the new Coptic pope, and having no plans to attend Coptic Easter services – an annual custom of the former Egyptian President. In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Christian Coptic churches and institutions. USA Today reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts", according to journalist Kirsten Powers. The party's page claimed that the Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims". Despite the Christians relatively minor role in the campaign against President Morsi, the page justified the attacks by saying: "After all this people ask why they burn the churches." Later it posted: "For every action there is a reaction" and "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On 15 August, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, > In December ... Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian > incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to > the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi ... > morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by ... the continued > anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage ... > throughout the sit-in. == Organization == The Brotherhood applies a highly selective membership process which gives its "internal cohesiveness and ideological rigidity" and is unique among Egyptian political/social organizations in its "breadth" and "depth" of networks. The long (typically at least four and a half years) and closely monitored membership process is thought to have prevented infiltration by state security during the presidencies of Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak. Its structure bears some similarity to a similar Islamist party, Jamaat-e- Islami, in having a hierarchical organization where many supporters do not reach the level of full members. Potential members are recruited by recruiters who do not at first identify themselves as Brothers to prospective members. Estimates of the Brotherhood's membership and supporters vary between 100,000 and 600,000. According to anthropologist Scott Atran, while the Brotherhood has 600,000 dues paying members in Egypt it can count on only 100,000 militants in a population of more than 80 million Egyptians. The New York Times describes it as having "millions of affiliates and sympathizers throughout" Egypt in addition to its members. How unified and powerful the Brotherhood is, is disputed. Former deputy chairman, Muhammad Habib has said, "there are fissures" in the Brotherhood, "and they may be to the very core. There is concern among the younger members that the leadership does not understand what's going on around it." Another high-ranking member, Abdel Moneim Aboul Fotouh, who was recently expelled from the Brotherhood, warned of the possibility of "an explosion". Other observers (Eric Trager) have described the Brotherhood as "Egypt's most cohesive political movement, with an unparalleled ability to mobilize its followers ..." Following the 2013 crackdown, the "most leaders" of the top rank (the Brotherhood's Guidance Office), second rank (Shura Council) and third rank (heads of municipalities and administrative bureaus) are "either in prison, exile or hiding", according to Khalil al-Anani of Al-Monitor. Journalist Kareem Fahim, describes the group as having "fallen back on the organizational structure that sustained it for decades" when it was banned. He reports that the Brotherhood is "becoming more decentralized, but also more cohesive and rigid". ===Supporter levels=== * muhib ("lover" or "follower"). The lowest level of the Brotherhood is the muhib. One is typically a muhib for six months, but the period can be as long as four years. A muhib is part of an usra ("family") which closely monitors the muhib's piety and ideological commitment, working to "improve the morals" of the muhib. An usras meets at least once a week and "spends much of its time discussing members' personal lives and activities". The usra usually has four or five members and is headed by a naqib ("captain"). * muayyad ("supporter"). A muhib graduates to muayyad after confirmation that the muhib prays regularly and possesses basic knowledge of major Islamic texts. This stage lasts from one to three years. A muayyad is a nonvoting member of the brotherhood. Their duties include carrying out tasks such as preaching, recruiting, teaching in mosques assigned to them by superiors. They also follow a "rigorous curriculum of study", memorizing sections of the Quran and studying the teachings of Hasan Al Banna, the founder of the Brotherhood. * muntasib ("affiliated"). This process lasts a year and is the first step toward full membership. As one Brother put it, a muntasib "is a member, but his name is written in pencil". A muntasib continues to study Islam (hadith and Tafsir) and now tithes the brotherhood, (typically giving 5% to 8% of their earning). * muntazim ("organizer"). This stage typically lasts another two years. A muntazim must continue memorizing hadith and complete memorization of the Quran and "can assume a lower-level leadership role, such a forming an usra or heading a chapter" of usras. * ach'amal ("working brother"). This final level is reached after the subject loyalty is "closely probed". "An ach'amal can vote in all internal elections, participate in all of the Brotherhood's working bodies, and compete for higher office within the group's hierarchy. ===Offices and organs=== * Murshid ("Supreme Guide"). Head of the Brotherhood (and of its Maktab al-Irshad) * Maktab al-Irshad ("Guidance Office"). Maktab al-Irshad consists of approximately 15 longtime Muslim Brothers including the Murshid, who heads the office. Each member of the office oversees a portfolio on an issue such as university recruitment, education, politics, etc. The office execute decisions made by the Majlis al-Shura and passes down orders through a chain of command, consisting of "its deputies in each regional sector, who call their deputies in each subsidiary area, who call their deputies in each subsidiary populace, who call the heads of each local usra, who then transmit the order to their members." * Majlis al-Shura ("Consultative Council"). This consists of approximately 100 Muslim Brothers. Debates and votes on important decisions, such as whether to participate in national elections. Elects members of the Maktab al-Irshad. ====Publications==== The Muslim Brotherhood has published several newspapers and magazines, including Al Nadhir, Al Dawa and Majallat al Ikhwan al Muslimin. ===Social services=== The brotherhood operates 21 hospitals throughout Egypt, providing modern medical care at subsidized prices.Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Flexes Potent Political Force | 14 September 2011 It also operates job-training programmes,EGYPT: Social programmes bolster appeal of Muslim Brotherhood , IRIN, 22 February 2006 schools in every governorate in the country and programs to support widows and orphans.Nadine Farag, Between Piety and Politics: Social Services and the Muslim Brotherhood , PBS An estimated 1,000 of the roughly 5,000 legally registered NGOs and associations in Egypt are run by the Brotherhood according to Abul Futouh, a leading brotherhood member. Its clinics are reputed to have more available basic supplies and more up-to-date equipment. However, the Brotherhood's network of organizations is complex, sometimes operate under different names, and is difficult to track. The Brotherhood's response to the 1992 earthquake in Cairo, where 50,000 people were made homeless, was an example of the group's effectiveness, compared to that of the Egyptian government. It quickly mobilized to provide victims with food and blankets and setting up makeshift medical clinics and tents for shelter. According to Kareem Fahim, following the 2013 crackdown members have started to abandon "activities like preaching and social work" as they focus on "resistance to the military-backed government". === Muslim Sisterhood === The Muslim Sisterhood is the female division of the Muslim Brotherhood. The members of the Muslim Sisterhood have been traditionally more involved in charitable activities than other members of Muslim Brotherhood. They are credited with keeping the Brotherhood together during the dark days of the 1950s and 1960s when many male members were intentionally dispersed across Egypt's prisons in order to cripple the apparatus, but the sisters "acted as an informal prison support network, carrying ideas and messages from prison to prison to sustain the Brotherhood, and were vital to their rebirth". According to Amal Abdelkarim, head of the FJP women's section in the governorate of Giza, the sisters became more active during Nasser years because that is when they helped by interacting with society, attending charities and going to mosques. The work of the Muslim Sisterhood has help to attract new members to the Muslim Brotherhood. Many of these members come from university campuses, mosques and trade unions. During the Egyptian revolution of 2011, members of the Muslim Sisterhood have become more politically active, and they participated in the founding of the Freedom and Justice Party by the Muslim Brotherhood in April 2011. Not an auxiliary group, they intend to play an equal role in the government. ==References== ==Further reading== * Udo Ulfkotte: Der heilige Krieg in Europa – Wie die radikale Muslimbruderschaft unsere Gesellschaft bedroht. Eichborn Verlag 2007, * * * Johannes Grundmann: Islamische Internationalisten – Strukturen und Aktivitäten der Muslimbruderschaft und der Islamischen Weltliga. Wiesbaden 2005, (Review by I. Küpeli) * Gilles Kepel: Der Prophet und der Pharao. Das Beispiel Ägypten: Die Entwicklung des muslimischen Extremismus. München Zürich 1995. * Matthias Küntzel: Djihad und Judenhass. Freiburg im Breisgau 2003 (2. Aufl.) * Richard P. Mitchell: The Society of the Muslim Brothers. London 1969. * Emmanuel Razavi: Frères musulmans : Dans l'ombre d'Al Qaeda, Editions Jean Cyrille Godefroy, 2005 * : Les Frères musulmans, Fayard, 2005 * Latifa Ben Mansour: Frères musulmans, frères féroces : Voyages dans l'enfer du discours islamiste, Editions Ramsay, 2002 * (pen name of Pierre Lurçat): Le Sabre et le Coran, Tariq Ramadan et les Frères Musulmans à la conquête de l'Europe, Editions du Rocher, 2005. * Ted Wende: Alternative oder Irrweg? Religion als politischer Faktor in einem arabischen Land, Marburg 2001. * Tharwat al-Khirbawy: Secret of the Temple, Nahdet Misr Publishing House, Egypt 2012, (in Hindi). == External links == * Ikhwan Online (Arabic) * Ikhwan Web (English) * "Al Jazeera Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood", Al Jazeera English (6 February 2011) * "The Muslim Brotherhood Uncovered", Jack Shenker and Brian Whitaker, The Guardian (8 February 2011) * BBC Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood, BBC News (9 February 2011) Category:Banned political parties in Egypt Category:Banned Islamist parties Egypt Category:Sunni Islam in Egypt Category:Islamic organisations based in Egypt Category:Arab–Israeli conflict Category:Egyptian revolution of 2011 Category:Political parties established in 1928 Category:2013 Egyptian coup d'état Category:Organizations based in Africa designated as terrorist Category:Organizations of the Arab Spring Category:Organisations of the Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014) Category:Antisemitism in Egypt Category:Anti-Americanism
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The National Asset Management Agency (NAMA; ) is a body created by the government of Ireland in late 2009 in response to the Irish financial crisis and the deflation of the Irish property bubble. NAMA functions as a bad bank, acquiring property development loans from Irish banks in return for government purple debts bonds, ostensibly with a view to improving the availability of credit in the Irish economy. The original book value of these loans was €77 billion (comprising €68bn for the original loans and €9bn rolled up interest), and the original asset values to which the loans related was €88bn, with there being an average Loan To Value of 77% and the current market value is estimated at €47 billion. NAMA is controversial, with politicians (who were in opposition at the time of its formation) and some economists criticising the approach, including Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz who has said that the Irish government is "squandering" public money with its plan to bail out the banks. One year after NAMA's establishment, the Irish government was compelled for other but similar reasons to seek a European Union-International Monetary Fund bailout in November 2010, the outcome of which will have considerable effects on NAMA's future operations. Despite this early criticism, as of year end 2018, NAMA had recovered €37.4bn from its owned assets and projected that it would eventually generate a net surplus of €4bn. And as of September 2021, NAMA had delivered a total surplus of €2.75bn to the Department of Finance, and projected that its final net surplus would be €4.65bn. ==Background== As a result of the collapse of the Irish property market, Irish banks have property development loan assets secured on property with a market value significantly below the amount owed. Many loans are now non-performing due to debtors experiencing acute financial difficulties. Both factors have led to a sharp drop in the value of these loan assets. If the banks were to recognise the true value of these loans on their balance sheets, they would no longer meet their statutory capital requirements. The banks, therefore, need to raise further capital; however, given the uncertainty around the true value of their assets, their stock is in too little demand for a general share issuance to be a viable option. The banks are also suffering a liquidity crisis due, in part, to their lack of suitable collateral for European Central Bank repo loans. Along with their capital requirement problems, this is limiting the banks' ability to offer credit to their customers and, in turn, contributing to the lack of growth in the Irish economy. ==NAMA's operations== The National Asset Management Agency Bill, in its current format, applies to the six financial institutions which were covered by the Irish government's deposit guarantee scheme. Those institutions were Bank of Ireland, Allied Irish Banks, Anglo Irish Bank, EBS, Permanent TSB and Irish Nationwide. Other institutions, such as Ulster Bank, which are not covered, had the option to join the scheme. Ulster Bank eventually decided not to do so; its parent company Royal Bank of Scotland having joined the analogous UK scheme earlier in 2009. Then-Minister for Finance, Brian Lenihan said the banks would have to assume significant losses when the loans, largely made to property developers, are removed from their books. If such losses resulted in the banks needing more capital, then the government would insist on taking an equity stake in the lenders. Economist Peter Bacon, who was appointed by the government to advise on solutions to the banking crisis, said the new agency had potential to bring a better economic solution to the banking crisis and was preferable to nationalising the banks. The assets were to be purchased by using government bonds, which led to a significant increase in Ireland's gross national debt. The Bill provided for NAMA to be established on a statutory basis as a separate body corporate with its own Board appointed by the Minister for Finance and with management services provided by the National Treasury Management Agency. The Bill envisaged that NAMA would arrange and supervise the identification and valuation of property-backed loans on the books of qualifying financial institutions in Ireland, but would delegate the purchase and management of these loans to a separately created Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV). ==Master Special Purpose Vehicle== thumb|268px|right|NAMA SPV structure In a letter from the Central Statistics Office of Ireland (CSO) to Eurostat, dated 22 September 2009, details are provided on the suggested creation by NAMA of a Master Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) known as National Asset Management Ltd and controlled by the holding company National Asset Management Agency Investment Ltd. The CSO sought guidance from Eurostat on how NAMA and the SPV would be classified in national accounts. NAMA arranged and supervised the identification and valuation of property-backed loans on the books of qualifying financial institutions in Ireland, but the purchase and management of these loans were the responsibility of the SPV. The SPV has a majority of private equity. It funds the purchase of the loan books from financial institutions by issuing securities, most of which are backed by a guarantee from the Irish Government. According to the details provided to Eurostat, the Master SPV is a separate legal entity and is jointly owned by private investors, who would own 51% of its equity and therefore have the majority vote, and by NAMA, which would hold the remaining 49%. The subscribed capital of the Master SPV would be €100m. Although the SPV has its own Board, NAMA retains a veto over all decisions of the Board that could affect the interests of NAMA or of the Irish government. The Master SPV is run with the objective of making a profit on the purchase and management of the assets it purchases. The private investors in the Master SPV are entitled to the following economic return: the equity investors will receive an annual dividend linked to the performance of the Master SPV; On winding up of the Master SPV, the equity investors would only be repaid their capital if the Master SPV has the resources; they would receive a further equity bonus of 10% of the capital if the Master SPV makes a profit; All other profits and gains of the Master SPV would accrue to NAMA. Former Finance Minister, the late Brian Lenihan believed that pension funds could be the most appropriate investors in the SPV. The annual dividend, should one be paid, is to be capped at the 10-year Irish Government bond yield at the time the dividend is declared. Lenihan said he was confident that the €51m could be found from suitable investors because of the similarity of the SPV investment to a government bond. In its analysis, the Central Statistics Office (CSO) requested that NAMA be classified as a Government Entity and the Master SPV as a Financial Institution; the likely impact of this classification could be that the debt issued by the SPV, guaranteed by the Irish government, would not be classified as part of the national debt of Ireland by Eurostat. In a letter dated 16 October 2009, Eurostat gave a preliminary view. The letter stated that NAMA is to be treated as part of the government sector, the type of assets to be purchased cannot be expanded without the approval of the European Commission, that it be a temporary scheme and that the size of potential losses be small relative to the total liabilities. Eurostat noted that the Minister for Finance will examine at the end of 2012 whether NAMA has met its objectives and decide if its continuation is justified. It suggested that a detailed analysis has to be carried out, especially of the guarantee arrangements. It made no judgement on the draft NAMA business plan but stated that the presence of market investors is reassuring to it (those providing 51% of the equity in the SPV). Their preliminary conclusion is that the Master SPV may be classified as a financial corporation. However, this is a preliminary view and is subject to revision. ==NAMA's private investors== The three investors owning 51% of the SPV were revealed by the Minister of Finance in April 2010, and in NAMA's June 2010 business plan: * Irish Life Investment Managers, a part of Permanent TSB; * New Ireland Assurance, a part of Bank of Ireland; * Clients of Allied Irish Banks Investment Managers, a part of Allied Irish Banks Each provided €17m for a total of €51m of NAMA's initial capital of €100m. NAMA then geared up way above typical EU banking limits, taking on debt 35 times its paid-up capital. The reason given for this is that the loans are temporary; they have bought other loans at a discount (see below); will be repaid on property sales; and are subject to continuous review. They are similar in function to bridging loans. The purpose of NAMA's quasi-independent legal status is to remove its debts from general Irish government debt. This is the position of the government, the International Monetary Fund and Eurostat. But, as the three private investors are bank-run pension fund managers, whose parent or major-shareholder companies had been all but nationalised by 2011, and as the 2010 Credit Institutions (Stabilisation) Act allows the government powers to apply to the courts to restructure any financial body in any way in secret at any time, and as a general guarantee to protect the parent banks remains in place (see the covered institutions below), the international rating agencies consider NAMA's debts to be a part of Irish government debt. Besides, NAMA's directors on the SPV board "will maintain a veto over all decisions of the Board that could affect the interests of NAMA or of the Irish government." === Sale of AIB and Irish Life Investment Managers' stakes === Following the acquisition of Allied Irish Banks by the Irish government the SPV stakeholding was sold to South African investor Prestige. In April 2012, the stakeholding in the SPV belonging to Irish Life Investment Managers was sold on the order of the minister for finance, Michael Noonan, to an undisclosed investor. These sales are necessitated by each nationalisation raising the government's stake from a minority 49 percent to a majority to 66 percent. ==Timetable== The National Treasury Management Agency published details on NAMA in a press release dated 8 April 2009. The draft bill was published on 30 July 2009 for public consultation. Following the consultation process, the National Asset Management Agency (NAMA) Bill 2009 was published on 10 September 2009. The bill was debated in the Dáil and Seanad, and passed, on 15 October 2009 by 77 votes to 73. The committee stage of the bill started on 22 October 2009. Following the passing of the bill in both houses of the Oireachtas, President Mary McAleese decided to sign the bill into law on 22 November 2009, despite calls from the Labour Party to seek advice from the Council of State regarding its constitutionality. ==Defining "long-term economic value"== The assets will be taken on at a discount, referred to as a haircut, estimated at 30% of book value, and in exchange the banks will be given bonds to sell to raise cash. The 30% discount to the €77bn book value outlined by NAMA includes circa €9bn of unpaid interest. The current value of the assets will not be based on their estimated market value, but on a higher notional "long-term economic value". This higher value is ultimately based on the share prices of Irish banks, which were low in March 2009 but have risen since. Critics say that this is a circular argument; were the expected discount 50% or more, the banks' share prices would have collapsed. In early September 2009 Minister Lenihan pointed to this rise in share prices as positive news: "... markets have assessed that information in the context of their current share price and rating agencies have used it in their assessment of these institutions." Should an independent NAMA valuation be too low, Lenihan said: "I can give directions to NAMA to have a valuation reconsidered." In addition, critics also pointed out that the use of the term, often capitalised, Long Term Economic Value which was popular in the press around the time of the establishment of NAMA, often as the acronym LTEV, gave the impression that it was a well-known or accepted term in economics. It was pointed out that, in fact, the acronym did not appear on any internet page before 2009, with the full term appearing only shortly before, with the concept of LTEV being invented primarily to give political cover for paying from taxpayers' funds, a price in excess of the market value of assets. Problems relating to paying the notional long-term economic value (rather than market value) for the loans to be transferred to NAMA were highlighted by the difficulties of Liam Carroll's Zoe Developments. In July 2009, Zoe Developments, a large property development company, made an application to court seeking the appointment of an examiner. The appointment of an examiner would have allowed it protection from its creditors. Zoe Developments was estimated to have €1.2bn of loans with a likely deficit of €900m in a liquidation scenario. The €1.2bn of loans included debts of €489m to AIB and €113m to Bank of Ireland. In addition to Zoe Developments, Carroll's overall liabilities, including other businesses are estimated to total €2.8bn. On 10 September 2009, High Court judge Frank Clarke refused to appoint an examiner to Zoe Developments despite the support of AIB and Bank of Ireland for such an appointment. Receivers have been appointed after a Supreme Court appeal failed. A deficit of €900m versus loans of €1.2bn if realised would imply a market value of 25% of loan value for Zoe Developments. On 9 September 2009, economist Philip Lane of Trinity College Dublin published a paper on Estimating Long Term Economic Value. Using economic theory and formulae, Lane describes the long-term economic value being a function of both nominal price levels and the real (inflation-adjusted) economic value of property. The real economic value of property is further defined as a function of numerous factors including, but not limited to: real disposable income per capita; the level of long-term interest rates; the size of the population, and; the demographic structure of the population. On implementation of long-term economic value, Lane highlights the concerns over price levels. In particular, given the debate on domestic competitiveness versus other countries, Ireland may experience real-exchange rate depreciation, which could have a drag effect of nominal property value. He said, "it is important that the NAMA process to recognise the inevitability of such uncertainty in the determining of long- term economic values". As a result, he favours a two-part payment system. In his speech to the Dáil on 16 September 2009, the Minister of Finance Brian Lenihan indicated that alternatives to NAMA that did not use long-term economic value would lead to the need for fresh equity to be injected by the government into the financial sector of between €4 and 7 billion. Coincidentally, the upper end of this figures is equal to the difference between the €54 billion estimated "long-term economic value" and the €47 billion "current market value". Lenihan noted that the additional €4-7 billion would be an incremental investment in the banks rather than a higher payment for the loans. ==Academic and political criticism== The agency has been the subject of major criticism in both politics and academia. At the time of its establishment, then-Fine Gael Enterprise, Trade and Employment spokesperson, Leo Varadkar, said of NAMA: "(Fianna Fáil and government minister) Willie O'Dea and Peter Bacon, the architect of NAMA, both accept that this is a massive gamble. Taxpayers are right to ask why Fianna Fáil is so keen to gamble with their money without asking the banks, bondholders and institutional investors to take their fair share of the pain. In dealing with the banking crisis, the objective must be to minimise the risk to taxpayers and to get credit flowing to businesses and homebuyers. NAMA achieves neither of these objectives. It won't get credit flowing and it exposes taxpayers to all of the risk." Fine Gael instead proposed a 'national recovery bank'. Then- Labour Party Enterprise spokesperson and former Finance Minister Ruairi Quinn accused the Government of "proposing to establish the biggest property company in the world and asking taxpayers to foot the bill and bear all the risk." He stated that "this Bill will be one of the most important pieces of legislation ever to have come before Dáil Éireann. There will be enormous consequences for the taxpayer if the government get it wrong." Labour instead has proposed the temporary nationalisation of the banks. A commentary signed by leading academics also questioned the NAMA strategy. They wrote in The Irish Times that they saw The criticisms were disputed by the Government. Then-Tánaiste and Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment Mary Coughlan defended the creation of the agency saying it was not a bailout for the banks, one of the charges made against it. On 7 October 2009, Professor Joseph Stiglitz, winner of the Nobel Prize in economics and former chief economist of the World Bank, speaking at Trinity College Dublin criticised NAMA. He said, "Countries which allow banks to go under by following the ordinary rules of capitalism have done fine. The US has let 100 banks go this year alone, as did Sweden and Norway in their crises." As well as commenting that in Ireland, "this bank bailout is a simple transfer from taxpayers to bondholders, and it will saddle generations to come. The only thing that might give you solace is that, as chief economist of the World Bank, we see this type of thing happening in banana republics all over the world. Whenever a banking crisis happens, the financial sector uses the turmoil as a mechanism to transfer wealth from the general population to themselves. I've been very disappointed to see that it has happened, not only in banana republics, but in advanced industrialised countries." On 21 October 2009, ahead of the International Financial Services Summit (IFSS) in Dublin on 5 November 2009, two leading economists expressed caution on NAMA. Professor Nouriel Roubini, Professor at New York University Stern School of Business said that: It is essential that the bad assets are taken off the balance sheets of the financial institutions and that the Government separates the good assets from the bad assets to clean up the financial system.... But if it does it in such a way that implies it is buying these assets at overpriced prices that does not reflect the underlying value, then it is giving a big subsidy to the bank shareholders and the unsecured creditors." Professor Willem Buiter, Professor of political economy at the London School of Economics and former member of the UK Monetary Policy Committee, said: the Irish Government should have, in principle, gone for a good bank, not a bad bank.... The bad bank is always a bad idea because it means that the Government underwrites all the creditors and creates moral hazard." Other participants at the IFSS include Martin Wolf, Chief Economics Commentator, Financial Times and Philip Lane, Professor of International Macroeconomics at Trinity College Dublin. In February 2010 Brian Cowen defended his claim that the NAMA would increase the supply of credit into the economy despite the International Monetary Fund (IMF) saying it would not lead to any significant increase. "People should contemplate what level of credit accessibility we'd have in this economy without NAMA," he said. "It's not just sufficient in itself obviously for credit flow, it's certainly an important and necessary part of restructuring our banking system, of that there's no doubt, in terms of improving as a location for funding of banking operations," said Mr Cowen. He previously said that the Government's objective in restructuring the banks through NAMA was to "generate more access to credit for Irish business at this critical time". In September 2009, Lenihan expressed a similar view, saying it would lead to more lending for business and households. Cowen was responding to reports published on 8 February that the IMF had told Lenihan in April 2009 that the NAMA would not lead to a significant increase in lending by the banks. The comments, which appear in internal Department of Finance documents released under the Freedom of Information Act, were made by senior IMF official Steven Seelig who joined the board of NAMA in May 2010. Minutes of a private meeting at the department between Brian Lenihan and IMF officials on 29 April 2009 last state that the "IMF (Mr Seelig) do not believe that Nama will result in significant increase in bank lending in Ireland". The Government has maintained that NAMA's purchase of bad loans from the banks with State bonds would increase the flow of credit in the economy since the plan was unveiled April 2009. Speaking at the publication of the NAMA legislation in September 2009, Mr Lenihan said it would "strengthen and improve" the funding positions of the banks "so that they can lend to viable businesses and households". The IMF estimated in their published report the domestic banks would face losses of up to €35 billion, though the department pointed out this would be partly funded from operating profits and provisions already taken against some loan losses. ==Supplementary Data and Draft Business Plan== On 16 September 2009, NAMA published Supplementary Data Document that contained high level statistic on NAMA, data on property yields, and information on the six covered institutions. The supplemental data indicated the book-value of the loans expected to be transferred to NAMA by the six covered institutions (Bank of Ireland, Allied Irish Banks, Anglo Irish Bank, EBS, Permanent TSB, Irish Nationwide) was €68bn. The suggested transfer value was €54bn, with the estimated market value at €47bn. In addition to the supplementary data document, the Department of Finance published incremental data on 13 October 2009 in a Draft NAMA Business Plan. Total€, billion Assets value at origination 88 Approximate average LTV 77% Net Original Balance excluding Interest roll up 68 Potential decline in property prices approximate estimate 47% Estimated current market value of underlying asset 47 Interest Roll up Estimate 9 Potential total book value for transfer to NAMA 77 Haircut on loans 30% Price NAMA could pay for loans 54 Within the Supplementary Data Document there is data on the financial ratios of the six covered banks. Adding up the Tier 1 capital of the six covered institutions, as reported in the Supplemental Data document leads to total Tier 1 capital of €29bn. This compares to combined risk-weighted-assets of €363bn, and a Tier 1 capital ratio of 7.9%. Basel II recommends a minimum ratio of 4% capital requirement. Institution Date of report Risk-weighted assets, € million Tier 1 Capital€, million Tier 1 ratio Allied Irish Banks 30 June 2009 131,327 10,249 7.8% Bank of Ireland 31 March 2009 105,377 11,026 10.5% Anglo Irish Bank 31 March 2009 80,175 3,120 3.9% Permanent TSB 30 June 2009 21,619 2,006 9.3% Irish Nationwide 31 December 2008 14,825 1,394 9.4% EBS 30 June 2009 9,984 769 7.7% Total 363,307 28,564 7.9% According to the Supplementary Data Document, the long-term-economic value of the loans transferred to NAMA was 15% higher than the market value. NAMA applied statutory adjustment factors to estimate the valuation of €54bn. The document also noted that asset prices would need to increase from current market values by 10%, for the government and taxpayers to avoid any loss, taking into account subordinated debt. The difference between the 15% uplift to get to €54bn and the need for a 10% uplift for the taxpayer to avoid a loss, was explained in the Draft NAMA Business Plan. This analysis took into account the expected part payment in subordinate debt to the six covered institutions of €2.7bn (circa 5% of the €54bn transfer value). This subordinated debt holders may receive none of the proceeds in a scenario where the taxpayers are exposed to a loss. ===Market response=== On Thursday 17 September 2009, the day after the estimated cost of NAMA was announced, shares in AIB and Bank of Ireland rose in value. On the ISEQ Index, shares in AIB rose by 30% and shares in Bank of Ireland rose by 17%. Shares for both banks were also up on the U.S. stock markets. ===Analysis of the data=== Based on the information presented in the Supplementary Data Document, if the €68bn book value was transferred at €54bn to NAMA, the covered institutions could be a write-down of both their Tier 1 capital and Risk-weighted assets of €14bn in aggregate. Assuming a 1-for-1 write-down of €14bn in the risk weighted assets and the same of the Tier 1 capital, the new ratio would be 4.2% with risk weighted assets of €349bn and Tier 1 capital of €15bn. Assuming the transfer value was at the market-value estimate of €47bn, not €54bn, then Tier 1 capital could fall by €21bn not €14bn. Risk weighted assets could be €342bn and Tier 1 capital €8bn, with a ratio of 2.2%. Risk-Weighted-Assets€, billion Tier 1 Capital€, billion Tier 1 ratio Aggregate, 6 Covered Institutions 363 29 7.9% Suggested Transfer Value to NAMA 54 Estimated Book Value 68 Potential Write-Down -14 -14 Aggregate, 6 Covered Institutions, Adjusted 349 15 4.2% Additional Right if use Estimated Market Value of €47 billion -7 -7 Aggregate, 6 Covered Institutions, Adjusted 342 8 2.2% However, this analysis looks at the aggregate data provided in the Supplemental Data Document. For a clearer picture, NAMA would need to give a breakdown of the loans to be transferred, by institution, as well as the book value and market value of each. Some additional information was provided on 13 October 2009 in the Draft NAMA Business Plan, indicates that the six covered institutions have taken €7bn of provisions in the last year against loan impairments and giving the split of the €77bn of prospective loans for transfer to NAMA. However, the data point of the current net book value of the loan portfolios and the prospective transfer price for the portfolios by each of the 6 covered institutions was omitted. ===Transfer of derivatives portfolio to NAMA=== In addition to the potential loan book transfer to NAMA, the Draft NAMA Business Plan outlined the existence of over 1,000 derivative positions attached to the commercial loans. These loans were transferred to NAMA as well. The nominal value of this derivative portfolio was €14.7 billion. Developers and other borrowers in real-estate transactions are often required by lenders to enter into derivative transactions as part of a loan agreement, as a mechanism to fix the interest rate on the loan. Typically, interest rate swap agreements are used. If interest rates fall, the borrower does not benefit, as he/she must pay the saving to the counter-party of the swap agreement. Given the decline in interest rates over the last 2 years (e.g. the US Federal Funds Rate was 0.25% in late September 2009 versus 5.25% in August 2007), there may be a significant liability relating to the €14.7bn derivative portfolio. The Draft NAMA Business Plan does not elaborate on the magnitude of this liability, however, it states: "These derivatives change the interest rate structure of the underlying loans and their mark-to-market value will be incorporated into the valuation of the loans". ===Post transfer=== The information provided in the Supplementary Data Document also included analysis of the total loan books of the covered institutions. In particular it identified, €27bn of watch loans (low quality), €31bn of vulnerable loans (past due) and €29bn of impaired loans. That was a total of €86bn of loans, at net book value. This was in excess of the loans expected to be transferred to NAMA. Following the potential transfer of loans with a book value of €68bn to NAMA, the six covered institutions would still have an aggregate of €18bn of loans that were watch loans, vulnerable, and/or impaired. This exceeded the €15bn of Tier 1 Capital within the six banks, after the NAMA transfer. Institution Date of report Net loan book€, million Watch loans / lower quality loans€, million Vulnerable loans / past due loans€, million Impaired loans€, million Allied Irish Banks 31 December 2009 130,000 12,120 8,604 17,453 Bank of Ireland 31 December 2009 134,700 3,300 5,400 13,400 Anglo Irish Bank 31 December 2009 72,100 6,200 8,700 34,600 Permanent TSB 31 December 2009 38,639 2,877 3,208 828 Irish Nationwide 31 December 2009 11,132 1,721 6,464 EBS 30 June 2009 17,035 603 697 407 Total 403,606 26,821 26,609 73,152 The Draft NAMA Business Plan indicated that the potential loans for transfer to NAMA of €77bn book value (including rolled-up interest) was divided into €24.1 billion from AIB, €28.4 billion from Anglo-Irish Bank, €15.5 billion from Bank of Ireland, €0.8 billion from EBS, and €8.3 billion from Irish Nationwide. The document stated "that about 40% of the loans are estimated to be cash-generating". This indicated that €46 billion of the loans were not paying interest. Of the €31 billion that were cash-generating, there was no indication in the document if they were paying the full requirements under the terms of the loan agreements. The €31 billion was divided into €28 billion of commercial loans and €3 billion of land and development loans. This compared to a breakdown of the €77 billion of €28 billion of commercial loans, €21 billion of land and development loans, and €28 billion of associated loans. Additional data on the size of the underlying loans was also provided in the Draft Business Plan. Of particular note was that the 10 largest underlying loans had a projected book value of €16 billion (i.e. 20% of the overall €77 billion), with an average loan size of €1.6 billion each. The top 100 underlying loans totalled €38 billion, equivalent to 49% of the overall. In July 2010 after the a revised business plan was published it was revealed that it was then predicting a possible profit of €1bn, with the possibility of losses of up to €800m, after an initially projection of more than €4bn in profit. The plan published then updated and revised the interim business plan published in October of the previous year which was prepared on the basis of information supplied at that time by the five participating institutions (Anglo Irish Bank, AIB, Bank of Ireland, EBS and Irish Nationwide) and in advance of the detailed examination of any of the key loans by NAMA. Then-Finance Minister Brian Lenihan denied that the Government got its sums wrong on NAMA. The original business plan estimated a profit of €4.8bn based on a rise in assets value of 10%. The revised figures said that if they recovered the full value of the loans plus 10% it would result in a profit of €3.9bn. NAMA chairman Frank Daly said the plan confirmed that the five institutions covered by NAMA had not disclosed or had been unaware of the extent of the financial crisis afflicting their borrowers. He said the banks had shown 'remarkable generosity' towards their borrowers, adding that NAMA had no intention of maintaining that approach. 'To say the least we are extremely disappointed and disturbed to find that, only months after being led to believe that 40% of loans were income producing, the real figure is actually 25%. ===Raising new equity capital=== If there are further substantial write-downs within the Irish banking industry post-NAMA this could lead to further financial difficulties. Patrick Honohan, a professor of International Financial Economics and Development at Trinity College Dublin, and shortly afterwards to be appointed head of the Central Bank of Ireland, stated on 21 July 2009 that "Unless the loans are valued at unrealistically high prices, the NAMA process will leave the banks with insufficient capital. This is especially true considering the additional loan losses in non-property lending that are inevitable given the depth of the recession and which will have to be provided for." Professor Honohan was appointed Governor of the Central Bank of Ireland and Financial Services Authority by the Minister of Finance in late September 2009. On 5 October 2009, the Irish Independent reported that European banks needed to raise substantial equity capital, including AIB and BOI. The article quoted a report by the bank JP Morgan which estimated that the AIB and BoI needed to raise a combined €11bn, €7bn for AIB and €4bn for BoI. On 8 October 2009, Brian Lenihan, then-Minister of Finance, said that even after selling real-estate loans to the government's NAMA, that the country's biggest banks may need further money. Additional funding from the Irish government was highlighted, with Lenihan recognising that it would be difficult to raise funds on the stock market. On 10 October 2009, the Irish Times reported that Bank of Ireland and AIB could need to raise a combined €9bn as a result of write-downs associated with the transfer of assets to NAMA. The article quotes a Merrion Capital report that estimates that AIB and BoI's equity Tier 1 Capital ratios would fall to 3.3% and 3.5% in 2010/11. In the Draft NAMA Business Plan published on 13 October 2009, it stated that: "After the transfer of their L&D; and associated loans to NAMA, it is likely that some institutions will require additional capital in order to absorb the consequent write-downs on the book value of their assets. The Government indicated that it expected institutions to seek private sector capital in the first place but to the extent that sufficient capital cannot be raised independently or generated internally, it remained committed to providing institutions with an appropriate level of capital to continue to meet their requirement." ===Capital from a debt-for-equity swap=== The August 2009 open letter by 46 academics reported in the Irish Times, suggests that the Government is in a strong position, if it chooses, to negotiate with bondholders to engage in some debt for equity swaps. The information provided in the Supplementary Data Document shows an aggregate of €20bn of sub-ordinate debt at the six covered institutions. Assuming all or part of this sub-ordinate debt is converted into equity could play a role in improving the Tier 1 ratio of the industry. The concept of subordinated debt holders receiving no return on their loans, is raised in the Draft NAMA Business Plan, where the subordinated debt issued to the covered institutions, could receive nothing in a scenario where the Irish taxpayer incurs a loss on its investment in NAMA. 5% of the €54 billion purchase price is forecast to be paid in sub-ordinated loans. ===The Draft Business Plan=== The Draft Business plan assumed a life of 11 years for NAMA from 2010 to 2020 with full repayment of the €54 billion loans issued by NAMA/Irish Government by the end of 2020. Cumulative interest on the loans is forecast at €16 billion, using the forward Swap rate for the euro. Given a percentage of the loans are cash-generative this €16 billion may be partially offset by an estimated €12 billion of interest received. The Draft business plan expects a default rate of 20% on the €77 billion of principal, and repayment of €62 billion. The €15 billion of defaulted loans is forecast to be sold for €4 billion (i.e. circa 27% of loan value). Fees and running costs of NAMA are estimated at €240m per annum, i.e. circa €3 billion over 11 years. Taking all of these cash-flows together leads to a cumulative positive cash flow of €5 billion. The Draft Business Plan looks at sensitivity analysis, indicating that if short and/or long-term interest rates rise, there would be an erosion of the €5 billion positive cash flow to NAMA. Similarly, if the default rate increases, this cash flow would be eroded. The document states that an increase of the default rate to 31% would erode in full the net present value of the positive cash flow. The Draft Business Plan does not attempt to match the €62 billion of principal repayments and €4 billion of asset recovery (of the estimated €15 billion of defaulting loans) to the €54 billion "long-term-economic value" expected to be paid for the NAMA loan portfolio. Nor is there any analysis comparing the forecast €15 billion of defaults relative to the estimates 60% of loans, i.e. €46 billion, that are not cash-generative. A part of the Draft Business Plan that is mentioned but not modeled in the document, is the ability of the NAMA to borrow an incremental €5 billion to pursue its "asset development/enhancement objectives". In particular, NAMA may invest in projects that are deemed commercially viable. NAMA shall inherit with the loans, undrawn commitments of €6.5bn to the borrowers. ==Risk-sharing v ex post levy== On 6 May 2009, Professor Honohan, presented his views on NAMA to a committee of the Irish parliament. In particular, he raised the idea of a two-part payment to the banks, part debt & part equity, as a mechanism to reduce the risk to the taxpayer of overpaying for the loans. He specifically identified this mechanism as being superior to an ex-post levy on the banks. An additional advantage of paying part-equity for the loans, that Professor Honohan mentions in his paper of 6 May 2009, is the benefit of having some private shareholders within NAMA, given "the extensive international evidence showing that Government-owned banking systems serve their economies poorly." On 9 October 2009, the two parties of the Irish government at the time, Fianna Fáil and the Green Party agreed a "Renewed Programme for Government". In this agreement, it stated "Should NAMA make a loss over time, a levy would be imposed to recoup the cost to taxpayers". This proposal is not in line with the preferred option that Professor Honohan highlighted in May 2009. In the letter from Eurostat to the CSO dated 16 October 2009, it is noted that in addition to the 5% of the purchase price paid in subordinate bonds, that reduces the potential losses of the Irish taxpayer, that an amendment to the legislation that shall be introduced means that the participating banks shall have to pay a tax surcharge on their operating profits until the loss of the Master SPV, related to NAMA, is recouped. ==Operations in 2010-11== NAMA published its 2010 accounts and summarised its more recent achievements in July 2011. In round figures it had acquired loans of €72 billion for €30 billion. To buy these it had issued bonds worth €30 billion that buyers could sell to the European Central Bank (ECB). The banks' losses of €42 billion written off on these sales, and their other losses, were met by Irish government cash or loans that were advanced or ultimately guaranteed by the ECB. €3.9 billion-worth of sales both in and outside Ireland had been approved by NAMA in a difficult market, given the scale of the Great Recession. In that the main purpose of NAMA was to remove bad debts from the six banks and to recapitalize them, it was hard to see how it had made a difference in the short term. The plan relied upon an early worldwide recovery from recession, which did not occur. Government support for the banks continued separately from NAMA and had risen to 32% of GDP by September 2010. In turn, the government's support for NAMA itself was quantified in July 2010 by the IMF as "more than 25% of GDP in 2010". The financial markets concluded that Ireland could not support the cost of the banks as well as NAMA, and run a budget deficit, and they sold Irish bonds at the time of the renewal of the two-year state bank guarantee in September 2010, causing yields to rise. It became impossible for the government itself to borrow from the bond markets. The drop in value of Irish bonds also had an immediate effect on the balance sheets of Irish and foreign banks' capital requirements. As a result, in November 2010 the Irish government was itself obliged to seek a €67 billion net "bailout" from the ECB and IMF and undertook in return that the sale of the six banks' remaining assets outside NAMA would be "expedited"; part of the money was to cover future losses incurred by buyers of those assets. By early 2011 the six banks' liquidity needs were being supported by a further €150 billion from the ECB. Despite all the efforts to save them, in April 2011 the six banks' credit ratings were reduced to junk status by Moody's. ==Recent developments== In February 2011, the Supreme Court delivered judgment in an appeal taken by Paddy McKillen against a purported decision to acquire loans taken out by Mr. McKillen and companies controlled by him. The court found that the decision had been taken by a group of senior managers before NAMA had been formed and accordingly there was no decision of NAMA to acquire the loans. In April 2011 NAMA announced that it would commence selling home mortgages to private investors on the basis that the investor pays equity of 30% of the asking price of the loan, with NAMA providing financing for the balance. ===Status as a public authority=== Following an appeal from journalist Gavin Sheridan the Irish Office of the Commissioner for Environmental Information determined in September 2011 that NAMA was a public authority for the purposes of the Access to Information on the Environment (AIE) Regulations 2007, and was therefore obliged to answer AIE requests from applicants.Decision of Sheridan & NAMA text The Regulations in question were the Irish transposition of European Directive 2003/4/EC, an implementation of one element of the Aarhus Convention into EU law. NAMA disagreed with this decision and appealed to the High Court on a point of law. In February 2013 High Court judge Colm Mac Eochaidh ruled in favour of the Commissioner for Environmental Information. The case centred on the statutory interpretation of the term "and includes" in Irish law. The case cost a total of €121,350 to the Irish taxpayer up to that point. NAMA appealed the High Court's decision to the Supreme Court, and the case was first heard on 7 April 2014 before Chief Justice Susan Denham, Mr Justice Murray, Mr Justice Hardiman, Mr Justice O'Donnell and Ms Justice Dunne. On 23 June 2015 the Supreme Court dismissed NAMA's appeal and ruled that it was in fact subject to the AIE Regulations. The court relied on an earlier ruling of the European Court of Justice in Fish Legal, where the court ruled that, "entities which, organically, are administrative authorities, namely those which form part of the public administration or the executive of the State at whatever level, are public authorities for the purposes of Article 2(2)(a) of Directive 2003/4. This first category includes all legal persons governed by public law which have been set up by the State and which it alone can decide to dissolve". ===Geoghegan Review=== In December 2011 the Agency published the Geoghegan Review, a report on NAMA's functional organisation, skills and delegation arrangements produced by the former Group Chief Executive of HSBC Holdings Plc, Michael Geoghegan. The Review includes a number of non-binding recommendations for the Agency's Board, including the need to be more entrepreneurial in focus and proposing a greater delegation of authorities from the Board to the Executive. In February 2012, Paddy McKillen won the latest hearing on a preliminary issue in his UK legal battle with the Barclay brothers for control of the five-star Maybourne Hotel Group in London. The latest ruling strengthens his case against the Barclays to argue that Ireland's National Asset Management Agency unlawfully transferred €800 million of debt on the hotels to the brothers last September. ===NAMA to Nature=== In March 2012 a group called NAMA to Nature began planting trees on NAMA sites in a symbolic protest against the failure of the government agency to address the enduring presence of ghost estates and the failure of developers to clear unfinished construction sites. This action was reported in thejournal.ie. It was also reported in the Irish Times. Two of the participants were interviewed on The John Murray Radio Show ===Northern Ireland loan sale=== In early April 2014, NAMA sold a portfolio of Northern Ireland loans for £4.5bn (€5.4bn). The deal brokered was NAMA's single biggest transaction to date and followed an extensive sales process involving bidders from both the US and Europe. The loan book (aka Project Eagle) included a portfolio of various commercial properties in the North. It was reported to have been initially acquired by NAMA for £1bn (€1.2bn). The Northern Ireland Assembly's Committee for Finance and Personnel launched an inquiry into the sale after concerns were raised by Mick Wallace TD in the Dáil. The inquiry, led by Daithí McKay MLA, uncovered the fact that a meeting took place between DUP Ministers and potential bidders for the portfolio. ==="Project Albion" portfolio sale=== In 2015, under "Project Albion", NAMA sold a portfolio of United Kingdom commercial assets to Oaktree Capital Management for £115m that had had a book value of £226m. ===Section 110 tax avoidance=== In June 2016 Irish media outlets started noting that US distressed debt funds (known by the pejorative term "vulture funds") were filing Irish company accounts with large profits on their Irish investments (bought from NAMA) but no Irish tax payments. They could see the equity of these companies was "owned" by Irish registered Charities some of which were run by IFSC law firms. It emerged these US "vulture funds" were using orphaned Section 110 SPVs (discovered because most Irish SPVs must file public accounts), structured by IFSC law and accounting firms, to export untaxed income and capital gains earned on domestic Irish assets to offshore locations (via the PPN interest payments) such as the Cayman Islands. Stephen Donnelly TD called for a Dáil investigation and produced detailed calculations based on the scale of asset disposals by NAMA to US funds showing that the loss of Irish taxes could reach €20bn. The affair escalated during 2016 and was covered in the international media and in several Irish RTÉ Prime Time Investigates programs. There was confusion when Dáil deputy Stephen Donnelly asked whether NAMA had knowingly sold assets to bidders with Section 110 SPVs. However, in later disclosures, Finance Minister Noonan stated that NAMA were users of the Section 110 SPVs, and would incur a €158m tax charge as a result of changes Noonan made to Section 110 legislation in the 2016 Finance Act. The affair focused Irish public attention on the scale and speed at which funds had profited from NAMA sales, and led to some concern that NAMA had sold too quickly (and on a tax-free basis). === Garrett Kelleher Litigation === NAMA is the subject of US$1.2 billion lawsuit from former Irish property developer, Garrett Kelleher. The case, formally brought by Kelleher's company, Shelbourne North Water Street Corporation, concerns the financial collapse of Kelleher's 'Chicago Spire' development in Chicago, Illinois, USA; and seeks damages of $1.2bn against Nama, alleging that the agency destroyed the developer's chances of building the Chicago Spire through a combination of "sheer spite" and "consistent incompetence". The case, if it reaches court, would be the first time NAMA has faced a jury trial. The case is just one of a number of lawsuits Kelleher has brought, not always successfully, against NAMA. ==See also== *Post-2008 Irish banking crisis *Irish emergency budget, 2009 *National Treasury Management Agency *Toxic asset *European sovereign-debt crisis: List of acronyms *Irish Section 110 SPVs ==References== ==External links== * Official website * National Asset Management Category:Post-2008 Irish economic downturn Category:2009 in Irish politics Category:State-sponsored bodies of the Republic of Ireland Category:Banking in Ireland Category:Bad banks Category:2009 establishments in Ireland Category:Organizations established in 2009
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Estonian literature () is literature written in the Estonian language (c. 1,100,000 speakers) Estonian literature at Encyclopædia Britannica The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia resulted in few early written literary works in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. The Liber Census Daniae (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.The Development of Written Estonian by George Kurman The earliest extant samples of connected Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528.Aspects of Altaic Civilization by Denis Sinor The first known printed book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S.Wanradt and J. Koell (1535). For the use of priests an Estonian grammar was printed in German in 1637.Dictionary of Languages By Andrew Dalby; p. 182 The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two dialects were united by Anton Thor Helle in a form based on northern Estonian. Writings in Estonian became more significant in the 19th century during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840). The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few albeit remarkable exceptions, this archaic form has not been much employed in later times. The most outstanding achievements in this field are the national epic Kalevipoeg (Son of Kalev), written by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882); Gustav Suits's ballad Lapse sünd (Birth of a Child); Villem Grünthal-Ridala's (1885–1942) poem Toomas ja Kai (Toomas and Mai) and three poems by August Annist (1899–1972). At a professional level, traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer Veljo Tormis. In modern times Jaan KrossJaan Kross at google.books and Jaan KaplinskiJaan Kaplinski at google.books remain Estonia's best known and most translated writers. ==History of Estonian literature== ===Folklore=== As opposed to the recent nature of written literature, the oral tradition, found in collections of Estonian folklore, tells of the ancient pre-Northern Crusades period of independence. The first fragmentary records of Estonian folk poetry, dating from the 13th century, can be found in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia; in the late 18th century Johann Gottfried von Herder published examples of Estonian folk songs in his anthology Volkslieder (1807). Jakob Hurt (1839–1907) was the first to start systematically collecting Estonian folklore in the second half of the 19th century, planning a multi-volume series on Estonian folklore, called Monumenta Estoniae Antiquae. Hurt coined the phrase which to this day shapes the mentality of the nation of one million people: If we cannot be great in number, then we must be great in spirit.Finno-Ugric folklore and the European written word at Estonian Literature information Center ===Baltic Germans=== Chronicles and theatrical performances by the Baltic German nobility formed the basis for local Baltic German literature which, despite the barriers of status and language, affected Estonian literature. The earliest example of Estonian language poetry dates back to 1637, a poem written by Reiner Brockmann (1609–1647), teacher of Greek at the Tallinn Gymnasium.Baltic Germans at the birth of Estonian literature at Estonian Literature information Center Otto Wilhelm Masing (1763–1832) was the first literate who had a thorough mastery of the Estonian language. He published an Estonian-language alphabet book called ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele in 1795.History – Estonian Children's Literature CentreSpotted Mother Tongue – Vaba Eesti Sõna ===Kristjan Jaak Peterson=== Cannot the tongue of this land In the fire of incantation Rising up to the heavens Seek for eternity? :::Kristjan Jaak Peterson Those lines have been interpreted as a claim to reestablish the birthright of the Estonian language. Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822) is considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. He gathered his Estonian poems into two small books but never saw them published: this only occurred a hundred years after his death (although three German poems were published posthumously in 1823). One of Peterson's projects was fulfilled in his lifetime, the German version of Kristfrid Ganander's Mythologia Fennica, a dictionary of Finnish mythological words and names (the Swedish original was published in 1789). Peterson's translation of Ganander's dictionary found many readers in Estonia and abroad, becoming an important source of national ideology and inspiration for early Estonian literature. Its dominating influence extended through the first decades of the 20th century.Kristian Jaak Peterson at Estonian Literature information Center ===Kalevipoeg=== The outstanding achievements in folklore imitate the epics: the national epic Kalevipoeg was compiled by doctors of Estonian origin: Friedrich Robert Faehlmann began the epic and it was finished by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald. The romantic ideology of the 19th century laid down the requirements for a national literature. The idea of an epic was the product of a humanist circle called the Learned Estonian Society (Gelehrte Estnische Gesellschaft), where Faehlmann had presented his paper in 1839 on a mythical hero called Kalewipoeg (Son of Kalew). After Faehlmann's death in 1850 the society handed the manuscripts over to Kreutzwald. The first edition of Kalevipoeg (1857–61) was bilingual, the German text being presented side by side with the Estonian original. A popular Estonian edition in a single volume followed in 1862.Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald at Estonian Literature information Center Lydia Koidula (1843–1886) was the initiator of a tradition of Estonian patriotic and women's poetry during the era. ===Late 19th early 20th century=== In the late 19th-century a poet emerged who profoundly affected Estonian poetry as a whole – Juhan Liiv (1864–1913). During the last decade of the 19th century, a contemporary of Liiv's, Eduard Vilde (1865–1933), gave a realistic direction to Estonian prose.Literature in the 19th century at Estonian Literature information Center With the formation of the group Noor-Eesti (Young Estonia) in 1905, led by the poet Gustav Suits (1883–1956), the linguist and poet Villem Grünthal-Ridala (1885–1942) and the reformer of the Estonian language Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), Estonian literature gained a new intellectual impetus. The most prominent prose writer of the time, still widely read today, was Oskar Luts (1887–1953). Another significant author was Jaan Oks (1884–1918).The poetry of Ernst Enno (1875–1934) gained popularity much later. The rationality of the Young Estonians was counterbalanced by the group of writers from the Siuru movement, established in 1917. The central and peripheral poets of Siuru were: August Gailit (1891–1960), Friedebert Tuglas (1886–1971), Johannes Semper (1892–1970), Artur Adson (1889–1977), August Alle (1890–1952), Henrik Visnapuu (1890–1951), Peet Aren (1889–1970), Otto Krusten (1888–1937) and Marie Under (1883–1980). The magazine Eesti Kirjandus (Estonian Literature) was founded in 1906, and Eesti Kirjanduse Selts (Estonian Literary Society) in 1907. ===1918–1940=== After the establishment of the Republic of Estonia, professionalism and diversity in literature were followed by the emergence of literary institutions. The Estonian Writers Union was founded in 1922; the literary monthly Looming (Creation) first appeared in 1923 and is still the main periodical of its sort in Estonia. The Cultural Endowment Fund started work in 1925 and is the major provider of grants in the arts in the present- day Republic of Estonia. The prevailing tendency in prose writing between the two World Wars was realism. The most prominent writer of the era is A. H. Tammsaare (1878–1940). His five volume epic novel Tõde ja Õigus (Truth and Justice, 1926–1933) is considered one of the major works of Estonian literature. Other prominent prose writers were: Marta Sillaots (1887–1969), August Mälk (1900–1987), Karl Ristikivi (1912–1977). August Gailit appeared on the literary scene along with the Siuru group. The Arbujad ("Soothsayers") was a small but influential group of poets who began collaborating in 1938 at the behest of poet and author Ants Oras (1900–1982) and included: Betti Alver (1906–1989), Uku Masing (1909–1985), Mart Raud (1903–1980), Kersti Merilaas (1913–1986), Bernard Kangro (1910–1994), Heiti Talvik (1904–1947), August Sang (1914–1969) and Paul Viiding (1904–1962). While group's poetic works tended to be eclectic, there was a common desire among members to reach a deeper intellectual and emotional plane. The Arbujad poets were for the freedom and independence of the people while being against ideological coercion and totalitarian concepts. ===Post World War II=== After the Second World War Estonian literature was split in two for almost half a century. A number of prominent writers who spent the war years in Estonia fled from Soviet forces to Germany in 1944 (Visnapuu) or to Sweden, either directly or via Finland (Suits, Under, Gailit, Kangro, Mälk, Ristikivi). Many of those who remained behind and did not follow the ideology of the Soviet occupying power suffered either death in Siberia (Talvik and playwright Hugo Raudsepp) or a combination of repression, a ban on publication and interior exile (Tuglas, Alver, Masing). Despite the modest circumstances of the war and post-war years, creative activity and publishing started almost immediately, both in the temporary stopovers in Finland, and in the refugee camps in Sweden and Germany. ====In Exile==== In 1945 the Estonian Writers' Union in Exile was founded in Stockholm. In 1950 Bernard Kangro began publishing the cultural magazine Tulimuld in Lund (published until 1993). Eesti Kirjanike Kooperatiiv, the largest Estonian-language publishing house in exile, was set up and its method of book distribution secured the continuity of literary life on an institutional level and on a global scale, except in the Soviet-controlled homeland. Estonians abroad also did their best to introduce Estonian literature to the world: in the USA, Ivar Ivask (1927–1992) edited World Literature Today in which he published numerous articles and reviews about Estonian literature. The poetry collection by surrealist Ilmar Laaban (1921–2000) was at first the only modernist work, until 1953 when Karl Ristikivi, essentially a conservative writer, published his novel The Night of the Souls. Arved Viirlaid's (1922) novel Seitse kohtupäeva (Seven Days of Trial, 1957) was a detour into modernism. Ilmar Jaks (1923) became a more consistent cultivator of the technique of the modern novel. The subject matter of literary output was greatly enriched by descriptions of the countries where various writers had settled, like Karl Rumor (1886–1971) in Brazil, or Gert Helbemäe (1913–1974) in England. In the second half of the 1950s Kalju Lepik (1920–1999) was a poet in exile who rose to prominence alongside Bernard Kangro. Kalju Lepik's first visit to his homeland in 1990 and the publication of his last collections of poetry there, symbolises the end of the split. ====Behind the Iron Curtain==== In Estonia a relaxation of the strictures of the Soviet regime after the death of Stalin opened the way for various Estonian writers: Minni Nurme (1917–1994), Jaan Kross (1920–2007) Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966), Ain Kaalep (born 1921), Kersti Merilaas (1916–1986) and Ellen Niit (born 1928). Against that background a new "Cassette Generation" emerged in 1962–1967 (so-called because of the small poetry chapbooks which appeared together in small cardboard boxes termed kassett in Estonian). Jaan Kaplinski (1941–2021) was greatly inspired by Oriental religion and nature. Other authors of note were Hando Runnel (born 1938), Viivi Luik (born 1946), Mats Traat (born 1936), Andres Ehin (born 1940) and Ilmar Laaban. The political stagnation that followed the crushing of the Prague Spring in 1968 was reflected in Paul-Eerik Rummo's initially banned minimalist collection. The collection did not appear in its entirety until 1989. So-called alternative literature was disseminated in manuscript form, the most significant authors in this field being the dissident poet Jaan Isotamm (pseudonym Johnny B. Isotamm, 1939–2014) and the prose writer Toomas Vint (born 1944). The most remarkable poet of the 1960s and 1970s was Juhan Viiding (pseudonym Jüri Üdi, 1948–1995, son of former Arbujad member, poet Paul Viiding), whose first collection Nerve Print appeared in 1971. Despite all attempts to ban it, the popular and song-like nature of Hando Runnel's patriotic verse secured its huge circulation. His collection The Purple of the Red Evenings, 1982 was allowed into print but the publication of any reviews in the press remained forbidden.The split in Estonian literature at Estonian Literature information Center ===1991–2001=== Republic of Estonia regained independence from the Soviet occupation in 1991. The two Estonian Writers' Unions were merged in 2000. In a way, Emil Tode’s (pen name of Tõnu Õnnepalu, 1962) Piiririik ("Border State") marked the beginning of a new era in 1993. The novel claimed its place beside the internationally recognised and translated works by Kross or Kaplinski. Border State also raised the topic of "Euro-literature", where one of the central issues is the wanderings of Estonians abroad, their search for an identity in a world with open borders.Estonian literature during the last decade – Stars and trends The intertextual poetry of Jaan Undusk (born 1958), Mati Unt and Viivi Luik and Hasso Krull (born 1964) prepared the ground for a bold new Estonian literature. The most remarkable prose writers of the younger generation of recent years are Andrus Kivirähk (born 1970), Karl-Martin Sinijärv (born 1971), Mehis Heinsaar (born 1973), Peeter Sauter (born 1962) or Jüri Ehlvest (1967–2006), who deepened the subjects and topics opened up by Õnnepalu in a way both comical and cryptic. Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski remain Estonia's best known and most translated writers, although in recent years the short stories of Eeva Park and the novels of Tõnu Õnnepalu and Ervin Õunapuu have also been enjoying moderate success in Germany and Scandinavia.Mission Estonia. On Estonian Literature in Finnish Jaan Kross has been tipped for the Nobel Prize for Literature on several occasions. On his return from the labour camps and internal exile in Russia, where he spent nine long years (1946–1954) as a political prisoner, Kross breathed new life into Estonian poetry. Kross began writing prose in the latter half of the 1960s.Jaan Kross at Estonian Literature information Center Jaan Kaplinski has become the central and most productive Modernist in Estonian poetry. Kaplinski has written essays, plays and has translated. He has lectured in Vancouver, Calgary, Ljubljana, Trieste, Taipei, Stockholm, Bologna and Cologne, London and Edinburgh. He has been Writer-in-Residence at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.Jaan Kaplinski at Estonian Literature information Center ===The new century=== The beginning of the 21st century has been fruitful for Estonian literature. Blossoming out of the waning nineties; a new, vibrant generation of poets appeared. Jürgen Rooste (1979), Ivar Sild (1977), Wimberg (pen name of Jaak Urmet, 1979) and Kristiina Ehin (1977) have all distinctive voices combined with a profound knowledge of both Estonian and world literature. Rooste is definitely the most socially-involved and "beat-like" of them all. Sild proclaims his gay outlook, Wimberg creates absurd landscapes through the use of childlike language and styleWimberg and Ehin maintains the tradition of the "great female poet" of Estonia.Kristiina Ehin's Drums of Silence on a New Moon Morning But prose also flourishes. Over recent years, the work of Rein Raud has won him both numerous awards at home and international acclaim. His most notable books include The Reconstruction, the story of a dying father trying to find out the circumstances of his daughter's suicide in a religious cult (2012, in English 2017, Dalkey Archive Press) and The Brother (2008, in English 2016, Open Letter Books), called by the author "a spaghetti Western in poetic prose". Andrus Kivirähk has skilfully combined his comic talent and ethno-fantasy in The Man Who Spoke Snakish (2007, in English 2015, Grove Press). Indrek Hargla is a prolific writer of several kinds of genre fiction including sci-fi, fantasy and crime. His reputation relies mainly on his Apothecary Melchior series, set in medieval Tallinn. Besides Kaur Kender (1971), whose finest hour was in 1998 with the debut novel Iseseisvuspäev ("Independence Day"), a younger generation is appearing. Sass Henno (1982) stays in the Chuck Palahniuk-influenced tradition of Kaur Kender.Future Classics – How Should Freedom Be Used? Chaneldior wrote a quintessential novel in the manner of Bret Easton Ellis called Kontrolli alt väljas ("Out of Control") in 2008Younger Estonian prose and Peeter Helme's (1978) second novel September (2009) received critical acclaim for its realistic description of life in Tallinn's office environments as existed at the dawn of this new millennium.Tallinna plekkmehed ja plekknaised ==References== Category:Arts in Estonia
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thumb|Elementorum myologiae specimen, 1669 Sharks continually shed their teeth; some Carcharhiniformes shed approximately 35,000 teeth in a lifetime, replacing those that fall out. There are four basic types of shark teeth: dense flattened, needle-like, pointed lower with triangular upper, and non- functional. The type of tooth that a shark has depends on its diet and feeding habits. Sharks are a great model organism to study because they continually produce highly mineralized tissues. Sharks continually shed their teeth and replace them through a tooth replacement system. Through this system, sharks replace their teeth relatively quickly with replacement teeth that are ready to rotate because their teeth often get damaged while catching prey. They will replace teeth that are broken and young sharks can even replace their teeth weekly. Although sharks constantly shed their teeth, factors such as water temperature affect the turnover rate. While warmer water temperatures produced faster rates, cold water temperatures slowed tooth replacement rates in nurse sharks. They are only shed once new teeth are formed underneath and push them out of the connective tissue that was holding them in place. The sex of the shark also plays a role in the development of teeth and the differences in teeth in species due to gender is called sexual heterodonty. Usually, females have larger teeth because on average they are usually larger than males. Also, age can change the shape of teeth in which "juvenile teeth start out more narrow and robust, while adult teeth are broader and thinner". In some formations, shark's teeth are a common fossil. These fossils can be analyzed for information on shark evolution and biology; they are often the only part of the shark to be fossilized. Fossil teeth comprise much of the fossil record of the Elasmobranchii, extending back to hundreds of millions of years. A shark tooth contains resistant calcium phosphate materials. The most ancient types of shark-like fish date back to 450 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician period, and are mostly known by their fossilized teeth and dermal denticles. However, the most commonly found fossil shark teeth are from the Cenozoic era (the last 66 million years). ==Types and functions== Though sharks often are highly specialized, as a category they have ranged widely in their adaptations. Their teeth reflect this, ranging widely in form and function. There are a number of common types of shark teeth, that vary according to the diet of the shark. Examples include dense flattened teeth for crushing; long needle-like teeth for gripping; pointed lower teeth for gripping combined with serrated, triangular upper teeth cutting, and teeth that are tiny, greatly reduced, and non-functional. thumb|right|Eastman1901-web ===Dense flattened teeth=== Dense flattened teeth are used to crush prey like bivalves and crustaceans. These sharks include nurse sharks and angel sharks. They are typically found at the bottom of the ocean floor. ===Needle-like teeth=== This was the first common style of shark tooth, present in the Devonian, four hundred million years ago. Sharks with needle-like teeth commonly feed on small to medium-sized fish, sometimes including small sharks. These teeth are especially effective for such prey because they can easily grip their slippery and narrow bodies. Modern examples include the blue shark and bull sharks. These sharks specifically use their teeth to feed on small prey like squid, flounder, stingrays, and even hammerhead sharks. ===Pointed lower teeth and triangular upper teeth=== This combination of pointed lower teeth, with triangular upper teeth are especially useful for cutting prey that consist of large mammals and fish. The combination of teeth entails serrated edges to cut the larger prey into smaller portions in order to easily swallow the pieces. The most famously known shark with these teeth is the great white shark, which feeds on animals such as sea lions, dolphins, other sharks, and even small whales. ===Non- functional teeth=== The teeth of plankton-feeders, such as the basking shark and whale shark, are greatly reduced and non-functional. These sharks filter feed on prey by opening their mouths to let tiny organisms get sucked into their mouths to feed without using their teeth at all, instead filtering the food when passing water through their gills. Basking sharks feed by swimming towards their prey with their mouth open and straining their food. Through this process the shark is able to successfully eat hundreds of pounds of zooplankton each day. Whale sharks feed by using rakers on their gill bars and strain them from their gill slits after sweeping krill and other prey into their mouths. ===Transitional teeth=== As one species evolves into another, its teeth may become difficult to classify, exhibiting characteristics of both species. (Example: teeth from Otodus auriculatus as it evolved into O. angustidens) are difficult to definitively identify as coming from either species. thumb|Otodus megalodon fossil shark jaw (reconstruction) (late Cenozoic) 2 A commonly referred to transition is the evolution of Isurus hastalis, the extinct giant mako, into the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias. There exist teeth that are believed to represent the transition between the two species. These teeth, from Carcharodon sp. are characterised by the wider, flatter crowns of the extinct giant mako. However, they also exhibit partial, fading serrations, which are more pronounced near the root, and disappear towards the tip of the tooth - serrations being found in great whites but not extinct giant makos. ===Special mention: megalodon teeth=== thumb|An O. megalodon tooth excavated from Lee Creek Mine, Aurora, North Carolina, United States. Otodus megalodon teeth are the largest of any shark, extinct or living, and are among the most sought after types of shark teeth in the world. This shark lived during the late Oligocene epoch and Neogene period, about 28 to 1.5 million years ago, and ranged to a maximum length of 60 ft. The smallest teeth are only in height, while the largest teeth are in excess of . The smaller teeth ranging from " and " are more common finds, while teeth over 5", 6", and 7" are more rare. These teeth are in extremely high demand by collectors and private investors, and they can fetch steep prices according to their size and deterioration. The larger teeth can cost as much as 3,000 dollars. ===Deposits=== Shark teeth cannot be collected from just any type of rock. Any fossils, including fossil shark teeth, are preserved in sedimentary rocks after falling from their mouth. The sediment that the teeth were found in is used to help determine the age of the shark tooth due to the fossilization process. Shark teeth are most commonly found between the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Only after about 10,000 years will a shark tooth fossilize. The teeth commonly found are not white because they are covered with sediment from fossilization. The sediment prevents oxygen and bacteria from attacking and decaying the tooth. Fossilized shark teeth can often be found in or near river bed banks, sand pits, and beaches. These teeth are typically worn, because they were frequently moved and redeposited in different areas repeatedly before settling down. Other locations, however, yield perfect teeth that were hardly moved during the ages. These teeth are typically fragile, and great care should be taken while excavating them. Phosphate pits, containing mostly fossil bones and teeth, or kaolin pits, are ideal places to look for fossil shark teeth. One of the most notable phosphate mines is in Central Florida, Polk County, and is known as Bone Valley. Most of the teeth found here range from 3 to 10 million years old. Near New Caledonia, up until the practice was banned, fishermen and commercial vessels used to dredge the sea floor for megalodon teeth. In the state of Georgia, shark teeth are found so often that they decided to make shark teeth the official state fossil in 1976. ==Counting== thumb|Megalodon lower jaw with 4 tooth rows and 4 tooth series labeled. "Series 1" contains the functional teeth at the front of the jaw. In taxonomy, shark teeth are counted as follows: rows of teeth are counted along the line of the jaw, while series of teeth are counted from the front of the jaw inward. A single tooth row includes one or more functional teeth at the front of the jaw, and multiple replacement teeth behind this. For example, the jaws of a bull shark can have 50 rows of teeth in 7 series, with the outermost series functional, but most sharks have five series with the average shark having about 15 rows of teeth in each jaw. The small teeth at the symphysis, where the two halves of the jaw meet, are usually counted separately from the main teeth on either side. Sharks are also known to lose at least one tooth per week. Due to their specific arrangement of rows and series however, lost teeth can be replaced within a day. ==Research and identification== Identification of most sharks are found through a combination of tooth counts and tooth shapes. Teeth can even lead to the identification of shark species like the requiem shark. The fossilized records of teeth helps illustrate evolutionary history, and isolated teeth are used to study and analyze specific linear measurements of the species. In order to identify teeth and specific information about the teeth, research can be done on a shark tooth. This research may uncover many different aspects about the tooth itself, and the shark species. This proves complicated, however, due to the fact that most fossilized teeth are found mixed and scattered. To collect information on basic-life history and get dispersal estimates of a shark tooth, molecular-based technology is very efficient. To further shark population studies, collection of mtDNA can be extracted from shark jaws and teeth. To study the caries-reducing effect in sharks, studies are done on the fluorine atoms that are bound covalently to calcium atoms in the teeth. Each tooth has a complex fluorapatite structure enameloid. In order to reduce effects of deterioration in the teeth, it is useful to sample only the surface of the enameloid of the tooth for this specific research. Studying and researching shark teeth betters our understandings of shark feeding behaviors, evolutionary changes, and mechanisms. This helps us to identify the teeth, and even the species. ==History of discovery== thumb|Shark tooth The oldest known records of fossilized shark teeth are by Pliny the Elder, who believed that these triangular objects fell from the sky during lunar eclipses. According to Renaissance accounts, large, triangular fossil teeth often found embedded in rocky formations were believed to be petrified tongues of dragons and snakes and so were referred to as "tongue stones" or "glossopetrae". Glossopetrae were commonly thought to be a remedy or cure for various poisons and toxins; they were used in the treatment of snake bites. Due to this ingrained belief, many noblemen and royalty wore these "tongue stones" as pendants or kept them in their pockets as good-luck charms. This interpretation was corrected in 1611 by the Italian naturalist Fabio Colonna, who recognized them as ancient shark teeth, and, in 1667, by the Danish naturalist Nicolaus Steno, who discussed their composition and famously produced a depiction of a shark's head bearing such teeth. He mentioned his findings in a book, The Head of a Shark Dissected, which also contained an illustration of a C. megalodon tooth, previously considered to be a tongue stone. ==Tool use by humans== In Oceania and America, shark teeth were commonly used for tools, especially on weapons such as clubs and daggers, but also as blades to carve wood and as tools for food preparation, such as the māripi of the Māori. For example, various weapons edged with shark teeth were used by the Native Hawaiians (see example here), who called them leiomano. Some types were reserved for royalty.Anthony Meyer (1995) Oceanic Art, v. 2, p. 579. The Guaitaca (Weittaka) of coastal Brazil tipped their arrows with shark teeth.Métraux, Alfred (1946) Handbook of South American Indians, v. 1, p. 522, "The Guaitaca" The remains of shark tooth-edged weapons, as well as chert replicas of shark teeth, have been found in the Cahokia mounds of the upper Mississippi River valley, more than from the ocean.Greg Perino, c. 1950, Cahokia Brought to Life, pp. 66-67 It is reported that the rongorongo tablets of Easter Island were first shaped and then inscribed using a hafted shark tooth.Métraux, Alfred (1940), "Ethnology of Easter Island". Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin (Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press) 160:404 ==See also== * Elasmobranch * Fish jaw * List of sharks ==References== ==Further reading== * * * ==External links== * A weapon of tiger-shark teeth on carved koa wood, at the Bishop Museum. * www.shark- references.com: Database of bibliography of living/fossil sharks and rays (Chondrichtyes: Selachii) with more than 15.000 listed papers and a lot of downloadlinks Tooth Category:Fish anatomy Category:Symbols of Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Teeth
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José Ignacio Barraquer Moner (24 January 1916 – 13 February 1998) was a Spanish ophthalmologist and inventor born in Barcelona who did most of his life's work in Bogotá, Colombia. His original pioneering investigations on corneal transplants and correction of corneal refraction led him to be designated as “Father of modern Refractive Surgery”. His ophthalmological surgical techniques and inventions are now in routine use by the ophthalmic community. ==Biography== He was born in Barcelona, first son of Ignacio Barraquer (March 25, 1884 – May 13, 1965) and Josefa Moner Raguer (1893-1987). His grandfather, José Antonio Barraquer i Roviralta (1852-1924) was a pioneer of modern ophthalmology in Spain and a great histopathologist, and the brother of Lluis Barraquer i Roviralta (1855-1928), a pioneer of neurology and the founder, in 1882, of the first department of clinical neurology and electrotherapy in Spain; his son Lluis Barraquer Ferré (1887-1959) and his grandson Lluis Barraquer Bordas (1923-2010) were also famous neurologists. Jose Ignacio Barraquer's father was a prestigious ophthalmologist in his own right due to the invention of phacoeresis, a surgical procedure for cataract extraction. He educated his son in arts and sciences since early childhood, helping him to become an inventor, a scientist and a skillful surgeon. He studied medicine in the University of Barcelona and graduated 1940; in 1952 he obtained his doctorate in medicine and surgery at the University of Madrid. He trained in ophthalmology under the mentorship of his father, but also spent time visiting the most famous ophthalmic professors around Europe. thumb In 1938, towards the end of the Spanish Civil War, he married Margarita Coll Colomé in Granada (deceased 1984), where the family had been living during the war years. They had four children: Ignacio (born 1938–2012), Francisco (1940-2020) ophthalmologist, Margarita (born 1941) and Carmen (born 1946) ophthalmologist and refractive surgeon at "Clinica Barraquer". In 1940 the family moved back to Barcelona and what is now the Centro de Oftalmología Barraquer, was inaugurated in 1941; José Ignacio continued to work with his father until 1953 when he left Spain to start an independent career in ophthalmology. He decided to settle in Bogotá, Colombia, after having traveled all around South America as an invited lecturer and surgeon. He founded the Instituto Barraquer de América in 1964, his own Clínica Barraquer in 1968 and the Escuela Superior de Oftalmología within the Instituto Barraquer de América in 1977. He married Inés Granados in 1985, mother of his fifth child Jose Ignacio Barraquer Granados (born 1965) ophthalmologist and refractive surgeon at "Clinica Barraquer". Nowadays Jose's legacy, Clinica Barraquer of America is a reference center for ophthalmology and refractive surgery around the world. His dream of developing ophthalmology and refractive surgery is continued by his descendants Carmen Barraquer and Jose Ignacio Barraquer Granados among other great ophthalmologists that are in the clinic which had the opportunity to learn from the “Father of modern Refractive Surgery”. == Research and development == In his first ophthalmological article, published in 1942, he presented his first ophthalmological instrument, the Barraquer Keratotome with pneumatic fixation which he created to perform more precise cataract incisions. From then until 1950, he published 56 articles among which the most notable are Air injection in the anterior chamber in cataract surgery (1946), Histiotherapy (1948),Curare in Ocular surgery (1949), Current selection technique in Keratoplasty (1949) in which he described the “edge to edge” suturing technique in penetrating grafts, routinely used in corneal grafts since then; and Refractive Keratoplasty (1949), his first article on the optical theory to correct myopia and hyperopia by modifying the anterior corneal radius of curvature, published in Spanish, English, French and German. thumb In Colombia, he continued his research and developments in corneal transplants, refractive keratoplasty and lens surgery. In 1956 he published The microscope in ocular surgery and The continuous edge to edge suture in full thickness grafts ; he designed and built several new surgical instruments like the hemostatic forceps, cataract scissors, trephines for corneal grafts and the “colibri blefarostat (hummingbird belpharostat) for anterior segment surgery”. This last instrument was an idea of his first pupil in Bogotá, Enrique Ariza Henao, and was described in the journal “Archivos de la Sociedad Americana de Oftalmología y Optometría” that he started in 1958. Meanwhile, he continued to advance his research in refractive keratoplasty in his private home laboratory; in 1958 he published Method for cutting lamellar grafts in frozen corneas, new orientation for refractive surgery and Cinematography of ocular operations . In the meantime between 1962 and 1964 he designed and made several precision surgical instruments by hand including the microkeratome, pneumatic fixation rings, applanation tonometers, and applanation lenses to measure the diameter of the resection made with the microkeratome, and he perfected “the Lathe to cut spherical surfaces”. In 1963 he published Two level keratoplasty , Modification of corneal refraction by means of intracorneal inclusions . In 1964 Corneal behavior in response to thickness changes in which he first describes the changes on the anterior radius of corneal curvature, in response to lamellar grafts of different thickness performed in rabbits; Keratomileusis for correcting myopia where he describes the microkeratome, an instrument designed and built by him in 1962, to perform corneal lamellar resections of different diameters and thickness; and New approach, for the surgical correction of myopia . In 1965 he published 19 articles including Our approach in Pterygium surgery explaining the free conjunctival graft technique; The corneo-conjuntival limbal reconstruction before a corneal transplant in which for the first time a graft of limbus tissue was recommended, and Foundations of Refractive Keratoplasty with a foreword dedicated to his father, where he explains all his research, findings, the microkeratome and the surgical techniques of keratomileusis and keratophakia. In this article he explains "The Law of Thickness'" discovered through his research work, and this became the foundation of LASIK (Laser assisted Keratomileusis) and of every corneal refractive technique that is being performed worldwide. thumb In 1967 he published A new operating microscope for ocular surgery describing a microscope developed jointly with his brother Joaquin Barraquer Moner and the physicist Hans Littmann from Zeiss. In 1970 he edited and published a book (2 volumes) compiling the available reprints on Refractive Keratoplasty which had appeared in the world literature since 1949. In 1980 he wrote and published his first book called Keratomileuisis and Keratophakia (1 volume) in which he describes all of his life's research to modify the corneal refraction, his findings, different approaches, mathematical and geometrical foundations, the surgical instruments that he created, results of the surgical techniques of Keratomileusis and Keratophakia in patients, and the complications encountered. In 1989 he published a second book Refractive Surgery of the Cornea (2 volumes) with the collaboration of Carmen Barraquer-Coll his daughter, and Alejandro Arciniegas- Castilla, revising his first book as well as describing the lamellar and incisional surgical techniques developed by other ophthalmologists to modify corneal refractive power: Radial and astigmatic keratotomies, epikeratophakia and the first steps on laser refractive procedures. Between 1977 and 1985 he organized and directed refractive surgery training courses at the Barraquer Institute of América in Bogotá, that were attended by over 100 ophthalmologists from all around the world. He also organized five International Forum events in Bogotá, (1970, 1975, 1980, 1984, 1993) that were attended by the leading worldwide ophthalmological professors. During his professional life he wrote 268 articles, and invented 19 surgical techniques and 45 surgical instruments. == Awards == * 1968 - Grand Honor Award for outstanding Achievements. Society of Cryo-Ophthalmology * 1972 – Distinguished Service Prize Award for Excellency in Ophthalmology-Society of Contemporary Ophthalmology (U.S.A) * 1976 – Gold Medal to the Microsurgeon of the Year. - World Microsurgery congress (U.S.A) * 1982 – Karl Wessely Gold Medal- Augenerztliche Fortbildung (Germany) * 1983 – José Ignacio Barraquer Moner Medal and Lecture – The International Society of Refractive Surgery (U.S.A) * 1985 – Escudo Virgili- Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Cadiz (Spain) * 1987 – First Albrecht von Graefe Award for distinguished contributions to Refractive Surgery.–The American Society of Contemporary Ophthalmology (U.S.A) * 1987 – Medaglia D’Oro “ G.Cirincione” – Universita de la Sapienza di Roma (Italy) * 1987 – Gold Medal Leonardo da Vinci – National Eye Research Foundation (Chicago – U.S.A) * 1994 – Award “The ophthalmologist of the Century”. The International surgery Club (Montreal-Canada) * 1998 – The Most Influential Ophthalmologists of the Twentieth Century.- The American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery (Seattle- U.S.A) == Decorations == * 1968 – Commander of the Order of San Carlos (Colombia) * 1968 – Commander with Plaque of the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise (Spain) * 1976 – Silver Medal of Merit in Labour – Ministry of Labour (Spain) * 1977 – Caballero de Honor y Mérito de la Orden de Malta (priorato de U.S.A) * 1980 - Commander of the Order of Boyaca (Colombia) * 1983 – Gran Cruz de San Jorge y Constantino el Grande - Orden Constantiniana de San Jorge (Colombia) * 1984 – Grand Officer of the Order of Boyaca (Colombia) * 1995 - Grand Cross of the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise (Spain) == Academic distinctions == * 1961-1973 - Visiting professor of Ophthalmology – Baylor University, College of Medicine, (Houston, U.S.A) * 1967 – Académico de Honor de la Real Academia de Medicina de Murcia (Spain) * 1969 – Awarded title of doctor honoris causa by the Federal University of Santa Maria (Brasil) * 1970 – Miembro de Mérito de la Academia de Ciencias Médicas de Barcelona (Spain) * 1975 - Honorary Professor in the National University of San Marcos (Perú) * 1987 – Awarded title of doctor honoris causa by the University of Cádiz (Spain) * 1990 – Awarded title of doctor honoris causa in ophthalmology by the University of Cartagena(Colombia) 27 Awards, 23 decorations, and 27 Distinctions == Publications == 1- Nueva talla del colgajo para la extracción total de la catarata. Archivo Sociedad Oftalmológica Hispanoamericana. 1942 Vol 1 p 464 Estudios e informaciones oftalmológicas. Cuaderno II, América Clínica Vol 7, N9-10, p102. 1945 Clínica y Laboratorio p 388, 1947 2- La inyección Intraocular de Aire en la operación de la catarata. Arch Soc.Oftal.Hisp.Amer 1946 Vol 6 N4 p339 and in Arch.Chilenos de Oftal de Julio-Octubre p 261 3- Histioterapia .- Estudios e Informaciones Oftalmológicas 1948 Vol 1 N9 Medicamenta p 221 Archivos Medico Quirúrgicos y del Trabajo año 3, N 11 y 12 4- El Curare en cirugía ocular. Estudios e informaciones oftalmológicas 1949 Vol 2 N 8 La Presse Médicale 4-8-51 Medicina Oct 1951 p 83 5- Actual técnica de elección en Queratoplastia. Arch.Soc.Oftal Hisp Amer, 1949 Vol 9 p 152 6- Queratoplastia Refractiva; Estudios e informaciones oftalmológicas 1949 Vol 2 N 10 7- The microscope in ocular surgery 1956 -Am. J. Ophthalmol., Vol 42 p 916 8- The continuous edge to edge suture in full thickness grafts; 1956: Archives of Ophthalmology Vol 56 p 426 9- Method for cutting lamellar grafts in frozen corneas. New orientation for refractive surgery; 1958 Arch.Soc.Amer.Oftal.Optom Vol 1 p 237 10- Cinematography of ocular operations; in collaboration with Ignacio Barraquer Coll 1958 Arch.Soc.Amer.Oftal.Optom Vol 1 p 307 11- Two level keratoplasty; International Ophthalmology Clinics 1963 Sept Volume 3 Issue 3 12- Modificación de la refracción por medio de inclusiones intracorneales. 1963; Arch.Soc.Amer. Oftal.Optom Vol 4 p 229 13- Conducta de la córnea frente a los cambios de espesor (contribución a la cirugía refractiva); 1964, Arch.Soc.Amer.Oftal.Optom Vol 5 p 81 14- Queratomileusis para la corrección de la miopía. 1964, Arch.Soc.Amer.Oftal.Optom Vol 5 p27-47 and in An.Inst Barr Vol 5 p 206 15- New approach for the surgical correction of myopia 1964 Presented at the 1st International conference on Myopia. New York. Prof.Press.Inc.Chicago 16- Our approach in Pterigium surgery. 1965, Proceedings of the World Congress of Cornea. Butterworth Inc, Washington p 351 17- The corneo-conjuntival limbal reconstruction before a corneal graft. 1965; Proceedings of the World Congress of Cornea. Butterworth Inc, Washington p 354 18- Bases de la Queratoplastia Refractiva. 1965; Arch.Soc.Amer. Oftal.Optom Vol 5 p 179 19- A new operating microscope for ocular surgery. 1967; Amer J, Ophthal 63, 90 Nª1 20- Queratoplastia Refractiva (2 volumes); 1970, edited by Instituto Barraquer de América.. Bogotá, Colombia 21- Queratomileusis y Queratofaquia; 1980, edited by the Instituto Barraquer de América. Litografía Arco.Bogotá,Colombia 22- Cirugía Refractiva de la Córnea,(2 volumes) LXV Ponencia de la Sociedad Española de Oftalmología 1989. Edited by the Instituto Barraquer. OP Gráficas, Bogotá, Colombia.de América. == References == Category:1916 births Category:1998 deaths Category:Spanish ophthalmologists Category:20th-century Spanish physicians Category:Barraquer family
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Top of the Pops (also known by its abbreviation TOTP) is a British music chart television programme. Until 2006, it was shown each week on the BBC and is now licensed for national versions around the world. The following is a list of presenters who have hosted the BBC show, including the many guest presenters over the years. ==1960s–1970s== Upon its inception in 1964, Top of the Pops was presented by a team of disc jockeys in rotation: Alan Freeman, David Jacobs, Pete Murray and Jimmy Savile. Savile presented the very first episode from Dickenson Road Studios in Manchester on 1 January 1964 and would continue as the longest-serving presenter until hosting his final show on 30 August 1984. Samantha Juste appeared as the disc girl for several episodes until 1967. Jacobs was replaced by Simon Dee in 1966. *Jimmy Savile (1964–1984, plus 31 December 1988, 19 October 2001, 19 September 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Alan Freeman (1964–1969, plus 9 July 1981 and 31 December 1988) *Pete Murray (1964–1969, plus 9 July 1981 and 31 December 1988) *David Jacobs (1964–1966, plus 5 May 1983 and 31 December 1988) *Samantha Juste (1965–1967) *Simon Dee (1966–1969) The start of BBC Radio 1 in 1967 brought a new influx of DJs to the presenting roster, sometimes co-presenters, although most only stayed with TOTP for a short while. Of these only Ed Stewart and John Peel would become long-term regulars, though there would be a gap before either would return as such. By 1970, only Savile and Blackburn remained of the 1960s regulars and between them they would host all the editions from January 1970 until their duopoly was broken by Ed Stewart's return in March 1971. *Tony Blackburn (1967–1979 and 1981–1983, plus 31 December 1988, 4 April 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Emperor Rosko (1967, 1974–1975) *Stuart Henry (1967–1969) *Dave Cash (1968) *Kenny Everett (1967 and 1973, plus 31 December 1988) *John Peel co- hosted a single edition in 1968, but returned more prominently in the 1980s (see below). *Ed Stewart (1968, 1971–1977) *David Symonds (1968) *14 December 1967 – Mike Lennox co-presented with Alan Freeman *14 March 1968 – Tom Edwards co-presented with Jimmy Savile *11 April 1968 – Lulu co-presented with Jimmy Savile *2 May 1968 – Alan Price co-presented with Alan Freeman *23 May 1968 – Micky Dolenz of The Monkees co-presented with Jimmy Savile *6 June 1968 – Davy Jones of The Monkees co-presented with Jimmy Savile ==1970s–1980s== *Jimmy Savile (1964–1984, plus 31 December 1988, 19 October 2001, 19 September 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Tony Blackburn (1967–1979, 1981–1983, plus 31 December 1988, 4 April 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Ed Stewart (1968,1971–1977) *Noel Edmonds (1972–1978, plus 5 May 1983) *Kenny Everett (1973, plus 31 December 1988) *Greg Edwards (1974) *Dave Lee Travis (1973–1984, plus 30 July 2006) *Emperor Rosko (1974–1975) *David Hamilton (1975–1977, plus 31 December 1988) *Paul Burnett (1975, 1977–1979, plus 25 December 1981 and 30 September 1982) *David "Kid" Jensen (1977–1984, plus 31 December 1988) *Peter Powell (1977–1988) *Mike Read (1978–1989, plus 30 July 2006) *Simon Bates (1979–1988) *15 December 1977 – Elton John was guest presenter *11 October 1979 – Andy Peebles presented though did not become a regular host until 1981 (see 1980s–1991 below) ==1980s–1991== The close association with Radio 1 continued into the 1980s, with all TOTP presenters drawn from the ranks of DJs at the station. The list below represents the main TOTP presenters during this period with many other Radio 1 DJs, for example Liz Kershaw, Adrian Juste and Adrian John also appearing on special programmes such as Christmas broadcasts and milestones for TOTP or Radio 1. For this reason, the 30 September 1982 show celebrating Radio 1's fifteenth birthday affords Annie Nightingale, in her one and only appearance and as one of nineteen presenters that day, the honour of being the first female presenter of Top of the Pops, beating Janice Long – who would go on to present TOTP regularly for nearly six years – by three months. By the end of the decade, the bond with Radio 1 seemed unbreakable with the show being simulcast on the station from 1988 and even traffic reporters like Sybil Ruscoe trying their hand at presenting TOTP. Presenters were also brought in from children's television, including Children's BBC presenters Andy Crane and Simon Parkin, Blue Peters Caron Keating, and Anthea Turner and Jenny Powell who worked together on Saturday morning show UP2U. With the exception of Turner, who presented until 1991, all appointments were short- lived proving indicative of the diffusion TOTP was about to undergo from Radio 1 in the 1990s. *Jimmy Savile (1964–1984, plus 31 December 1988, 19 October 2001, 19 September 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Dave Lee Travis (1974–1984, plus 30 July 2006) *David Jensen also known as "Kid Jensen" (1976–1984, plus 31 December 1988) *Peter Powell (1977–1988) *Mike Read (1978–1989, plus 30 July 2006) *Simon Bates (1979–1988) *Richard Skinner (1980–1985, plus 6 October 1988 and 19 January 1989) *Tommy Vance (1980–1984) *Steve Wright (1980–1989, plus Top of the Pops 2: 1997–2004, 2006–2007, 2008, 2009) *John Peel (1981–1987, plus 14 December 1995) *Andy Peebles (1979, 1981–1984) *Tony Blackburn (1967–1979, 1981–1983, plus 31 December 1988, 4 April 2003 and 30 July 2006) *Mike Smith (1982–1988) *Janice Long (1982–1988, plus 30 July 2006) *Gary Davies (1982–1991) *Pat Sharp (1982–1983, also a member of British vocal duo Pat and Mick together with Mick Brown, plus 30 July 2006) *Bruno Brookes (1984–1991, 1994–1995) *Dixie Peach (1985–1986) *Paul Jordan (1985–1986) *Simon Mayo (1986–1991, 1994–1996) *Nicky Campbell (1988–1991, 1994–1997) *Mark Goodier (1988–1991, 1994–1996, read the Top 20 chart rundown out-of- vision: 1997–2002) *Andy Crane (1988–1989) *Anthea Turner (1988–1991) *Sybil Ruscoe (1988–1989) *Jenny Powell (1989) *Jackie Brambles (1989–1991) Special appearances: *9 July and 28 August 1980 – B.A. Robertson co-presented with Peter Powell *7 August 1980 – after hosting alone in 1977, Elton John returned to co-host with Peter Powell *14 August 1980 – Roger Daltrey of The Who co- presented with Tommy Vance *21 August 1980 – Cliff Richard co-presented with Steve Wright *4 September 1980 – Kevin Keegan co-presented with Dave Lee Travis *18 September 1980 – Olivia Newton-John co-presented with Simon Bates *25 September 1980 – Russ Abbot co-presented with Mike Read *30 October 1980 – Colin Berry co-presented with Peter Powell *9 July 1981 – Alan Freeman and Pete Murray both returned after over a decade's absence to present with Jimmy Savile *25 December 1981 – Paul Gambaccini co-presented alongside Adrian Juste and former presenter Paul Burnett, with regular presenters Andy Peebles, Dave Lee Travis, Simon Bates, David Jensen, Tony Blackburn, John Peel, Steve Wright, Peter Powell, Jimmy Savile, Richard Skinner and Mike Read *25 March 1982 – footballer Garth Crooks co-presented with Peter Powell *27 May 1982 – Debbie Harry of Blondie was guest presenter with John Peel. *30 September 1982 – Radio 1 celebrated its fifteenth anniversary with a special TOTP featuring DJs Paul Gambaccini, Adrian John, Adrian Juste, Jonathan King, Alexis Korner and Annie Nightingale, as well as former presenter Paul Burnett and regular presenters Dave Lee Travis, Andy Peebles, Mike Read, David Jensen, Tony Blackburn, John Peel, Jimmy Savile, Mike Smith, Steve Wright, Tommy Vance, Richard Skinner and Peter Powell *5 May 1983 – TOTP celebrated its thousandth show with the return of Noel Edmonds and David Jacobs as well as Paul Gambaccini and regular presenters Dave Lee Travis, Steve Wright, John Peel, Gary Davies, Mike Smith, Peter Powell, Simon Bates, Tommy Vance, Richard Skinner, Mike Read, Tony Blackburn, David Jensen, Andy Peebles, Janice Long, Jimmy Savile and Pat Sharp *29 December 1983 – Adrian John guest presented with Tommy Vance, Richard Skinner, Peter Powell and Gary Davies *25 December 1984 – no regular presenters featured with performers linking between songs *27 December 1984 – Lenny Henry *25 December 1985 – Jonathan King was guest presenter alongside John Peel, Janice Long, Dixie Peach, Steve Wright and Gary Davies *5 May 1988 – Adrian John co-presented with Bruno Brookes *11 August 1988 – Liz Kershaw was guest presenter with Bruno Brookes *6 October 1988 – Richard Skinner returned after three years to co-present with Simon Mayo *20 October 1988 – Caron Keating of Blue Peter co-presented with Steve Wright *17 November 1988 – Susie Mathis co-presented with Gary Davies *8 December 1988 – Caron Keating co-presented with Nicky Campbell *31 December 1988 – TOTP's 25th anniversary saw the return of Jimmy Savile, David Jacobs, Pete Murray, Alan Freeman, Kenny Everett, David Jensen, Tony Blackburn, David Hamilton and Peter Powell along with Paul Gambaccini alongside regular presenters Simon Bates, Mark Goodier and Mike Read *19 January 1989 – Richard Skinner co-presented with Bruno Brookes *23 February 1989 – Susie Mathis co-presented with Bruno Brookes *9 March 1989 – Lenny Henry co-presented with Hale and Pace and Nicky Campbell for Comic Relief. All would go on to hold the golden microphone in the mid-1990s (see below) *16 March 1989 – Rod McKenzie was guest presenter with Radio 1 breakfast show colleagues and TOTP presenters Simon Mayo and Sybil Ruscoe *15 June 1989 – Simon Parkin of the Children's BBC #Presentation|Broom Cupboard co-presented with Mark Goodier *29 June 1989 – Tim Smith was an uncredited co-presenter with Anthea Turner *27 July 1989 – Simon Parkin co-presented with Mark Goodier *28 December 1989 – Paul Gambaccini was guest presenter of a special end-of-decade show with Mike Read The 1991 Gulf War caused the episode due to be transmitted on 17 January 1991 to be rescheduled for Saturday 19 January. ==1991–1994 revamp: The break away from Radio 1 and Television Centre== When production moved to the BBC Elstree Centre in Hertfordshire, a new team of young presenters were introduced in place of the aging Radio 1 DJs. Tony Dortie and Claudia Simon had been working for Children's BBC, with Dortie having presented Saturday morning magazine UP2U (with former TOTP presenters Jenny Powell and Anthea Turner) in the summers of 1988 and 1989 and Simon being one of the presenters of BFT in 1990. Elayne Smith was an underground club DJ and compere who started hosting Channel 4 late-night variety show The 291 Club just a few weeks before the revamp. Smith left after just two episodes to concentrate on The 291 Club and was replaced in March 1992 by Femi Oke who was working at BBC Radio 5, whilst 17-year-old Mark Franklin was picked from local radio station BBC Radio Wiltshire. With a new theme tune and set of titles modelled on a weathervane, the first show was presented by Mark Franklin and Tony Dortie on 3 October 1991 with the first live performance Erasure's "Love to Hate You". The first show of the revamp attracted 8.93m viewers, over 1m up on the show's average. Performance rules were altered so that acts had to sing live whether they wanted to or not and performances reflected the current album charts and American Billboard Hot 100 as well as the UK Singles Chart. Two presenters from the team always hosted each episode until July 1992 when Tony Dortie and Mark Franklin began to host some shows individually. By October 1992, the rest of the team had been dropped completely. *Mark Franklin (1991–1994) *Tony Dortie (1991–1994) *Elayne Smith (7 November and 5 December 1991) *Claudia Simon (1991–1992) *Adrian Woolfe(1991–1992) credited on-screen as Adrian Rose *Steve Anderson (1991–1992) *Femi Oke (1992) Special appearances: *2 April 1992 – Harry Enfield and Paul Whitehouse were guest presenters under the alias of Smashie and Nicey *18 June 1992 – Bob Geldof guested as a co-presenter with Mark Franklin *17 December 1992 – Mr Blobby guested as a co-presenter with Tony Dortie *25 December 1992 – Sid Owen and Danniella Westbrook of EastEnders made guest appearances with Tony Dortie and Mark Franklin *25 December 1993 – Patsy Palmer of EastEnders made a guest appearance with Tony Dortie and Mark Franklin *4 January 1994 – Smashie and Nicey returned to present a special 30th birthday show *20 January 1994 – Joe Elliott of Def Leppard guested as a co-presenter with Tony Dortie On Thursday 11 June 1992, BBC One screened England's Euro 92 0–0 draw with Denmark so TOTP was moved to Saturday 13 June, broadcast at 5:30pm. ==1994: Return of the Radio 1 DJs== The presentation changes introduced in 1991 did not have the impact producers had hoped for and by 1993 only Mark Franklin and Tony Dortie remained from the revamped team. Despite claiming 9m viewers in January 1992, the success of the revamp was short-lived and by May 1992 less than 6.5m were tuning in – a figure which remained fairly constant for the next eighteen months. Reasons for the sustained lack of popularity for the show ranged wildly from a general apathy towards the music that featured in the charts at this time to claims that the graphics styled around the 'weathervane' idea were hard to read. Dortie and Franklin presented the show individually in rotation until January 1994 when Ric Blaxill replaced Stanley Appel as executive producer. Blaxill had produced shows for Radio 1 and had survived the first wave of change under new station controller Matthew Bannister which had seen many of the DJs deemed too old for the station to resign or be sacked. Of those DJs that survived Bannister's cull, Simon Mayo, Mark Goodier and Nicky Campbell had all presented TOTP prior to the 1991 revamp and were all reinstated as presenters from 3 February 1994. Also returning was Bruno Brookes, another stalwart of the pre-1991 presenting team, though he was fired from Radio 1 in a second wave of Bannister cullings in February 1995 and accordingly he left the Top of the Pops presenting roster in April. Newer recruits to Radio 1, including Lisa I'Anson, Wendy Lloyd, Claire Sturgess and Jo Whiley, augmented the presenting line-up. Blaxill's ambition was to make the show seem like an event and he wanted the presentation between each song to be as spontaneous as the music it was introducing. To do this Blaxill introduced the 'golden microphone' and increasingly experimented with celebrity guest presenters, mainly drawn from the realms of comedy and sport, as well as pop stars who were not promoting a single that week, to introduce the show. *Simon Mayo (1994–1995, plus 30 August 1996) *Mark Goodier (1994–1995, plus 28 March 1996) *Bruno Brookes (1994–1995) *Nicky Campbell (1994–1997) *Jo Whiley (1995–1998, plus 23 April and 14 May 2006) (with Steve Lamacq 1995–1996) *Lisa I'Anson (1995–1996) ==1994–1996: The golden mic – celebrity guest presenters== *17 March 1994 – Robbie Williams and Mark Owen of Take That *7 April 1994 – Andi Peters *14 April 1994 – Meat Loaf *12 May 1994 – Jack Dee *19 May 1994 – Alice Cooper co- presented with Bruno Brookes *9 June 1994 – Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer *16 June 1994 – Angus Deayton *7 July 1994 – Reg Presley of The Troggs co- presented with Mark Goodier *21 July 1994 – Julian Clary *25 August 1994 – Malcolm McLaren *1 September 1994 – Claire Sturgess *8 September 1994 – Brian Harvey and Tony Mortimer of East 17 *29 September 1994 – Claire Sturgess *6 October 1994 – Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis *20 October 1994 – Jarvis Cocker of Pulp *3 November 1994 – Kylie Minogue *17 November 1994 – Michelle Gayle *1 December 1994 – Lily Savage *8 December 1994 – Neneh Cherry *15 December 1994 – Damon Albarn of Blur *22 December 1994 – Gary Glitter *25 December 1994 – Take That *5 January 1995 – Jack Dee *26 January 1995 – Eternal *2 February 1995 – Kylie Minogue *9 February 1995 – Gary Olsen *23 February 1995 – Peter Cunnah of D:Ream *2 March 1995 – Keith Allen *16 March 1995 – Lenny Henry *30 March 1995 – P.J. and Duncan *13 April 1995 – Phill Jupitus *27 April 1995 – Chris Evans *4 May 1995 – Whigfield *11 May 1995 – Simon Mayo *18 May 1995 – Lisa I'Anson *25 May 1995 – Stewart Lee and Richard Herring *1 June 1995 – Mark Goodier *8 June 1995 – Nicky Campbell *15 June 1995 – Michelle Gayle *22 June 1995 – Simon Mayo *29 June 1995 – Mark Goodier *6 July 1995 – Wendy Lloyd *13 July 1995 – Dale Winton *20 July 1995 – Gayle Tuesday *27 July 1995 – Craig McLachlan *3 August 1995 – Mark Goodier *10 August 1995 – Lisa I'Anson *17 August 1995 – Wendy Lloyd *24 August 1995 – Jarvis Cocker *31 August 1995 – Dale Winton *7 September 1995 – Jo Brand and Mark Lamarr *14 September 1995 – Robbie Williams *21 September 1995 – Simon Mayo *28 September 1995 – Jo Whiley and Steve Lamacq *5 October 1995 – Gareth Hale and Norman Pace *12 October 1995 – Nicky Campbell *19 October 1995 – Stewart Lee and Richard Herring *26 October 1995 – Simon Mayo *2 November 1995 – Suggs *9 November 1995 – Lee Evans *16 November 1995 – Louise *23 November 1995 – Nicky Campbell *30 November 1995 – Jack Dee *7 December 1995 – Gary Glitter *14 December 1995 – John Peel *21 December 1995 – Ronan Keating and Stephen Gately of Boyzone *25 December 1995 – Jack Dee and Björk *4 January 1996 – Nicky Campbell *11 January 1996 – Lisa I'Anson *18 January 1996 – Alan Davies *25 January 1996 – Lulu *1 February 1996 – Lee Evans *8 February 1996 – Julian Cope *15 February 1996 – Justine Frischmann of Elastica *22 February 1996 – Lisa I'Anson *29 February 1996 – Nicky Campbell *7 March 1996 – Louise Wener of Sleeper *14 March 1996 – MN8 *21 March 1996 – Jo Whiley and Steve Lamacq *28 March 1996 – Mark Goodier *4 April 1996 – Dale Winton *11 April 1996 – Andi Peters *18 April 1996 – Bear van Beers *25 April 1996 – Chris Eubank *2 May 1996 – Michelle Gayle *9 May 1996 – Bear van Beers *16 May 1996 – Ian Wright *23 May 1996 – Skin of Skunk Anansie *30 May 1996 – Jack Dee and Jeremy Hardy On 13 June 1996, BBC One showed coverage of Switzerland vs Netherlands from Euro '96. Top of the Pops was accordingly moved from the Thursday to Friday, originally as a temporary move to incorporate the BBC's expansive portfolio of sport (as well as Euro '96, the 1996 Summer Olympic Games were also broadcast on the channel that summer), though it soon became clear that the move was permanent and, apart from a couple of one-off occasions on 25 June 1998 and 9 August 2001, TOTP never again returned to its original Thursday night slot. *14 June 1996 – Mark Owen *21 June 1996 – Julia Carling *28 June 1996 – Gina G *5 July 1996 – Mark Morrison *12 July 1996 – Bear van Beers *19 July 1996 – Keith Allen as 'Keithski' *2 August 1996 – Jas Mann of Babylon Zoo *9 August 1996 – Peter Andre *23 August 1996 – Bear van Beers *6 September 1996 – Julia Carling *13 September 1996 – Dennis Pennis *20 September 1996 – Tony Mortimer *27 September 1996 – Harry Hill *4 October 1996 – Tony Wright of Terrorvision *11 October 1996 – Bear van Beers *18 October 1996 – Nigel Kennedy *1 November 1996 – Julian Clary *8 November 1996 – Frankie Dettori *15 November 1996 – Charlie Higson, John Thomson, Paul Whitehouse and Mark Williams of The Fast Show *29 November 1996 – Ronan Keating and Stephen Gately *6 December 1996 – Gary Glitter *13 December 1996 – Ian Broudie of The Lightning Seeds *20 December 1996 – Shaun Ryder of Black Grape *25 December 1996 – Spice Girls, whose three performances were introduced by Robbie Williams, Mark Morrison and Gina G ==1994: Top of the Pops 2 and the magazine== As the show entered its fourth decade, Blaxill exploited the strength of the TOTP brand by introducing a tie-in publication Top of the Pops magazine, first published in January 1995, and by launching a sister show, Top of the Pops 2, to augment the weekly music programme. Originally featuring the best of the main show's studio performances from that week with tips for future hits, the 45-minute-long TOTP2 showcased for the first time the extensive performance archive initially through spotlights on particular artists and a rewind to a given year in music each week. Debuting on 17 September 1994 in a 5.15pm Saturday afternoon slot on BBC Two, Johnnie Walker provided voice-over introductions before the show began to draw solely on archive performances from 1997, when former TOTP host Steve Wright took over. TOTP2 moved to a midweek early-evening slot in 1998, retaining a Saturday afternoon repeat, and regularly became one of the most watched shows on the BBC's second channel. Following a revamp of BBC Two's early peak schedules in 2002, the 45-minute show was given over to two shows of twenty-five minutes, and shows began to select celebrity guest editors, such as Jack Dee, Phill Jupitus and Vic Reeves, to choose their own favourite performances from the archive. After being 'rested' in 2004, a reformatted show featuring two new studio performances per week returned for a final full series in 2006–7, to replace the axed main show. Mark Radcliffe replaced Wright as presenter in 2009. *Johnnie Walker (1994–1997) *Steve Wright (1997–2004, 2006–2007, 2008, 2009) *Mark Radcliffe (2009–2017) ==1997–2000: Into the new millennium== Ric Blaxill left in 1997, and the show was temporarily looked after by Mark Wells who continued his predecessor's policy of having rotating guest presenters. By this time, only Jo Whiley remained of the Radio 1 DJs introduced to the show by Blaxill, though Wells added Radio 1 Breakfast Show caretakers Mark Radcliffe and Marc Riley to the roster (although both Whiley and Radcliffe & Riley only appeared twice each between Blaxill's exit and the arrival of his permanent successor in June). With a background in 'serious' music broadcasting having worked on Channel 4's The Tube and The White Room, the new executive producer was Chris Cowey who stripped the show of the gimmicks bequeathed by its predecessors, increased the number of studio performances per week whilst reducing the reliance on music videos, and gradually built a new team of regular presenters with backgrounds in music television and radio to replace the celebrity guests. Alongside Whiley, who graduated from occasional host to lead presenter in June 1997, came Jayne Middlemiss and Zoe Ball. Middlemiss had presented music strand The O-Zone for Children's BBC since 1995, whilst Ball was given a full- time role after guest presenting in March 1997, and ahead of her posting as the host of Radio 1's coveted breakfast show in October. Fellow Radio 1 DJ Mary Anne Hobbs and Never Mind the Buzzcocks host Mark Lamarr were added to the team but were quickly dropped, though Jamie Theakston, co-host with Middlemiss on The O-Zone, and Ball on Live & Kicking arrived in January 1998 after guest presenting the previous October. All would continue to present The O-Zone and Live & Kicking concurrently with TOTP. Ball and Whiley departed in summer 1998 to be replaced by former Smash Hits editor Kate Thornton who established herself with Middlemiss and Theakston as lead presenters by autumn 1998. A revamp in May 1998 which included a change of title sequence, logo and theme music also saw a shift in focus from the Top 40 to the Top 20, with the chart rundown, now voiced every week by Radio 1 Chart Show host and former TOTP presenter Mark Goodier, extended from the Top 10 to Top 20. Children's TV presenter and model Gail Porter and Radio 1 DJ Scott Mills augmented the line- up from March 1999, and though Mills left in August, Porter continued with Middlemiss and Theakston as lead presenters into the new millennium. *Jo Whiley (1995–1998, plus 23 April and 14 May 2006) *Jayne Middlemiss (1997–2001) *Zoe Ball (1997–1998, 19 October 2001) *Jamie Theakston (3 October 1997, 1998–2002, 2003) *Kate Thornton (1998–1999) *Gail Porter (1999–2001) *Scott Mills (1999) ==1997: More celebrity guest presenters== *17 January 1997 – Rhona Cameron *24 January 1997 – Phil Daniels *31 January 1997 – Noddy Holder *7 February 1997 – Ardal O'Hanlon *14 February 1997 – Peter Andre *21 February 1997 – Ant and Dec *28 February 1997 – Ian Wright *14 March 1997 – Ian Broudie *21 March 1997 – Kylie Minogue *28 March 1997 – Zoe Ball *4 April 1997 – Mark and Lard (Mark Radcliffe and Marc Riley) *11 April 1997 – Mark Owen *18 April 1997 – Louise *25 April 1997 – Dannii Minogue *2 May 1997 – Cathy Dennis *16 May 1997 – Dannii Minogue *23 May 1997 – Mark and Lard *30 May 1997 – The Spice Girls *1 August 1997 – Mary Anne Hobbs *8 August 1997 – Phill Jupitus *15 August 1997 – Denise van Outen *22 August 1997 – Sarah Cawood *12 September 1997 – Mark Lamarr *3 October 1997 – Jamie Theakston *10 October 1997 – Mark Lamarr *31 October 1997 – Mary Anne Hobbs *28 November 1997 – Mark Lamarr *13 November 1998 – Katy Hill *10 September 1999 - Ana Boulter & Steve Wilson co-presented with Gail Porter *17 September 1999 – Emma Ledden & Ana Boulter *TOTP toured the country between 26 August (a rare Thursday show, broadcast on BBC2) and 15 October 1999. These shows were broadcast from different cities' nightclubs, in order: The Revolution, Edinburgh; Event II, Brighton; Club Wow, Sheffield; L2, Liverpool; Ikon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne; Dome II, Birmingham Black Orchid (Nottingham) and Time & Icon, Swansea *Former presenter Mark Goodier returned to voice the Top 20 countdown between 1997 and 2002. At the beginning of 2003, he was temporarily replaced by Scott Mills. Wes Butters voiced the countdown from February to November 2003. ==2000–2003: Developing the brand== Richard Blackwood became joint lead presenter in August 2000 and presented in rotation with Jayne Middlemiss, Jamie Theakston and Gail Porter. At the end of August 2001, Middlemiss left the presenting roster. Josie D'Arby, who had hosted an episode in October 2000, made a short-lived return in August 2001 but joined Gail Porter in exiting before the end of the year leaving Jamie Theakston as lead presenter until March 2002 when he was replaced by new recruits model Lisa Snowdon and former TOTP guest presenter Sarah Cawood. Liz Bonnin joined the team from Channel 4 breakfast show RI:SE in May and the majority of shows throughout 2002 were presented by these three presenters, with Theakston only returning for sporadic appearances, and again on a couple of occasions in 2003. After the 2000th edition on 13 September 2002, the presenting team continued to rotate solely between Liz Bonnin, Lisa Snowdon, Sarah Cawood alongside the returning Richard Blackwood until the new year. Blackwood's final show came on Christmas Day 2002, but the three females continued to present through 2003 along with an increasing number of occasional presenters drawn mainly from breakfast television and Radio 1. Colin Murray and Edith Bowman joined their former RI:SE teammate Liz Bonnin in mid-2003 and, though both were used sparingly, Bowman would return as relief presenter in 2006. Konnie Huq also presented three shows concurrent with her role as Blue Peter presenter in 2003. More successful was Huq's former Blue Peter colleague and The Big Breakfast host Richard Bacon who joined the presenting roster in January 2003, graduating to lead presenter by September. Along with newcomers and former children's television hosts Margherita Taylor, Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates, this quartet presented in rotating pairs until another revamp of TOTP took place in November 2003. *Jo Whiley (1997–1998) *Jayne Middlemiss (1997–2001) *Jamie Theakston (1997–2002, 2003) *Gail Porter (1999–2001, plus 2 May 2003) *Richard Blackwood (2000–2002) *Josie D'Arby (6 October 2000, 2001) *Sarah Cawood (2002–2003, plus 30 July 2006) *Lisa Snowdon (2002–2003) *Liz Bonnin (2002–2003) *Richard Bacon (2003, 2005–2006) *Colin Murray (2003) *Edith Bowman (2003, 2006) *Margherita Taylor (2003, plus 15 April 2005) *Konnie Huq (2003) *Fearne Cotton (2003, 2004–2020) *Reggie Yates (2003, 2004–2016) Guest appearances: *14 April 2000 – Sara Cox & Ana Boulter *29 May 2000 – Chris Moyles co-presented a special Bank Holiday Monday edition from Sheffield Arena as part of BBC Music Live alongside Jamie Theakston *6 October 2000 – Josie D'Arby *24 December 2000 – CBBC presenter Adrian Dickson hosted the Tweenies special *25 December 2000 – Sara Cox co-hosted with Jamie Theakston and Richard Blackwood *9 August 2001 – Sophie Ellis-Bextor, a show which was moved to Thursday *19 October 2001 – Zoe Ball and Jimmy Savile returned to present a show heralding the return to BBC Television Centre after ten years of recording at Elstree, with Jamie Theakston and Dermot O'Leary *16 November 2001 – Vernon Kay and Ana Boulter *25 December 2001 – Sara Cox co- hosted with Jamie Theakston *8 February 2002 – Dermot O'Leary *19 April 2002 – Melanie B *7 March 2003 – Ben Elton *4 April 2003 – Tony Blackburn co-hosted with Sarah Cawood and Lisa Snowdon *2 May 2003 – Gail Porter, former presenter, returns to co-host with Richard Bacon *27 June 2003 – Jonathan Ross co-presented with Fearne Cotton *15 August 2003 – Jack Osbourne co-presented with Edith Bowman *7 November 2003 – Ronan Keating co-hosted with Fearne Cotton, almost eight years after last appearing as a mid-'90s guest presenter == 2002–2006: Top of the Pops Saturday == In September 2002, in an attempt to combat the increasing ratings success of ITV's rival chart show CD:UK, the Top of the Pops brand diversified and a children's TV spin-off was created to run alongside the main show. Top of the Pops Saturday began on 21 September 2002 as a segment to fill the final 45 minutes of the BBC One Saturday morning kids programme The Saturday Show, presented by Fearne Cotton, who would graduate to presenting the main show from 2003. For the first season, Cotton co-presented with Simon Grant. Cotton alone continued to present the show after The Saturday Show ended its second season in 2003, with TOTP Saturday gaining its own stand-alone slot on BBC One at 11.00am, immediately following The Saturday Shows replacement Dick & Dom in da Bungalow. Following the removal of Saturday morning children's television from BBC One to BBC Two in 2005, the show was renamed Top of the Pops: Reloaded from 17 September until its end in March 2006. For this final season, Cotton was joined by former Pop Idol contestants Sam and Mark and Radio 1 DJs JK and Joel as co-presenters. The final show was shown on 25 March 2006. *Fearne Cotton (all episodes 2002–2006, plus the main TOTP show: 2003, 2004–) *Simon Grant (2002–2003) *Sam Nixon (2005–2006) *Mark Rhodes (2005–2006) *Jason King (2005–2006) *Joel Ross (2005–2006) ==2003: All New Top of the Pops revamp== In 2003, former Top of the Pops presenter Andi Peters became new executive producer and began another radical overhaul. The first edition of All New Top of the Pops was broadcast on 28 November 2003, presented live by former MTV video jockey Tim Kash. The ratings for the first show were 5.65m. Kash presented shows alone until 30 April 2004, after which he began to present with previous presenters Fearne Cotton and/or Reggie Yates, who eventually began to present shows together without Kash. After presenting 14 February 2003 episode, Cotton became a more prominent presenter from June 2003, with Yates also joining the presenting roster in August. Both continued to present regularly until the November 2003 revamp. Kash left to rejoin MTV, making his last appearance in August 2004, allowing Cotton and Yates to present alone. For three shows in October and November 2004, Radio 1 Breakfast Show host Chris Moyles was drafted in to co-host alongside Cotton and Yates, and this trio also fronted the last show of 2004 before Christmas in a show styled as a Radio 1 Christmas party. In 2003, Tim Kash became only the third presenter, after Jimmy Savile in 1971 and Noel Edmonds in 1978, to host Christmas Top of the Pops solo. *Tim Kash (2003–2004) *Fearne Cotton (2004–2020) *Reggie Yates (2004–2016) *Chris Moyles (2004, plus 29 May 2000, 22 April 2005 and 14 May 2006) Only two shows between April 2004 and March 2006 did not feature either Fearne Cotton or Reggie Yates: *6 February 2004 – Natalie Brown covered Kash when he was absent. *15 April 2005 – Richard Bacon and Margherita Taylor returned as relief presenters to host, eighteen months after their last show together. *22 April 2005 – Chris Moyles and his Radio 1 breakfast show colleagues, Aled Haydn Jones, Rachel Jones and Dave Vitty were guest presenters. ==2005–2006: The move to BBC Two and the end – return of guest presenters== In November 2004, it was announced that Top of the Pops would move from its primetime slot on Friday nights on BBC One to a new Sunday night slot on BBC Two, a move largely viewed as the last sidelining of the show before inevitable cancellation. The move was initially intended to take place in Spring 2005 and an 'extended format' was promised but the show remained on BBC One until July 2005 with the final Friday show on 8 July followed by another episode the following Monday. The first BBC Two show ran for 35 minutes, five minutes longer than the BBC One show, and aired live on Sunday 17 July 2005 at 7pm, immediately after the announcement of the new week's chart and incorporated elements of TOTP2, which had been rested a year previously, by showing two archive performances alongside the new music. However, viewing figures halved within a fortnight of the new scheduling, from an average of 2.4 million viewers on BBC One to around 1.5 million on BBC Two. The ratings never improved, despite the show going on location to the 2006 Winter Olympics and Radio 1's One Big Weekend, and on 20 June 2006 the BBC announced that Top of the Pops was being axed due to no longer being able to compete with 24-hour cable music channels, with the final episode airing on 30 July 2006. New executive producer Mark Cooper oversaw a return to the use of guest presenters, a full list of which is given below, but unlike in the '90s, this time the celebrities were paired with one of the already established lead presenting team of Fearne Cotton, Reggie Yates, and newcomer comedian Rufus Hound. The three lead presenters appeared on all of the BBC Two shows between them and when not joined by a celebrity co-host they presented in pairs with each other or with one of the secondary presenting team of Richard Bacon and, from January 2006, Edith Bowman. Occasionally, the show was moved from Sunday nights but remained a live broadcast, as was the case on the following Mondays: 15 August 2005, 16 January 2006 and the five shows between 13 February and 13 March 2006. The show was also once transmitted on a Tuesday: 11 July 2006. In May 2006, BBC staff were asked to form the audience for several Top of the Pops shows after it emerged that the BBC did not have a premises licence for hosting public entertainment events at Television Centre. Lead presenters: * Fearne Cotton (2004–2020) * Reggie Yates (2004–2016) * Rufus Hound (2005–2006) Relief presenters: * Richard Bacon (2005–2006) * Edith Bowman (2006) Guest presenters: * 17 July 2005 – Phill Jupitus * 24 July 2005 – Jeremy Clarkson * 31 July 2005 – Christian O'Connell * 15 August 2005 – Phil Tufnell * 28 August 2005 – Lulu * 4 September 2005 – Phill Jupitus * 11 September 2005 – Suggs * 2 October 2005 – Jeremy Bowen * 9 October 2005 – Richard Hammond * 16 October 2005 – Phill Jupitus * 6 November 2005 – Anastacia * 13 November 2005 – Sharon Osbourne * 27 November 2005 – Noddy Holder * 18 December 2005 – Justin Lee Collins (1.89m viewers) * 25 December 2005 – Shane Richie * 16 January 2006 – Peter Kay as Brian Potter from Phoenix Nights * 29 January 2006 – James May * 13 February 2006 – Sue Barker and Colin Jackson, from the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin * 27 February 2006 – Jocelyn Brown and Matt Allwright * 13 March 2006 – Cyndi Lauper * 19 March 2006 – Trevor Nelson * 26 March 2006 – Jo Brand * 2 April 2006 – Trevor Nelson * 23 April 2006 – Jo Whiley * 7 May 2006 – Trevor Nelson * 14 May 2006 – Vernon Kay, Chris Moyles and Jo Whiley, as part of Radio 1's One Big Weekend in Dundee * 21 May 2006 – Diarmuid Gavin * 28 May 2006 – Preston of The Ordinary Boys * 4 June 2006 – Spoony * 18 June 2006 – Annie Mac * 11 July 2006 – Annie Mac – from T in the Park * 30 July 2006 – Jimmy Savile, Tony Blackburn, Dave Lee Travis, Mike Read, Pat Sharp, Janice Long, Sarah Cawood, Edith Bowman, Reggie Yates, Rufus Hound – an assortment of presenters past and present return for the last weekly show . Fearne Cotton, who was unavailable, also presented a brief pre-recorded segment from Fiji (3.98m viewers) ==2006–2022: After the end: Occasional events-led returns== ===Top of the Pops 2=== After being taken off the air in 2004, sister show Top of the Pops 2 was resurrected for a new run on Saturday nights at 8pm which reverted to the old format of mixing archive clips with new studio performances. The new series began two months after the original show ended, on Saturday 30 September 2006, with new studio performances provided by Nelly Furtado and Razorlight and a Top 10 chart rundown. All the episodes in this series followed the familiar TOTP2 presentation of no on-screen presentation, but rather a voiceover from Steve Wright: *30 September 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Razorlight: America and Nelly Furtado: Promiscuous *7 October 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Richard Hawley: Just Like The Rain and Jamelia: Something About You *14 October 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Nerina Pallot: Sophia and Seth Lakeman: The White Hare *21 October 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Amy Winehouse: Rehab *28 October 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Vincent Vincent and the Villains: Johnny Two Bands *4 November 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); All Saints: Rock Steady and Gnarls Barkley: Who Cares *11 November 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Emma Bunton: Downtown and Ray Lamontagne: How Come *18 November 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Sandi Thom: Lonely Girl and Tony Bennett: Lullaby of Broadway *25 November 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Damien Rice: 9 Crimes *2 December 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); The Fratellis: Whistle for the Choir *9 December 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Lil Chris: Gettin' Enough and Lily Allen: Littlest Things *16 December 2006 – Steve Wright (voice only); Kasabian: Empire *6 January 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Muse: Starlight *13 January 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Just Jack: Starz in their Eyes *20 January 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Regina Spektor: Fidelity *3 February 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Simon Webbe: My Soul Pleads For You, Duke Special: Freewheel and Kaiser Chiefs: Ruby *10 February 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); The Feeling: Rose, Louise Setara: Wrong Again and Findlay Brown: Come Here *17 February 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Jack Savoretti: Dreamers and James Hunter: No Smoke Without Fire *24 February 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); The View: Same Jeans and Corinne Bailey Rae: I'd Like To *3 March 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Madness: Sorry *10 March 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Westlife: Total Eclipse of The Heart and Maximo Park: Our Velocity *17 March 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Good Charlotte: The River, Lemar: Tick Tock and Muse: Invincible *24 March 2007 – Steve Wright (voice only); Kaiser Chiefs: The Angry Mob Following the 2006–7 run, TOTP2 returned only to mark one-off special occasions and dropped the new performances. Such shows were dedicated to certain musicians such as Wham! and Duran Duran in 2010, as well as the death of Michael Jackson in 2009, or marked special occasions such as Christmas and New Year in 2008 and 2009, or tie-ins with a particular season of BBC programmes such as the School season which featured a back-to-school special to mark the end of the 2010 summer holidays, and an '80s-themed show to mark the final series of BBC TV drama Ashes to Ashes, also in 2010. ===Continued TOTP=== As well as the intermittent broadcasts of TOTP2 on BBC Two and a yearly Christmas Day show which remained on BBC One until 2022, Top of the Pops is survived by occasional 'event-led' broadcasts. It has twice returned for special shows for the BBC's biennial Comic Relief charity fundraiser in 2007 and 2009, with the following presenters: *16 March 2007 – Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May – Top Gear of the Pops for Comic Relief 2007 *13 March 2009 – Fearne Cotton, Reggie Yates, Noel Fielding, French and Saunders, Davina McCall, Jonathan Ross, David Tennant and Claudia Winkleman – Comic Relief does Top of the Pops From 2006 to 2021, an annual BBC One show which looks back at the previous year in music also appears each Christmas Day originally broadcast at 2pm but in later years at around 12pm. In 2009 and from 2012 to 2021, a second festive episode has followed on or around New Year's Eve with a New Year's Eve party theme: *25 December 2006 – Fearne Cotton, Reggie Yates and Edith Bowman *25 December 2007 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2008 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2008 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2009 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2009 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2010 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2011 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2012 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2012 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2013 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2013 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2014 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2014 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2015 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *1 January 2016 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2016 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *31 December 2016 – Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates *25 December 2017 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *31 December 2017 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *25 December 2018 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *28 December 2018 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *25 December 2019 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *30 December 2019 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *25 December 2020 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *31 December 2020 – Fearne Cotton and Clara Amfo *25 December 2021 – Clara Amfo and Jordan North *31 December 2021 – Clara Amfo and Jordan North The festival specials did not return in 2022, and were replaced by an end-of-year review show on BBC Two: *24 December 2022 – Clara Amfo and Jack Saunders The BBC has faced repeated calls for the return of the weekly chart show, but has insisted that this will never happen. In August 2010, however, the BBC disclosed that it was in talks with independent production companies with a view to developing a new weekly music show for BBC Three to begin sometime in 2011, although no such show was ever broadcast. In 2017 the BBC launched Sounds Like Friday Night, a new live music show hosted by Greg James and Dotty; it lasted just two series. ==References== Top of the Pops Presenters Top of the Pops
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