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The Grand Surrey Canal was a canal constructed in south London, England during the early 19th century. It opened to the Old Kent Road in 1807, to Camberwell in 1810, and to Peckham in 1826. Its main purpose was to transport cargo, primarily timber (or 'deal') from the Surrey Commercial Docks. The Grand Surrey Canal closed progressively from the 1940s, with all but the Greenland Dock closing in the 1970s. Much of the route is traceable, as it has been turned into roadways and linear parks. ==History== During the late 1700s, there were a number of proposals for canals on the south bank of the River Thames, and several of the prominent canal engineers of the time were involved. John Smeaton looked at two possible routes for a canal between Kingston upon Thames and Ewell in 1778. Ralph Dodd, who was also involved with promoting the Thames and Medway Canal, proposed a canal with a number of branches linking Deptford, Clapham, Kingston, Ewell, Epsom, Mitcham and Croydon. A plan for a canal from Croydon to Wandsworth was thought to be impractical by William Jessop and John Rennie, because the main source of water in the area through which it would run was the River Wandle, and this supplied a number of mills which would be affected if the river was used to supply the canal. Jessop also advised on a canal from Vauxhall to Rotherhithe in 1796, while in 1799, a railway from London through Croydon to Portsmouth, using horses to pull the wagons, was suggested. Eventually, three projects were submitted to parliament for approval. These were the Grand Surrey Canal, at the time called the Kent and Surrey Canal, the Croydon Canal linking Croydon and Rotherhithe, and the Surrey Iron Railway, a horse-drawn linking Croydon to Wandsworth, and all three were authorised in 1801. The Grand Surrey Canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 21 May 1801, which created the Company of Proprietors of the Grand Surrey Canal, and gave them powers to raise £60,000 by issuing shares, and an additional £30,000 if required. They were authorised to build a canal from Rotherhithe, on the River Thames, to Mitcham in what was then Surrey, with branches to any places within of the main line. Branches to Deptford, Peckham, the Borough, and one to rejoin the Thames at Vauxhall were included, but proposals for a branch from Mitcham to Croydon, and another to Kingston, which would have created a route to bypass the Thames through London, were removed from the bill during the committee stages. Those who opposed the canal ensured that clauses restricting use of water from the Wandle were inserted. thumb|left|Grand Surrey Canal on Mogg Pocket or Case Map of London, 1806 Work began on the canal, but at the same time, the London dock system was in its early stages of development, and there were proposals by John Hall in 1802 to construct a dock at Rotherhithe, close to the lock by which the canal gained access to the Thames. The canal company agreed to construct it in 1803, and although it was poorly funded, the basin, together with a ship lock, was completed and opened on 13 March 1807. The Croydon Canal, which had also been authorised in 1801, proposed to join the Surrey Canal near Deptford, to save having to construct a parallel route to the Thames. The prospect of rent from this arrangement helped the company to open the first of the canal, as far as the Old Kent Road, in 1807, but their resolve to complete the canal had been lost, as the docks seemed a more lucrative prospect. However, a second Act of Parliament, obtained in 1807, authorised them to raise another £60,000, which was used to extend the canal to Memel Wharf and a basin at Camberwell. This work was completed in 1810. So far, the route had been level, but to go any further would have needed locks or inclined planes, and the expected costs of their construction did not inspire the company to proceed with them. A short branch of about was constructed in 1826, running from Glengall Wharf to Peckham Basin. Two further acts of parliament were obtained in 1808 and 1811 to allow new funds to be committed to the project. ===Development=== In 1812, the canal was closed for two months while the company finished work on a new dock and connecting lock, which opened in November. Although no extensions to the canal other than the Peckham Branch were made, there was intermittent interest in such schemes. Some land was bought along the route of an extension from Camberwell to Kennington, which was considered in 1817, but was rejected because construction would require a deep cutting, restricting the amount of land available for wharves. The Peckham Branch, when it opened in May 1826, ended at a basin which was , because of the demand for wharf space. When the London and Croydon Railway bill was passing through Parliament in 1835, which would result in the closure of the Croydon Canal, the Grand Surrey company managed to insert clauses into the bill to protect their canal against a low-level railway crossing, but failed to include a compensation clause for loss of trade from the Croydon Canal when it closed in 1838. The engineer Henry Price approached the company in 1835 with a grand scheme for branches from the canal to the Thames at Vauxhall and Deptford, which would provide a route which was some shorter than the river route between Vauxhall and Rotherhithe. The scheme also included a railway along the bank of the canal from Vauxhall to Deptford, with a branch to Elephant and Castle. A prospectus was issued for the Grand Surrey Dock, Canal and Junction Railway Company, but there was little interest in subscribing the £600,000 capital needed, and the scheme foundered. Another scheme in 1850 was for a canal to the Kennet and Avon Canal at Reading, with branches to the Thames at Maidenhead, Datchet, Staines, Richmond, Mortlake, Wandsworth and Vauxhall. The route would have reduced the distance between Reading and Deptford from to , but it seems unlikely that the estimated cost of only £500,000 was realistic. The Rotherhithe end of the canal saw many changes, as the docks developed. As first built, the canal ended at the Stave Dock, which was connected to the Thames by a lock. This was replaced by a new lock in 1860, built to the west of the original, which linked the Thames to a triangular basin, known as the Surrey Basin, which was itself linked to Island Dock and Albion Dock. Island Dock led into Russia dock, where the canal had an entrance lock. The Commercial Dock Company built a number of docks to the east, and the rivalry between the two companies ended in 1864, when they amalgamated and the complex became part of the Surrey Commercial Docks. The canal entrance lock was swept away in 1904, when the Greenland Dock was extended, and a new entrance lock was built on its south side. By this time, nearly of the original canal had been destroyed by dock construction. thumb|left|Grand Surrey Canal on Davies Pocket Map of London, 1852 During the second half of the 19th century, the canal was used by the South Metropolitan Gas Company to supply coal using its own fleet of tugs and barges to its gas works site on the Old Kent Road. The canal was also heavily used to move timber. Tolls for use of the canal were collected at four toll-houses, which were situated near Wells Street bridge in Camberwell, by the junction with the Peckham Branch, by the junction with the Croydon Canal, and at the junction with Greenland Dock. At each there was a gate across the towpath, which prevented progress until a toll had been paid. The gate was known as a "hatch", from the word for a gate or sluice, and the toll-houses were also called hatches by association. The canal was never very profitable, as stiff competition between the London dock companies kept toll rates low. A first dividend of 2 per cent was paid in 1819, which increased to 3 per cent the following year, but remained at or below this figure for the life of the canal. Below the junction with the Croydon Canal, a railway bridge was built for the Deptford Wharf branch, which was authorised by the London and Croydon Railway Act of 1846. In 1854, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway gained an Act, and the Deptford Wharf Branch was re-routed over the canal at a lower level. The canal company campaigned for a swing bridge to be built, but the Railway Commissioners overruled their objections, and a vertical lifting bridge was installed. This was wide and long, and provided of headroom when it was raised. Operation was initially manual, but electric motors were later installed, and it continued to operate until the branch was lifted in 1964. The Grand Surrey Canal was the first to have canal police (forerunners of the British Transport Police). "Bank rangers" were appointed in 1811 to keep law and order along the length of the canal. ===Demise=== London's docks were rationalised in 1908, with the formation of the Port of London Authority. The canal was managed as part of Surrey Docks, and although there were few changes to its operation, it became known as the Surrey Canal. Despite the large number of railway bridges which crossed it, the railways were not in direct competition with the canal. There was a railway interchange on the remains of the Croydon Canal, and South Dock was served by the Deptford Branch railway, but neither offered a real threat, and the canal continued to thrive until the expansion of road transport after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The Camberwell basin and the final of the canal were abandoned in the 1940s, and had been filled in by 1960. The timber trade to the docks ceased in the early 1970s, resulting in the docks closing, and the canal being filled in. ===Present day=== The section of canal between South Bermondsey and Deptford was opened as a vehicular road and renamed Surrey Canal Road in the 1980s, linking Ilderton Road with Trundleys Road. Where the canal crossed Trundleys Road and proceeded towards the Evelyn Street and the docks was utilised as a private access road called Canal Approach to serve the warehouses and industrial sites that still existed along the top end of the canal's route. The former canal side offices and buildings opposite Deptford Park on Grinstead Road were largely demolished and replaced by a modern Barratt development of flats called Inwen Court. Part of the route within the London Borough of Lewisham is now the Surrey Canal Linear Park, construction of which was funded by money from nearby housing developments at Cannon and Marine Wharf and Deptford Wharves. The former Camberwell Basin and the final now form part of the site of Burgess Park. The bridge over the canal which was built in 1906, remains as a feature in Burgess Park, and is now known as the Bridge to Nowhere. Most of the Peckham branch, including its bridges and walls, is now a walking and cycling route, known both as the Surrey Canal Walk and Surrey Canal Linear Path (not to be confused with Lewisham's Surrey Canal Linear Park). Peckham Library has been built over the terminal basin. The Greenland Dock remains in water, and is connected to the South Dock, now a marina, which gives access to the River Thames through a lock. ==21st century== See New Bermondsey railway station#Development in the local area. ==Points of interest== ==See also== *Canals of the United Kingdom *History of the British canal system ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * ==External links== *London Canals:The Grand Surrey Canal Category:Canals in England Category:Canals in London Category:Geography of the London Borough of Southwark Category:History of transport in London Category:Port of London Category:Canals opened in 1810
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Since the 19th century, the United States government has participated and interfered, both overtly and covertly, in the replacement of many foreign governments. In the latter half of the 19th century, the U.S. government initiated actions for regime change mainly in Latin America and the southwest Pacific, including the Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars. At the onset of the 20th century, the United States shaped or installed governments in many countries around the world, including neighbors Hawai`i, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. During World War II, the United States helped overthrow many Nazi German or Imperial Japanese puppet regimes. Examples include regimes in the Philippines, Korea, East China, and parts of Europe. United States forces, together with the Soviet Union, were also instrumental in removing Adolf Hitler from power in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. In the aftermath of World War II, the U.S. government struggled with the Soviet Union for global leadership, influence and security within the context of the Cold War. Under the Eisenhower administration, the U.S. government feared that communism would be spread, sometimes with the assistance of the Soviet Union's own involvement in regime change, and promoted the domino theory, with later presidents following Eisenhower's precedent. Subsequently, the United States expanded the geographic scope of its actions beyond traditional area of operations, Central America and the Caribbean. Significant operations included the United States and United Kingdom-orchestrated 1953 Iranian coup d'état, the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion targeting Cuba, and support for the overthrow of Sukarno by General Suharto in Indonesia. In addition, the U.S. has interfered in the national elections of countries, including Italy in 1948, the Philippines in 1953, Japan in the 1950s and 1960s Lebanon in 1957, and Russia in 1996. According to one study, the U.S. performed at least 81 overt and covert known interventions in foreign elections during the period 1946–2000. Citing Conflict Management and Peace Science, September 19, 2016 "Partisan Electoral Interventions by the Great Powers: Introducing the PEIG Dataset," http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0738894216661190 According to another study, the U.S. engaged in 64 covert and six overt attempts at regime change during the Cold War. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States has led or supported wars to determine the governance of a number of countries. Stated U.S. aims in these conflicts have included fighting the War on Terror, as in the Afghan War, or removing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), as in the Iraq War. == Prior to 1887 == === 1846–1848 Annexation of Texas and invasion of California === The United States annexed the Republic of Texas, at the time considered by Mexico to be a rebellious state of Mexico.Greenberg, Amy (2012), A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico (1989: Knopf) p. 33 During the war with Mexico that ensued, the United States seized Alta California from Mexico.Zinn, Howard (2003) "Chapter 8: We take nothing by conquest, Thank God". A People's History of the United States, (New York: HarperCollins Publishers) p. 169 === 1865–1867: Mexico === While the American Civil War was taking place in the United States, France and other countries invaded Mexico to collect debts. France then installed Habsburg prince Maximilian I as the Emperor of Mexico. After the Civil war ended, the United States began supporting the Liberal forces of Benito Juárez (who had been the interim President of Mexico since 1858 under the liberal Constitution of 1857 and then elected as president in 1861 before the French invasion) against the forces of Maximilian. The United States began sending and dropping arms into Mexico and many Americans fought alongside Juarez. Eventually, Juarez and the Liberals took back power and executed Maximillian I.Robert H. Buck, Captain, Recorder. Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States Commandery of the state of Colorado, Denver. 10 April 1907. Indiana State Library. The United States opposed Maximilian and had invoked the Monroe Doctrine. William Seward said afterwards "The Monroe Doctrine, which eight years ago was merely a theory, is now an irreversible fact." == 1887–1912: U.S. expansionism and Roosevelt administration == === 1880s === ==== 1887–1889: Samoa ==== thumb|Samoa in Oceania In the 1880s, Samoa was a monarchy with two rival claimants to the throne: Malietoa Laupepa and Mata'afa Iosefo. The Samoan crisis was a confrontation between the United States, Germany and the United Kingdom from 1887 to 1889, with the powers backing rival claimants to the throne of the Samoan Islands which became the First Samoan Civil War. === 1890s === ==== 1893: Kingdom of Hawaii ==== thumb|Hawaii in Oceania Anti-monarchs, mostly Americans, in Hawaii, engineered the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. On January 17, 1893, the native monarch, Queen Lili'uokalani, was overthrown. Hawaii was initially reconstituted as an independent republic, but the ultimate goal of the action was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which was finally accomplished with the Newlands Resolution of 1898. ====1899-1901: Boxer Rebellion==== ==== 1899–1902: Philippines ==== The successful Philippine Revolution saw the defeat of the Spanish Empire and the establishment of the First Philippine Republic, ending centuries of Spanish colonial rule in the archipelago. The U.S., which had allied with the revolutionaries and emerged victorious in the concurrent Spanish–American War, was "granted" the Philippines in the Treaty of Paris. Wishing to establish its own control over the country, the U.S. engaged in the Philippine–American War, the success of which saw the dissolution of the self-governing Philippine Republic and formation of an Insular Government of the Philippine Islands in 1902. The Philippines became a self-governing Commonwealth in 1935 and was granted full sovereignty by 1946. === 1900s === ==== 1903–1925: Honduras ==== frameless|right In what became known as the "Banana Wars," between the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 and the inception of the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934, the U.S. staged many military invasions and interventions in Central America and the Caribbean. One of these incursions, in 1903, involved regime change rather than regime preservation. The United States Marine Corps, which most often fought these wars, developed a manual called The Strategy and Tactics of Small Wars in 1921 based on its experiences. On occasion, the Navy provided gunfire support and Army troops were also used. The United Fruit Company and Standard Fruit Company dominated Honduras' key banana export sector and associated land holdings and railways. The U.S. staged invasions and incursions of US troops in 1903 (supporting a coup by Manuel Bonilla), 1907 (supporting Bonilla against a Nicaraguan-backed coup), 1911 and 1912 (defending the regime of Miguel R. Davila from an uprising), 1919 (peacekeeping during a civil war, and installing the caretaker government of Francisco Bográn), 1920 (defending the Bográn regime from a general strike), 1924 (defending the regime of Rafael López Gutiérrez from an uprising) and 1925 (defending the elected government of Miguel Paz Barahona) to defend US interests. ==== 1906–1909: Cuba ==== frameless|right After the explosion of the USS Maine the United States declared war on Spain, starting the Spanish–American War.Declaration of War with Spain, 1898 (H.R. 10086), United States Senate The United States invaded and occupied Spanish-ruled Cuba in 1898. Many in the United States did not want to annex Cuba and passed the Teller Amendment, forbidding annexation. Cuba was occupied by the U.S. and run by military governor Leonard Wood during the first occupation from 1898 to 1902, after the end of the war. The Platt Amendment was passed later on outlining U.S. Cuban relations. It said the U.S. could intervene anytime against a government that was not approved, forced Cuba to accept U.S. influence, and limited Cuban abilities to make foreign relations. The United States forced Cuba to accept the terms of the Platt Amendment, by putting it into their constitution.US archives online , Date of ratification by Cuba After the occupation, Cuba and the U.S. would sign the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations in 1903, further agreeing to the terms of the Platt Amendment. Tomás Estrada Palma became the first President of Cuba after the U.S. withdrew. He was a member of the Republican Party of Havana. He was re-elected in 1905 unopposed; however, the Liberals accused him of electoral fraud. Fighting began between the Liberals and Republicans. Due to the tensions he resigned on September 28, 1906, and his government collapsed soon afterwards. U.S. Secretary of State William Howard Taft invoked the Platt Amendment and the 1903 treaty, under approval of President Theodore Roosevelt, invading the country, and occupying it. The country would be governed by Charles Edward Magoon during the occupation. They oversaw the election of José Miguel Gómez in 1909, and afterwards withdrew from the country. ==== 1909–1910: Nicaragua ==== Governor Juan José Estrada, member of the Conservative Party, led a revolt against President José Santos Zelaya, member of the Liberal Party reelected in 1906. This became what is known as the Estrada rebellion. The United States supported the conservative forces because Zelaya had wanted to work with Germany or Japan to build a new canal through the country. The U.S. controlled the Panama Canal and did not want competition from another country outside of the Americas. Thomas P Moffat, a US council in Bluefields, Nicaragua would give overt support, in conflict with the US trying to only give covert support. Direct intervention would be pushed by the secretary of state Philander C. Knox. Two Americans were executed by Zelaya for their participation with the conservatives. Seeing an opportunity the United States became directly involved in the rebellion and sent in troops, which landed on the Mosquito Coast. On December 14, 1909 Zelaya was forced to resign under diplomatic pressure from America and fled Nicaragua. Before Zelaya fled, he along with the liberal assembly choose José Madriz to lead Nicaragua. The U.S. refused to recognize Madriz. The conservatives eventually beat back the liberals and forced Madriz to resign. Estrada then became the president. Thomas Cleland Dawson was sent as a special agent to the country and determined that any election held would bring the liberals into power, so had Estrada set up a constituent assembly to elect him instead. In August 1910 Estrada became President of Nicaragua under U.S. recognition, agreeing to certain conditions from the U.S. After the intervention, the U.S. and Nicaragua signed a treaty on June 6, 1911.Langley, Lester D. (1983). The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. == 1912–1941: Wilson administration, World War I and interwar period == === 1910s === ==== 1912–1933: Nicaragua ==== frameless|right The Taft administration sent troops into Nicaragua and occupied the country. When the Wilson administration came into power, they extended the stay and took complete financial and governmental control of the country, leaving a heavily armed legation. U.S. president Calvin Coolidge removed troops from the country, leaving a legation and Adolfo Diaz in charge of the country. Rebels ended up capturing the town with the legation and Diaz requested troops came back, which they did a few months after leaving. The U.S. government fought against rebels led by Augusto Cesar Sandino. Franklin D. Roosevelt pulled out because the U.S. could no longer afford to keep troops in the country due to the Great Depression. The second intervention in Nicaragua would become one of the longest wars in United States history. The United States left the Somoza family in charge, who killed Sandino in 1934. ==== 1915–1934: Haiti ==== frameless|right The U.S. occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934. U.S.-based banks had lent money to Haiti and the banks requested U.S. government intervention. In an example of "gunboat diplomacy," the U.S. sent its navy to intimidate to get its way.David Healy, "Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The U.S. Navy in Haiti, 1915–1916," (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976) Eventually, in 1917, the U.S. installed a new government and dictated the terms of a new Haitian constitution of 1917 that instituted changes that included an end to the prior ban on land ownership by non-Haitians. The Cacos were originally armed militias of formerly enslaved persons who rebelled and took control of mountainous areas following the Haitian Revolution in 1804. Such groups fought a guerrilla war against the U.S. occupation in what were known as the "Caco Wars."Giles A. Hubert, War and the Trade Orientation of Haiti, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1053341.pdf ==== 1916–1924: Dominican Republic ==== frameless|right U.S. marines invaded the Dominican Republic and occupied it from 1916 to 1924, and this was preceded by US military interventions in 1903, 1904, and 1914. The US Navy installed its personnel in all key positions in government and controlled the Dominican military and police. Within a couple of days, President Juan Isidro Jimenes resigned. ==== 1917: Costa Rica ==== Costa Rica was the only country in Latin America that never had a long lasting authoritarian government in the 20th century. Its only dictatorship during the period was after the 1917 Costa Rican coup d'état led by Minister of War Federico Tinoco Granados against President Alfredo González Flores after González attempted to increase tax on the wealthy, and it lasted only two years. The US government led by Democratic President Woodrow Wilson did not recognize Tinoco's rule and helped the opposition that quickly overthrew Tinoco after a few months of warfare. ==== World War I ==== ===== 1917–1919: Germany ===== After the release of the Zimmermann Telegram the United States joined the First World War on April 6, 1917, declaring war on the German Empire, a monarchy.S.J. Res. 1 : Declaration of War with Germany, WW1, United States Senate The Wilson Administration made abdication of the Kaiser and the creation of a German Republic a requirement of surrender. Woodrow Wilson had made U.S. policy to "Make the World Safe for Democracy". Germany surrendered November 11, 1918. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 28, 1918. While the United States did not ratify it, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 had much input from the United States. It mandated for Kaiser Wilhelm II to be removed from the government and tried, though the second part was never carried out. Germany would then become the Weimar Republic, a liberal democracy. The United States signed the U.S.-German peace Treaty in 1921, solidifying the agreements made previously to the rest of the Entente with the U.S. ===== 1917–1920: Austria-Hungary ===== frameless|right On December 7, 1917, the United States declared war on Austria-Hungary, a monarchy, as part of World War I.H.J.Res.169: Declaration of War with Austria- Hungary, WWI, United States Senate Austria-Hungary surrendered on November 3, 1918. Austria became a republic and signed Treaty of Saint Germain in 1919 effectively dissolving Austria-Hungary. The Treaty disallowed Austria to ever unite with Germany. Even though the United States had much effect on the treaty it did not ratify it and instead signed the U.S.-Austrian Peace Treaty in 1921, solidifying their new borders and government to the United States. After brief civil strife, the Kingdom of Hungary became a monarchy without a monarch, instead governed by Miklós Horthy as Regent. Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon, in 1920 with the Entente, without the United States. They signed the U.S.-Hungarian Peace Treaty in 1921 solidifying their status and borders with the United States. ===== 1918–1920: Russia ===== frameless|right In 1918 the U.S. military took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support White movement and overthrow the Bolsheviks. President Wilson agreed to send 5,000 United States Army troops in the campaign. This force, which became known as the "American North Russia Expeditionary Force"E.M. Halliday, When Hell Froze Over (New York City, NY, ibooks, inc., 2000), p. 44 (a.k.a. the Polar Bear Expedition) launched the North Russia Campaign from Arkhangelsk, while another 8,000 soldiers, organised as the American Expeditionary Force Siberia,Robert L. Willett, Russian Sideshow, pp. 166–167, 170 launched the Siberia intervention from Vladivostok.Beyer, Rick, "The Greatest Stories Never Told" 2003: A&E; Television Networks / The History Channel, pp. 152–153, The forces were withdrawn in 1920.A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005. == 1941–1945: World War II and aftermath == === 1940s === ==== 1941–1952: Japan ==== In December 1941, the US joined the Allies in war against the Empire of Japan, a monarchy. After the Allied victory, Japan was occupied by Allied forces under the command of American general Douglas MacArthur. In 1946, the Japanese Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan that followed closely a 'model copy' prepared by MacArthur's command,Takemae, Eiji 2002, p. xxxvii. and was promulgated as an amendment to the old Prussian- style Meiji Constitution. The constitution renounced aggressive war and was accompanied by liberalization of many areas of Japanese life. While liberalizing life for most Japanese, the Allies tried many Japanese war criminals and executed some, while granting amnesty to the family of Emperor Hirohito.Dower, John. 'Embracing Defeat. Penguin, 1999. . p. 246. The occupation was ended by the Treaty of San Francisco. Following the United States invasion of Okinawa during the Pacific War, the U.S. installed the United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands. Pursuant to a treaty with the Japanese government (Message of Emperor), in 1950 the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands took over and ruled Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands until 1972. During this "trusteeship rule," the U.S. built numerous military bases, including bases that operated nuclear weapons. U.S. rule was opposed by many local residents, creating the Ryukyu independence movement that struggled against U.S. rule. ==== 1941–1949: Germany ==== In December 1941, the United States joined the Allied campaign against Nazi Germany, a fascist dictatorship. The US took part in the Allied occcupation and Denazification of the Western portion of Germany. Former Nazis were subjected to varying levels of punishment, depending on how the US assessed their levels of guilt. US general Dwight D. Eisenhower initially estimated that the process would take 50 years. Depending on a former Nazi's level of culpability, punishments could range from a fine (for those judged least culpable), to denial of permission to work as anything but a manual laborer, to imprisonment and even death for the most severe offenders, such as those convicted in the Nuremberg Trials. At the end of 1947, for example, the Allies held 90,000 Nazis in detention; another 1,900,000 were forbidden to work as anything but manual laborers.Herbert Hoover's press release of The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1: German Agriculture and Food Requirements , February 28, 1947. pg. 2 As Germans took more and more responsibility for Germany, they pushed for an end to the denazification process, and the Americans allowed this. In 1949, an independent liberal democracy, the Federal Republic of Germany, also known as West Germany, was formed and took responsibility for denazification. For most former Nazis, the process came to an end with amnesty laws passed in 1951. The ultimate outcome of denazification was the creation of a parliamentary democracy in West Germany. ==== 1941–1946: Italy ==== In July–August 1943, the US participated in the Allied invasion of Sicily, spearheaded by the U.S. Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, in which over 2000 US servicemen were killed,Hart, Basil H. Liddel (1970). A History of the Second World War. London, Weidenfeld Nicolson. p. 627. initiating the Italian Campaign which conquered Italy from the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini and its Nazi German allies. Mussolini was arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III, provoking a civil war. The king appointed Pietro Badoglio as new Prime Minister. Badoglio stripped away the final elements of Fascist rule by banning the National Fascist Party, then signed an armistice with the Allied armed forces. The Royal Italian Army outside of the peninsula itself collapsed, its occupied and annexed territories fell under German control. Italy capitulated to the Allies on 3 September 1943. The northern half of the country was occupied by the Germans with help from Italian fascists and made a collaborationist puppet state, while the south was governed by monarchist forces, which fought for the Allied cause as the Italian Co-Belligerent Army.Gianni Oliva, I vinti e i liberati: 8 settembre 1943-25 aprile 1945 : storia di due anni, Mondadori, 1994. ==== 1944–1946: France ==== British, Canadian and United States forces were critical participants in Operation Goodwood and Operation Cobra, leading to a military breakout that ended the Nazi occupation of France. The actual Liberation of Paris was accomplished by French forces. The French formed the Provisional Government of the French Republic in 1944, leading to the formation of the French Fourth Republic in 1946. The liberation of France is celebrated regularly up to the present day. ==== 1944–1945: Belgium ==== thumb|American troops during the Battle of the Bulge In the wake of the 1940 invasion, Germany established the Reichskommissariat of Belgium and Northern France to govern Belgium. United States, Canadian, British, and other Allied forces ended the Nazi occupation of most of Belgium in September 1944. The Belgian Government in Exile under Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot returned on 8 September. In December, American forces suffered over 80,000 casualties defending Belgium from a German counterattack in the Battle of the Bulge. By February 1945, all of Belgium was in Allied hands. The year 1945 was chaotic. Pierlot resigned, and Achille Van Acker of the Belgian Socialist Party formed a new government. There were riots over the Royal Question—the return of King Leopold III. Although the war continued, Belgians were again in control of their own country. ==== 1944–1945: Netherlands ==== During the Nazi occupation, the Netherlands was governed by the Reichskommissariat Niederlande, headed by Arthur Seyss- Inquart. British, Canadian, and American forces liberated portions of the Netherlands in September 1944. However, after the failure of Operation Market Garden, the liberation of the largest cities had to wait until the last weeks of the European theatre of World War II. The occupied portions of the Netherlands suffered a famine that winter. British and American forces crossed the Rhine on 23 March 1945; Canadian forces in their wake then entered the Netherlands from the east. The remaining German forces in the Netherlands surrendered on 5 May, which is celebrated as Liberation Day in the Netherlands. Queen Wilhelmina returned on 2 May; elections were held in 1946, leading to a new government headed by Prime Minister Louis Beel. ==== 1944–1945: Philippines ==== United States landings in 1944 ended the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. After the Japanese were defeated, the United States fulfilled a promise by granting independence to the Philippines. Sergio Osmeña formed the government of the restored Commonwealth of the Philippines, overseeing democratic transition to the fully sovereign Third Philippine Republic in 1946. ==== 1945–1955: Austria ==== Austria was annexed to Germany in the 1938 Anschluss. As German citizens, many Austrians fought on the side of Germany during World War II. After the Allied victory, the Allies treated Austria as a victim of Nazi aggression, rather than as a perpetrator. The United States Marshall Plan provided aid.Sorel, Eliot, and Pier Carlo Padoan. The Marshall Plan: Lessons Learned for the 21st Century. Paris: OECD, 2008. 15–16. Print. The 1955 Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a free, democratic, and sovereign state. It was signed by representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. It provided for the withdrawal of all occupying troops and guaranteed Austrian neutrality in the Cold War. == 1945–1991: Cold War == === 1940s === ==== 1945–1948: South Korea ==== The Empire of Japan surrendered to the United States in August 1945, ending the Japanese rule of Korea. Under the leadership of Lyuh Woon- Hyung People's Committees throughout Korea formed to coordinate transition to Korean independence. On August 28, 1945 these committees formed the temporary national government of Korea, naming it the People's Republic of Korea (PRK) a couple of weeks later.Hart-Landsberg, Martin, Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy, Monthly Review Press (1998), p. 65Cumings, Bruce, The Origins of the Korean War, Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press (1981), p. 88 On September 8, 1945, the United States government landed forces in Korea and thereafter established the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGK) to govern Korea south of the 38th parallel north. The USAMGK outlawed the PRK government.Cumings, Bruce, "The Autumn Uprising," The Origins of the Korean War, Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press(1981) In May 1948, Syngman Rhee, who had previously lived in the United States, won the 1948 South Korean presidential election, which had been boycotted by most other politicians and in which voting was limited to property owners and tax payers or, in smaller towns, to town elders voting for everyone else. Syngman Rhee, backed by the U.S. government, set up authoritarian rule that coordinated closely with the business sector and lasted until Rhee's overthrow in 1961, which led to a similarly authoritarian regime that would last ultimately until the late 1980s.Sydney Morning Herald, 15 Nov. 2008, "South Korea Owns Up to Brutal Past" ==== 1945–1949: China ==== The U.S. government provided military, logistical and other aid to the National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government in its civil war against the indigenous communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) led by Mao Zedong. Both the KMT and the PLA were fighting against Japanese occupation forces, until the Japanese surrender to the United States in August 1945. This surrender brought to an end the Japanese Puppet state of Manchukuo and the Japanese- dominated Wang Jingwei regime. After the Japanese surrender, the US continued to support the KMT against the PLA. The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to Manchuria. Approximately 50,000 U.S. troops were sent to guard strategic sites in Hubei and Shandong. The U.S. trained and equipped KMT troops, and also transported Korean troops and even Imperial Japanese Army troops back to help KMT forces fight, and ultimately lose, against the People's Liberation Army. President Harry Truman justified deploying the very Japanese occupying army under whose boot the Chinese people had suffered so terribly to fight against the Chinese communists in this way: "It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports."Harry S. Truman, "Memoirs, Vol. Two: Years of Trial and Hope," 1946–1953 (Great Britain 1956), p. 66 Within less than two years after the Second Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the United States—most of which was military aid.p. 23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London. ==== 1947–1949: Greece ==== frameless|right Greece had been under Axis occupation since 1941. Its government-in-exile, unelected and loyal to King George II, was based in Cairo. By the Summer of 1944, communist guerrillas, then known as the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), who had been armed by the Western powers, exploiting the gradual collapse of the Axis, claimed to have liberated nearly all of Greece outside of Athens from Axis occupation, while also attacking and defeating rival non-Communist partisan groups, forming a rival unelected government, the Political Committee of National Liberation. On 12 August 1944, German forces retreated from the Athens area two days ahead of British landings there, ending the occupation.Bamberry, Chris, The Second World War: A Marxist History, 2014, Pluto Press (p. 182) The British Armed Forces together with Greek forces under control of the Greek government (now a government of national unity led by Konstantinos Tsaldaris, elected in the 1946 Greek legislative election boycotted by the Communist Party of Greece) then fought for control of the country in the Greek Civil War against the communists, who at that time were self-proclaimed as the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). By early 1947, the British government could no longer afford the huge cost of financing the war against DSE, and pursuant to the October 1944 Percentages Agreement between Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, Greece was to remain part of the Western sphere of influence. Accordingly, the British requested the US government to step in and the U.S. flooded the country with military equipment, military advisers and weapons.Panourgia, Neni, "Dangerous Citizens: The Greek Left and The Terror of the State," (New York: Fordham University Press, 2009) Chapter 5. 1946–1949: Emphýlios, Witness of the Mountains, available online at: https://dangerouscitizens.columbia.edu/1946-1949/witness-of-the/1/index.html Iatrides, John O., and Nicholas X. Rizopoulos, "The International Dimension of the Greek Civil War," World Policy Journal (2000): 87–103. in JSTOR With increased U.S. military aid, by September 1949 the government eventually won, fully restoring the Kingdom of Greece. ==== 1948: Costa Rica ==== Christian socialist medic Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia of the National Republican Party reached power through democratic means in 1944, promoting a general social reform and allied to the Costa Rican Communist Party. Tensions between government and the opposition, supported by the CIA, caused the short-lived Costa Rican Civil War of 1948 that ended Calderón's government and led to the short de facto rule of 18 months by José Figueres Ferrer. However, Figueres also held some left-leaning ideas and continued the process of social reform. After the war, democracy was quickly restored and a two-party system encompassed by the parties of the Calderonistas and Figueristas developed in the country for nearly 60 years. ==== 1949–1953: Albania ==== frameless|right Albania was in chaos after World War II and the country was not as focused on peacetime conferences in comparison to other European nations, while having suffered high casualties. It was threatened by its larger neighbors with annexation. After Yugoslavia dropped out of the Eastern Bloc, the small country of Albania was geographically isolated from the rest of the Eastern Bloc. The United States and United Kingdom took advantage of the situation and recruited anti-communist Albanians who had fled after the USSR invaded. The US and UK formed the Free Albania National Committee, made up of many of the emigres. Albanians, recruited, were trained by the U.S. and UK., infiltrated the country, multiple times. Eventually, the operation was found out and many of the agents fled, were executed, or were tried. The operation would become a failure. The operation was declassified in 2006, due to the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act and is now available in the National Archives.Within Record Group 263. A user's guide is available to assist researchers in locating the documents.frameless|right ==== 1949: Syria ==== The government of Shukri al- Quwatli, reelected in 1948, was overthrown by a junta led by the Syrian Army chief of staff at the time, Husni al-Za'im, who became President of Syria on April 11, 1949. Za'im had extensive connections to CIA operatives, although the exact nature of U.S. involvement in the coup remains highly controversial. cf. The construction of the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, which had been held up in the Syrian parliament, was approved by Za'im, the new president, just over a month after the coup. === 1950s === frameless|right ==== 1950–1953: Burma and China ==== The Chinese Civil War had recently ended, with the communists winning and the nationalists losing. The nationalists retreated to areas such as Taiwan and north Burma. In Operation Paper, which began in late 1950 or early 1951 following Chinese involvement in the Korean War,Kaufman, Victor S. "Trouble in the Golden Triangle: The United States, Taiwan and the 93rd Nationalist Division". The China Quarterly. No. 166, Jun., 2001. p.441. Retrieved January 22, 2021. Operation Paper entailed CIA plans used by CIA military advisors on the ground in Burma to assist Kuomintang incursions into Western China over several years, under the command of General Li Mi, with Kuomintang leadership hoping to eventually retake China, despite opposition from the US State Department.Kaufman, Victor S. "Trouble in the Golden Triangle: The United States, Taiwan and the 93rd Nationalist Division". The China Quarterly. No. 166, Jun., 2001. p.442. Retrieved January 22, 2021. However, each attempted invasion was repelled by the Chinese army. The Kuomintang took control of large swaths of Burma, while the government of Burma complained repeatedly of the military invasion to the United Nations.Peter Dale Scott, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 Nov. 2010, Volume 8 | Issue 44 | Number 2, "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬, taken from Chapter 3 of "American War Machine: Deep Politics, the CIA Global Drug Connection, and the Road to Afghanistan (War and Peace Library)" (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010) On secret flights from Thailand to Burma, CAT aircraft flown by pilots hired by the CIA brought American weapons and other supplies to the Kuomintang and on return flights the CAT aircraft transported opium from the Kuomintang to Chinese organized crime drug traffickers in Bangkok, Thailand.William R. Corson, The Armies of Ignorance: The Rise of the American Intelligence Empire (New York: Dial Press/James Wade, 1977), 320–22 ==== 1952: Egypt ==== In February 1952, following January's riots in Cairo amid widespread nationalist discontent over the continued British occupation of the Suez Canal and Egypt's defeat in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, CIA officer Kermit Roosevelt Jr. was dispatched by the State Department to meet with Farouk I of the Kingdom of Egypt. American policy at that time was to convince Farouk to introduce reforms that would weaken the appeal of Egyptian radicals and stabilize Farouk's grip on power. The U.S. was notified in advance of the successful July coup led by nationalist and anti-communist Egyptian military officers (the "Free Officers") that replaced the Egyptian monarchy with the Republic of Egypt under the leadership of Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. CIA officer Miles Copeland Jr. recounted in his memoirs that Roosevelt helped coordinate the coup during three prior meetings with the plotters (including Nasser, the future Egyptian president); this has not been confirmed by declassified documents but is partially supported by circumstantial evidence. Roosevelt and several of the Egyptians said to have been present in these meetings denied Copeland's account; another U.S. official, William Lakeland, said its veracity is open to question. Hugh Wilford notes that "whether or not the CIA dealt directly with the Free Officers prior to their July 1952 coup, there was extensive secret American-Egyptian contact in the months after the revolution." ==== 1952: Guatemala ==== Operation PBFortune, also known as Operation Fortune, was a covert United States operation to overthrow Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz in 1952. The operation was authorized by U.S. President Harry Truman and planned by the Central Intelligence Agency. The plan involved providing weapons to the exiled Guatemalan military officer Carlos Castillo Armas, who was to lead an invasion from Nicaragua. ==== 1952–1953: Iran ==== frameless|right Since 1944, Iran was a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. From the discovery of oil in Iran in the late nineteenth century major powers exploited the weakness of the Iranian government to obtain concessions that many believed failed to give Iran a fair share of the profits. During World War II, the UK, the USSR and the US all became involved in Iranian affairs, including the joint Anglo- Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941. Iranian officials began to notice that British taxes were increasing while royalties to Iran declined. By 1948, Britain received substantially more revenue from the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) than Iran. Negotiations to meet this and other Iranian concerns exacerbated rather than eased tensions.. On March 15, 1951 the Majlis, the Iranian parliament, passed legislation championed by reformist politician Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the AIOC. The senate approved the measure two days later. Fifteen months later, Mosadegh was elected Prime Minister by the Majlis. International business concerns then boycotted oil from the nationalized Iranian oil industry. This contributed to concerns in Britain and the US that Mosadegh might be a communist. He was reportedly supported by the Communist Tudeh Party. The CIA began supporting 18 of their favorite candidates in the 1952 Iranian legislative election, which Mosaddegh suspended after urban deputies loyal to him were elected. The new parliament gave Mosaddegh emergency powers which weakened the power of the Shah, and there was a constitutional struggle over the roles of the Shah and prime minister. Britain strongly backed the Shah, while the US officially remained neutral. However, America's position shifted in late 1952 with the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as U.S. president. The CIA launched Operation Ajax, directed by Kermit Roosevelt Jr., with help from Norman Darbyshire, to remove Mosaddegh by persuading the Shah to replace him, using diplomacy and bribery. The 1953 Iranian coup d'état (known in Iran as the "28 Mordad coup")The date of the coup in the Persian calendar. was orchestrated by the intelligence agencies of the United Kingdom such as MI6 (under the name "Operation Boot") and the United States (under the name "TPAJAX Project").Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, Mar. 1954: p. iii. The coup saw the transition of Pahlavi from a constitutional monarch to an authoritarian, who relied heavily on United States government support. That support dissipated during the Iranian Revolution of 1979, as his own security forces refused to shoot into non-violent crowds. The CIA did not admit its responsibility until the 60th anniversary of the coup in August 2013. ==== 1954: Guatemala ==== In a 1954 CIA operation code named Operation PBSuccess, the U.S. government executed a coup that successfully overthrew the government of President Jacobo Árbenz, elected in 1950, and installed Carlos Castillo Armas, the first of a line of right-wing dictators, in its place.Coatsworth, John. H. "Central America and the United States: The Clients and the Colossus," Twayne Publishers, New York: 1994, pp. 58, 226 Not only was it done for the ideological purpose of containment, but the CIA had been approached by the United Fruit Company as it saw possible loss in profits due to the situation of workers in the country, i.e. the introduction of anti-exploitation laws. The perceived success of the operation made it a model for future CIA operations because the CIA lied to the president of the United States when briefing him regarding the number of casualties. ==== 1956–1957: Syria ==== In 1956 Operation Straggle was a failed coup plot against Nasserist civilian politician Sabri al-Asali. The CIA made plans for a coup for late October 1956 to topple the Syrian government. The plan entailed takeover by the Syrian military of key cities and border crossings.Saunders, Bonnie, "The United States and Arab Nationalism: The Syrian Case, 1953–1960," (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996), p. 49Sylvan, David and Majeski, Stephen, "U.S. Foreign Policy in Perspective: Clients, Enemies and Empire," (New York: Routledge, 2009) http://us-foreign-policy-perspective.org/index.php?id=328&L;=0 The plan was postponed when Israel invaded Egypt in October 1956 and US planners thought their operation would be unsuccessful at a time when the Arab world is fighting "Israeli aggression." The operation was uncovered and American plotters had to flee the country.Saunders, Bonnie, "The United States and Arab Nationalism: The Syrian Case, 1953–1960," (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996), p. 51 In 1957 Operation Wappen was a second coup plan against Syria, orchestrated by the CIA's Kermit Roosevelt. It called for assassination of key senior Syrian officials, staged military incidents on the Syrian border to be blamed on Syria and then to be used as pretext for invasion by Iraqi and Jordanian troops, an intense US propaganda campaign targeting the Syrian population, and "sabotage, national conspiracies and various strong-arm activities" to be blamed on Damascus.John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA (Chicago: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), p. 164 Jones, Matthew. "The 'Preferred Plan': The Anglo-American Working Group Report on Covert Action in Syria, 1957," Intelligence and National Security 19(3), Autumn 2004, pp. 404–406 This operation failed when Syrian military officers paid off with millions of dollars in bribes to carry out the coup revealed the plot to Syrian intelligence. The U.S. Department of State denied accusation of a coup attempt and along with US media accused Syria of being a "satellite" of the USSR.Dorril, Stephen, "MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service," (New York: Touchstone, 2000), p. 656 656Blum, William, "Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II," (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1995), pp. 88–91 There was also a third plan in 1957, called "The Preferred Plan". Alongside Britain's MI6, the CIA planned to support and arm several uprisings. However, this plan was never carried out. ==== 1957–1959: Indonesia ==== frameless|right Starting in 1957, Eisenhower ordered the CIA to overthrow Sukarno. The CIA supported the failed Permesta Rebellion by rebel Indonesian military officers in February 1958. CIA pilots, such as Allen Lawrence Pope, piloted planes operated by CIA front organization Civil Air Transport (CAT) that bombed civilian and military targets in Indonesia. The CIA instructed CAT pilots to target commercial shipping in order to frighten foreign merchant ships away from Indonesian waters, thereby weakening the Indonesian economy and thus destabilizing the government of Indonesia. The CIA aerial bombardment resulted in the sinking of several commercial shipsConboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1999) "Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958," (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999), p. 155, and the bombing of a marketplace that killed many civilians.Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1999) "Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958," (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999), p. 131, Pope was shot down and captured on 18 May 1958, revealing U.S. involvement, which Eisenhower publicly denied at the time. The rebellion was ultimately defeated by 1961.Los Angeles Times, October 29, 1994, "CIA's Covert Indonesia Operation in the 1950s Acknowledged by U.S.," http://articles.latimes.com/1994-10-29/news/mn-56121_1_state-department Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, "The Untold History of the United States" (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), pp. 347–348 ==== 1959–1963: South Vietnam ==== In 1959 a branch of the Worker's Party of Vietnam was formed in the south of the country and began an insurgency against the Republic of Vietnam. They were supplied through Group 559, which was formed the same year by North Vietnam to send weapons down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.Prados, John, (2006) "The Road South: The Ho Chi Minh Trail", Rolling Thunder in a Gentle Land, editor By Andrew A. Wiest, Osprey Publishing, . The US supported the RoV against the communists. After the 1960 US election, President John F. Kennedy became much more involved with the fight against the insurgency., p. 3 thumb|Location of South Vietnam From mid-1963, the Kennedy administration became increasingly frustrated with South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem's corrupt and repressive rule and his persecution of the Buddhist majority. In light of Diem's refusal to adopt reforms, American officials debated whether they should support efforts to replace him. These debates crystallized after the ARVN Special Forces, which took their orders directly from the palace, raided Buddhist temples across the country, leaving a death toll estimated in the hundreds, and resulted in the dispatch of Cable 243 on August 24, 1963, which instructed United States Ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., to "examine all possible alternative leadership and make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem's replacement if this should become necessary". Lodge and his liaison officer, Lucien Conein, contacted discontented Army of the Republic of Vietnam officers and gave assurances that the US would not oppose a coup or respond with aid cuts. These efforts culminated in a coup d'état on November 1–2, 1963, during which Diem and his brother were assassinated. By the end of 1963 the Viet Cong switched to a much more aggressive strategy in fighting the Southern government and the US. The Pentagon Papers concluded that "Beginning in August of 1963 we variously authorized, sanctioned and encouraged the coup efforts of the Vietnamese generals and offered full support for a successor government. In October we cut off aid to Diem in a direct rebuff, giving a green light to the generals. We maintained clandestine contact with them throughout the planning and execution of the coup and sought to review their operational plans and proposed new government." ==== 1959–1962: Cuba ==== thumb|left|Location of Bay of Pigs in Cuba General Fulgencio Batista was a military dictator who seized power in Cuba in March 1952 and was backed by the U.S. government until March 1958. His regime was overthrown on December 31, 1958, thus bringing an end to the Cuban Revolution that was led by Fidel Castro and his 26th of July Movement. Castro became President in February 1959. The CIA backed a force composed of CIA-trained Cuban exiles to invade Cuba with support and equipment from the US military, in an attempt to overthrow Castro's government. The invasion was launched in April 1961, three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the United States, but the Cuban armed forces defeated the invading combatants within three days. Operation MONGOOSE was a year-long U.S. government effort to overthrow the government of Cuba.Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–63, Volume X, Cuba, January 1961 – September 1962, "291. Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale)," January 18, 1962, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d291 The operation included economic warfare, including an embargo against Cuba, "to induce failure of the Communist regime to supply Cuba's economic needs", a diplomatic initiative to isolate Cuba, and psychological operations "to turn the peoples' resentment increasingly against the regime."Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–63, Volume X, Cuba, January 1961 – September 1962, "291. Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale)," January 18, 1962, pp. 711–17, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d291 The economic warfare prong of the operation also included the infiltration of CIA operatives to carry out many acts of sabotage against civilian targets, such as a railway bridge, a molasses storage facilities, an electric power plant, and the sugar harvest, notwithstanding Cuba's repeated requests to the United States government to cease its armed operations.Domínguez, Jorge I. "The @#$%& Missile Crisis (Or, What Was 'Cuban' About US Decisions During the Cuban Missile Crisis)," Diplomatic History: The Journal of the Society for Historians of Foreign Relations, Vol. 24, No. 2, Spring 2000: 305–15 In addition, the CIA planned a number of assassination attempts against Fidel Castro, head of government of Cuba, including attempts that entailed CIA collaboration with the American mafia.Escalante Font, Fabián, "Executive Action: 634 Ways to Kill Fidel Castro," Melbourne: Ocean Press, 2006 In April 2021, documents released by the National Security Archive showed that the CIA was also involved in a plot to assassinate Raúl Castro in 1960. Having first imposed an embargo on the sale of arms to Cuba in March 1958, during the Batista dictatorship, Eisenhower imposed further sanctions on October 19, 1960, after Cuba nationalized the U.S.-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. This new embargo resulted in all exports to Cuba other than food and medicine being blocked from getting onto the island. On February 7, 1962, Kennedy extended the embargo to include almost all exports, which continues to this day. Donald Trump added more than two hundred sanctions during his administration, and reclassified the country as a state sponsor of terrorism shortly before leaving office in January 2021, overturning a move by his predecessor, Barack Obama, in May 2015. The United Nations General Assembly has passed a resolution every year since 1992 demanding an end to the embargo, with the US and Israel being the only nations to consistently vote against the resolutions. === 1960s === ==== 1960–1965: Congo-Leopoldville ==== frameless|right Patrice Lumumba was elected the first Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in May 1960, and in June 1960, the country achieved full independence from Belgium. In July, the Congo Crisis erupted with a mutiny among army, followed by the regions Katanga and South Kasai succeeding with support from Belgium, who wished to keep power over resources in the region. Lumumba called in the United Nations to help him, but the U.N. force only agreed to keep peace and not stop the separatist movements. Lumumba then agreed to receive help from the USSR in order to stop the separatists, worrying the United States, due to the supply of uranium in the country. At first, The Eisenhower Administration planned to poison him with his toothpaste, but this was abandoned. The CIA sent official Sydney Gottlieb with a poison to liaison with an African CIA asset code-named WI/Rogue who was to assassinate Lumumba, but Lumumba went into hiding before the operation was completed.Monte Reel, "A Brotherhood of Spies: The U2 and the CIA's Secret War," (New York: Anchor Books, 2019), pp. 209–210 The United States encouraged Mobutu Sese Seko, a colonel in the army, to overthrow him, which he did on September 14, 1960. After being locked in prison, Mobutu sent him to Katanga, and he was executed soon after on January 17, 1961. After Lumumba was killed, the US began funding Mobutu in order to secure him against the separatists and opposition. Many of Lumumba's supporters went east and formed the Free Republic of the Congo with its capital in Stanleyville in opposition to Mobutu's government. Eventually, the government in Stanleyville agreed to rejoin with the Leopoldville government under the latter's rule, however in 1963, Lumumba supporters formed another separate government in the east of the country and launched the Simba rebellion. The rebellion had support from the Soviet Union and many other countries in the Eastern Bloc. In November 1964, the U.S. and Belgium launched Operation Dragon Rouge to rescue hostages taken by Simba rebels in Stanleyville. The operation was a success and expelled the Simba rebels from the city, leaving them in disarray. The Simbas were ultimately defeated the following year by the Congolese army.Traugott (1979) After the March 1965 elections, Mobutu Sese Seko launched a second coup in November with the support of the U.S. and other powers. Mobutu Sese Seko claimed democracy would return in five years and he was popular initially. However, he instead took increasingly authoritarian powers eventually becoming the dictator of the country. ==== 1960: Laos ==== On August 9, 1960, Captain Kong Le with his Royal Lao Army paratroop battalion seized control of the administrative capital city of Vientiane in a bloodless coup on a "neutralist" platform with the stated aims of ending the civil war raging in Laos, ending foreign interference in the country, ending the corruption caused by foreign aid, and better treatment for soldiers.US Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress Country Studies, "Laos: The Attempt to Restore Neutrality," https://web.archive.org/web/20041031091831/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Bla0039%29Castle, Timothy, "At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 32–33 With CIA support, Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, the Prime Minister of Thailand, set up a covert Royal Thai Armed Forces advisory group, called Kaw Taw. Kaw Taw together with the CIA backed a November 1960 counter-coup against the new Neutralist government in Vientiane, supplying artillery, artillerymen, and advisers to General Phoumi Nosavan, first cousin of Sarit. It also deployed the Police Aerial Reinforcement Unit (PARU) to operations within Laos, sponsored by the CIA.Castle, Timothy, "At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 33–35, 40, 59 With the help of CIA front organization Air America to airlift war supplies and with other U.S. military assistance and covert aid from Thailand, General Phoumi Nosavan's forces captured Vientiane in November 1960.US Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress Country Studies, "Laos: The Attempt to Restore Neutrality," https://web.archive.org/web/20041031091831/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Bla0039%29Castle, Timothy, "At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 21–25, 27 ==== 1961: Dominican Republic ==== thumb|upright|right|Trujillo in 1952 In May 1961, the ruler of the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). An internal CIA memorandum states that a 1973 Office of Inspector General investigation into the murder disclosed "quite extensive Agency involvement with the plotters." The CIA described its role in "changing" the government of the Dominican Republic as a 'success' in that it assisted in moving the Dominican Republic from a totalitarian dictatorship to a Western-style democracy."CIA "Family Jewels" Memo, 1973 (see page 434) Family Jewels (Central Intelligence Agency) Juan Bosch, an earlier recipient of CIA funding, was elected president of the Dominican Republic in 1962 and was deposed in 1963. ==== 1963: Iraq ==== It has long been suspected that the Ba'ath Party collaborated with the CIA in planning and carrying out the coup.See, e.g., cf. cf. cf. Pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified, and modern academia have "remain[ed] divided in their interpretations of American foreign policy toward the February 1963 coup in Iraq." Bryan R. Gibson and Peter Hahn (in separate works) argue that although the U.S. had been notified of two aborted Ba'athist coup plots in July and December 1962, publicly declassified documents do not support claims of direct American involvement in the 1963 coup. On the other hand, Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt cites "compelling evidence of an American role," and that publicly declassified documents "largely substantiate the plausibility" of CIA involvement in the coup. Eric Jacobsen, citing the testimony of contemporary prominent Ba'athists and U.S. government officials, states that ample evidence exists of the CIA having assisted the Ba'athists in planning the coup.Rositzke later claimed "the CIA's major source, in an ideal catbird seat, reported the exact time of the coup and provided a list of the new cabinet members," but this remains unverified. See Ba'athist leaders were known to be in contact with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup. According to Wolfe-Hunnicutt, documents at the Kennedy Library suggest that the Kennedy administration viewed two prominent Ba'athist officials as "assets." Senior National Security Council official Robert Komer wrote to President John F. Kennedy on February 8, 1963 that the Iraqi coup "is almost certainly a net gain for our side ... CIA had excellent reports on the plotting, but I doubt either they or UK should claim much credit for it." The U.S. offered material support to the new Ba'athist government after the coup, amidst an anti-communist purge and Iraqi atrocities against Kurdish rebels and civilians. Because of this, Nathan Citino asserts: "Although the United States did not initiate the 14 Ramadan coup, at best it condoned and at worst it contributed to the violence that followed." The Ba'athist government collapsed in November 1963 over the question of unification with Syria (where a rival branch of the Ba'ath Party had seized power in March). While it is unlikely that the Ba'athists would've needed assistance in identifying Iraqi communists, it is widely believed that the CIA provided the Ba'athist National Guard with lists of communists and other leftists, who were then arrested or killed. Gibson emphasizes the Ba'athists compiled their own lists, citing Bureau of Intelligence and Research reports. On the other hand, Citino and Wolfe-Hunnicutt consider the allegations plausible because the U.S. embassy in Iraq had actually compiled such lists, were known to be in contact with the National Guard during the purge, and because National Guard members involved in the purge received training in the U.S. ==== 1965–1967: Indonesia ==== frameless|right Junior army officers and the commander of the palace guard of President Sukarno accused senior Indonesian National Armed Forces brass of planning a CIA-backed coup against President Sukarno and killed six senior generals on October 1, 1965. General Suharto and other senior military officers attacked the junior officers on the same day and accused the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) of planning the killing of the six generals.Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, "The Untold History of the United States" (New York, Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), p. 350 citing David F. Schmitz, "The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989" (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 45 The army launched a propaganda campaign based on lies and riled up civilian mobs to attack those believed to be PKI supporters and other political opponents. Indonesian government forces with collaboration of some civilians perpetrated mass killings over many months. Scholars estimate the number of civilians killed range from a half million to over a million.Time Magazine, September 30, 2015, The Memory of Savage Anticommunist Killings Still Haunts Indonesia, 50 Years On , Time US Ambassador Marshall Green encouraged the military leaders to act forcefully against the political opponents. In 2017, declassified documents from the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta have confirmed that the US had knowledge of, facilitated and encouraged mass killings for its own geopolitical interests. US diplomats admitted to journalist Kathy Kadane in 1990 that they had provided the Indonesian army with thousands of names of alleged PKI supporters and other alleged leftists, and that the U.S. officials then checked off from their lists those who had been murdered. President Sukarno's base of support was largely annihilated, imprisoned and the remainder terrified, and thus he was forced out of power in 1967, replaced by an authoritarian military regime led by General Suharto.Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, "The Untold History of the United States" (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), p. 352 Historian John Roosa states that "almost overnight the Indonesian government went from being a fierce voice for cold war neutrality and anti-imperialism to a quiet, compliant partner of the US world order." This campaign is considered a major turning point in the Cold War, and was such a success that it served as a model for other U.S.-backed coups and anti-communist extermination campaigns throughout Asia and Latin America. === 1970s === ==== 1970: Cambodia ==== Prince Norodom Sihanouk, who came to power by the 1955 parliamentary election, had for years kept Cambodia out of the Vietnam War by being friendly with China and North Vietnam, and had integrated left wing parties into mainstream politics. However, a leftist uprising occurred in 1967 and the communist Khmer Rouge began an insurgency against the prince the following year.Chandler, p. 128. Following the 1968 Tet Offensive, Sihanouk became convinced that North Vietnam was going to lose the war so he improved relations with the United States. Henry Kissinger suggested that Sihanouk approved U.S. bombing of North Vietnamese targets in Cambodia in 1969, although this has been heavily disputed by other sources.Shawcross, pp. 68–71 & 93–94. In March 1970 Sihanouk was deposed by right-wing General Lon Nol following a vote of no confidence in Cambodia's National Assembly. The overthrow followed Cambodia's constitutional process and most accounts emphasize the primacy of Cambodian actors in Sihanouk's removal. Historians are divided about the extent of U.S. involvement in or foreknowledge of the ouster, but an emerging consensus posits some culpability on the part of U.S. military intelligence. There is evidence that "as early as late 1968" Lon Nol floated the idea of a coup to U.S. military intelligence to obtain U.S. consent and military support for action against Prince Sihanouk and his government. The coup further destabilized the country and ushered in years of civil war between the right- wing Khmer Republic backed by intensified U.S. bombing and Khmer Rouge forces backed by the People's Army of Vietnam. The communists eventually took Phnom Penh, winning the civil war and establishing Democratic Kampuchea.Deac, p. 79. ==== 1970–1973: Chile ==== frameless|right Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet government funded the Communist Party of Chile at a rate of between $50,000 and $400,000 annually. The U.S. government ran a psy ops action in Chile from 1963 until the coup d'état in 1973, and the CIA was involved in every Chilean election during that time. In the 1964 Chilean presidential election, the U.S. government supplied $2.6 million in funding to Christian Democratic Party presidential candidate Eduardo Frei Montalva, to prevent Salvador Allende and the Socialist Party of Chile winning. The U.S. also used the CIA to provide $12 million in funding to business interests for use in harming Allende's reputation. Kristian C. Gustafson wrote: > It was clear the Soviet Union was operating in Chile to ensure Marxist > success, and from the contemporary American point of view, the United States > was required to thwart this enemy influence: Soviet money and influence were > clearly going into Chile to undermine its democracy, so U.S. funding would > have to go into Chile to frustrate that pernicious influence. Prior to Allende's inauguration, chief of staff of the Chilean Army, René Schneider, a general dedicated to preserving the constitutional order and considered "a major stumbling block for military officers seeking to carry out a coup", was targeted in a failed CIA backed kidnapping attempt by General Camilo Valenzuela on October 19, 1970. Schneider was killed three days later in another botched kidnapping attempt led by General Roberto Viaux. After the inauguration, there followed an extended period of social and political unrest between the right-dominated Congress of Chile and Allende, as well as economic warfare waged by Washington. U.S. President Richard Nixon had promised to "make the economy scream" to "prevent Allende from coming to power or to unseat him". On September 11, 1973, President Allende was overthrown by the Chilean Armed Forces and National Police, bringing to power the regime of Augusto Pinochet. The CIA, through Project FUBELT (also known as Track II), worked secretly to prepare the conditions for the coup. While the U.S. initially denied any involvement, many relevant documents have been declassified in the decades since. ==== 1971: Bolivia ==== frameless|right The U.S. government supported the 1971 coup led by General Hugo Banzer that toppled President Juan José Torres of Bolivia, who had himself come to power in a coup the previous year.North American Congress on Latin America (NACLA) September 25, 2007, "Alliance for Power: U.S. Aid to Bolivia Under Banzer," https://nacla.org/article/alliance-power-us-aid-bolivia-under-banzer HuffPost, October 23, 2008 updated on May 25, 2011, "U.S. Intervention in Bolivia," https://www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-zunes/us-intervention-in- bolivi_b_127528.html reposted from Foreign Policy in Focus Torres was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor, the U.S.-supported campaign of political repression and state terrorism by South American right-wing dictators.National Security Archive March 8, 2013, "Operation Condor on Trial: Legal Proceeding on Latin American Rendition and Assassination Program Open in Buenos Aires," https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB416/ ==== 1974–1991: Ethiopia ==== On September 12, 1974 Emperor Haile Selassie I of the Ethiopian Empire, a dynastic monarchy, was overthrown in a coup by the Derg, an organization set up by the Emperor to investigate the Ethiopian Armed Forces. The Derg, led by dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam, became Marxist–Leninist and aligned with the Soviet Union. Numerous rebel groups rose up against the Derg, including conservative, separatist groups, and other Marxist–Leninist groups. These groups would receive support by the United States. In the late 1980s, the rebels and the Eritrean separatists began to make gains against the government. The Derg dissolved itself in 1987, establishing the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) under the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE) in an attempt to maintain its rule. In 1990 the USSR stopped supporting the Ethiopian government as it started to collapse, while the United States continued to support the rebels.Vaughan, Sarah (2003). "Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia" (PDF). University of Edinburgh: Ph.D. Thesis. p. 168. In 1991 Mengistu Halie Mariam resigned and fled as rebels of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of left-wing ethnic rebel groups, took over. Despite the fact that the US opposed him, the US embassy helped Mariam escape to Zimbabwe. The PDRE was dissolved and replaced with the Tigray People's Liberation Front-led Transitional Government of Ethiopia, and a transition to parliamentary democracy began. ==== 1975–1991: Angola ==== Beginning in the 1960s, a rebellion broke out against Portuguese colonial rule in the Angolan War of Independence, mainly involving rebel groups the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). In 1974, the right-wing military junta in Portugal was ousted in the Carnation Revolution. The new government promised to give independence to its colonies including Angola. On January 15, 1975, Portugal signed the Alvor Agreement giving independence to Angola and establishing a transitional government including the MPLA, FNLA and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). The transitional government consisted of the Portuguese High Commissioner, ruling with a Prime Ministerial Council (PMC) made up of three representatives, one from each Angolan party to the agreement, with a rotating premiership among the representatives. However, the various independence groups started fighting one another. The MPLA was a leftist group that was advancing upon the other two main rebel groups, the FNLA and UNITA, the latter led by Jonas Savimbi, a former FNLA fighter and Maoist who eventually became a capitalist ideologically and made UNITA into a capitalist militant group. The United States covertly supported UNITA and the FNLA through Operation IA Feature. President Gerald Ford approved of the program on July 18, 1975 while receiving dissent from officials in the CIA and State Department. Nathaniel Davis, Assistant Secretary of State, quit because of his disagreement with this.Brown, Seyom. The Faces of Power: Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Clinton, 1994. Page 303.Jussi HanhimÄki and Jussi M. Hanhim̀eaki. The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy, 2004. Page 408. This program began as the war for independence was ending and continued as the civil war began in November 1975. The funding initially started at $6 million but then added $8 million on July 27 and added $25 million in August.Andrew, Christopher M. For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush, 1995. Page 412. The program was exposed and condemned by Congress in 1976. The Clark Amendment was added to the US Arms Export Control Act of 1976 ending the operation and restricting involvement in Angola.Richard H. Immerman and Athan G. Theoharis. The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny, 2006. Page 325. Despite this CIA Director George H.W. Bush conceded that some aid to the FNLA and UNITA continued.p. 52 Pages 186–187. thumb|Location of Angola In 1986, Ronald Reagan articulated the Reagan Doctrine, which called for the funding of anti-Communist forces across the world to "roll back" Soviet influence. The Reagan Administration lobbied Congress to repeal the Clark Amendment, which eventually occurred on July 11, 1985. In 1986, the war in Angola became a major Cold War proxy conflict. Savimbi's conservative allies in the US lobbied for increased support to UNITA. In 1986 Savimbi visited the White House and afterwards Reagan approved the shipment of Stinger Surface-to-Air Missiles as a part of $25 Million in aid. After George H.W. Bush became president, aid to Savimbi continued. Savimbi began relying on the company Black, Manafort, and Stone in order to lobby for assistance. They lobbied the H.W. Bush administration for increased assistance and weapons to UNITA. Savimbi also met with Bush himself in 1990. In 1991, the MPLA and UNITA signed the Bicesse Accords ending US and Soviet involvement in the war, initiating multi-party elections and establishing the Republic of Angola, while South Africa withdrew from Namibia.Wright, George. The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy Towards Angola Since 1945, 1997. Page 159. ==== 1975–1999: East Timor ==== On December 7, 1975, nine days after declaring independence from Portugal, East Timor was invaded by Indonesia. Whilst it was under the pretext of anti-colonialism, the actual aim of the invasion was to overthrow the Fretilin regime that emerged previous year. The day before the invasion, U.S. President Gerald Ford and Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger met with General Suharto, who told them of his intention to invade East Timor. Ford replied, "[W]e will understand and not press you on the issue. We understand the problem you have and the intentions you have." Ford endorsed the invasion as he saw East Timor as of little significance, overshadowed by Indonesia–United States relations. The fall of Saigon earlier in 1975 had left Indonesia as the most important U.S. ally in Southeast Asia, so Ford reasoned that it was in the national interest to side with Indonesia. American weapons were crucial to Indonesia during the invasion, with the majority of military equipment used by Indonesian military units involved being U.S. supplied. United States military aid to Indonesia continued during its occupation of East Timor, which ended in 1999 with East Timor's independence referendum. In 2005, the final Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor wrote that "[U.S.] political and military support were fundamental to the invasion and occupation of East Timor". ==== 1976: Argentina==== The Argentine Armed Forces overthrew President Isabel Perón, elected in the 1973 presidential election, in the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, starting the military dictatorship of General Jorge Rafael Videla known as the National Reorganization Process until 1983. Both the coup and the following authoritarian regime were endorsed and supported by the U.S. government with Henry Kissinger paying several official visits to Argentina during the dictatorship. According to Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, Kissinger was a witness to the regime's crimes against humanity. ==== 1979–1992: Afghanistan ==== frameless|right In 1978, the Saur Revolution brought the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to power, a one-party state backed by the Soviet Union. In what was known as Operation Cyclone, the U.S. government provided weapons and funding for a collection of warlords and several factions of jihadi guerrillas known as the Afghan mujahideen fighting to overthrow the Afghan government. The program began modestly with $695,000 in nominally "non-lethal" aid to the mujahideen on July 3, 1979 and escalated following the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.: "Contemporary memos—particularly those written in the first days after the Soviet invasion—make clear that while Brzezinski was determined to confront the Soviets in Afghanistan through covert action, he was also very worried the Soviets would prevail. ... Given this evidence and the enormous political and security costs that the invasion imposed on the Carter administration, any claim that Brzezinski lured the Soviets into Afghanistan warrants deep skepticism." cf. Through the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) of neighboring Pakistan the U.S. channeled training, weapons, and money for Afghan fighters.The Washington Post, December 27, 2007, "Sorry Charlie This is Michael Vickers's War," https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2007/12/27/AR2007122702116.html Riedel, Bruce 2014, "What We Won: America's Secret War in Afghanistan, 1979–1989," Brookings Institution Press. pp. ix–xi, 21–22, 98–105Newsweek, October 1, 2001, Evan Thomas, "The Road to September 11," The National Security Archive, October 9, 2001, "U.S. Analysis of The Soviet War in Afghanistan: Declassified," https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/us.html The first CIA-supplied weapons were antique British Lee–Enfield rifles shipped out in December 1979, but by September 1986 the program included U.S.-origin state of the art weaponry, such as FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, some 2,300 of which were ultimately shipped into Afghanistan. Afghan Arabs also "benefited indirectly from the CIA's funding, through the ISI and resistance organizations." Some of the CIA's greatest Afghan beneficiaries were Islamist commanders such as Jalaluddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who were key allies of Osama bin Laden over many years. Some of the CIA-funded militants would become part of al-Qaeda later on, and included bin Laden, according to former Foreign Secretary Robin Cook and other sources. Despite these and similar allegations, there is no direct evidence of CIA contact with bin Laden or his inner circle during the Soviet–Afghan War. U.S. support for the mujahideen ended in January 1992 pursuant to an agreement reached with the Soviets in September 1991 on ending external interference in Afghanistan by either side. By 1992, the combined U.S., Saudi, and Chinese aid to the mujahideen was estimated at $6–12 billion, whereas Soviet military aid to Afghanistan was valued at $36–48 billion. The result was a heavily armed, militarized Afghan society: Some sources indicate that Afghanistan was the world's top destination for personal weapons during the 1980s. === 1980s === ==== 1980–1989: Poland ==== frameless|right Since the 1952 Constitution, Poland was a one-party Communist state, the Polish People's Republic. In the 1980s, opposition to it crystallised in the Solidarity trade union, founded in 1980. The Reagan administration supported the Solidarity, and—based on CIA intelligence—waged a public relations campaign to deter what the Carter administration felt was "an imminent move by large Soviet military forces into Poland." Michael Reisman and James E. Baker named operations in Poland as one of the covert actions of CIA during Cold War. Colonel Ryszard Kukliński, a senior officer on the Polish General Staff was secretly sending reports to the CIA.Richard T. Davies, "The CIA and the Polish Crisis of 1980–1981." Journal of Cold War Studies (2004) 6#3 pp: 120–123. online The CIA transferred around $2 million yearly in cash to Solidarity, for a total of $10 million over five years. There were no direct links between the CIA and Solidarność, and all money was channeled through third parties., revised as Domber 2014, p. 110 . CIA officers were barred from meeting Solidarity leaders, and the CIA's contacts with Solidarność activists were weaker than those of the AFL–CIO, which raised $300,000 from its members, which were used to provide material and cash directly to Solidarity, with no control of Solidarity's use of it. The U.S. Congress authorized the National Endowment for Democracy to promote democracy, and the NED allocated $10 million to Solidarity. When the Polish government launched martial law in December 1981, however, Solidarity was not alerted. Potential explanations for this vary; some believe that the CIA was caught off guard, while others suggest that American policy-makers viewed an internal crackdown as preferable to an "inevitable Soviet intervention."MacEachin, Douglas J."US Intelligence and the Polish Crisis 1980–1981." CIA. June 28, 2008. CIA support for Solidarity included money, equipment and training, which was coordinated by Special Operations.Cover Story: The Holy Alliance By Carl Bernstein Sunday, June 24, 2001 Henry Hyde, U.S. House intelligence committee member, stated that the US provided "supplies and technical assistance in terms of clandestine newspapers, broadcasting, propaganda, money, organizational help and advice".Branding Democracy: U.S. Regime Change in Post-Soviet Eastern Europe, Gerald Sussman, page 128 Initial funds for covert actions by CIA were $2 million, but soon after authorization were increased and by 1985 CIA successfully infiltrated Poland.Executive Secrets: Covert Action and the Presidency, William J. Daugherty. page 201–203 ==== 1981–1982: Chad ==== frameless|right In 1975 as part of the First Chadian Civil War, the military overthrew François Tombalbaye and installed Félix Malloum as head of state. Hissène Habré was appointed Prime minister, and attempted to overthrow the government in February 1979, failing, and being forced out. In 1979 Malloum resigned and Goukouni Oueddei became head of state. Oueddei agreed to share power with Habre, appointing him Minister of Defense, but fighting resumed soon after. Habre was exiled to Sudan in 1980. At the time the U.S. government wanted a bulwark against Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, and saw Chad, Libya's southern neighbor, as a good option. Chad and Libya had recently signed an agreement to attempt to end their border conflict and "to work to achieve full unity between the two countries", which the United States was against. The United States also saw Oueddei as too close to Gaddafi. Habre was already pro-western and pro-American, as well as against Oueddei. The Reagan administration gave him covert support through the CIA when he returned in 1981 to continue fighting, and he overthrow Goukouni Oueddi on June 7, 1982, making himself the new president of Chad. The CIA continued to support Habre after he took power, including training and equipping the Documentation and Security Directorate (DDS), Chad's notorious secret police. They also supported Chad in their 1986–1987 war against Libya. ==== 1981–1990: Nicaragua ==== frameless|right The FSLN (Sandinista National Liberation Front) had overthrown in 1979 the Somoza family, friendly with the US. At first the Carter administration tried to be friendly with the new government, but the Reagan administration that came after had a much more anti-communist foreign policy. Immediately in January 1981, Reagan cut off aid to the Nicaraguan government, and August 6, 1981 he signed National Security Decision Directive 7, authorizing the production and shipment of arms to the region but not their deployment. On November 17, 1981 Reagan signed National Security Directive 17, allowing covert support to anti-Sandinista forces. The U.S. government then secretly armed, trained and funded the Contras, a group of rebel fighters based in Honduras, in an attempt to overthrow the Nicaraguan government. As part of the training, the CIA distributed a detailed manual entitled "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War," which instructed the Contras, among other things, on how to blow up public buildings, to assassinate judges, to create martyrs, and to blackmail ordinary citizens. In addition to backing the Contras, the U.S. government also blew up bridges and mined harbors, causing the damaging of at least seven merchant ships and blowing up numerous Nicaraguan fishing boats. They also attacked Corinto harbour, causing 112 wounded according to the Nicaraguan government.Gilbert, Dennis, "Sandinistas: The Party and The Revolution," Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988, p. 167 After the Boland Amendment made it illegal for the U.S. government to provide funding for Contra activities, Reagan's administration secretly sold arms to the Iranian government to fund a secret U.S. government apparatus that continued illegally to fund the Contras, in what became known as the Iran–Contra affair. The U.S. continued to arm and train the Contras even after the Sandinista government of Nicaragua won the elections of 1984. In the 1990 Nicaraguan general election, the George H. W. Bush administration authorized 49.75 million dollars of non-lethal aid to the Contras. They continued to assassinate candidates and fight the war and distributed leaflets promoting the opposition party UNO (National Opposition Union), which won the election. The Contras ended fighting soon afterwards."U.S. Endorses Contra Plan as Prod to Democracy in Nicaragua" The Washington Post, 9 August 1989 ==== 1983: Grenada ==== frameless|right On 25 October 1983, the U.S. military and a coalition of six Caribbean nations invaded the nation of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, and successfully overthrew the Marxist government of Hudson Austin which was backed by Cuban soldiers. The conflict was triggered by the killing of the previous leader of Grenada Maurice Bishop and the establishment of Hudson as the country's leader a week before on 19 October. The United Nations General Assembly called the U.S. invasion "a flagrant violation of international law" but a similar resolution widely supported in the United Nations Security Council was vetoed by the U.S. ==== 1989–1994: Panama ==== frameless|right In 1979, the U.S. and Panama signed a treaty to end the Panama Canal Zone and promise that the U.S. would hand over the canal after 1999. Manuel Noriega ruled the country of Panama as a dictator. He was an ally of the United States working with them against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador. Despite this, relations began to deteriorate as he was implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, including drug trafficking. As relations continued to deteriorate Noriega started to ally with the Eastern Bloc. This also worried US officials and government officials like Elliott Abrams started arguing with Reagan that the US should invade Panama. Reagan decided to hold off due to George H. W. Bush's ties to Noriega when he was the head of the CIA running his election, but after Bush was elected he started pressuring Noriega. Despite irregularities in the 1989 Panamanian general election, Noriega refused to allow the opposition candidate into power. Bush called on him to honor the will of the Panamanian people. Coup attempts were made against Noriega and skirmishes broke out between U.S. and Panamanian troops. Noriega was also indicted for drug charges in the United States. In December 1989, in a military operation code-named Operation Just Cause, the U.S. invaded Panama. Noriega went into hiding but was later captured by US forces. President-elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office. The United States ended Operation Just Cause in January 1990 and began Operation Promote Liberty, which was the occupation of the country to set up the new government until 1994. == 1991–present: Post-Cold War == === 1990s === ==== 1991: Iraq ==== thumb|Iraq (orthographic projection) During and immediately following the Gulf War in 1991, the United States broadcast signals encouraging an uprising against Saddam Hussein, an autocrat who had ruled Iraq since coming to power in an internal struggle in the ruling Ba'ath Party in 1979. On February 5, 1991 President George H. W. Bush made a speech on Voice of America stating, "There is another way for the bloodshed to stop: and that is, for the Iraqi military and the Iraqi people to take matters into their own hands and force Saddam Hussein, the dictator, to step aside and then comply with the United Nations' resolutions and rejoin the family of peace- loving nations." On February 24, 1991 a few days after the ceasefire was signed the CIA funded and operated radio station Voice of Free Iraq called for the Iraqi people to rise up against Hussein.Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. London: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006 p. 646 The day after the Gulf War ended on March 1, 1991, Bush again called for the overthrow of Saddam Hussein. The U.S. was hoping for a coup but instead, a series of uprisings erupted across Iraq right after the war. Two of the largest rebellions were led by the Iraqi Kurds in the North and the Shia militias in the south. The rebels assumed that they would be getting direct U.S. assistance, however United States never intended to give assistance to the rebels. The Shia uprisings were crushed by the Iraqi military while the Peshmerga were more successful, gaining the Iraqi Kurds autonomy. The Bush Administration faced heavy criticism for not assisting the rebels after encouraging them to rise up. The U.S. worried that if Saddam fell and Iraq collapsed, Iran would gain power.A Long-Awaited Apology for Shiites, but the Wounds Run Deep , The New York Times, November 8, 2011 Colin Powell wrote of his time as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff "our practical intention was to leave Baghdad enough power to survive as a threat to an Iran that remained bitterly hostile toward the United States". At the same time George H.W. Bush said that the U.S. had never intended to assist anyone. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) originally imposed sanctions against Iraq in August 1990 under Resolution 661United Nations Security Council Resolution 661 of adopted 6 August 6, 1991, https://fas.org/news/un/iraq/sres/sres0661.htm to compel Iraq to withdraw from occupied Kuwait without the use of military force, but Iraq refused to withdraw its forces, leading to the 1991 Gulf War. After the war, the U.S. government successfully advocated that sanctions remain in effect with revisions, including linkage to removal of weapons of mass destruction, which the UNSC did in April 1991 by adopting Resolution 687, albeit with the earlier prohibition on foodstuffs lifted.United Nations, UN Security Council Resolution 687, April 8, 1991, http://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/687.pdf | U.S. officials stated in May 1991—when it was widely expected that the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein faced collapsecf. —that the sanctions would not be lifted unless Saddam was ousted.United Press International, May 20, 1991, "U.S. Taking Tough Stand Against Saddam Hussein," http://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/05/20/US- taking-tough-stand-against-Saddam-Hussein/1946674712000/ Additional U.S. government officials' statements setting Saddam Hussein's ouster as the precondition for the cessation of sanctions against Iraq, including statements by Robert Gates, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, are provided in Gordon, Joy, 2010 "Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions," Harvard University Press, http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0674035713 In the subsequent president's administration, U.S. officials did not explicitly insist on regime change but took the position that the sanctions could be lifted if Iraq complied with all of the UN resolutions it was violating (including those related to the country's human rights record) and not just with UN weapons inspections. For example, United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright stated in March 1997 that "Our view, which is unshakable, is that Iraq must prove its peaceful intentions. It can only do that by complying with all of the Security Council resolutions to which it is subjected"; National Security Adviser Sandy Berger stated in November 1997 that "It's been the U.S. position since the Bush administration that Saddam Hussein comply—has to comply with all of the relevant Security Council resolutions"; and UN ambassador Bill Richardson stated in December 1997 that "Our policy is clear. We believe that Saddam Hussein should comply with all the Security Council resolutions, and that includes 1137, those that deal with the UNSCOM inspectors, those that deal with human rights issues, those that deal with prisoners of war with Kuwait, those that deal with the treatment of his own people. We think that there are standards of international behavior." The effects of the sanctions on the Iraqi civilian population, including the child mortality rate, were disputed at the time. Whereas it was widely believed at the time that the sanctions caused a major rise in child mortality, recent research has shown that commonly cited data were fabricated by the Iraqi government and that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions."Iraq surveys show 'humanitarian emergency' UNICEF Newsline August 12, 1999 ==== 1992–1996: Iraq ==== The CIA launched DBACHILLES, a coup d'état operation against the Iraqi government, recruiting Ayad Allawi, who headed the Iraqi National Accord, a network of Iraqis who opposed the Saddam Hussein government, as part of the operation. The network included Iraqi military and intelligence officers but was penetrated by people loyal to the Iraqi government. Also using Ayad Allawi and his network, the CIA directed a government sabotage and bombing campaign in Baghdad between 1992 and 1995. The CIA bombing campaign may have been merely a test of the operational capacity of the CIA's network of assets on the ground and not intended to be the launch of the coup strike itself. However, Allawi attempted a coup against Saddam Hussein in 1996. The coup was unsuccessful, but Ayad Allawi was later installed as prime minister of Iraq by the Iraq Interim Governing Council, which had been created by the U.S.-led coalition following the March 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq. ==== 1994–1995: Haiti ==== After a right-wing military junta took over Haiti in 1991 in a coup, the U.S. initially had good relations with them. George H. W. Bush's administration supported the right wing junta; however, after the 1992 U.S. general election Bill Clinton came to power. Clinton was supportive of returning Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power, and his administration was active for the return of democracy to Haiti. This culminated in United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, which authorized the United States to lead an invasion of Haiti and restore Aristide to power. A diplomatic effort was led by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter. Then the U.S. gave the Haitian government an ultimatum: either the dictator of Haiti, Raoul Cedras, retire peacefully and let Aristide come back to power, or be invaded and forced out. Cedras capitulated; however, he did not immediately disband the armed forces. Protesters fought the military and police.Walter E. Kretchik, Robert F. Baumann, John T. Fishel. "A Concise History of the U.S. Army in Operation Uphold Democracy." U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 1998. p. 96.Kretchik et al., p. 98. The U.S. sent in the military to stop the violence, and soon it was quelled. Aristide returned to lead the country in October 1994. Clinton and him presided over ceremonies and Operation Uphold Democracy officially ended on March 31, 1995. ==== 1996–1997: Zaire ==== Due to the end of the Cold War, US support for Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire reduced.Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the U.S. Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005. p. 190Vlassenroot, Koen. "Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge." Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 499–515. p. 508Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009. p. 32 In 1990 the Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR) invaded Rwanda, beginning the Rwandan Civil War, which culminated in the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsis and caused over 1.5 million refugees to flee into Zaire,Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 45 where fighting broke out between refugee and non-refugee Tutsis, Hutu refugees, and other ethnic groups. In response, Rwanda formed Tutsi militias in Zaire,Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 48 causing tensions between the militias and the Zaire government leading to theReyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 49 Banyamulenge Rebellion on August 31, 1996, which led to the creation of Tutsi and non-Tutsi militias opposed to Mobutu into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of the Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Desire Kabila.Pomfret, John. "Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive." Washington Post. 9 July 1997: A1. The United States covertly supported Rwanda before and during the Congo war. The U.S. believed it was time for "new generation of African leaders", such as Kagame and Yoweri Museveni in Uganda, which was part of the reason the U.S. had previously stopped supporting Mobutu.Kennes, Erik. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need." Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005. p. 147 The U.S. sent soldiers to train the FPR and brought FPR commanders to the U.S as well before the war in 1995 for training. During the war, rebels in Bukavu were joined by a group of African–American mercenaries, who claimed they had been recruited in an unofficial U.S. mission. The CIA and U.S. army set up communications in Uganda, and during the war, several aircraft landed in Kigali and Entebbe, claiming to be bringing "aid for the genocide victims"; however, it has been alleged they were bringing military and communication supplies for the FPR. At the same time, U.S. operated anti-Mobutu support from the International Rescue Committee (IRC). === 2000s === ==== 2000: FR Yugoslavia ==== frameless|right Following issues regarding the results of the 2000 Yugoslavian general election, the U.S. State Department heavily supported opposition groups such as Otpor! through the supply of promotional material and consulting services via Quangos. United States involvement served to speed up and organize dissent through exposure, resources, moral and material encouragement, technological aid and professional advice. This campaign was one of the factors contributing to incumbent president's defeat in the 2000 Yugoslavian general election and subsequent Bulldozer Revolution which overthrew Milošević on October 5, 2000 after he refused to recognise the results of the election. ====2001–2021: Afghanistan==== frameless|right Since 1996, Afghanistan had been under the control of the Taliban-led Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, a largely unrecognized unitary Deobandi–Islamic theocratic emirate administered by shura councils. On October 7, 2001, four weeks after the 9/11 attacks by al-Qaeda, the United States invaded Afghanistan and began bombing al-Qaeda and Taliban targets. Under the Taliban regime, al-Qaeda had used Afghanistan to train and indoctrinate fighters at its own training camps, import weapons, coordinate with other jihadists, and plot terrorist actions. 10,000 to 20,000 men passed through al-Qaeda run camps before 9/11, most of whom went to fight for the Taliban, while a smaller number were inducted into al-Qaeda. Although none of the hijackers were of Afghan nationality, the attacks had been planned in Kandahar. George W. Bush said that the goal was to capture al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden and bring him to justice. On October 11, four days after the bombing started, Bush claimed that it might stop if bin Laden were handed over to the U.S. by the Taliban, which had provided safe haven to al-Qaeda. "If you cough him up and his people today, then we'll reconsider what we are doing to your country," Bush told the Taliban. "You still have a second chance. Just bring him in, and bring his leaders and lieutenants and other thugs and criminals with him." On October 14, Bush turned down an offer from the Taliban to discuss sending bin Laden to a third country. Taliban leader Mullah Omar had previously refused to extradite bin Laden. The United Kingdom was a key ally of the United States, offering support for military action from the start of preparations for the invasion, and the two countries worked with anti- Taliban Afghan forces in the Northern Alliance. The US aimed to destroy al- Qaeda and remove the Taliban regime from power, but also sought to prevent the Northern Alliance from taking control of Afghanistan, believing the Alliance's rule would alienate the country's Pashtun majority. CIA director George Tenet argued that the US should target al-Qaeda but "hold off on the Taliban," since the Taliban were popular in Pakistan and attacking them could jeopardize relations with Pakistan. By the end of October, a further goal had emerged: to remove the Taliban from power in Afghanistan. From December 6–17, 2001, a team of Northern Alliance fighters, under direction from a U.S. special forces team, pursued bin Laden in the cave complex of Tora Bora in eastern Afghanistan, but the U.S. did not commit its own troops to the operation and bin Laden escaped to neighbouring Pakistan. That same month, the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan fell and was replaced by the Afghan Interim Administration and then the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in 2002, and finally the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in 2004. Bin Laden was killed by a team of United States Navy SEALs in a raid on his clandestine residence in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in May 2011, nearly ten years after the initial invasion. Despite bin Laden's death, the U.S. remained in Afghanistan, propping up the governments of Hamid Karzai and Ashraf Ghani. President Donald Trump struck an arrangement with the Taliban in February 2020 that would see U.S. troops withdraw from Afghanistan. In April 2021, his successor, Joe Biden announced that a full withdrawal would occur in August of that year. This was followed by the return of the Taliban to power. ====2003–2021: Iraq==== In 1998 as a non-covert measure, the U.S. enacted the "Iraq Liberation Act," which states, in part, that "It should be the policy of the United States to support efforts to remove the regime headed by Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq," and appropriated funds for U.S. aid "to the Iraqi democratic opposition organizations."Pub.L. 105–338, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-105publ338/html/PLAW-105publ338.htm , 112 Stat. 3178, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-112/pdf/STATUTE-112-Pg3178.pdf , enacted October 31, 1998 After Bush was elected he started being more aggressive toward Iraq. After the 9/11 attacks the Bush administration claimed that Iraq's ruler at the time, Saddam Hussein, had connections to Al-Qaeda and was supporting terrorism. The administration also stated that Hussein was covertly continuing production of weapons of mass destruction despite the fact that evidence for both was not conclusive.Blix, H. (7 March 2003) "Transcript of Blix's U.N. presentation" CNNSmith, Jeffrey R. "Hussein's Prewar Ties To Al- Qaeda Discounted". The Washington Post, Friday, 6 April 2007; Page A01. Retrieved on 23 April 2007. Iraq was also one of the three countries Bush called out in his Axis of Evil Speech. In 2002 Congress passed the "Iraq Resolution" which authorized the president to "use any means necessary" against Iraq. The Iraq War then began in March 2003 when United States-led military coalition invaded the country and overthrew the Iraqi government. The U.S. captured and helped prosecute Hussein, who was later hanged. The U.S. and the new Iraqi government also fought an insurgency following the invasion. In December 2011 the U.S. withdrew its soldiers from the conflict, but returned in 2014 to help stop the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The military's combat mission came to an end on December 9, 2021. ==== 2005: Kyrgyzstan ==== In Kyrgyzstan, in response to the corruption and authoritarianism of the Askar Akayev government which had ruled since 1990, mass protests ousted the government and free elections were held. According to The Wall Street Journal, the US government provided aid to opposition protesters via the State Department, USAID, Radio Liberty and Freedom House by funding the only print-media outlet in the country not controlled by the government. When the state cut off electricity to the outlet, the U.S. embassy provided emergency generators. Other opposition groups and an opposition TV station received funding from the US government and US-based NGOs. ==== 2006–2007: Palestinian Territories ==== thumb|Occupied Palestinian Territories The Bush Administration was displeased with the government formed by Hamas, which won 56 percent of the seats in the Palestinian legislative election of 2006.The Times (UK), November 18, 2006, "Diplomats Fear US Wants to Arm Fatah for 'War on Hamas'" The U.S. government pressured the Fatah faction of the Palestinian National Authority leadership to topple the Hamas government of Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh, and provided funding,Christian Science Monitor, May 25, 2007, "Israel, US, and Egypt Back Fatah's Fight Against Hamas," http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0525/p07s02-wome.html The Times (UK), November 18, 2006, "Diplomats Fear US wants to Arm Fatah for 'War on Hamas'" including a secret training and armaments program that received tens of millions of dollars in congressional funding. This funding was initially blocked by Congress, who feared that arms provided to Palestinians might later be used against Israel, but the Bush administration circumvented Congress.Vanity Fair, March 3, 2008, "The Gaza Bombshell," http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/04/gaza200804 The Middle East Online, January 31, 2007, http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=19358 San Francisco Chronicle, December 14, 2006, "U.S. Training Fatah in Anti-Terror Tactic – Underlying Motive Is to Counter Strength of Hamas, Analysts Say," http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/U-S-training-Fatah-in-anti-terror- tactics-2465370.php Fatah launched a war against the Haniyeh government. When the government of Saudi Arabia attempted to negotiate a truce between the sides so as to avoid a wide-scale Palestinian civil war, the U.S. government pressured Fatah to reject the Saudi plan and to continue the effort to topple the Hamas government. Ultimately, the Hamas government was prevented from ruling over all of the Palestinian territories, with Fatah retreating to the West Bank and Hamas retreating to and taking control of the Gaza strip. ==== 2005–2009: Syria ==== frameless|right In 2005, after a period of co-operation in the War on Terror, the Bush administration froze relations with Syria. According to US cables released by WikiLeaks, the State Department then began to funnel money to opposition groups, including at least $6 million to the anti-government satellite channel Barada TV and the exile group Movement for Justice and Development in Syria, although this was denied by the channel. This covert backing continued under the Obama administration until at least April 2009 when US diplomats expressed concern the funding would undermine US attempts to rebuild relations with Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad. === 2010s === ==== 2011: Libya ==== frameless|right In 2011, Libya had been led by Muammar Gaddafi since 1969. In February 2011, amid the "Arab Spring", a revolution broke out against him, spreading from the second city Benghazi (where an interim government was set up on 27 February), to the capital Tripoli, sparking the First Libyan Civil War. On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorizing a no-fly zone over Libya, and "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Two days later, France, the United States and the United Kingdom launched the 2011 military intervention in Libya with Operation Odyssey Dawn, US and British naval forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the French and British Air Forces undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by Coalition forces. A coalition of 27 states from Europe and the Middle East soon joined the NATO- led intervention, as Operation Unified Protector. The Gaddafi government collapsed in August, leaving the National Transitional Council as the de facto government, with UN recognition. Gaddafi was captured and killed in October by National Transitional Council forces and NATO action ceased. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 In April 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama said that the "worst mistake" of his presidency was "failing to plan for the day after, what I think was the right thing to do, in intervening in Libya." ==== 2012–2017: Syria ==== In April 2011, after the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in early 2011, three U.S. Senators, Republicans John McCain and Lindsey Graham and Independent Joe Lieberman, urged President Barack Obama in a joint statement to "state unequivocally" that "it is time to go" for President Bashar al-Assad. In August, 2011, the U.S. government called on Assad to "step aside" and imposed an oil embargo against the Syrian government.Council on Foreign Relations, August 18, 2011, "Calling for Regime Change in Syria," http://www.cfr.org/syria/calling-regime-change-syria/p25677 The Wall Street Journal, August 19, 2011, "World Leaders Urge Assad to Resign: Obama Imposes New Embargo on Syrian Oil Sales as Europe Considers Similar Measures; Crackdown on Protests Persists," https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903639404576516144145940136 The Guardian, January 25, 2015, "US Changes Its Tune on Syrian Regime Change as Isis Threat Takes Top Priority, Washington Still Hopes Bashar al-Assad Will Be Removed from Power, But Is No Longer Insisting on It As A Precondition for Peace, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jan/25/us-syrian-regime- change-isis-priority Starting in 2013, the U.S. provided training, weapons, and money to vetted moderate Syrian rebels,National Public Radio, April 23, 2014, "CIA Is Quietly Ramping Up Aid To Syrian Rebels, Sources Say," https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/04/23/306233248/cia-is-quietly- ramping-up-aid-to-syrian-rebels-sources-say The Guardian, March 8, 2013, "West Training Syrian Rebels in Jordan Exclusive: UK and French Instructors Involved in US-Led Effort to Strengthen Secular Elements in Syria's Opposition, Say Sources," https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/08/west-training-syrian- rebels-jordan and in 2014, the Supreme Military Council. In 2015, Obama reaffirmed that "Assad must go". In March 2017, Ambassador Nikki Haley told a group of reporters that the US's priority in Syria was no longer on "getting Assad out." Earlier that day at a news conference in Ankara, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson also said that the "longer term status of President Assad will be decided by the Syrian people." While the US Defense Department's program to aid predominantly Kurdish rebels fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) continued, it was revealed in July 2017 that US President Donald Trump had ordered a "phasing out" of the CIA's support for anti-Assad rebels. == See also == * Criticism of United States foreign policy * Foreign electoral intervention * Foreign interventions by the United States * Latin America–United States relations * Russian involvement in regime change * Soviet involvement in regime change * Timeline of United States military operations * United States involvement in regime change in Latin America * Assassinations and targeted killing by the CIA == Notes == ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * Downes, Alexander B. (2021). Catastrophic Success: Why Foreign-Imposed Regime Change Goes Wrong. Cornell University Press. *. Category:Politics of the United States Category:United States foreign policy
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A daytime running lamp (DRL, also daytime running light) is an automotive lighting and bicycle lighting device on the front of a roadgoing motor vehicle or bicycle, automatically switched on when the vehicle's handbrake has been pulled down, when the vehicle is in gear, or when the engine is started, emitting white, yellow, or amber light. Their intended use is not to help the driver see the road or their surroundings, but to help other road users identify an active vehicle.Daytime running light European Commission ==Implementations== Depending on prevailing regulations and equipment, vehicles may implement the daytime-running light function by functionally turning on specific lamps, by operating low-beam headlamps or fog lamps at full or reduced intensity, by operating high-beam headlamps at reduced intensity, or by steady-burning operation of the front turn signals. Compared to any mode of headlamp operation to produce the daytime running light, functionally dedicated DRLs maximize the potential benefits in safety performance, glare, motorcycle masking, and other potential drawbacks. ==Usage== A daytime running lamp is usually automatically switched on once the ignition is on; other vehicles may switch the daytime running lamps on when the parking brake is released or when the vehicle is shifted into gear. A daytime running lamp emits a brighter light when the headlamps are not turned on and its brightness will be dimmed slightly in conjunction with the headlamps being turned on. ==Safety performance== A 2008 study by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration analysed the effect of DRLs on frontal and side-on crashes between two vehicles and on vehicle collisions with pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. The analysis determined that DRLs offer no statistically significant reduction in the frequency or severity of the collisions studied, except for a reduction in light trucks' and vans' involvement in two-vehicle crashes by a statistically significant 5.7%. ===Effect of ambient light=== The daytime running light was first mandated, and safety benefits first perceived, in Scandinavian countries where it is persistently dark during the winter season. As ambient light levels increase, the potential safety benefit decreases while the DRL intensity required for a safety improvement increases. The safety benefit produced by DRLs in relatively dark Nordic countries is roughly triple the benefit observed in the relatively bright United States. ==Effect on motorcycle safety== A number of motorcycling advocacy groups are concerned over reduced motorcycle conspicuity and increased vulnerability with the introduction of headlamp-based DRLs on cars and other dual-track vehicles, since it means motorcycles are no longer the only vehicles displaying headlamps during the day. Some researchers have suggested that amber DRLs be reserved for use exclusively on motorcycles, in countries where amber is not presently a permissible color for DRLs on any vehicles, while other research has concluded there is a safety disbenefit to two 90 mm x 520 candela (cd) DRLs on motorcycles in comparison to one 190 mm x 270 cd dipped (low) beam headlight. The latter result suggests that a daytime running lamp's luminous area may have an important influence on its effectiveness. ==Environmental impact== DRL power consumption varies widely depending on the implementation. Current production DRL systems consume from 5 watts (dedicated LED system) to over 200 W (headlamps and all parking, tail, and marker lights on). International regulators, primarily in Europe, are working to balance the potential safety benefit offered by DRL with the increased fuel consumption due to their use. Because the power to run the DRLs must be produced by the engine, which in turn requires burning additional fuel, high-power DRL systems increase CO2 emissions sufficiently to affect a country's compliance with the Kyoto protocol on greenhouse gas emissions.DRL fuel consumption calculations For that reason, low-power solutions are being encouraged and headlamp-based systems are not allowed after DRLs became mandatory in Europe at the beginning of 2011. LEDs and low-power, high- efficacy, long-life light bulbs produce appropriate amounts of light for an effective DRL without significantly increasing fuel consumption or emissions. Fuel consumption reductions of up to 0.5 mpg may be found when comparing a 55 W DRL system to a 200 W DRL system. In 2006, the UK's Department of Transport also found significant reductions in emissions and fuel consumption when comparing a 42 W DRL system to a 160 W full headlight DRL systems. DRL fuel consumption can be reduced to insignificant levels by the use of 8 to 20 W DRL systems based on LEDs or high-efficacy filament bulbs. ==Worldwide== ===Europe=== ====European Union==== European Union Directive 2008/89/EC required all passenger cars and small delivery vans M1 and N1 first type The directive deals with EC type approval or national type approval for new types of vehicles approved on or after 7 February 2011 in the EU to come equipped with daytime running lights.Europa.eu Press Release "New cars equipped with daytime running lights as of today"EU to make DRLs mandatory from 2011AL- Automotive Lighting DRL info European Union Directive 2008/89/EC ended validity on 31 October 2014, implicitly repealed by the replacement Regulation (EC) No 661/2009. The mandate was extended to trucks and buses in August 2012.European Commission Enterprise and Industry web page on DRLs Using headlamps or front turn signals or fog lamps as DRLs is not permitted;DRL Mandate Takes Effect in Europe, R48 Countries (subscription required) the EU Directive requires functionally specific daytime running lamps compliant with ECE Regulation 87 and mounted to the vehicle in accordance with ECE Regulation 48. DRLs compliant with R87 emit white light on an axis of between 400 and 1,200 candela with an apparent surface of 25 cm2 to 200 cm2 with an additional requirement of between 1 and 1,200 candela in a defined field. In the past, Germany, Spain, France and other European countries have encouraged or required daytime use of low beam headlamps on certain roads at certain times of year; Ireland encourages the use of low beam headlights during the winter, Italy, Hungary and Romania require daytime running lamps outside populated areas, and Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia require the use of full or reduced voltage low beam headlights at all times. Whether this requirement is met by the DRLs required on new cars since February 2011 is a matter of individual countries' laws. ====Nordic countries==== DRLs were first mandated in the Nordic countries, where ambient light levels in the winter are generally low even during the day. Sweden was the first country to require widespread DRLs in 1977. At the time, the function was known as varselljus ("perception light" or "notice light"). The initial regulations in these countries favored devices incorporating 21 W signal bulbs identical to those used in brake lamps and turn signals, producing yellow or white light of approximately 400 to 600 cd on a axis, mounted at the outer left and right edges of the front of the vehicle. Finland adopted a daytime-light requirement in 1972 on rural roads in wintertime, and in 1982 on rural roads in summertime and 1997 on all roads all year long; Norway in 1985, Iceland in 1988, and Denmark in 1990. To increase manufacturer flexibility in complying with the requirement for DRLs, the daytime illumination of low beam headlights was added as an optional implementation. Given the headlamp specifications in use in those countries, such an implementation would produce approximately 450 cd axially. ====United Kingdom==== UK regulations briefly required vehicles first used on or after 1 April 1987 to be equipped with a dim-dip device or functionally dedicated daytime running lamps, except those vehicles type- approved to ECE Regulation 48 regarding installation of lighting equipment—this exception was made because ECE R48 did not require dim-dip or daytime running lights, and while countries signatory to the ECE Regulations are permitted to maintain their own national regulations as an option to the ECE regulations, they are not permitted to bar vehicles approved under the ECE regulations. The dim-dip system operated the low beam headlamps (called "dipped beam" in the UK) at between 10% and 20% of normal low beam intensity. The running lamps permitted as an alternative to dim-dip were required to emit at least 200 cd straight ahead, and no more than 800 cd in any direction. In practice, most vehicles were equipped with the dim-dip option rather than the running lamps. The dim-dip lights were not intended for use as daytime running lights. Rather, they operated when the engine was running and the driver switched on the front position (parking) lamps. Dim-dip was intended to provide a nighttime "town beam" with intensity between that of the parking lamps commonly used at the time by British drivers in city traffic after dark, and low beam headlamps; the former were considered insufficiently intense to provide improved conspicuity in conditions requiring it, while the latter were considered too glaring for safe use in built-up areas. The UK was the only country to require such dim-dip systems, though vehicles so equipped were sold in other Commonwealth countries with left-hand traffic. In 1988, the European Commission successfully prosecuted the UK government in the European Court of Justice, arguing that the UK requirement for dim-dip was illegal under EC directives prohibiting member states from enacting vehicle lighting requirements not contained in pan-European EC directives. As a result, the UK requirement for dim-dip was quashed. Nevertheless, dim-dip systems remain permitted, and while such systems are not presently as common as they once were, dim-dip functionality was fitted on many new cars (such as the Volkswagen Polo) well into the 1990s. ===Canada=== Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 requires DRLs on all new vehicles made or imported after January 1, 1990. Canada's proposed DRL regulation was essentially similar to regulations in place in Scandinavia, with an axial luminous intensity limit of 1,500 cd, but automakers claimed it was too expensive to add a new front lighting device, and would increase warranty costs (due to increased bulb replacements) to run the low beams. After a regulatory battle, the standard was rewritten to permit the use of reduced-voltage high beam headlamps producing up to 7,000 axial candela, as well as permitting any light color from white to amber or selective yellow. These changes to the regulation permitted automakers to implement a less costly DRL, such as by connecting the high beam filaments in series to supply each filament with half its rated voltage, or by burning the front turn signals full-time except when they are actually flashing as turn indicators. ===United States=== Shortly after Canada mandated DRLs, General Motors, interested in reducing the build variations of cars for the North American market, petitioned the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1990 to permit (but not require) US vehicles to be equipped with DRLs like those in Canada.Federal Register 98-20918 NPRM: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards Lamps, Reflective Devices, and Associated Equipment NHTSA objected on grounds of the potential for high- intensity DRLs to cause problems, such as glare and turn signal masking, and issued a proposed rule in 1991 that specified a maximum intensity of 2,600 cd. Industry and safety watchdogs reacted to the proposed rule, and eventually the glare objections were set aside and most of the same types of DRLs allowed in Canada were permitted but not required effective with the 1995 model year. General Motors immediately equipped most (and, in following years, all) of its vehicles with DRLs beginning with the Chevrolet Corsica. Saab, Volkswagen, Volvo, Suzuki and Subaru gradually introduced DRLs in the U.S. market beginning in 1995. In recent years, Lexus has installed high-beam or turn signal based DRLs on US models. Some Toyota models come with DRLs as standard or optional equipment, and with a driver-controllable on and off switch. Starting in the 2006 model year, Honda began equipping their U.S. models with DRLs, mostly by reduced-intensity operation of the high beam headlamps. Public reaction to DRLs, generally neutral to positive in Canada, is decidedly mixed in the U.S. Thousands of complaints regarding glare from DRLs were lodged with the DOT shortly after DRLs were permitted on cars, and there was also concern that headlamp-based DRLs reduce the conspicuity of motorcycles, and that DRLs based on front turn signals introduce ambiguity into the turn signal system. In 1997, in response to these complaints and after measuring actual DRL intensity well above the 7,000 cd limit on vehicles in use, DOT proposed changes to the DRL specification that would have capped axial intensity at 1,500 cd, a level equivalent to the European 1,200 cd and identical to the initially proposed Canadian limit. During the open comment period, a volume of public comments were received by NHTSA in support of lowering the intensity or advocating the complete elimination of DRLs from U.S. roads. Automaker sentiment generally ran along consistent lines, with European automakers experienced at complying with European DRL requirements voicing no objection to the proposal, and North American automakers repeating the same objections they raised in response to Canada's initial 1,500-cd proposal.docket for DRL glare complaintsAborted NHTSA rulemaking to reduce DRL glare, with public complaints The NHTSA proposal for DRL intensity reduction was rescinded in 2004,NHTSA docket for withdrawal of intended rulemaking to reduce DRL glare pending agency review and decision on a petition filed in 2001 by General Motors, seeking to have NHTSA mandate DRLs on all U.S. vehicles.Federal Register E9-15314: Denial of GM Petition to Mandate DRLs The GM petition was denied by the NHTSA in 2009, on grounds of severe methodological and analytical flaws in the studies and data provided by GM as evidence for a safety benefit to DRLs. In denying the petition, the NHTSA said: Several states on the Eastern seaboard, the Southeast, Gulf Coast and California have laws that require headlights to be switched on when windshield wipers are in use. DRLs are not considered headlights in most vehicle codes and so DRLs may not meet the letter of these laws in use. ===Australia=== DRLs are permitted but not required in Australia, though the Australian College of Road Safety, an Australian automotive safety group, advocates making DRLs mandatory rather than optional. ==See also== * Automobile safety * Bicycle safety ==References== ==External links== * Headlights overview Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) Category:Automotive lamps Category:Vehicle safety technologies
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Greeks in the United Kingdom are British residents and citizens of full or partial Greek heritage, or Greeks who emigrated to and reside in the United Kingdom. == History == === Early Greek contact === ==== Mycenaean Greeks ==== The Mycenaean civilization was an early Greek civilization which flourished during the period between 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC, when it perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization in the eastern Mediterranean. Through trading and conquest, Mycenaean civilization spread its influence from Mycenae to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects (Rillaton Barrow, Pelynt Dagger) dating from the thirteenth century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England, proving at least indirect Greek contact with Ireland and Great Britain at the time. The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction, Stephanie Lynn Budin, Oxford University pressThe Celtic EncyclopediaThe Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 13Bryan Avery Feuer, Mycenaean civilization: an annotated bibliography through 2002, McFarland & Co Inc, 2004 ==== Cassiterides ==== Ancient Greek writers, including Herodotus, mention a group of islands which were called Cassiterides. Modern researchers suggest that they may refer to the British Isles. ==== Aristotle ==== Aristotle, in the work On the Universe, mentions the Britannic islands (), two islands which were called Albion (), which is the modern Great Britain, and Ierne (), which is the modern Ireland. ==== Pytheas ==== The first known Greek to come to Britain was Pytheas who lived in late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC. He reported its name as () and (), for Britain and the British islands, which became Britannia, it is assumed that its Hellenised version was under Diodorus. It may have been used by some of the local peoples where Pytheas landed to themselves -Pretani. === Roman period === Many Greeks later arrived with the Roman legions as soldiers and traders, and their presence is attested by inscriptions on curse tablets,English Collections OnlineResources, RWWC, objects, record. www.museumoflondon.org.uk. gravestones and dedicatory tablets in both Greek and Latin displayed in the Museum of London and elsewhere, including: and: and two dedicatory plaques found in York beneath what is now the railway station. These were erected by a certain Scribonius Demetrius, possibly to be identified with Demetrius of Tarsus, who visited Britain at the time of Gnaeus Julius Agricola: and As far north as Cumbria, we find the tomb of Hermes of Commagene: Indeed, the Roman city of Carlisle, judging by surviving inscriptions, seems to have been home to a thriving Greek community.Places Luguvalium . www.roman-britain.org. It is a matter of historical record then, that Greek was being spoken in England hundreds of years before the English language or Anglo-Saxon peoples ever reached its shores. === Middle ages === ==== Early Middle Ages ==== In the 7th century, following the death of the previous holder of the post, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (669 AD); he played an important part in the early history of England, building churches and monasteries and establishing theological studies. According to the Venerable Bede, Theodore contributed to the bringing of a greater unity to English Christianity, and in 672 presided over the first council of the entire English Church, at Hertford. The structure of dioceses and parishes he put in place is still substantially in place today. ==== Late Middle Ages ==== The Byzantine ruler Manuel II visited England in 1400, where he was received by Henry IV at Eltham Palace. A Greek presence in London was recorded with the two brothers, Andronikos and Alexios Effomatos – described in contemporary records as "Grekes" – who were known to have been resident in London in 1440. They were from Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. In 1445, the king of England, Henry VI (1421–1471), granted the brothers permission to remain in London and to practise their trade of gold wire drawing. They made a costly type of thread in which thin strands of gold were intertwined with silk, and which was then used in expensive luxury fabrics and in sacerdotal vestments, a craft for which Constantinople had been famous in its heyday. Thanks to this royal grant, the brothers remained in London for many years. They lived first in the area of Cripplegate, much of which is now covered by the Barbican Centre, and later they moved to Broad Street, in what was then the Italian quarter of London. Andronikos, the elder, died in about 1472, but Alexios was still there in 1484, over forty years after his first arrival. That set the pattern for Greek settlement over the next two hundred years. Some came as soldiers during the reign of Henry VIII, led by the officers Theodore Luchisi, Antonios Stesinos, and Colonel Thomas of Argos, responsible for the garrisoning of the then- English possession of Calais.About – Stradioti . www.shsu.edu. Some came as visitors for a short period. In about 1545, of Corfu spent time in London and left an interesting account of his impressions. Indeed, he followed as a non- combatant an English invasion of Scotland where the English forces included Greeks from Argos under the leadership of Thomas of Argos whose 'Courage, and prudence, and experience of wars' was lauded by the Corfiot traveller.Nicander Nucius, The second book of the travels of Nicander Nucius of Corcyra, ed. by Rev. J.A. Cramer, 1841, London, p.90. See also Note 1.J.A. Cramer notes in his introduction to N. Nucius translation that he used an original that was mutilated and had several pages torn out. On p. 95 the narrative stops exactly where the text starts referring to Thomas of Argos (see also his note in p. 115). A Greek historian, Andreas Moustoxydis, published the missing part of the original Greek text, based on a Nucius' manuscript (catalogued as D.72) found in the Ambrosian Library (Milan), mentioned also by Cramer. After Cramer's asterisks (end of his translation) the text continues as follows: [Hence, indeed, Thomas also, the general of the Argives from Peloponnesus, with those about him ***] spoke to them these words: :"Comrades, as you see we are in the extreme parts of the world, under the service of a King and a nation in the farthest north. And nothing we brought here from our country other than our courage and bravery. Thus, bravely we stand against our enemies, because their numbers is nothing in front of our virtue. Because we are children of the Greeks(*) and we are not afraid of the barbarian flock. …. Therefore, courageous and in order let us march to the enemy, and the shore of the ocean we paint red with blood, and the famous since olden times virtue of the Greeks(*) let us prove with our action." (*) Έλληνες in the original Greek text. This incident happened during the Sieges of Boulogne (1544–1546). Thomas was sent by Henry VIII to Boulogne in 1546, as commander of a battalion of 550 GreeksMoustoxydes Andreas (1856) Nikandros Noukios, in the periodical Pandora, vol. 7, No. 154, 15 Augh. 1856, p. 222 In Greek language. Andreas Moustoxydes was a Greek historian and politician. During Henry VIII's reign more Greeks migrated to England from the island of Rhodes following the Knights Hospitaller, after the island was conquered by the Ottomans. A notable Rhodian was the merchant Franciscos Galiardis. ===17th century=== The descendants of the imperial Palaeologus dynasty carved out a niche as mercenary officers in Britain, and their tombs are still visible in locations as far apart – both geographically and in terms of social standing – as Westminster Abbey and Landulph parish church, Cornwall.The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos by Donald M Nicol, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp122-124Landulph Church. www.donne.free-online.co.uk. A number of Palaeologi fought against each other as high-ranking officers for both sides in the English Civil War. Early Modern Greco-Britons were not solely soldiers. A few individuals settled permanently, such as a native of Rhodes called Konstantinos Benetos, who was recorded as living in Clerkenwell between 1530 and 1578. These visitors, refugees and occasional long-term residents did not, as yet, constitute a community. They were too few, too obscure and too transitory, and above all they lacked the one thing that would have given them cohesion and a common identity: a church where they could practise their Orthodox faith. Nikodemos Metaxas, a printer by trade, worked in London for a time in the 1620s. Some came as refugees, seeking asylum or financial help as a result of misfortunes suffered under Ottoman rule. One of them was Gregorios Argyropoulos, the owner of an estate near Thessaloniki. When a Turkish soldier was accidentally killed on Argyropoulos' land, the Ottoman authorities held him responsible and forced him to flee overseas and eventually to London in 1633. A charitable collection was made for him in London churches, and he was presented with £48 before he departed the following year. By the late 17th century, matters had changed. A number of Greeks now occupied prominent positions in London life. Constantinos Rodocanachi of Chios had become one of the physicians to King Charles II (163 I -I 685) (PI. 1). Georgios Constantinos of Skopelos had established the Grecian coffeehouse in Devereux court, just off the Strand, and he could count Sir Isaac Newton and other members of the Royal Society among his clientele. Numbers had also increased. The expansion of Britain's overseas trade with the Levant brought many more merchant ships to the port of London, some of them crewed by Greeks. The time was therefore ripe to press for the establishment of a Greek Church. In 1676 about one hundred families from the islands of Samos and Melos under the bishop Joseph Georgarinis migrated to England. Assisted by Konstantinos Rhodokanakis they were welcomed by the then Duke of York who later became King James II. They were granted settlements in Crown Str, Soho, later renamed to "Greek Str.". The first documented organised Greek Orthodox community was established in London in the 1670s, with the first Greek Orthodox Church in London being erected in 1677,History of the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sophia (Divine Wisdom) . www.stsophia.org.uk/stsophia.htm. in Soho, on the corner of Charing Cross Road and Greek Street. The church was dedicated to the Dormition of the Virgin and was consecrated by the Metropolitan of Samos, Joseph Georgerinis. The founding inscription of the church (dated 1677), among others mentions that the church "was founded for the nation of the Greeks, in the reign of Most Serene King Jacob II". Oxford also became home to a Greek community centred on what is now Worcester College, which was known as 'Greek College' for much of the 17th century. The Greek College was founded by Lord Paget, then ambassador to Constantinople, though recruitment of Greek students was halted in 1705 because " 'the irregular life of some priests and laymen of the Greek Church living in London has greatly disturbed the Greek Orthodox Church. Therefore the Church has also prevented those who wish to go and study at Oxford.'"The Greek College . www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk. ===19th century to present=== In the 19th century, two events drew Greeks towards Britain; commercial potential after the defeat of Napoleon, and the Diaspora, in which the Greek War of Independence saw a wave of emigres settle in Britain. Initially trading in shipping and commodities, most of these families were from Chios and Constantinople, and settled around Finsbury Circus in London, close to the commercial heart of the shipping industry; the Baltic Exchange and Lloyd's of London. Others settled in the commercial cities of Liverpool and Manchester, An account of the Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation, Manchester and later Glasgow and Cardiff. They were joined by other Greeks from the Aegean, Ionan, Smyrna, Athens and beyond. As they prospered these Greek merchants began to settle in London's Bayswater and established permanent institutions such as the Greek necropolis at Norwood in 1842, a Greek school and the Greek Orthodox church, later Cathedral of Aghia Sophia in 1877. Britain gained control over Cyprus on 4 June 1878 as a result of the Cyprus Convention and formally annexed it in 1914. Greek Cypriots began to settle in London only from the 1930s. The earliest migrants came to the area around Soho, and many more arrived at the end of the Second World War. As rents in the West End increased, Camden and Fulham became popular areas for Greek-Cypriot migrants. Women initially worked from home in industries such as dressmaking. By the 1960s, a Greek language school and Greek Orthodox church, St Nicholas, had been established in Fulham. == Population == thumb|White: Greek population pyramid in 2021; this does not include Greek Cypriots It is estimated that the Greek population of London numbered several thousand by 1870, whereas in 1850 it had numbered just a few hundred.Greekcommunity . www.stsophia.org.uk. The 2001 UK Census recorded 35,169 British residents born in Greece and 77,673 born in Cyprus, although the latter includes Turkish as well as Greek Cypriots. Recent estimates suggest that up to 300,000 ethnic Greeks may reside in the UK. The Office for National Statistics estimates that, as of June 2021, the Greek-born population of the UK was 77,000. ===Distribution=== The 2001 Census recorded 12,360 Greek-born people living in London, with particular concentrations in the Hyde Park, Regent's Park, Chelsea and Kensington Census tracts. There are also large Greek communities in Sunderland, Moss Side in Manchester, Birmingham and Colchester. Generally, clusters of Cypriot-born people are found in the same locations as Turkish-born people, with 60 per cent living in areas of London with notable Turkish communities. The Census tracts with the highest number of Cypriot-born people in 2001 were Southgate, Palmers Green, Upper Edmonton, Cockfosters, Lower Edmonton, Tottenham North and Tottenham South. Many Greek-Cypriots reside in Wood Green, Harringay and Palmers Green, the latter harbouring the largest community of Greek-Cypriots outside Cyprus, resulting in these areas bearing local nicknames whereby the Green is replaced by Greek – as in Greek Lanes and Palmers Greek."Things you didn't know about... Palmers Green" . Yellow Pages"Greek in Palmers Green". UKTV"Palmers Green" . Trusted Places, trustedplaces.com. According to a City of London Corporation sponsored report,Philip Baker & John Eversley, Multilingual Capital, commissioned by City of London Corporation, published by Battlebridge 2000. there are between 280,600 and 300,000 Greek speakers in Greater London. ===Students=== A considerable number of Greek students study in the UK. According to the official UK Higher Education Statistics Agency statistics, 16,050 Greek students attended UK universities in 2006/07, making Greece the fourth most common country of origin amongst overseas students in 2006/07, after China, India and the Republic of Ireland. ==Education== There are two Greek international schools in London: * Greek Primary School of London * Greek Secondary School of London ==Media== * London Greek Radio ==Notable British Greeks== *Theo James *Theodore of Tarsus (602–690), Archbishop of Canterbury *Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent Genealogy of the Royal Family of Great Britain *Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh *George Logothetis, founding chairman and CEO of the Libra Group *Ben Agathangelou, engineer *Nick Bouras, professor of psychiatry *Ion Calvocoressi, British army officer *Peter Calvocoressi, writer and army officer at Bletchley Park *Rafika Chawishe, actress (Greek mother) *John Christoforou, painter *Damian Grammaticas, BBC journalist *Sir Stelios Haji-Ioannou, entrepreneur *Sir Alec Issigonis, car designer *Alex Kapranos, frontman of Franz Ferdinand *K Koke, rapper *George Michael, musician *Marina, singer-songwriter *Yannis Philippakis, lead singer and guitarist of Foals *Panayiotis Kalorkoti, artist *Sophia Kokosalaki, fashion designer *Sir Eddie Kulukundis, philanthropist *Nico Ladenis, chef *Constantine Louloudis, rower *Alexis Lykiard, writer *Sir Basil Markesinis, University of Texas professor *Tarki Micallef, former footballer *Alexi Murdoch, musician *John Negroponte, politician *Theo Paphitis, entrepreneur *Henry Pyrgos, rugby union player *Angelique Rockas, actress and theatre practitioner, pioneer of multi-racial theatre in London *Vidal Sassoon, of Sephardic descent from Thessaloniki *Marina Sirtis, actress *Ian Vougioukas, international basketball player for Greece *Milo Yiannopoulos, journalist *Aris Roussinos, journalist *Pandeli Ralli, politician ==See also== *British Cypriots *Greece – United Kingdom relations ==Notes== == References == == Further reading == *G.F. Bartle, 'The Greek boys at Borough Road during the War of Independence', Journal of Educational Administration and History 20 (1988), 1–11 *P.A. Bezodis, 'The Greek church (later St. Mary's Crown Street) and St. Martin's Almshouses', in Survey of London, 44 vols. (London, 1900–94), xxxiii. 278-84 *Robert Browning, 'Some early Greek visitors to England', in Essays in Memory of Basil Laourdas (Thessaloniki, 1975), pp. 387–95 *Timotheos Catsiyannis, The Greek Community of London (London, 1993) *Timotheos Catsiyannis, Pandias Stephen Rallis, 1793–1865 (London, 1986) *Maria Christina Chatziioannou, 'Greek merchants in Victorian England', in Greek Diaspora and Migration since 1700, ed. Dimitris Tziovas (Aldershot, 2009), pp. 45–60 *Chatziioannou Maria Christina (2010) Mediterranean pahtways of Greek merchants to Victorian England, The Historical Review, Institute for Neohellenic Research, Vol. VII, pp. 213–237 *Michael Constantinides, The Greek Orthodox Church in London (London, 1933) *P.M. Doll (ed.), Anglicanism and Orthodoxy 300 Years after the 'Greek College' in Oxford (Oxford and Bern, 2000) *T.E. Dowling and E.W. Fletcher, Hellenism in England (London, 1915) *Evangelia Georgitsoyanni, 'An unknown verse newspaper of the Greek diaspora', Analele Universitstii "Stefan Cel Mare" Suceava: Serie Filologie B. Literatura 11 (2005), 45–64 *Jonathan Harris, 'The Grecian Coffee House and political debate in London, 1688–1714', The London Journal 25 (2000), 1–13 *Jonathan Harris, Greek Emigres in the West, 1400–1520 (Camberley, 1995) *Jonathan Harris, 'Silent Minority: the Greek Community of 18th-century London', in Greek Diaspora and Migration since 1700, ed. Dimitris Tziovas (Aldershot, 2009), pp. 31–43 *Jonathan Harris, 'Two Byzantine craftsmen in 15th century London', Journal of Medieval History 21 (1995), 387–403 *Jonathan Harris and Heleni Porphyriou, 'The Greek diaspora: Italian port cities and London, c.1400–1700', in Cities and Cultural Transfer in Europe: 1400–1700, ed. Donatella Calabi and Stephen Turk Christensen (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 65–86 *Alan Haynes, 'Greek nationals in England 1400–1705', History Today 29 (1979), 179–87 *George Kakavas (ed.), Treasured Offerings. The Legacy of the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St. Sophia, London (Athens, 2002) *Demetrius Mangreotis, 'The demographic history of the Greek mercantile community in London, 1837–1881', Historica 6 (1986), 349–68 (in Greek) United Kindom Category:Greece–United Kingdom relations Category:Immigration to the United Kingdom by country of origin
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Rebecca Caroline Ferguson (born July 21, 1986) is a British soul singer and songwriter. In 2010, Ferguson finished in second place in the seventh series of The X Factor. She later released her debut album titled Heaven in December 2011. The album peaked at number 3 on the UK Albums Chart. Ferguson released three further top-ten albums: Freedom (2013), Lady Sings the Blues (2015) and Superwoman (2016). She cites Aretha Franklin, Kings of Leon, Christina Aguilera and Amy Winehouse among her influences. ==Early life== Rebecca Ferguson was born on 21 July 1986 at Mill Road Hospital in Liverpool to a father of Jamaican descent and a white British mother. She has a younger brother, Sam. She spent the first two years of her life in Huyton. Her family moved to a house on an estate in Woolton Village when her parents separated. Ferguson received her primary education at Woolton Primary School and her secondary and sixth form education at Gateacre Community Comprehensive School. As a teenager she later moved to Anfield, where she became pregnant with her first child, a daughter. Two years later she had her son. Ferguson has said her family supported her ambition to become a professional singer and helped her through two previous X Factor auditions. She also revealed that she was "bullied as a kid because my family was poor, and I never had the right clothes or toys." Despite having a difficult start in life, Ferguson insisted she wanted people to focus solely on her talent. Ferguson also revealed that as a child she always wanted to be a pop star. She revealed on Loose Women that she was sexually abused in a care home when she was 8 years old. Ferguson is a qualified legal secretary, having studied at Hugh Baird College, Bootle. She later commented, "There is only so long you can chase the dream when you are a mum. I wanted the kids to see me do well and be a better role model. They were always seeing their mummy fail. That was why I started college." ==Career== ===2009–2011: Beginnings and The X Factor=== Ferguson had previously unsuccessfully auditioned for The X Factor and for P. Diddy's Starmaker in New York. She later commented "I went to other auditions, I was invited to New York to audition for P.Diddy's Starmaker and I was told ‘no’. It was really upsetting because I spent money to get there. I also tried out for The X Factor but it did not turn out too well." Ferguson sang "A Change Is Gonna Come" for her audition in front of judges, Simon Cowell, Louis Walsh and guest judge, Nicole Scherzinger. At her bootcamp audition, she sang "Like a Star" to which Cowell said "That is a recording voice!" and Scherzinger said, "I told you first time I saw her, she is our generation's songbird." She sang "Fireflies" in the Judges' Houses round and was sent through to the live shows by mentor Cheryl in her Girls category (solo females aged 16–27). For the first live show she sang "Teardrops" and in the second live show she sang "Feeling Good". In the third live show she sang "Why Don't You Do Right?" and in the fourth live show she sang "Wicked Game". In the fifth live show, Ferguson received a standing ovation from Cowell and Cheryl following her performance of "Make You Feel My Love". In the following episode, Ferguson received another standing ovation from Dannii Minogue and Cheryl after singing "Candle in the Wind". In the final, she performed a duet with Christina Aguilera, performing Aguilera's hit single "Beautiful". Ferguson's winner's song was a cover of Duffy's "Distant Dreamer". She avoided the final showdown every week and finished second to Matt Cardle, making her the first female runner-up on The X Factor. thumb|right|200px|Ferguson performing on the X Factor Live Tour, April 2011. The tour saw Ferguson performing for 500,000 people throughout the UK After the final, it was announced that Ferguson had been signed by Syco Music. In January 2011, it was reported that Ferguson had signed a joint record deal between Syco Records and Epic Records. Ferguson and nine other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour from February to April 2011. The tour saw Ferguson performing for 500,000 people throughout the UK. ===2011–2012: Heaven=== Ferguson released her debut single "Nothing's Real but Love" on 20 November 2011, which was written by Ferguson and Eg White. The single peaked at number ten on the UK Singles Chart. Her debut album Heaven followed and was released 5 December 2011 in the UK. The album features Ferguson collaborating with Eg White, Steve Booker, Fraser T Smith, Xenomania, Paul Barry, Mark Taylor and Brian Higgins. Ferguson later revealed that she would be co-writing the whole of her album for her to "connect" with the songs. The album would feature genres like Soul, pop and Blues. Cowell praised the album by tweeting on 21 November how proud he was of Ferguson, "I am absolutely blown away by Rebecca Ferguson, her album and by her performance. Congratulations!". The album was certified platinum for shipments of 300,000 units by the British Phonographic Industry in its first two weeks of release. On 18 November 2011, Ferguson announced her first headlining UK and Ireland Tour, spanning 14 dates from 20 February to 13 March 2012. Due to high demand, Ferguson had to add more dates to her tour, all of which have sold out. Ferguson confirmed on her official website that the second single to be released from the album will be "Too Good to Lose". The single was originally meant to be released on 26 February but later pushed back to 4 March. The official video premiered on Ferguson's website on 2 February. The single release has been edited and shortened to make the track more radio friendly. Ferguson performed along with Lionel Richie on an ITV1 special entitled This Is Lionel Richie, in which she performed "Endless Love". Starting in February 2012, an excerpt from Ferguson's "Nothing's Real but Love" was used in a television advertisement campaign for Nescafé Gold Blend coffee. "Glitter & Gold" was confirmed via Ferguson's official website to be the third single taken from the album which was released on 29 April 2012. In April 2012, Ferguson broke her left leg during a night out, which kept her wearing a cast for several weeks. During performances on Britain's Got Talent and Alan Carr: Chatty Man, she performed while sitting on a stool. On 29 May 2012, Ferguson made her American television debut when she sang "Nothing's Real but Love" on The Today Show. She also performed the song on The View. On 13 July, Ferguson revealed via Twitter that she would be taking her management team to court, after they made her work until she collapsed. The relationship deteriorated further in September 2012 with the former management company filing a High Court writ, asking for a declaration that the star unlawfully ended her contract and seeking 20% of her future earnings. In an interview in March 2012, Ferguson stated that she expected to release her second studio album in 2014, that she would start writing the album in 2013 once promotion for Heaven had finished, and that she expected to take a more up-beat approach to the album. On 23 August 2012, Ferguson announced she would release a deluxe version of Heaven on 15 October 2012, and she would also release her fourth single "Backtrack" the day before. Ferguson performed Backtrack on the second The X Factor results show on 14 October. On 16 September, Ferguson released an EP of live tracks from the 2012 iTunes Festival, which featured five tracks including "Nothing's Real but Love". During an interview with Chart Show TV, Ferguson confirmed that "Shoulder to Shoulder" would be released on 9 December 2012 as the final single from Heaven before starting work on her second studio album. Ferguson performed the single on Chatty Man on 14 December. However, "Teach Me How to Be Loved" was released as the album's final single in Germany. Ferguson features on the charity record He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother including other singers such as Paloma Faith, Paul McCartney and Robbie Williams. The single is to raise money for various charities associated with the Hillsborough disaster. The song achieved Christmas Number 1 in the UK. ===2012–2015: Freedom and Lady Sings the Blues=== In October 2012, Ferguson stated she would embark on a US tour in January 2013 and that she had already begun writing new material for her second album. On 29 November 2012, Ferguson confirmed her plans to tour in the US and said she would release her second album late next year, stating, "I'm going back to touring the US more early in the new year and then I am getting stuck into writing the new album which should be out later in 2013 or 2014." She began work on her second studio album on 18 February 2013 after a month hiatus and completed the album in mid-August. In July 2013, Ferguson revealed she was in the stages of finishing up her second album, also saying that it "has been hard to make" and that she was writing about her babies. On 22 August 2013 she revealed on Facebook that her new album would be called Freedom and would be released on 2 December 2013 along with putting up pre-order links to the album. The lead single, "I Hope", was uploaded to Ferguson's YouTube channel on 12 October 2013 and was released on 1 December 2013, entering the UK singles chart at number 15; in mainland Europe "Light On" was released as the lead single from the album. Freedom was released the following day and entered the charts at number 6 and has since been certified Gold by the BPI. Freedom was met with generally positive reviews from critics. The album includes a duet with US soul star John Legend and production/songwriting from Jarrad Rogers, Toby Gad and Eg White. On 7 August 2014 Ferguson tweeted that she was back in the studio confirming the work of a third studio album stating "amazing day at the studio working with the same musicians that Frank Sinatra used and so many other greats feeling very blessed". On 13 January 2015 Ferguson revealed the album title, artwork and release date via her Vevo channel. Lady Sings the Blues was released on 9 March 2015 via RCA Records. The album charted at number 7 on the UK Albums Chart. ===2015–2016: Superwoman=== On 9 May 2015 Ferguson performed at VE Day 70: A Party to Remember in Horse Guards Parade, London. On 4 October 2015 Ferguson confirmed the creation of a new studio album by posting on Twitter that she is "busy recording" and "the next album sounds good already". The first single from the album was announced on 30 August and is called "Bones", a cover of a 2013 track by NZ artist Ginny Blackmore, and was released on 2 September 2016. The album "Superwoman" was released on 7 October. Ferguson toured from 23 October to 15 November across the UK. In December 2016 she was on Fern Britton Meets. In the interview Ferguson, the former teenage mum who became an X Factor singing sensation, revealed how her Christian faith got her through troubled times, both on the show that brought her overnight fame and in the years that followed. From being the victim of fraud to being left to bring up a child on her own, Ferguson says she is speaking out to help others. On 21 April 2017, she announced that she was working on her fifth studio album. On 2 October of that year she announced through her Facebook page that she was no longer with her management company but was working on new projects and touring in 2018. She released the first single "Uncrazy" from the album on 1 December 2017, a dance song, which moves away from Ferguson's usual style of music. ===2020–present: Heaven – Part 2 and semi-retirement=== On 8 May 2020, a single titled "Nothing Left but Family" featuring Nile Rodgers was released. In a series of live videos on social media Ferguson confirmed that the next album would be released the end of 2022 or early 2023 and is being produced by producer Nile Rodgers. On 25 November 2021, via her Twitter account, Ferguson confirmed her fifth studio album to be released in 2023 would be her final one and that she would be retiring from the music industry following the release. On 11 February 2022, Ferguson premiered the track "I'm Going to Love You" on BBC Concert Orchestra, thought to be the lead single from her final studio album. On 6 June 2023 Ferguson confirmed the release of her fifth studio album Heaven – Part 2, to be released in December. ==Personal life== Ferguson met the father to her two oldest children, Karl Dures, on holiday in Tenerife. Ferguson and Dures dated for four years and had two children. She also has a daughter, born in 2014, from a later relationship. On 1 January 2022 Ferguson confirmed her engagement to her partner of 7 years Jonny Hughes. They married in December 2022 Ferguson previously dated fellow The X Factor contestant and former One Direction member Zayn Malik. The relationship ended after four months together, In July 2011. Ferguson addressed the media interest, saying: "When I was in a relationship with Zayn it was quite hard, but it comes with it. Me and Zayn just grew apart. I wish him all the best." ==Musical style and influences== Ferguson's first album is of the soul, pop, blues and R&B; genres, with lyrics describing heartbreak and relationships. The album's music was compared to work by Aretha Franklin and Macy Gray. On describing her own sound she said, "quite soulful, I don't know what you compare it to. I’m just me." Ferguson cites Aretha Franklin as one of the artists who had the biggest influence on her. She says she draws inspiration from Franklin, whom she calls the "Queen of Soul". In an interview with MTV UK, when asked about being compared to Franklin she stated, "Aretha Franklin to me is like the queen of soul, so on one hand, I like being compared to her, but on the other hand, I don't think I’ve achieved anything yet to be compared to someone who, to me, is an absolute legend. I’m literally just starting out and it's lovely and I feel really blessed that people are comparing me to her, but to me she's in a totally different league... she's Aretha, she's like a soul diva. So hopefully God willing in the future when I’ve come to her age I will have earned that, but I don't feel I have yet." She also revealed how she wished to have collaborated with Franklin on her debut album. She cites band Kings of Leon as an inspiration. On the question of collaborating with Kings of Leon she said, "I’d like to see what happened. I just think it would be cool, I love them as musicians and they play really well so I’d love to just write with them maybe...I’m dreaming here but you never know, I could rock out with the Kings of Leon." Ferguson also cites the late soul singer Amy Winehouse as one of her biggest influences, stating that she respected Winehouse as "she was real and wasn't in it for the fame, she was artistic and her music is lovely." She also cites Sam Cooke, Otis Redding and Nina Simone among her influences. ==Other ventures== Ferguson became the new face of Walkers crisps Sunbites as of June 2011. She starred in an ad that appeared online, on social media and TV. It became Ferguson's first ad as part of the campaign. Ferguson also opened a beauty salon in Liverpool – Rebecca's Beauty Boudoir – in 2013, but she was forced to close the business in 2015. Since 2017, Rebecca has been making guest appearances on ITV's Loose Women. Her latest appearance was in April 2019. ==Discography== Albums * Heaven (2011) * Freedom (2013) * Lady Sings the Blues (2015) * Superwoman (2016) * Heaven – Part 2 (2023) ==Tours== * The X Factor Live Tour (2011) * Heaven Tour (2012) * US Tour (2013) * Freedom Tour (2014) * Lady Sings the Blues Tour (2015) * Superwoman Tour (2016) * Revolution Tour (2018) ==Awards and nominations== Year Association Category Nominated work Result 2012 Glamour Women of the Year Awards UK Musician/Solo Artist Herself MOBO Awards Best Female Herself Best R&B;/Soul Act Herself MTV Europe Music Awards Best Push Herself Soul Train Music Awards Best International Performance "Nothing's Real but Love" ==References== ==External links== * Category:1986 births Category:Living people Category:English people of Jamaican descent Category:21st-century Black British women singers Category:English contraltos Category:British contemporary R&B; singers Category:English soul singers Category:English women singer-songwriters Category:English singer-songwriters Category:Musicians from Liverpool Category:The X Factor (British TV series) contestants Category:English women pop singers Category:English Christians Category:People from Woolton
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Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo- Confucian tradition, themselves a customary abridgment of the "Thirteen Classics". All of these pre-Qin texts were written in classical Chinese. All three canons are collectively known as the classics (t , s , jīng, lit. "warp"). The term Chinese classic texts may be broadly used in reference to texts which were written in vernacular Chinese or it may be narrowly used in reference to texts which were written in the classical Chinese which was current until the fall of the last imperial dynasty, the Qing, in 1912. These texts can include shi (, historical works), zi (, philosophical works belonging to schools of thought other than the Confucian but also including works on agriculture, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and ji (, literary works) as well as the cultivation of jing, essence (Chinese medicine). In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to take the imperial exams and needed to pass them in order to become government officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not be one of the literati (or, in some periods, even a military officer) without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the Chinese characters of the "Three Character Classic" and the "Hundred Family Surnames" and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values. ==Qin dynasty== ===Loss of texts at the end of the Qin dynasty=== According to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), after Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor Li Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of Legalism. Three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime. Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later in the Han dynasty official Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian. Michael Nylan observes that despite its mythic significance, the Burning of the Books legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian Five Classics was partly to "slander" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as "Confucian". Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on the Classic of Poetry and the Book of Documents, which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the Book of Rites and the Zuozhuan did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BCE and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time. Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially the Documents and the Classic of Poetry, which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported. == Western Han dynasty == ===Five Classics=== The Five Classics () are five pre-Qin Chinese books that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the Western Han dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics".Nylan, Michael. (Internet Archive Copy) The Five "Confucian" Classics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period. Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. ;Classic of Poetry :A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house. ;Book of Documents :A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose. ;Book of Rites :Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself. ;I Ching (Book of Changes) :The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose. ;Spring and Autumn Annals :A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius's native state, 722–481 BC. Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems- Rituals-Spring and Autumn. ===Han Imperial Library=== In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, Liu Xiang (77–6BC) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the Abstracts Bielu), and is the first known editor of the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), which was finished by his son.E.L. Shaughnessy, Rewriting Early Chinese Texts, pp. 2-3. Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the Biographies of Exemplary Women (Lienüzhuan). He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the Biographies of the Immortals (Liexian Zhuan), a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.. Liu Xiang was also a poet - he is credited with the "Nine Laments" ("Jiu Tan") that appears in the anthology Chu Ci'.Hawkes, 280 The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include: This work was continued by his son, Liu Xin (scholar), who finally completed the task after his father's death. == Song dynasty == === Four Books === The Four Books () are Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism. They were selected by Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.Daniel K. Gardner. The Four Books: The Basic Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007. . They are: ; Great Learning : Originally one chapter in the Book of Rites. It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zengzi, one of the disciples of Confucius. Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked. ; Doctrine of the Mean : Another chapter in Book of Rites, attributed to Confucius' grandson Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the Way of the Tao (道) that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue or De (德) in Chinese. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way. ; Analects : A compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held. Since Confucius's time, the Analects has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The Imperial examinations, started in the Sui dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays. ; Mencius : A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self- contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues with extensive prose. ==Ming dynasty== ===Thirteen Classics=== The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the Thirteen Classics. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates. * Classic of Changes or I Ching (易經 Yìjīng) * Book of Documents (書經 Shūjīng) * Classic of Poetry (詩經 Shījīng) * The Three Ritual Classics (三禮 Sānlǐ) ** Rites of Zhou (周禮 Zhōulǐ) ** Ceremonies and Rites (儀禮 Yílǐ) ** Book of Rites (禮記 Lǐjì) *** "Great Learning" chapter (大學 "Dà Xué") *** "Doctrine of the Mean" chapter (中庸 "Zhōng Yōng") * The Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals ** The Commentary of Zuo (左傳 Zuǒzhuàn) ** The Commentary of Gongyang (公羊傳 Gōngyáng Zhuàn) ** The Commentary of Guliang (穀梁傳 Gǔliáng Zhuàn) * The Analects (論語 Lúnyǔ) * Classic of Filial Piety (孝經 Xiàojīng) * Erya (爾雅 Ěryǎ) * Mencius (孟子 Mèngzǐ) ==List of Classics== ===Before 221 BC=== It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors".Cambridge History of Ancient China chapter 11 The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the Siku Quanshu, the imperial library of the Qing dynasty. The Siku classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch. ====Classics branch==== Title Description The I Ching (or Book of Changes) A manual of divination based on the eight trigrams attributed to the mythical figure Fuxi (by at least the time of the early Eastern Zhou these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four hexagrams). The I Ching is still used by modern adherents of folk religion. The Classic of History or Book of Documents (Shu Jing) A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou periods, and even earlier. It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose. The Classic of Poetry (Shi Jing) Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation from Confucius. A standard version, named Maoshi Zhengyi, was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership of Kong Yingda. The Three Rites The Rites of Zhou Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century (in place of the lost Classic of Music). The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial (Yi Li) Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The Classic of Rites (Li Ji) Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites. The Spring and Autumn Annals Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of the State of Lu from 722 BC to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc. The Zuo zhuan (Commentary of Zuo) A different report of the same events as the Spring and Autumn Annals with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Commentary of Gongyang Another surviving commentary on the same events (see Spring and Autumn Annals). The Commentary of Guliang Another surviving commentary on the same events (see Spring and Autumn Annals). The Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao Jing) A small book giving advice on filial piety; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler). The Four Books The Mencius (Mengzi) A book of anecdotes and conversations of Mencius. The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu) A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius's own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars. Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong) A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi The Great Learning A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi Philology The Erya A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon. ====History branch==== Title Description Bamboo Annals History of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in the Jin dynasty. Yi Zhou Shu Similar in style to the Book of Documents Discourses of the States (Guoyu) A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from Western Zhou to 453 BC. The Strategies of the Warring States Edited by Liu Xiang. Yanzi chunqiu Attributed to the statesman Yan Ying, a contemporary of Confucius ====Philosophy branch==== Title Description Confucianism (excl. Classics branch) Kongzi Jiayu Collection of stories about Confucius and his disciples. Authenticity disputed. Xunzi Attributed to Xun Kuang, an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education. Militarism Six Secret Teachings (六韜) Attributed to Jiang Ziya (Taigong) The Art of War (孫子兵法) Attributed to Sunzi. Wuzi (吳子) Attributed to Wu Qi. The Methods of the Sima (司馬法) (Sima Fa) Attributed to Sima Rangju. Wei Liaozi (尉繚子) Attributed to Wei Liao. The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong (黃石公三略) Attributed to Jiang Ziya. The Thirty-Six Stratagems Recently recovered. Legalism Guanzi Attributed to Guan Zhong. Deng Xizi Fragment The Book of Lord Shang Attributed to Shang Yang. Hanfeizi Attributed to Han Fei. Shenzi Attributed to Shen Buhai; all but one chapter is lost. The Canon of Laws Attributed to Li Kui. Medicine Huangdi Neijing Nan Jing Miscellaneous Yuzi Fragment Mozi Attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Mozi. Yinwenzi Fragment Shenzi Attributed to Shen Dao. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost. Heguanzi Gongsun longzi Guiguzi The Lüshi Chunqiu An encyclopedic of ancient classics edited by Lü Buwei. Shizi Attributed to Shi Jiao Mythology The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing) A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China. Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven tells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover. Taoism Dao De Jing Attributed to Laozi. Guan Yinzi Fragment The Liezi (or Classic of the Perfect Emptiness) Attributed to Lie Yukou. Zhuangzi Attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Zhuangzi. Wenzi ====Poetry==== Title Description Chu Ci Aside from the Shi Jing (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection. Attributed to the southern state of Chu, and especially Qu Yuan. ===After 206 BC=== * The Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties: ** The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian ** The Book of Han by Ban Gu. ** The Book of Later Han by Fan Ye ** The Records of Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou ** The Book of Jin by Fang Xuanling ** The Book of Song by Shen Yue ** The Book of Southern Qi by Xiao Zixian ** The Book of Liang by Yao Silian ** The Book of Chen by Yao Silian ** The History of the Southern Dynasties by Li Yanshou ** The Book of Wei by Wei Shou ** The Book of Zhou by Linghu Defen ** The Book of Northern Qi by Li Baiyao ** The History of the Northern Dynasties by Li Yanshou ** The Book of Sui by Wei Zheng ** The Old Book of Tang by Liu Xu ** The New Book of Tang by Ouyang Xiu ** The Old History of Five Dynasties by Xue Juzheng ** The New History of Five Dynasties by Ouyang Xiu ** The History of Song by Toqto'a ** The History of Liao by Toqto'a ** The History of Jin by Toqto'a ** The History of Yuan by Song Lian ** The History of Ming by Zhang Tingyu ** The Draft History of Qing by Zhao Erxun is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records ** The New History of Yuan by Ke Shaomin is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records * The Chronicles of Huayang, an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to Chang Qu. *The Biographies of Exemplary Women, a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by Liu Xiang. * The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a historical record of the Sixteen Kingdoms, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost. * The Shiming, is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century. * A New Account of the Tales of the World, a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters. * The Thirty-Six Strategies, a military strategy book attributed to Tan Daoji. *The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (Wen Xin Diao Long), a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by Liu Xie. * The Commentary on the Water Classic, a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer Li Daoyuan. * The Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong, a military strategy book attributed to Li Jing * The Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government (Zizhi Tongjian), with Sima Guang as its main editor. * The Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, a historical record of the states of Wu and Yue during the Spring and Autumn period, attributed to Zhao Ye. * The Zhenguan Zhengyao, a record of governance strategies and leadership of Emperor Taizong of Tang, attributed to Wu Jing. * Da Dai Li Ji by Dai de a commentary/edition of the book of rites though less popular then Dai sheng's version * Xiao Dai Li Ji or just jiji a commentary/edition of the book of rites by Dai Sheng it is relatively the book of rites along with Dai de's da Dai li ji it makes up the commentaries by the dai's or translated tai in some instances * The Jiaoshi Yilin, a work modelled after the I Ching, composed during the Western Han dynasty and attributed to Jiao Yanshou. * The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of Han dynasty. * The Thousand Character Classic, attributed to Zhou Xingsi. * The Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era, compiled by Gautama Siddha, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination. * The Shitong, written by Liu Zhiji, a work on historiography. * The Tongdian, written by Du You, a contemporary text focused on the Tang dynasty. * The Tang Huiyao, compiled by Wang Pu, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty. * The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji; a recount of Xuanzang's journey. * The Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, written by Duan Chengshi, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs. * The Four Great Books of Song, a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of Song dynasty: ** The Taiping Yulan, a leishu encyclopedia. ** The Taiping Guangji , a collection of folk tales and theology. ** The Wenyuan Yinghua, an anthology of poetry, odes, songs and other writings. ** The Cefu Yuangui, a leishu encyclopedia of political essays, autobiographies, memorials and decrees. * The Dream Pool Essay, a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by Shen Kuo. * The Exploitation of the Works of Nature, an encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing. * The Compendium of Materia Medica, a classic book of medicine written by Li Shizhen. * The Siku Quanshu, the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history. * The New Songs from the Jade Terrace, a poetry collection from the Six Dynasties period. * The Quan Tangshi, or Collected Tang Poems, compiled during the Qing dynasty, published AD 1705. * The Xiaolin Guangji, a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty. ===See also=== *Chinese literature *Imperial examination *List of early Chinese texts *Kaicheng Stone Classics *Seven Military Classics *Old Texts *Sinology *Thomas Francis Wade *Herbert Giles *Lionel Giles *Frederic H. Balfour == References == === Citations === === Sources === ; Primary sources * ** ; Other sources * * * * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * * Online * * * Endymion Wilkinson. Chinese History: A New Manual. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series. New Edition; Second, Revised printing March 2013). . See esp. pp. 365– 377, Ch. 28, "The Confucian Classics." == External links == * Chinese Text Project (English Chinese) (Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations) *The Canonical Books of Confucianism, David K. Jordan *Relevant Electronic Resources for Chinese Classical Studies ; in Traditional Chinese * Scripta Sinica Big classic texts database by Academia Sinica * Palace Museum Chinese Text Database * 中國電子古籍世界 Classics database * Research Center for Chinese Ancient Texts includes CHANT (CHinese ANcient Texts) Database * Chinese classic text online ; in Simplified Chinese * 凌云小筑 In Chinese, with articles and discussions on literature, history, and philosophy. * 国学导航 ; in Japanese * 東方學デジタル圖書館 Category:Chinese philosophy Category:Series of Chinese books
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Suwon (, ) is the capital and largest city of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea's most populous province. Suwon lies approximately south of the national capital, Seoul. With a population close to 1¼ million, it has more residents than Ulsan Metropolitan City, though it has a lesser degree of self-governance as a 'special case city'. Traditionally known as the 'City of Filial Piety', today Suwon retains a variety of historical features. As a walled city, it is a popular destination for day trippers from Seoul, and these city walls appear among the province's more popular sites. Suwon also plays an important economic role: Samsung Electronics, Korea's largest company by sales, is based in the city. The company's research and development centre is in Yeongtong-gu, where its headquarters have also been located since 2016. Samsung's presence in Suwon is clearly visible: the company is a partner of Sungkyunkwan University, which has its Natural Sciences Campus in the city, and the company owns the four-time K League champions and two-time Asian Super Cup winners Suwon Samsung Bluewings. Suwon is home to several universities, e.g., Sungkyunkwan University, Ajou University, and several football, baseball, basketball, and volleyball teams, including Suwon Samsung Bluewings, Suwon FC, and KT Wiz. The city is served by three expressways, the national railway network, and three lines on the Seoul Metropolitan Subway. ==History== Suwon has historically gone by many names. In ancient tribal times, it was known as Mosu-guk (), part of the Mahan confederacy. During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period era, the area that today comprises Suwon and neighbouring Hwaseong was called Maehol-gun (). In 757, under King Gyeongdeok of Unified Silla, the name was changed to Suseong-gun (). In 940, during the Goryeo Dynasty, it changed again in to Suju (). Finally, in 1413, King Taejong of the Joseon Dynasty changed the name to Suwon, the name still in use today, though in the 19th century it was often spelt 'Sou-wen'. In 1592, during the Imjin wars, Commander Yi Gwang attempted to launch his army toward the capital city, Seoul (at the time named 'Hanseong'). The army was withdrawn, however, after news reached the commander that the city had already been sacked. As the army grew to 50,000 men by accumulating several volunteer forces, Yi Gwang and the irregular commanders reconsidered their aim of reclaiming the capital, and led the combined forces north to Suwon. ===Relocation of the city centre, and construction of Hwaseong Fortress=== In 1796, during the Joseon Dynasty, King Jeongjo relocated the city centre from the bottom of Hwasan (a hill in modern- day Hwasan-dong, Hwaseong City) to its current location to the east of Paldalsan. To protect this new city, he instructed that Hwaseong Fortress be built, and this fortified wall encompassed the entire city. Hwaseong was originally built under the guidance of philosopher Jeong Yak-yong, and its construction was one of Korea's first examples of paid labour, corvée labour having been common previously. Shortly after King Jeongjo's death in 1800, Hwaseong Seongyeok Uigwe () was published. This document—more precise that other such construction records from the time—exhaustively detailed the construction of the fortress. Since Hwaseong was damaged severely during the Korean War, this meticulous record of its construction has proven invaluable during reconstruction efforts from 1964 to the present day. Though Suwon was once entirely encircled by the fortress, modern urban growth has seen the city spread out far beyond the walls. The fortress is now a designated UNESCO World Heritage site, and it is often featured in the city and province's promotional materials. ===Japanese occupation=== It appears that a focal point in Suwon's resistance to Japanese occupation was Adams Memorial Hall, at 342 Suwoncheon- ro in Maehyang,dong, Paldal-gu (). Under Pastor William Noble, this 1923 building was constructed in Samil Middle School grounds with funding from a church in North Adams, Massachusetts, from the Suwon Jongno Church (830 Jeongjo-ro, Buksu-dong), and from local residents. Here, independence activists including Park Seon-tae and Lee Deuk-su met weekly to discuss their rebellion. Suwon Adams memorial hall.jpg|Suwon Adams Memorial Hall ===Korean War=== When the Korean War began, the United States Air Force 49th Fighter Wing, then stationed in Japan, was sent to Korea with an initial mission of evacuating civilians from Suwon and Gimpo. While on this mission, on 27 June 1950, US planes in Suwon were attacked by North Korean fighters, and the Battle of Suwon Airfield became the first aerial combat of the war. Suwon Airfield was attacked again two days later while General Douglas MacArthur was on site. Though the US repelled these attacks, Suwon fell to the advancing North Koreans one week later, on 4 July 1950. The Battle of Osan, the first conflict between United States and North Korean forces, occurred the following day. Defences were erected on the road between occupied Suwon and still- southern Osan. As Northern troops advanced south, a 3½-hour battle ensued in which 150 United States and 42 North Korean soldiers were killed, and the US troops were forced to retreat. The North Korean advance southwards to Osan was delayed by an estimated seven hours. In the early days of the war, southern authorities feared left-leaning civilians, and many were killed. Eyewitness account from US intelligence officer Donald Nichols places Suwon as the location of a massacre of approximately 1,800 suspected Communist civilians by South Korean authorities on 28, 29, or 30 June 1950 (depending on source). On 16 December 1950, the Greek Expeditionary Force relocated from Busan to Suwon, attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division. In late 1951, the United States Air Force's top fighter pilot Gabby Gabreski was placed in charge of Suwon Air Base, also known then as K-13. In total, Suwon changed hands four times during the war. Wrecked North Korean tank on bridge south of Suwon HD- SN-99-03158.JPEG|North Korean T-34-85 caught on a bridge south of Suwon by US attack aircraft in the Korean War A memorial to the French forces was erected in 1974 in Jangan-gu, near the Yeongdong Expressway's North Suwon exit (). This was renovated in 2013. ===Recent history=== In 1949, Seoul left Gyeonggi- do, and in the same year, Suwon-eup in Suwon-gun became Suwon City while the remainder of Suwon-gun became Hwaseong-gun. Suwon became the capital of Gyeonggi-do on 23 June 1967, when the provincial office was relocated from Seoul. On 1 January 1963, Suwon expanded greatly as Cheoncheon-ri, Daehwanggyo-ri, Gokbanjeong-ri, Gosaek-ri, Guun-ri, Gwonseon-ri, Hagwanggyo- ri, Imok-ri, Jangji-ri, Jeongja-ri, Jowon-ri, Maetan-ri, Omokcheon-ri, Pajang- ri, Pyeong-ri, Sanggwanggyo-ri, Songjuk-ri, Tap-ri, Woncheon-ri, and Yuljeon- ri were incorporated from Hwaseong-gun. On 15 February 1983, further expansion saw Ha-ri and Iui-ri switch from Yongin to Suwon. On 1 January 1987, Suwon expanded westwards as Geumgok-ri and Homaesil-ri were acquired from Maesong- myeon in Hwaseong. Yeongtong-ri transferred from Hwaseong to Suwon on 26 December 1994 along with parts of Sin-ri and Mangpo-ri, and part of Yeongdeok- ri from Yongin. The remainder of Sun-ri and Mangpo-ri joined Suwon on 20 April 1995. On 9 May 2007, in preparation for the construction of the new town of Gwanggyo, there was a two-way exchange of land between Ha-dong in Suwon and neighbouring Sanghyeon-dong in Yongin. A similar exchange on 13 September 2019 saw parcels of land switch sides between Woncheon-dong in Suwon, and Yongin's Yeongdeok-dong. With further boundary changes on 24 July 2020, parts of Shin- dong and Mangpo-dong in Suwon and Banjeong-dong in Hwaseong were exchanged. ==Geography== Suwon lies in the north of the Gyeonggi plain, just south of South Korea's capital, Seoul. It is bordered by Uiwang to the north-west, Yongin to the east, the city of Hwaseong to the south-west, and Ansan to the west. At its closest point, on the Chilbosan ridge to the west, Suwon lies from the western tip of Ueumdo in Sihwa Lake, an inlet of the Yellow Sea cordoned off to drive the world's largest tidal power station. ===Topography=== There are several hills around Suwon, the highest of which is Gwanggyosan [], to the north of the city, bordering Yongin. ===Water flow=== Most of the streams passing through Suwon originate on Gwanggyosan or other nearby peaks to the north of the city. Since Suwon is bounded to the west by Chilbosan and to the east by other hills, the streams, chiefly the Suwoncheon and Seohocheon, flow southwards through the city, joining the Hwanggujicheon, and eventually emptying into the Yellow Sea at Asan Bay. The entirety of Suwon is drained in this manner. ===Lakes=== There are few natural lakes on South Korea's mainland, and none in Suwon. There are, however, many small reservoirs, namely Chungmanje (), otherwise known as Seoho () near Hwaseo Station, Irwol Reservoir () near Sungkyunkwan University, Bambat Reservoir () near Sungkyunkwan University Station, Ilwang Reservoir (), otherwise called Manseokkeo () in Manseok Park, Pajang Reservoir () near the North Suwon exit of the Yeongdong Expressway, Gwanggyo Reservoir () and Hagwanggyo Reservoir () at the foot of Gwanggyosan, Woncheon and Sindae Reservoirs (, ) in Gwanggyo Lake Park, and Geumgok Reservoir (), a small reservoir at the foot of Chilbosan. Wangsong Reservoir () in Uiwang used to be partly in Suwon, but after controversial boundary changes, it is now entirely in Uiwang. ===Geology=== Suwon is primarily composed of Precambrian metamorphic rock, and has amphibolites that intrude through these, and also granites from the Mesozoic Era. ====Precambrian gneiss==== Biotite gneiss (Precambrian biotite gneiss, PCEbgn) is found in northern Suwon, specifically Pajang-dong, Gwanggyo-dong, Woncheon-dong, and Maetan-dong. Visible rocks here are composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, amphibole, and muscovite; and are generally dark gray or dark green. Mesozoic biotite granite intrudes through these. Precambrian quartzo-feldspathic gneiss (PCEqgn) is distributed in some mountainous areas in Hagwanggyo-dong and Sanggwanggyo-dong in northern Suwon. This gneiss has undergone silicification most predominantly, and is mainly composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and muscovite. It is grey, dark grey, grey-brown, and white. ====Mesozoic intrusive rocks==== Biotite granite (Jbgr) from the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era constitutes most of Suwon, and is centred on Paldalsan. It is a form of Daebo granite, and is distributed through Homaesil-dong, Geumgok-dong, Dangsu-dong, Seryu-dong, Seodun-dong, Gwonseon-dong, and other areas. The main constituent minerals are quartz, plagioclase, orthotic, biotite, and amphibole. ====Fault==== Suwon's single fault splits from the Singal Fault in Iui-dong, Yeongtong-gu, creating the Woncheonri Stream, and follows this stream to Ha-dong, Woncheon-dong, and Maetan-dong. It joins the Hwangguji Stream in Annyeong-dong, Hwaseong City. This is a 20 km-long vertical fault running SSW, eventually to the Yellow Sea. In Suwon, biotite gneiss and biotite granite are brought into contact by this fault. ===Climate=== Suwon has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dwa), but can be considered a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) using the isotherm. ===Administrative divisions=== The city is composed of four gu (districts). Jangan-gu () and Gwonseon-gu () were established on 1 July 1988, and on 1 February 1993, parts of Jangan-gu and Gwonseon-gu became a new district, Paldal-gu (). The newest district is Yeongtong-gu (), which separated from Paldal-gu on 24 November 2003. These districts are in turn divided into 42 dong. There are several new "towns" in Suwon, such as Homaesil and Gwanggyo. The latter is perhaps the most notable of these: the first stage of construction of this large residential area in eastern Suwon was completed in 2011. Gwanggyo is in Yeongtong-gu, which has Gyeonggi-do's seventh most expensive housing. Suwon Local Areas Map.PNG|Districts of Suwon ==Demography== Suwon is 50.3% male (49.7% female), and 2.82% foreign. On average, there are 2.31 residents per household. Further details for each district are shown below. Total people Korean males Korean females Korean (total) Foreign males Foreign females Foreign (total) Suwon (total) 1,226,873 600,239 591,986 1,192,225 17,211 17,437 34,648 Gwonseon-gu 376,541 185,722 181,896 367,618 4,307 4,616 8,923 Jangan-gu 275,983 135,528 133,875 269,403 3,263 3,317 6,580 Paldal-gu 204,560 97,354 96,009 193,363 5,750 5,447 11,197 Yeongtong-gu 369,789 181,635 180,206 361,841 3,891 4,057 7,948 ===Religion=== Suwon has churches from a variety of Christian denominations, and a range of Buddhist temples. The Catholic Diocese of Suwon was created in 1963 by Pope Paul VI. The cathedral is in Jeongja-dong. The former president of the Baptist World Alliance, Kim Janghwan (Billy Kim), was born in Suwon, where he founded the Central Baptist Church. ====Mireukdang==== Mireukdang () is a small shrine to Maitreya in Pajang-dong, Jangan-gu. Its religious basis is a fusion of Buddhism and traditional local religions. 미륵당.jpg|Mireukdang ===Crime=== The following table tallies crimes in Suwon reported in 2021. Suwon crime statistics, 2021 Category Crime Number Property crime Theft 4,202 Possession of stolen property 8 Fraud 6,183 Embezzlement 1,277 Breach of trust 70 Destruction 1,510 Violent crime (serious) Murder 16 Robbery 7 Arson 28 Sexual assault 934 Violent crime (lesser) Violence 2,988 Injury 429 Intimidation 540 Extortion 159 Kidnapping, abduction 4 False arrest, confinement 33 Violation of The Punishment of Violence, Etc. Act (e.g., burglary) 29 Violation of The Punishment of Violences, Etc. Act (e g., Formation of illegal organizations, and such activities) 0 Forgery Currency 7 Valuable securities, revenue stamp, postage 2 Documents 228 Seal 11 Public official crime Abandonment of duties 18 Abuse of authority 30 Receiving bribes 2 Giving bribes 0 Crime against morality Gambling, lotteries 1,342 Deceased person 1 Other obscene acts 79 Negligence Inflicting bodily injury or death through negligence 52 Inflicting bodily injury or death through occupational negligence 47 Fire caused by negligence 57 Misc. Defamation 759 Obstruction of rights 134 Credit business, auction 438 Trespass 439 Violation of secrecy 4 Abandonment 5 Traffic obstruction 10 Obstruction of official duties 186 Escape, harbouring criminals 4 Perjury, destruction, and concealment of evidence 83 False accusation 108 Breach of the peace 4 Insurrection 0 Drinking water crimes 0 Water use crimes 0 ==Education== ===Colleges and universities=== There are several universities and colleges in Suwon, including Sungkyunkwan University's Natural Sciences Campus, Kyonggi University, Ajou University, Dongnam Health University, Gukje Cyber University, Hapdong Theological Seminary, and Suwon Women's University. Despite their names, the University of Suwon and Suwon Science College are not actually in Suwon, but in neighbouring Hwaseong. The agricultural campus of Seoul National University was located in Suwon until 2005, but is now in Gwanak-gu, Seoul near its main campus. Sungkyunkwan University Samsung Library.jpg|Sungkyunkwan University library ===Schools=== There are 44 high schools, 57 middle schools, 100 primary schools, and 180 kindergartens in Suwon. Schools and kindergartens in Suwon Gwonseon-gu Jangan-gu Paldal-gu Yeongtong-gu Total Kindergarten Public (dedicated k'gtn) 3 2 1 5 11 Public (in elem. sch.) 32 19 11 23 85 Private 29 21 10 24 84 Elementary school Public 33 22 15 28 98 Private 0 0 0 2 2 Middle School Public 13 13 5 20 51 Private 1 0 4 1 6 High School Public 7 9 3 12 31 Private 2 3 8 0 13 Suwon has three schools dedicated to special education: Jahye School (47 Subong-ro, in Tap-dong, Gwonseon-gu), Suwon Seokwang School (517 Jangan-ro, in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu), and Areum School (32 Gwanggyo-ro, in Iui-dong, Yeongtong-gu). Special education is also provided in some regular schools, e.g., Suwonbuk Middle School. There is also a centre for lifelong learning at Kyemyung High School (88 Jangan-ro 496 beon-gil in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu). ====International schools==== There are also two international schools in Suwon: Gyeonggi Suwon International School and Suwon Chinese International School () ==Environment== Throughout South Korea, water management is a challenge. Suwon is 11% self- sufficient in its use of water, and plans to increase this to 50% through rainwater harvesting, including building retention facilities; and by treating and reusing sewage. Air pollution in Suwon appears to be from a range of industrial and other sources, with origins of coarse particulate matter (PM10) shown in the pie chart. ==Industry== The main industrial employer in Suwon is Samsung. Samsung Electronics was founded in Suwon in 1969, and its headquarters are now located with its large R&D; complex in central Suwon. The company is the largest employer in Suwon. Samsung's long-standing relationship with the city is seen in its sponsorship of various local sports teams, including Suwon Samsung Bluewings Football Club, and two of the oldest domestic basketball teams in Samsung Thunders and Samsung Life Blueminx, both of which have since moved out of Suwon. Other major companies in Suwon include SK Chemical, Samsung SDI, and Samsung Electro-Mechanics. ==Landmarks== ===Hwaseong Fortress=== Hwaseong Fortress, built under the orders of King Jeongjo in 1796, is Suwon's most notable attraction, and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The entire city used to be encircled by the fortress walls, but Suwon has long since expanded far beyond this boundary. There are four main gates in the walls, and Haenggung Palace in the centre of the fortress. Hwaseong2.jpg|Hwaseomun (West Gate) Hwaseong Fortress (175432293).jpeg|Seojangdae Suwon Hwaseong Fortress (181353281).jpeg|Banghwasuryujeong Hwaseong fortress(Suwon).png|Paldalmun (South Gate) ===Hyanggyo=== Suwon Hyanggyo () was a hyanggyo—a government-run school and Confucian ceremonial centre during the Goryeo and Joseon periods. During the Joseon Dynasty, it was the largest and oldest state school in Gyeonggi-do. The school houses memorial tablets to Confucius, Mencius, and 25 Korean figures noteworthy to Confucianism. Originally built in 1291 beside Hwasan in Wau-ri, Bongdam-myeon, Hwaseong-gun, Suwon Hyanggyo was moved to its current location at 107–9 Hyanggyo-ro, Paldal-gu () around 1795—the 19th year of King Jeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty—when Hwaseong Fortress was built, and it has since undergone several repairs. Hyanggyo is open to the public on weekdays from 9 a.m. till 5 p.m. It is closed at weekends. 수원향교 외삼문.jpg|Oesam Gate Suwon Hyanggyo.jpg|Myeongnyundang (front) Myeongnyundang rear, Suwon Hyanggyo.jpg|Myeongnyundang (rear) Daeseongjeon, Suwon Hyanggyo.jpg|Daeseongjeon ===Bugugwon=== Bugugwon (), also known as Suwon Gu Bugugwon, built prior to 1923, is a cultural centre at 130 Hyanggyo-ro in Gyo- dong, Paldal-gu (). There is no record of the 85.95 m2 building's construction, but exterior photographs were published in 1923, When Korea was a Japanese colony, the building was the headquarters of Bugukwon Co., Ltd., which sold agricultural products such as fertilizers. After liberation, from 1952 to 1956, it temporarily housed the Suwon Court and the Public Prosecutor's Office. From 1957 to 1960, it was used as the Suwon City Education Support Office, and in 1974 the Republican Party used it as their Gyeonggi-do base. In 1979 the Suwon Arts Foundation was based here, and in 1981 it became an internal medicine clinic. Since 2018, it has been a public cultural space. Bugugwon at night.jpg|Bugugwon ==Culture and contemporary life== ===Housing=== As is typical of urban South Korea, Suwon has many apartment complexes. while some areas have more jutaek (houses, often split into several units). While some areas are more affordable, Yeongtong-gu's housing is the seventh most expensive in the province. SK Skyview Apartments, Suwon.jpg|SK Skyview Apartments, Jeongja-dong ===Food=== Suwon is known for Suwon galbi, a variation on beef short ribs enjoyed throughout Korea. The city also has a wide variety of restaurants serving Korean and international cuisine. ===Sports=== Suwon's sports facilities include Suwon World Cup Stadium, which hosted 2002 FIFA World Cup matches, a gymnasium used in the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, a baseball field used by KT Wiz, an archery field, badminton courts, ten-pin bowling lanes, indoor swimming pools, tennis courts, and soft tennis courts. ====Football==== Suwon World Cup Stadium was built for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, and is home to the K League 1 team Suwon Samsung Bluewings. Another K League 1 team, Suwon FC, and a WK League team, Suwon FC Women, play at the Suwon Sports Complex. ====Baseball==== Since 2013, Suwon has been home to KT Wiz. The team played at Sungkyunkwan University till Suwon Baseball Stadium remodelling was completed in time for their elevation to the KBO League in 2015. The city was previously the home of the Hyundai Unicorns, but this team folded after the 2007 season. Suwon Sports Complex Baseball Stadium.jpg|KT Wiz Stadium ====Indoor sports==== Suwon Gymnasium hosted the handball events in the 1988 Summer Olympics, and handball and table tennis matches at the 2014 Asian Games. It has a capacity of 5,145, and has hosted basketball and volleyball matches. Suwon Gym.JPG|Suwon Gymnasium =====Basketball===== Two of the Korean Basketball League and Women's Korean Basketball League's oldest teams, Samsung Thunders and Samsung Life Blueminx, respectively, used to be based in Suwon. Samsung Thunders relocated to Jamsil Arena in Seoul in 2001, while four years later, Samsung Life moved to Yongin. Top-flight men's basketball returned to Suwon in 2021, when KT Sonicboom relocated to the renamed Suwon KT Sonicboom Arena (formerly Seosuwon Chilbo Gymnasium) from Busan. =====Volleyball===== Suwon is home to the men's and women's volleyball teams Suwon Kepco Vixtorm and Suwon Hyundai Engineering & Construction Hillstate respectively, which play in the V-League. ===Museums=== Suwon has two national museums and a number of smaller institutions. The National Map Museum of Korea is at 92 Worldcup-ro in Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong- gu (). It houses a collection of 33,598 maps. Admission is free, and the museum opens daily from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. The National Agricultural Museum of Korea opened by Seoho Lake in December 2022. Located at 154 Suin-ro in Seodun- dong, Gwonseon-gu (), admission is free, and the museum is open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 p.m. Suwon Hwaseong Museum, at 21 Changryong-daero in Maehyang- dong, Paldal-gu (), features exhibits contextualising and explaining the construction of Hwaseong. Mr. Toilet House is a toilet museum built in 2007 at 463 Jangan-ro in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu (). Ownership was transferred to the city council in 2009. ===Libraries=== Suwon Central Library opened at 318 Paldalsan-ro, Gyo-dong, Paldal-gu, in 1980. Today the city has 27 public libraries—seven in Gwonseon-gu, five in Jangan-gu, six in Paldal-gu, and nine in Yeongtong-gu—and plans to build another in Imok-dong. ===Parks and gardens=== Irwol Arboretum (, ) and Yeongheung Arboretum (, ) opened on 19 May 2023 beside Irwol Reservoir and Yeongheung Park respectively. The Irwol Arboretum features 429,000 plants of 52,000 species, while Yeongheung Arboretum hosts 118,000 plants of 42,000 species over . There are also many parks scattered through the city, some of which, e.g., Gwanggyo Lake Park, Seoho Park, Irwol Park, and Manseok Park, contain sizeable lakes. Some parks target outdoor activities; for example, Manseok Park has facilities such as tennis courts (indoor & outdoor), soccer pitches (dirt and artificial turf), and the Suwon X-Games skatepark. Others, e.g., Gwanggyo History Park, have a more traditional focus. 만석공원 한 바퀴 (2020.09.20) 03.jpg|Manseok Park Rohgyudong01.jpg|Tomb of Simon (심온), Gwanggyo History Park ===Media=== Newspapers based in Suwon include the Kyeonggi Daily (), based in Jangan-gu; and the Kyeongin Daily () and Suwon Daily (), based in Paldal-gu. These publish exclusively in Korean. ===Cinemas=== Suwon has several major multiplex cinemas, e.g., Megabox by Suwon Bus Terminal, CGV and Lotte Cinema by Suwon Station, and Kinex 5 in Yeongtong-gu. Other smaller cinemas, which may show fewer foreign films, include Cinema Town, Taehan Theater, Piccadilly Theater, Jungang Theater, Royal Theater, Dano Theater, and Dano Art Hall. ===Retail=== There are several major shopping centres across Suwon, e.g., AK Plaza and Lotte Mall at Suwon Station, and Avenue France and Alleyway in Gwanggyo. Another large centre, Starfield, is under construction beside Hwaseo Station. Entrance to Avenue France in Gwanggyo, Suwon, South Korea.jpg|Avenue France ===Public toilets=== Suwon City Council prides itself on the condition of its public lavatories. After efforts to improve facilities, there even used to be guided tours of the municipal facilities. ==Transport== ===Rail=== Suwon is a regional transportation hub, with Suwon Station a major stop served by KTX and other trains on the Gyeongbu Line connecting Seoul to Busan. Until 1973, the Suryo Line also connected Suwon to Yeoju. The Suin Line also connected Suwon to Incheon, and this line has been reconstructed as part of the Seoul Metro. Suwon Station.jpg|Suwon Station ===Metro=== Suwon is served by three lines (14 stations) on the Seoul Metro. *Line 1 **Sungkyunkwan University () **Hwaseo () **Suwon () **Seryu () *Shinbundang Line **Gwanggyo Jungang () **Gwanggyo () *Suin-Bundang Line **Cheongmyeong () **Yeongtong () **Mangpo () **Maetan-Gwonseon () **Suwon City Hall () **Maegyo () **Suwon () **Gosaek () **Omokcheon () Construction on an extension of the Sinbundang Line to Homaesil is scheduled to begin in 2024. Another planned line—the Dongtan–Indeogwon Line—should create several new stations in Suwon, but this has been delayed, promoting affected cities to call for urgent action. ===Bus=== There are two inter-city bus terminals in Suwon with connections to many cities nationwide: Suwon Bus Terminal near Seryu Station, and West Suwon Bus Terminal near Sungkyunkwan University. Suwon is connected to Seoul and other nearby cities by city and express buses with departure points across the city. In 2017, Suwon Station Transfer Center opened to the west of the Gyeongbu Line. This new bank of bus stops was built to alleviate pressure on bus and taxi stands across the tracks. Another transfer centre is incorporated into Gwanggyo Jungang Station; this is underground, and bus stands feature screen doors. Suwon has invested heavily in electric buses—in 2019, it built the country's largest bus charging station at 46 Gyeongsu-daero 1220beon-gil in Pajang-dong. Gwanggyo Jungang Bus Station.jpg|Gwanggyo Jungang Underground Transfer Centre ===Road=== The Yeongdong Expressway (50) passes through Suwon, with two exits within the city limits: North Suwon and East Suwon. The Gwanggyo Sanghyeon exit on the Yongin–Seoul Expressway (171) is on Suwon's border with Yongin, and the Pyeongtaek–Paju Expressway (17) also has an exit in Suwon (Geumgok). Nearby Homaesil is one of Suwon's more notorious bottlenecks. Despite its name, the Suwon exit of the Gyeongbu Expressway (1) lies in Singal in neighbouring Yongin. ===Bicycles=== Suwon was the first place in Korea to introduce dockless shared bicycles for hire. Traversing Suwon by regular bicycle is also relatively easy as there are numerous bike paths beside the streams that cut through the city. ===Car-free zones=== In 2013, the city hosted the EcoMobility World Festival in Haenggung-dong, where for one month, streets were closed to cars as a car-free experiment. Instead of cars, residents used non-motorized vehicles provided by the festival organizers. The experiment was not unopposed; however, on balance it was considered a success. Following the festival, the city began discussing whether to adopt the practice on a permanent basis. ==Military== Suwon Air Base in Jangji-dong, Gwonseon-gu was used by the United States Air Force during the Korean War, when it was the scene of the conflict's first aerial combat. Today the base is under Republic of Korea Air Force jurisdiction, though it is still managed and maintained by the US military. ==Fauna== Suwon's wildlife is similar to that of most of Gyeonggi-do. A notable species, however, is the endangered Suwon tree frog. This is one of only two tree frogs to inhabit the Korean peninsula, and it lives only in the Gyeonggi-do area. ===Mammals=== Mammals living on Gwanggyosan and elsewhere in the city include the raccoon dog, Japanese mole, Siberian weasel, water deer, Korean hare, red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris mantchuricus), house mouse, striped field mouse, and the Eurasian harvest mouse. ===Birds=== A variety of birds inhabit Suwon. For example, Irwol Lake is home to great crested grebes, goshawks, and mandarins among other species, and swans began wintering on the lake in 2022. Suwon also appears to be Korea's first recorded breeding site of the white-breasted waterhen. Other birds in Suwon include the Eurasian tree sparrow, Oriental magpie, large- billed crow, rook, brown-eared bulbul, vinous-throated parrotbill, rock dove, marsh tit, Japanese tit, coal tit, varied tit, Eastern spot-billed duck, great cormorant, grey heron, striated heron, great white egret, little egret, and common sandpiper. ==Notable people== Notable people from Suwon include: ===Deceased=== List in chronological order of birth *Lee Go (, 1341–1420, Goryeo subject opposed to Joseon) *Kim Jullyong (, 1586–1642, military general, defeated Qing soldiers at Gwanggyosan) *Choi Rubaek (, pious son) *Woo Hayeong (, 1741–1812, Silhak scholar, agricultural pioneer) *Lim Myeonsu (, 13 June 1874–29 November 1930, independence activist) *Kim Sehwan (, 1889–1945, educator, independence activist) *Na Hyeseok (, 28 April 1896–10 December 1948, feminist, painter, writer, poet, sculptor, journalist) *Kim Hyanghwa (, 1897–?, gisaeng, independence activist) *Park Seontae (, 1901–1938, independence activist) *Lee Seongyeong (, 1902–1921, independence activist) *Kim Jangseong (, 7 February 1913–9 March 1932, independence activist) *Hong Jongcheol (, 26 March 1920–22 July 1989, independence activist) ===Living=== List in alphabetical order by surname *Han-na Chang (, 23 December 1982–, conductor, cellist) *Chung Hyeon (, 19 May 1996–, tennis player) *Im Chang-kyun (, stage name I.M, 26 January 1996–, rapper, singer, songwriter) *Jeon Ji-yoon (, 15 October 1990–, rapper, singer, songwriter, actor) *Stella Hanbyul Jeung (, opera singer) *Jo Kwon (, 28 August 1989–, singer, actor, presenter) *Joo Won (, stage name Joo Won, 30 September 1987–, actor) *Kim Dong-hyun (, 17 November 1981–, MMA fighter) *Kim Jang-hwan (, known as Billy Kim, 25 July 1934–, pastor, former President of the Baptist World Alliance, President of the Far East Broadcasting Company) *Kim Myung-jun (, stage name MJ, 5 March 1994–, singer, actor, model) *Kim Yugwon (, stage name U-Kwon, 9 April 1992–, singer) *Lee Chang-sub (, 26 February 1991–, singer) *Lee Dong-hun (, 28 February 1993–, singer, A.C.E) *Lee Jin-ki (, stage name Onew, 14 December 1989–, singer, songwriter, actor, presenter) *Lee Jong-suk (, 14 September 1989–, actor, model) *Lee Ju-eun (, 7 June 1995–, singer, actor) *Oh Kyo-moon (, 2 March 1972–, archer) *Sam Oh (, 15 January 1980–, presenter, columnist) *Park Hae-soo (, 21 November 1981–, actor) *Park Ji-sung (, 30 March 1981–, footballer) Park was born in Seoul but raised in Suwon. In 2005, a city street was renamed after him. *Ryu Jun-yeol (, 25 September 1986–, actor) *Seol Yoeun (, 2012–, violinist) *Shin Dong-hee (, stage name Shindong, 28 September 1985–, rapper, singer, dancer, presenter, video director) *Song Kang (, 23 April 1994–, actor) *Yoo Hyun-young (, 6 September 1976–, actor) *Yoo Jeong-yeon (, 1 November 1996–, singer) *Yoon Bo- mi (, 13 August 1993–, singer, actor) *Yun Hanheum (, 1923–, actor) ==Twin towns and sister cities== Suwon is twinned with: * Asahikawa, Japan (1989) * Jinan, China (1993) * Townsville, Australia (1997) * Bandung, Indonesia (1997) * Yalova, Turkey (1999) * Cluj-Napoca, Romania (1999) * Toluca, Mexico (1999) * Fez, Morocco (2003) * Hải Dương Province, Vietnam (2004) * Siem Reap Province, Cambodia (2004) * Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (2005) * Curitiba, Brazil (2006) * Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2015) ==See also== * List of cities in South Korea * Geography of South Korea * Seoul National Capital Area ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ==External links== *Suwon City Council (in Korean) *Suwon F.C (in Korean) *Suwon Samsung Bluewings (in Korean) *KT Wiz (in Korean) Category:Suwon Category:Cities in Gyeonggi Province
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De Graeff (; also: De Graef, Graef, Graeff, Graaff,Der deutsche Herold: Zeitschrift für Wappen-, Siegel- u. Familienkunde, Band 3, p 91 (Berlin, 1872) Graaf and De Graeff van Polsbroek) is an old Dutch patrician and noble family, The Amsterdam line of the family played an important role during the Dutch Golden Age. They were at the centre of Amsterdam and Holland public life and oligarchy from 1578 until 1672, and belonged to the Dutch States Party. During that time, members of the De Graeff family were also important patrons of art and artists such as Rembrandt, Govaert Flinck, Gerard ter Borch, Jacob van Ruisdael, Caspar Netscher, Gerard de Lairesse, Artus Quellinus and Joost van den Vondel. In 1677 they were made knights of the Holy Roman Empire. Since 1885 that line has been part of the Dutch nobility with the honorific of jonkheer.Nederlands adelsboek, P. 69Nederlands adelsboek (1914), p 14, 16 == Origin == According to an unconfirmed family tradition, the family descends from the Austrian Lords Von Graben. Allegedly one Wolfgang von Graben came 1483 to Holland.Family De Graeff at the Nieuw Nederlandsch Biographisch Woordenboek, part II (dutch)Von Graben Forschung (german) It is said that the family was founded by Pieter Graeff (born around 1484) who may lived at the Amsterdam area.Nederlands adelsboek 1914, p 14Familienverband Gräff-Graeff e. V. (german, english) He was married to Griet Pietersdr BerentsDe Neederlandse Leeuw, 1898, Genealogie van het geslacht "De Graeff", p 130 descendant from Wouter Berensz and his wife Dieuwer Willemsz de Grebber, called Berents, of the De Grebber family, baljuws of the Waterland,De vroedschap van Amsterdam 1578-1795, Teil 1, S. 85, von Johan Engelbert Elias (1963)Genealogie Pauw, Persijn, de Jong, en Verhee. Von Thijs Postma and Willem Eggert, stadtholder of Holland.Vondels vers Aen den hooghedelen heer Pieter de Graef, vryheer van Zuitpolsbroek, op den oorsprongk van het geslagt der graven The Berents family belonged to the Amsterdam patriciate and low nobility and inherited the fief Randenbroek (Amersfoort) from the De Grebber.Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum, S. 46, 47 (1959) === Historical and political Legacy === Cornelis de Graeff (1599-1664) said that the ancient Amsterdammers had no habit of keeping genealogical records of their families, and knew no more of their generation than what they have learned from their fathers and grandfathers. The dates of his own family in Amsterdam do not go back very far: And first I'll start with the family de Graven from which I descended on my father's side. This is a family from Amsterdam, coming from the house 'de Keijser', that was located at the Waeter (= now Damrak No. 91). This house shows the impression of its vaulted appearance, owned by Jan Pieters de Graeff, and then by Dirck Jans de Graeff, who also sold this house. My father Jacob de Graeff and his brothers were also born here.DBNL, Amsterdamse burgemeesters zonder stamboom. De dichter Vondel en de schilder Colijns vervalsen geschiedenis, by S.A.C. Dudok van Heel, p 146 (1990) The De Graeff family has therefore never boasted about the age of their own family in Amsterdam. But Cornelis and his brother Andries de Graeff (1611-1678), together with their cousins Andries and Cornelis Bicker, saw themselves as the political heirs of the old regent family Boelens, whose main lineage, which had remained catholic, had died out in the male line in 1647. They had received the very significant first names Andries and Cornelis from their Boelens ancestors. As in a real dynasty, members of the two families frequently intermarried in the 17th century in order to keep their political and commercial capital together. Its great historical ancestor was Andries Boelens (1455-1519), the city's most influential medieval mayor. Both families, Bicker and De Graeff, descend in the female line from Boelens. He was allowed to hold the highest office in Amsterdam fifteen times.DBNL, Amsterdamse burgemeesters zonder stamboom. De dichter Vondel en de schilder Colijns vervalsen geschiedenis, by S.A.C. Dudok van Heel, p 147 (1990) === Progenitor Pieter Graeff === Pieter Graeff was probably born around 1484. His alleged father Wolfgang von Graben (1465-1521) was recorded in Holland in 1483,Der deutsche Herold: Zeitschrift für Wappen-, Siegel- u. Familienkunde, Band 3, p 91/92, von Verein Herold and that he had Pieter as a son.Family De Graeff at DBNL It cannot be determined whether Pieter was born in Amsterdam. Biographical cornerstones of his life cannot be determined, but it is reported that he married Griet Pieters(dr) BerentsMaandblad van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Genootschap voor Geslacht- en Wapenkunde, Bände 1895-1900, p 130Family De Graeff at DBNL in 1512,De werken van J. van den Vondel, Bände 29-30, p 378, von Joost van den Vondel a woman whose family came from the patriciate of Amsterdam and the low nobility of the area. She may was a daughter of Berend Berends, in 1509 advisor of Amsterdam,De werken van J. van den Vondel, Bände 29-30, p 378, von Joost van den Vondel himself a son or second line descendant (grandson, nephew) of Jan Berents, Lord of Randenbroek (Amersfoort), the son of Wouter Berensz and his wife Dieuwer Willemsdr de Grebber (born around 1385 or later), called Berents, of the De Grebber family, baljuws of the Waterland.De vroedschap van Amsterdam 1578-1795, Teil 1, p 85, von Johan Engelbert Elias (1963)Genealogie Pauw, Persijn, de Jong, en Verhee. Von Thijs Postma The Berents family inherited the fief Randenbroek from the De Grebber.Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum, p 46, 47 (1959) Griet Pietersdr Berents came from the female line of this family, and through the marriage of her ancestor Willem Grebber Jonge Willem Grebberszoon (born around 1362–1434; father of Dieuwer Willemsdr de GrebberCentraal Bureau voor Genealogie, Jaarboek, deel 16, 1962, blz 55 e.v., 'De Grebber', door Ir. J. G. Kam.) to Lijsbeth Willemsdr Eggert (born around 1390 or later; also named Imme Eggert), she was also a descendant of Lijsbeths father Willem Eggert (1360-1417), stadholder of Holland.Genealogie Pauw, Persijn, de Jong, en Verhee. Von Thijs PostmaDe werken van Vondel. Deel 10. 1663-1674 (1937), Aen den hooghedelen heer Pieter de Graef, vryheer van Zuitpolsbroek, op den oorsprongk van het geslagt der graven Pieter and Griet had one son, Jan Pietersz Graeff, who continued the family line in Amsterdam.Family De Graeff at DBNL His coat of arms from 1542 or 1543 shows the shovel of the Von Graben and the swan of the De Grebber family.De wapens van de magistraten der stad Amsterdam sedert 1306 tot 1672, Band 1, von Pieter Anthony und Johan van den Brandeler (1890) About the family crest of Pieter's wife Griet: Jan Berents, Lord of Randenbroek, the ancestor of Griet Pietersdr Berents, had a coat of arms which hangs in a chapel in the Nieuwe Kerk of Amsterdam. It shows a quartered shield with the arms of the Berents, De Grebber, Eggert and Boel (Boelens Loen).Veilingcatalogus, boeken van Slagregen, 20 oktober 1891, Amsterdamsche gebeurtnissen, p 2 During the 15th and 16th centuries, these families were at the head of the Amsterdam patriciate and, with the exception of the Boelens, belonged to the knightly nobility. == Family lines == # Amsterdam line (so called main line, includes the Free Lords of Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam) ## Alblasserdam lineAblasserdam.net. Column van Hennie van der Zouw, Wat heeft Alblasserdammer Jan Jacobsz de Graeff met Paleis Soestdijk te maken? (dutch) ### Lines at Alkmaar, Leiden and Delft #### Illegitimate Line 'Graeff'De Neederlandse Leeuw, 1898, Genealogie van het geslacht "De Graeff", p 131 ### (?) Line in Prussiaaccording to the Rietstap Armorial Général there is an identical De Graeff (De Graaff, De Graaf) coat of arms of Dutch origin in ancient Prussia (Germany)Armorial de JB RIETSTAP. De Graaff (De Graeff) in Prusse (Preussen) Rietstap book of arms ## South African line (founded in 1850)Google books: "Nederland’s patriciaat" (1911), book 2 ## The Hague line (since 19th century) === Amsterdam line === ==== Beginning ==== Pieter's line was continued by his only known son, Jan Pietersz Graeff (before 1512–1553).Pedigree Jan Pieterszoon (de) Graeff It is known that he lived in Amsterdam in the "Huis De Keyser" (named after the "Keizerskroon" attached outside the building) on the Damrak. There he ran a flourishing cloth trade. In 1542 he became a councilor and in 1543 he was appointed alderman (Schepen) of Amsterdam.Nieuw Nederlandsch biografisch woordenboek. Deel 2: Jan Pietersz Graeff Due to its political activities, the De Graeff family is one of the few patrician families to sit in government before and after the Amsterdam Alteratie of 1578. Jan Pietersz Graeff had five sons. The second-born Lenaert Jansz de Graeff was a leading member of the Amsterdam Reformed Church, and involved in the religious liberation struggle of the Netherlands in the 1560s and 1570s;Lenaert Jansz de Graeff in der DBNL on the one hand he was one of the military and religious leaders of Amsterdam under his friend Hendrick von Brederode and probably as "Monseigneur de Graeff" captain of the watergeus who were involved in the Capture of Brielle in 1572.De Graeff (Monseigneur de Graeff van Brugge) at „DBNL“ In recent historical books, De Graeff is treated as one of the leaders of the Sea beggars.De Opstand 1568-1648: De strijd in de Zuidelijke en Noordelijke Nederlanden, by Arnout van CruyningenChronicles of the Dutch Republic 1567 - 1702, by Albert Valente His character was also used in a historical novel about De Grote Geus.De erfenis van De Grote Geus, by Jaap van de Wal His third son Dirck Jansz Graeff (1532-1589) continued the main line of the family in Amsterdam. As governing mayor of Amsterdam and friend of William I of Orange (William the Silent), he was able to lay the foundation for the family's political and social influence in Amsterdam. Dirk Jansz was one of the emigrants who fled to Emden from the Spanish army under the Duke of Alba.S.A.C. Dudok van Heel: Van Amsterdamse burgers tot Europese aristocraten. Band 2, 2008, S. 974. After his return, Dirck Jansz had shares in over 100 merchant ships. In the years 1584/1585 he was the richest resident of Amsterdam with a fortune of 140,000 guilders.I.H. Eeghen: De restauratie van Herengracht 77. In: Maandblad Genootschap Amstelodamum (1968) S. 235. ==== Dutch Golden Age ==== During the Dutch Golden Age, the De Graeff family was critical of the influence of the House of Orange. the De Graeffs belonged to the republican political movement of the Regenten, also referred to as the ‘state oriented’, as opposed to the Royalists. Together with the Republican political leaders, the Bicker family and Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt, the republican-minded Jacob Dircksz de Graeff (son of Dirck Jansz Graeff) and his sons Cornelis and Andries de Graeff strived for the abolition of stadtholdership. They desired the full sovereignty of the individual regions in a form in which the Republic of the United Seven Netherlands was not ruled by a single person. Instead of a sovereign (or stadtholder) the political and military power was lodged with the States General and with the regents of the cities in Holland. The De Graeff and Bicker families, for example, tried to imitate the centralistic, autocratic style of government of the Florentine Medici.The familial state: ruling families and merchant capitalism in early modern europe, p 101, by Julia Adams The Dutch historian and archivist Bas Dudok van Heel said about the power of families like that of de Graeff and Bicker: In Florence, families like Bicker and De Graeff would have been uncrowned princes.Geert Mak, Die vielen Leben des Jan Six: Geschichte einer Amsterdamer Dynastie During the two decades from the 1650 to the 1670s the De Graeff family had a leading role in the Amsterdam administration, the city was at the peak of its political power. This period was also referred to by Republicans as the ‘Ware Vrijheid’ (True Freedom). It was the First Stadtholderless Period which lasted from 1650 to 1672 during these twenty years, the regents from Holland and in particular those of Amsterdam, controlled the republic. The city was flush with self-confidence and liked to compare itself to the famous Republic of Rome. Even without a stadtholder, things seemed to be going well for the Republic and its regents both politically and economically. In early 1671, Andries de Graeff was once again put forward as chief-mayor (regent) and managed to gain control with his Republican faction. During the winter of that year it seemed as if – at least in Amsterdam – the Republicans were winning. It was an exceptionally opportune moment to commission a monumental ceiling painting on Amsterdam's independent position for the ‘Sael’ of his mayor's residence. De Graeff had a clear message in mind for the ceiling painting: the ‘Ware Vrijheid’ of the Republic was only protected by the Republican regents of Amsterdam. The paintings by Gerard de Lairesse glorify the de Graeff family's role as the protector of the Republican state, defender of ‘Freedom’. The work of art can be viewed as a visual statement opposing the return of House of Orange as Stadtholders of the republic. In Rampjaar 1672, when the Orangists took power again, the De Graeffs lost their position as one of the key States party families. ===== Patrons of the arts ===== Throughout the Dutch Golden Age, the family sponsored art and architecture, and were responsible for the majority of Amsterdam art. Andries de Graeff, the first patron of the arts in the family, aided Rembrandt and, together with his brother Cornelis de Graeff, commissioned Govert Flinck, Artus Quellinus and Jacob Jordaens for the construction of the city hall on the Dam in 1655. Andries de Graeff's other notable artistic associates included Gerard ter Borch, Flinck, and Jan Lievens. Andries' brother Cornelis continued in the family tradition of patronizing artists, commissioning works from Jacob van Ruisdael, Nicolaes Eliaszoon Pickenoy, Quellinus, Flinck and Caspar Netscher. The family were also patrons of the poets Joost van den Vondel, Jan Vos, Caspar Barlaeus und Gerard Brandt. In 1660 Andries and his brother Cornelis de Graeff organized the Dutch Gift, a collection of 28 mostly Italian Renaissance paintings and 12 classical sculptures, which was presented to King Charles II of England by the States-General of the Netherlands in 1660.Whittaker and Clayton: pp. 31-2 for the art, Gleissner for the furniture and yacht. The yacht was the gift of the Dutch East India Company, according to Liverpool Museums (with model) , or the City of Amsterdam according to other sources. The gift was made to mark his return to power in the English Restoration. The De Graeffs intended to strengthen diplomatic relations between England and the Republic, but only a few years after the gift the two nations would be at war again in the Second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–67. Cornelis' son Pieter de Graeff was also a man who surrounded himself with art and beauty. He was an art collector and patron to the artists Ter Borch, Lievens, Karel Dujardin, Romeyn de Hooghe, Netscher and the poet Van den Vondel. Prof. C.W. Fock of the University of Leiden describes his art collection and lifestyle in her work Het stempel van de bewoner.Het stempel van de bewoner (dutch) ==== After the Golden Age ==== After the Amsterdam family De Graeff had lost their political importance in Rampjaar 1672, they were only able to establish themselves to a limited extent in Amsterdam and Dutch politics. During the 18th century, three more family members where part of the City administration, namely Johan de Graeff (1673-1714), Gerrit de Graeff (1711-1752) and Gerrit II de Graeff van Zuid- Polsbroek (1741-1811). During the 19th century the last one and his grandson, the manufacturer Gerrit IV de Graeff (1797–1870), where part of the Amsterdam government. In the 20th century, the family had completely disappeared from city politics, and the Hague Line had taken over the family's political and social leadership. ==== Nobility ==== In 1677, Andries de Graeff and his only son, Cornelis, became a knight of the Holy Roman Empire. They traced their descent from Wolfgang von Graben, member of the Austrian noble House of Graben von Stein, which was an apparent (or illegitimate) branch of the House of Meinhardin.Rudolf Granichstaedten-Czerva (1948): "Brixen - Reichsfürstentum und Hofstaat".Google book search: Das Land Tirol: mit einem Anhange: Vorarlberg: ein Handbuch für Reisende. Von Beda Weber Diplom loaned to Mr. Andries de Graeff, Vienna, July 19, 1677: > Fide digis itegur genealogistarum Amsteldamensium edocti testimoniis te > Andream de Graeff [Andries de Graeff] non paternum solum ex pervetusta in > Comitatu nostro Tyrolensi von Graben dicta familia originem ducere, qua olim > per quendam ex ascendentibus tuis ejus nominis in Belgium traducta et in > Petrum de Graeff [Pieter Graeff], abavum, Johannem [Jan Pietersz Graeff], > proavum, Theodorum [Dirck Jansz Graeff], avum, ac tandem Jacobum [Jacob > Dircksz de Graeff], patrem tuum, viros in civitate, Amstelodamensi continua > serie consulatum scabinatus senatorii ordinis dignitabitus conspicuos et in > publicum bene semper meritos propagata nobiliter et cum splendore inter suos > se semper gessaerit interque alios honores praerogativasque nobilibus eo > locorum proprias liberum venandi jus in Hollandia, Frisiaque occidentale ac > Ultrajectina provinciis habuerit semper et exercuerit.Google books: Der > deutsche Herold: Zeitschrift für Wappen-, Siegel- u. Familienkunde, Band 3, > Seite 92 Nachrichten über die Familie de Graeff (German) This title of Holy Empire knight only existed for one year, since both title holders died in the following year. When the Kingdom of the United Netherlands was established in 1815, the De Graeff family received no recognition or elevation to the new Dutch nobility, as Dutch historian and archivist Bas Dudok van Heel put it this way: In Florence families like Bicker and De Graeff would have been uncrowned princes. Here, in 1815, they should at least have been raised to the rank of count, but the southern Dutch nobility would not have put up with that. What you got here remained nothing half and nothing whole.Geert Mak, Die vielen Leben des Jan Six: Geschichte einer Amsterdamer Dynastie: Geert Mak, Die vielen Leben des Jan Six: Geschichte einer Amsterdamer Dynastie In 1885 Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek received the new Dutch nobility with the predicate Jonkheer for himself and his descendants.Nederland’s Patriciaat, Jahrgang 2, 1911, p 171 This noble branch still flourishes today. ==== Feudality ==== Like many other Dutch patrician families, the De Graeffs endeavored to adopt the way of life and the social appearance of the old dutch nobility and to be recognized by them as equals.Nierop: The nobility of Holland (1993), p 212ff. Among other things, the acquisition of feudal manorial estates,Eric Palmen: De politieke elite. In: Willem Frijhoff u. a. (Hrsg.): Geschiedenis van Dordrecht. II, Verloren, Hilversum 1998, p 211–220, p 218. / Nierop: The nobility of Holland (1993), p 96ff. so-called heerlijkheid, served to justify such claims. which in the Netherlands were also associated with their own jurisdiction.Johan Philip de Monté ver Loren: Hoofdlijnen uit de ontwikkeling der rechterlijke organisatie in de Noordelijke Nederlanden tot de Bataafse omwenteling. 5. Auflage. Kluwer, Deventer 2000, p 172ff, p 176. In the case of "lower fiefs" (lage heerlijkheiden or Ambachtsheerlijkheid), this was the lower jurisdiction, while the landlord of a "free" or "high fief" also had high jurisdiction (blood court). Jacob Dircksz de Graeff was one of the first Dutch regents to come into possession of such grandeur. In 1610 he bought the Free and high fief of Zuid-Polsbroek (hoge of vrije heerlijkheid Zuid-Polsbroek) for himself and his family from Charles de Ligne, prince Aremberg,Het Utrechts Archief: , Verwerving van de heerlijkheid en andere goederen, Nr. 2, weist zu diesem Vorgang zwei Stücke (einen Umschlag und eine Urkunde) mit der Zeitangabe „1609, 1610“ aus. Das Datum 18. September 1610 ist Croockewit: Genealogie van het geslacht de Graeff. p 132, und Elias: De vroedschap van Amsterdam (1963), S. 266, entnommen. which at that time was no longer a fiefdom but was freely inheritable and sellable as an allod property.J. L. van der Gouw: Korte geschiedenis van de grenzen van de provincie Zuid-Holland (1963), Kap. III: De definitieve vorm van het graafschap (1300–1795) Their acquisition increased the reputation and contributed to the aristocratization of the family, in which De Graeff and his heirs could be addressed as Vrijheer(en) van Zuid- Polsbroek ever since. Furthermore, in 1678 his grandson Jacob de Graeff inherited the Free or high Lordship of Purmerland and Ilpendam (hoge heerlijkheid van Purmerland en Ilpendam). The mansions of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam were owned by the De Graeff family until 1870. Furthermore, Pieter Dircksz Graeff (1573-1645) owned the Lordship of Engelenburg. The siblings Alida (1651-1738) and Arnoldina de Graeff (1652-1703) had been vrijvrouwen of the Free and High Lordship Jaarsveld during the 17th and 18th century. Likewise, the De Graeff family held Ambachtsheerlijkheiden as fiefdoms of the city of Amsterdam during the 17th century; Amstelveen, Nieuwer-Amstel, Sloten, Sloterdijk and Osdorp, Urk and Emmeloord. The family had lands and feudal rights in the southern part of Netelenburg, in Duinen in North Holland, in Cromwyk and Hoog Rietveld near Woerden, near Langerak and on the river Lek, the extensive country estates Vredenhof near Voorschoten and Valckeveen (Valkenburg), the later Graeffenveld near Oud-Naarden. Furthermore the held Land in De Graskamp and grounds in Soestdijk, Soestdijk Palace, and Baarn. ==== Coat of arms ==== The ancient (De) Graeff coat of arms shows the shovel from the Herren von Graben and the swan from the De Grebber family from Waterland (county of Holland). The inheritance of the Graben coat of arms is based on the (assumed) male descent of the Graeff-ancestor Pieter Graeff (born around 1484) from Wolfgang von Graben. The inheritance of the Grebber coat of arms on the female lineage of Pieter's wife Griet Pietersdr Berents of the 'Berents-De Grebber line'. Symbols of the coat of arms: * Shovel: Von Graben * Swan: De Grebber and the 2nd one since the earlier 17th century stands for the Fief of Vredenhof * Falcon: Fief of Valkenburg (Valckeveen) * Rhombus: High Lordship of Zuid- Polsbroek * Goose: High Lordship of Purmerland * Lion: High Lordship of Ilpendam Wapen De Graeff van Polsbroek als heren van Purmerland en Ilpendam.jpg|Full coat of arms as Free Lords of Zuid-Polsbroek, 1610–1870 (shovel, swan resp goose and rhombus) Wapen van De Graeff (II).jpg|Füll coat of arms as Imperial knights, 1677 (shovel and swan) Wappen von Pieter de Graeff um 1690.jpg|Full coat of arms as Free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam, 1690–1741 (shovel, swan, goose, lion and rhombus) De Graeff wapen.svg|Coat of arms as Jonkheers De Graeff, 1885 (shovel and swan) Matthias Laurenz Gräff und Karl von Habsburg vor dem Graeff-Wappen.jpg| Matthias Laurenz Gräff and Karl von Habsburg, head of the House Habsburg- Lorraine, the former imperial and royal house of the Holy Roman Empire and Austria ===== Coat of arms Pieter de Graeff ===== The coat of arms of Pieter de Graeff (1638-1707) is quartered with a heart shield and since 1678 it shows the following symbols: 140px|thumb|Coat of arms of Pieter de Graeff in 1690 * heart shield shows the three silver rhombuses on red (originally from the family Van Woerdern van Vliet) of the High Lordship Zuid-Polsbroek * field 1 (left above) shows the silver shovel on red of their paternal ancestors, the Herren von Graben * field 2 (right above) shows the silver swan on blue of the Fief Vredenhof or that one (Waterland) of one of their maternal ancestors, the De Grebber * field 3 (left below) shows the silver goose in blue of Purmerland (High Lordship Purmerland and Ilpendam) * field 4 (right below) shows the red and black lions on gold (the arms of the County of Holland) for Ilpendam (High Lordship Purmerland and Ilpendam) above a blue area * shield holders are two silver swans * helmet covers in red and silver * helm adornment shows an upright silver spade with ostrich feathers (Herren von Graben) * motto: MORS SCEPTRA LIGONIBUS AEQUAT (DEATH MAKES SEPTRES AND HOES EQUAL) === Other Dutch lines === Secondary lines split off from Jacob Jansz Graeff († ca. 1580), the youngest son of Jan Pietersz Graeff. These lived in the cities of Alblasserdam,alblasserdam.net. Kolumne von Hennie van der Zouw, Wat heeft Alblasserdammer Jan Jacobsz de Graeff met Paleis Soestdijk te maken? Alkmaar, Leiden and Delft, but could not gain influence like those who remained in Amsterdam. The best-known member was the Dutch Rear Admiral Albert Claesz de Graeff, a great-grandson of Jacob Jansz Graeff. It is not known whether there are still male descendants from these branches today. There are also descendants of Jacob Jansz Graeff's († ca. 1580) illegitimate son Adriaan Jacobsz Graeff, but nothing further is known about their life. === Old German Empire === thumb|120px|Coat of arms De Graaff/De Graaf at Prussia According to the Rietstap Armorial Général, the (De) Graeff coat of arms was also used by bearers in former Prussia (Germany) as Graaff (de), Prusse - Orig. de Hollande (also spelled de Graaf), but these are not chronologically identifiable. The coat of arms is described in the original as follows: Graaff (de) Prusse - Orig. de Hollande - Écartelé aux 1 et 4 de gueules à une bêche d'argent le fer en haut aux 2 et 3 d'azur à un cygne d'argent Cimier la bêche sommée de trois plumes de paon au naturel Lambrequin d'argent et de gueules. Since the blazon next to the spade describes a swan [and not a goose which the De Graeff's used from 1655 to 1678 as (Vrij)heeren van Purmerland en Ilpendam instead of the swan], it is probably a descent from the Amsterdam lineage before a separation of their property in 1638 (the death of Jacob Dircksz de Graeff). Since the Amsterdam line consists of identifiable members throughout, they are probably descendants of a family member of that line from the second half of the 16th century. === South African line === The lineage in South Africa descends from Gerrit Arnold Theodoor de Graeff (b. 1831), a brother of Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek. This line is still thriving today.Nederland’s patriciaat (1911), book 2 === The Hague line === Other lines and branches, also from the Amsterdam main line, are scattered throughout the Netherlands, such as The Hague line. This came from the important diplomat Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek (1833-1916). He was Dutch Consul General and Minister-Resident to Japan and due his relationship with Emperor Meiji he laid the foundation for modern diplomatic representation in Japan of various European States. In 1885 he received the new Dutch nobility with the predicate Jonkheer for himself and his descendants. This noble branch still flourishes today. Dirk's son was Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff, diplomat, minister and governor-general, who was able to continue the politically committed and successful tradition of his family in the 20th century. Various family members were also active in engineering, in the water authorities, as state inspectors and commissioners, directors, in court service at the Dutch royal court and as financial and company managers. Representatives of this are Dirk Georg de Graeff and Jan Jaap de Graeff. ==== Nobility ==== Some members of the line at The Hague belonged to the New Dutch nobility. In 1885 Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek, originally from the Amsterdam branch, received the predicate Jonkheer for himself and his descendants.Nederland’s Patriciaat, Jahrgang 2, 1911, p 171 This noble branch, descendanted from Dirk, still flourishes today. == Family members (selection) == * Pieter Graeff (born around 1484), it is said that he was a son of Wolfgang von Graben (1465-1521) → Amsterdam line ** Jan Pietersz Graeff (1512–1553), member of the vroedschap and advisor of Amsterdam, cloth merchant and dealer *** Lenaert Jansz de Graeff (1530–35 - before 1578), one of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation at Amsterdam, friend of the "Grote Geus" Henry, Count of Bréderode; Lenaert Jansz de Graeff could be ident with "Monseigneur de Graeff", a captain of the Sea Beggars during the Capture of Brielle. *** Diederik Jansz. Graeff (1532–1589), mayor of Amsterdam, merchant; Graeff was also a friend of William the Silent, Prince of Orange. **** Jacob Dircksz de Graeff (1570–1638), was an illustrious member of the De Graeff family; regent and mayor of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, lord of the manor of Sloten, Osdorp and Amstelveen. ***** Cornelis de Graeff (1599–1664), was the most illustrious member of the De Graeff family; regent and mayor of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, lord of the manor of Sloten and Amstelveen, President of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC); illustrious Patron and Art collector. ****** Pieter de Graeff (1638–1707), regent of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam, President or Chairman of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC), friend, advicor to his cousin Johan de Witt. ******* Cornelis de Graeff II. (1671–1719), free Lord of Purmerland and Ilpendam. ******* Johan de Graeff (1673–1714), advisor of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek. ******** Gerrit de Graeff (I.) van Zuid-Polsbroek (1711–1752), regent of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam, one of the Chairmen of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) and the Dutch West Indies Company (WIC). ********* Joan de Graeff (1735-1754), free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek. ********* Gerrit de Graeff II. (1741–1811), regent of Amsterdam, free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam. ********** Gerrit de Graeff (III.) van Zuid-Polsbroek (1766–1814), free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam. *********** Gerrit de Graeff (IV.) van Zuid-Polsbroek (1797–1870), free Lord of Zuid-Polsbroek, Purmerland and Ilpendam, advisor of the city of Amsterdam. ************ Gerrit Arnold Theodoor de Graeff (born 1831) → South African line ************* Henry George de Graeff van Polsbroek (1858–1941) ************ Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek (1833–1916), Diplomat, Generalconsul and Dutch minister in Japan. He was the most important representative of the Dutch government and played a major part in the many negotiations between Japan and various Western countries. De Graeff van Polsbroek was advisor to Japanese Emperor Meiji and laid the foundation stone for a modern western (European) diplomacy in Japan. → The Hague line ************* Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff (1872–1958), Governor General of Dutch East Indies, Dutch minister for foreign affairs. ************** Jacob de Graeff (born 1921) *************** Jan Jaap de Graeff (born 1949), dijkgraaf of Schieland, chamberlain of the Dutch queen, director of the Dutch unie for water ************* Géorg de Graeff (1873–1954) ************** Dirk Georg de Graeff (1905–1986), chamberlain of the Dutch queens and managing director from the Algemene Bank Nederland ************** Herman Jacob de Graeff (1907-1978) *************** Egbert de Graeff (1936–2017), Dutch field hockey player ****** Jacob de Graeff (1642–1690), advisor of Amsterdam, lord of the semi-sovereign fief Purmerland and Ilpendam. ***** Dirk de Graeff (1601–1637), advisor of Amsterdam ***** Agneta de Graeff van Polsbroek (1603–1656), mother of Wendela Bicker and mother in law of Johan de Witt. ***** Wendela de Graeff (1607–1652), painted by Rembrandt van Rijn at his masterpiece Jacob Blessing the Children of Joseph ***** Andries de Graeff (1611–1678), had together with his brother Cornelis the leading role in the Amsterdam and Holland administration; minister of finances, regent and mayor of Amsterdam, lord of the manor of Urk and Emmeloord; illustrious Patron and Art collector. ****** Cornelis HrR Ridder de Graeff (1650–1678), free imperial knight of the Holy Roman Empire, chieflandholder of the Zijpe and Haze Polder. ****** Alida de Graeff (1651–1738), free Lady of Jaarsveld. ****** Arnoldina de Graeff (1652–1703), free Lady of Jaarsveld. **** Pieter Dircksz Graeff (1573–1645), lord of Engelenburg, visited the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. *** Jacob Jansz Graeff (died ca 1580) → Ablasserdam line **** Jan Jacobsz Graeff (born ca 1570–75) ***** Claes Jansz Graeff ****** Albert Claesz de Graeff (born around 1620), Dutch Admiral (Schout-bij-nacht) == See also == * De Graeff family tree * Semisouverain fief of Zuid-Polsbroek * Fief of Purmerend, Purmerland and Ilpendam * Ilpenstein Castle * Herengracht 573 * Soestdijk Palace == Notes == == Literature == * Bruijn, J. H. De. Genealogie van het geslacht De Graeff van Polsbroek 1529/1827. * Burke, P. (1994). Venice and Amsterdam: A Study of Seventeenth-Century Élites. * Graeff, P. De (P. de Graeff Gerritsz en Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek). Genealogie van de familie De Graeff van Polsbroek Amsterdam 1882. * Israel, Jonathan I. (1995). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806. Clarendon Press, Oxford, * Rowen, Herbert H. (1986). John de Witt" Statesman of the "True Freedom". Cambridge University Press, * Zandvliet, Kees. De 250 rijksten van de Gouden Eeuw - Kapitaal, macht, familie en levensstijl (2006 Amsterdam; Nieuw Amsterdam Uitgevers) == External links == * "Genealogie van het geslacht 'de Graeff' door W. H. Croockewit" (Family tree of the De Graeff family) at: De Nederlandsche leeuw: tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Genootschap voor Geslacht- en Wapenkunde (1895-1900). Category:Dutch noble families Category:Dutch families Category:Dutch patrician families
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The Spokane Public Library and Spokane County Library District system provide the Spokane area with access to information and study space. Secondary education is provided by Spokane Public Schools with its six high schools, six middle schools, and thirty-four elementary schools. Public charter, private, and parochial schools offer more choices of study. Higher education in Spokane is served by the Community Colleges of Spokane system (Spokane Community College and Spokane Falls Community College) and two private universities, Gonzaga University and Whitworth University as well as various trade and technical schools. The University District in Downtown Spokane is also host to branch locations of regional universities such as Washington State University Spokane and its medical school, the Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the total school enrollment in Spokane was 54,830 in 2011. Nursery school and kindergarten enrollment was 5,484 and elementary or high school enrollment was 30,548 children. College or graduate school enrollment was 18,798. As of 2011, 91.6 percent of people 25 years and over had at least graduated from high school and 29.2 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher. ==Libraries== thumb|Spokane Public Library - Central branch Serving the general educational needs of the local population are two public library districts, the Spokane Public Library (within city limits) and the Spokane County Library District. Founded in 1904 with funding from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, the Spokane Public Library system comprises a downtown library overlooking the Spokane Falls and five branch libraries. Special collections focus on Inland Pacific Northwest history and include reference books, periodicals, maps, photographs, and other archival materials and government documents. The downtown Spokane Public Library branch located at 906 West Main has a collection size of 435,902 volumes and an annual circulation of 2,060,220 items per year. The first downtown library building, The Carnegie Building, still stands 5 blocks from the current Downtown library and bears his namesake. The libraries for the colleges and universities in Spokane include the Spokane Community College Library, Spokane Falls Community College Library, Gonzaga's Foley Center Library which has a collection size of 427,262 volumes and annual circulation of 48,889 items per year as well as their School of Law's Chastek Library and Whitworth's Harriet Cheney Cowles Memorial Library which has a collection size of 220,568 and an annual circulation of 19,672. ==Elementary and secondary education== ===Public school system=== Spokane Public Schools (District No. 81) was organized in 1889, and is the largest public school system in Spokane, and the second-largest in the state, as of 2014, serving roughly 30,000 students in six high schools, six middle schools, and thirty-four elementary schools. Within Spokane Public Schools, there are two Washington State Charter School commission approved independent charter schools to provide alternative choices to traditional high schools, these are Innovation High School in the independent PRIDE Schools district and the Spokane International Academy. In north Spokane, there is the Mead School District No. 354 which has two traditional high schools, Mead High School and Mt. Spokane High School. Other major public school districts in the Spokane area include the Central Valley School District (which contains Central Valley High School, University High School, and Ridgeline High School), West Valley School District (West Valley High School), and East Valley School District (East Valley High School) in Spokane Valley. Smaller districts in the surrounding area include the Cheney School District (Cheney High School), Deer Park School District (Deer Park High School), Freeman School District (Freeman High School), Liberty School District (Liberty High School), Medical Lake School District (Medical Lake High School), Nine Mile Falls School District (Lakeside High School), Orchard Prairie School District, and Riverside School District (Riverside High School). ==== Spokane area public high schools ==== School name District Established Enrollment Notes Lewis and Clark High School Spokane Public Schools 1883 1,863 North Central High School Spokane Public Schools 1908 1,521 Houses the Institute of Science and Technology program for STEM John R. Rogers High School Spokane Public Schools 1932 1,514 Shadle Park High School Spokane Public Schools 1957 1,218 Joel E. Ferris High School Spokane Public Schools 1963 1,746 Mead High School Mead School District 1890 1,637 Mt. Spokane High School Mead School District 1997 1,596 The Community School Spokane Public Schools 2012 165 New Technology High School Innovation High School - (PRIDE Schools) 2015 498 Public nonprofit Charter school, IB World School, Grades 6-12 Note: Grade levels offered and enrollment includes the district's middle school, PRIDE Prep Middle School in addition to Innovation High School Spokane International Academy - 2015 501 Public nonprofit charter school, Grades K-12 West Valley High School West Valley School District 1924 932 Central Valley High School Central Valley School District 1927 2,250 University High School Central Valley School District 1960 1,747 East Valley High School East Valley School District 1960 1,133 Ridgeline High School Central Valley School District 2021 1,600 Note: *This is not an exhaustive list. This is a selective list that is intended to focus on public high schools in school districts that have a presence in the city of Spokane and may include other major districts or high schools in the Spokane metropolitan area (Spokane County). *Enrollment figures as of April 2021. ===Private education=== A variety of private and parochial elementary and secondary schools augment the public school system. Among the parochial schools, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane manages ten such schools in and around the area, among them being Gonzaga Preparatory School. Other parochial schools in the Spokane metro area include the Upper Columbia Academy to the south in Spangle, a boarding high school offering a Seventh-day Adventist education and the Northwest Christian School to the north in Colbert, a non-denominational Kindergarten-12th grade school. The Saint George's School in north Spokane is one of the only K-12 independent secular private preparatory schools in Spokane and offers an International Baccalaureate program of study. There are schools that exist to meet special needs and those that offer specialist education, such as Montessori schools, or an emphasis on a particular part of the curriculum. Private schools are subject to a state approval process. Examples include the Lilac Blind Foundation, Spokane Guild's School and Neuromuscular Center, and the Spokane Art School. The Salish School of Spokane is a language preservation school that serves the Native American community of various tribal backgrounds and ancestry with language and cultural immersion experiences to increase intergenerational transmission of the endangered Salish language family in addition to traditional mentoring and academic support. The school offers a K-6 grade curriculum and plans to offer a secondary education. ====Spokane area private secondary schools==== School name Type Established Enrollment Notes Gonzaga Preparatory School Roman Catholic 1887 860 Grades 9-12, NCEA Note: The Catholic Diocese of Spokane and Gonzaga-affiliated St. Aloysius Catholic School offers grades K-8 Palisades Christian Academy Seventh-day Adventist 1934 215 Grades PK-10 Upper Columbia Academy Seventh-day Adventist 1945 272 Grades 9-12, Boarding school Northwest Christian School Christian, Non-denominational 1949 642 Grades PK-12 Saint George's School Secular 1955 371 Grades K-12, IB World School, Cognia accreditation, NAIS Saint Michael's Academy Traditionalist Catholic 1968 131 Grades PK-12, Day school, Boarding school Valley Christian School Christian, Non-denominational 1974 297 Grades PK-12, ASCI Faith Baptist Academy Baptist 1985 128 Grades K-12 The Oaks Academy Christian, Non-denominational 1996 309 Grades K-12, ACCS Summit Christian Academy Baptist 2006 130 Grades K-12, offers Seal of Biliteracy certificate for Russian language proficiency, Cognia accreditation, ASCI Note: *This is not an exhaustive list. This is a selective list that intends to include private schools that provide instruction in part or fully for the high school grade levels 9-12 that are in the Spokane metropolitan area (Spokane County). *Enrollment figures as of April 2021. ==Colleges and universities== Higher education institutions in Spokane include the private universities Gonzaga and Whitworth, and the public Community Colleges of Spokane system (Spokane Community College and Spokane Falls Community College) as well as a variety of local branch campuses and technical institutes. The Community Colleges of Spokane operate Spokane Community College (SCC), Spokane Falls Community College (SFCC), and the Institute for Extended Learning, which coordinates rural outreach, business and community training, adult literacy services, and Spokane County Head Start/ECEAP/Early Head Start. Spokane Community College began operations on September 16, 1963, on the site of the Spokane Technical and Vocational School (established in 1953) at Mission and Greene. During a period of growth, Spokane Community College built a second campus on Fort George Wright Drive (now Spokane Falls Community College), which the board of trustees decided to separate in 1970, creating two distinct entities. Both SCC and SFCC offer four-year bachelor of applied science degrees, SFCC in applied management and cybersecurity and SCC in respiratory therapy. As of 2020, the Community Colleges of Spokane serves approximately 20,000 students a year and offers over 120 degree programs. Gonzaga University and Law School were founded by the Italian-born priest Joseph Cataldo and the Jesuits in 1887. Gonzaga offers 43 undergraduate degree programs, 26 master's degree programs, a doctoral program in educational leadership, and a Juris Doctor (law degree). Gonzaga is one of three schools that offer a law degree in the state of Washington. The school has a total enrollment of about 7,700. Whitworth was founded in Tacoma, Washington in 1890 and moved to its present location in 1914 following a generous land donation by railroad magnate Jay P. Graves and $100,000 in support from the community. The move alleviated persistent financial difficulties owing to competition with the College of Puget Sound and Pacific Lutheran Academy which were also located in Tacoma. It is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church and had 2,500 students studying in 53 different undergraduate and degree programs as of 2011. A variety of regional universities located elsewhere in the Inland Northwest have operations in Spokane's University District. The University District is the site of Washington State University Spokane (formerly the Riverpoint Campus); WSU Spokane is WSU's health sciences campus and houses the school's College of Nursing, College of Pharmacy, and Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine. Washington State University is Washington's land grant university with its flagship campus located south in Pullman. WSU Spokane shares the University District on the east end of downtown Spokane with some programs of Eastern Washington University (EWU), a regional comprehensive university with its main campus located southwest of Spokane in nearby Cheney. The University District serves as WSU Spokane's center for advanced graduate and professional studies and research in the health sciences and health professions. WSU Spokane programs focus on the health sciences, educational administration, and criminal justice. Among its research centers is the WSU Sleep and Performance Research Center, that does controlled laboratory studies of sleep, wake, and work and the consequences of fatigue. A consortium of organizations and WSU operate the Spokane Teaching Health Center, a clinic where the medical residents and WSU students work in collaborative teams to serve low-income community members in need. The campus also has a Veterinary Specialty Teaching Clinic. The University of Washington's Schools of Medicine and Dentistry had first-year and second-year medical students and first-year dental students at the Riverpoint Campus in partnership with both WSU and EWU as part of their WWAMI (medical) and RIDE (dental) programs, however the WWAMI relationship with WSU ended after WSU College of Medicine was created following the repeal of a law that disallowed a second public medical school in the state. The University of Washington has continued its medical education in Spokane by developing a relationship with Gonzaga. The University District is also home to Innovate Washington (formerly Sirti), a Washington state economic development agency that accelerates the development and growth of innovative technology companies. Other schools in Spokane include the Inland Northwest Culinary Academy, Spokane Art School, and Great Northern University. The Inland Northwest Culinary Academy at Spokane Community College is an American Culinary Federation accredited program for training professional chefs. Great Northern University is a Christian school established in 2018 on the site of a vacated Moody Bible Institute branch campus which offers seven bachelor's degree programs which include: biblical and theological studies, communication, leadership studies, youth and family ministry, intercultural studies, linguistics and TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). ===Spokane area colleges and universities=== Institution Type Established Enrollment Notes Eastern Washington University Public 1882 12,633 Gonzaga University Private, Catholic 1887 7,563 Law School Whitworth University Private, Presbyterian 1890 2,776 Community Colleges of Spokane Public 1963 26,402 SCC and SFCC University of Washington Public 1971 60 WWAMI program in partnership with Gonzaga University Washington State University Spokane Public 1989 1,685 Health sciences branch campus: Nursing school, Medical school, College of Pharmacy Note: Enrollment figures include full-time and part-time undergraduate students and graduate students; the Niche website shows undergraduate and graduate enrollment numbers on different tabs on the institution's profile. Enrollment figures as of April 2021. ==Defunct institutions== Defunct institutions that were located in or near Spokane include Spokane University, Spokane College, Spokane Junior College, and a campus of the University of Phoenix and ITT Tech, the People to People Student Ambassador Program, and MEAD Alternative High School. == See also == == References == == External links == *National Center for Education Statistics: Spokane School District *Niche profile: Spokane School District *Spokane County Private Schools
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Webster's Brewery (Samuel Webster & Sons Ltd) was a brewery that was founded in 1838 by Samuel Webster and operated at the Fountain Head Brewery in Halifax, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. Webster's Green Label, a light mild, and Yorkshire Bitter gained national distribution after the company was taken over by Watney Mann in 1972. Throughout the 1970s it was known for the advertising slogan: "Drives out the northern thirst". The brewery was closed with the loss of 400 jobs in 1996. Following its acquisition by Courage Brewery in 1990, Courage moved operations to Berkshire brewery as they bought the brewery to obtain the Budweiser and Holsten pils packaging contracts. After the brewery's closure, Webster's beers were initially brewed at the John Smith's Brewery in Tadcaster before moving to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004. Silvan Brands have owned the company since 2003 when they acquired it from Scottish & Newcastle. == History == === Origins: 1838–1900 === thumb|right|The grave of Samuel Webster near Halifax Samuel Webster (1813–1872) was born in Ovenden, a small village about 2 miles from Halifax town centre. He was the eldest of seven brothers born into a Congregationalist family of the 10 acre-owning farmer James Webster. Webster acquired the small Fountain Head Brewery in Ovenden Wood in 1838 when he was 25 and opened an office in Union Cross Yard, Halifax.The National Archives. The company bought its first public house in 1845. In 1860 he was joined in partnership by his three sons Isaac, George Henry and Samuel Green, and the firm began trading as Samuel Webster & Sons.The Brewing industry: a guide to historical records By Lesley Richmond, Alison Turton, p. 356 Samuel Webster died in 1872, leaving his sons to continue the business. The firm also imported and sold wines and cigars, in addition to its brewing concerns.The National Archives. By 1880 the company had 100 tied houses. In March 1890 Samuel Webster & Sons became a registered company with £175,000 (£17.5 million in 2010) of capital and Isaac Webster, Samuel's eldest son, its first chairman.COMMERCIAL & MARKETS. Liverpool Mercury etc (Liverpool, England), Monday, 24 March 1890; Issue 13169. In 1892 net profit was £20,000 (£2 million in 2010).COMMERCIAL REPORTS. The Leeds Mercury (Leeds, England), Tuesday, 26 January 1892; Issue 16787. In 1896 the company took over H & T T Ormerod of Brighouse, West Yorkshire which could trace its origins back to 1760.The Brewing industry: a guide to historical records By Lesley Richmond, Alison Turton, p. 357. Isaac Webster died in 1899, leaving an estate of £87,454 (£9 million).Births, Deaths, Marriages and Obituaries. The Morning Post (London, England), Saturday, 17 June 1899; p. 5; Issue 39636. 19th Century British Library Newspapers: Part II. By 1900 the company's office had moved to 57 Northgate, Halifax. === 20th- century consolidation === The temperance movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and emergency laws aimed at restricting drinking during the First World War created difficult trading conditions for brewers.‘Lloyd George's Beer' or When It Was Illegal to Buy Your Round . In 1919 net profit was reported at £22,325 (£900,000 at 2010 prices).The Manchester Guardian (1901–1959) [Manchester (UK)] 7 March 1919: 9. Samuel Wentworth Webster, a director of the company and grandson of the founder, died in 1928 with a personalty of £45,000 (£2.2 million in 2010).The Times, 28 August 1928 In 1928, one of the brewery's most successful beers was launched; Webster's Green Label, a light mild ale.Samuel Webster & SonsThe Financial Times (London, England), Monday, 9 April 1956; p. 7; Edition 20,825 (534 words). In 1929 the company's entire stock of properties, land and brewery buildings was valued at £468,833 (£23.2 million in 2010). The company took over Joseph Stocks of Halifax in December 1932, which could trace its origins back to 1790. In 1957, Webster's took over the brewer, John Ainley & Sons Ltd. of Huddersfield and Woodhead Brothers of Elland, near Halifax, a mineral water manufacturer. The company dray horses, used for local beer deliveries, were retired by the end of the 1950s. In 1961 Webster's bought Daniel Fielding & Sons of Halifax, which added 19 public houses to their tied estate.SAMUEL WEBSTER & SONS LTD.: A RECORD TRADING YEAR PLANS FOR INCREASING CAPACITY MR J R G MARCHETTI'S STATEMENT The Guardian (1959–2003) [London (UK)] 8 March 1963: 18. The same year the company sought out partnership with the national brewer Watney Mann in order to benefit from the technical knowledge of the much larger company."Samuel Webster & Sons, Limited". Financial Times 3 March 1961. Retrieved 19 August 2011. In return Webster's brewed and sold the brewery conditioned Watney's Red Barrel ale throughout their tied estate. In 1962, a reciprocal trading agreement was reached with Ind Coope's North East division which saw Webster's houses stock lager for the first time. That same year the group won the contract to bottle Tuborg for West Yorkshire. In September 1966, a friendly takeover of the Bradford brewers J. Hey & Company Ltd added 73 public houses to their estate.The Times Tuesday, 14 March 1967; p. 16; Issue 56889; col A. Webster's had a market value of £3.3 million, and J. Hey had a value of £1 million.Boardroom news: DECCA'S 'SPLENDID' RESULTS SQUEEZE SHOULD BENEFIT TELEFUSION SCHWEPPES' PROFITS LEAP BY 15 P.C The Guardian (1959–2003) [London (UK)] 14 September 1966: 12. The combined group had assets of over £4.5 million (£65 million in 2010 prices). Webster's continued to bottle Guinness under their Hey & Humphries subsidiary label into the late 1980s. Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, consolidation, a good product and successful marketing made the company successful, according to The Times, with the social club trade accounted for around half of turnover."Brewery gets taste for new technique Consultancy". The Times, 25 March 1968; p. 22; Issue 57209; col A. By 1967 Watney Mann owned 18.4 per cent of the company, and Webster's had a market capitalisation of £6 million (£85 million in 2010 prices) and owned 320 public houses and 12 off licences."The protectors and the protected." The Economist (London), 2 December 1967. Retrieved 19 August 2011.Investors chronicle and stock exchange gazette, Volume 2, Part 2, 1967, p. 209. Watney Mann had gradually increased their share to 27.1 per cent by 1972 when it initiated a takeover of the rest of the company.The Economist, Volume 225, Issue 3 Samuel Webster & Sons was offered £18 million for the 73 per cent of the company that Watney did not already own.Goodrick-Clarke, A; Wilson, Andrew (11 March 1972). "£359m bid for Watney Mann" The Times; p. 1; Issue 58424; col C. The Watney Mann offer valued the entire company at almost £250 million in 2010 prices.Inflation Calculator. Bank of England. The takeover was a friendly one, and dependent upon the agreement of the Webster family, who owned 20 per cent of the company.Wilson, Andrew (29 February 1972). "Watney takeover puts £24m value on brewery", The Times. p. 17; Issue 58414; col E. Watney Mann was motivated by an increase to their tied estate.The Times Tuesday, 13 January 1970; p. 28; Issue 57766; col A. Following the takeover, Webster's continued as a regional subsidiary of the Watney Mann brewing empire, responsible for Yorkshire, north Lincolnshire, north Derbyshire and north Nottinghamshire.The Guardian (1959–2003) [London (UK)] 21 May 1981: 21. The takeover saw heavy investment in the brewery and the Webster's brands enjoyed increased distribution nationally. That same year, Watney Mann itself was taken over by Grand Metropolitan. In 1979, Webster's employed a total of 1,500 people across production, distribution and retailing.Management services, Volume 29, 1979. The early 1980s saw the "gradual transformation" of Webster's into a national brand.European Cases in Strategic Management By John Hendry, Tony Eccles, pp. 246–7. In 1985, Grand Met merged the Wilson Brewery of Manchester (which Watney Mann had bought in 1960) with Webster's to form Samuel Webster and Wilsons Ltd. In 1986, Wilsons Brewery was closed down and production of Wilsons Original Bitter and Wilsons Mild was moved to Halifax.Wood, Lisa. "Brewery Closure to Hit 237 Jobs". Financial Times (London) 9 May 1986: Retrieved 19 August 2011. By 1988 Webster's was supplying around 1000 pubs in the North of England, and as far afield as North Wales. right|thumb|Long Can Hall. Built in 1637, it served as the brewery visitor's centre from 1986 to 1996. Moving out of the brewing industry, Grand Met sold Webster's to Courage in 1990. By that year Webster's had an annual revenue of around £100 million and claimed 7 per cent of the national bitter market."Webster vies for lager youth", Campaign, 16 November 1990. However Courage owned the higher selling John Smith's ale brand, and Webster's was deprioritised.John Smith's Bitter: Changing the agenda for bitter advertising. The brands suffered further after the Scottish & Newcastle takeover of Courage, as S&N;, with their own Theakstons brand, now owned three major bitter brands from Yorkshire alone. By 1996 Scotland on Sunday described the brand as "staid" and argued that it "never caught on outside its Yorkshire heartland."Big beer rolls back the barrel, Scotland on Sunday, 21 January 1996. By this time John Smith's was outselling Webster's three to one. Following the closure of the Fountain Head Brewery in 1996, Webster's beers were initially brewed at Scottish Courage's John Smith's Brewery in Tadcaster, but were subsequently moved to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004. Scottish & Newcastle sold the Webster's brands to Silvan Brands in 2003.London Stock Exchange Aggregated Regulatory News Service (ARNS) 19 February 2008 Scot.& Newcastle Final Results.Intellectual Property Office – Results. The chairman Brian Stewart defended the sale, claiming: "Webster's was a brand that did not have a strong brand franchise. What has happened is that brands [which] consumers demand are still here".The Sunday Herald 7 July 2002 McEwan's still best buy says S&N; chairman. In 2011, H B Clark took over the distribution rights for the Webster's brands in the north of England."Clark's plans for Webster's"; p. 26, Morning Advertiser, 10 November 2011. The bitter is now simply known as Webster's Bitter.http://www.hbclark.co.uk/brochure/mar- april-12-rewards-plus.pdf In 2015, Silvan Brands Ltd dissolved and the brand is believed no longer to be sold. == Fountain Head Brewery == thumb|left|The Old Maltings, since converted into a school, nursery and community centre. The brewery site was chosen for its Pennine spring which provided the ready water supply necessary for brewing. The water was rich in magnesium sulphate which added bitterness to the beer and provided it with a dry finish. In 1873 the brewery was extended and redeveloped. In 1890 the brewery was linked to the Halifax High Level Railway network, which facilitated the brewery's distribution.Halifax History Blog > Halifax Town, Calderdale, West Yorkshire. In 1900 the Château-influenced maltings building was built as part of a £10,000 (£1 million in 2010) development project. By 1958 the company's existing offices in Northgate, Halifax, were proving too small for the expanding company, and new offices were custom built on the Ovenden Wood site."Samuel Webster & Sons Ltd." Financial Times (London, England), 8 April 1957; p. 2; Edition 21,133. The landmark maltings building was closed in 1960 as its per annum capacity proved insufficient for the brewery's increasing needs, and the building was used for storage.The Guardian (1959–2003) [London (UK)] 11 August 1960: 13. In 1973, Watney Mann commissioned a new brewhouse. In 1979 a new £6 million lager plant was started, initially brewing Holsten.United Press International 4 July 1984, Wednesday, AM cycle. By the early 1980s the brewery had beer production volumes of around 400,000 barrels per annum and employed around 600 people.The Guardian (London) 20 January 1983: 21. At this time, the brewery was described as "wonderfully traditional" by Roger Protz and had open fermentation vessels, mash tuns and copper brewing vessels.Protz, Roger (12 April 2007), "On the trail of old favourites" , The Morning Advertiser. Production of Budweiser began in 1984.United Press International 4 July 1984. "It might be good on snake bites". Having previously been used for storage, in 1986 the historic Long Can Hall was converted to function as the brewery's visitor's centre.Halifax Courier 14 November 2006 £400,000 for place they could not give away. A£10 million expansion project was embarked upon at the brewery in 1988.From the Courier Archives – Nostalgia – Halifax Courier . Construction of a new plant increased brewing capacity from 1 million to 1.3 million barrels a year. In 1989, the derelict former maltings building was converted into brewery offices in a £4 million project.A brief guide to the industrial heritage of West Yorkshire, Thompson, p. 15. Also, a new distribution depot was constructed in Elland. In 1990, the Old Maltings was categorised as a Grade II listed building. By 1990, most of the Fountain Head Brewery was dedicated to brewing Webster's and Wilsons ales."Enter a new pub giant as Courage swallows GrandMet breweries". The Guardian (Manchester) 14 March 1990; Roger Cowe; p. 10. The brewery's bottling line was closed in 1991, resulting in the loss of 54 jobs."1,400 Courage jobs to go". The Guardian (Manchester) 8 August 1991; p. 9. At the time of the brewery's closure in November 1996, it employed 184 people on a ten hectare site. As well as Webster's and Wilson's beers, the brewery had been producing the lager brands Foster's and Molson.Scottish & Newcastle to cut 1,600 brewing jobs, The Independent, 17 January 1996. The brewery had been running at "well below" 50 per cent of its 1.3 million barrel capacity which was deemed "unsustainable" according to Scottish & Newcastle management.Oram, Roderick. "S&N; Sheds 1,600 Jobs in Courage Integration". Financial Times (London), 17 January 1996: 28. Retrieved 19 August 2011. Although productivity per employee had been the highest of any of Scottish & Newcastle's brewing plants it was claimed that it would have required substantial investment if it was to remain competitive.Cowe, Roger (17 January 1996). The Guardian: 16.MPs CHALLENGE BREWERY JOB CUTS, Press Association, 17 January 1996, Wednesday. In 2004, Fountainhead Village was built on the former brewery site."Luxury brewery homes on way", Halifax Evening Courier. After a period of dormancy, the Old Maltings reopened as a children's day nursery in 2007, and a school and community centre was opened alongside the nursery in 2011."Sports centre vision on old brewery site" , Halifax Evening Courier."The Maltings resource centre is now open" , Halifax Evening Courier. The Maltings College sixth form opened at the site in 2013. == Webster's Yorkshire Bitter == Webster's Yorkshire Bitter was launched in the summer of 1982.Watch out for Webbo!: How advertising helped build a brand – and a brewery, Institute of Practitioners in Advertising: IPA Effectiveness Awards, 1984. Largely a cask product, by 1984 Grand Metropolitan had transformed Yorkshire Bitter into a "massive" national brand, available in the company's 5,000 tied houses and 15,000 free houses. It was marketed as their response to the growing popularity of Yorkshire bitter in the south of England, particularly John Smith's. Yorkshire Bitter was the highest selling off trade bitter by 1985 with 18 per cent of the market.Marketing, Institute of Marketing and Sales ManagementThe Grocer 12 April 1986 SECTION: p. 33. It had become the fifth best selling bitter nationally by 1989, helped by a competitive pricing policy, and was the highest selling bitter in London.The Top Ten, Campaign, 26 May 1989. The beer was not without its critics, with the 1990 Good Beer Guide describing it as "weak flavour[ed], reminiscent of a poor quality home brew – worty, bland, cloying, with a dirty finish on the tongue".GOOD BEER GUIDE IS ENTHUSIASTIC, PUNCHY, SOMETIMES ACID..., Press Association, 23 October 1989. In 1993, Yorkshire Bitter was reduced from 3.8 per cent to 3.5 per cent ABV in order to save money on duty. When Scottish & Newcastle acquired the John Smith's and Webster's bitter brands as part of their takeover of Courage in 1995, the lower selling Webster's brands were deprioritised, and virtually all marketing support ceased. Roger Protz has described the brand as "almost redundant" and production of cask conditioned Webster's beer was ended in 2010.On the trail of old favourites.Good Beer Guide 2011, p694New ‘intelligent wholesale’ business set to revolutionise drinks brands distribution » Hospitality And Catering News. == Advertising == thumb|A former Webster's public house, still sporting the brewery's livery. Webster's Pennine Bitter was known for its slogan: "Drives out the northern thirst", first used in 1970 and supported throughout the 1970s by a local television campaign featuring Yorkshire cricketer Fred Trueman. In the advertisements, Trueman would breathe fire after drinking his pint of Pennine Bitter and say "We like things right in Yorkshire – like our beer. Webster's Pennine Bitter. Drives out the northern thirst". The comedian Charlie Williams appeared in television advertisements for Yorkshire Bitter in 1984–85. One of the Williams advertisements featured a cameo from Yorkshire cricketers Fred Trueman and Ray Illingworth. The Webster's Yorkshire Bitter "Talking horses" campaign ran from 1986 until 1992 with the slogan "It's right tasty is Webster's".Morning Advertiser, 10 November 2011 "Clark's plans for Webster's" p. 26. Dray horses were used in the 1980s, but replaced by animatronic puppets in the 1990s. === Sponsorship === The company sponsored The Hallé orchestra to appear in Halifax to sell out audiences in 1966 and 1967. In the summer of 1984, Webster's Yorkshire Bitter invested £100,000 into English cricket, with the aim of finding six fast bowlers by winter.Bailey, Trevor. "Search for a New Trueman". Financial Times (London, England) 11 August 1984. Retrieved 19 August 2011. From 1986 to 1992, Webster's sponsored Bradford Northern RLFC rugby league team, and Halifax RLFC from 1987 to 1993, Dinnington Colliery Band from 1987 to 1990, the UK Open darts championship in 1989 and 1990, and the World Matchplay darts tournament in 1995 and 1996."WEBSTER'S ENTERS SECOND YEAR OF OPEN DARTS SPONSORSHIP", PR Newswrire Europe, 4 December 1990. == References == == Further reading == * Robinson P. W., 'Not Disheartened by Difficulty', a History of the Fountain Head Brewery (Reference Department of Halifax Central Library). * Reader, W. J., Grand Metropolitan: A History 1962–1987, Oxford University Press, Category:Food and drink companies established in 1838 Category:1838 establishments in England Category:Defunct breweries of the United Kingdom Category:Breweries in Yorkshire Category:Companies based in Halifax, West Yorkshire Category:Defunct companies based in Yorkshire Category:British companies established in 1838
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Dear.M () is a 2022 South Korean college-romance television series starring Park Hye-su, Jeong Jae-hyun, Roh Jeong-eui, Bae Hyun-sung, Woo Da-vi and Lee Jin-hyuk. It is the spin-off of the webseries Love Playlist. Directed by Park Jin-woo and Seo Joo-wan, and written by Lee Seul, the series follows the university life of four students at Seoyeon University as they search for "M" — the writer of a community article. The airing of the first episode was postponed from its originally scheduled premiere date of February 26, 2021, on KBS2, in light of emerging school time bullying allegations against the lead actress, Park Hye-su. The series was originally part of a restructured 'Golden Friday' line-up on the KBS2 channel and was planned to air every Friday at 23:10 (KST). Dear.M began airing its first six episodes ahead of its television release on June 29, 2022, through the streaming platforms Viki and U-Next. The next six episodes were released on July 6, 2022. The series received positive reviews, with praises towards the plot, performances (particularly of Jeong Jae-hyun whose role marks his acting debut), writing, tone, and pacing. == Synopsis == Things are turned upside down when an anonymous confession is published on Seoyeon University's student forum. Four students – Ma Joo-ah (Park Hye-su), Cha Min-ho (Jeong Jae-hyun), Seo Ji-min (Roh Jeong-eui), and Park Ha-neul (Bae Hyun-sung) – from different departments come together in search for "M", the writer of the mysterious confession. They go through university-life, changing friendships, and realistic budding romances in the course of their search. == Cast == === Main === ==== Women's Dormitory Room 103 ==== * Park Hye-su as Ma Joo-ah :Ma Joo-ah (21) is a 2nd- year student the Department of Business Administration (Enrolled in 2019). Her dream is to find her first love. She is full of energy and is an only daughter raised by a single mother. Cheerful and warm-hearted, she has been best friends with Cha Min-ho for twelve years. Her nickname Akma-Joo-ah (Devil-Joo- ah) was given to her by Min-ho, since she keeps making fun of his past relationships. Due to her inquisitive nature she is always meddling in her friends' business, but she is also generous and willing to go help anyone that needs it. Joo-ah entered Seoyeon University through a support program that assists single-parent families and is uncomfortable when asked about her admission process. Although it has been one year since entering Seoyeon University, she is still unsure with what she wants to do in the future. When others say they study hard because they have dreams, she studied hard because she doesn't have dreams. She has been single her entire life, but things start to change on the first day of the second semester of her second year, when her heart flutters because of a guy. Her roommates are Seo Ji-min and Hwang Bo- young. * Roh Jeong-eui as Seo Ji-min :Seo Ji-min (22) is a 2nd-year student in the Department of Economics (Enrolled in 2019). Her dream is to become the leader of the cheer squad. She boasts bright floral beauty as the Centre of the Seoyeon University cheer squad and is one half of Seoyeon University's official 'Magnet Couple' along with Park Ha-neul. Behind her innocent appearance, there is a reversal that causes girl crush. Ji-min is very adept in social situations, and knows how to stand up boldly to seniors in the face of injustice. Couple rings, couple trips, couple photos—everything is a hot topic when it comes to the pair. She is older than most of her peers as she repeated a year. Since many students in her grade either took a leave of absence or had to fulfil their enlistment duties, she is not close to many people except Ha-neul. However, she reunites with Choi Ro-sa whom she went to high school with and they quickly become close. * Woo Da-vi as Hwangbo Young :Hwangbo Young (24) is a 1st-year student in the Department of Business Administration (Enrolled in 2020). Her dream is to be able to eat all she wants. Unlike her young and cute-looking appearance, she is a very chic 24-year-old college student. She is deeply empathetic and is good at detecting subtle emotions. Although she has yet to obtain her Bachelor's degree, she is said to possess a Master of Dating. Young is relentless in relationships and will not hesitate to separate from someone who does not align with her relationship views. In Dorm 103, she often provides love advice to Ji-min, who is in the midst of a passionate relationship, and Joo-ah, who is experiencing her first crush. She graduated from a prestigious vocational high school, and was employed immediately in a public corporation in the financial sector. However, after suffering discrimination from college graduates in various ways, she studied hard again and entered the Department of Business Administration. She has Type 1 Diabetes, thus carries an insulin syringe pouch every day since elementary school. Because of that, she can't eat all that she wants. ==== Men's Dormitory Room 203 ==== * Jeong Jae-hyun as Cha Min-ho :Cha Min-ho (21) is a 2nd-year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2019). His dream is to become an app developer and to buy his sister a house. He is bold and has good guts, with his specialty being teasing Ma Joo-ah with whom he has been best friends with for 12 years. Whilst he has a sloppy appearance, when he's hooked on something he tends to become serious. He is the sexiest when coding in front of a computer, and he knows that as well. Min-ho has a talent for developing apps with his innovative ideas. After developing an anti-bullying app in high school, he entered Seoyeon University through special admission. He has been gaining popularity after creating an app called "밥팅 (BOBting)" that matches up people who eat alone at school, leading to potential relationships. By developing such an app, he seems to be in touch with human psychology but Ma Joo-ah calls him "Min-hogu (Min- pushover)" because he has not been in a relationship longer than a month. His roommates are Park Ha-neul and Gil Mok-jin in Dorm 203. After their parents passed away 12 years ago, his sister Cha Min-ju gave up college to raise him, so he feels indebted to her. She never pressured him but he wanted to take responsibility for her sacrifice and enter a prestigious university, thus never missing a scholarship. He works a part-time job because he no longer wants to burden his sister and is also desperate to raise funds for her upcoming wedding. * Bae Hyun-sung as Park Ha-neul :Park Ha-neul (22) is a 3rd- year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2018). His dream is to become a game developer. He is an honorary public relations ambassador and the other half of Seoyeon University's official 'Magnet Couple' along with Seo Ji-min. He is blunt and straight-forward, but a sweet boyfriend who enjoys taking photos of his girlfriend of 9 months. Since beginning their relationship, many things have happened. With the recent death of his father last winter, he came to realize that in his first two years of university, he did not have clear goals and was just going through life messily. So, in the second semester of his third year, he boldly transferred to the Department of Computer Science to pursue his dream of becoming a game developer. Many people around him were against it, but since he had the support of Ji-min, he felt that everything would turn out well. However, he didn't realize his new major would be so difficult. * Lee Jin-hyuk as Gil Mok-jin :Gil Mok-jin (23) is 2nd- year student in the Department of Psychology (Enrolled in 2017). His dream is to no longer be single. He is considered a mood-maker with an outgoing and boisterous personality. In contrast to this, he is also strict when it comes to tidiness and loves to spend time shopping for cleaning supplies. Mok-jin is an older student who has returned from completing his military service, but his requests are often ignored by the younger occupants of Dorm 203. He cannot stand the smell of food so he and his roommates often eat outside. Whilst his major is Psychology, he tends to not understand the psychology of those around him and particularly fails at understanding women. Mok-jin is desperate for a partner, and is the most frequent user of Min-ho's "밥팅 (BOBting)" app. In his spare time he is seen posting on the student forum, taking all kinds of psychological tests, studying tarot cards and palmistry so that he can use it on his blind dates. === Supporting === ==== Seoyeon University ==== * Lee Jung-shik as Moon Joon :Moon Joon (24) is a 3rd-year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2016). He is the son of Moon Taek-gun, CEO of Levan Soft. Joon is considered a role model by Min-ho and many other juniors because of his gentle manners and leadership. He is also an older student who has returned from completing his military service. He lives in a single premium one-person room with rent that is more expensive than at the dorms. Also, he lies to his father about making mobile app using Cha min-ho as his cover. * Hwang Bo-reum-byeol as Choi Ro-sa :Choi Ro-sa (22) is a 2nd-year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2018). She is Vice President of the cheer squad is a bright and straight-forward student who went to the same high school as Seo Ji-min. After finishing her first year, Ro-sa went on exchange for a year and a half. Upon returning, she was worried about having no friends but coincidentally reunited with Ji-min whom she had lost contact with and they got along just like old times. Ro-sa however, became filled with jealousy towards Ji-min as she slowly has a crush on Ji-min's boyfriend Ha-neul. * Kwon Eun-bin as Min Yang-hee :Min Yang-hee (20) is a 1st- year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2020). Her nickname is "Goddess of Engineering". Her father is a pilot so she grew up in wealth and is always wearing luxury brands. She can be oblivious but her charms make her impossible to hate. * Jo Joon-young as Ban Yi-dam :Ban Yi-dam (21) is a 1st-year student in the Department of Psychology (Enrolled in 2020). He takes photography classes and has a free-spirited, unconventional personality. * Han Do-woo as Choi Tae-jin :Choi Tae-jin (25) is a 4th-year student in the Department of Computer Science (Enrolled in 2015). * Jun Sung- hwan as Tak Moo-young :Tak Moo-young (21) is a 2nd-year student in the Department of Business Administration (Enrolled in 2019). * Choi Hee-seung as Kim Min-woo :Kim Min-woo (24) is a student in the Department of Business Administration (Enrolled in 2016) who is on a leave of absence. ==== Family members ==== * as Cha Min-ju :Cha Min-ju (31) is a bank employee and Cha Min- ho's sister. After their parents died in a car accident when she was 19 years old, she has been raising Min-ho herself. She is the only one that Min-ho (who is considered smart and good at arguing) cannot win over. She is a good talker and has a good sense of humour. She is dating someone from work and about to get married. * Kim Joo-ah as Kim Mi-young :Kim Mi-young (48) has run Elephant Snacks for twelve years and is Ma Joo-ah's mother. She is kind and always willing lend a hand to those in need. When she was young, she broke up with her alcoholic husband and raised Joo-ah alone. As it has always been just the two of them, they are very close. * as Moon Taek-geun :Moon Taek-gun (53) is the CEO of Levan Soft and Moon Jun's father. He is a first generation IT mogul and unlike his innovative company culture, he is quite harsh when it comes to academics. * Song Kyung-hwa as Kim Jeong-im :Kim Jeong-im (49) is a professor and Park Ha-neul's mother. Her husband passed away last winter so she is now alone. She is a person who is strong and warm enough to be Ha-neul's 'first love'. * Lee Jae-baek as Seo Ji-hoon :Seo Ji-hoon (19) is a senior high-school student and Seo Ji-min's brother. He and Ji-min seem to bear no similarities. ==== Others ==== * Seo Hee-sun as Yoon Ho-jung *Joyfle as Gru == Production == === Development === In late June 2020, it was reported that Love Playlist would be rebooted under the working title Dear.M: Love Playlist 2021 with new cast members, except for Bae Hyun-sung and Kim Sae-ron. === Casting === In September 2020, Park Hye-su Kim Sae-ron, Jeong Jae-hyun and Bae Hyun-sung were cast in lead roles, with Kim and Bae reprising their roles from the web series Love Playlist. The series marks Jeong Jae-hyun's acting debut. On October 12, 2020, Kim Sae-ron left the series due to a row over the cast billing order. On October 14, the production company cited a "difference of opinion" as the reason for Kim leaving the cast. Roh Jeong-eui replaced Kim. === Filming === The series is entirely pre-produced with filming scheduled to be completed in early February for the production team to focus on post-production and music editing. == Release == The release of Dear.M was indefinitely postponed due to a controversy involving school violence allegations against Park Hye-su. In response to a petition on the KBS Viewer's Rights Centre requesting the removal of the actress from Dear.M, KBS Chief Producer (Jo Hyun-ah) stated, "As the truth is being challenged on the relevant matter and a police investigation is underway, KBS has implemented postponement of the drama, and we are monitoring the situation until the facts are revealed. Depending on the result [of the investigation], we will implement measures for all matters including the organisation and re-shooting of Dear.M." KBS stated that television series Imitation originally scheduled for May 21, 2021, will be aired on May 7, 2021. In April 2021, it was announced that for the time being, the series will be broadcast tentatively in August 2021. On January 11, 2022, it was announced that presently series has been put on hold till the police investigation results come out. In March 2022, it was announced that Dear.M will be aired first in Japan in the second half of 2022. KBS further confirmed that they were negotiating with other countries regarding the series' copyright license. In May 2022, the Japanese streaming platform, U-NEXT announced in a press release that they would be exclusively distributing Dear.M starting in late June 2022. In June 2022, Viki restored Dear.M in their catalogue and re-released teasers. On June 29, 2022, the first six episodes of Dear.M were digitally released on Viki and U-Next. Its next six episodes were released on July 6, 2022. == Soundtrack == === Album === == International broadcast == The series will be available with multilingual subtitles on iQIYI in South East Asia. The series will be available for streaming through Viu in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand with subtitles, and on Viki in other regions with multilingual subtitles. The series also already aired in Malaysia broadcast channel through TV3 and Media Prima streaming app, Tonton starting from 16 May until 27 June 2023, every Tuesday - Thursday, 11 pm on Chamsarang slot. The drama airs on total 19 episodes and the last episode aired at 27 June 2023 which marks the end of the drama. == References == == External links == * * * * * Dear. M at Daum * Dear. M at Naver Category:Korean Broadcasting System television dramas Category:2022 South Korean television series debuts Category:2022 South Korean television series endings Category:Korean-language television shows Category:South Korean romance television series Category:2020s college television series Category:Television series by Monster Union Category:Playlist Studio original programming Category:Television spin-offs Category:South Korean pre-produced television series
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Fred J. Hart (August 20, 1888 – March 29, 1976) was an American alternative medicine practitioner, farmer and businessman. Hart owned KQW AM in San Jose, CA. He was active in the field of radionics, was president of the Electronic Medical Foundation until the American Medical Association and Food and Drug Administration shut the Foundation down for false medical claims. Hart then established the National Health Federation (NHF) in 1955 advocating for "health freedom", which critics say "has little interest in scientifically recognized methods". The AMA called Hart a quack and his treatment quackery, a claim that Hart himself used with pride. ==Early life and education== He was one of seven children born and raised in Tacoma, Washington. He graduated from McMinnville College (now called Linfield University) in McMinnville, Oregon. ==Career== Before 1913, Hart had managed the Washington branch of the Puyallup and Sumner Fruit Growers' association and was advocating for using some of the same procedures for opening a cannery in Terra Bella, California. The Terra Bella cannery opened in 1913 with Hart elected as its first manager. In 1925 Hart relocated from the Salinas Valley to San Jose, California "for the health of his daughter" but building apartment buildings in Salinas, California. By 1938 Hart was back living in Salinas and serving on the Monterey County Farm Bureau. Advising Monterey County to adopt a $165,000 bond to purchase land in Fort Ord, California, in 1940 based on his experience as a farmer and land owner that the property will be worth more later, and will help the war effort and the Army bringing over 2,000 families to the area who will purchase the agriculture of the area. In 1940, Hart was elected the president of the Salinas YMCA. His obituary says he was a "founder of the California Farm Bureau, the Monterey County Farm Bureau and the American Farm Bureau Federation and published a group of newspapers for farm bureau members". One newsletter was called Farm Bureau Monthly. A 1944 paid advertisement when Hart was running for a state Congressperson position stated that Hart "became publisher of 42 agricultural magazines in this state. As a member of the executive committee of the California Farm Bureau federation, he helped promote bulk handling of grain in California, with the result that four bulk handling elevators were constructed, one of them in Salinas. He helped organize the Growers' Tariff league which was responsible for securing tariffs on California fruits and nuts, on which tariffs had been removed by a Democratic administration." ==Radio== thumb|Doc Herrold is shown at the microphone of KQW, early 1920s. Licensed to Charles "Doc" Herrold in 1921, KQW broadcast from its home in San Jose. Funded by Herrold's radio laboratory, he found that he could no longer afford the station and gave it to the First Baptist Church of San Jose California. In 1925 the U.S. Commerce Department transferred title to the church which became responsible for all costs of operation, also the transmission power was moved up from 50 watts to 500 watts. The church raised the $20,000 needed to purchase and install a new transmitter, higher antenna, and new studio. The church realized that they would not be able to afford the day-to-day expenses of running a radio station and asked Herrold to assume the job of sales manager as he was so well-known in the community. Advertisements on the radio was a new concept and Herrold worked to find program sponsorships and advertisements. The church quickly learned that the religious shows they were broadcasting were not money makers and the Pastor asked Fred Hart who was one of the church parishioners to manage the station. Hart refused a salary instead opting for one hour every day, 7 to 8 to run a "radio newspaper for agriculture". Believing that farm families made up 30% of the population, Hart thought that KQW could become the "voice of California agriculture". One of the first tasks Hart completed was to move the towers off church property because the tax collector assessed the whole church property as the radio station was a business. Hart hired Ira L. Smith from Santa Cruz to run the business and administration side of the business. Hart also promised the church that it would run a Sunday church service for the next twenty years. In 1926 KQW gave the California Farm Bureau a large bump in publicity with its program California Farm Bureau Evening Radio news that aired six days a week (not Sunday) from 6:30–8:00 pm. Many topics in farming were discussed, some examples mentioned in a Visalia Times- Delta article were "different types of brush cutters; non-cultivated Thompson Seedless vineyard; effect of heavy cultivation heavy summer shoot thinning on Emperors ... results of spraying to control Spanish Measles". Hart and Smith learned that they were interfering with the tradition of distant listening also called a distant-fishing period, which had been held weekly between 7:30 and 8:00pm. This meant that the local stations would go off the air for 30 minutes during which time listeners would try to tune in distant stations. With KQW broadcasting during that 30 minutes, listeners could only find KQW. Critics began to call KQW the "Napoleon of KQW" or "Haywire Hart". Because the transmitter had such a strong signal, "it drowned out nearly all competition". Hart argued that KQW could put San Jose on the map if the critics could give him more time to grow an audience with farmers. Hart eventually sold KQW to the Columbia Broadcasting System which operates it as KCBS in San Francisco. Because KQW (now KCBS) recognizes 1909 as its beginning (when Herrold got his very first radio license), it is known as "The World's First Broadcasting Station" and celebrated its 100th birthday in 2009 with a series of events over the year in the Bay Area. During Hawaiian vacations in 1931 and 1934 Hart noticed that there was possibilities for growth in the Hawaiian radio market. He became president and general manager of the Honolulu Broadcasting Company bringing in new management, upgraded microphones, expanded on-air to 17-hours and moved to a new radio center in 1936. He owned and operated KGMB and KHBC in Hawaii until 1938. ==Politics== In 1944 Hart ran for California's 11th congressional district which represented the Monterey, San Luis Obispo, Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties. He lost the election to Incumbent Democratic George E. Outland. ==Electronic Medical Foundation== In 1938 Hart became president and Board Chairman of the College of Electronic Medicine which was founded by Albert Abrams in 1922. The CEM leased out and used devices to diagnose and cure medical afflictions based on the work of Abrams who called this system radionics. Abrams who died in 1924 said the CEM was "based [on] his theory that all disease is a 'disharmony of electronic oscillation'". After Abrams death, Hart took over and renamed the organization the Electronic Medical Foundation (EMF). According to the EMF website Hart became interested in radionics when his wife Eva, who had had surgery for her breast cancer but was dying wanted to use a (now common) frequency device to cure her. "[H]e (according to the EMF) was the target of the American Medical Association. Eva died inside of a needless political and greedy one-sided battle. He loved her. All he wanted was to help Eva to live, but the AMA shut him down and it cost Eva her very life". Also from the EMF website this statement that after Eva had been found to have a cancerous tumor she still was having symptoms which is when they first visited the Abrams clinic. She was tested with one of the instruments and found to have "a lesion which had not been detected by the other doctors". She was given treatments with the Oscilloclast, spinal adjustments and diet changes which "were credited with her recovery". The tests by the radionic machine were later reviewed by the FDA and claimed "worthless". According to Stephen Barrett the EMF in 1954 were ordered "by a U.S. District Court to stop distributing thirteen devices with false claims that they could diagnose and treat hundreds of diseases and conditions". Soon after the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stopped health food stores from selling information from the EMF. The NHF website describes this as "violated[ing] freedom of the press by declaring it illegal for health food stores to give away, lend or sell books and reprints to inform customers about their products". And "Abrams was branded a “quack” by the AMA and his electronic therapy “quackery,” even though it was never tested for validity by his accusers". Author Gilbert Geis in his book White-Collar Criminal describes that the clinic would accept a sample of blood mailed to them on a piece of paper and was inserted in something called a Radioscope which was supposed to measure "emanations" of diseases. The Radioscope was connected to a box which was held by a clinic employee, another employee would strike the first employee on the stomach with a plastic wand. When the wand would stick to the stomach, a reaction would happen and the machine operator would know the "exact identity, location and significance of any disease affecting the patient – perhaps thousands of miles away". The patent would seek out treatment from one of the practitioners who leased Hart's machines to receive treatment. The FDA found all thirteen of Hart's devices to be "worthless" and the Radioscope "flunked its every test during the FDA investigation. It couldn't tell the difference between colored water and blood, between the blood of a living man and a dead one. ... Blood from a rooster brought a diagnosis of sinus infection and dental caries". Martin Gardner wrote in 1957 that the FDA had "obtained an injunction against interstate shipment of the devices" and determined that the machines contained "nothing but low powered short wave radio transmitters and coils capable of producing a weak magnetic effect". A sample send to the EMF from a woman's blood was told after testing that she suffered from '"systematic toxemia"' yet what the government had submitted was a "spot of coal-tar dye". Hart, according to Gardner, "raised the usual howls of persecution by the medical trusts and vowed he would continue his great work in Germany and Mexico if necessary". ==National Health Federation== After the AMA ordered the Electronic Medical Foundation to close, Hart founded and managed the National Health Federation in 1955. The NHF claims that it is "the oldest health freedom organization on the planet, the ONLY such organization working to protect individuals’ rights to choose to consume healthy food, take supplements and use alternative therapies without government restrictions". Barrett says "NHF wants anyone who merely claims to have an effective treatment or product to be allowed to market it without scientific proof that it works. ... NHF promotes questionable health methods and has little interest in scientifically recognized methods". ==Personal life== Married September 23, 1914, to Eva Porter, daughter of Robert Porter of Blanco, Salinas, Monterey County, California. Eva Porter was the granddaughter of James Bardin, one of the original settlers in Monterey County. Eva died January 27, 1962, in Palo Alto, California, she had been one of the founders and board members of The Salinas Rescue Mission, a memorial fund was established for the organization at her death. Their only child Margaret Hart, graduated with a BS in education from Stanford University in 1937. She married IBM executive Gordon Packard in 1960 who died in 1970. In 1976 Margaret married attorney Leighton Homer Surbeck who had been a law secretary to Chief Justice William Howard Taft. Margaret served on many boards; Golden Gate University, Eastern Baptist College, Judson College, First Baptist Church in Menlo Park and American Baptist Seminary of the West in Berkeley, California. Margaret inherited her fathers collection of Oscilloclasts and other devices. She along with her husband Surbeck participated in the research of "the potential of electromagnetic radiation therapy". A research project using "low level radio frequency energy was applied to cancerous mice and the effect measured by tumor growth and health of the specimen was completed at the South Dakota School of Mines. At her death, Margaret Surbeck's will funded INDNJC, health-related research though University of California, San Francisco. On September 1, 1963, Hart married Dorothy S. Bobby in Santa Cruz, California. He died at the Capitola Extended Care Hospital. His wife Dorothy survived him, she lived in Santa Cruz at the time of his death in 1975. ==See also== * Desiré Dubounet * Ruth B. Drown * Hulda Regehr Clark * Thomas Galen Hieronymus * Georges Lakhovsky * Antoine Prioré (inventor of the "Electropoise") * Royal Raymond Rife * Hercules Sanche * George de la Warr ==References== Category:1888 births Category:1976 deaths Category:Alternative medicine activists Category:American health activists Category:People from McMinnville, Oregon Category:Radionic practitioners
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The neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other relevant fields. The cognitive neuroscience of music represents a significant branch of music psychology, and is distinguished from related fields such as cognitive musicology in its reliance on direct observations of the brain and use of brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). == Elements of music == ===Pitch=== Sounds consist of waves of air molecules that vibrate at different frequencies. These waves travel to the basilar membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear. Different frequencies of sound will cause vibrations in different locations of the basilar membrane. We are able to hear different pitches because each sound wave with a unique frequency is correlated to a different location along the basilar membrane. This spatial arrangement of sounds and their respective frequencies being processed in the basilar membrane is known as tonotopy. When the hair cells on the basilar membrane move back and forth due to the vibrating sound waves, they release neurotransmitters and cause action potentials to occur down the auditory nerve. The auditory nerve then leads to several layers of synapses at numerous clusters of neurons, or nuclei, in the auditory brainstem. These nuclei are also tonotopically organized, and the process of achieving this tonotopy after the cochlea is not well understood. This tonotopy is in general maintained up to primary auditory cortex in mammals. A widely postulated mechanism for pitch processing in the early central auditory system is the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus. Phase-locking to stimulus frequencies has been shown in the auditory nerve, the cochlear nucleus, the inferior colliculus, and the auditory thalamus. By phase- and mode-locking in this way, the auditory brainstem is known to preserve a good deal of the temporal and low-passed frequency information from the original sound; this is evident by measuring the auditory brainstem response using EEG. This temporal preservation is one way to argue directly for the temporal theory of pitch perception, and to argue indirectly against the place theory of pitch perception. The right secondary auditory cortex has finer pitch resolution than the left. Hyde, Peretz and Zatorre (2008) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in their study to test the involvement of right and left auditory cortical regions in the frequency processing of melodic sequences. As well as finding superior pitch resolution in the right secondary auditory cortex, specific areas found to be involved were the planum temporale (PT) in the secondary auditory cortex, and the primary auditory cortex in the medial section of Heschl's gyrus (HG). Many neuroimaging studies have found evidence of the importance of right secondary auditory regions in aspects of musical pitch processing, such as melody. Many of these studies such as one by Patterson, Uppenkamp, Johnsrude and Griffiths (2002) also find evidence of a hierarchy of pitch processing. Patterson et al. (2002) used spectrally matched sounds which produced: no pitch, fixed pitch or melody in an fMRI study and found that all conditions activated HG and PT. Sounds with pitch activated more of these regions than sounds without. When a melody was produced activation spread to the superior temporal gyrus (STG) and planum polare (PP). These results support the existence of a pitch processing hierarchy. ====Absolute pitch==== right|150px|thumb|Musicians possessing perfect pitch can identify the pitch of musical tones without external reference. Absolute pitch (AP) is defined as the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch. PDF Document Neuroscientific research has not discovered a distinct activation pattern common for possessors of AP. Zatorre, Perry, Beckett, Westbury and Evans (1998) examined the neural foundations of AP using functional and structural brain imaging techniques. Positron emission tomography (PET) was utilized to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in musicians possessing AP and musicians lacking AP. When presented with musical tones, similar patterns of increased CBF in auditory cortical areas emerged in both groups. AP possessors and non-AP subjects demonstrated similar patterns of left dorsolateral frontal activity when they performed relative pitch judgments. However, in non-AP subjects activation in the right inferior frontal cortex was present whereas AP possessors showed no such activity. This finding suggests that musicians with AP do not need access to working memory devices for such tasks. These findings imply that there is no specific regional activation pattern unique to AP. Rather, the availability of specific processing mechanisms and task demands determine the recruited neural areas. === Melody === Studies suggest that individuals are capable of automatically detecting a difference or anomaly in a melody such as an out of tune pitch which does not fit with their previous music experience. This automatic processing occurs in the secondary auditory cortex. Brattico, Tervaniemi, Naatanen, and Peretz (2006) performed one such study to determine if the detection of tones that do not fit an individual's expectations can occur automatically. They recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in nonmusicians as they were presented unfamiliar melodies with either an out of tune pitch or an out of key pitch while participants were either distracted from the sounds or attending to the melody. Both conditions revealed an early frontal error- related negativity independent of where attention was directed. This negativity originated in the auditory cortex, more precisely in the supratemporal lobe (which corresponds with the secondary auditory cortex) with greater activity from the right hemisphere. The negativity response was larger for pitch that was out of tune than that which was out of key. Ratings of musical incongruity were higher for out of tune pitch melodies than for out of key pitch. In the focused attention condition, out of key and out of tune pitches produced late parietal positivity. The findings of Brattico et al. (2006) suggest that there is automatic and rapid processing of melodic properties in the secondary auditory cortex. The findings that pitch incongruities were detected automatically, even in processing unfamiliar melodies, suggests that there is an automatic comparison of incoming information with long term knowledge of musical scale properties, such as culturally influenced rules of musical properties (common chord progressions, scale patterns, etc.) and individual expectations of how the melody should proceed. ===Rhythm=== The belt and parabelt areas of the right hemisphere are involved in processing rhythm. Rhythm is a strong repeated pattern of movement or sound. When individuals are preparing to tap out a rhythm of regular intervals (1:2 or 1:3) the left frontal cortex, left parietal cortex, and right cerebellum are all activated. With more difficult rhythms such as a 1:2.5, more areas in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are involved. EEG recordings have also shown a relationship between brain electrical activity and rhythm perception. Snyder and Large (2005) performed a study examining rhythm perception in human subjects, finding that activity in the gamma band (20 – 60 Hz) corresponds to the beats in a simple rhythm. Two types of gamma activity were found by Snyder & Large: induced gamma activity, and evoked gamma activity. Evoked gamma activity was found after the onset of each tone in the rhythm; this activity was found to be phase-locked (peaks and troughs were directly related to the exact onset of the tone) and did not appear when a gap (missed beat) was present in the rhythm. Induced gamma activity, which was not found to be phase-locked, was also found to correspond with each beat. However, induced gamma activity did not subside when a gap was present in the rhythm, indicating that induced gamma activity may possibly serve as a sort of internal metronome independent of auditory input. ===Tonality=== Tonality describes the relationships between the elements of melody and harmony – tones, intervals, chords, and scales. These relationships are often characterized as hierarchical, such that one of the elements dominates or attracts another. They occur both within and between every type of element, creating a rich and time-varying perception between tones and their melodic, harmonic, and chromatic contexts. In one conventional sense, tonality refers to just the major and minor scale types – examples of scales whose elements are capable of maintaining a consistent set of functional relationships. The most important functional relationship is that of the tonic note (the first note in a scale) and the tonic chord (the first note in the scale with the third and fifth note) with the rest of the scale. The tonic is the element which tends to assert its dominance and attraction over all others, and it functions as the ultimate point of attraction, rest and resolution for the scale. The right auditory cortex is primarily involved in perceiving pitch, and parts of harmony, melody and rhythm. One study by Petr Janata found that there are tonality-sensitive areas in the medial prefrontal cortex, the cerebellum, the superior temporal sulci of both hemispheres and the superior temporal gyri (which has a skew towards the right hemisphere). Hemispheric asymmetries in the processing of dissonant/consonant sounds have been demonstrated. ERP studies have shown larger evoked responses over the left temporal area in response to dissonant chords, and over the right one, in response to consonant chords. ==Music production and performance== ===Motor control functions=== Musical performance usually involves at least three elementary motor control functions: timing, sequencing, and spatial organization of motor movements. Accuracy in timing of movements is related to musical rhythm. Rhythm, the pattern of temporal intervals within a musical measure or phrase, in turn creates the perception of stronger and weaker beats. Sequencing and spatial organization relate to the expression of individual notes on a musical instrument. These functions and their neural mechanisms have been investigated separately in many studies, but little is known about their combined interaction in producing a complex musical performance. The study of music requires examining them together. ====Timing==== Although neural mechanisms involved in timing movement have been studied rigorously over the past 20 years, much remains controversial. The ability to phrase movements in precise time has been accredited to a neural metronome or clock mechanism where time is represented through oscillations or pulses. An opposing view to this metronome mechanism has also been hypothesized stating that it is an emergent property of the kinematics of movement itself. Kinematics is defined as parameters of movement through space without reference to forces (for example, direction, velocity and acceleration). Functional neuroimaging studies, as well as studies of brain- damaged patients, have linked movement timing to several cortical and sub- cortical regions, including the cerebellum, basal ganglia and supplementary motor area (SMA). Specifically the basal ganglia and possibly the SMA have been implicated in interval timing at longer timescales (1 second and above), while the cerebellum may be more important for controlling motor timing at shorter timescales (milliseconds). Furthermore, these results indicate that motor timing is not controlled by a single brain region, but by a network of regions that control specific parameters of movement and that depend on the relevant timescale of the rhythmic sequence. ====Sequencing==== Motor sequencing has been explored in terms of either the ordering of individual movements, such as finger sequences for key presses, or the coordination of subcomponents of complex multi-joint movements. Implicated in this process are various cortical and sub-cortical regions, including the basal ganglia, the SMA and the pre-SMA, the cerebellum, and the premotor and prefrontal cortices, all involved in the production and learning of motor sequences but without explicit evidence of their specific contributions or interactions amongst one another. In animals, neurophysiological studies have demonstrated an interaction between the frontal cortex and the basal ganglia during the learning of movement sequences. Human neuroimaging studies have also emphasized the contribution of the basal ganglia for well-learned sequences. The cerebellum is arguably important for sequence learning and for the integration of individual movements into unified sequences, while the pre-SMA and SMA have been shown to be involved in organizing or chunking of more complex movement sequences. Chunking, defined as the re-organization or re- grouping of movement sequences into smaller sub-sequences during performance, is thought to facilitate the smooth performance of complex movements and to improve motor memory. Lastly, the premotor cortex has been shown to be involved in tasks that require the production of relatively complex sequences, and it may contribute to motor prediction. ====Spatial organization==== Few studies of complex motor control have distinguished between sequential and spatial organization, yet expert musical performances demand not only precise sequencing but also spatial organization of movements. Studies in animals and humans have established the involvement of parietal, sensory–motor and premotor cortices in the control of movements, when the integration of spatial, sensory and motor information is required. Few studies so far have explicitly examined the role of spatial processing in the context of musical tasks. ===Auditory-motor interactions=== ====Feedforward and feedback interactions==== An auditory–motor interaction may be loosely defined as any engagement of or communication between the two systems. Two classes of auditory-motor interaction are "feedforward" and "feedback". In feedforward interactions, it is the auditory system that predominately influences the motor output, often in a predictive way. An example is the phenomenon of tapping to the beat, where the listener anticipates the rhythmic accents in a piece of music. Another example is the effect of music on movement disorders: rhythmic auditory stimuli have been shown to improve walking ability in Parkinson's disease and stroke patients. Feedback interactions are particularly relevant in playing an instrument such as a violin, or in singing, where pitch is variable and must be continuously controlled. If auditory feedback is blocked, musicians can still execute well-rehearsed pieces, but expressive aspects of performance are affected. When auditory feedback is experimentally manipulated by delays or distortions, motor performance is significantly altered: asynchronous feedback disrupts the timing of events, whereas alteration of pitch information disrupts the selection of appropriate actions, but not their timing. This suggests that disruptions occur because both actions and percepts depend on a single underlying mental representation. ====Models of auditory–motor interactions==== Several models of auditory–motor interactions have been advanced. The model of Hickok and Poeppel, which is specific for speech processing, proposes that a ventral auditory stream maps sounds onto meaning, whereas a dorsal stream maps sounds onto articulatory representations. They and othersScott, S. K. & Johnsrude, I. S. "The neuroanatomical and functional organization of speech perception. Trends Neurosci. 26, 100–107 (2003) suggest that posterior auditory regions at the parieto-temporal boundary are crucial parts of the auditory–motor interface, mapping auditory representations onto motor representations of speech, and onto melodies. ====Mirror/echo neurons and auditory–motor interactions==== The mirror neuron system has an important role in neural models of sensory–motor integration. There is considerable evidence that neurons respond to both actions and the accumulated observation of actions. A system proposed to explain this understanding of actions is that visual representations of actions are mapped onto our own motor system. Some mirror neurons are activated both by the observation of goal-directed actions, and by the associated sounds produced during the action. This suggests that the auditory modality can access the motor system. While these auditory–motor interactions have mainly been studied for speech processes, and have focused on Broca's area and the vPMC, as of 2011, experiments have begun to shed light on how these interactions are needed for musical performance. Results point to a broader involvement of the dPMC and other motor areas. The literature has shown a highly specialized cortical network in the skilled musician's brain that codes the relationship between musical gestures and their corresponding sounds. The data hint at the existence of an audiomotor mirror network involving the right superior temporal gyrus, the premotor cortex, the inferior frontal and inferior parietal areas, among other areas. ==Music and language== Certain aspects of language and melody have been shown to be processed in near identical functional brain areas. Brown, Martinez and Parsons (2006) examined the neurological structural similarities between music and language. Utilizing positron emission tomography (PET), the findings showed that both linguistic and melodic phrases produced activation in almost identical functional brain areas. These areas included the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, Broca's area, anterior insula, primary and secondary auditory cortices, temporal pole, basal ganglia, ventral thalamus and posterior cerebellum. Differences were found in lateralization tendencies as language tasks favoured the left hemisphere, but the majority of activations were bilateral which produced significant overlap across modalities. Syntactical information mechanisms in both music and language have been shown to be processed similarly in the brain. Jentschke, Koelsch, Sallat and Friederici (2008) conducted a study investigating the processing of music in children with specific language impairments (SLI). Children with typical language development (TLD) showed ERP patterns different from those of children with SLI, which reflected their challenges in processing music-syntactic regularities. Strong correlations between the ERAN (Early Right Anterior Negativity—a specific ERP measure) amplitude and linguistic and musical abilities provide additional evidence for the relationship of syntactical processing in music and language. However, production of melody and production of speech may be subserved by different neural networks. Stewart, Walsh, Frith and Rothwell (2001) studied the differences between speech production and song production using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Stewart et al. found that TMS applied to the left frontal lobe disturbs speech but not melody supporting the idea that they are subserved by different areas of the brain. The authors suggest that a reason for the difference is that speech generation can be localized well but the underlying mechanisms of melodic production cannot. Alternatively, it was also suggested that speech production may be less robust than melodic production and thus more susceptible to interference. Language processing is a function more of the left side of the brain than the right side, particularly Broca's area and Wernicke's area, though the roles played by the two sides of the brain in processing different aspects of language are still unclear. Music is also processed by both the left and the right sides of the brain. Recent evidence further suggest shared processing between language and music at the conceptual level. It has also been found that, among music conservatory students, the prevalence of absolute pitch is much higher for speakers of tone language, even controlling for ethnic background, showing that language influences how musical tones are perceived. == Musician vs. non-musician processing == right|thumb|Professional pianists show less cortical activation for complex finger movement tasks due to structural differences in the brain. === Differences === Brain structure within musicians and non-musicians is distinctly different. Gaser and Schlaug (2003) compared brain structures of professional musicians with non-musicians and discovered gray matter volume differences in motor, auditory and visual- spatial brain regions. Specifically, positive correlations were discovered between musician status (professional, amateur and non-musician) and gray matter volume in the primary motor and somatosensory areas, premotor areas, anterior superior parietal areas and in the inferior temporal gyrus bilaterally. This strong association between musician status and gray matter differences supports the notion that musicians' brains show use-dependent structural changes. Due to the distinct differences in several brain regions, it is unlikely that these differences are innate but rather due to the long- term acquisition and repetitive rehearsal of musical skills. Brains of musicians also show functional differences from those of non-musicians. Krings, Topper, Foltys, Erberich, Sparing, Willmes and Thron (2000) utilized fMRI to study brain area involvement of professional pianists and a control group while performing complex finger movements. Krings et al. found that the professional piano players showed lower levels of cortical activation in motor areas of the brain. It was concluded that a lesser amount of neurons needed to be activated for the piano players due to long-term motor practice which results in the different cortical activation patterns. Koeneke, Lutz, Wustenberg and Jancke (2004) reported similar findings in keyboard players. Skilled keyboard players and a control group performed complex tasks involving unimanual and bimanual finger movements. During task conditions, strong hemodynamic responses in the cerebellum were shown by both non-musicians and keyboard players, but non-musicians showed the stronger response. This finding indicates that different cortical activation patterns emerge from long-term motor practice. This evidence supports previous data showing that musicians require fewer neurons to perform the same movements. Musicians have been shown to have significantly more developed left planum temporales, and have also shown to have a greater word memory. Chan's study controlled for age, grade point average and years of education and found that when given a 16 word memory test, the musicians averaged one to two more words above their non musical counterparts. === Similarities === Studies have shown that the human brain has an implicit musical ability. Koelsch, Gunter, Friederici and Schoger (2000) investigated the influence of preceding musical context, task relevance of unexpected chords and the degree of probability of violation on music processing in both musicians and non-musicians. Findings showed that the human brain unintentionally extrapolates expectations about impending auditory input. Even in non-musicians, the extrapolated expectations are consistent with music theory. The ability to process information musically supports the idea of an implicit musical ability in the human brain. In a follow-up study, Koelsch, Schroger, and Gunter (2002) investigated whether ERAN and N5 could be evoked preattentively in non-musicians. Findings showed that both ERAN and N5 can be elicited even in a situation where the musical stimulus is ignored by the listener indicating that there is a highly differentiated preattentive musicality in the human brain. == Gender differences == Minor neurological differences regarding hemispheric processing exist between brains of males and females. Koelsch, Maess, Grossmann and Friederici (2003) investigated music processing through EEG and ERPs and discovered gender differences. Findings showed that females process music information bilaterally and males process music with a right-hemispheric predominance. However, the early negativity of males was also present over the left hemisphere. This indicates that males do not exclusively utilize the right hemisphere for musical information processing. In a follow-up study, Koelsch, Grossman, Gunter, Hahne, Schroger and Friederici (2003) found that boys show lateralization of the early anterior negativity in the left hemisphere but found a bilateral effect in girls. This indicates a developmental effect as early negativity is lateralized in the right hemisphere in men and in the left hemisphere in boys. == Handedness differences == It has been found that subjects who are lefthanded, particularly those who are also ambidextrous, perform better than righthanders on short term memory for the pitch. It was hypothesized that this handedness advantage is due to the fact that lefthanders have more duplication of storage in the two hemispheres than do righthanders. Other work has shown that there are pronounced differences between righthanders and lefthanders (on a statistical basis) in how musical patterns are perceived, when sounds come from different regions of space. This has been found, for example, in the Octave illusion and the Scale illusion. ==Musical imagery== Musical imagery refers to the experience of replaying music by imagining it inside the head. Musicians show a superior ability for musical imagery due to intense musical training. Herholz, Lappe, Knief and Pantev (2008) investigated the differences in neural processing of a musical imagery task in musicians and non-musicians. Utilizing magnetoencephalography (MEG), Herholz et al. examined differences in the processing of a musical imagery task with familiar melodies in musicians and non-musicians. Specifically, the study examined whether the mismatch negativity (MMN) can be based solely on imagery of sounds. The task involved participants listening to the beginning of a melody, continuation of the melody in his/her head and finally hearing a correct/incorrect tone as further continuation of the melody. The imagery of these melodies was strong enough to obtain an early preattentive brain response to unanticipated violations of the imagined melodies in the musicians. These results indicate similar neural correlates are relied upon for trained musicians imagery and perception. Additionally, the findings suggest that modification of the imagery mismatch negativity (iMMN) through intense musical training results in achievement of a superior ability for imagery and preattentive processing of music. Perceptual musical processes and musical imagery may share a neural substrate in the brain. A PET study conducted by Zatorre, Halpern, Perry, Meyer and Evans (1996) investigated cerebral blood flow (CBF) changes related to auditory imagery and perceptual tasks. These tasks examined the involvement of particular anatomical regions as well as functional commonalities between perceptual processes and imagery. Similar patterns of CBF changes provided evidence supporting the notion that imagery processes share a substantial neural substrate with related perceptual processes. Bilateral neural activity in the secondary auditory cortex was associated with both perceiving and imagining songs. This implies that within the secondary auditory cortex, processes underlie the phenomenological impression of imagined sounds. The supplementary motor area (SMA) was active in both imagery and perceptual tasks suggesting covert vocalization as an element of musical imagery. CBF increases in the inferior frontal polar cortex and right thalamus suggest that these regions may be related to retrieval and/or generation of auditory information from memory. == Emotion == Music is able to create an intensely pleasurable experience that can be described as "chills". Blood and Zatorre (2001) used PET to measure changes in cerebral blood flow while participants listened to music that they knew to give them the "chills" or any sort of intensely pleasant emotional response. They found that as these chills increase, many changes in cerebral blood flow are seen in brain regions such as the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, midbrain, and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. Many of these areas appear to be linked to reward, motivation, emotion, and arousal, and are also activated in other pleasurable situations. The resulting pleasure responses enable the release dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin. Nucleus accumbens (a part of striatum) is involved in both music related emotions, as well as rhythmic timing. According to the National Institute of Health, children and adults who are suffering from emotional trauma have been able to benefit from the use of music in a variety of ways. The use of music has been essential in helping children who struggle with focus, anxiety, and cognitive function by using music in therapeutic way. Music therapy has also helped children cope with autism, pediatric cancer, and pain from treatments. Emotions induced by music activate similar frontal brain regions compared to emotions elicited by other stimuli. Schmidt and Trainor (2001) discovered that valence (i.e. positive vs. negative) of musical segments was distinguished by patterns of frontal EEG activity. Joyful and happy musical segments were associated with increases in left frontal EEG activity whereas fearful and sad musical segments were associated with increases in right frontal EEG activity. Additionally, the intensity of emotions was differentiated by the pattern of overall frontal EEG activity. Overall frontal region activity increased as affective musical stimuli became more intense. When unpleasant melodies are played, the posterior cingulate cortex activates, which indicates a sense of conflict or emotional pain. The right hemisphere has also been found to be correlated with emotion, which can also activate areas in the cingulate in times of emotional pain, specifically social rejection (Eisenberger). This evidence, along with observations, has led many musical theorists, philosophers and neuroscientists to link emotion with tonality. This seems almost obvious because the tones in music seem like a characterization of the tones in human speech, which indicate emotional content. The vowels in the phonemes of a song are elongated for a dramatic effect, and it seems as though musical tones are simply exaggerations of the normal verbal tonality. == Memory == === Neuropsychology of musical memory === Musical memory involves both explicit and implicit memory systems. Explicit musical memory is further differentiated between episodic (where, when and what of the musical experience) and semantic (memory for music knowledge including facts and emotional concepts). Implicit memory centers on the 'how' of music and involves automatic processes such as procedural memory and motor skill learning – in other words skills critical for playing an instrument. Samson and Baird (2009) found that the ability of musicians with Alzheimer's Disease to play an instrument (implicit procedural memory) may be preserved. === Neural correlates of musical memory === A PET study looking into the neural correlates of musical semantic and episodic memory found distinct activation patterns. Semantic musical memory involves the sense of familiarity of songs. The semantic memory for music condition resulted in bilateral activation in the medial and orbital frontal cortex, as well as activation in the left angular gyrus and the left anterior region of the middle temporal gyri. These patterns support the functional asymmetry favouring the left hemisphere for semantic memory. Left anterior temporal and inferior frontal regions that were activated in the musical semantic memory task produced activation peaks specifically during the presentation of musical material, suggestion that these regions are somewhat functionally specialized for musical semantic representations. Episodic memory of musical information involves the ability to recall the former context associated with a musical excerpt. In the condition invoking episodic memory for music, activations were found bilaterally in the middle and superior frontal gyri and precuneus, with activation predominant in the right hemisphere. Other studies have found the precuneus to become activated in successful episodic recall. As it was activated in the familiar memory condition of episodic memory, this activation may be explained by the successful recall of the melody. When it comes to memory for pitch, there appears to be a dynamic and distributed brain network subserves pitch memory processes. Gaab, Gaser, Zaehle, Jancke and Schlaug (2003) examined the functional anatomy of pitch memory using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An analysis of performance scores in a pitch memory task resulted in a significant correlation between good task performance and the supramarginal gyrus (SMG) as well as the dorsolateral cerebellum. Findings indicate that the dorsolateral cerebellum may act as a pitch discrimination processor and the SMG may act as a short-term pitch information storage site. The left hemisphere was found to be more prominent in the pitch memory task than the right hemispheric regions. === Therapeutic effects of music on memory === Musical training has been shown to aid memory. Altenmuller et al. studied the difference between active and passive musical instruction and found both that over a longer (but not short) period of time, the actively taught students retained much more information than the passively taught students. The actively taught students were also found to have greater cerebral cortex activation. The passively taught students weren't wasting their time; they, along with the active group, displayed greater left hemisphere activity, which is typical in trained musicians. Research suggests we listen to the same songs repeatedly because of musical nostalgia. One major study, published in the journal Memory & Cognition, found that music enables the mind to evoke memories of the past, known as music-evoked autobiographical memories. ==Attention == Treder et al. identified neural correlates of attention when listening to simplified polyphonic music patterns. In a musical oddball experiment, they had participants shift selective attention to one out of three different instruments in music audio clips, with each instrument occasionally playing one or several notes deviating from an otherwise repetitive pattern. Contrasting attended versus unattended instruments, ERP analysis shows subject- and instrument-specific responses including P300 and early auditory components. The attended instrument could be classified offline with high accuracy. This indicates that attention paid to a particular instrument in polyphonic music can be inferred from ongoing EEG, a finding that is potentially relevant for building more ergonomic music-listing based brain-computer interfaces. ==Development== Musical four-year-olds have been found to have one greater left hemisphere intrahemispheric coherence. Musicians have been found to have more developed anterior portions of the corpus callosum in a study by Cowell et al. in 1992. This was confirmed by a study by Schlaug et al. in 1995 that found that classical musicians between the ages of 21 and 36 have significantly greater anterior corpora callosa than the non-musical control. Schlaug also found that there was a strong correlation of musical exposure before the age of seven, and a great increase in the size of the corpus callosum. These fibers join together the left and right hemispheres and indicate an increased relaying between both sides of the brain. This suggests the merging between the spatial- emotiono-tonal processing of the right brain and the linguistical processing of the left brain. This large relaying across many different areas of the brain might contribute to music's ability to aid in memory function. == Impairment == === Focal hand dystonia === Focal hand dystonia is a task-related movement disorder associated with occupational activities that require repetitive hand movements. Focal hand dystonia is associated with abnormal processing in the premotor and primary sensorimotor cortices. An fMRI study examined five guitarists with focal hand dystonia. The study reproduced task-specific hand dystonia by having guitarists use a real guitar neck inside the scanner as well as performing a guitar exercise to trigger abnormal hand movement. The dystonic guitarists showed significantly more activation of the contralateral primary sensorimotor cortex as well as a bilateral underactivation of premotor areas. This activation pattern represents abnormal recruitment of the cortical areas involved in motor control. Even in professional musicians, widespread bilateral cortical region involvement is necessary to produce complex hand movements such as scales and arpeggios. The abnormal shift from premotor to primary sensorimotor activation directly correlates with guitar-induced hand dystonia. === Music agnosia === Music agnosia, an auditory agnosia, is a syndrome of selective impairment in music recognition. Three cases of music agnosia are examined by Dalla Bella and Peretz (1999); C.N., G.L., and I.R.. All three of these patients suffered bilateral damage to the auditory cortex which resulted in musical difficulties while speech understanding remained intact. Their impairment is specific to the recognition of once familiar melodies. They are spared in recognizing environmental sounds and in recognizing lyrics. Peretz (1996) has studied C.N.'s music agnosia further and reports an initial impairment of pitch processing and spared temporal processing. C.N. later recovered in pitch processing abilities but remained impaired in tune recognition and familiarity judgments. Musical agnosias may be categorized based on the process which is impaired in the individual. Apperceptive music agnosia involves an impairment at the level of perceptual analysis involving an inability to encode musical information correctly. Associative music agnosia reflects an impaired representational system which disrupts music recognition. Many of the cases of music agnosia have resulted from surgery involving the middle cerebral artery. Patient studies have surmounted a large amount of evidence demonstrating that the left side of the brain is more suitable for holding long-term memory representations of music and that the right side is important for controlling access to these representations. Associative music agnosias tend to be produced by damage to the left hemisphere, while apperceptive music agnosia reflects damage to the right hemisphere. === Congenital amusia === Congenital amusia, otherwise known as tone deafness, is a term for lifelong musical problems which are not attributable to mental retardation, lack of exposure to music or deafness, or brain damage after birth. Amusic brains have been found in fMRI studies to have less white matter and thicker cortex than controls in the right inferior frontal cortex. These differences suggest abnormal neuronal development in the auditory cortex and inferior frontal gyrus, two areas which are important in musical-pitch processing. Studies on those with amusia suggest different processes are involved in speech tonality and musical tonality. Congenital amusics lack the ability to distinguish between pitches and so are for example unmoved by dissonance and playing the wrong key on a piano. They also cannot be taught to remember a melody or to recite a song; however, they are still capable of hearing the intonation of speech, for example, distinguishing between "You speak French" and "You speak French?" when spoken. === Amygdala damage === Damage to the amygdala has selective emotional impairments on musical recognition. Gosselin, Peretz, Johnsen and Adolphs (2007) studied S.M., a patient with bilateral damage of the amygdala with the rest of the temporal lobe undamaged and found that S.M. was impaired in recognition of scary and sad music. S.M.'s perception of happy music was normal, as was her ability to use cues such as tempo to distinguish between happy and sad music. It appears that damage specific to the amygdala can selectively impair recognition of scary music. === Selective deficit in music reading === Specific musical impairments may result from brain damage leaving other musical abilities intact. Cappelletti, Waley-Cohen, Butterworth and Kopelman (2000) studied a single case study of patient P.K.C., a professional musician who sustained damage to the left posterior temporal lobe as well as a small right occipitotemporal lesion. After sustaining damage to these regions, P.K.C. was selectively impaired in the areas of reading, writing and understanding musical notation but maintained other musical skills. The ability to read aloud letters, words, numbers and symbols (including musical ones) was retained. However, P.K.C. was unable to read aloud musical notes on the staff regardless of whether the task involved naming with the conventional letter or by singing or playing. Yet despite this specific deficit, P.K.C. retained the ability to remember and play familiar and new melodies. === Auditory arrhythmia === Arrhythmia in the auditory modality is defined as a disturbance of rhythmic sense; and includes deficits such as the inability to rhythmically perform music, the inability to keep time to music and the inability to discriminate between or reproduce rhythmic patterns. A study investigating the elements of rhythmic function examined Patient H.J., who acquired arrhythmia after sustaining a right temporoparietal infarct. Damage to this region impaired H.J.'s central timing system which is essentially the basis of his global rhythmic impairment. H.J. was unable to generate steady pulses in a tapping task. These findings suggest that keeping a musical beat relies on functioning in the right temporal auditory cortex. == References == == External links == *MusicCognition.info - A Resource and Information Center Category:Cognitive musicology Category:Cognitive neuroscience Category:Music cognition Category:Music psychology
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Alexander Crichton of Brunstane, (died before December 1558), was a Scottish Protestant laird who advocated the murder of Cardinal David Beaton and supported the plan for the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and Prince Edward of England. In contemporary letters and documents Alexander is known by variant spellings of "Brunstane," his territorial designation. The original House of Brunstane was near Penicuik, and another Crichton estate at Gilberstoun near Portobello, Edinburgh later became known as Brunstane.John Geddie, The Fringes of Edinburgh (1926), p. 152. ==Career== ===Affair of the Cardinal's letters=== Alexander Crichton went to France carrying royal letters in 1539 and as a servant of Cardinal Beaton.Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol.7 (Edinburgh, 1907), p. 275. On his return in February 1540 his ship was forced by a storm to anchor in an English harbour. Subsequently, the English ambassador in Scotland Ralph Sadler tried to embarrass and discredit Cardinal Beaton in front of James V of Scotland with compromising letters captured from Brunstane's bag. James V however argued in favour of the Cardinal that he had a separate spiritual authority in Scotland apart from the King's own temporal powers. Later, when the Cardinal was present, James and Ralph compared the captured letters with Beaton's copies, and found a discrepancy. James V thanked Sadler and his uncle Henry VIII but would not find fault in the Cardinal's actions.Arthur Clifford, Sadler State Papers, vol.1 (Edinburgh, 1809), pp. 25-28, 42-44. ===Messages to France=== Alexander Crichton remained in the Cardinal's favour and sailed with him to France in 1540. He returned before his master in 1541 to meet James V. The King, Crichton, and the secretary, Thomas Erskine of Haltoun, played tennis at St Andrews on 3 April 1541.Athol Murray, 'Pursemaster's Accounts', in 10th Miscellany of Scottish History Society (SHS, Edinburgh, 1965), pp. 35 footnote, 41. In November 1542 he sailed to France from Dumbarton on the business of rents owed to the Cardinal and Mary of Guise. He returned with money for James V from Francis I of France and was later accused of keeping some of it. An English spy said of Alexander's return in December 1542 that he had brought "little comfort."Robet Kerr Hannay, Rentale Sanctee Andree (SHS, Edinburgh, 1913), pp. xxxix-xl, 131: Letters & Papers, Henry VIII, vol. 17, nos. 1100 (2), 1193. On 19 November 1542 he and his son John were rewarded for Alexander's services and expenses in France with a new charter for part of their Gilberstoun estate.Register of the Great Seal, 1513-1546 (Edinburgh, 1883), no. 2839. ==War of the Rough Wooing== ===Assured Scot=== After the death of James V in December 1542, Scotland was ruled by a Governor, Regent Arran. By now Alexander Crichton of Brunstane was receiving an English pension as a supporter of English political and Protestant religious policy in Scotland. In July 1543 Cardinal Beaton and his allies who opposed Regent Arran and pro-English initiatives camped with up to 6,000 armed men at Linlithgow, where Mary, Queen of Scots was kept in the Linlithgow Palace. Alexander Crichton told Ralph Sadler that the principal cause of this rebellion was to break the peace with England, the recently signed Treaty of Greenwich. This peace agreement provided that Mary, Queen of Scots would marry the English Prince Edward when she was of age. In his report to England, Sadler contrasted Crichton's and George Douglas's account of the situation with the statement of the Earl of Glencairn, that the rebel party were happy with the marriage plan and only concerned with the detail of when Mary would be sent to England.Joseph Bain, Hamilton Papers, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1890), pp. 590-1. The Governor and the Cardinal were reconciled. Crichton continued to correspond with Ralph Sadler. In November 1543, when Sadler had been forced to move from Edinburgh to Tantallon Castle and the English marriage plan was losing support in Scotland, Brunstane wrote that he was continuing to recruit supporters for English policy, and mentions John Charteris and John Sandilands of Calder. He persuaded Sandilands's neighbours to refuse offers of French payments.Letters & Papers, Henry VIII, vol. 18 part 2 (London, 1902), nos. 425, 427, 428, 443, 434. ===Plots against the Cardinal=== At the opening of the war of the Rough Wooing in March 1544, Brunstane met the English Berwick Pursuivant, Henry Ray secretly in Edinburgh and gave him letters he had written for Henry VIII.Letters and Papers Henry VIII, vol.19, no. 228. In April 1544, he proposed the murder of Cardinal Beaton, while Lord Hertford was planning the invasion that resulted in the burning of Edinburgh in May. The offer was not taken up, but Brunstane was given a cipher code to use in his English letters. Brunstane employed a Scot called Wishart to take his plan for the Cardinal to Lord Hertford on 17 April 1544, who noted for Henry VIII its two objectives; > One is, that the Larde of Grange, late Tresourer of Scotlande, the Master of > Rothes, th'earl of Rothers eldest son, and John Charters, wolde attempte > eyther to apprehende or slee the Cardynall at some tyme when he shall passe > thorough the Fyf lande, ..., > The other is, that in case Your Majestie would grant unto them a convenyent > enterteynnment for to kepe 1,000 or 1,500 men in wages for a moneth or two, > ..., they will take uppon them, at such tyme as Your Majesties armye shalbe > in Scotland, to destroye the abbey and town of Arbroath ..., and > t'apprehende all those whiche they say be the principall impugnators of > amyte bitwen Englande and Scotlande" > > One is, that the laird of Grange, lately Treasurer of Scotland, the Master > of Rothes, the earl of Rothes's eldest son, and John Charteris, would > attempt either to apprehend or slay the Cardinal at some time when he shall > through Fife land. > The other is, that in case Your Majesty would grant them a convenient > entertainment (finance) for 1,000 or 1,500 men in wages, they will undertake > at such time as Your Majesties army shall be in Scotland, to destroy the > Abbey and town of Arbroath, and apprehend all those which they say be the > principal opponents of the amity between England and ScotlandState Papers > Henry VIII, vol.5 part 2 continued (London, 1836), p. 377, Hertford to Henry > VIII. The historian Charles Rogers discussed the identity of Brunstane's messenger "Wishart." Rogers argued that the priest and master of arts and Protestant preacher George Wishart would not simply be called "Wishart" in this correspondence, and suggested the messenger was a young man, John, eldest son of John Wishart of Carnbeg.Rogers, Charles (1876), pp. 311-4 According to the report of Eustace Chapuys, Brunstane tried to speak to Lord Hertford at Leith on 5 May 1544 during his invasion of Edinburgh. One of Hertford's guards shot him in the leg with an arrow. He returned next day with papers of safe- conduct, saying he had offers from Scottish lords, but Hertford, who had orders not to negotiate with any Scot, would not see him.Calendar State Papers Spain, vol.7 (London, 1899), no. 95, (Chapuys's reference shows that Crichton was already known to the Empire.) Hertford wrote that Crichton was in the field with Arran's forces and retreated with them to Linlithgow. Before the 15 May, Crichton had got a message Hertford mentioning that he planned to come to London as he could no longer abide in Scotland.Letters & Papers Henry VIII, vol. 19, (London, 1903), nos. 472, 510. He went to London in June 1544, carrying a letter to Henry VIII from George Douglas of Pittendreich.Fraser, William, ed., Douglas Book, vol.4, (Edinburgh, 1885) p. 365. Brunstane went back to London on Arran's business in November 1544 to discuss compensation for captured shipping.Rogers, Charles (1876), p.285, quoting reference subsequently printed in Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. 8 (Edinburgh, 1908), p. 234. Brunstane repeated his offer to capture or kill the Cardinal in July 1545. Henry VIII would not directly sponsor the murder but Ralph Sadler wrote to Brunstane with the encouragement that it would be "an acceptable service to God to take him away." Sadler promised Henry VIII would reward the killers. He also suggested that George Douglas of Pittendreich and the Earl of Cassilis should become involved in Brunstane's plot, although nothing was done at this time.Letters & Papers, Henry VIII, vol.20 part 1, (London, 1905), nos. 1177, 1178: State Papers Henry VIII, vol.5 (London, 1836), p.440 footnote (mentions Brunstane's cipher) ===International angles=== The Governor of the Netherlands, Mary of Hungary believed that France insincerely encouraged the English marriage plan in order to gain an advantage in negotiations with England about Boulogne which had been captured on 13 September 1544.CSP Spain, vol.9 (1912), p.41. There was a third scheme. Brunstane wrote to Sadler on 20 October 1545 requesting an urgent meeting at Berwick upon Tweed. George Douglas of Pittendreich had told him that the Lords of the Parliament of Scotland had signed an agreement for Mary, Queen of Scots to marry James Hamilton, the son of the Governor.Letters & Papers, Henry VIII, vol.20 part 2, (1907), no.622. James Hamilton, the "Master of Hamilton," had been kept by the Cardinal at St Andrews Castle since October 1544.Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland, vol.8, p.319 Alexander had heard that the Cardinal was trying to have the queen brought to St Andrews, but he was sceptical that the Cardinal really wanted the Hamilton marriage to proceed, and thought that Mary of Guise was pretending to be angry about the plan.State Papers Henry VIII, vol.5 (London, 1836), p. 549, 6 Oct. 1545. Sadler returned to London and the revelation of his wife's bigamy, and there is no record of a meeting with Brunstane at Berwick. The diplomat Johannes Sturm wrote to the English secretary of state, William Paget on 4 December with news of discussions of the new marriage plan in France. Sturmius realised that the Hamilton marriage would disrupt the Anglo-French peace treaty negotiations and advised Paget they should hinder it.Letters & Papers, Henry VIII, vol. 20 part 2 (London, 1907), no. 697, 927. ===Wishart's arrest=== In 1546 the preacher George Wishart stayed at the House of Brunstane. The Earl of Bothwell arrested Wishart at the house of Brunstane's friend, John Cockburn of Ormiston on 16 January 1546. Later that night Arran's men came for Ormiston, Brunstane and young Sandilands of Calder. Alexander escaped, running in the frost through Ormiston wood and on to Tantallon Castle.David Laing, Works of John Knox, vol.1 (Edinburgh, 1846), pp. 140-2. George Wishart was taken to St Andrews and executed. On 16 May 1546 a summons of treason was issued on Alexander.Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. 8 (Edinburgh, 1908), p. 458. The Cardinal was murdered at St Andrews Castle by a group of Protestant lairds from Fife which included the men Alexander had put forward. These lairds, who became known as the Castilians, garrisoned the castle and held the Governor's son, James Hamilton hostage. ===The Scottish ratification of the Treaty of Ardres=== The long-awaited Anglo-French Treaty of Ardres (or Campe) was concluded on 7 June 1546, and required a ratification from Scotland to be finalised.Marcus Merriman, The Rough Wooings (Tuckwell, East Linton, 2000), pp. 195-201. Although the Scottish Parliament had continued to summon Alexander Crichton for treason, the action was abandoned for unspecified reasons on 4 August.see Records of Parliaments of Scotland to 1707, website by St Andrews University: Thomson, Thomas, ed., Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol.2 (Edinburgh, 1814), p. 469. The Scottish Parliament approved the ratification of the Treaty of Ardres on 14 August 1546. As the factional rivalry between the Governor and Mary of Guise continued, there was controversy over who should carry Scotland's ratification to London. Adam Otterburn wrote to Mary of Guise with news that Lord Ruthven, the secretary David Paniter, and Arran's half-brother, the Abbot of Paisley accompanied by Alexander Crichton of Brunstane had set out, but they were recalled after a change of plan.Thomson, Thomas, ed., Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol.2 (Edinburgh, 1814), pp. 473-4: Cameron, Annie I., ed., Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine (SHS, Edinburgh, 1927), pp. 169-173. The Spanish Empire pressed for the ratification, as Scottish captains were able to harass Flemish shipping without redress. Finally, Henry's Welsh diplomat Edward Carne was able to show the Scottish ratification to Mary of Hungary's administrator in Brussels, the President Lodewijk van Schore on 10 September. Schore pointed out its shortcomings and noted that Arran laid siege to St Andrews Castle. Mary of Hungary understood that the Empire remained at war with Scotland despite the treaty. She believed Arran's government delayed the resolution of peace with the empire because the situation prevented Henry sending military aid to the Protestants in St Andrews Castle.Letters and Papers, Henry VIII, vol. 21 part 2 (London, 1910), no. 75, 92. ===Brunstane declares for England=== The English Privy Council authorised payments to Brunstane in 1546, one in April for three months wages for a band of 100 horsemen, and in October granted his servant Cockburn a passport to carry satin cloth over the border for his furniture. The English border warden William Eure had already given him money.Dasent, J. R., Acts of Privy Council of England, 1542-1547, London (1890), 395, 487, 546 After the battle of Pinkie on 10 September 1547, Brunstane travelled with the English Norroy Herald, Gilbert Dethick, carrying messages between the Privy Council of Scotland and Mary of Guise at Stirling Castle and Lord Hertford.An English Garner: Tudor Tracts (London, 1903), pp.139, 142, re-printing Patten, W., The Late Expedition in Scotland (London, 1548) The English commander Grey of Wilton occupied Haddington, and garrisoned nearby lairds's houses in East Lothian. Alexander and John Cockburn held the Houses of Ormiston, Saltoun, and Brunstane for England. Alexander and Ormiston waited for their opportunity to capture Edinburgh Castle and deliver to the English the Governor of Scotland Regent Arran and his half-brother John Hamilton, who had displaced Alexander's kinsman Robert Crichton as Bishop of Dunkeld. They also wanted Grey of Wilton to capture and garrison the Earl of Bothwell's house at Hailes Castle.CSP Scotland, vol.1 (1898), p.57, 59. They wrote jointly to John Luttrell, the English commander of Broughty Castle on 17 January 1548 asking him to allow fishermen from Crail to supply them.Annie I. Cameron, Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine (SHS, Edinburgh, 1927), pp. 211-213. ==="Yon new blockhouse"=== Regent Arran brought four cannon from Edinburgh Castle at the end of February and captured the houses of the three Lothian lairds. The lairds of Brunstane and Ormiston were declared traitors and the Scottish Privy Council ordered the demolition of Brunstane, Gilberstoun, and Ormiston.HMC 11th Report, part VI, Manuscripts of the Duke of Hamilton (London 1887), p. 39: Merriman, Marcus, The Rough Wooings (Tuckwell, East Lothian, 2000), pp. 154, 209, 305-6. In March 1548, slaters were employed to take the roof off Brunstane House, and the roof timbers were dismantled and taken to Edinburgh. The woods were harvested and the workmen were protected by 10 gunners armed with culverins. The timber and stone from the house was used in the construction of the new Spur fortification at Edinburgh Castle designed by Migliorino Ubaldini, which Ormiston's brother, Ninian Cockburn, called "yon neu blok hous." Goods were also seized from Alexander's house at Penicuik.Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911), pp. xxviii, 161-2, 163, 166, 167, 172-3: CSP Scotland, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898), p. 93 no. 220. On 6 April, Grey of Wilton reported that Alexander's house had not been burnt, but; > "Marry! the topp is pulled downe, so much of the stone as was lyked, which > laye in redyness to bylde, caryed to Edynborough, his yong trees cut up, and > all worse handled than if it had been with fyer."CSP Scotland, vol.1 > (Edinburgh, 1898), p. 108 no. 220. Alexander stayed at Nunraw, he, Ormiston and their ally, Hugh Douglas of Longniddry, remained in Lothian with a force of 150 English horsemen. Grey of Wilton told Brunstane and Ormiston that he hoped to capture George Douglas, and they kept his secret.CSP Scotland, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898), p.93 no. 190, p.111 no. 227, p. 118 no. 240, p.119 no. 241. Following Grey of Wilton's recommendation, Edward VI gave the two lairds compensation for their losses caused by military action and supplying Haddington which was held by the English.Dasent, J. R., ed., Acts of the Privy Council of England, 1547-1552, vol. 2 (London, 1890), pp. 178-9: CSP Scotland, vol.1 (edinburgh, 1898), p. 118 no. 140. ==Heir restored== Alexander was forfeited as a traitor by the Parliament of Scotland on 14 December 1548, for his crimes in January of assisting Grey of Wilton, keeping the House of Saltoun, and persuading lieges of Scotland to form leagues against Mary, Queen of Scots. After his death, the date of which has not been established,Rogers, Charles (1876), 285 on 5 December 1558, the forfeiture was reversed in favour of his heir, John Crichton, on the grounds that the procedure was flawed because Alexander was out of the country at the time. The sentence against John Cockburn of Ormiston was withdrawn in the same terms on the same day.National Archives of Scotland, PA2/10, f.38r-41v., digitised by Records of the Parliaments of Scotland: St Andrews University John Crichton was an active supporter of the Lords of the Congregation during the Scottish Reformation. Like his father before him, he was called the "Laird of Brymston" (Brunstane) in English letters. On 23 January 1560 he rode into Scotland to Glasgow at night bringing letters from the English court to the Protestants and was sent to Fife to summon the lords to come for the negotiation of the treaty of Berwick.Sadler State Papers, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1809), p. 693, 699-700. John Crichton rebuilt Brunstane Castle at Penicuik in 1568 and the date was carved over the entrance.McGibbon & Ross, Castellated & Domestic Architecture, vol. 4 (Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 170-3. ==References== ==Further reading== * Charles Rogers, 'A Memoir of George Wishart', in Transactions of Scottish Historical Society, vol. 4 (Edinburgh, 1876), pp. 260–283. Category:16th-century Scottish people Category:Scottish people of the Rough Wooing Category:Scottish Protestants Category:Lairds Category:People from East Lothian
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Bingham is a civil parish in the Rushcliffe district of Nottinghamshire, England. The parish contains 26 listed buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England. Of these, one is listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade. The parish contains the market town of Bingham, and the most important building is a church, which is listed together with associated structures, including headstones in the churchyard. The other listed buildings include houses and associated structures, shop and offices, a public house, a former school and teacher's house, a market cross, and two telephone kiosks. __NOTOC__ ==Key== Grade Criteria I Buildings of exceptional interest, sometimes considered to be internationally important II Buildings of national importance and special interest ==Buildings== Name and location Photograph Date Notes Grade Church of St. Mary and All Saints centre The church has been altered and extended through the centuries, it was restored in 1845 by G.G. Scott, there were alterations in 1873, and another restoration in 1912 by W. D. Caröe. The church is built in stone with slate roofs, and consists of a nave with a clerestory, a north aisle, a south porch, north and south transepts, a chancel, a baptistry, and a west steeple. The steeple has a tower with two stages, a moulded plinth, buttresses, a string course, two-light bell openings and clock faces in the upper stage, over which is a corbel table with ball flower and masks, four gargoyles, and a parapet with two figures and two pinnacles. This is surmounted by a recessed octagonal spire, with three tiers of lucarnes, a weathercock and a finial. 19 and 21 Long Acre A cottage and farmhouse, later a shop, in colourwashed stone and brick on a partial plinth, with cogged and dentilled eaves, and roofs of tile and pantile with a coped gable and kneelers overlooking the street. There are five bays, the front bay with a single storey and the others with two. On the east front is a lean-to and a porch. The gable end contains a shop front, and most of the other windows are casements. 61 and 63 Long Acre A farmhouse, later altered forming two houses. It has a timber framed core, with walls in red brick, applied decorative timber framing and rendering, and a roof of tile and pantile. There is a single storey and attics, and a front of five bays. On the front are two plank doors with carved spandrels, casement windows, and three gabled dormers. Inside, there is exposed timber framing and inglenook fireplaces. Three headstones south of the choir vestry 1699 The headstones are grouped in the churchyard of the Church of St. Mary and All Saints 15 metres south of the choir vestry. They commemorate members of the Hean family, and are in slate. The left stone, to Edward, is dated 1769, and has a square head. The other stones have chamfered heads and incised scrolls, the middle one to Mary, dated 1699, and the right one to Thomas, dated 1700. Pair of headstone south of the chancel centre 1704 The headstones are in the churchyard of the Church of St. Mary and All Saints 12 metres south of the chancel. They commemorate members of the Stevenson family, and are in slate. Both stones have square heads and are inscribed with depictions of angels. The left stone is to William, dated 1704, and has an hourglass and crossbones, and the right stone is to Mary, dated 1721, and has a verse inscription. The Manor House centre The house is in brick on a plinth, with a partial floor band, corner and central pilasters, an eaves band, a parapet, and a tile roof. There are two storeys and attics, a double depth and L-shaped plan, with a front of three bays. In the centre of the middle bay of the upper floor is a bowed panel on corbels with pilasters, and a semicircular hood on dentilled terracotta brackets. The windows are sashes, with keystones. The parapet contains three rendered panels with moulded frames. To the left is a two- storey four-bay extension containing a doorway, and a mix of sash windows and casements, some with segmental heads. Three headstones southwest of the tower 1730 The headstones are grouped in the churchyard of the Church of St. Mary and All Saints 10 metres southwest of the tower. They commemorate members of the Horspool family, and are in slate. The left stone, dated 1731, is to Richard and is inscribed, and the central stone, dated 1730, is to Elizabeth and is plain. The right stone, dated 1765, is to another Elizabeth, it has a stepped, shouldered round head, and is inscribed with a scroll and a verse. Lychgate, fence and wall, Church of St. Mary and All Saints centre The churchyard is enclosed by a dwarf stone wall with iron railings. At the eastern gateway are two stone gate piers with pyramidal caps and iron finials, a scrolled overthrow and lamp brackets, and iron gates. The western gateway has a lychgate dating from 1881, with four timber posts, and a gabled tile roof with inscribed bargeboards and elaborate decorative ironwork. Pigeoncote, stables and cowshed opposite Porchester Farmhouse The farm buildings are in brick and have pantile roofs with coped gables and kneelers. They are in one two storeys, and are arranged on three sides of a farmyard. The pigeoncote contains eleven flight perches, blocked pigeonholes, and vents. 7 Church Street, outbuilding, walls and pump centre The house is in red brick, with cogged and dentilled eaves and a pantile roof. There are three storeys, and a T-shaped plan, with a front of three bays and a rear wing. In the centre is a round-headed doorway with a semicircular fanlight, and the windows are sashes with rubbed brick heads. At the rear is a lean-to in the angle, single-storey outbuildings with three bays, and an attached lead pump with a timber case, a scrolled iron handle, and a stone trough. To the west is a brick wall with corbelled brick coping, and to the north is a mud wall with gabled pantiled coping; both walls are about long. 19 Market Place, shop and wall A house and adjoining shop in whitewashed brick, with dentilled eaves, and a tile roof with coped gables and kneelers. The house has three storeys and two bays. The central doorway has a shop window to the right, and the other windows are casements, those in the lower two floors with segmental heads. To the right is a shop with a single storey and a single bay. On the front is a doorway with a fanlight, a shop front to the right with a dentilled hood on shaped brackets, and a parapet. To the rear is a brick wall with gabled copings and two doorways. 7 and 9 Market Street centre A shop and workshop in brick, partly rendered, with cogged and dentilled eaves, and pantile roofs with a coped gable. The building consists of a three-storey, single gabled bay, and a two-storey four-bay range to the right, and it is four bays deep. In the left bay is a shop front and a fascia on brackets, above which are sash windows. In the range to the right are casement windows and doorways with segmental heads, and above them are sash windows. Beauvale House and outbuilding The house was later altered, with the front dating from about 1840. It is in brick and stone on a rendered plinth, with chamfered eaves, and a roof of Welsh and artificial slate with pedimented gables. There are two storeys with attics, and an L-shaped plan, with a front of three bays, the right bay gabled. On the front is an iron porch with a tented roof, and a doorway with a segmental head, to its right is a casement window, and these are flanked by square bay windows. At the rear is a single-storey six-bay outbuilding. The Wheatsheaf Inn centre The public house is in brick on a stone plinth, and has a floor band, dentilled eaves, and a slate roof. There are three storeys and three bays. In the centre is a doorway with a hood, the windows on the front are sashes, some horizontally-sliding, and on the west front are casement windows, some with segmental and some with elliptical heads. At the rear is a stable range with a pantile roof, one and two storeys, and nine bays. 7 Union Street Two houses converted into a butcher's shop and abattoir in the 19th century, and later into a café, it is in painted brick with stone dressings and pantile roofs. The building consists of a block with three storeys and two bays, a two-storey two-bay wing to the right, and a single-storey rear range. On the front, to the left is a round-arched doorway, to its right are two shop windows, and in the wing is a cart entrance. The windows are sashes, those in the ground floor with wedge lintels and double keystones. At the rear is a yard, a doorway with a gabled porch, and a boxed pump. Headstone south of the choir vestry 1801 The headstone is in the churchyard of the Church of St. Mary and All Saints 1.5 metres south of the choir vestry. It is in slate, and commemorates three children of Samuel and Mary White. The headstone has a classical border inscribed with urns, and it contains a half-round cartouche depicting Bingham on the Day of Resurrection, and a verse couplet. Water pump, 19 and 21 Long Acre The water pump at the rear of the house is in a rectangular wooden case. It is in lead, and has an iron pump handle and an adjoining stone trough. 10 Market Street and 1 Union Street centre A house, later an office, on a corner site, in whitewashed stuccoed brick, on a plinth, the ground floor rusticated, with quoins, moulded eaves, and a slate roof. There are three storeys, three bays on Union Street and one on Market Street. In the centre is a doorway with pilasters and a hood on shaped brackets, flanked by ogee-headed bootscrapers. On the left return is a 20th-century shop window and a doorway, and the windows are sashes, those in the lower two floors with channelled wedge lintels and keystones. Haden House A pair of houses and a service wing in whitewashed stuccoed brick on a plinth, with moulded eaves, parapets and hipped slate roofs. The left house has three storeys and three bays, and contains a Doric portico, and the right house has two storeys and three bays, and has a portico dating from 1984. The windows are sashes, in the left house with moulded architraves. Between the two houses is a two-storey single-bay link containing tripartite sash windows, and to the right is a single-storey single-bay wing with a sash window. 16 Long Acre and wall 1831 The house is in whitewashed stuccoed brick on a plinth, with deep eaves, a hipped slate roof and a flat asphalt roof. There are three storeys and four bays, and a two-storey two-bay service wing to the left. On the front is a porch tower, elsewhere are canted bay windows, and most of the other windows are sashes. The boundary wall is in brick with ramped gabled coping, it extends for about , and contains a pair of square gate piers with flat caps, between which is an iron overthrow and an elaborate gate. Summerhouse, 16 Long Acre 1831 The summerhouse is in whitewashed rendered brick on a plinth, with dentilled eaves, and it has slate roofs with moulded coped gables and kneelers. The building is in Gothick style and has a square plan. On the north front is a doorway with a pointed arch and a moulded architrave, over which are quatrefoil panels and a dated shield. On the gable are three urns, and the windows are casements. Brompton House, walls and summerhouse 1836 The house is in red brick, with roofs of pantile and slate, and two storeys. On the front are two arched recesses containing doorways with fanlights, and sash windows. At the rear is a wing containing a canted bay window, and the other windows are a mix of sashes and casements. The garden is surrounded by a brick coped wall about high, and in the northeast corner is a square summerhouse with a round-arched doorway. Church House centre 1845 A school and teacher's house, probably designed by Scott and Moffatt, it is in Gothic Revival style, and has since been used for other purposes. The building is in brick with diapering, on a chamfered plinth, with chamfered eaves, and tile roofs with coped gables, kneelers, and terracotta finials and crosses. It has one and two storeys, and an irregular L-shaped plan, with a front of four bays. On the front is a projecting gabled wing with a porch in each angle. 65 and 67 Long Acre A house on a corner site with an attached outbuilding converted for residential use, it is in colourwashed brick on a brick plinth, with a floor band, rebated eaves, and a hipped and gabled roof. There are two storeys, the house has three bays on the front, a rounded corner, and a single bay on the right return, and the outbuilding is lower with two bays. The central doorway in the house has pilasters, a rectangular fanlight, a hood on curved brackets, and a shoe scraper to the left, and the windows are sashes. The outbuilding contains a plain doorway, a shop window, and casement windows. Market Cross centre 1861 The market cross is in sandstone, and has an octagonal plan with a roof of Westmorland slate. It consists of an eight-bay arcade with moulded pointed arches, on circular columns with moulded capitals and bases. The spandrels contain quatrefoils with monograms, there is ball flower decoration, and the eaves are moulded, and have leaf carving and text. On the top is an octagonal lantern with quatrefoil windows, four gabled and crested lucarnes, and a lead roof with an elaborate finial cross. Two telephone kiosks 1935 The two K6 type telephone kiosk in Market Place were designed by Giles Gilbert Scott. Constructed in cast iron with a square plan and a dome, they have three unperforated crowns in the top panels. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Lists of listed buildings in Nottinghamshire L
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The Holy Thief is a medieval mystery novel by Ellis Peters set in 1144–1145. It is the 19th and penultimate volume of the Cadfael Chronicles, first published in 1992. It was adapted for television in 1998 by Carlton Media for ITV. Heavy rains flood the river which in turn floods the Abbey, threatening the precious reliquary of Saint Winifred. When the waters recede, the saint is gone, beginning a long search with tangled motives, including a murder that challenges the monks. This novel was well-received when it was published. Some commented on the finely wrought prose, and the author's ability to bring the reader to another time, making that time vividly alive. Another says the plot is "Less predictable and far more complex" than the prior novels in this series. ==Introduction to plot== On 16 September 1144, Geoffrey de Mandeville's reign of terror in the Fens comes to an end when Geoffrey succumbs to an infection, brought on by a minor graze from an arrow. King Stephen had worked for a year to confine the marauding within a ring of forts and castles. In the heat of August, the one-time Earl of Essex went out without his chain mail and helmet at Burwell, northeast of Cambridge, where an archer's arrow reached its target. Besides being stripped of his lands by King Stephen, he and his eldest son were excommunicate for his seizure of Ramsey Abbey, which he used as his headquarters. There was no place for him to be buried, so rejected was he from England and his religion. Empress Maud gave the title back to the younger namesake son, but she could not grant the lands – a fairly empty gesture. The rest of England was relieved as they learned by the passing of small bands of brigands looking for places to lay low, that they could again venture out without fear of seizure or murder by his organised band of brigands and marauders. As de Mandeville is dying, his allies who hope to mend fences wrote grants returning church property to its owners, including Ramsey Abbey. Before the end of 1144, Abbot Walter gets word he again has an Abbey to lead in the Fens. He sends word to collect his prior and sub-prior, and ask all the monks to return, to rebuild their home after more than a year away. The devastation is so extensive, the brothers not only begin work themselves, but also reach out to their fellows in other Benedictine monasteries in England for aid. ==Plot summary== Two visitors from the now reviving Ramsey Abbey arrive in February 1145. Sub-prior Herluin and young Brother Tutilo request alms and aid in restoring their abbey. The Abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and the people of Shrewsbury respond generously. Herluin seeks Sulien Blount at Longner Manor. Sulien will not rejoin as a monk. The family gives coppice wood for rebuilding. Lady Donata, Sulien's ailing mother, has the pleasure of hearing beautiful music from young Brother Tutilo. She donates her personal jewellery for Ramsey Abbey. Also staying at the Abbey is a successful Provençal troubadour, Rémy of Pertuis, his groom and a singer. The Sheriff cries the warning that the River Severn is rising rapidly. A chaotic scene develops as the flood continues to rise after dark, as items of value are moved without benefit of lamps or candles within the Abbey buildings by monks and guests, and the cart for Ramsey Abbey is loading to leave. Herluin and Tutilo ride out to Worcester. When the flood subsides, in place of Saint Winifred's reliquary they find a wrapped piece of timber, the same size and heft, showing this to be a planned theft. The Sheriff and Prior Robert are dispatched to meet Herluin for what he knows. James of Betton returns to the Abbey more than a week after the cart set out, with the news that cart did not make it all the way to Ramsey Abbey – the same news Nicol delivers to Herluin in Worcester. Nicol leads them to the place of the ambush. The reeve finds the reliquary in Ullesthorpe, where the brigands dumped it, and carries it to safety at Huncote, home of the Earl of Leicester. The Sheriff, the Prior and the sub-prior explain the story of the reliquary to the Earl. Herluin and Prior Robert explain this loss and rediscovery as the saint's own actions. Earl Robert sees the competition between them for it, and lightheartedly makes his claim, as it was found safe on his land. Earl Robert joins them in carrying it the long journey home in state. Cadfael finds Aldhelm, who moved the reliquary at the request of a monk. Brother Jerome eavesdrops on Hugh and Cadfael speaking about this visit, expecting Aldhelm to confirm Tutilo as the one who put the reliquary on the wagon. Bénezet, the groom, overhears Jerome talking with Prior Robert, and shares the word with Daalny, the singer, who tells Tutilo. Jerome is not seen that evening. Aldhelm does not appear at the agreed time. After Lauds, Tutilo returns, deeply shaken, after tripping over a dead man in the dark on his return to the Abbey from another visit to Longner Manor. At dawn, Cadfael and Hugh confirm the dead man is Aldhelm. He was stunned by a hit on the head with a piece of fallen wood; next his head was smashed by a large stone, which was carefully replaced. Hugh Beringar, Radulfus, Prior Robert, Cadfael, Sub-prior Herluin, and Earl Robert gather. Tutilo confesses that he did take the saint, as she encouraged him to help Ramsey Abbey in this way. He had no part in this murder. Tutilo is put in a penitential cell of the Abbey. There remain three claims to possession of the saint in her reliquary. The earl wants an unbiased judge. Radulfus proposes a method. Sulien Blount arrives after Compline, requesting Tutilo for his mother who will not last the night. Radulfus agrees, sending Tutilo under guard. He sings for her as she quietly dies. He returns before dawn on a day in early March, with the gift of a psaltery and words of advice on the needs of a troubadour. The four conduct the sortes Biblicae, placing the book of the gospels on Saint Winifred's reliquary in front of the monks. Each verse is accepted as the saint telling them where the reliquary of Saint Winifred belongs. Radulfus :The last shall be first, and the first last. Matthew Ch 20 verse 16 Earl Robert :Ye shall seek me, and shall not find me; and where I am, thither ye cannot come. John Ch 7 verse 54 Father Herluin :I tell you, I know you not, whence you came. Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity… Luke Ch 13 verse 27 Prior Robert :Ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen you. John Ch 15 verse 16 The breeze in the chapel turns the pages :And the brother shall deliver up the brother to death. Matthew Ch 10 verse 21 They agree that the saint stays on her altar at Shrewsbury Abbey. Cadfael dares not explain his verse to Earl Robert. The sober last verse causes them to turn to the monks for their aid. Jerome unexpectedly confesses to the murder. He describes his actions up to striking Aldhelm on the head with a piece of wood in the dark, then leaving upon discovering it was not Tutilo as he anticipated. Jerome wails out his pain in the second penitentiary cell. Daalny lets Tutilo out of his cell. Herluin is enraged; the Earl is not bothered. Daalny says that someone here is a thief. Bénezet realises she means him; he flees on someone else's horse. They find two surprises in his saddle bags. One is the bag of silver coins and Lady Donata's gold jewellery meant for Ramsey Abbey. It never left Shrewsbury Abbey. The other is a laundered shirt, with blood stains on it. Bénezet killed Aldhelm, waited for him, fearing that Aldhelm might have seen him take the alms out of the coffer the night of the flood. Hugh's men hold Bénezet for murder. The Earl asks for Daalny to be fetched from Saint Winifred's chapel. She is gone. The Earl seems to expect this. Rémy mourns her loss, but is very pleased to be part of the Earl's household. Hugh and Cadfael are relieved that the seals of the reliquary were never opened. Cadfael is pleased that Tutilo and Daalny have joined for a new free life for both, and impressed that Donata, finally free from her years of pain, was the one who read the lad aright. ==Characters== *Brother Cadfael: Herbalist monk at Abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul; 64 or 65 years old in this story. He is much attached to Saint Winifred and a shrewd observer of people and events. *Abbot Radulfus: Head of the Shrewsbury Abbey, strong and quick thinking man, based on the real abbot of that year. *Prior Robert Pennant: Of Norman heritage and aristocratic family; led the effort seven years before to bring Saint Winifred's bones in the fine silver chased reliquary to her altar at the Abbey chapel, and wrote a book of her life. Based on the real prior of the time. *Brother Anselm: Precentor and librarian of Shrewsbury Abbey, about 10 years younger than Cadfael. *Brother Rhun: Young monk healed by a true miracle of Saint Winifred, causing him to join the monastery and tend her altar. Recalled every detail of the wrapping and moving of her reliquary before the theft during the flood of the River Severn. 19 or 20 years old in this story. Introduced in The Pilgrim of Hate. *Brother Winfrid: Young monk in assistance to Cadfael in the gardens; noticed Brother Jerome eavesdropping while Hugh and Cadfael spoke in privacy. Introduced in The Hermit of Eyton Forest. *Brother Jerome: Clerk to Prior Robert, reliable source of news for the Prior, and very upset that their reliquary was stolen. He shows a new facet of himself in this novel, reaching new lows. *Father Boniface: Pastor of the church of Holy Cross in the Foregate, where Herluin appealed to the locals for alms for Ramsey Abbey. Introduced in The Heretic's Apprentice. *Cynric: Verger to Father Boniface and helper in the moving of goods to safety, loading the gifts to the Ramsey Abbey. Introduced in The Raven in the Foregate. *Sub-Prior Herluin: A monk and priest who is leading a group from the now-restoring Benedictine Abbey at Ramsey, freed from the attacks of the marauding band of the late Geoffrey de Mandeville, once Earl of Essex. He is a strong leader, an ambitious man, harsh with his subordinates, and easy to anger compared to Radulfus or Cadfael. Arrived with three lay servants and one novice. About 50 years old. *Brother Tutilo: Young novice in the party with Herluin. As a novice, he was named after an Irish-born monk, Saint Tutilo, who lived over 200 years earlier at the monastery of Saint Gall, for his excellent singing voice and skills with musical instruments. Third son of a poor man, he feels the monastery his only pathway in life; he is determined to do well, and a bit of a dreamer in his high hopes. He knows that one can have the voice of an angel without being one. About 20 years old. *Dowager Lady Donata Blount: Of Longner Manor, about 46 years old, widow, “withered in her prime” by a chronic, wasting, and painful disease; gave generously of her own gold jewellery to the restoration of the Ramsey Abbey; lover of music. She is very pleased by Tutilo's music and singing. She reads his young character well, calling him a troubadour. She is a strong woman though physically frail. Introduced in The Potter's Field. *Sulien Blount: Younger son of Lady Donata, settled home after a mistaken year in novitiate at Ramsey Abbey. He is training to take arms under the Sheriff after his mother dies; now working at the family manor headed by his older brother Eudo until he can make his own way, and marry. Introduced in The Potter's Field. *Eudo Blount: Lord of Longner Manor, elder brother of Sulien and eldest son of Lady Donata. He sent seasoned logs by cart to Shrewsbury Abbey to aid in reconstruction of Ramsey Abbey. Big, strong, fair man, married with a child. About 25 years old. Introduced in The Potter's Field. *Gregory: Carter from Longner Manor who loaded the logs from their own cart to an Abbey cart for the gift to Ramsey Abbey, on the day the river water rose in the Shrewsbury Abbey buildings. *Lambert: Younger carter from Longner Manor who assisted Gregory in the tasks at the Manor and at Shrewsbury Abbey on the day the water rose up in the Abbey. *Aldhelm: Worker from Preston who aided Gregory and Lambert with the timber, and aided the monks as directed, as they moved items of value up away from the encroaching water in the Abbey buildings. He normally tended the sheep at Upton. Murdered en route to the Abbey to point out which monk asked him to help move the reliquary. *Rémy of Pertuis: Troubadour from Provence (composer and singer of songs and poems) resting three days (at start of story) at the Abbey guest house due to an injured horse. Seeking work in Chester, but open to better opportunities. Man of 50 or so. *Bénezet: A groom and body servant to Rémy of Pertuis, tall, in his thirties, also of Provence. *Daalny: Bondwoman, born a slave in a manor near Gloucester to an Irish woman; sold to Rémy, who treats her well. She speaks English and some Welsh. Rémy includes her beautiful singing and playing of instruments in his performances for the nobility. Young at 20 but has no illusions due to her previous owners. She was named for a queen in early Irish myth. Likes Tutilo. *Hugh Beringar: Sheriff of Shropshire appointed by King Stephen, close friend to Cadfael, about 29 years old. He is aware of the secret of the contents of Saint Winifred's reliquary, a secret known only to the two of them in Shropshire, but to all of those in the saint's long time home of Gwytherin in Wales. He shares the same strong sense of justice with Cadfael. He is married to Aline, has a son Giles. Introduced in One Corpse Too Many. *Robert of Leicester: Earl of lands near Ullesthorpe where the reliquary was found. He is a bright, well- educated, cultured, and quick-witted leader who maintains peace on his own lands. His twin brother Waleran minds their lands in France and Normandy, while Robert does the same for their lands in England. Loyalties, strong with King Stephen, are strained as Geoffrey d'Anjou increases his holdings in Normandy in his son's name. Nicknamed Robert le bossu or Robert Bossu for a feature of his appearance (Robert the hunchback). Real historical person. *James of Betton: Master carpenter who offers his services to Ramsey Abbey; must walk back to Shrewsbury after they are overtaken by brigands wanting the cart and horses and after he speaks with the reeve of Ullesthorpe. He brings the news to the Abbey of the loss of the gifts to Ramsey Abbey. *Nicol: Most trusted servant of Sub-prior Herluin, of the party of five men on the cart full of alms and coppice wood that is seized by brigands. He carries the news to Herluin at Worcester, then leads party including Beringar, Prior Robert and sub-prior Herluin to the site of the calamity at Ullesthorpe. About 50 years old. ==Reviews== Kirkus Reviews remarks the elegant prose carrying the reader to another time: > In 1144, the Benedictine Abbey at Shrewsbury, home of herbalist-humanist- > sleuth Brother Cadfael (The Summer of the Danes, etc.), has extended its > hospitality to Brother Herluin and his novice attendant Brother Tutilo—both > soliciting help for the ravaged Abbey at Ramsey, many miles away, left in > shambles by the marauding forces of the Earl of Essex, now vanquished. Soon, > they've collected alms, timber, and some willing workmen. Handsome young > Tutilo has also used his beautiful voice to soothe the dying Lady Donata and > has attracted the interest of the slave girl singer who's traveling with > French troubadour Rémy and his servant Bénezet. As Tutilo's little band gets > ready for the trip back to Ramsey, heavy rains put the Church's treasures in > danger. All hands work to move them to higher ground. Only after the Ramsey > group has left is it discovered that the reliquary of St. Winifred has > disappeared. Its eventual reappearance and the confession of the thief pale > next to the dramatic and tragic events that follow. Through it all, to the > satisfying finale, Cadfael remains his benign, intuitive, appealing self. > The pace sometimes slows to a near standstill; the elegant prose is > sometimes excessive—but, for the patient, the reward is finely wrought > transport to another time. > Pub Date: March 1st, 1993 ,Page count: 256 pp, Review Posted Online: June > 24th, 2010. Publishers Weekly has many positive words for this complex and vividly alive novel: > Less predictable and far more complex than many of the 18 previous Brother > Cadfael chronicles, this 12th-century mystery pits the sacred against the > secular, and cleric against cleric. A sub-prior and his young novice appeal > to the abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul in Shrewsbury for aid in rebuilding > their own monastery at Ramsey, which had been defiled by outlaws. Craftsmen, > building materials and even jewellery are gladly given and are to be > transported to Ramsey. The promise of spring floods makes haste imperative, > and in the confusion another item is slipped aboard the cart: the casket > containing the remains of St. Winifred, Shrewsbury's revered patron saint. > The Shrewsbury monks grieve over its loss, and the faction at Ramsey sorely > covets it. When the one person who could identify the sacrilegious thief is > murdered, Sheriff Hugh Beringar is summoned and Cadfael's special skills are > put to the test. Cadfael—a herbalist, matchmaker, detective and medical > examiner—must now be a psychologist as well, soothing egos, calming nerves > and finding a killer. Twelfth-century Shropshire comes vividly alive when > peopled with Peters's aristocratic ladies, sturdy lawmen, eager squires and, > above all, devout—and devious—monks. School Library Journal reviews this for young adults and teens, finding it unusual and entertaining: > YA-- Monks from another abbey and a troubadour and his servants are visiting > the abbey in Shrewsbury when the bones of St. Winifred, its patron saint, > are stolen. Brother Cadfael must locate them before a long-held secret is > revealed about them that would be embarrassing for him. Then the murders > begin . . . . This medieval mystery series continues as Brother Cadfael > identifies and pursues each clue in this unusual and entertaining story. > Precise words accurately describe the period, and they can usually be > understood in context. It will be easy for teens to like the clerical sleuth > because of his delightful charm and keen wit. Although religious, he is not > sanctimonious. – Claudia Moore, W. T. Woodson High School, Fairfax, VA > Copyright 1993 Reed Business Information, Inc. ==Setting in history== This novel is set in several locations in England. The story is set in Shrewsbury, located in Shropshire, England; briefly in Worcester Cathedral; and at Huncote, a manor of Robert, Earl of Leicester, not far from Ullesthorpe. Some scenes were at Longner Manor, east and south from the Abbey, crossing the Severn at a ferry location, near modern Uffington and shown clearly on the map titled Shrewsbury and Environs in the printed book. These were real places in the twelfth century, and now. The troubador Rémy was from a city in the south of France populated then and now, Pertuis, an area where troubadours may have started. It occurs during the Anarchy, which began when King Stephen's claim to the throne was disputed by his cousin Empress Maud in 1138. With the help of her ally and half-brother Robert of Gloucester, the two sides fought since that year. After all this time, no resolution was in sight and England suffered much while the attention of the king was focussed on fighting to keep his crown. The story begins with the death of Geoffrey de Mandeville. ===The Anarchy and Geoffrey de Mandeville=== The start of Geoffrey de Mandeville's story was told, in this series of novels, in The Potter's Field, the 17th Chronicle of Brother Cadfael. After King Stephen accused him of treason, revoked his title as Earl of Essex and took away his lands, Geoffrey de Mandeville responded by taking over the Ramsey Abbey in the Fens in East Anglia. This became the headquarters for his rampaging band of marauders for over a year. King Stephen built a ring of castles as his bases to contain the marauding, but could never draw him into a direct battle. Instead, de Mandeville's life was ended by a chance arrow shot from one of those castles at Burwell, on a hot August day when the one-time earl mistakenly removed his helmet and upper chain mail. The wound from the arrow led to an infection, fatal to him a month later on 16 September 1144. He had been excommunicated for his taking of Ramsey Abbey, such that only the Pope in person could revoke it. He died unshriven, with no legal place to bury him in England. Some of the Knights Templar did put his remains to rest at a site where the Temple Church in London was later built (in 1185) and somewhat ironically near the center of law and lawyers in London. His accomplices in burning homes, burning or stealing crops, killing local residents, and pillaging the stolen property of the church, could not keep their hold on the Fens without his leadership. Those who joined up as pure bandits themselves scattered, hoping to find safe harbour and new victims elsewhere. One such band may have been the thieves of the horses and cart in the novel. The allies of Geoffrey de Mandeville who sought some reconciliation after his death moved quickly to record writs returning the stolen properties back to the church. Word of this change travelled slowly to the people of the area, and to Abbot Walter of Ramsey Abbey. By the end of 1144, he called back his prior, sub- prior and the monks, to begin a huge task of rebuilding their home, then reviving their estates for agriculture. Two months after Abbot Walter returned to his Abbey, he dispatched monks to request help from neighbouring Abbeys, as far as Shrewsbury, where the main plot of The Holy Thief begins. ===Earl Robert of Leicester=== Earl Robert was a real person in history, quite involved in King Stephen's fortunes. Robert and his brother Waleran, twin sons of Robert, Count of Meulan who held lands and title in England and in France, supported Stephen in battle early on, but at this story, are in a difficult position. Waleran, whose title came from the lands he inherited in France and Normandy, had to come to terms with Geoffrey of Anjou, husband of Empress Maud and father of her son Henry, later King Henry II of England. Geoffrey of Anjou had consolidated his holdings in Anjou and Normandy, becoming a major force there that Waleran was forced to recognise, as Stephen had lost his position in Normandy. Waleran did not overtly support the Empress on English soil, but was constrained from overt support of King Stephen. Robert, in England, was similarly constrained, though he had his own title and lands primarily in England. Robert, living in England, did not have his loyalty questioned, but his twin brother, living in Normandy, did, though there was no difference in their true attachments. Robert used this time to keep the peace on his own lands as much as he could, and gain lands from his neighbour, Earl Ranulf of Chester. When Robert of Gloucester died in 1149, Robert of Leicester joined the movement for the earls in England to make private peace treaties, as suggested in his conversation with Sheriff Hugh Beringar in the novel.Peters, Ellis The Holy Thief 1992 Chapter Ten Earl Robert is described as a man of education and culture. In the reign of King Henry II, Robert became the first chief justiciar of England who was also the King's chief minister. He held this position for fourteen years, earning him much respect for his administration of the law. This reputation seemed to be the basis for many conversations between the Earl and the clerics in this novel. ===The Abbeys=== Characters in this novel travelled extensively, mainly from Abbey to Abbey. First, Herluin and his party walk from Ramsey Abbey. Abbot Radfulfus of Shrewsbury Abbey gives them horses for their journey to the abbeys at Evesham, Pershore and Worcester. The Sheriff and Prior Robert ride out to Worcester to meet Herluin's party. The five men who took the cart load of alms meant for Ramsey Abbey reached Ullesthorpe. Two walked back to Shrewsbury; two walked on to Ramsey Abbey; and one walked to Worcester. The party at Worcester then proceeded on horseback to Ullesthorpe, whence they are directed to Huncote. One lay servant is left to walk on his own from Worcester to Shrewsbury, which he did, in time to join Herluin for the return to Ramsey Abbey. Earl Robert joins them, with a proper carriage for the reliquary, in the journey back to Shrewsbury. The Earl rides back to Huncote with his party, escorting Herluin and his lay servants that far. Herluin will make the rest of the way to Ramsey Abbey without that welcome escort. Using modern roads, the distance from Ramsey Abbey to Shrewsbury is 135 miles; a route through Ullesthorpe adds 10 miles to that distance. In The Potter's Field, it took Sulien Blount a week to complete this walk. From Shrewsbury to Ullesthorpe is about 80 miles, and from Shrewsbury to Worcester is 50 miles. From Ullesthorpe to Worcester is nearly 65 miles, walked by Nicol. Worcester to Huncote is about 70 miles. The journey back to Shrewsbury is nearly 90 miles, following a more northerly route. Thus does time pass from February into March for the events of the novel to transpire. ===Troubadours and Sortes Biblicae=== The Middle Ages saw the start of troubadours across Europe. These were learned men who composed poems and songs, and performed them on the musical instruments of the day for the nobility. Troubadours travelled with their talents, like Rémy of Pertuis in this novel, and as Lady Donata suggested that Tutilo should do. They would reside in the household of one nobleman for a period of time. The word troubadour has its origins in an old language of Provence and Languedoc, in the area where the langue d'Oc language was long ago used (Occitania or lo Pais d'Oc, the Oc Country). Songs of chivalry and romantic love were common, along with satire and some vulgar humour. The troubadours made use of their clerical education in the writing of songs. Some go so far in our modern era to claim the works of the troubadours were the origins of literature. thumb|Psaltery of the 14th century from the book: De Arythmetica, De Musica by M. Servinius Boetius. The instrument is typically held before the chest with the hands under the curves. The harp and the psaltery were two of the musical instruments of the day. The mandora, rebec, portative organ, lute or oud, flutes and panflutes were also used, and mentioned in the novel. Lady Donata's gift of a psaltery pleased and amazed Tutilo, and prepared him for the first steps of becoming a troubadour himself, per her advice. The sortes Biblicae described in the novel was a method of fortune-telling used for many ages, and in civilisations before medieval England. The users choose important writers, in this story, the authors of the four Gospels, as the source of phrases or sentences that might hint at the future, or the resolution of a problem. One selects a verse at random, then applies it to the present situation, as Abbot Radulfus suggests for resolving the true home for the reliquary. The book chosen was not a complete bible, as those were rarely copied before the printing press. Instead, important sections were copied. It is sometimes called Sortes Sanctorum or bibliomancy. The verses selected by the author move the story right along. The first one, selected by Radulfus, says that the next person of the four of them to choose a verse should be Earl Robert, the last to enter the story of the reliquary. His selection reveals the paradox of this reliquary; the Earl suspects a paradox but does not learn what it is from Brother Cadfael, the only one in the chapel who knows. The next, chosen by Herluin, tells him he has no business with the reliquary. Prior Robert's selection confirms it belongs in Shrewsbury. The last selection, selected by the breeze in the chapel, is marked by blackthorn blossoms that fell from Brother Cadfael's clothing as he looked at the Bible before the Mass. Prior Robert is pleased by the blossoms, recalling the hawthorn blossoms around the clothing of Brother Columbanus in Wales, just before the monks of Shrewsbury took their saint home seven years earlier. It is a troubling quote in a house of brothers with an unsolved murder, leading to the confession of part of what happened to the murdered man. It was an intriguing way to resolve a dispute, relying heavily on the deep faith of all the parties in the written words of their religion. ==Publication history== At the time this novel was released, the author toured in the United States where she commented "I've been lucky. It's always luck to be able to make a living doing what you love." The series had sold over 6.5 million copies at that time. Five hardback editions are listed at Fantastic Fiction. The first was issued in August 1992; the most recent was issued in November 1994 in large print by Chivers North America / 9780792717447 (USA edition). Seven paperback editions have been published. The first was in April 1993 by Headline Book Publishing / 9780751511192 (UK edition). The most recent was in August 1998 by Sphere / 9780751527322 (UK edition). Five audio cassette editions were issued, beginning in May 1993 by Harper Collins Audio with Paul Scofield reading, / 9780886463571 Canada (English speaking) edition, and a simultaneous release in the UK. The last one listed was issued in September 1999 by Chivers Word for Word Audio Books. This novel was issued for the Kindle in June 2013, ISBN B00E6YTP1G, published by Velmon Books Pty Ltd. The novel has been translated and published in French, Italian, Spanish, German, Dutch, Polish. *French: Le voleur de Dieu, Published 1994 by Éditions 10/18, 350 pages *Italian: Un sacrilegio per Fratello Cadfael [A Sacrilege to Brother Cadfael] (Hardcover), Published 11 April 2003 by Longanesi La Gaja scienza No. 693, 224 pages, Elsa Pelitti (Translator) *Spanish: **El santo ladrón, Published by Grijalbo, 1994, ©1992 Barcelona, 305 pages, map **El Santo ladrón, Publisher Debolsillo, Barcelona 2003, 285 pages, María Antonia Menini (Translator) *German: Der fromme Dieb, Published 1 May 1998 by Heyne, ) *Dutch: De heilige dief (Broeder Cadfael, #19), Published 1993 by De Boekerij bv, Paperback, 234 pages, Pieter Janssens (Translator) *Polish: Świątobliwy złodziej (Paperback), Published 25 October 2011 by Zysk i S-ka, 328 pages In addition to the Spanish language edition in the above list, WorldCat has a Korean edition in its holdings. *Korean: 성스러운 도둑 /Sŏngsŭrŏun toduk, Author 엘리스 피터스 장편소설 ; 김훈 옮긴. 김훈. ; Ellis Peters; Hun Kim (Translator), 367 pages, map, Publisher 북하우스, Sŏul-si Bukhausŭ, 2002 ==Television adaptation== The Holy Thief was adapted into a television program as part of the Brother Cadfael series by Carlton Media, Central and WGBH Boston for ITV. It filmed on location in Hungary and starred Sir Derek Jacobi as Cadfael. The resulting episode was the first episode of the fourth series. ==References== ==External links== * Category:1992 British novels Category:Novels set in the 12th century Category:Historical mystery novels Category:British mystery novels Category:Novel series Category:Television series set in the 12th century Category:Fiction set in the 1140s Category:Novels set in Cambridgeshire Category:Novels set in Shropshire Category:Novels by Edith Pargeter Category:British novels adapted into television shows Category:Headline Publishing Group books
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Entropy production (or generation) is the amount of entropy which is produced during heat process to evaluate the efficiency of the process. ==Short history== Entropy is produced in irreversible processes. The importance of avoiding irreversible processes (hence reducing the entropy production) was recognized as early as 1824 by Carnot.S. Carnot Reflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu Bachelier, Paris, 1824 In 1865 Rudolf Clausius expanded his previous work from 1854. on the concept of "unkompensierte Verwandlungen" (uncompensated transformations), which, in our modern nomenclature, would be called the entropy production. In the same article in which he introduced the name entropy,R. Clausius Über verschiedene für die Anwendung bequeme Formen der Hauptgleigungen der mechanische Wärmetheorie in Abhandlungen über die Anwendung bequeme Formen der Haubtgleichungen der mechanischen Wärmetheorie Ann.Phys. [2] 125, 390 (1865). This paper is translated and can be found in: The second law of thermodynamics, Edited by J. Kestin, Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, pp. 162–193. Clausius gives the expression for the entropy production for a cyclical process in a closed system, which he denotes by N, in equation (71) which reads :N=S-S_0-\int\frac{dQ}{T}. Here S is the entropy in the final state and S0 the entropy in the initial state; S0-S is the entropy difference for the backwards part of the process. The integral is to be taken from the initial state to the final state, giving the entropy difference for the forwards part of the process. From the context, it is clear that if the process is reversible and in case of an irreversible process. ==First and second law== 300px|thumb| Fig. 1 General representation of an inhomogeneous system that consists of a number of subsystems. The interaction of the system with the surroundings is through exchange of heat and other forms of energy, flow of matter, and changes of shape. The internal interactions between the various subsystems are of a similar nature and lead to entropy production. The laws of thermodynamics system apply to well-defined systems. Fig. 1 is a general representation of a thermodynamic system. We consider systems which, in general, are inhomogeneous. Heat and mass are transferred across the boundaries (nonadiabatic, open systems), and the boundaries are moving (usually through pistons). In our formulation we assume that heat and mass transfer and volume changes take place only separately at well-defined regions of the system boundary. The expression, given here, are not the most general formulations of the first and second law. E.g. kinetic energy and potential energy terms are missing and exchange of matter by diffusion is excluded. The rate of entropy production, denoted by \dot S_\text{i} , is a key element of the second law of thermodynamics for open inhomogeneous systems which reads : \frac{\mathrm{d}S}{\mathrm{d}t} = \sum_k \frac {\dot Q_k}{T_k} + \sum_k \dot S_k + \sum_k \dot S_{\text{i}k} \text{ with }\dot S_{\text{i}k} \geq 0. Here S is the entropy of the system; Tk is the temperature at which the heat enters the system at heat flow rate \dot Q_k; \dot S_k = \dot n_k S_{\text{m}k} = \dot m_k s_k represents the entropy flow into the system at position k, due to matter flowing into the system (\dot n_k, \dot m_k are the molar flow rate and mass flow rate and Smk and sk are the molar entropy (i.e. entropy per unit amount of substance) and specific entropy (i.e. entropy per unit mass) of the matter, flowing into the system, respectively); \dot S_{\text{i}k} represents the entropy production rates due to internal processes. The subscript 'i' in \dot S_{\text{i}k} refers to the fact that the entropy is produced due to irreversible processes. The entropy-production rate of every process in nature is always positive or zero. This is an essential aspect of the second law. The Σ's indicate the algebraic sum of the respective contributions if there are more heat flows, matter flows, and internal processes. In order to demonstrate the impact of the second law, and the role of entropy production, it has to be combined with the first law which reads : \frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} = \sum_k \dot Q_k + \sum_k \dot H_k - \sum_k p_k\frac{\mathrm{d}V_k}{\mathrm{d}t}+P, with U the internal energy of the system; \dot H_k= \dot n_k H_{\text{m}k} = \dot m_k h_k the enthalpy flows into the system due to the matter that flows into the system (Hmk its molar enthalpy, hk the specific enthalpy (i.e. enthalpy per unit mass)), and dVk/dt are the rates of change of the volume of the system due to a moving boundary at position k while pk is the pressure behind that boundary; P represents all other forms of power application (such as electrical). The first and second law have been formulated in terms of time derivatives of U and S rather than in terms of total differentials dU and dS where it is tacitly assumed that dt > 0. So, the formulation in terms of time derivatives is more elegant. An even bigger advantage of this formulation is, however, that it emphasizes that heat flow rate and power are the basic thermodynamic properties and that heat and work are derived quantities being the time integrals of the heat flow rate and the power respectively. ==Examples of irreversible processes== Entropy is produced in irreversible processes. Some important irreversible processes are: *heat flow through a thermal resistance *fluid flow through a flow resistance such as in the Joule expansion or the Joule–Thomson effect *heat transfer *Joule heating *friction between solid surfaces *fluid viscosity within a system. The expression for the rate of entropy production in the first two cases will be derived in separate sections. 400px|thumb|Fig.2 a: Schematic diagram of a heat engine. A heating power \dot Q_\text{H} enters the engine at the high temperature TH, and \dot Q_\text{a} is released at ambient temperature Ta. A power P is produced and the entropy production rate is \dot S_\text{i}. b: Schematic diagram of a refrigerator. \dot Q_\text{L} is the cooling power at the low temperature TL, and \dot Q_\text{a} is released at ambient temperature. The power P is supplied and \dot S_\text{i} is the entropy production rate. The arrows define the positive directions of the flows of heat and power in the two cases. They are positive under normal operating conditions. ==Performance of heat engines and refrigerators== Most heat engines and refrigerators are closed cyclic machines.A.T.A.M. de Waele, Basic operation of cryocoolers and related thermal machines, Review article, Journal of Low Temperature Physics, Vol.164, pp. 179–236, (2011), DOI: 10.1007/s10909-011-0373-x. In the steady state the internal energy and the entropy of the machines after one cycle are the same as at the start of the cycle. Hence, on average, dU/dt = 0 and dS/dt = 0 since U and S are functions of state. Furthermore they are closed systems (\dot n = 0) and the volume is fixed (dV/dt = 0). This leads to a significant simplification of the first and second law: : 0 =\sum_k \dot Q_k +P and : 0 =\sum_k \frac {\dot Q_k}{T_k} + \dot S_\text{i}. The summation is over the (two) places where heat is added or removed. ===Engines=== For a heat engine (Fig. 2a) the first and second law obtain the form : 0 =\dot Q_\text{H} - \dot Q_\text{a} -P and : 0 =\frac {\dot Q_\text{H}}{T_\text{H}} - \frac {\dot Q_\text{a}}{T_\text{a}}+ \dot S_\text{i}. Here \dot Q_\text{H} is the heat supplied at the high temperature TH, \dot Q_\text{a} is the heat removed at ambient temperature Ta, and P is the power delivered by the engine. Eliminating \dot Q_\text{a} gives : P = \frac{T_\text{H}-T_\text{a}}{T_\text{H}}\dot Q_\text{H} - T_\text{a} \dot S_\text{i}. The efficiency is defined by : \eta = \frac{P}{\dot Q_\text{H}}. If \dot S_\text{i}=0 the performance of the engine is at its maximum and the efficiency is equal to the Carnot efficiency : \eta_\text{C} = \frac{T_\text{H}-T_\text{a}}{T_\text{H}}. ===Refrigerators=== For refrigerators (Fig. 2b) holds : 0 =\dot Q_\text{L} - \dot Q_\text{a} +P and : 0 =\frac {\dot Q_\text{L}}{T_\text{L}} - \frac {\dot Q_\text{a}}{T_\text{a}}+ \dot S_\text{i}. Here P is the power, supplied to produce the cooling power \dot Q_\text{L} at the low temperature TL. Eliminating \dot Q_\text{a} now gives : \dot Q_\text{L}=\frac{T_\text{L}}{T_\text{a}-T_\text{L}}(P-T_\text{a}\dot S_\text{i}) . The coefficient of performance of refrigerators is defined by : \xi=\frac{\dot Q_\text{L}}{P}. If \dot S_\text{i}=0 the performance of the cooler is at its maximum. The COP is then given by the Carnot coefficient of performance : \xi_\text{C}=\frac{T_\text{L}}{T_\text{a}-T_\text{L}}. ===Power dissipation=== In both cases we find a contribution T_\text{a} \dot S_\text{i} which reduces the system performance. This product of ambient temperature and the (average) entropy production rate P_\text{diss}=T_\text{a} \dot S_\text{i} is called the dissipated power. ==Equivalence with other formulations== It is interesting to investigate how the above mathematical formulation of the second law relates with other well-known formulations of the second law. We first look at a heat engine, assuming that \dot Q_\text{a}=0. In other words: the heat flow rate \dot Q_\text{H} is completely converted into power. In this case the second law would reduce to : 0=\frac{\dot Q_\text{H}}{T_\text{H}}+\dot S_\text{i}. Since \dot Q_\text{H}\ge 0 and T_\text{H}>0 this would result in \dot S_\text{i} \leq 0 which violates the condition that the entropy production is always positive. Hence: No process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion into work. This is the Kelvin statement of the second law. Now look at the case of the refrigerator and assume that the input power is zero. In other words: heat is transported from a low temperature to a high temperature without doing work on the system. The first law with would give :\dot Q_\text{L}=\dot Q_\text{a} and the second law then yields : 0=\frac{\dot Q_\text{L}}{T_\text{L}}-\frac{\dot Q_\text{L}}{T_\text{a}}+\dot S_\text{i} or : \dot S_\text{i} =\dot Q_\text{L}\left(\frac{1}{T_\text{a}}-\frac{1}{T_\text{L}}\right). Since \dot Q_\text{L}\ge 0 and T_\text{a}>T_\text{L} this would result in \dot S_\text{i}\leq 0 which again violates the condition that the entropy production is always positive. Hence: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a body of lower temperature to a body of higher temperature. This is the Clausius statement of the second law. ==Expressions for the entropy production== ===Heat flow=== In case of a heat flow rate \dot Q from T1 to T2 (with T_1 \geq T_2) the rate of entropy production is given by : \dot S_\text{i}=\dot Q\left(\frac{1}{T_2}-\frac{1}{T_1}\right). If the heat flow is in a bar with length L, cross-sectional area A, and thermal conductivity κ, and the temperature difference is small : \dot Q=\kappa \frac{A}{L}(T_1-T_2) the entropy production rate is : \dot S_\text{i}=\kappa \frac{A}{L}\frac{(T_1-T_2)^2}{T_1 T_2}. ===Flow of mass=== In case of a volume flow rate \dot V from a pressure p1 to p2 : \dot S_\text{i}=-\int _{p_1} ^{p_2} \frac{\dot V}{T} \mathrm{d}p. For small pressure drops and defining the flow conductance C by \dot V=C(p_1-p_2) we get : \dot S_\text{i} = C\frac{(p_1 - p_2)^2}{T}. The dependences of \dot S_\text{i} on and on are quadratic. This is typical for expressions of the entropy production rates in general. They guarantee that the entropy production is positive. ===Entropy of mixing=== In this Section we will calculate the entropy of mixing when two ideal gases diffuse into each other. Consider a volume Vt divided in two volumes Va and Vb so that . The volume Va contains amount of substance na of an ideal gas a and Vb contains amount of substance nb of gas b. The total amount of substance is . The temperature and pressure in the two volumes is the same. The entropy at the start is given by :S_\text{t1}=S_\text{a1}+S_\text{b1}. When the division between the two gases is removed the two gases expand, comparable to a Joule–Thomson expansion. In the final state the temperature is the same as initially but the two gases now both take the volume Vt. The relation of the entropy of an amount of substance n of an ideal gas is :S=nC_\text{V}\ln\frac{T}{T_0}+nR\ln\frac{V}{V_0} where CV is the molar heat capacity at constant volume and R is the molar gas constant. The system is an adiabatic closed system, so the entropy increase during the mixing of the two gases is equal to the entropy production. It is given by :S_\Delta=S_\text{t2}-S_\text{t1}. As the initial and final temperature are the same, the temperature terms cancel, leaving only the volume terms. The result is :S_\Delta=n_\text{a}R\ln\frac{V_\text{t}}{V_\text{a}}+n_\text{b}R\ln\frac{V_\text{t}}{V_\text{b}}. Introducing the concentration x = na/nt = Va/Vt we arrive at the well-known expression :S_\Delta=-n_\text{t}R[x\ln x+(1-x)\ln(1-x)]. ===Joule expansion=== The Joule expansion is similar to the mixing described above. It takes place in an adiabatic system consisting of a gas and two rigid vessels a and b of equal volume, connected by a valve. Initially, the valve is closed. Vessel a contains the gas while the other vessel b is empty. When the valve is opened, the gas flows from vessel a into b until the pressures in the two vessels are equal. The volume, taken by the gas, is doubled while the internal energy of the system is constant (adiabatic and no work done). Assuming that the gas is ideal, the molar internal energy is given by . As CV is constant, constant U means constant T. The molar entropy of an ideal gas, as function of the molar volume Vm and T, is given by : S_\text{m}=C_\text{V}\ln\frac{T}{T_0}+R\ln\frac{V_\text{m}}{V_0}. The system consisting of the two vessels and the gas is closed and adiabatic, so the entropy production during the process is equal to the increase of the entropy of the gas. So, doubling the volume with T constant gives that the molar entropy produced is : S_\text{mi}=R\ln 2. ===Microscopic interpretation=== The Joule expansion provides an opportunity to explain the entropy production in statistical mechanical (i.e., microscopic) terms. At the expansion, the volume that the gas can occupy is doubled. This means that, for every molecule there are now two possibilities: it can be placed in container a or b. If the gas has amount of substance n, the number of molecules is equal to n⋅NA, where NA is the Avogadro constant. The number of microscopic possibilities increases by a factor of 2 per molecule due to the doubling of volume, so in total the factor is 2n⋅NA. Using the well-known Boltzmann expression for the entropy : S=k\ln \Omega, where k is the Boltzmann constant and Ω is the number of microscopic possibilities to realize the macroscopic state. This gives change in molar entropy of :S_{\text{m}\Delta} = S_\Delta / n = k \ln(2^{n \cdot N_\text{A}}) / n = k N_\text{A} \ln 2 = R \ln 2 . So, in an irreversible process, the number of microscopic possibilities to realize the macroscopic state is increased by a certain factor. ==Basic inequalities and stability conditions== In this section we derive the basic inequalities and stability conditions for closed systems. For closed systems the first law reduces to :\frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} = \dot Q - p\frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}t}+P. The second law we write as :\frac{\mathrm{d}S}{\mathrm{d}t} - \frac {\dot Q}{T} \geq 0. For adiabatic systems \dot Q = 0 so . In other words: the entropy of adiabatic systems cannot decrease. In equilibrium the entropy is at its maximum. Isolated systems are a special case of adiabatic systems, so this statement is also valid for isolated systems. Now consider systems with constant temperature and volume. In most cases T is the temperature of the surroundings with which the system is in good thermal contact. Since V is constant the first law gives \dot Q=\mathrm{d}U/\mathrm{d}t-P. Substitution in the second law, and using that T is constant, gives :\frac{\mathrm{d}(TS)}{\mathrm{d}t} - \frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} +P\geq 0. With the Helmholtz free energy, defined as :F=U-TS, we get :\frac{\mathrm{d}F}{\mathrm{d}t}-P \leq 0. If P = 0 this is the mathematical formulation of the general property that the free energy of systems with fixed temperature and volume tends to a minimum. The expression can be integrated from the initial state i to the final state f resulting in :W_\text{S} \leq F_\text{i}-F_\text{f} where WS is the work done by the system. If the process inside the system is completely reversible the equality sign holds. Hence the maximum work, that can be extracted from the system, is equal to the free energy of the initial state minus the free energy of the final state. Finally we consider systems with constant temperature and pressure and take . As p is constant the first laws gives :\frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} = \dot Q - \frac{\mathrm{d}(pV)}{\mathrm{d}t}. Combining with the second law, and using that T is constant, gives :\frac{\mathrm{d}(TS)}{\mathrm{d}t} - \frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} - \frac{\mathrm{d}(pV)}{\mathrm{d}t} \geq 0. With the Gibbs free energy, defined as :G=U+pV-TS, we get :\frac{\mathrm{d}G}{\mathrm{d}t} \leq 0. ==Homogeneous systems== In homogeneous systems the temperature and pressure are well-defined and all internal processes are reversible. Hence \dot S_\text{i} = 0 . As a result the second law, multiplied by T, reduces to :T \frac{\mathrm{d}S}{\mathrm{d}t} = \dot Q + \dot n TS_\text{m}. With P = 0 the first law becomes :\frac{\mathrm{d}U}{\mathrm{d}t} = \dot Q + \dot n H_\text{m} - p\frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}t}. Eliminating \dot Q and multiplying with dt gives : \mathrm{d}U = T\mathrm{d}S - p\mathrm{d}V + (H_\text{m}-TS_\text{m}) \mathrm{d}n. Since :H_\text{m}-TS_\text{m}=G_\text{m}=\mu with Gm the molar Gibbs free energy and μ the molar chemical potential we obtain the well-known result : \mathrm{d}U = T\mathrm{d}S - p\mathrm{d}V+ \mu \mathrm{d}n. ==Entropy production in stochastic processes== Since physical processes can be described by stochastic processes, such as Markov chains and diffusion processes, entropy production can be defined mathematically in such processes. For a continuous-time Markov chain with instantaneous probability distribution p_i(t) and transition rate q_{ij}, the instantaneous entropy production rate is :e_p(t)=\frac{1}{2}\sum_{i,j}[p_i(t)q_{ij}-p_j(t)q_{ji}]\log\frac{p_i(t)q_{ij}}{p_j(t)q_{ji}}. The long-time behavior of entropy production is kept after a proper lifting of the process. This approach provides a dynamic explanation for the Kelvin statement and the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics. ==See also== *Thermodynamics *First law of thermodynamics *Second law of thermodynamics *Irreversible process *Non-equilibrium thermodynamics *High entropy alloys *General equation of heat transfer ==References== ==Further reading== * * Category:Cooling technology Category:Cryogenics Category:Heat pumps
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Maryhill Burgh Halls is a local heritage site located in the Maryhill area of Glasgow, a few miles North-West of Glasgow city centre. Maryhill Burgh Halls was initially opened in 1878 as a municipal building complex, which served as a police station and fire station until the 1970s. The complex fell into disuse and disrepair especially towards the late 20th century, and plans for its demolishment were proposed. However, as a result of local campaigning, the decision was taken to restore the complex and for it to be used as a community resource. Repairs, selective demolition, restoration, and development work took place between 2008 and 2011. The halls re-opened in April 2012. Maryhill Burgh Halls is run by the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust. The Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust was established in 2004 and is community led. Volunteers form a major and vital component of the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust. Volunteers carry out a variety a roles within the Trust including the day to day running of the Maryhill Burgh Halls and forming a majority part of the Board of the Trust. The Maryhill Burgh Halls provides for the community office spaces, hall spaces to facilitate the hosting of events of various kinds, and a museum and exhibition space. The museum and exhibition space hosts artefacts and exhibitions relating to local heritage, local history, and other themes of interest. Various organisations operate from the Maryhill Burgh Halls including an architecture company, an accountancy firm, a local housing association, a children’s nursery, and the constituency office of the Member of the Scottish Parliament for the area. When the halls initially opened, it contained twenty stained glass windows depicting individuals carrying out various trades and occupations that could be found practiced within the local area. The windows were produced by the studio of Adam and Small and were specially commissioned for the complex. Today, the halls has eleven of the original windows on display. The remainder are stored within the collections of Glasgow Museums. Along with the eleven original panels, another ten stained glass panels are on display that were produced by artists Alec Galloway and Margo Winning around 2015. Each of the ten panels depicts a different theme of modern Maryhill. The themes depicted were chosen from suggestions given by over two hundred members of the community. == History of the building == === Early history === Maryhill Burgh Halls complex was commissioned in response to the growing population of the Burgh of Maryhill and ensuing lawlessness.Mitchell, Ian. R. (2015) "Walking through Glasgow’s Industrial Past". Luath Press Ltd. The complex’s architect was the Glasgow based Duncan McNaughton who was born in Rutherglen. The complex was designed in a revivalist French Renaissance style, and built in ashlar stone and completed in 1878. The design involved a symmetrical main frontage of five bays facing the corner of Gairbraid Avenue and Maryhill Road. The central bay featured, on the ground floor, a portico formed by two pairs of Corinthian order columns supporting an entablature and, on the first floor, a casement window flanked by two pairs of pilasters and supporting an entablature, a cornice and a panel containing a clock surmounted by a segmental pediment. The other bays were fenestrated by windows with architraves and window cills and at roof level, there was an octagonal ventilator. There was a canted bay to the left which formed part of the side elevation. The complex consisted of a police station, a court room, a fire station, a tenement which housed the firemen, and a public hall that could seat nine hundred people. The Burgh of Maryhill being subsumed by the City of Glasgow in 1891 resulted in the civic function of the complex being lost, however it continued to be utilized for social use. A swimming baths and washhouse was added to the complex in 1898. === 20th Century to present day === The police station and fire station remained in use up until the 1970s, however the complex fell into disuse and disrepair over the course of the remainder of the 20th century and plans for its demolition were proposed. Pressure from the local community led to the restoration of Maryhill Burgh Halls and it being purposed once again as a community resource. The Maryhill Burgh Halls now provides for the community office spaces, a museum and exhibition space, and halls that can be used for the hosting of events of various kinds. It also remains a place for political debate: the Leader of the Scottish Labour Party, Richard Leonard, launched Scottish Labour's campaign for the 2019 United Kingdom general election at Maryhill Burgh Halls in November 2019. === Restoration of the building === In 2004 the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust was set up in order to bring the complex back into use for the local community.MacDonald, J. (2015) "The Value of 'Sloppy Craft': Creativity and Community". in "Sloppy Craft: Postdisciplinarity and the Crafts". Paterson, E.C. and Surette, S. (Editors). 1st Edition. Bloomsbury Academic. In 2006 the Cities Growth Fund granted the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust £1.1 million. This funding allowed the Trust to carry out various preliminary tasks pertaining the restoration of Maryhill Burgh Halls including the necessary design and planning application work. The restoration of Maryhill Burgh Halls took place between 2008 and 2011. Stonework and masonry repairs in order to secure the stability of the structure took place in 2008. Funding for the remaining restoration and development work was secured in Autumn 2009 after five years of campaigning by the Trust. A total of £9.2 million funding for the restoration and development of the halls was secured. In November 2009 transfer of ownership of the halls, the police station, and the fire station from Glasgow City Council to the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust took place. The main restoration and development work on the parts of the complex under the stewardship of the Maryhill Burgh Hall Trust also started in November 2009. This work was completed in November 2011, and the halls re- opened in April 2012. The main funding sources for the restoration and development of Maryhill Burgh Halls are: Scottish Government City Growth Fund Phases 1 and 2, The Heritage Lottery Fund, Big Lottery (Growing Community Assets), The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), Glasgow City Council Better Glasgow Fund, Glasgow City Council Vacant and Derelict Land Fund, Scottish Government Town Centre Regeneration Fund, Historic Scotland, Scottish Government Wider Role Fund, and Robertson Trust. The baths remained under the ownership of Glasgow City Council. A separate project was undertaken by Glasgow City Council to convert the former baths into a modern leisure centre for the community of Maryhill. The leisure centre was opened in April 2010 and makes available a 25m swimming pool, sauna, gym, sports hall, dance studio, and other facilities for community use. == Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust == Maryhill Burgh Halls is owned and run by the Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust. The Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust was established in November 2004. It is a partnership between local residents, Cube and Maryhill Housing Associations, Glasgow City Council, Elected Members, and officers of local organisations. Members of the public can apply to join Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust. It currently has 180 members. The Board of the Trust includes members of the public who are local residents or who work in the local area and have been or are active in Community Development Work in the area over a number of years. They are elected on to it by the members of Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust at the Annual General Meeting. The Board may also co-opt members from time time. == Stained glass windows == When Maryhill Burgh Halls first opened they contained twenty specially commissioned stained glass windows.Mitchell, Ian. R. (2013) "A Glasgow Mosaic". Luath Press Ltd.Donnelly, Michael. (1997) "Scotland's Stained Glass". The Stationery Office. These were removed from the halls in 1963 and were stored in the collection of Glasgow Museums. The panels were then restored through a process of cleaning, repairing, and reframing. Today, the Maryhill Burgh Halls has eleven of these panels on display along with ten specially commissioned glass panels that were produced around 2015. === Historic stained glass windows === The stained glass windows that were on display in the Maryhill Burgh Halls when it first opened were produced by the Glasgow studio Adam and Small. Adam and Small was founded by Stephen Adam, who was born in the vicinity of Edinburgh in 1847 and was of international renown in the field of stained-glass design and production. He had the author Robert Louis Stevenson as a school classmate and started as an apprentice of James Ballantine of Edinburgh. The panels depict ordinary people, dressed in their ordinary work clothing, carrying out various trades that could be found practiced in the Maryhill area during the period. This makes the panels unique, for at the time religion was the main theme depicted by stained glass artists. In other stained glass panels of the period where workers are depicted, they are usually depicted in classical, biblical, or medieval clothing, poses, and settings. The author Michael Donnelly writes that the commission for Maryhill Burgh Halls was "one of the most important commissions" of Stephen Adam's career. The author Ian R. Mitchell describes the stained glass panels as of "world-historic" importance for being "one of the largest and most realistic collection of portraits of labour produced in two centuries." The titles of the glass panels in alphabetical order are: The Blacksmiths, The Boatbuilder, The Bricklayers, The Calico Printers, The Canal Boatman, The Chemical Workers, The Dye Press Worker, The Engineers, The Glassblower, The Iron Moulders, The Joiners, The Linen Bleachers, The Papermaker, The Railway Men, The Sawyer, The Soldiers, The Teacher, The Wheelwrights, and The Zinc Spelters. Due to a dearth of accounts or photographs of the historic glass panels as they were originally on display in the halls, it is currently unknown in what order they were initially displayed. Eleven of the historic stained glass windows are now on display in Maryhill Burgh Halls. Ten of them can be found mounted in the main hall, and The Canal Boatman is on display at the main entrance to the building. thumb|center|alt='The Canal Boatman' stained glass panel.|'The Canal Boatman' stained glass panel. === Modern stained glass windows === In order to contribute to the lasting legacy of the Maryhill Burgh Halls restoration project, ten new stained glass windows were commissioned. The ten stained glass windows were produced by the Scottish artists Alec Galloway and Margo Winning. The themes for the modern stained glass windows were chosen to reflect themes of importance for the community of Maryhill today. The themes were chosen from suggestions gathered from over two hundred of members of the community. The suggestion were taken over a period of several months at a series of workshops, visits, and talks. The final themes chosen were: culture, diversity, education, heavy trades, regeneration, social heritage, space age, sport and leisure, workers, and youth. After approval of the final designs, each panel was built at Alec Galloway’s workshop in Greenock. The titles of the panels are: Art-Beat, Down Maryhill Road, Playing the Game, Global Village, Knowledge, Going Out, Burning Spirit, Made in Maryhill, Touching the Stars, and Yesterday and Today. It is claimed that the ‘Touching the Stars’ window is the world’s first ‘interactive stained glass panel’, due to the inclusion of an active QR code in the window's design. thumb|center|alt='Made in Maryhill' stained glass panel.|'Made in Maryhill' stained glass panel. == Courtyard entrance gates == The entrance to the Maryhill Leisure Centre and Maryhill Burgh Halls share a common courtyard. This courtyard used to be the site of the fire station. The fire station included a three storey tenement above four stone archways. The archways remain today and form the entrance to the courtyard. In order to connect its current use to what was there in the past, the well known Scottish sculptor Andy Scott (The Kelpies in Falkirk are amongst Andy Scott’s other creations) was commissioned to produce four metal gates to fill in the archways. The metal gates feature firemen in period uniforms along with period equipment and engines. == Maryhill Museum == Maryhill Burgh Halls Trust is committed to collecting and making accessible the history of the Burgh Halls and Maryhill area. For this purpose a permanent museum has been created inside the Halls. The museum is a place to share the Halls’ local history collection and offers opportunities for community displays. Locals are encouraged to share their memories of Maryhill as well as learn about the history of the area. === Recent exhibitions === ==== Fred’s War 2018 exhibition ==== Fred’s War told the story of the 1st Battalion Cameronians who achieved notoriety for selling the Great War’s earliest front line photographs. Leaving from Maryhill Barracks, Fred Davidson, their 25-year-old medical officer (one of the first doctors to win the Military Cross) smuggled his camera to the front line in his medical bag. On display at the Burgh Halls was a First World War metal helmet, some medals, a nurse’s cap, field glasses, various maps, a wide selection of Fred’s photographs and a camera similar to that used by Fred. For this exhibition, some examples of the types of cameras which would have been used at the time were sourced. One of these was an Ansco 'Buster Brown' No.2 Box Camera which had a very old spool of medium format, 120 film inside waiting to be developed. ==== Partick Thistle Football Club: Then and Now ==== Between 6 March 2019 and 27 September 2019 the museum hosted an exhibition pertaining to the history of Partick Thistle Football Club. Partick Thistle Football club was founded in 1876 and has been based in Maryhill since 1908. Their nickname is ‘The Jags’, and they are based in Firhill Stadium in Maryhill. ==== A Flag for Maryhill ==== A competition was launched on 31 August 2020 that involved inviting individuals, local community groups and local schools to create proposals for a community flag. Amongst the reasons for setting up this competition, named ‘A Flag for Maryhill’, was to bring the community together to reflect on Maryhill’s history and look to the future, and to create a symbol which would represent Maryhill’s pride as being a part of Glasgow with its own unique sense of character. The entries were submitted to an assessment panel which included representatives from the Flag Institute, the Lyon Court (a court of law that regulates heraldry in Scotland) and a special celebrity guest judge, Scottish actress, Jane McCarry. The panel narrowed the selection down to 5 top designs. From these 5 entries the public voted for their favourite design either by social media or in-person at the Burgh Halls. Voting opened on 5 July 2021 and closed 17 August 2021. The top designs were revealed on 4 July 2021 across the Burgh Halls’ social media accounts. The winning flag was revealed at a community event street party on 2 October 2021. thumb|center|alt=Maryhill flag.|Maryhill flag. ==== The Way We Were ==== Between the 1 September 2020 and 18 September 2020 the museum hosted an exhibition consisting of black and white photographs by the Glaswegian photographer Morton Gillespie. This exhibition depicted the social history of 1960’s Glasgow. ==== Glasgow Photo Journey 1978 ==== Between 12 July 2021 and 26 December 2021 the museum hosted an exhibition of black and white photographs by the Manchester based photographer Jos Treen. The exhibition consisted of a selection of photographs taken around the streets of Glasgow in 1978 by Jos Treen during the year in which he was living there. The collection of hundreds of photographs lay forgotten for forty years before they were rediscovered. A selection of the photographs were posted on his social media feeds previous to Jos’ exhibition in Maryhill Burgh Halls. ==== Loving Earth Textile Panels ==== Between 18 September 2021 and 15 November 2021 the museum hosted an exhibition consisting of a selection of textile panels produced by members of the public for The Loving Earth Project. The Loving Earth Project invited members of the public to submit 30 cm x 30 cm textile panels that depict themes pertaining to the effects of environmental degradation, contribution of one's own lifestyle to the degradation, and measures that can be taken to address it. The exhibition was timed to coincide with the weeks leading up to and including the COP26 climate conference that took place in Glasgow between 31 October 2021 and 13 November 2021. ==== Jo Sunshine Art ==== A selection of drawings by the visually impaired Glasgow based artist Jo Sunshine have been on display in the museum since Autumn 2021. Jo was left completely blind in her left eye and with a misty blur in her right eye after being involved in a car accident. Subsequently, she draws everything large and in bold colours. ==== Glasgow Orchestral Society ==== From the 29 November 2021 to the 25 March 2022, the museum hosted an exhibition consisting of artefacts pertaining to the history of the Glasgow Orchestral Society. The Glasgow Orchestral Society was formed on the 29 December 1870 (it was initially called the Glasgow Amateur Orchestral Society). They have used Maryhill Burgh Halls as a venue for their weekly rehearsals since October 2011. ====Ghost Signs of Glasgow==== Between the 6 April 2022 and the 1 July 2022, the museum hosted an exhibition consisting of pictures and accompanying stories of ghost signs found on buildings in Glasgow. A ghost sign on a building is an old hand painted sign that has lasted to the modern day. ====50 Pots==== From 8 July 2022 until 31 November 2022 the museum hosted an exhibition by the Scottish Pottery Society called 50 Pots. The subject matter of 50 Pots is the 200 year history of the Scottish pottery manufacturing industry including its workers, places, and products. The history of the Scottish pottery industry begins with the establishment of the Delftfield pottery on the banks of the Clyde and ends with the closure of the Govancroft pottery in the 80s. The exhibition has on display surviving examples of products manufactured by the Scottish pottery industry as well as contemporary pieces produced by applied arts students at Glasgow City College in response to the industry's heritage. ====Maryhill is Wonderful==== From 11 November 2022 until 15 April 2023 the museum hosted an exhibition titled Maryhill is Wonderful. This exhibition showcased black and white photographs of people who live, work, or volunteer in Maryhill that were taken by the photographer Campbell Ramage during the COVID lockdowns. ====Strike! Stories of Bryant and May==== During the summer of 2023 the museum will host an exhibition about the match manufacturer Bryant and May that produced famous brands such as Scottish Bluebell and Swan Vestas. Bryant and May was a major employer in the local area. The exhibition collects stories from former employees of the local factory, and presents stories relating to the company from wider afield such as the story of the 1888 matchgirls' strike. The telling of such is aided by the artistic responses of Wyndford- based artist Rabia Saleem. == Maryhill Burgh Halls Café == The Maryhill Burgh Halls café is called 'The Nolly'. The café name, which was chosen through a public vote, was one of many suggested by members of the local community before the café was re-opened after being shutdown due to COVID-19. 'Nolly' is a local term of affection for the Forth & Clyde Canal, which flows behind the building. == See also == * List of listed buildings in Glasgow/8 == References == Category:Maryhill Category:Buildings and structures in Glasgow Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1878 Category:Defunct fire stations Category:1878 establishments in Scotland Category:French Renaissance Revival architecture Category:Defunct police stations Category:City chambers and town halls in Scotland
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Paula Scher (born October 6, 1948, Washington, D.C.) is an American graphic designer, painter and art educator in design. She also served as the first female principal at Pentagram, which she joined in 1991.Scher, Paula." (n.d.): Oxford University Press: Oxford Art Online. Web. ==Education== Scher studied at the Tyler School of Art, in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania and earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in 1970. ==Life and career== Scher moved to New York City and took her first job as a layout artist for Random House's children's book division. ===CBS Records=== In 1972, she was hired by CBS Records to the advertising and promotions department. After two years, she left CBS Records to pursue a more creative endeavor at a competing label, Atlantic Records, where she became the art director, designing her first album covers. A year later Scher returned to CBS as an art director for the cover department. During her eight years at CBS Records, she is credited with designing as many as 150 album covers a year. Some of those iconic album cover designs are Boston (Boston), Eric Gale (Ginseng Woman), Leonard Bernstein (Poulenc Stravinsky), Bob James (H), Bob James and Earl Klugh (One on One), Roger Dean and David Howells (The Ultimate Album Cover Album) and Jean-Pierre Rampal and Lily Laskin (Sakura: Japanese Melodies for Flute and Harp). Her designs were recognized with four Grammy nominations. She is also credited with reviving historical typefaces and design styles. (H.K) ===Russian constructivism=== She left Atlantic Records to work on her own in 1982.Scher, Paula. Make it Bigger. New York, N. Y. Princeton Architectural Press, 2005. Print. Scher developed a typographic solution based on Art Deco and Russian constructivism, which incorporated outmoded typefaces into her work. The Russian constructivism had provided Scher inspiration for her typography; she didn't copy the early constructivist style but used its vocabulary of form on her works.Meggs, Philip B., and Alston W. Purvis. Meggs' History of Graphic Design. 4th Ed. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons, 2006. Print. ===Koppel & Scher=== In 1984 she co-founded Koppel & Scher with editorial designer and fellow Tyler graduate Terry Koppel. During the seven years of their partnership, she produced identities, packaging, book jackets, and advertising, including the famous Swatch poster. ===Pentagram=== In 1991, after the studio suffered from the recession and Koppel took the position of Creative Director at Esquire magazine, Scher began consulting and joined Pentagram as a partner in the New York office. Since then, she has been a principal at the New York office of the Pentagram design consultancy, where she has developed identity and branding systems, promotional materials, environmental graphics, packaging and publication designs for a broad range of clients that includes, among others, Bloomberg, Microsoft, Bausch + Lomb, Coca-Cola, Shake Shack, The New School, the Museum of Modern Art, the Sundance Institute, the High Line, Jazz at Lincoln Center, the Metropolitan Opera, the New York City Ballet, the New York Philharmonic, the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. ===Educator=== In 1992, she became a design educator, teaching at the School of Visual Arts (SVA) in New York. She received more than 300 awards from international design associations as well as a series of prizes from the American Institute of Graphic Design (AIGA), The Type Directors Club (NY), New York Art Directors Club and the Package Design Council. She is a select member of Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI) and her work is included in the collections of New York Museum of Modern Art, the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., the Museum für Gestaltung, Zurich and the Centre Georges Pompidou". As an artist she is known for her large-scale paintings of maps, covered with dense hand-painted labeling and information. She has taught at the School of Visual Arts in New York for over two decades, along with positions at the Cooper Union, Yale University and the Tyler School of Art.Piafsky, Michael.; Karlin, Ben.; Scher, Paula.; Javerbaum, David.; Stewart, Jon, 1962-. "An Interview with the Writers of America." The Missouri Review 28.1 (n.d.): 92-118. Project MUSE. EBSCO. Web. 26 Oct. 2011. === Print === Scher has contributed to numerous issues of Print. Her first Print cover was with her friend Steven Heller. Together they created a parody issue in 1985, a genealogy chart of graphic design.Walker, Alissa. "Design Revelation." Print 64.1 (2010): 18-19. Academic Search Complete. Web. === Television === Scher was profiled in the first season of the Netflix docu- series Abstract: The Art of Design. ==Branding & Identities Systems== ===The Public Theater=== In 1994, Scher was the first designer to create a new identity and promotional graphics system for The Public Theater, a program that became the turning point of identity in designs that influence much of the graphic design created for theatrical promotion and for cultural institutions in general."New Work: The Public Theater" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Based on the challenge to raise public awareness and attendance at the Public Theater along with trying to appeal to a more diverse demographic, Scher created a graphic language that reflected street typography and graffiti-like juxtaposition.Art Directors Club. Art Directors Annual 88: Advertising Design, Illustration, Interactive Photography. 88th Ed. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision, 2009. Print. In 1995, Scher and her Pentagram team created promotional campaigns for the Public Theater's production of Savion Glover's Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk that featured the wood typefaces used throughout The Public Theater's identity. Scher was inspired by Rob Ray Kelly's American Wood Types and the Victorian theater's poster when she created the cacophony of disparate wood typefaces, silhouetted photographs and bright flat colors for the theater's posters and billboard. Scher limited her colors to two or three while highlighted the play's title and theater logo that surrounded the tap artist in a typographical be-bop. The design was to appeal to a broad audience from the inner cities to the outer boroughs, especially those who hadn't been attracted to theater.Heller, Steve. "Street Theater." Print 50.3 (1996): 29. Academic Search Complete. Web. From 1993 to 2005, Scher worked closely with George C. Wolfe, The Public's producer and Oskar Eustis, who joined as artistic director during the fiftieth anniversary in 2005, on the development of posters, ads, and distinct identities. As part of the anniversary campaign, the identity was redrawn using the font Akzidenz Grotesk. The word "theater" was dropped and emphasis was placed on the word "public". By 2008, the identity was even more definitive as it used a font called Knockout, created by Hoefler & Frere-Jones, which provided affordable and accessible productions. The Public Theater posters: *Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk, Public Theater poster/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1995 *Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Punch, On-Broadway poster/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1996 *Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk, Final Season/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1997 *The Public Theater's Season Print Ads, Rendered in the New Identity/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1994 *HIM poster/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1994 *The Diva is Dismissed/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1994 *Fucking A, A Contemporary Take on The Scarlet Letter, poster/Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 2002 ====New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park==== In 1994, Scher created the first poster campaign for the New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park production of The Merry Wives of Windsor and Two Gentlemen of Verona, and was borrowed from the tradition of old-fashioned English theater style. This laid the foundation for the new overall identity and visual language that came to define the Public Theater for the rest of the decade and beyond. The designs for the Shakespeare in the Park campaign were seen across New York, including buses, subways, kiosks, and billboards. Scher's Shakespeare in the Park campaign had become a seasonal tradition in the city. The identity has progressed over the years, and the Public Theater logo was redesigned in 2005 and 2008. The campaign in 2008 for the productions of Hamlet and Hair utilized the strict 90 degree angles of a De Stijl-inspired grid, a pattern in Manhattan's streetscape. The identity is like New York itself, constantly evolving.Art Directors Club. Art Directors Annual 88: Advertising Design, Illustration, Interactive Photography.. 88th ed. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision, 2009. Print. In 2010, Scher designed the New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster which presented powerful productions of The Winter's Tale and The Merchant of Venice, starring Al Pacino as Shylock. Scher's festival promotional campaign focused on the reminiscent language in both plays by pulling lines from each production to meet in a dimensional expressive of words and typography. This campaign was awarded for Print Regional Design Annual 2011."New Work: Shakespeare in the Park 2010" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Web. <>. New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park posters: * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park: The Merry Wives of Windsor and Two Gentlemen of Verona – the first project Scher did for the Public Theater / Pentagram: Paula Scher/USA, 1994 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: The Tempest and Troilus and Cressida /Pentagram: Paula/USA, 1995 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Henry V and Timon of Athens / Pentagram: Paula/USA, 1996 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: On the Town and Henry/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 1997 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Cymbeline and Thornton Wilder's Skin of Our Teeth/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 1998 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: The Taming of the Shrew and Tartuffe/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 1999 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Winter's Tale and Julius Caesar/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2000 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Measure for Measure and The Seagull/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2001 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Henry V/ Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2003 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Much Ado About Nothing/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2004 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: As You Like It and Two Gentlemen of Verona/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2005 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: War/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2006 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night's Dream/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2007 * New York Shakespeare Festival in Central Park poster: Hamlet and Hair/Pentagram: Paula/USA, 2008 ===The Museum of Modern Art === The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) has one of the most recognizable logotypes in the museum world. In 1964, the Franklin Gothic No.2 logotype was originally designed by Ivan Chermayeff. By 2004, Matthew Carter had redrawn a new custom typeface named MoMA Gothic. Although MoMA's core identity is a well developed iconic museum, applications like the web, print, and physical environment have not been unified or visionary like the museum itself. In order to continually carry the spirit of the institution, the museum hired Pentagram to design a more powerful and integrated comprehensive system."New Work: The Museum of Modern Art" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Web. <>. To create a new approach that modernizes the institution's image, Paula Scher designed a complete methodology for the new system to work at any scale, from an exterior banner to a print advertisement in the newspaper. She designed a strong grid to uniform placement of images and types. The artwork is cropped to maximize visual impact, and each quadrant of a page or a banner has a specific function. A particular image is selected as the signature focus for an exhibit and list of upcoming events unrelated to the featured into a text block. The black on white logotype placed in a vertical position whenever is possible and always bleeds off an edge. Julia Hoffman, MoMA's creative Director for Graphic and Advertising, and her internal team have used the new system and brought the system to life in applications from larger banners and subway posters to the website.Wheeler, Alina. Designing Brand Identity: An Essential Guide For The Entire Branding Team. 3rd ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print. ===The Metropolitan Opera=== Paula Scher and Julia Hoffman designed the new identity for the Metropolitan Opera. The Metropolitan general manager, Peter Gelb, proposed to rebrand the institution and reach wide audiences like the younger generation who had never set foot inside the opera hall. The identity was set in Baskerville and Avenir and the campaign featured a performance of Madama Butterfly."New Work: The Metropolitan Opera" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. The print ad campaign launched on August 20, 2006 and according to Thomas Michel, the Metropolitan's marketing director, it was a successful sales day in the history of the organization. ===New York City Ballet=== Paula Scher designed a new identity and promotional campaign for the New York City Ballet, one of the largest and well-known dance companies, founded in 1933 by Lincoln Kirstein and George Balanchine. Scher designed with Lisa Kitchenberg of Pentagram and the NYCB's Luis Bravo, to create an identity that linked the company's legacy and location to a modern and dramatic new aesthetic. The logo was set in the font DIN, which appears slightly stacked on each layer. The palette was composed of black, white and silvery grays, resembling how the buildings of New York appear sometimes. It has a softened transparency and a subtle gradation of color that includes shades of blue blacks, green blacks and red blacks."New Work: New York City Ballet" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Scher also cropped the images of City Ballet dancers to create more tension and drama. The new identity and graphics appeared on bus shelter, subway poster, magazines and newspapers ads, in the company's programs and website, and in environmental graphics at the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center, where the company performs. === Period Equity === Paula Scher worked with associate designer Courtney Gooch to create the identity for Period Equity, a non-profit that is dedicated to providing affordable and safe access to menstrual products in the United States. She worked with Period Equity co-founders, Jennifer Weiss Wolf and Laura Strausfeld, to create the identity. Weiss-Wolf and Strausfeld initially wanted to call their organization "Menstrual Equality", but Scher saw Period Equity as less off-putting. The term "period" is more playful than "menstrual", and allows for more graphic options. When the organization achieves its goal, the name can be shifted to "Equity, Period". This will allow them to later extend their work beyond menstrual inequality into other issues. Scher used the typeface New Rail Alphabet, designed by Margaret Calvert, for its neutral appearance, but replaced its square-edged punctuation with round. The branding concept puts their wordmark in between two big red dots on a white background. These dots are meant to allude to the idea of periods, but they are used in a clean and modernist style. The identity also uses copy such as "Periods are not luxuries. Period." to play with the theme. The identity is serious enough for legal work, but also loud and fun, which is necessary when discussing a topic that is normally stigmatized and seen as not appropriate to discuss in public. === Microsoft: Windows 8 logo === In 2012, Scher created a new logo for Windows 8 that takes the logo back to its roots as a window. The logo re-imagines their older four- colour symbol as a more modern geometric shape. Early in the development process, Scher asked Microsoft, "Your name is Windows. Why are you a flag?" Although Microsoft's original brand started as a window, its graphic evolved into a flag as computing systems became more powerful. As Scher assumed, the waving flag was most likely the result of comments that a plain window looked too static with severe straight lines. The old logo was flat and drawn in motion, while the new logo can convey actual motion by suggesting dimensionality using lines receding into space. This worked better with the brand, as the name Windows was originally used as a metaphor for seeing into screens. The logo itself is based on classical perspective drawing rather than computerized perspective. The cross bars on the window stay the same size no matter what the size of the logo is, meaning it must be redrawn for each time it increases in size. The focus on the analogy of perspective was used to convey the idea that Microsoft products are tools for individuals to achieve their goals from their own perspective. The logo design is neutral to show that it can work in many situations, and for any user. The new logo is meant to work with the Metro design language of Windows 8. ==Environmental graphic designs== ===New Jersey Performing Arts Center=== In 2000, Paula Scher designed an interior design for the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. In the design, there are words running along the walls, tubes and balconies reflecting with vast letters that gives a joyful effect to represent the show's performance in the building.Luca Simeone. "Learning from Interstitial Typography." Leonardo 44.5 (2011): 466-467. Project MUSE. Web. 14 Sep. 2011. It was signature and environmental graphics for the Lucent Technologies Center for Arts Education, a school affiliated with NJPAC.Pentagram." Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Web. === Achievement First Endeavor Middle School=== For the Achievement First Endeavor Middle School at Clinton Hill, Brooklyn, a charter school for grades 5 through 8, Scher created a program of environmental graphic that helps school interiors to become a better learning environment. She created a vibrant space with bold typography font of Rockwell and simple paint to change the life of its students. With the help of Rogers Marvel Architects, who designed the school as a refurbishment and expansion of the existing building. The design was based on Endeavor's teaching philosophy and a series of motivational slogans used by its teachers. Scher enlarged these concepts into super-graphics that help define the interior spaces. The graphics appear as an equations form ("Education = Choice", "Education = Freedom") in the hallways and quotations running around the wall of gymnasium and staircase, to encourage students to do better and create a unique environment of their own."New Work: Achievement First Endeavor Middle School" Pentagram. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2011 ==Paintings== ===The Maps=== In 2006, an exhibition at Maya StendhalMaya Stendhal gallery in New York City, Paula Scher painted two 9-by-12-foot maps that resembled patchwork quilts from afar, but contain much textual detail. She created lines that represented the separation of political allies or borders dividing enemies. Scher created the maps into layers that reference what we think when we think of Japan, Kenya, or the Upper East Side. For instance, The United States (1999) was painted in blocky white print and full with a list of facts that we comprehend when we think about cities. Africa (2003) is represented in a stark black and white palette, hinting at a tortured colonial past. The land of the red rising sun is represented when we think of Japan (2004).Coggins, David. "Paula Scher At Maya Stendhal." Art In America 94.4 (2006): 156. Academic Search Complete. Web. This was Scher's first solo exhibition as a fine artist and she sold every piece between $40,000 to $135,000. The Maya Stendhal's owner decided to extend the exhibition for four weeks, until January 21. Therefore, Scher decided to produce silk-screened prints of The World that contained large- scale images of cities, states, and continents blanketed with place names and other information. It is full of mistakes, misspellings, and visual allusions to stereotypes of places such as South America, painted with hot colors and has two ovaries on the sides. It was not created to be a reliable map but convey a sense of the places that are mediated and mangled. Scher has been described as a "maximalist", stating, "Less is more and more is more. It's the middle that's not a good place"."Paula Scher – 'Less is more and more is more. It's the middle that's not a good place'" The Creative Chair 26 Apr. 2017 Scher is currently represented by Bryce Wolkowitz Gallery. ===NYC Transit and Manhattan=== In 2007, Paula Scher created screen-prints of NYC Transit and Manhattan that were printed on hand-made deluxe Lana Quarelle paper. NYC Transit portrays the island of Manhattan as a busy destination crisscrossed by a subway system of loopy, color-coded lines and stations. It also shows the Manhattan night famed neighborhoods."Art World's Latest Sensation, Paula Scher, Paints the Town Red, Yellow, Green and Blue." PR Newswire Europe 7 Dec. 2007,: NewsBank. Web. ===Limited Edition Print Map=== In 2008, Maya Stendhal released a limited edition print map of China and renowned artist Paula Scher. The map is 48.5 x 40 inches, printed on deluxe Lanaquarelle paper, hand-made in the Vosges region of France. Scher collaborated with Alexander Heinrici to convey the hand-painted map to represent the rapid economic growth, booming industry, the success of Olympic bid, and superpower status on China."RENOWNED ARTIST PAULA SCHER RELEASES NEW LIMITED EDITION PRINT 'CHINA'." Asia Pulse 7 Aug. 2008,: NewsBank. Web. ==Personal life== In January 1970, Paula Scher met Seymour Chwast when she was a senior at the Tyler School of Art. They met through an interview at Push Pin Studios, arranged by an art director named Harris Lewine, where she took her portfolio to him. In 1973, she and Chwast married, and divorced five years later. They remarried in 1989. Scher and Chwast live and work in New York City. ==Awards== * Art Directors Club Hall of Fame 1998, Chrysler Award for Innovation in Design 2000, AIGA Medal 2001, * National Design Award (Cooper Hewitt Smithsonian) 2013 * Honorary doctorates from Corcoran School of Art, Maryland Institute of Art and Moore College of Art * Awards for graphic design; American Book Award nominations for best book design, and for best compilation of written and graphic material, both 1981, both for The Honeymoon Book: A Tribute to the Last Ritual of Sexual Innocence."Paula Scher." Contemporary Authors Online. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Literature Resource Center. Web. * The School of Visual Arts grants a Master Series Award, showcase of Make It Bigger"Scher Talent." New York 35.37 (2002): 113. Academic Search Complete. Web. * Awards: Print's Regional Design Annual 2011 for Shakespeare in the Park 2010 campaign, Map Murals for Queens Metropolitan Campus, and Environmental Graphic for Parking Garage at 13-17 East 54th Street.. ==Books== * The Brownstone, Princeton Architectural Press, 2016. () * Scher, Paula. (2002) Make it Bigger. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, Hamlett, Phil. "Make It Bigger (Book)." Library Journal 127.17 (2002): 69. Academic Search Complete. Web. * Scher, Paula. (2011) Maps. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, "AIGANY / PAULA SCHER: MAPS INTRODUCTION BY STEPHEN DOYLE." AIGA/NY. N.p., n.d. Web.<>. ==Book reviews== * Chwast, Seymour, and Scher, Paula. "Bookend." New York Times Book Review (1998): 55.Seymour, Chwast, and Scher Paula. "Bookend." New York Times Book Review (1998): 55. Academic Search Complete. Web. * Scher, Paula. "The Queen Of Howdy Doody Dada." Print 54.3 (2000): 61.Scher, Paula. "The Queen Of Howdy Doody Dada." Print 54.3 (2000): 61. Academic Search Complete. Web. ==Newspaper articles== * * ==Notes== ==Further reading== * Helvetica (2007 film) includes an interview with Scher * Paula Scher: Recent Exhibitions at Stendhal Gallery New York (2006–2010) * Paula Scher bio at AIGA.org *Paula Scher bio at pentagram.com * Paula Scher Curriculum Vitae (CV) * Hillmancurtis feature Paula Scher: Type is Image (QuickTime) * Art Directors Club biography, portrait and images of work * Paula Scher: Great design is serious at TED * ==External links== *Paula Scher: Pentagram * *Paula Scher: Bryce Wolkowitz Gallery *Paual Scher: Designer at play(TED) *Paula Scher: Great design is serious at TED * Helvetica (2007) includes an interview with Paula Scher. Helvetica Website * https://www.moma.org/artists/7070 Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:People from Washington, D.C. Category:AIGA medalists Category:American graphic designers Category:Women graphic designers Category:Temple University Tyler School of Art alumni Category:School of Visual Arts faculty Category:Design educators Category:American women illustrators Category:American illustrators Category:American women academics Category:21st-century American women Category:Pentagram partners (past and present)
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Janie Dee (born 20 June 1962) is an English actress and singer. She won the Olivier Award for Best Actress, Evening Standard Award and Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Actress in a Play, and in New York the Obie and Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer, for her performance as Jacie Triplethree in Alan Ayckbourn's Comic Potential. She also won the Olivier Award for Best Supporting Performance in a Musical for her performance as Carrie Pipperidge in Nicholas Hytner's acclaimed production of Rodgers & Hammerstein's Carousel at the National Theatre. In 2013, Dee won the TMA Theatre Award UK for Best Performance in a Musical for her performance as Dolly Levi in Hello Dolly at Curve, Leicester. ==Early life and education== Janie Dee was born in Old Windsor, Berkshire. She is the daughter of John Lewis and Ruth Lewis (née Miller) and the eldest of four sisters. She trained at the Arts Educational School in Chiswick, London. On leaving ArtsEd, Dee began her career as a dancer, subsequently moving to Rome, Italy where she taught dance, took singing lessons, and learned to speak Italian. ==Theatre== ===1986–2000=== Dee's first West End production was Gillian Lynne's 1986 revival of Cabaret by Kander and Ebb in which she played Gertie and understudied the role of Sally Bowles. This led to an invitation from Wayne Sleep, who played the Emcee in that production, to join his UK tour as The Singer. Subsequently, the choreographer Bill Deamer invited her to the Salisbury Playhouse to perform in A Chorus of Disapproval by Alan Ayckbourn and as Jack in Jack and the Beanstalk at Christmas 1987.Details of playbill attached https://archive.kent.ac.uk/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id;=PRG%2FJMS%2FF241211 This led to leading roles in musical theatre, including Sarah Brown in Guys and Dolls, Ellie May Chipley in the award-winning Royal Shakespeare Company and Opera North production of Show Boat at the London Palladium, Bombalurina in Andrew Lloyd Webber's Cats, Duke Ellington's Sophisticated Ladies, Claudine in Cole Porter's Can-Can, and Ado Annie in the national tour of Oklahoma!. Dee's portrayal of Carrie Pipperidge in the 1993 Royal National Theatre's production of Carousel earned her an Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical and an invitation from Sir Richard Eyre to play her first major straight role; that of Julie in Johnny on a Spot at the National Theatre, where she subsequently went on to play Helen of Troy in The Women of Troy. Dee has had an important working relationship with the playwright and director Alan Ayckbourn. This began with Paul Todd's fringe production of Between The Lines for which Ayckbourn wrote song lyrics and was followed by Dreams From A Summerhouse at the Stephen Joseph Theatre in Scarborough. She returned to work with Ayckbourn in 1996 in Neil Simon's They're Playing Our Song after which Ayckbourn wrote Comic Potential 'with Janie in mind'. Her performance as Jacie Triplethree at Scarborough, subsequently in the West End and then at the Manhattan Theatre Club in New York, won her the aforementioned Best Actress Awards in London and New York, as well as considerable critical acclaim. In New York Magazine, John Simon wrote "Miss Dee's creation is a spectacular achievement. I am not sure that I have ever seen its equal, but I am certain I have never seen, nor ever will see, it's superior." ===2001–10=== Dee is known for her versatility as a performer. She was invited by opera director David Pountney, to play Lidotchka in his production of Shostakovich's Paradise Moscow for Opera North. She followed this playing Masha in Brian Friel's translation of Chekhov's Three Sisters and Edyth Herbert, opposite Tim Flavin in the George Gershwin musical My One and Only, both at the Chichester Festival Theatre. My One and Only subsequently transferred to the West End and Dee was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical. As a result, in 2003 Sir Peter Hall asked Dee to star in his season at the Theatre Royal, Bath, playing Gilda in Noël Coward's Design for Living and Emma in Harold Pinter's Betrayal, opposite Aden Gillett and Hugo Speer. Betrayal subsequently transferred to the Duchess Theatre in the West End. Hall then invited her to play Beatrice in his production of Much Ado About Nothing. In 2005 Pinter invited Dee to play Kate in Old Times at the Gate Theatre, Dublin and to participate in a celebration of his work, including a reading of his play Celebration, with Jeremy Irons, Derek Jacobi, Sinéad Cusack, Penelope Wilton, Michael Gambon, Stephen Rea and Stephen Brennan. Producer, Michael Colgan, subsequently transferred the piece to London's Noël Coward Theatre, for 3 performances, with Charles Dance playing the Maitre D. Six months later Celebration was filmed for Channel 4, with Colin Firth playing the role of Russell, opposite Dee as Suki. In 2006 Dee returned to musical theatre to play Mabel Normand in John Doyle's production of Jerry Herman's Mack and Mabel opposite David Soul at the Criterion Theatre, after which Dee took over the role of Lady Driver in Michael Frayn's Donkeys' Years at the Comedy Theatre. At the end of the run Dee helped to organise a reading for charity of William Nicholson's play Shadowlands which deals with the relationship between C. S. Lewis and the American writer Joy Gresham. Charles Dance played C.S. Lewis. Sir Peter Hall, Harold Pinter and Dee were reunited for the National tour of Old Times with Susannah Harker and Neil Pearson and then a West End Production of Shadowlands was mounted in which Dee was reunited with director Michael Barker-Caven and Charles Dance. The production began at Wyndham's Theatre and subsequently transferred to the Novello Theatre. Charles Dance received the Critic's Circle Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of C. S. Lewis. In 2008 Dee returned to the Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park to play Olivia in Twelfth Night opposite her Carousel co- star, Clive Rowe. Alan Ayckbourn then invited Dee back to Scarborough to play the title role of Susan in a revival of his play Woman in Mind for which she won critical acclaim and the production subsequently transferred to the Vaudeville Theatre in London. In 2009 Dee returned to Theatre Royal Bath to play Orinthia in George Bernard Shaw's The Apple Cart, directed by Sir Peter Hall, and took over the role of Annie in Calendar Girls by Tim Firth in the West End. In 2010, Dee played The Countess of Roussillion in All's Well That Ends Well at Shakespeare's Globe which was filmed for DVD release by Opus Arte, Anna Leonowens in Rodgers and Hammerstein's The King and I at the Curve, Leicester, and played Natalya in Jonathan Kent's production of A Month in the Country at Chichester. ===2011–2020=== In 2011 she played Belinda in the Old Vic revival of Michael Frayn's Noises Off which was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Revival and subsequently transferred to the Novello Theatre. In 2012, Dee was offered the role of women's magazine editor, Miranda in NSFW, a new play by Lucy Kirkwood at the Royal Court Theatre for which she was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. At Christmas 2012 Dee played Dolly Levi in Paul Kerryson's revival of Hello Dolly! at the Curve, Leicester for which she won the TMA Theatre Award UK for Best Performance in a Musical. In 2013 she appeared in the Stephen Sondheim revue, Putting It Together for four performances in Guildford, alongside David Bedella, Daniel Crossley, Damian Humbly and Caroline Sheen which subsequently transferred for a three-week run at the St James Theatre, London in January 2014. From March until June 2014, Dee co- starred in the London revival of Noël Coward's Blithe Spirit at the Gielgud Theatre, opposite Dame Angela Lansbury, who reprised her 2009 Tony Award- winning Broadway performance as Madame Arcati. The London cast was Charles Edwards, Jemima Rooper, Serena Evans, Simon Jones and Patsy Ferran. From September until December 2014, Dee played Titania/Hippolyta in Dominic Dromgoole's production of A Midsummer Night's Dream on a tour of Asia & Russia by Shakespeare's Globe. The production opened at the Rose Theatre, Kingston and then toured to Aylesbury Waterside Theatre before travelling to China, Taiwan, Russia, Singapore & Hong Kong. The cast included Aden Gillett as Oberon/Theseus and Trevor Fox as Bottom. In January 2015 Dee starred as Desiree Armfeldt in a Gala Concert performance of Sondheim's A Little Night Music at London's Palace Theatre to mark the 40th anniversary of the original London production. The concert also starred Anne Reid, David Birrell, Joanna Riding, Jamie Parker, Anna O'Byrne, Fra Fee and Laura Pitt-Pulford. It was directed by Alastair Knights and the producer and musical director was Alex Parker. Later the same year she played Helene Hanff in a revival of 84, Charing Cross Road at Salisbury Playhouse, co-starring Clive Francis as Frank Doel and directed by James Roose-Evans. In April/May she starred in a revival of Eugene O'Neill's Ah, Wilderness! at the Young Vic. Whilst appearing in the O'Neill play, Dee also performed a special one-off show, Dream Queen in the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse at Shakespeare's Globe, as part of the London Festival of Cabaret. It drew on her experiences on the Globe tour of Asia and Russia and the inspiration of Elizabeth I and Shakespeare and she was joined by special guests, Juliet Stevenson and Kit Hesketh-Harvey and in the summer she played Irina Arkadina in Torben Betts' version of The Seagull, directed by Matthew Dunster at Regent's Park Open Air Theatre. In 2016 she starred in the West End transfer of Tony-nominated Broadway comedy Hand to God at the Vaudeville Theatre in London, Hand to God gets West End transfer with Janie Dee and Jemima Rooper The Stage 19 November 2015 alongside Harry Melling, Neil Pearson, Jemima Rooper and Kevin Mains. The production was nominated for an Olivier Award in 2016 as Best New Comedy. In April 2017 Dee completed a critically acclaimed run playing the title role in Linda by Penelope Skinner at Manhattan Theatre Club, New York City for which she was nominated for an Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play and starred as Phyllis Rogers Stone in Stephen Sondheim and James Goldman's Follies at the National Theatre in London, opposite Imelda Staunton, Tracie Bennett and Philip Quast for which she was nominated for the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical, the Evening Standard Award for Best Musical Performance, and the WhatOnStage Award for Best Actress in a Musical. In 2018 she starred in Monogamy, a dark new comedy by Torben Betts, which plays at London's Park Theatre after a short UK tour, and appeared in Moonlight, directed by Lyndsey Turner and Night School, directed by Ed Stambollouian as part of the Jamie Lloyd Company's Pinter at the Pinter season. The following year Janie starred in the UK premiere of Christopher Durang's Tony Award-winning play Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike at Theatre Royal Bath, directed by Walter Bobbie which subsequently transferred to the Charing Cross Theatre in London. She played Fosca in Stephen Sondheim's musical Passion at the Cantiere Internazionale d'Arte di Montepulciano, Italy directed by Keith Warner and returned to London to star in Off-Broadway play The Niceties by Eleanor Burgess at the Finborough Theatre opposite Moronkẹ Akinola and directed by Matthew Iliffe, followed by a revival of Sandy Wilson's The Boy Friend at the Menier Chocolate Factory directed by Matthew White. ===2021–present=== In spring 2022, Janie starred opposite Griff Rhys Jones in An Hour And a Half Late at Theatre Royal Bath and on a UK tour. In May Janie, along with a host of West End stars, paid tribute to the late Stephen Sondheim in Stephen Sondheim's Old Friends A Celebration, staged by Matthew Bourne and Maria Friedman, with choreography by Stephen Mear, and produced by Cameron Mackintosh at the Sondheim Theatre. Further Sondheim tributes took place at Cadogan Hall, conceived and conducted by Alex Parker with his Luminaire Orchestra, at the Garrick Club, and the Victoria & Albert Museum, where Janie performed a cabaret as part of The Art of Making Art: Staging Sondheim. ==Film and television== Dee has appeared in numerous TV dramas, including Love Hurts, The Bill, as Remy in 8 episodes of London's Burning, Heartbeat, House of Cards, Midsomer Murders, A Tribute to Harold Pinter, the South Bank Show with Sir Peter Hall and In Love With Shakespeare for Sky TV. In 2003, Dee played Emma Lavenham opposite Martin Shaw's Adam Dalgliesh in two P.D. James adaptations for the BBC; Death in Holy Orders and The Murder Room. In 2008 she played Zac Efron's mother, Mrs Samuels in Me and Orson Welles and in 2013 Dee filmed Dare To Be Wild, written and directed by Vivienne Decourcy in Dublin for Oasis Films and The Trouble With Dot And Harry, opposite Neil Morrissey directed by Sundance Festival Grand Prize-winner, Gary Walkow. In January 2016, Dee appeared as Cara in comedy series Crashing written by and starring Phoebe Waller-Bridge and produced by Big Talk Productions for Channel 4 and in 2019 she appeared in the film Official Secrets with Keira Knightly and Matt Smith and the Channel Four adaptation of Lucy Kirkwood's Chimerica with Sophie Okonedo. Dee's latest TV projects include Jamie Davis’ London-set three-part drama You & Me for ITV and ITVX, with Harry Lawtey, Jessica Barden and Sophia Brown, and The Burning Girls produced by Buccaneer Media for Paramount+, a 6-part adaptation of the novel by CJ Tudor, with Samantha Morton and Ruby Stokes. ==Radio== Dee has recorded a number of musicals, concerts and dramas for radio, including Carousel and Finian's Rainbow for BBC Radio 2, and she has played Ian Fleming's Miss Moneypenny in radio dramatisations of the James Bond classics On Her Majesty's Secret Service, From Russia With Love, Dr No and Thunderball, as well as a role in Michael Frayn's Skios, all directed by Martin Jarvis. In 2013 she was invited by composer Guy Barker to be the narrator in his new orchestral work That Obscure Hurt which was premiered at the Aldeburgh Festival 2013, as part of the Benjamin Britten centenary celebrations and was broadcast live on BBC Radio 3. She has also appeared as a guest on the quiz show Quote... Unquote for BBC Radio 4. ==Recordings== * Cabaret (1986 London Revival Cast, First Night Records OCRCD6010) * Can Can (1988 London Revival Cast, Virgin CDV 2570) * Salad Days (1994 Studio Cast, EMI Classics CDC 5 55200 2) * The Shakespeare Revue (1998 Original London Cast, TER Records) * Fred Astaire: His Daughter's Tribute (2001 London Cast Recording, First Night Records CASTCD81) * Act One: Songs From The Musicals Of Alexander S. Bermange (2008 Dress Circle Records) * Janie Dee at the BBC (2017 Auburn Jam Music) ==Personal== Janie Dee is married to the actor and barrister Rupert Wickham and they have two children. Her sister-in-law is actress Saskia Wickham. She is a member of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Theatrical Fund and supports a number of charities including Stop the War Coalition, St Mungos, Medecins Sans Frontieres and Amnesty International. In March 2003, Dee devised and produced the London Concert For Peace, a charity concert celebrating the joy of life which was performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane with a cast including Dame Judi Dench, Sir Ian McKellen and David Tennant. Proceeds from the concert were donated to Amnesty International, CARE, Oxfam and the Red Cross. In June 2014, Dee organised a Noël Coward charity cabaret, entitled I Went to a Marvellous Party at London's historic Cafe de Paris, as a celebration of and farewell to Angela Lansbury, marking the end of the run of Blithe Spirit in London. The Blithe Spirit company performed songs by Noël Coward, a charity auction was hosted by Christopher Biggins and there were special guest appearances by Imelda Staunton and Barry Humphries. Proceeds from the event were donated to Asylum Link Merseyside, Combined Theatrical Charities, Masterclass, Mousetrap, the Noël Coward Foundation and the Royal Academy of Music. In 2020, Dee organised the London Climate Change Festival. The Festival was organised to inspire, inform and bring hope around climate change. It brought together people from science, the arts, business and activism to discuss what can be done in regards to the climate crisis. The London Climate Change Festival was scheduled to commence on Monday 23 March. Due to COVID-19 Pandemic it took place online. ==Work== ===Theatre=== Year Title Role Venue 1993 Romeo And Juliet Lady Capulet Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park 1994 Johnny on a Spot Julie Glynn Royal National Theatre 1995 Women of Troy Helen of Troy Royal National Theatre 1999 House / Garden Joanna Mace Stephen Joseph Theatre 1998 Comic Potential Jacie Triplethree Stephen Joseph Theatre / Lyric Theatre 2000 Comic Potential Jacie Triplethree Manahattan Theatre Club 2001 Three Sisters Masha Chichester Festival 2003 Design For Living Gilda Theatre Royal, Bath / Tour 2003 Betrayal Emma Duchess Theatre / Tour 2005 Much Ado About Nothing Beatrice Theatre Royal, Bath 2005 Old Times Kate Gate Theatre, Dublin 2005 Celebration Suki Gate Theatre, Dublin / Albery Theatre 2006 Donkey's Years Lady Driver Comedy Theatre 2007 Old Times Kate National Tour 2007 Shadowlands Joy Gresham Wyndhams Theatre / National Tour 2008 Twelfth Night Olivia Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park 2009 Woman in Mind Susan Stephen Joseph Theatre / Vaudeville Theatre 2009 The Apple Cart Orinthia Theatre Royal, Bath 2009 Calendar Girls Annie Noël Coward Theatre 2010 The Little Hut Susan National Tour 2010 A Month in the Country Natalia Chichester Festival 2011 All's Well That Ends Well Countess of Rousillon Shakespeare's Globe 2011 Private Lives Amanda Nottingham Playhouse 2011 Noises Off Belinda Old Vic / Novello Theatre 2012 NSFW Miranda The Royal Court 2014 Blithe Spirit Ruth Gielgud Theatre 2014 A Midsummer Night's Dream Titania / Hippolyta Shakespeare's Globe on Tour / Asia & Russia 2015 84 Charing Cross Road Helene Hanff Salisbury Playhouse 2015 Ah, Wilderness! Essie Miller Young Vic 2015 The Seagull Irina Arkadina Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park 2016 Hand To God Margery Vaudeville Theatre 2017 Linda Linda Manhattan Theatre Club 2019 Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike Masha Theatre Royal Bath ===Musical theatre=== Year Title Role Venue 1986 Cabaret Gussy, Helga, u/s Sally Bowles Strand Theatre 1988 Can-Can Claudine Strand Theatre 1988 Cats Bombalurina New London Theatre 1989 Showboat Ellie May Chipley London Palladium / National Tour 1992 Sophisticated Ladies Company Gielgud Theatre / National Tour 1992 Between The Lines Jenny Etcetera Theatre 1992 Dreams From A Summerhouse Amanda Stephen Joseph Theatre 1993 A Connecticut Yankee Sandy Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park 1993 Carousel Carrie Pipperidge Royal National Theatre 1994 The Shakepare Revue Company RSC (The Pit) / Vaudeville Theatre 1997 They're Playing Our Song Sonia Stephen Joseph Theatre 1998 Enter The Guardsman The Actress Donmar Warehouse 1998 Love Songs For Shopkeepers Michelle Stephen Joseph Theatre 1996 The Sound of Music Maria Crucible, Sheffield 1999 South Pacific Nellie Forbush Crucible, Sheffield 2001 Paradise Moscow Lydochka Opera North 2001 My One And Only Edythe Chichester Festival / Piccadilly Theatre 2002 Divas at the Donmar One Woman Show Donmar Warehouse 2003 Anyone Can Whistle Fay Apple Bridewell Theatre 2006 Mack And Mabel Mabel Normand Criterion Theatre / Tour 2010 The King And I Anna Leonowens Curve, Leicester 2012 Hello Dolly! Dolly Levi Curve, Leicester 2013 Putting It Together Woman One G-Live, Guildford / St James Theatre 2015 A Little Night Music (Concert) Desiree Armfeldt Palace Theatre 2017 Follies Phyllis Rogers Stone National Theatre 2019 Passion Fosca Cantiere Internazionale d'Arte ===Filmography=== Year Title Role Notes 1999 Out of the Cold (The Virtuoso) Consul's Secretary Old Town Pictures / Dir. Aleksandr Buravskiy 2004 "The Murder Room" Emma BBC Series 2008 Me and Orson Welles Mrs Samuels Cinemax Productions / Dir. Richard Linklater 2013 Dare to be Wild Marigold Treasure / Dir. Vivienne Decourcy 2013 The Trouble With Dot and Harry Diane Dir. Gary Walkow The Burning Girls Upcoming TV Series ===Radio=== Year Title Role Notes 2003 Under The Net BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Maria Aitken 2004 Forever Mine Angela BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2008 Dr No Miss Moneypenny BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2009 Man of the Moment Trudie Parks BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2009 Words & Music: The Double Narrator BBC Radio 3 / Prod. Peter Meanwell 2012 From Russia With Love Miss Moneypenny BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2013 Skios Georgie BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2013 On Her Majesty's Secret Service Miss Moneypenny BBC Radio 4 / Dir. Martin Jarvis 2013 That Obscure Hurt Narrator BBC Radio 3 / Composer Guy Barker ==Awards and nominations== Year Award Category Work Result 1993 Laurence Olivier Award Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical Carousel 1999 Evening Standard Theatre Award Best Actress Comic Potential Critics' Circle Theatre Award Best Actress 2000 Laurence Olivier Award Best Actress 2001 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actress in a Play Lucile Lortel Award Outstanding Actress Obie Award Performance Theatre World Award 2003 Laurence Olivier Award Best Actress in a Musical My One and Only 2013 Laurence Olivier Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role NSFW UK Theatre Award Best Performance in a Musical Hello, Dolly! 2017 Evening Standard Theatre Award Best Musical Performance Follies 2018 Laurence Olivier Award Best Actress in a Musical WhatsOnStage Award Best Actress in a Musical ==References== ==External links== * Official website * *Janie Dee at IOBDB Category:English women singers Category:English musical theatre actresses Category:English stage actresses Category:English television actresses Category:Laurence Olivier Award winners Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members Category:British Shakespearean actresses Category:Living people Category:People educated at the Arts Educational Schools Category:English film actresses Category:Actresses from Berkshire Category:Theatre World Award winners Category:People from Old Windsor Category:20th-century English actresses Category:21st-century English actresses Category:Musicians from Berkshire Category:1962 births
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Eurostar is a satellite bus made by Airbus Defence and Space (formerly Astrium, and before 1994, British Aerospace, and Matra Marconi Space (the former Marconi Space having been merged with Matra's former "Matra Espace" division) which has been used for a series of spacecraft providing telecommunications services in geosynchronous orbit (GEO). More than 70 Eurostar satellites have been ordered to date, of which more than 55 have been successfully launched since October 1990 and have proven highly reliable in operational service. In December 2013, the Eurostar satellites accumulated 500 years of successful operations in orbit.Astrium celebrates 500 years of successful Eurostar satellite operation in orbit, UKspace, 27.12.2013 The Eurostar spacecraft series is designed for a variety of telecommunications needs including fixed services and broadcast, mobile services, broadband and secured communications. ==Development== Eurostar was designed in the mid 1980s jointly by Matra Marconi Space and BAe (now integrated within Airbus Defence and Space) to Inmarsat specifications, for a market which at the time had a design envelope of 1.8-2.5 Tons on the proposed launch vehicles (STS PAM D2 and Ariane 4). Satellite payload power was from 1300 to 2600 W. This was the first commercial satellite to have a digital avionics system modular in concept. With this system architecture, all key satellite parameters are in software, which permits mission specific requirements to be implemented without hardware changes. The initial satellite structure and configuration designed to early requirements had significant growth potential, which subsequently allowed the payload capability (mass and power) to be more than quadrupled between 1987 and 1992, with a minimum of re qualification. Airbus DS has since developed further the product line in a staged process which mainly increases the satellite power and propulsion capability and real estate for accommodation of equipment and antennas. The overall configuration of Eurostar satellites has essentially not changed in 20 years through the successive generations Eurostar E1000, E2000, E2000+ and E3000. They have just become larger, more powerful, with implementation costs reduced through longer orbit manoeuvring lifetime, and more efficient and powerful payloads. Nowadays the Eurostar E3000 series has been considerably enhanced and updated with the latest technologies, still maintaining the basic proven configuration. A new version E3000e introduced in 2014 uses electric propulsion for orbit raising. ==Range== ===Eurostar E1000=== The original Eurostar E1000 satellite was designed for the Inmarsat-2 fleet requirements by an international team led by Matra Marconi Space and British Aerospace Space Systems (BAe Dynamics), the former of which would ultimately acquire BAe Dynamics to eventually become Astrium and eventually merge with Airbus Military to form the present Airbus Defence and Space. Three-axis stabilized, and designed for a 10-year service life, the Inmarsat-2 had 4 (+2) L-band transponders and 1 (+1) C-Band transponders. The satellite featured a launch mass of , however, the satellite bus was designed to weigh up to to accommodate future customer requirements. Subsequently, the spacecraft also came with different payload power options ranging from 1300 W to 3000 W. This degree of customization was the result of a highly modular design that would carry over onto the upgraded variants. A total of four satellites based on the E1000 bus have been built and launched, all of which were for Inmarsat. ===Eurostar E2000/E2000+=== The Eurostar E2000, which debuted with France Telecom as the launch customer in December 1991, was a larger and more capable upgrade of the E1000. It was developed from a set of requirements by the French Space Agency (CNES) and the French Ministry of Armed Forces via the Directorate-General for Armaments (DGA). The DGA had decided to repartner with CNES in order to add X-Band capabilities to the mission to enable the creation of their Syracuse II military ground-based telecommunications network, and to replace and enhance the role of the Syracuse I systems aboard the aging Telecom-1 fleet. The first of the satellites to be launched would be the Telecom 2A. Each of the four Telecom-2 satellites in the constellation had 10 x C-Band transponders, 14 x Ku-Band transponders and 5 x X-Band transponders. Despite the increase in capabilities, the E2000 bus used for Telecom-2 was only slightly heavier than the E1000, with an on-orbit mass of and a dry weight of , however, like its predecessor, was also designed to accommodate larger payloads with a total launch mass of up to , should the customer require it. The E2000’s operational/maneuverability life varied by customer, but ranged from 7 to 10 years. The E2000’s main power comes from two swivelling solar arrays, with later models capable of producing up to 3600W per array, or 6200 W total with an optional array spanning . The E2000+ satellite bus offered a series of significant upgrades, in addition to being slightly larger than the E2000. Upgrades included: *Increased efficiency in its ability to operate over 40 transponders *Increased maximum launch mass of up to *Increased payload power up to *Capability to carry up to 48 high powered amplifiers in addition to large multiple antenna configurations *Increased maneuverability life to 15 years *Integration of CCSDS telemetry and telecommand protocols. The first E2000+ customer was Eutelsat's Hot Bird 2. At least 23 E2000 and E2000+ satellite busses were built, with a total of 22 launches. ===Eurostar E3000 & Eurostar Neo=== The Eurostar E3000 satellite bus was first launched in 2004 with Eutesat's Eutelsat W3A payload. Building upon the idea of modularity, the satellite itself can be built with several modules to serve different missions, all based around a common service module, communications module with 1,2, or 3 floors, a chemical or chemical-electric propulsion module, and scalable payload power options. Satellite power can be up to 16 kW (16,000 W) stored in either NiH2 or Lithium-Ion batteries. The solar array's wingspan is also scalable, and capable of deploying to be up to wide. The spacecraft's maximum launch mass has increased to , while its telecommunications payload capacity has been increased to up to 120 installed high-power amplifiers/transponders. In 2018, Airbus D&S; launched the first E3000e - a modified E3000 with all-electric propulsion, removing the standard propulsion module and over of excess mass with it. SES-12 for SES S.A. was the first customer for the E3000e in June 2018. At least 48 x E3000 and E3000e satellite busses had been built and launched by the end of 2018. An improved model based on the E3000e called the Eurostar Neo was announced in 2017, offering electric, hybrid, or chemical propulsion, in addition to a scalable power range of 7 kW to 25 kW. In 2021 the first Eurostar Neo, Eutelsat Hot Bird 13F, started final integration. As of 2020, a total of 84 Eurostar satellites had been ordered, with 6 E3000e satellites already in operation. ==Modularity== The Eurostar satellite structures are modular with a separate Service- Propulsion module and Communications module. ==Satellite orders== ===Eurostar-1000=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Inmarsat-2 F1 International Inmarsat Communications 4 L-band, 1 C-band Delta II 6925 Retired Inmarsat-2 F2 International Inmarsat Communications 4 L-band, 1 C-band Delta II 6925 Retired Inmarsat-2 F3 International Inmarsat Communications 4 L-band, 1 C-band Ariane-44L Retired Inmarsat-2 F2 International Inmarsat Communications 4 L-band, 1 C-band Ariane-44L Retired ===Eurostar-2000=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Hispasat 1A Spain Hispasat Communications & military communications 12 Ku-band, 3 X-band Ariane-44L Retired Hispasat 1B Spain Hispasat Communications & military communications 12 Ku-band, 3 X-band Ariane-44L Active Nilesat 101 Egypt Nilesat Television broadcasting 12 Ku-band Ariane-44P Retired Nilesat 102 Egypt Nilesat Television broadcasting 12 Ku-band Ariane-44P Retired Orion 1 United States Orion Network Systems Television broadcasting & satellite internet 34 Ku-band Atlas IIA Known as Telstar 11 Retired Telecom 2A France France Telecom Communications & military communications 10 C-band, 11 Ku-band, 5 X-band Ariane-44L Retired Telecom 2B France France Telecom Communications & military communications 10 C-band, 11 Ku-band, 5 X-band Ariane-44L Retired Telecom 2C France France Telecom Communications & military communications 10 C-band, 11 Ku-band, 5 X-band Ariane-44L Retired Telecom 2D France France Telecom Communications & military communications 10 C-band, 11 Ku-band, 5 X-band Ariane-44L Retired ===Eurostar-2000+=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status AfriStar United States 1worldspace Communications 3 L-band Ariane-44L Known as Spectrum 1 Retired AsiaStar United States 1worldspace Communications 3 L-band Ariane 5G Known as Spectrum 2 Active Arabsat 4A Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications 24 C-band, 16 Ku-band Proton-M Known as Badr 1 Launch failure Arabsat 4B Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications 28 Ku-band Proton-M Known as Badr 4 Active Arabsat 4AR Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications 24 C-band, 20 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Badr 6 Active Astra 2B Luxembourg SES S.A. Communications 30 Ku-band Ariane 5G Retired Eutelsat W1 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting & satellite internet 28 Ku-band Ariane-44P Known as Eutelsat 4A Retired Hotbird 2 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 20 Ku-band Atlas IIA Known as Eutelsat 48A Retired Hotbird 3 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 20 Ku-band Ariane-44LP Known as Eutelsat W75/ABS 1B Active Hotbird 4 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 20 Ku-band Ariane-44P Known as Eutelsat 16B Retired Hotbird 5 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 20 Ku-band Atlas IIA Known as Eutelsat 4B Retired Hotbird 7 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 40 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Eutelsat 4B Launch failure ST-1 Singapore, Taiwan Singtel Television broadcasting 16 Ku- band, 14 C-band Ariane-44P Retired ===Eurostar-3000=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status ANASIS-II South Korea ADD Military communications Falcon 9 Known as Koreasat 116 Active Amazonas 2 Spain Hispasat Communications 54 Ku-band, 10 C-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Arabsat-5A Saudi Arabia Arabsat Television broadcasting & satellite internet 16 C-band, 24 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Arabsat-5B Saudi Arabia Arabsat Television broadcasting & satellite internet 56 Ku-band, 56 Ka-band Proton-M Known as Badr 5 Active Arabsat-5C Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications 26 C-band, 12 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Arabsat-6B Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications 24 Ku-band, 27 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Astra 1M Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting & satellite internet 32 Ku-band Proton-M Active Astra 1N Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 55 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Astra 1N Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 55 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Astra 2E Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 60 Ku-band, 3 Ka-band Proton-M Known as Eutelsat 28E Active Astra 2F Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 60 Ku-band, 3 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Eutelsat 28F Active Astra 2G Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 62 Ku-band, 4 Ka-band Proton-M Known as Eutelsat 28G Active Astra 3B Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 52 Ku-band, 4 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Astra 5B Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 40 Ku-band, 3 Ka-band, L-band Ariane 5 ECA Active AT&T; T-16 United States DirecTV Television broadcasting 30 Ku-band, 24 Ka-band, 18 Reverse band Ariane 5 ECA Active Atlantic Bird 7 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 56 Ku-band Zenit-3SL Known as Eutelsat 7 West A Active DirecTV 15 United States DirecTV Television broadcasting 30 Ku-band, 24 Ka-band, 18 Reverse band Ariane 5 ECA Active EchoStar 105 / SES 11 Luxembourg, United States SES S.A., EchoStar Television broadcasting 24 Ku-band, 24 C-band Falcon 9 Active Ekspress AM4 Russia RSCC Communications 30 C-band, 2 Ka-band, 3 L-band Proton-M Launch failure Ekspress AM4R Russia RSCC Communications 30 C-band, 2 Ka-band, 3 L-band Proton-M Launch failure Ekspress AM7 Russia RSCC Communications 24 C-band, 36 Ku-band, 2 L-band Proton-M Active Ekspress-AMU1 Russia RSCC Communications 70 Ku-band, 70 Ka-band Proton-M Active Eutelsat 3B International Eutelsat Television broadcasting & satellite internet 51 C-band, 51 Ku band, 51 Ka-band Zenit-3SL Active Eutelsat 9B / EDRS A International Eutelsat Television broadcasting & satellite relay 66 Ku-band, EDRS payload Proton-M Active Eutelsat 70B International Eutelsat Communications 48 Ku-band Zenit-3SL Active Hotbird 8 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 64 Ku-band, 64 Ka-band Proton-M Known as Hotbird 13B Active Hotbird 9 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 64 Ku-band, 64 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Hotbird 13C Active Hotbird 10 International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 64 Ku-band, 64 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Eutelsat 33E Active Intelsat 10-02 International Intelsat Communications 45 C-band, 16 Ku-band Proton-M Known as Thor 10-02 Active Intelsat 32e International Intelsat Television broadcasting 81 Ku-band, 21 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Sky- Brasil 1 Active KA-SAT International Eutelsat Television broadcasting Ka-band Proton-M Known as Eutelsat KA-SAT 9A Active MEASAT-3b Malaysia MEASAT Satellite Systems Communications 48 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Jabiru 2 Active MEASAT-3d Malaysia MEASAT Satellite Systems Television broadcasting & satellite internet C-band, Ku-band, L-band Ariane 5 ECA Active SES-6 Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 38 C-band, 36 Ku-band Proton-M Active SES-10 Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting 50 Ku-band Falcon 9 Active Telstar 12V United States Telesat Communications 52 Ku-band H-IIA 204 Active Tiba 1 Egypt Government of Egypt Communications Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Yahsat 1A United Arab Emirates Al Yah Communications 14 C-band, 25 Ku- band, 21 Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Known as Al Yah 1 Active Yahsat 1B United Arab Emirates Al Yah Communications 25 Ka-band, 21 secure Ka-band Proton-M Known as Al Yah 2 Active ===Eurostar-3000EOR=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Eutelsat 172B International Eutelsat Communications 14 C-band, 36 Ku-band Ariane 5 ECA Active Inmarsat-6 F1 International Inmarsat Communications L-band, Ka-band H-IIA 204 Known as GX 6A Active Inmarsat-6 F2 International Inmarsat Communications L-band, Ka-band Falcon 9 Known as GX 6B Awaiting launch SES-12 Luxembourg SES S.A. Communications 68 Ku-band, 8 Ka-band Falcon 9 Active SES-14 / GOLD Luxembourg SES S.A. Television broadcasting C-band, Ku-band, GOLD Ariane 5 ECA Active Syracuse 4B France DGA Military communications X-band, Ka-band Ariane 5 ECA Awaiting launch Türksat 5A Turkey Türksat Communications Ku-band Falcon 9 Active Türksat 5B Turkey Türksat Communications Ku-band, Ka-band Falcon 9 Active ===Eurostar-3000GM=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Inmarsat-4 F1 International Inmarsat Mobile communications L-band Atlas V 431 Active Inmarsat-4 F2 International Inmarsat Mobile communications L-band Zenit-3SL Active Inmarsat-4 F3 International Inmarsat Mobile communications L-band Proton-M Active ===Eurostar-3000S=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Amazonas 1 Spain Hispasat Television broadcasting 36 Ku-band, 27 C-band Proton-M Retired Anik F1 Canada Telesat Communications 24 C-band, 32 Ku-band Proton-M Active Anik F3 Canada Telesat Communications 24 C-band, 32 Ku-band, 2 Ka-band Proton-M Active Eutelsat W3A International Eutelsat Communications 38 Ku-band, 2 Ka-band Proton-M Known as Eutelsat 7A Active Nimiq-4 Canada Telesat Communications 32 Ku-band, 8 Ka-band Proton-M Active Skynet 5A United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Military communications Ariane 5 ECA Active Skynet 5B United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Military communications Ariane 5 ECA Active Skynet 5C United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Military communications Ariane 5 ECA Active Skynet 5D United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Military communications Ariane 5 ECA Active ===AstroBus-G=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Chollian South Korea KARI Meteorology Ariane 5 ECA Known as GEO-Kompsat 1 Active ===Eurostar-Neo=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Arabsat 7B Saudi Arabia Arabsat Communications C-band, Ku-band, TELEO Falcon 9 Known as Badr 8 Awaiting launch Eutelsat 36D International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 70 Ku-band Awaiting launch Hotbird 13F International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 80 Ku-band Falcon 9 Active Hotbird 13G International Eutelsat Television broadcasting 80 Ku-band Falcon 9 Active Skynet 6A United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Military communications Falcon 9 Awaiting launch Spainsat NG I Spain Hispasat Military communications X-band, Ka-band, UHF Awaiting launch Spainsat NG II Spain Hispasat Military communications X-band, Ka-band, UHF Awaiting launch Thuraya 4 United Arab Emirates Thuraya Mobile communications L-band Falcon 9 Awaiting launch Thuraya 5 United Arab Emirates Thuraya Mobile communications L-band Awaiting launch ===OneSat=== Satellite Country Operator Type Coverage Launch date (GMT) Rocket Changes Status Inmarsat-7 F1 International Inmarsat Communications Ka-band Known as GX7 Awaiting launch Inmarsat-7 F2 International Inmarsat Communications Ka-band Known as GX8 Awaiting launch Inmarsat-7 F3 International Inmarsat Communications Ka-band Known as GX9 Awaiting launch Intelsat 42 International Intelsat Communications Reconfigurable multiband Awaiting launch Intelsat 43 International Intelsat Communications Reconfigurable multiband Awaiting launch Optus 11 Australia Optus Communications Ku-band Ariane 64 Awaiting launch Superbird-9 Japan SKY Perfect JSAT Communications Ka-band, Ku-band Starship Awaiting launch ==References== Category:Satellite buses Category:European space programmes
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The University of Warwick ( ; abbreviated as Warw. in post-nominal letters) is a public research university on the outskirts of Coventry between the West Midlands and Warwickshire, England. The university was founded in 1965 as part of a government initiative to expand higher education. The Warwick Business School was established in 1967, the Warwick Law School in 1968, Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG) in 1980, and Warwick Medical School in 2000. Warwick incorporated Coventry College of Education in 1979 and Horticulture Research International in 2004. Warwick is primarily based on a campus on the outskirts of Coventry, with a satellite campus in Wellesbourne and a central London base at the Shard. It is organised into three faculties—Arts, Science Engineering and Medicine, and Social Sciences—within which there are 32 departments. As of 2021, Warwick has around 29,534 full-time students and 2,691 academic and research staff, with an average intake of 4,950 undergraduates out of 38,071 applicants (7.7 applicants per place). The annual income of the institution for 2021-22 was £770.6 million of which £139.9 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £860.8 million. Warwick Arts Centre is a multi-venue arts complex in the university's main campus and is the largest venue of its kind in the UK, which is not in London. Warwick is a member of AACSB, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the Association of MBAs, EQUIS, the European University Association, the Midlands Innovation group, the Russell Group, Sutton 13 and Universities UK. It is the only European member of the Center for Urban Science and Progress, a collaboration with New York University. The university has extensive commercial activities, including the University of Warwick Science Park and WMG, University of Warwick. Warwick's alumni and staff include winners of the Nobel Prize, Turing Award, Fields Medal, Richard W. Hamming Medal, Emmy Award, Grammy, and the Padma Vibhushan, and are fellows to the British Academy, the Royal Society of Literature, the Royal Academy of Engineering, and the Royal Society. Alumni also include heads of state, government officials, leaders in intergovernmental organisations, and a former chief economist at the Bank of England. Researchers at Warwick have also made significant contributions such as the development of penicillin, music therapy, the Washington Consensus, second-wave feminism, computing standards, including ISO and ECMA, complexity theory, contract theory, and the International Political Economy as a field of study. ==History== ===Twentieth century=== thumb|Library under construction in the 1960s The idea for a university in Warwickshire was first mooted shortly after World War II, although it was not founded for a further two decades. A partnership of the city and county councils ultimately provided the impetus for the university to be established on a site jointly granted by the two authorities.Rees, H., A University is Born, Avalon Books, Coventry (1989) There was some discussion between local sponsors from both the city and county over whether it should be named after Coventry or Warwickshire. The name "University of Warwick" was adopted, even though Warwick, the county town, lies some to its southwest and Coventry's city centre is only northeast of the campus.A compromise was proposed by Geoffrey Templeman, Deputy Chairman of the university's planning committee, who later became the first Vice-Chancellor of Kent University on the border between the City of Canterbury and the county of Kent which faced a similar naming issue, and adopted the name University of Kent at Canterbury. However, the name the 'University of Warwick at Coventry' was not adopted.Graham Martin, From Vision to Reality: the Making of the University of Kent at Canterbury (1990) page 29 Its creation was supported by University of Birmingham Vice-Chancellor Sir Robert Aitken who acted as 'Godfather to the University of Warwick'. The initial plan was for a university college at Coventry attached to Birmingham but Aitken advised an independent initiative to the University Grants Committee.Ives, E. (2000). The First Civic University: Birmingham, 1880–1980 – An Introductory History. Birmingham: University of Birmingham Press The establishment of the University of Warwick was given approval by the government in 1961 and it received its Royal Charter of Incorporation in 1965. Since then, the university has incorporated the former Coventry College of Education in 1979 and has extended its land holdings by the continuing purchase of adjoining farm land. The university also benefited from a substantial donation from the family of John 'Jack' Martin, a Coventry businessman who had made a fortune from investment in Smirnoff vodka, and which enabled the construction of the Warwick Arts Centre. The university admitted its first, small intake of graduate students in 1964, and took its first 450 undergraduates in October 1965. Since its establishment Warwick has expanded its grounds to , with many modern buildings and academic facilities, lakes, and woodlands. In the 1960s and 1970s, Warwick had a reputation as a politically radical institution. Under Vice-Chancellor Lord Butterworth, Warwick was the first UK university to adopt a business approach to higher education, develop close links with the business community and exploit the commercial value of its research. These tendencies were discussed by British historian and then-Warwick lecturer, E. P. Thompson, in his 1970 edited book Warwick University Ltd.. The Leicester Warwick Medical School, a new medical school based jointly at Warwick and Leicester University, opened in September 2000. On the recommendation of then-Prime Minister Tony Blair, Bill Clinton chose Warwick as the venue for his last major foreign policy address as US President in December 2000. Sandy Berger, Clinton's National Security Advisor, explaining the decision in a press briefing on 7 December 2000, said that: "Warwick is one of Britain's newest and finest research universities, singled out by Prime Minister Blair as a model both of academic excellence and independence from the government." ===Twenty-first century=== The university was seen as a favoured institution of the Labour government during the New Labour years (1997 to 2010). It was academic partner for a number of flagship Government schemes including the National Academy for Gifted and Talented Youth and the NHS University (now defunct). Tony Blair described Warwick as "a beacon among British universities for its dynamism, quality and entrepreneurial zeal". In a 2012 study by Virgin Media Business, Warwick was described as the most "digitally-savvy" UK university. In February 2001, IBM donated a new S/390 computer and software worth £2 million to Warwick, to form part of a "Grid" enabling users to remotely share computing power. In April 2004 Warwick merged with the Wellesbourne and Kirton sites of Horticulture Research International. In July 2004 Warwick was the location for an important agreement between the Labour Party and the trade unions on Labour policy and trade union law, which has subsequently become known as the "Warwick Agreement". In June 2006 the new University Hospital Coventry opened, including a university clinical sciences building. Warwick Medical School was granted independent degree-awarding status in 2007, and the School's partnership with the University of Leicester was dissolved in the same year. In February 2010, Lord Bhattacharyya, director and founder of the WMG unit at Warwick, made a £1 million donation to the university to support science grants and awards. In February 2012 Warwick and Melbourne-based Monash University announced the formation of a strategic partnership, including the creation of 10 joint senior academic posts, new dual master's and joint doctoral degrees, and co-ordination of research programmes. In March 2012 Warwick and Queen Mary, University of London announced the creation of a strategic partnership, including research collaboration, some joint teaching of English, history and computer science undergraduates, and the creation of eight joint post-doctoral research fellowships. In April 2012 it was announced that Warwick would be the only European university participating in the Center for Urban Science and Progress, an applied science research institute to be based in New York consisting of an international consortium of universities and technology companies led by New York University and NYU-Poly. In August 2012, Warwick and five other Midlands-based universities—Aston University, the University of Birmingham, the University of Leicester, Loughborough University and the University of Nottingham—formed the M5 Group, a regional bloc intended to maximise the member institutions' research income and enable closer collaboration.thumb|250x250px|Warwick Logo before introduction of the current logo in 2015|alt=|left In September 2013 it was announced that a new National Automotive Innovation Centre would be built by WMG at Warwick's main campus at a cost of £100 million, with £50 million to be contributed by Jaguar Land Rover and £30 million by Tata Motors. The centre will open in Summer 2018. In July 2014, the government announced that Warwick would be the host for the £1 billion Advanced Propulsion Centre, a joint venture between the Automotive Council and industry. The ten-year programme intends to position the university and the UK as leaders in the field of research into the next generation of automotive technology. In September 2015, Warwick celebrated its 50th anniversary (1965–2015) and was designated "University of the Year" by The Times and The Sunday Times. In December 2017 the university announced it would not continue with a project to open a Campus in Roseville, California. The university had spent £1.2M on the project. ==Campus== Warwick is located on the outskirts of Coventry, southwest of the city centre (and not in the town of Warwick as its name suggests). The university's main site comprises three contiguous campuses, all within walking distance of each other. The university also owns a site in Wellesbourne, acquired in 2004 when it merged with Horticulture Research International. ===Main campus=== The main Warwick campus occupies between the City of Coventry and the County of Warwickshire. The original buildings of the campus are in contemporary 1960s architecture. The campus contains all of the main student amenities, all but four of the student halls of residence, and the Students' Union. The campus is split between the parliamentary constituencies of Kenilworth and Southam and Coventry South. ==== Warwick Arts Centre ==== The Warwick Arts Centre is a multi-venue arts complex situated at the centre of Warwick's main campus. It attracts around 300,000 visitors a year to over 3,000 individual events spanning contemporary and classical music, drama, dance, comedy, films and visual art. The centre comprises six principal spaces: the Butterworth Hall, a 1,500-seat concert hall; a 550-seat theatre; a 180-seat theatre studio; a 220-seat cinema; the Mead Gallery, an art gallery; and the Music Centre, with practice rooms, and an ensemble rehearsal room where music societies and groups can rehearse. In addition the site includes the university bookshop, hospitality suites, a restaurant, cafe, shops, and two bars. ====University House==== In 2003 Warwick acquired the former headquarters of National Grid, which it converted into an administration building renamed University House. There is a student-run facility called the ‘Learning Grid’ in the building, which includes two floors of PC clusters, scanners, photocopiers, a reference library, interactive whiteboards and plasma screens for use by individuals and for group work. ====Koan==== right|thumb|The Koan in front of the Helen Martin Arts Studio The White Koan is a modern art sculpture by Liliane Lijn which is installed outside the main entrance to the Warwick Arts Centre. The Koan is high, white in colour, decorated with elliptical of fluorescent lights and is rotated by an electric motor whilst illuminated. It is intended to represent the Buddhist quest for questions without answers, the Kōan. The Koan was made in 1971 as part of the Peter Stuyvesant Foundation City Sculpture Project and was originally sited in Plymouth; it moved to the Hayward Gallery in London before being purchased by Warwick in 1972. The Koan was temporarily relocated to the university's Gibbet Hill campus during refurbishments to the Warwick Arts Centre; it was returned upon completion of the project. According to student newspaper The Boar, the white Koan has played a role in many of campus' myths and legends – it was allegedly the nose-cap of the Blue-Streak Missile (a failed Apollo mission), a supposed quick escape route for senior staff, and even a signalling device for aliens in outer space. The Koan even garnered its very own cartoon strip in the 90s, with 32 episodes created by Steve Shipway. The Koan Worshipping Society, led by the Koanists, believe the Koan is “the earth-bound manifestation of the immortal Koan, the creator of the universe”. ====Sports facilities==== In April 2019 the university opened a new £49 million Sports and Wellness Hub, on the main campus, featuring two sports halls with arena style balcony, the largest gym in the Higher education sector, a 12-lane 25 m pool with movable floor, climbing and bouldering walls, squash courts, studio spaces and a café. The previous main sports centre was closed on 7 April 2019, Elsewhere on campus is another sports hall, a £2.5 million 4-court indoor tennis centre with floodlit outdoor courts, a 400 m athletics track, multi-purpose outdoor surfaces, and over of outdoor playing fields, including a football pitch and cricket grounds. Warwick was an official training venue for the London 2012 Olympics. During the Games, some football matches were played at the nearby Ricoh Arena, home at the time to Coventry City Football Club, and Warwick provided training and residential facilities for the Olympic teams. ====Esports Facilities==== In September 2021, Warwick opened its esports centre in the new Junction building (the old sports centre building) on central campus, marking it as the first esports facility opened in a Russell Group university and also the first university esports facility to be opened in the UK that is not tied to a degree/syllabus. The centre is equipped with 24 pcs, and is designed to be easily configurable and moveable to facilitate the hosting of larger scale events. The centre is open to all of the public, not just students of the university, and this is all only part of "phase 1" of a larger push from the university to invest in esports. The centre is sponsored by Uninn and Coventry City Football Club, partnered with Sky Blues in the Community, Women in Games and Special Effect and has its tech supplied by Chillblast and HyperX. ===Other sites=== Other Warwick sites include: * The Gibbet Hill Campus, located contiguous to the main campus; home to the department of Life Sciences and the pre-clinical activities of Warwick Medical School. * The Westwood Campus, located contiguous to the main campus; home to the Centre for Professional Education, Centre for Lifelong Learning, the Arden House conference centre, an indoor tennis centre, a running track and some postgraduate facilities and student residences. * The University of Warwick Science Park. * University Hospital Coventry, in Walsgrave on Sowe area and home to the Clinical Sciences Building of the medical school. * Warwick Horticulture Research International Research & Conference Centre, located in Wellesbourne, Warwickshire. * The Shard skyscraper, in the city of London, houses Warwick Business School's metropolitan campus where the Executive MBA is taught."Warwick Business School to open London campus in the Shard" . Financial Times ===Planned developments=== In November 2005, Warwick announced its vision for the year 2020 and outlined proposals for how it would like to develop its campus over the next 15 years. The proposals built upon recent construction activity including a new Mathematics and Statistics Building, a new Computer Science Building, new Business School buildings, the Digital Laboratory, the new Heronbank Residences and an expanded Sports Centre. The proposals envisage a shift in the "centre of gravity" of the campus away from the Students' Union towards University House and a proposed "Academic Square" located around the new maths and computer science buildings. Forthcoming projects include an inter-disciplinary biosciences research facility; a £25 million upgrade to Warwick Business School; and the National Automotive Innovation Campus, a new £150 million venture funded by Jaguar Land Rover and the UK government. The NAIC's purpose is to research and develop novel technologies to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and to reduce emissions. The new campus will provide research opportunities for postgraduates from 2016 onwards. The campus has been dubbed a ‘brain trust’ and will be used to pioneer the green and high-tech sports and luxury cars of tomorrow, doubling the size of Jaguar's research team. Later in 2017, the university released its 2030 vision which will see an exponential growth of its main campus in order to remain "world- class" and cope with the growing number of applications it receives each year, especially from non-UK students (41% of the student population). This growth will include a new £33 million Faculty of Arts, a £55 million new sports centre (finished in April 2019), a new £54.3 million Interdisciplinary Biomedical Research Building (IBRB), a new type of student accommodation called "Cryfield village", the expansion of Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG), a redevelopment for the Art centre and a new Library (scheduled in 5 years time). For this occasion, Stuart Croft, vice chancellor of the university declared "New buildings are and will continue to be a part of our everyday existence. We need to open one new academic building a year from now until at least 2023. In order to do this and to keep Warwick as one of the world’s leading universities, we need to do this together, involving the whole community." ==Organisation and administration== right|thumb|University House Warwick is governed by two formal bodies: the Council and the Senate. In addition to these, a steering committee provide strategic leadership in between meetings of the formal bodies. Faculties are overseen by Faculty Boards which report to the Senate.[https://warwick.ac.uk/services/gov/introductiontogovernance/howgoverned/ The Principal Officers of the university have responsibility for day-to-day operations of the university. These include The Registrar, The Secretary to Council, The Group Finance Director, The Director of Commercial, The Chief Information and Digital Officer, and the Chief Communications Officerhttps://warwick.ac.uk/services/gov/introductiontogovernance/universitymanagement/. The latter two roles were created after it emerged that the current Registrar, Rachel Sandby-Thomas, had failed in her duty as the then Data Protection Officer to notify staff, students, and partners of a series of significant breaches. ===Faculties and departments=== Warwick's academic activities are organised into the following faculties and departments: Faculty of Arts Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Medicine Faculty of Social Sciences *Classics and Ancient History *Comparative American Studies *English and Comparative Literary Studies *Film and Television Studies *History *History of Art *School of Modern Languages and Cultures *Theatre Studies *Chemistry *Computer Science *Engineering *Life Sciences *Mathematics *Warwick Medical School *Physics *Psychology *Statistics *WMG *Applied Linguistics *Centre for Lifelong Learning *Economics *Education *Health and Social Studies *Law *Philosophy *Politics and International Studies *Sociology *Warwick Business School === Finances === In the financial year ended 31 July 2019, Warwick had a total income, including share of joint ventures, of £688.6 million (2017/18: £631.5 million). Key sources of income included £344.5 million from academic fees and support grants (2017/18: £316.6 million), £137.8 million from research grants and contracts (2017/18: £126.5 million), and £136.9 million from operating incomes (2017/18: £123.0 million). At year-end Warwick had endowment assets of £12 million (2017/18: £11.5 million). === Coat of arms === Warwick's coat of arms depicts atoms of two isotopes of lithium, a DNA helix to represent science and also the Bear and Ragged Staff, historically associated with Warwickshire (and previously the Earls of Warwick) and the Elephant and Castle of Coventry. The bear is not chained in the current depiction of the university's coat of arms, although it had been in its original grant of Letters Patent by the College of Arms. Note: The Elephant and Castle in the first quarter is for Coventry and the Bear and Ragged Staff in the fourth for Warwickshire.Armorial bearings of the university (Retrieved 12 September 2011) ===Crest=== On a Wreath of the Colours, the Mantling Gules, doubled Or, an Open Book bound and clasped Argent, the pages Or, inscribed thereon in Roman Capitals Sable MENS AGITAT MOLEM, and resting on a book fesswise Argent, the fore edge to the front Or. ==Academic profile== In October 2018, Warwick had 26,531 students, with around two-fifths being postgraduates. About 43% of the student body comes from outside the UK and over 120 countries are represented on the campus. The university has 29 academic departments and over 40 research centres and institutes, in three faculties: Arts, Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), and Social Sciences. There were 2,492 academic and research staff in October 2018. ===International partnerships=== Warwick students can study abroad for a semester or a year and may obtain a double degree (degrees awarded by both partners). International partners include Columbia University, McGill University, Cornell University, UC Berkeley, Sciences Po Paris, and the Balsillie School of International Affairs. ===Rankings and reputation=== Warwick has a number of subjects within the 2018 ARWU's global top 50: * 10th in Mathematics * 20th in Management * 24th in Statistics * 28th in Economics * 33rd in Political Sciences In broad subject rankings, Warwick is ranked 36th globally for Social Sciences, 42nd for Humanities, and 78th for Natural Sciences, 164 for Engineering and Technology, and 204 for Life Sciences and Medicine according to the 2020 QS World University Rankings. In subject rankings, Warwick has a number of subjects within the global top 50 including: * 16th in Statistics * 19th in Mathematics * 23rd in English and Literature * 23rd in Business and Management * 25th in Economics and Econometrics * 38th in Philosophy * 39th in History * 42nd in Modern Languages * 47th in Accounting and Finance * 48th in Sociology * 48th in Development Studies * 49th in Politics and International Studies Warwick's Economics department and Politics and International Studies (PAIS) department were ranked 1st in the UK by the Good University Guide 2020 ahead of Oxbridge. The Mathematics department was ranked 10th in the world (3rd in the UK) in 2019 by Academic Ranking of World Universities and 19th in the world (4th in the UK) in 2020 by QS. The Guardian University Guide ranks Warwick Business School (WBS) second only after Oxford's Saïd Business School Business and Management in 2014. The 2020 QS World University Rankings ranked WBS 4th in the UK and 23rd globally. However, Law and Legal Studies at Warwick has dropped from 36th globally in 2013 to 51–100th in 2020. The Times Higher Education rankings has ranked 6 out of 11 subjects (not including teaching rankings) at Warwick within the global top 100 in 2020. * 4th in Teaching Rankings * 26th in Economics and Business * 51st in Arts and Humanities * 64th in Law * 81st in Physical Sciences * 81st in Social Sciences * 85th in Psychology Warwick is consistently ranked amongst the top ten in the three major national rankings of British universities. Warwick is a member of the 'Sutton 13' of top ranked universities in the UK. Warwick was declared as The Times and The Sunday Times University of the Year 2015.The Sunday Times University Guide 2015—University of the Year . Retrieved 25 September 2014 Overall, 19 of the 27 subjects offered by Warwick were ranked within the top 10 nationally in 2019 by the Complete University Guide. In 2017, Warwick was named as the university with the joint second highest graduate employment rate of any UK university (along with St Andrews), with 97.7 per cent of its graduates in work or further study three and a half years after graduation. ===Admissions=== {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%; text-align:center; margin-bottom: 5px" 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 Applications 43,735 42,260 42,840 41,555 38,780 Accepted 5,735 6,000 6,370 5,425 5,370 Applications/Accepted Ratio 7.6 7.0 6.7 7.7 7.2 Offer Rate (%) 62.0 65.1 68.7 70.9 71.7 Average Entry Tariff 173 167 162 163 HESA Student Body Composition (2022) Domicile and Ethnicity Total British White British Ethnic Minorities International EU International Non-EU Undergraduate Widening Participation Indicators Female Private School Low Participation Areas Warwick students also average top A-Level grades with new entrants in 2015 amassing an average of 478 UCAS points, the equivalent of AAAaa at A-level—the 13th highest in the country. In 2015, the university had the 6th highest offer rate amongst the Russell Group. For 2017 entry, the university was one of only a few mainstream universities (along with Cambridge, Imperial College, LSE, Oxford, St Andrews, and UCL) to have no courses available in Clearing. 22% of Warwick's undergraduates are privately educated, the fifteenth highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 66:9:25 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 50:50. ===Library=== The main university library is located in the middle of the main campus. It houses approximately 1,265,000 books and over 13 km of archives and manuscripts. The main library houses services to support Research and Teaching practice and collaboration between departments. The Wolfson Research Exchange opened in October 2008 and provides collaboration spaces (both physical and virtual), seminar rooms, conference facilities and study areas for Postgraduate Research students. The Teaching Grid, which opened in 2008, is a flexible space which allows teaching staff to try out new technologies and techniques. Adjacent to the main library building is the Modern Records Centre, a sizeable archive collection, including the UK's largest industrial relations collection. ===Awards=== In 2008 the university launched a new prize, the Warwick Prize for Writing, worth £50,000. It is defined as "an international cross- disciplinary award which will be given biennially for an excellent and substantial piece of writing in the English language, in any genre or form, on a theme that will change with every award". The inaugural winner of the award was Naomi Klein for her critically acclaimed book Shock Doctrine. ==Research== In 2013/14 Warwick had a total research income of £90.1 million, of which £33.9 million was from Research Councils; £25.9 million was from central government, local authorities and public corporations; £12.7 million was from the European Union; £7.9 million was from UK industry and commerce; £5.2 million was from UK charitable bodies; £4.0 million was from overseas sources; and £0.5 million was from other sources. In the 2014 UK Research Excellence Framework (REF), Warwick was again ranked 7th overall (as 2008) amongst multi- faculty institutions and was the top-ranked university in the Midlands. Some 87% of the university's academic staff were rated as being in "world-leading" or "internationally excellent" departments with top research ratings of 4* or 3*. Warwick is particularly strong in the areas of decision sciences research (economics, finance, management, mathematics and statistics). For instance, researchers of the Warwick Business School have won the highest prize of the prestigious European Case Clearing House (ECCH: the equivalent of the Oscars in terms of management research). Warwick has established a number of stand- alone units to manage and extract commercial value from its research activities. The four most prominent examples of these units are University of Warwick Science Park; Warwick HRI; Warwick Ventures (the technology transfer arm of the university); and WMG. ===Commercial focus=== Warwick has at times received criticism for being too commercially focused, at the expense of academic creativity and diversity. The most famous proponent of this critique was the noted historian E.P. Thompson, who edited and wrote much of Warwick University Ltd in 1971. The book focuses on the brief student occupation of the Registry in 1967, and its causes, the files that were discovered and published, and the subsequent actions of the university, students and staff. Nevertheless, with the appointment of Sir Nicholas Scheele as Chancellor in 2002, the university signalled that it intended to continue and expand its commercial activities. In an interview for the BBC, Scheele said: "I think in the future, education and industry need to become even more closely linked than they have been historically. As government funding changes, the replacement could well come through private funding from companies, individuals and grant-giving agencies." ==Student life== Undergraduate student life at Warwick can be broadly divided into two phases. In the first year, student life revolves around campus and, in particular, the Students' Union (with its sports clubs, societies, and entertainment facilities). In subsequent years students typically live off-campus, in Leamington Spa, and more rarely in either the Coventry suburbs of Earlsdon and Canley or the town of Kenilworth. The university has a campus cat named Rolf. ===Students' Union=== The University of Warwick Students' Union is one of the largest students' unions in the UK, and currently has over 260 societies and 67 sports clubs including basketball, rowing and ice hockey. The Union has an annual turnover of approximately £6 million, the profit from which is used to provide services to students and to employ its staff and sabbatical officers. The Union is divided into two buildings—SUHQ (mainly societies and administration and Restaurant Canopy) and The Union Building (entertainment facilities). The Union Building contains a three-room club venue known as "The Copper Rooms"; CAMRA-accredited "The Dirty Duck" pub; a popular bar called "The Terrace Bar"; Curiositea, a tea shop famous for its hot chocolates, cakes and vintage atmosphere; The Graduate, a postgraduate social and study space; and The Bread Oven, a design-your-own sandwich shop. After allegations of antisemitism in the National Union of Students, members of the Students' Union voted to disaffiliate with the organisation in 2023. ===Student media=== Student media at Warwick includes: * Radio Warwick (RAW) – student radio station * The Boar – newspaper distributed free across campus every second Wednesday * ‘Perspectives’ – The Warwick Politics Society's termly print magazine, radio show and online magazine ===University Challenge=== The university is the current title-holder (2021) of BBC television's University Challenge competition. This was their second win – their first was in 2007, beating the title-holders University of Manchester in the final. ===Esports=== The University of Warwick are the five-time UK Esports University of the Year, having won the title every year since its inception. In August 2022, Warwick became the first UK university to receive a finalist nomination for the Esports Awards, for Esports Collegiate Program of the Year, with Head of Esports Jack Fenton also becoming the first UK nominee for Collegiate Ambassador of the Year. Warwick fields numerous esports teams each year through its student-run esports society, Warwick Esports, who compete out of the Esports Centre. ===Student housing=== thumb|right|One of the Sherbourne residences The Warwick campus currently has around 6,300 student bedrooms across a range of undergraduate and postgraduate residences. All of the residences are self-catered, and each has residential tutors and a warden. Warwick guarantees accommodation for all first-year undergraduate students, regardless of their present address. Many of the university's postgraduate population are also catered for, with some specific residences available for postgraduate living. Each residence accommodates a mixture of students both domestic and foreign, male and female, and, sometimes, undergraduate and postgraduate. In their second and third years, many students live in one of the surrounding towns: either Coventry, Canley, Kenilworth or Royal Leamington Spa, where they can live in student accommodation or independently owned residences. Since 2011, Warwick has constructed two new halls of residences for the students. Bluebell, opened in 2011, offers accommodation in flats of 8 people, with a total of 505 single rooms for first-year undergraduates. The Sherbourne residences was opened in 2012, which similarly provides 527 ensuite rooms to first-years, and was extended with a further 267 rooms in 2017. A further 700 new rooms were built in the Cryfield Village, namely Cryfield ‘Townhouse’ and ‘Standard’ residences. === Political incidents === In June 2014 the university announced Alex Davies, a member of the proscribed terrorist organisation National Action, voluntarily withdrew from his course. In early 2018, it was made public that a group of male students had constituted a group chat in which many references to rape, occasionally targeted at particular other students, and other sexual offences were made, in such a way which left significant cause for concern. As a result of this and other incidents, students staged a Sit-in in 2021 in the central plaza of the university. In January 2020 the university was criticised for choosing not to adopt the IHRA definition of antisemitism. This decision was later reversed in October following intervention by Education Secretary Gavin Williamson. ==Notable people== File:Official portrait of Rt Hon Andrea Leadsom MP crop 2.jpg|Dame Andrea Leadsom, Former Conservative Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy File:Germaine Greer, 28 October 2013 (crop2).jpg|Germaine Greer, Feminist Academic File:Nobel Laureates 0983 (31117127490).jpg|Oliver Hart, Nobel Laureate in Economics File:Professor Susan Strange, c1980.jpg|Susan Strange, Developed the International Political Economy as a Field of Study File:Luis Arce (23588020275) (cropped).jpg|Luis Arce, President of the Plurinational State of Bolivia File:StephenMerchantAltNov09.jpg|Stephen Merchant, Emmy Award Winner File:Andy Haldane - Festival Economia 2013.JPG|Andy Haldane, Chief Economist at the Bank of England File:Valerie Amos DFID 2013.jpg|Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos, Former Diplomat and first-ever black head of an Oxford college File:John Cornforth 1975.jpg|Sir John Cornforth, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry File:David K.P. Li, Chairman, Bank of East Asia - what is China's impact on global growth, at the Horasis Global China Business Meeting 2009 - Flickr - Horasis.jpg|David Li GBM, GBS, OBE, JP, Chairman and Chief Executive of the Bank of East Asia File:E P Thompson at 1980 protest rally (cropped).JPG|E P Thompson, British Historian and Writer File:Nicholas Herbert Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford.jpg|Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford, former Chief Economist of the World Bank File:Official portrait of Baroness Morris of Yardley crop 2, 2019.jpg|Estelle Morris, Baroness Morris of Yardley, Privy Counsellor; former Labour Secretary of State for Education File:George Saitoti (cropped).jpg|George Saitoti, Former Vice-President of Kenya, former Executive Chairman of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund File:Princess Dina Mired of Jordan.png|Princess Dina Mohammad Khalifeh, President of the Union for International Cancer Control File:Christopher Zeeman.jpeg|Sir Christopher Zeeman, Mathematician File:Mike Downey, photo by Damil Kalogjera.jpg|Mike Downey, Film producer Warwick has over 150,000 alumni and an active alumni network. Among the university's alumni, academic staff and researchers are two Nobel Laureates, a Turing Award winner, and a significant number of fellows of the British Academy, the Royal Society of Literature, the Royal Academy of Engineering, and the Royal Society. Former Warwick students active in politics and government include Guðni Th. Jóhannesson, President of Iceland; Luis Arce, President of Bolivia; Joseph Ngute, Prime Minister of Cameroon; Yakubu Gowon, former President of Nigeria; Sir Gus O'Donnell, former Cabinet Secretary and head of the British Civil Service; Andrew Haldane, Chief Economist at the Bank of England; David Davis, former Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union and former Shadow Home Secretary; Baroness Valerie Amos, the eighth UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator and former Leader of the House of Lords; Mahmoud Mohieldin the Senior Vice President of the World Bank Group; Bob Kerslake, former Head of the Home Civil Service; Kim Howells, former Foreign Office Minister; and Isabel Carvalhais, Portuguese MEP (S&D; Group); H.A Hellyer, led the British government's Taskforce on Tackling Radicalisation and Extremism; George Chouliarakis, Greek Alternate Minister of Finance; and Sir Bob Kerslake, Head of the Home Civil Service. In academia, people associated with Warwick include: Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1975) winner Sir John Cornforth who was a professor at Warwick; mathematicians Ian Stewart, David Preiss, David Epstein and Fields Medallist Martin Hairer; computer scientists Mike Cowlishaw and Leslie Valiant; and neurologist Oliver Sacks. In arts and the social sciences: Nobel Laureate Oliver Hart; economist and President of the British Academy Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford; academic and Provost of Worcester College Sir Jonathan Bate; academic and journalist Germaine Greer; literary critic Susan Bassnett; historians Sir J. R. Hale and David Arnold; economist Andrew Oswald; economic historian Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky; Lady Margaret Archer, theorist in critical realism, former Warwick lecturer and accelerationist philosopher Nick Land, former President of International Sociological Association, current president of Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences; Sir George Bain, former Principal of London Business School; John Williamson, English economist who coined the term Washington Consensus; Susan Strange, British scholar of international relations who was almost single- handedly responsible for creating international political economy; Avinash Dixit, former President of the Econometric Society and American Economic Association, elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992 and the National Academy of Sciences in 2005; Robert Calderbank, winner of the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal and the Claude E. Shannon Award; and Upendra Baxi, winner of the Padma Shri award. Warwick graduates are active in business. In the automotive industry, this includes Linda Jackson, CEO of Citroën; Andy Palmer, CEO of Aston Martin; Ralf Speth, CEO of Jaguar Land Rover; Sudarshan Venu, MD of TVS Motor Company; Others include Bernardo Hees, former CEO of both the Heinz Company and of Burger King; Nigel Wilson, CEO of Legal & General; and Ian Gorham, CEO of Hargreaves Lansdown; Ness Wadia. Notable Warwick alumni in media, entertainment and the arts include Emmy and BAFTA Award-winning Stephen Merchant, best known for being the co-writer and co-director of the sitcoms The Office and Extras; Oscar-nominated screenwriter Tony Roche, known for co-writing and co-producing Veep and The Thick of It; Olivier Award-winning director and writer Dominic Cooke, who is also artistic director at the Royal Court Theatre; actress Ruth Jones; comedian and actor Frank Skinner; Guardian columnist Dawn Foster; blacksmith turned comedian and comedy writer Lloyd Langford; actors Matt Stokoe and Adam Buxton; science fiction and fantasy author Jonathan Green; actor Julian Rhind-Tutt; Olivier Award-winning actor, Alex Jennings; author Anne Fine; author A.L. Kennedy; Tony Wheeler, creator of the Lonely Planet travel guides; Camila Batmanghelidjh; Merfyn Jones, governor of the BBC; and electronic dance music artist Gareth Emery. Grammy- and Emmy Award-winning musician Sting enrolled at Warwick, but left after a term. ==See also== *Armorial of UK universities *List of universities in the United Kingdom *Plate glass university == References == ==External links== * * Category:1965 establishments in England Category:Educational institutions established in 1965 Category:Buildings and structures in Coventry Category:Russell Group Category:Universities UK
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Disney's Magical Quest is a Disney platform game trilogy released by Capcom. The games star Mickey Mouse and (depending on the game version) either Minnie Mouse or Donald Duck, who must defeat Pete. The gameplay is similar amongst all games in the series: the player must move as in a typical platform game, defeating enemies either by jumping on them or by grabbing and throwing blocks at them. One of the most notable gameplay features of the series is the ability to change characters' outfits, which give characters different special abilities. Other gameplay elements in the series include the ability to expand the player's health meter by collecting special hearts, and to shop for items using coins that are scattered throughout the game. ==The Magical Quest Starring Mickey Mouse== The Magical Quest Starring Mickey Mouse, the first game in the series, was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System during 1992 and 1993 and later re-released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002. Featuring six different levels with four different special outfits it stars Mickey Mouse on his journey to save his dog Pluto, who was dognapped by the emperor Pete during a game of catch with his friends Donald Duck and Goofy. The game, and especially its outfit system and graphics, received mostly positive reviews, but was criticized for being relatively short. A port was originally planned for the Sega Mega Drive, but was abandoned. ===Story=== Mickey Mouse, Pluto, Goofy and Donald Duck are playing catch in the park. When it is Goofy's turn to throw the ball, he accidentally throws it too far. Pluto runs off chasing the ball and Goofy runs after Pluto, leaving Mickey alone. Mickey goes searching for his friends after a while, but falls down a cliff into a strange magical land. Later, Mickey meets an old wizard who tells Mickey that Pluto was taken by the Emperor Pete. Mickey sets out to find his friend and stop Pete's tyranny. He eventually rescues Pluto, but in that moment Mickey wakes up in his bed, revealing that the events of the game were just a dream, and Donald suggests they play another game of catch. Mickey happily agrees, and he, his friends and Pluto all live happily ever after. ===Outfits=== Mickey Mouse can wear four different outfits in The Magical Quest Starring Mickey Mouse. Some outfits can be upgraded in the stores found throughout the game. Mickey starts in his traditional clothing. It allows him to grab certain objects and spin-throw them. Mickey's first unlockable outfit, the magician outfit, is awarded to him in the beginning of the second level and allows Mickey to shoot magic blasts at enemies. The magic blasts fired are larger the longer they are charged. However, shooting magic drains Mickey's magic meter, which is refilled by collecting magical lamps. Additionally, Mickey can breathe underwater and control magic carpets with the magician outfit. The firefighter uniform that Mickey finds in the third level allows him to spray water streams at enemies. In addition, the water stream can be used to put out fires, push blocks and form icicles. Similarly to the magician outfit, spraying water with the firefighter uniform drains Mickey's water meter which is refilled by collecting the fire hydrant item. In the fourth level of the game Goofy gives Mickey the mountain-climbing gear, which allows Mickey to use a grappling hook to attach to certain objects. He can then hoist or swing himself up on top of them. Moreover, his grappling hook can be used to grab items. The grappling hook can also be used as a weapon to grab enemies and throw them. ===Game Boy Advance remake=== The game was remade for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 with the name Disney's Magical Quest Starring Mickey and Minnie. It was developed by Capcom and published by Nintendo. In the GBA version Minnie Mouse was added to the game as a playable character, though she is identical in gameplay to Mickey. Additionally, four minigames for both single-player and multiplayer were added to the remake. The multiplayer mini- games were played with the GBA link cable and only one cartridge was needed to play with a friend. Notably, the GBA port also introduced a save feature and could connect to Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse via the GameCube–Game Boy Advance link cable. ===Reception=== The Super NES version of The Magical Quest Starring Mickey Mouse was generally well received by critics. Most reviewers praised the detailed and colourful graphics and animations in the game, with some reviewers even calling them some of the best on the system to date. The bosses and backgrounds were specifically praised for their appearance. The outfit system was also well received and many critics felt it added depth to the gameplay. The sound and music received mixed to positive ratings, as some thought the music loops were too short and that the sound wasn't up to par with the rest of the game, while some found the music and sound effects very suitable for a Disney cartoon game. A great deal of the criticism was attributed to the difficulty of the game. Many reviewers believed that the game was too easy and/or short, primarily due to the game's unlimited continues that allowed the player to replay a level until finished, which lead to them recommending the game only for younger children. To counter the game's relatively low difficulty, some reviewers felt that the game's difficulty option should be set to hard to enjoy the game fully. The Super NES version sold 1.2 million copies worldwide. The Game Boy Advance version of the game received mixed to positive reviews. Again, most critics liked the graphics of the game, although some thought that the GBA version had slightly worse graphics than the SNES version. The cropped backgrounds and smaller view area in comparison to the SNES version were noted. The game's length was also criticized, as the original SNES version was. Most critics considered the GBA-specific multiplayer mini-games to add little value to the game; the fact that the Game Boy Advance consoles must be turned off and on to change multiplayer game was also not well received. On the other hand, being able to play multiplayer with only one cartridge was held in high regard. In 2009, GamesRadar ranked the game fifth on their list of the seven best Disney games, saying "This is another brilliant example of using a license properly, not falling back on it entirely. Mickey alone could have sold this game, but as was common in Capcom's early Disney games, the gameplay was fleshed out beyond contemporary offerings and would have proudly succeeded without the license at all." IGN rated the game 23rd in its "Top 100 SNES Games of All Time". They praised the "spectacular" platforming and the costume-based action. ==The Great Circus Mystery Starring Mickey & Minnie== The Great Circus Mystery Starring Mickey & Minnie, later titled Disney's Magical Quest 2 Starring Mickey & Minnie, was released for the Super NES and Mega Drive/Genesis in 1994 and for the Game Boy Advance in 2003. The game features Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse trying to figure out why everyone in the circus has disappeared, and includes four different outfits and six different levels. While the Super NES and Genesis versions were practically identical, the GBA re-release in 2003 included some new features. As with its predecessor, it received praise for its graphics and outfit system but was criticized for its difficulty and length. ===Story=== Mickey and Minnie Mouse travel by bus to the circus at the edge of town where they are going to spend the day. When the bus arrives, a little late, Goofy appears and tells Mickey and Minnie that everyone in the circus tents has disappeared. Mickey and Minnie are surprised by Goofy's claim, but choose to go to the circus and see it with their own eyes. At the circus they realize that their friends Pluto and Donald are gone. Mickey and Minnie must now find out what is going on at the circus. ===Changes=== Unlike the first game, Minnie Mouse also features as a playable character. In a single-player game the player can choose to play as either Mickey or Minnie, but the choice makes no difference to gameplay and is purely aesthetic. Moreover, the game features two player cooperative gameplay, unlike the previous game where the players had to take turns. Another new feature is a password back-up, allowing the player(s) to continue where they stopped playing the game. ===Outfits=== The Great Circus Mystery Starring Mickey & Minnie features four different outfits. Similar to the first game in the series, the default outfit allows Mickey and Minnie to grab certain objects, including some enemies, and spin them away. The first unlockable outfit, the sweeper outfit, allows Mickey and Minnie to suck up certain enemies with their vacuum cleaner. If an enemy is sucked up using the vacuum cleaner outfit, the enemy turns into a coin. Using the vacuum cleaner consumes battery power which can be refilled by collecting the extra battery item. The second unlockable outfit, the safari suit, allows Mickey and Minnie to climb walls as well as swing from special circular blocks. The third and final unlockable outfit, the cowboy outfit, includes a hobby horse and a pop-gun. The hobby horse grants Mickey and Minnie a higher jump and the pop-gun allows Mickey and Minnie to damage enemies by firing corks at them. Firing a cork decreases the power meter which can be refilled by collecting cork gun items. Additionally, the hobby horse allows Mickey and Minnie to use the move Desperado Dash, which sends them flying through the air but drains the power meter slightly. ===Game Boy Advance remake=== The Great Circus Mystery Starring Mickey & Minnie was re-released in 2003 under the title Disney's Magical Quest 2 Starring Mickey & Minnie. The password feature in the original game was replaced with a save feature in the remake. No mini-games were added to this version, but the main adventure could be played by two players using the GBA link cable. ===Reception=== The SNES, Genesis/Mega Drive and GBA version of The Great Circus Mystery Starring Mickey & Minnie received mixed to positive reviews. As with the previous game in the series, the easy difficulty and length of the game were criticized while the colourful graphics, outfit system and music received mostly praise. The new co-operative gameplay feature was considered to be one of the game's greatest strengths. On the negative side, some critics noted that The Great Circus Mystery was very similar to the previous game. Much like the first game in the series, the game was mostly recommended for younger players. The GBA version was criticized for not pushing the system's limits and for not providing any new features beside link cable support. Since the SNES version was introduced closely to Mickey Mania, another SNES video game with Mickey Mouse in the title role, both games were compared to each other to a certain extent. On release, Famicom Tsūshin scored the game a 26 out of 40.NEW GAMES CROSS REVIEW: ミッキーとミニー マジカルアドベンチャー2. Weekly Famicom Tsūshin. No.309. Pg.37. 11–18 November 1994. Next Generation reviewed the Genesis version of the game, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that "compared to Sony Imagesoft's Mickey Mania, The Great Circus Mystery is just a great big disappointment". ==Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey & Donald== The final game in the series was released for the Super Famicom only in Japan. It was later re-released for the Game Boy Advance, the first version of the game to be released outside of Japan. In Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey & Donald, Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck try to save Donald's nephews from King Pete. It features four outfits and seven levels. Unlike the two earlier games in the series, an outfit now behaves differently depending on whether Mickey or Donald are wearing it. ===Story=== While hiding in the attic from their uncle Donald Duck, Donald's triplet nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie, discover an old book. The book, soon revealed to be magical, transports the triplets to Storybook Land. In Storybook Land Huey, Dewey and Louie are captured by King Pete, who plans to take over the real world. Mickey and Donald are told what happened by the fairy of Storybook Land and therefore decide to enter the book in order to find the duckling brothers and stop Pete once more. ===Changes=== The game is quite similar to Disney's Magical Quest 2, though with some new features. There is a cartridge save feature instead of the password system in the previous game. Additionally, some of Mickey and Donald's outfits of the same type has different strengths and weaknesses. By finding secret doors scattered through the levels, bonus rooms can be found. These allow the player to pick a playing card, and if they guess correctly an award is given. The Game Boy Advance version allows two players to play together with a GBA link cable cooperatively as well as in some competitive mini-games. ===Outfits=== As stated, some outfits feature different abilities depending on whether Mickey or Donald is wearing them. Some outfits can be upgraded in stores found throughout the game. As with the two previous games in the series, the default outfit allows Mickey and Donald to grab certain enemies and blocks and spin them away. The first unlockable costume for Mickey is a medieval knight's armour, including a shield and a lance with a boxing glove on the end. Due to its weight the armour sinks in water, but the shield can protect Mickey from attacks and the lance allows him to attack in four different directions. Donald uses a wooden barrel as armour, a metal bowl for a helmet and wields a hammer as his weapon. Unlike Mickey's armour the barrel allows Donald to float in water and he can also duck into the barrel for cover and roll around, both of which can also be used as a platform for Mickey to stand on in 2-player mode. Donald swings his hammer in an arc. Both costumes have a bar that charges over time, increasing the damage of their next attack. The second unlockable costume is the lumberjack climbing gear. It can be used to catch enemies and throw them and climb trees. The final outfit is a magician outfit. It allows Mickey and Donald to cast spells with which they can find secret areas and avoid traps. Donald's costume, in which he holds a magical lamp, can summon a genie hand which can be used as a platform for Mickey to stand on in 2-player mode. ===Reception=== The Game Boy Advance version of Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey & Donald received mixed to positive reviews. As with the other games in the series, the graphics and animations were praised while the length and easy difficulty was criticized. The new outfit system with different outfits for Mickey and Donald was well received by critics, and alongside the cooperative-gameplay feature many critics found it added a new dimension to the game. ==See also== *List of Disney video games ==Notes== ==References== Reference group a Reference group b Reference group c Reference group d Category:Mickey Mouse video games Category:Donald Duck video games Category:Yeti in fiction Category:1992 video games Category:1994 video games Category:1995 video games Category:Adventure games Category:Cooperative video games Category:Platform games Category:Game Boy Advance games Category:Games with GameCube-GBA connectivity Category:Sega Genesis games Category:Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Disney games by Capcom Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Video games featuring female protagonists
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Donis Xhemë Avdijaj (born 25 August 1996) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for Austrian club TSV Hartberg on loan from Swiss Super League club FC Zürich. Born in Germany, he represents the Kosovo national team. ==Club career== ===Schalke 04=== After scoring 59 goals in 53 matches for U17 and 17 goals in 24 games for U19, Avdijaj became a first team player.Donis Avdijaj: Why Did Schalke Send €49 Million Talent to Sturm Graz? Bleacher Report He was called up for the first time in a major competition on 17 September 2014 to participate in the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage match against Chelsea, where he didn't come on to play.Chelsea vs. Schalke 04 - 17 September 2014 - Soccerway ====Loan at Sturm Graz==== On 13 January 2015, in the winter transfer window, Avdijaj went on an 18-month loan deal at Austrian side Sturm Graz. He made his debut for Sturm Graz in a friendly match against Kalsdorf and scored a goal.Donis Avdijaj huazohet nga Schalke shënon gol në Austri Shqiptarja.com =====2014–15 season===== On 21 February 2015. He made his professional debut in a 3–3 home draw against Wiener Neustadt. He came in as a substitute in the 81st minute in place of Bright Edomwonyi and just 2 minutes later, Avdijaj made an assist for the temporary advantage goal 3–2 scored by Martin Ehrenreich.Sturm Graz vs. Wiener Neustadt - 21 February 2015 - Soccerway In his second ever match for the senior squad, Avdijaj played only as a substitute against Rapid Wien, coming on in the 73rd minute in place of Daniel Offenbacher for the 1–0 loss.Rapid Wien vs. Sturm Graz - 28 February 2015 - Soccerway Then in his third match, Avdijaj played for the first time in the starting line up against Austria Wien on 3 March 2015 where he substituted off in the 64th minute for exactly his rival Bright Edomwonyi, whose place Avdijaj had previously taken in his debut.Sturm Graz vs. Austria Wien - 3 March 2015 - Soccerway He scored his first goal for Sturm Graz in his 7th match on 21 March 2015 against Admira, playing as a starter and scoring the opening goal in the 28th minute in the 3–1 victory.Sturm Graz vs. Admira - 21 March 2015 - Soccerway After the 26th game week Avdijaj established himself in the starting line up playing as a side midfielder mostly on the left side, attacking midfielder and also as a second striker. He ended the season with total of 17 appearances, 12 as a starter including 8 full 90-minute matches where he managed to score in total 6 goals and provided 3 assists. Sturm Graz finished 4th in the league table to secure a place in the UEFA Champions League third qualifying round.Summary - Bundesliga - Austria - Results, fixtures, tables and news - Soccerway =====2015–16 season===== thumb|Avdijaj with Sturm Graz in 2015 On 18 July 2015, Avdijaj started the 2015–16 with an impressive performance against Hartberg in the 2015–16 Austrian Cup first round by scoring one goal, providing one assist and winning a penalty to help his side to take an away 0–6 victory.Hartberg vs. Sturm Graz - 18 July 2015 - Soccerway ====Loan at Roda JC==== On 15 January 2018. Avdijaj joined Eredivisie side Roda JC, on a 5-month loan. On 20 January 2018, he made his debut in a 1–1 home draw against Twente after being named in the starting line-up. ===Willem II=== On 16 August 2018. Avdijaj joined Eredivisie side Willem II, on a year-long contract with the option of a second year. On 17 August 2018, he made his debut in a 0–1 away minimal win against Groningen after coming on as a substitute at 64th minute in place of James McGarry. On 18 March 2019, after having failed to get fit and not playing for the club for multiple months along with off the pitch issues, Willem II decided to dissolve Avdijaj's contract with immediate effect. ===Trabzonspor=== On 8 July 2019, Avdijaj joined Süper Lig side Trabzonspor after agreeing to a one-year deal with the option of continuation for three years. On 8 August 2019, he made his debut with Trabzonspor in the third round of 2019–20 UEFA Europa League against the Czech side Sparta Prague after coming on as a substitute at 76th minute in place of Abdülkadir Ömür. On 17 January 2020, his contract was terminated by mutual consent. ===Heart of Midlothian=== On 20 January 2020, Avdijaj joined Scottish Premiership side Heart of Midlothian, on a six-month contract. After signing for Hearts, Avdijaj said "There is no country, no city in the world where I don't score [a goal]. I score everywhere." Two days later, he made his debut for Hearts in a goalless draw against Ross County. He left Hearts with 3 games played and no goals scored. ===FC Emmen=== On 12 November 2020, Avdijaj joined Eredivisie club FC Emmen. ===AEL Limassol=== On 31 January 2021, Avdijaj joined Cypriot club AEL Limassol. His contract with the club was terminated in August 2021. ===TSV Hartberg=== On 29 August 2021, Avdijaj joined Austrian Bundesliga side TSV Hartberg, signing a two-year contract. He made his competitive debut for the club on 11 September, featuring in the starting line-up of a 3–1 away victory in the league against Wolfsberger AC. His first goal came on 26 September in a 4–3 home loss to Austria Wien off a cross from Nemanja Belaković. In October 2021, he was sidelined with an ankle injury for some time, sidelining him for a month. He finished the season with 21 appearances in which he scored five goals, in a season where Hartberg, alongside Rheindorf Altach and SV Ried, barely avoided relegation by one point. Avdijaj started the 2022–23 season strong, scoring a brace in the home opener against Rheindorf Altach coached by Miroslav Klose. ===Zürich=== Avdijaj joined Swiss Super League club FC Zürich on 1 August 2022 on a three-year contract. The team had been struggling prior to his arrival, with the defending league winner having scored zero goals in the first matches of the season and finding themselves bottom of the league. On 4 August, Avdijaj made his competitive debut for the club, coming on as a substitute in the 72nd minute for Antonio Marchesano in a 2–0 away win over Linfield in the UEFA Europa League qualifiers. He then made his league debut three days later, playing the entire match as his club lost 3–0 to FC Sion in the league. He would score his first goals for Zürich in the return leg against Linfield on 11 August, bagging a brace as he catapulted his side to a 3–0 victory. The win meant that Avdijaj and Zürich were set to face his former side Hearts in the next qualifying round of the tournament. ====Return to TSV Hartberg==== On 25 January 2023, Avdijaj returned to TSV Hartberg on loan until the end of the 2022–23 season. ==International career== On 11 October 2014, Avdijaj announced to have refused the Germany U19 as his intention was to represent Albania,Avdijaj zgjedh Shqipërinë? Telegrafi where he said: "It's better to have behind my own people, rather than foreigners" and he needed just an Albanian citizenship for him to be part of the national team managed by Gianni De Biasi.Avdijaj: Pres me padurim debutimin kuqezi Albeu.com "Më mirë të kem pas shpinës popullin tim sesa popullin e huaj." "Tanimë 18-vjecarit të lindur në Osnabruck të Gjermanisë, i mbeten vetëm për të plotësuar dokomentacionin dhe të jetë pjesë e përzgjedhjes së Giani De Biasit, që gjithmonë e më shumë po i frikëson kombëtaret e tjera." In November 2014, the coach Gianni De Biasi declared that he spoke with his father and the Schalke 04 coach Roberto Di Matteo for the situation of Avdijaj if he would play for the first team as a professional, a condition of De Biasi to invite him in the national team.De Biazi falenderon tifozët, flet për Ajetin, Avdijajn, Karabecin... aSport.al "Të henën bisedova me babain e tij, do të flas gjithashtu dhe me Di Matteon për situatën e futbollistit te Schalke. Nëse Avdiaj do të luajë për ekipin e parë të Schalkes nuk do të ketë asnjë problem për t’u grumbulluar në kombëtare" In December 2014. Donis' father confirmed the family's desire that the footballer represents Albania in the future.Familja Avdijaj: Donisi dëshiron të luaj për Shqipërinë, De Biazi nuk na e hapi telefonin! aSport.al In March 2015. Avdijaj told Albanian media that he has personally met with De Biasi and is looking forward to a call-up. ===Kosovo=== On 10 November 2016, two days before a match with Turkey, he joined with the Kosovo in Antalya, but in the match with Turkey, could not play because that was not allowed by FIFA. On 20 March 2017, he received the call-up from Kosovo in a match against Iceland. On 24 March 2017, FIFA accepted Avdijaj's request to play for Kosovo and on the same day he made his debut in a match of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Iceland. ==Personal life== Avdijaj was born in Osnabrück, Germany from Kosovo Albanian parents from Istok, he attended the Gesamtschule Berger Feld until 2012–13. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League Cup Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Schalke 04 II 2014–15 Regionalliga West 11 4 — — — 11 4 Sturm Graz (loan) 2014–15 Austrian Bundesliga 17 6 0 0 — — 17 6 2015–16 Austrian Bundesliga 25 3 2 3 1 1 — 28 7 Total 42 9 2 3 1 1 — 45 13 Schalke 04 2016–17 Bundesliga 9 2 0 0 3 0 — 12 2 2017–18 Bundesliga 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 Total 9 2 0 0 3 0 — 12 2 Roda JC (loan) 2017–18 Eredivisie 11 3 1 1 — 2 0 14 4 Willem II 2018–19 Eredivisie 15 4 3 4 — — 18 8 Trabzonspor 2019–20 Süper Lig 8 1 2 0 8 0 — 18 1 Heart of Midlothian 2019–20 Scottish Premiership 3 0 0 0 — — 3 0 FC Emmen 2020–21 Eredivisie 8 0 2 0 — — 10 0 AEL Limassol 2020–21 Cypriot First Division 9 0 3 0 — — 12 0 TSV Hartberg 2021–22 Austrian Bundesliga 18 5 3 0 — — 21 5 2022–23 Austrian Bundesliga 1 2 1 0 — — 2 2 Total 19 7 4 0 — — 23 7 Zürich 2022–23 Swiss Super League 7 0 1 0 8 3 — 16 3 TSV Hartberg (loan) 2022–23 Austrian Bundesliga 12 5 — — — 12 5 Career total 154 35 18 8 20 4 2 0 194 47 ===International=== National team Year Apps Goals Kosovo 2017 2 0 2018 4 2 Total 6 2 ====International goals==== :Scores and results list Kosovo's goal tally first. |- |1. |rowspan="2"| |rowspan="2"|National Stadium, Ta' Qali, Malta |rowspan="2" | |align=center|3–0 |rowspan="2" style="text-align:center"|5–0 |rowspan="2"|2018–19 UEFA Nations League |rowspan="2"| |- |2. |align=center|4–0 |} ==Honours== Trabzonspor *Turkish Cup: 2019–20 Individual * Fritz Walter Medal U17 Bronze: 2013 ==References== ==External links== * Category:1996 births Category:Living people Category:Sportspeople from Osnabrück Category:People educated at the Gesamtschule Berger Feld Category:Kosovan footballers Category:Kosovo men's international footballers Category:Kosovan expatriate footballers Category:German footballers Category:Germany men's youth international footballers Category:German people of Kosovan descent Category:German people of Albanian descent Category:Men's association football forwards Category:FC Schalke 04 II players Category:FC Schalke 04 players Category:SK Sturm Graz players Category:Roda JC Kerkrade players Category:Willem II (football club) players Category:FC Emmen players Category:Trabzonspor footballers Category:Heart of Midlothian F.C. players Category:AEL Limassol players Category:TSV Hartberg players Category:FC Zürich players Category:Regionalliga players Category:Bundesliga players Category:Austrian Football Bundesliga players Category:Eredivisie players Category:Süper Lig players Category:Scottish Professional Football League players Category:Cypriot First Division players Category:Swiss Super League players Category:Footballers from Lower Saxony Category:Expatriate footballers in Austria Category:Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands Category:Expatriate footballers in Turkey Category:Expatriate footballers in Cyprus Category:Kosovan expatriate sportspeople in Austria Category:Kosovan expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands Category:Kosovan expatriate sportspeople in Turkey Category:Expatriate footballers in Scotland Category:Kosovan expatriates in the United Kingdom Category:Expatriate footballers in Switzerland Category:Kosovan expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
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thumb|Loading crushed stone at the Robertson Basin, Kiama. The Stone Fleet was the colloquial name for the small coastal ships that carried crushed-stone construction aggregate ('blue metal') to Sydney from the Illawarra ports of Kiama and Shellharbour and the nearby ocean jetties at Bombo and Bass Point. The coastal shipping trade carried on by these ships was known colloquially as the 'Stone Trade' or 'Blue Diamond Trade'. The trade ended finally in 2011. == The 'Stone Trade' or 'Blue Diamond Trade' == The predominant bedrock in the Sydney metropolitan area is sedimentary rock—Hawkesbury Sandstone with some isolated areas of shale. Crushed stone was needed as aggregate for concrete, road making, and as ballast for railways and tramways. Sandstone and shale are totally unsuited to such purposes, which typically use crushed igneous rock. There are some intrusions of igneous rocks in the Sydney area, particularly at Prospect Hill and Hornsby, but these isolated outcrops, although later quarried, were insufficient to meet demand. In the southern part of the Illawarra region, south from Sydney, there are extensive igneous rock formations—mainly basalt—stretching from north of Shellharbour to south of Kiama at Gerringong, and extending right to the coastline. Around Kiama, the formations—known as the Gerringong Volcanics—are the result of lava flows from the extinct collapsed volcanic vent known as Saddleback Mountain. It is by far the largest formation of igneous rocks relatively close to Sydney and was well situated to allow transport by sea. The South Coast railway line did not reach Shellharbour (Dunmore) and Bombo until 1887 and it took until 1893 to reach Kiama; by that time, shipping of 'blue metal' by sea was already well established. After the railway reached the district, significant amounts of the quarried and crushed stone were sent by rail, and some quarries had their own sidings. Coastal shipping remained cost-competitive as a means of transport for many years and the coastal shipping trade in "blue metal" continued until 2011. Another colloquial name for this trade, the 'Blue Diamond Trade' probably stems from the term 'Black Diamond' used to describe coal, with a similar analogy being applied to 'blue metal', as the quarried and crushed basalt was known colloquially.thumb|Kiama in 1936. The port is in the front centre and the quarry to right. === The ports of the Stone Trade === ==== Kiama (1881-1942) ==== Kiama was a port of the 'Stone Trade' from around 1881, when the Pike's Hill quarry opened on the outskirts of the town. The harbour at Kiama relies upon the natural shelter provided by Blowhole Point but is largely artificial. The Robertson Basin was excavated from solid rock between 1871 and 1876. The connection from Blowhole Point to the mainland—previously submerged at high-tide—was raised by adding rock excavated from the basin in 1871. It was also in 1871 that the first commercial shipment of crushed basalt—waste from the excavation of the basin—was made to Sydney. From 1881, there were two staithes for loading crushed stone at the Robertson Basin. From 1887, the port had the Kiama Light as an aid to navigation. thumb|Port of Kiama in 1936 - Robertson Basin, and its hoppers and staiths for shiploading are visible. It was difficult for sailing ships to enter Kiama, with a following wind, and not collide with the basin walls or other vessels; this problem was partially solved by placing a heavy chain on the seafloor at the harbour entrance, which ships could use to decelerate by dragging an anchor over it. Ultimately, sail gave way completely to steam, ending the need for this unique method of shedding speed. A narrow gauge (2-foot / 610mm) railway line ran from the quarries to the port, via Terralong Street, from 1914 until 1941. Hoppers and staithes for loading crushed stone were located on the eastern side of the Robertson Basin. Until 1936, a branch of the tramway, along Manning Street, also took stone to a set of staiths south of the Kiama railway station, where it was loaded onto wagons for transport by rail. The quarries at Kiama closed, in 1942, mainly due to 'Stone Fleet' ships being requisitioned by the navy. ==== Bombo ==== thumb|Bombo Jetty in the 1880s with an unidentified, three-mast, 'Stone Fleet' steamer (possibly Civility or Resolute) alongside. The crushing plant is on the right. (Kiama Library)|215x215pxBombo was the site of an ocean jetty for the nearby headland quarry. The jetty was on the north side of Bombo Point. Bombo was more exposed to the weather than Kiama and a less reliable port as a result. Stone from the quarry was crushed and then carried in rail wagons onto the wharf, where it was loaded onto ships using any of three chutes. The crushers and jetty were capable of shipping 3,000 tones of crushed stone per week in 1885. The jetty only operated from 1883 until 1889. The arrival of the railway in 1887 and the acquisition of the quarry by the NSW Government Railways in 1889 made the jetty redundant. Ships known to have used the jetty during its brief operational life included, Lass o' Gowrie, Resolute, and Civility ==== Shellharbour ==== Blue metal was loaded at times at the small coastal-shipping port at Shellharbour, although it was better known as a port for agricultural products. It was a difficult port to navigate, used only by small craft—such as Paterson —and masters who had local knowledge. There was a small jetty there by the end of the 1850s. A larger jetty was constructed in the late 1860s. Although receiving some protection from Bass Point to the south and Cowrie Island to north, the Shellharbour jetty was exposed to heavy seas from the east or north-east. An artificial harbour was constructed in the 1880s, with one breakwater running for 100 yards In a north-easterly direction and another to the south-east for 50 yards—from Cowrie Island—providing an entrance only 100 feet wide, with a depth of six feet of water. The breakwater was extended westward around 1899, to block completely the gap between Cowrie Island and the mainland. The jetty ran from the south-east corner of the basin, for 50 yards to the north-east. There was only one berth on the north- west side of the jetty, with from five to seven feet of water at low tide. A 'swinging buoy' was used when berthing vessels that had to head north-east as they went alongside. There was also a smaller, high wharf on the northern side of the basin, near the site of the modern-day boat ramp. ==== Bass Point (near Shellharbour) ==== A wooden jetty was constructed around 1880 at Bass Point—an area also known in those times as 'Long Point'—to load crushed stone from an adjacent quarry. It was damaged by storms in 1922 and repaired. The jetty closed during the Second World War and did not resume operation after the war. It survived until 1957, when it was damaged in bad weather; its remains were demolished in 1958. The existing jetty and its loader were completed in 1973. It could load a ship at a rate of 900 tonnes per hour. Bass Point was the last port of the 'Stone Fleet', closing in 2011. ==== Sydney Harbour (Pyrmont, Woolloomooloo and Blackwattle Bay) ==== In the early 20th Century, 'blue metal' was unloaded at Pyrmont, by gangs of men in a similar way to 'coal lumping'. This was dangerous work. During the 1930s, Blue Metal and Gravel Company Pty Ltd had discharge hoppers at Woolloomooloo and 'blue metal' was unloaded there. 'Blue metal' was unloaded at wharves at the head of Blackwattle Bay in Sydney Harbour. From 1972, this facility was owned by Hanson. In its last decade, Blackwattle Bay was unloading 380,000 tonnes of crushed stone per annum. Part of the facility, the concrete batching plant, was still operating in 2019, but ships no longer unloaded there. It has since been demolished to clear a part of the site of the new Sydney Fish Market redevelopment. == The ships == In the earliest years of the coastal trade, the "Stone Fleet" ships were sailing vessels. These were quickly supplanted by small coal-fired steamers designed to carry bulk cargo. The steamers in the earlier years of the trade were relatively small, wooden ships, like Civility, built in 1872, Dunmore, built in 1891—both from the Rock Davis shipyard—and Resolute, built in New Zealand in 1883. Kiltobranks, built in 1908 by the Rock Davis yard, was another wooden-hulled ship used in the trade. An exception was the iron-hulled Lass o' Gowrie, built in Scotland in 1878. These steamships were, in turn, superseded gradually, by somewhat larger steel-hulled vessels, from the 1910s onwards, although surviving wooden-hulled steamers, such as Dunmore and Belbowrie continued to carry crushed stone during the inter-war period. Some of the steamships such as the second Kiama—built in 1920—were capable of making a round trip, from Kiama to Sydney and return, in one day, 22 hours. There was also a similar type of small bulk cargo ship, usually dedicated to carrying coal, known as a 'sixty-miler'. Some 'sixty miler' ships carried construction aggregate from time to time. 'Stone Fleet' ships would occasionally carry coal, as part of the coastal coal-carrying trade. Given the density of their cargo, 'Stone Fleet' ships were smaller and had relatively smaller holds than the typical 'sixty-miler' designed to carry coal. The last ship of the 'Stone Fleet', the self-discharging bulk carrier MV Claudia, was much larger and faster than the earlier vessels. The ship had three separate holds and could handle three different materials in any one trip, with a total capacity of 3,800 tonnes. == Incidents and losses == Over the years of the 'Stone Trade', many ships of the Stone Fleet were wrecked, involved in collisions with other ships, or foundered. Many sailing vessels were lost in the earlier period of the 'Stone Trade' In 1881, the schooners Industry and Mary Peverley where both attempting to enter port at Kiama, with a strong north-east wind blowing. The Industry 'missed the chain', and ran into the stone wharf. Mary Peverley managed to drag a second anchor over the chain, narrowly avoiding collision with another schooner, Prima Donna. Prima Donna later foundered and capsized, in a squall off Bondi in 1882, with the loss of six of her seven crew. In December 1883, Lass o' Gowrie, after running in ballast from Sydney to Bombo, struck a rock while standing off Bombo waiting for Civility to leave the jetty. Later, carrying stone from Bombo in 1885, she collided, at night, with the steamer Glaucus off Bradley's Head in Sydney Harbour. Both times, she was run aground to prevent her sinking. The wooden- hull steamer Civility collided with Illawarra, off Kiama, in August 1881, You Yang in January 1886—after which she sank off Bradleys Head but was apparently refloated—and Vision in July 1902, surviving to be broken up in 1918. In 1894, the small wooden steamer Resolute, out of Kiama, sprang a leak off Five Islands and was saved by being beached In Wollongong Harbour. She was refloated and her cargo of 'blue metal' offloaded at Wollongong. Also in 1894, the Bowra, a wooden steamer that had been put on the Kiama run in 1893 assisting the Resolute, also sprang a leak near Seal Rocks, while carrying coal to the Clarence from Newcastle, and foundered, without loss of life. Not lucky for a second time, Resolute went aground on the notorious Bellambi Reef, in 1907, and broke up. There were no deaths, but the vessel was uninsured at the time. She had been in service since 1883. thumb|224x224px|Dunmore lying beached after her collision with Kelloe.|left The wooden-hull Dunmore had a narrow escape after she collided with a much larger ship, the 'sixty-miler' Kelloe, two miles off the Botany Bay heads in May 1902. The Kelloe sank within 15 minutes. Dunmore picked up the Kelloe's crew and made it through the heads of Botany Bay, where she was only saved by being beached at Kurnell. Dunmore collided with a naval longboat off Mrs Macquarie's Point in Sydney Harbour in 1909, resulting in the drowning of 15 sailors from HMS Encounter. Outbound from Sydney, Dunmore was involved in another collision, in 1914, off the Heads of Sydney Harbour; this time she collided with another 'Stone Fleet' ship, the steel-hull Kiama, which was inbound and fully-laden with crushed stone. Although Dunmore was left with a gaping hole in her bow, she remained afloat. In 1915, the Dunmore ran aground on a reef near Bradley's Head, but sustained little damage. In 1918, the Dunmore was involved in yet another collision—this time with the tug Champion—and sustained damage; a Court of Marine Inquiry found the Champion's master responsible. in 1924, the wooden steamer Kiltobranks had just loaded 'blue metal' at Shellharbour but, upon leaving the wharf, she went aground nearby during a north-easterly gale. Her back broken and with large seas breaking over her, she was a total loss.thumb|Belbowrie The small wooden twin-screw coastal steamer, Stone Fleet ship, and sometime sixty-miler, Belbowrie, had survived a grounding on a sandy bottom at Doughboy Point (east of Boat Harbour), in June 1923, and a collision with a submerged object that holed her hull, in February 1931. In January 1939, Belbowrie was on her way south, to load a cargo of blue metal at Shellharbour. At night and with heavy rain reducing visibility, she ran straight onto rocks at a location, known as 'The Boulders', on the rock platform between the southern end of Maroubra Beach and the Malabar Headland. As she struck the rocks, she was hit by a wave that spun her around, so that her bow was left facing north. Her lifeboat was smashed. Members of the Maroubra Surf Life Saving Club rowed to the scene, in two surfboats, but could not approach the ship safely, due to the breaking waves. Her crew of ten all survived; they made their way to safety, one-by-one, hand-over-hand, suspended from a 70 foot long (21 m) rope line, while being drenched by the heavy rain and breaking surf. The tough old little ship then broke up, over the next two days. It seems that the south- east weather and waves had pushed her off course, too close to the coast, and onto the rocks. In 1949, Bombo, carrying 'blue metal', was attempting to make for the safety of Port Kembla, when her list became so great that she rolled over and sank off the coast between Wollongong and Port Kembla. Twelve of the fourteen crew lost their lives; the two survivors and the ship's dog making it to shore, but a considerable distance north of the location at which the ship sank. Paterson had a near miss, in 1949 during a storm off Wollongong, soon after she had replaced Bombo on the Kiama run. With her bunker coal wet due to waves breaking over the ship, it took her 46 hours to reach Sydney, after needing to take shelter in Botany Bay. In 1951, the 'Stone Fleet' ship, Kiama, was carrying coal from Newcastle to Sydney, when she developed a serious list, during a gale that carried her onto the Tuggerah Reef—located offshore due east of Toowoon Bay. The crew took to lifeboats and rafts but were too close to the reef to be picked up safely by the CSR ship, Fiona, that was nearby. Kiama broke up and sank within a few minutes. Only six of the twelve crewmen survived by making it to shore. Later in 1951, Paterson —carrying general cargo at the time— sprang a leak off The Entrance and made for the shelter of Cabbage Tree Bay, immediately north of Norah Head, where she anchored and then sank, around 300m from the old jetty, in 10m of water. The crew safely abandoned the ship and rowed ashore, in a boat, taking only their personal possessions with them. The location was not far from where Paterson had been beached and later refloated, after a similar incident, in November 1947, while carrying coal to Sydney, but this time it was the end of her. In 1954, while the second 'Stone Fleet' ship known as Dunmore (MV Dunmore, formerly Nassau) was in Kiama Harbour, her engineer was badly burned when a diesel engine back- fired. He leapt into the water to extinguish his burning clothing but later died of his injuries. Hexham Bank had survived her time carrying coal as a 'sixty-miler' but, in June 1978, while preparing to load crushed stone at Bass Point, she caught fire. All her crew were rescued. Her engine room was destroyed and she was deemed a "constructive loss" and scrapped. Her hulk later was later sunk off Sydney Heads. == Decline, revival, and end of the 'Stone Fleet' == === Impact of the Second World War === There was an interruption to the trade during the Second World War, when the Kiama, Dunmore, Paterson, and Bombo were requisitioned for wartime service. The quarries and narrow-gauge railway at Kiama closed permanently at this time. Around the same time, the Bass Point quarry and jetty also closed. Bombo and Paterson were used as minesweepers during the war. Loading at Bass Point did not resume after the war, and its disused jetty was destroyed in a storm in 1957. === Post-war operations at Kiama (1947-1961) === After the war, the trade resumed but ground had been lost to road and rail transport. Kiama became, once again, a port for loading 'blue metal' but now it was brought from nearby quarries to the port by road transport. Bombo, Paterson, and Kiama survived the war—Bombo was on the Kiama to Sydney run by the end of September 1947—but all three ships were lost in incidents in the following years; Bombo in 1949 and both the other ships in 1951. The fate of the original wooden- hulled SS Dunmore seems to be not recorded. A new steel-hulled MV Dunmore (ex- Nassau) entered service in 1951, with Kiama as its home port. There was another ship, still at work in 1959, MV Bass Point (ex-Betoeran), which—like MV Dunmore (ex-Nassau)—was formerly a Dutch East Indies oil tanker. 171,829 tons of gravel was shipped by sea from Kiama Harbour—vessels making 242 trips—during the 1956–57 financial year. MV Dunmore took the last shipment of 'blue metal' from Kiama on 21 December 1961, then becoming redundant. She was sold (c. 1962–1963) and renamed Fijian Trader, under which name she ran aground and was wrecked in 1964. The hoppers at the Robertson Basin were demolished in 1965. === Reopening of Bass Point and final years (1973—2011) === thumb|Disused gravel loader at Bass Point, taken in November 2020.|left The Bass Point quarry reopened in 1973 using a new jetty and loader, referred to locally as 'the gravel loader'. Thus began what would be the final phase of the Stone Trade. With the older Stone Fleet ships all gone by then, the trade at the new Bass Point jetty used ex-'sixty-miler' colliers, like Hexham Bank, which were available after the end of gas production from coal. The new operation at Bass Point and the use of a larger ship, MV Claudia, resulted in the last years of the trade achieving the highest shipments. Over 14 years, MV Claudia delivered over 2.8 million tonnes of aggregate to the Sydney. Three times a week, she made the return journey from Blackwattle Bay Concrete Plant to Bass Point, loading at the Bass Point Jetty, with 3,800 tonnes of crushed basalt carried by conveyors direct from the Bass Point Quarry. Each trip that MV Claudia made was the equivalent of 100 truck movements through the Sydney area. MV Claudia was retired in 2011, finally ending the "Blue Diamond" or "Stone" coastal-shipping trade. She was sent to be scrapped in China. All transport from Bass Point is now by road. == Legacy and remnants == thumb|Robertson Basin, Kiama, in October 2020. The stone foundations of two staiths used to load crushed stone are visible to the right of the roadway, after the bend. None of the 'Stone Fleet' ships survive. Bombo and her crew are commemorated by two plaques near Kiama Harbour. Her wreck lies on the seabed near Port Kembla. There are still some remains of Paterson, in shallow water north of Norah Head, making it an easy dive. The Robertson Basin at Kiama remains but is no longer a shipping port. Remnants of the narrow-gauge tramway once could be found in Terralong Street, Kiama, outside the Presbyterian Church and the locations of the loading bins at the basin can still be identified. A Fowler locomotive, from the tramway, is under restoration at the Illawarra Light Railway Museum. A second locomotive, 'Kiama', also used on the quarry tramway, is preserved there in operational condition. The old Kiama quarry site straddles Terralong Street, beyond its intersection with Thomson Street in Kiama; it is now occupied by buildings, sporting fields, and open space. The headland quarry at Bombo is now the Bombo Headland Quarry Geological Site, but nothing remains of its ocean jetty, except for some rock-filled parts at the land end of the former jetty's site. The harbour at Shellharbour is now used for recreational boating. The disused gravel loader, at nearby Bass Point, remains as part of the Bass Point Reserve. A little west of the gravel loader, a crumbling concrete ruin seems to be all that remains at the earlier ocean jetty's site. A Hanson concrete batching plant remained at Blackwattle Bay in January 2020, at the site of the former unloading facility, but was no longer used by ships. Its site had been cleared completely, to make way for the new Sydney Fish Market, by November 2021. The southern Illawarra has continued to be the main source of construction aggregate and ballast—for Sydney and much of New South Wales—for over 140 years. Although somewhat hidden from public view, the huge voids created by quarrying are apparent in aerial views. == See also == * Sixty- miler *Fowler narrow-gauge locomotive from Kiama *'Kiama' (locomotive) == References == == External links == * Shellharbour City Museum - Bass Point Gravel Loader *United Divers - The Stone Fleet and the Blue Diamond Trade Category:Shipping in Australia Category:Kiama, New South Wales
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The Stolpersteine in Mladá Boleslav lists the Stolpersteine in the town of Mladá Boleslav in the Central Bohemian Region (. Stolpersteine is the German name for stumbling blocks collocated all over Europe by German artist Gunter Demnig. They remember the fate of the Nazi victims being murdered, deported, exiled or driven to suicide. Generally, the stumbling blocks are posed in front of the building where the victims had their last self chosen residence. The name of the Stolpersteine in Czech is: Kameny zmizelých, stones of the disappeared. The lists are sortable; the basic order follows the alphabet according to the last name of the victim. == Mladá Boleslav == Stone Inscription Location Life and death 120px HERE LIVED EMIL FEDERER BORN 1889 DEPORTED 1942 TO MAUTHAUSEN MURDERED 1942 IBIDEM Staroměstské nám 96 was born on 13 September 1889 in Mladá Boleslav. He graduated from business school, became an accountant and joined the Sokol movement. In the First World War he served in the Austro-Hungarian 36th Infantry Regiment, which was sent to the Galician front against the Russian imperial army. His military duty did not last long, as he was captured on 25 August 1914 at Žolkyjevu by the Russians. Later-on he was merchant in Mladá Boleslav and married to Lidie née Abilovitz, also Lea, Leka or Leha. The couple had a daughter, Vera or Dvora (born in 1921). According to Yad Vashem, he was killed in Auschwitz, but holocaust.cz states, that he was murdered on 12 June 1942 in Mauthausen concentration camp. The latter version is more likely.holocaust.cz: EMIL FEDERER, retrieved on 9 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: AMIL FEDERER, submitted by his brother-in-law, Yosef Abilovitz, retrieved on 9 April 2017 His wife and his daughter were both murdered in Auschwitz. 120px HERE LIVED LIDIE FEDEREROVÁ BORN 1901 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám 96 née Abilovitz, also Lea, Leka or Leha, was born in 1901 in Sapotskin, today in Belarus. Her parents were Khava and Mordekhai Abilovitz. She had one brother, Josef or Yosef. She was married to Emil Federer and was a housewife. The couple had a daughter, Vera or Dvora (born in 1921). Both her husband and her daughter were murdered in the course of the Shoah: Emil Federer most probably in 1942 in Mauthausen, Věra Federerová in 1943 or later in Auschwitz. According to genie.com, Lidie Federerová lost her life in 1944 in Auschwitz.geni.com: Leka / Lea Federer (Abilovitz), retrieved on 9 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: LEHA FEDERER, submitted by her brother, Yosef Abilovitz, retrieved on 9 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED VĚRA FEDEREROVÁ BORN 1921 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám 96 , also Dvora, was born on 4 May 1921. Most probably her parents were Emil Federer, a merchant, and Lidie, Lea or Leha. Her last residence before deportation was in Líny close to Mladá Boleslav. On 16 January 1943, she was deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp and four days later, on 20 January 1943 further on to Auschwitz concentration camp. Her number on transport Cm was 264 of 491 and on transport Cq 158 of 2,000. She lost her life in Auschwitz.holocaust.cz: VĚRA FEDEREROVÁ, retrieved on 9 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: DVORA FEDERER, retrieved on 9 April 2017 Also both of her parents were murdered by the Nazi regime. 120px HERE LIVED JOSEF HÖNIGSFELD BORN 1903 DEPORTED 1943 TO MAUTHAUSEN MURDERED 1942 IBIDEM Staroměstské nám. 93/22 was born on 18 February 1903 in Slatiňany as the son of Alois Hönigsfeld and Arnoštka née Veselá (also Ernestine, 13 March 1880 - 2 June 1914). He had two sisters, Anna (born on 6 July 1909) and Emilie.geni.com: Josef Hönigsfeld, retrieved on 9 April 2017 He worked as a merchant and was married to Marie née Östereicherová. The couple had two sons, Zdenek (also Benjamin, born 1934) and Pavel (also Barùch, born 1937).progenies.info: Manžel: Josef Hönigsfeld, retrieved on 9 April 2017 While his family had to wait for their deportation, Josef Hönigsfeld was arrested already in 1942 and deported to Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp, where he was murdered by the Nazi regime.The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: JOSEF HOENIGSFELD, submitted by a relative, Hana Fousova, in 1998, retrieved on 9 April 2017 His family was whipped out. His wife and their sons, age 9 and 6, were murdered in Auschwitz in 1943. His sister Anna, her husband Rudolf Freund and their daughters Ilona (born 1931) and Nora (born 1934) were all murdered in Auschwitz in 1944. The fate of his father and his other sister is unknown, but they too did not survive the Nazi reign in Bohemia. 120px HERE LIVED PAVEL HÖNIGSFELD BORN 1937 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám. 93/22 , also Barùch, was born on 10 December 1937 in Mladá Boleslav. His parents were Josef Hönigsfeld and Marie née Östereicherová. He had an older brother, Zdenek (born 1934). The father, a merchant, was arrested in 1942, deported to Mauthausen and murdered there. Pavel Hönigsfeld, his mother and his brother stayed in Mladá Boleslav. On 16 January 1943, they were arrested and deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. His transport number was 274 of 491. After eleven months, on 15 December 1943, the 6 years old boy was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Dr. His transport number was 893 of 2,519. There, the mother and her two sons were murdered in a gas chamber.holocaust.cz: PAVEL HÖNIGSFELD, retrieved on 8 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED ZDENĚK HÖNIGSFELD BORN 1934 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám. 93/22 , also Sidonius and Benjamin, was born on 22 October 1934 in Mladá Boleslav. His parents were Josef Hönigsfeld and Marie née Östereicherová. He had a younger brother, Pavel (born 1937). The father, a merchant, was arrested in 1942, deported to Mauthausen and murdered there. Zdenek Hönigsfeld, his mother and his brother stayed in Mladá Boleslav. On 16 January 1943, they were arrested and deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. His transport number was 273 of 491. After eleven months, on 15 December 1943, the 9 years old boy was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Dr. His transport number was 894 of 2,519. There, the mother and her two sons were murdered in a gas chamber.holocaust.cz: SIDONIUS HÖNIGSFELD, retrieved on 9 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED MARIE HÖNIGSFELDOVÁ BORN 1910 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám. 93/22 née Östereicherová was born on 2 June 1910 in Pardubice. Her parents were Ignatz Östereicher and Julie née Fleischerová. She was married to Josef Hönigsfeld. The couple had two sons, Zdenek (born 1934) and Pavel (born 1937). Her husband, a merchant, was arrested in 1942, deported to Mauthausen and murdered there. Marie Hönigsfeldová and her sons stayed in Mladá Boleslav. On 16 January 1943, they were arrested and deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. Her transport number was 272 of 491. After eleven months, on 15 December 1943, they was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Dr. Her transport number was 892 of 2,519. There, the mother and her two little sons were murdered in a gas chamber.holocaust.cz: MARIE HÖNIGSFELDOVÁ, retrieved on 9 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED VILÉM PICK BORN 1881 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Debř, Josefodolská 58 was born on 1 July 1881. He was married to Růžena Picková. The couple had at least one son, Arnošt (born on 13 February 1911). Their son went to Prague, studied there, achieved a doctorate and married Marta née Radnitzerová (born on 16 February 1915). Both son and daughter-in-law were arrested and deported to Łódź Ghetto on 26 October 1941 by transport C. Their transport numbers were 435 and 436 of 1,000. Both were murdered by the Nazi regime.holocaust.cz: DR. ARNOŠT PICK, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: MARTA PICKOVÁ, retrieved on 8 April 2017 The last residence of Vilém Pick and his wife before deportation was in Debř. On 16 January 1943, the couple were arrested and deported from Mladá Boleslav to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. His transport numbers was 397 of 491. Already four days later, on 20 January 1943, husband and wife were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Cq. His transport numbers was 496 of 2,000. There Vilém Pick and his wife lost their lives.The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: VILEM PICK, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: VILÉM PICK, retrieved on 8 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED RŮŽENA PICKOVÁ BORN 1882 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Debř, Josefodolská 58 was born on 26 July 1882. She was married to Vilém Pick. The couple had at least one son, Arnošt (born on 13 February 1911). Their son went to Prague, studied there, achieved a doctorate and married Marta née Radnitzerová (born on 16 February 1915). Both son and daughter-in-law were deported to Łódź Ghetto on 26 October 1941. Both were murdered by the Nazi regime. The last residence of Růžena Picková and her husband before deportation was in Debř. On 16 January 1943, the couple were arrested and deported from Mladá Boleslav to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. Her transport numbers was 398 of 491. Already four days later, on 20 January 1943, husband and wife were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Cq. Her transport numbers was 497 of 2,000. There Růžena Picková and her husband lost their lives.holocaust.cz: RŮŽENA PICKOVÁ, retrieved on 8 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: RUZENA PICKOVA, retrieved on 8 April 2017 120px HERE LIVED JOSEF SCHREIBEROVÁ BORN 1888 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám. 14/33 was born on 27 August 1888. He was married to Rudolfina, born on 17 November 1890.The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: RUDOLFINA SCHREIBEROVA, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: RUDOLFINA SCHREIBEROVÁ, retrieved on 8 April 2017 The couple hat at least two children, Pavel (born on 6 February 1920) and Zdenka (born on 9 May 1922 in Mladá Boleslav).The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: PAVEL SCHREIBER, submitted by his cousin Lea Henriette Schreiber Neuwirth in 1999, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: PAVEL SCHREIBER, retrieved on 8 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: ZDENKA SCHREIBER, submitted by his cousin Lea Henriette Schreiber Neuwirth in 1999, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: ZDEŇKA SCHREIBEROVÁ, retrieved on 8 April 2017 Their last residence before deportation was in Mladá Boleslav. Pavel was a student, Zdenka still went to school. On 16 January 1943, the whole family were arrested and deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. Their transport numbers were 313 to 316 of 491. Already four days later, on 20 January 1943, parents and children were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Cq. Their transport numbers were 1448 to 1451 of 2,000. There Josef Schreiber, his wife and his children were murdered by the Nazi regime.The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: JOSEF SCHREIBER, retrieved on 8 April 2017holocaust.cz: JOSEF SCHREIBER, retrieved on 8 April 2017 Also Adolfina Schreiberová, most probably his sister, was deported with the same trains to Theresienstadt and Auschwitz. She too became a victim of the Shoah. 120px HERE LIVED ADOLFINA SCHREIBEROVÁ BORN 1903 DEPORTED 1943 TO THERESIENSTADT MURDERED 1943 IN AUSCHWITZ Staroměstské nám. 14/33 was born on 27 February 1903. Her last residence before deportation was in Mladá Boleslav. On 16 January 1943, she was arrested and deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp by transport Cm. Her transport numbers was 293 of 491. Already four days later, on 20 January 1943, she was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp by transport Cq. Their transport numbers was 1191 of 2,000. There Adolfina Schreiberová was murdered by the Nazi regime.holocaust.cz: ADOLFINA SCHREIBEROVÁ, retrieved on 8 April 2017The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names: ADOLFINA SCHREIBEROVA, retrieved on 8 April 2017 Also Josef Schreiber, most probably her brother, his wife and his children were killed at Auschwitz. == Dates of collocations == The Stolpersteine in Mladá Boleslav were collocated by the artist himself on 13 September 2014. The Czech Stolperstein project was initiated in 2008 by the Česká unie židovské mládeže (Czech Union of Jewish Youth) and was realized with the patronage of the Mayor of Prague.Zdeňka Kuchyňová: Praha má na chodnících své první pamětní kameny holocaustu, Radio Praha, 19 October 2008stolpersteine.cz: archive.today/6bh0z Stolpersteine in der Tschechischen Republik, retrieved on 20 March 2017 (German) == See also == * List of cities by country that have stolpersteine ==External links== * stolpersteine.eu, Demnig's website * holocaust.cz Czech databank of Holocaust victims * Yad Vashem, Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names ==References== Mladá Boleslav Monuments and memorials
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The second season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 16, 2011, and concluded on March 18, 2012, consisting of 13 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. It was executive produced by Darabont, Kirkman, Glen Mazzara, David Alpert, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Mazzara assuming the role of showrunner after Darabont's departure from the series. The season was well received by critics. It won Best Television Presentation at the 38th Saturn Awards and Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie, or Special at the 64th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. The season finale was viewed by 9 million viewers, making it the highest-rated episode of the series up to that point and the most viewed episode of an original series on AMC in history, up until the premiere of the series' third season, which was watched by 10.9 million viewers. This season adapts material from issues #7–12 of the comic book series and introduces notable comic characters Hershel Greene (Scott Wilson) and his daughter, Maggie (Lauren Cohan). Mainly set at the Greene Family Farm, after the escape and destruction of the CDC, the season continues the story of Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) and his group of survivors as they continue to survive in a post-apocalyptic world overrun by flesh-eating zombies, dubbed "walkers". After leaving Atlanta, Rick and the group are stopped on the highway by a threat unlike anything they have seen before. While searching for someone who has gone missing, the group eventually discovers an isolated farm, where tensions arise among members of the main group, and the mysterious and ignorant inhabitants of the farm, whose secrets and motives are unclear. In the midst of events, Rick and the others try to restore order after a terrible discovery as differences begin to openly erupt between Rick and Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal). ==Production== After the first season aired, Deadline Hollywood reported that series developer and showrunner Frank Darabont had let go the entire writing staff and planned to use only freelance writers for the second season. This turned out to be not entirely accurate, and Robert Kirkman was quoted as saying the changes to the writing staff would not affect the production of the show. In February 2011, it was announced that Glen Mazzara, who had written the first season episode "Wildfire", had been hired again as a writer/executive producer for the second season and will put together a staff of five more writers. At C2E2 members of the cast confirmed that the second season would begin shooting on June 1, 2011, and that Darabont would write the season premiere episode. At the same event, cast members speculated that acclaimed author and long-time Darabont collaborator Stephen King may write an episode. Kirkman later confirmed that along with himself, Darabont and Mazzara the writing staff will consist of Scott M. Gimple, Evan Reilly, Angela Kang and one freelance writer, David Leslie Johnson. Four actors have joined the cast as new characters for season 2—Scott Wilson as Hershel Greene, Lauren Cohan as his daughter Maggie Greene, Pruitt Taylor Vince as Hershel's ranch hand, Otis, and Michael Zegen as Randall. A preview of season 2 was shown during the fourth season premiere of Breaking Bad on July 17, 2011 and a full length trailer was released to promote season 2 at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 22, 2011. In July 2011, Deadline Hollywood reported that Darabont stepped down from his position as showrunner for the series, amidst rumors that he was unable to adjust to the schedule of running a television series. Executive producer Glen Mazzara succeeded Darabont as showrunner for the series. Darabont's sudden departure further sparked controversy in August when The Hollywood Reporter broke a story revealing that Darabont had in fact been fired due to issues of the show's reduced budget and a strained relationship with AMC executives. The premiere aired in an extended 90-minute time slot, similar to the pilot episode. After the first seven episodes aired, the series went on a hiatus and returned on February 12, 2012, with the final six episodes of the season airing until its conclusion on March 18, 2012. ===Webisodes=== Torn Apart, a six-part web series, premiered on October 3, 2011 on AMC's official website. The web series is directed by special effects makeup artist and co-executive producer Greg Nicotero and tells the origin story of Hannah, also known as "Bicycle Girl", the walker whom Rick Grimes mercy killed in the pilot episode. ===Talking Dead=== Following the encore presentation of the second season premiere on October 16, 2011, a live after- show titled Talking Dead, hosted by Chris Hardwick, premiered. The series airs after encore presentations of The Walking Dead on Sunday nights. It features host Chris Hardwick discussing the latest episode with fans, actors, and producers of the show. ==Cast== ===Main cast=== The second season features eight actors receiving opening credits billing, all returning from the first season; seven are listed as main cast members in the first season, while Norman Reedus and Melissa McBride were promoted from recurring status. While McBride is credited as "Also starring", she is a series regular. ====Starring==== * Andrew Lincoln as Rick Grimes, the series' protagonist and a former sheriff's deputy from King County, Georgia. He is the husband of Lori and the father of Carl. Rick has taken leadership from Shane after his actions almost killed them in the previous season. * Jon Bernthal as Shane Walsh, Rick's close friend and former deputy sheriff. He had a love affair with Lori in the previous season, believing that Rick had died, which has turned into jealousy towards Rick, forming an intense rivalry. Shane is also the main antagonist of the season. * Sarah Wayne Callies as Lori Grimes, Rick's emotionally fragile wife and mother of Carl. She had a love affair with Shane in the previous season, which has put her and Shane at odds. * Laurie Holden as Andrea, a former civil rights attorney, who has formed a close bond with Dale. She deals with suicidal tendencies after the loss of her sister Amy by trying to contribute more to the group's safety by becoming a sharpshooter. * Jeffrey DeMunn as Dale Horvath, an older member of the group, who owns the RV with which the group travels. He is often the voice of reason and has formed a protectiveness over Andrea. Dale becomes a mentor to the group, especially to Rick and Glenn, and is also a good friend of T-Dog. * Steven Yeun as Glenn Rhee, a former pizza delivery boy, who saved Rick's life in the previous season. He is an integral member of the group and does many supply runs for them. Glenn cares very much for the core group of survivors. * Chandler Riggs as Carl Grimes, Rick and Lori's young son, whose innocence has slowly declined due to the brutality of the world around him, even wanting to use a firearm. * Norman Reedus as Daryl Dixon, an antihero-like Southern redneck, the group's hunter, and expert tracker. He is less friendly with the group and maintains a careless facade, but is reasonable enough to fight alongside them when needed and is the most active in the group for the search for Sophia. ====Also starring==== * Melissa McBride as Carol Peletier, a former victim of domestic abuse, who has found new strength after the death of her abusive husband Ed. ===Supporting cast=== * IronE Singleton as Theodore "T-Dog" Douglas, a member of the group and a man of honor, duty, and well-intentions who feels underappreciated and tries to contribute as much as possible. He also has a strong friendship with Dale. * Lauren Cohan as Maggie Greene, Hershel's elder tomboyish daughter, who is strong-willed and determined, yet slightly stubborn. Maggie is, like her father, ignorant of what the walkers are. * Emily Kinney as Beth Greene, Hershel's younger daughter and Maggie's half- sister. She is shy, soft-spoken and compassionate, but lacks the strong-will of her sister. * Scott Wilson as Hershel Greene, a veterinarian and religious farmer, who is blinded by his own refusal to accept the world's new state, believing that the walkers are just sick. * Jane McNeill as Patricia, Otis' quiet wife and Hershel's medical aid. * James Allen McCune as Jimmy, Beth's protective and helpful boyfriend. * Madison Lintz as Sophia Peletier, Carol's daughter and Carl's best friend. ===Guest cast=== * Michael Zegen as Randall Culver, a teenager, whom Rick, Glenn and Hershel encounter as part of another group. * Pruitt Taylor Vince as Otis, Hershel's ranch hand and Patricia's husband. * Adam Minarovich as Ed Peletier, Carol's deceased abusive husband; seen in a flashback sequence. * Michael Raymond-James as Dave, a member of Randall's group, who runs into Rick, Glenn and Hershel. * Michael Rooker as Merle Dixon, Daryl's violent and unreasonable older brother, who disappeared in the first season; seen in Daryl's hallucination. ==Episodes== ==Reception== ===Critical response=== The second season of The Walking Dead has received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 80 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews", based on 22 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds an 80% with an average rating of 8.05 out of 10, based on 24 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "The second season of The Walking Dead fleshes out the characters while maintaining the grueling tension and gore that made the show a hit." Linda Stasi of the New York Post wrote: "You'll be happy to know that at least as far as the first two episodes go ... the show is better than ever – which would have seemed impossible." Robert Bianco of USA Today also praised the direction in which the second season was heading stating that the show delivers "edge-of- your-chair tension" and also noting that "what separates this fine series from similar shows is the honesty of its human interactions". Conversely, some critics were less enthused midway through the second season, including Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly who described the season as "a nighttime soap with occasional appearances by deceased but moving, flesh-rotting, flesh- eating cameo monsters" adding that it "had not been dramatic enough" or had a "tendency ... to botch truly dramatic situations". Nate Rawlings of Time magazine criticized the season's pacing, writing: "The first half of this season has been brutally slow." Following the season's finale, Scott Wampler of Collider described the second half of the season as "far more intense, more interesting, better written" despite "a helluva lot of water-treading" in the first half. Kevin Yeoman of Screen Rant further emphasized this point, writing: "It was with the last half of season 2 – arguably the last four episodes – where the writers succeeded in unshackling themselves from the intermittent monotony brought about by the serial nature of the show." ===Accolades=== The second season of The Walking Dead received three nominations for the 64th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, winning Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie, or Special (for the episode "What Lies Ahead"), and received nominations for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects (both for the episode "Beside the Dying Fire"). The season also won Best Television Presentation, for the second consecutive year, at the 38th Saturn Awards, while Norman Reedus was nominated for Best Supporting Actor on Television. Additionally, the second half of the season was nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 19th Screen Actors Guild Awards. ===Ratings=== On October 16, 2011, the season two premiere set a new record of 7.3 million viewers. The episode also set new records for the most viewers in the 18-49 and 25-54 demographics, with 4.8 million and 4.2 million viewers respectively, making it the most watched episode of a drama in the history of basic cable television in these measures. The original broadcast and the two subsequent encore presentations of the episode drew a collective total of 11 million viewers. On February 12, 2012, the show's mid-season premiere beat its previous record by attaining 8.1 million viewers, 5.4 million in the 18-49 key demographic, despite airing at the same time as the second most watched Grammy Awards in history. The series once again beat its own record with the airing of the season two finale on March 18, 2012, which received 9 million viewers. {{Television episode ratings | noshare = y | hide_dvr = y | hide_dvrv = y | hide_total = y | hide_totalv = y | title1 = What Lies Ahead | date1 = October 16, 2011 | rs1 = 3.8 | viewers1 = 7.26 | title2 = Bloodletting | date2 = October 23, 2011 | rs2 = 3.6 | viewers2 = 6.70 | title3 = Save the Last One | date3 = October 30, 2011 | rs3 = 3.1 | viewers3 = 6.10 | title4 = Cherokee Rose | date4 = November 6, 2011 | rs4 = 3.4 | viewers4 = 6.29 | title5 = Chupacabra | date5 = November 13, 2011 | rs5 = 3.2 | viewers5 = 6.12 | title6 = Secrets | date6 = November 20, 2011 | rs6 = 3.1 | viewers6 = 6.08 | title7 = Pretty Much Dead Already | date7 = November 27, 2011 | rs7 = 3.5 | viewers7 = 6.62 | title8 = Nebraska | date8 = February 12, 2012 | rs8 = 4.2 | viewers8 = 8.10 | title9 = Triggerfinger | date9 = February 19, 2012 | rs9 = 3.6 | viewers9 = 6.89 | title10 = 18 Miles Out | date10 = February 26, 2012 | rs10 = 3.8 | viewers10 = 7.04 | title11 = Judge, Jury, Executioner | date11 = March 4, 2012 | rs11 = 3.5 | viewers11 = 6.77 | title12 = Better Angels | date12 = March 11, 2012 | rs12 = 3.6 | viewers12 = 6.89 | title13 = Beside the Dying Fire | date13 = March 18, 2012 | rs13 = 4.7 | viewers13 = 8.99 }} ==Home media releases== The second season was released on DVD and Blu-ray in region 1 on August 28, 2012, in region 2 on August 27, 2012, and in region 4 on June 20, 2012. Special features include eleven featurettes—"All the Guts Inside", "Live or Let Die", "The Meat of the Music", "Fire on Set", "The Ink is Alive", "The Sound of the Effects", "In the Dead Water", "You Could Make a Killing", "She Will Fight", "The Cast on Season 2", and "Extras Wardrobe". Six audio commentaries are also featured, for episodes "What Lies Ahead", "Pretty Much Dead Already", "Nebraska", "Judge, Jury, Executioner", and "Beside the Dying Fire". Also included is the six-part webisode series The Walking Dead: Torn Apart, with optional commentary by Greg Nicotero, and 30 minutes of deleted scenes across eight episodes, with optional commentary by Glen Mazzara. The second season was also released in a limited edition Blu-ray packaging, featuring a zombie head with a screwdriver in the zombie's eye socket, a recreation of a scene from the second season premiere. The limited edition packaging was designed by Greg Nicotero and sculpted by McFarlane Toys. ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2011 American television seasons Category:2012 American television seasons 02
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The Oman Botanic Garden is a development of the Diwan of Royal Court in Oman, with unique plants, landscapes, and cultural traditions of Oman. The gardens are located on 423 hectares in Al Khoud, about 20 kilometers from the capital Muscat. The garden showcases all of the native plant species of Oman in a series of man-made naturalistic habitats from the dry deserts to the rich monsoon cloud forests. The garden also showcases the traditionally cultivated crops, with information on how plants are used by the people of Oman. It presents an opportunity for visitors to experience the flora and vegetation of Oman while learning about the agricultural heritage, cultural traditions, and hospitality of the country. == Concept == The design concept is based on four basic principles: * The native flora is represented in naturalistic habitats. * The garden reflects and honors Oman's botanical heritage. * The garden demonstrates a sustainable approach. * The displays are interactive to provide a modern form of education and interpretation. At the time of development, the Oman Botanic Garden was the first botanical garden to display the extensive flora of an entire region. The garden is the largest botanical garden in the Arabian Peninsula and one of the largest in the world. The garden consists of the following key components: nursery, visitor center, research center, field study center, outdoor habitat gardens, northern mountain biome, southern mountain biome, and nature reserve area. The Oman Botanic Garden project is built upon a foundation of environmental sensitivity and sustainability. The project is built within the limits of a large nature reserve, and as such a “tread lightly” approach is followed, both in concept and in construction. As a part of its main objective, Oman Botanic Garden is helping to create a more sustainable world, throughout its design, construction and operation. The project is applying for certification for some of the buildings through the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), operated by the US Green Building Council. This places stringent criteria on energy efficiency, sourcing and use of materials, minimizing the use of resources, and communicating best practice. ==Flora and vegetation of Oman== The Sultanate of Oman in the southern Arabian Peninsula is mainly characterised by arid habitats, with much of the region occupied by sand dunes or rock and gravel desert. However, and often in stark contrast to the deserts, the country also contains a seasonal cloud forest, open juniper woodlands and other habitats supporting high species diversity with many endemic plants. Oman lies in the transition zone between the Holarctic and Palaeotropical kingdoms, as well as between subtropical and tropical climate zones. This position is reflected by the presence of plant species from several biogeographical regions as demonstrated by the comparatively high number of vascular plants in Oman. A period of intensified botanical research in Oman has taken place over the last two decades. There has been good progress extending our knowledge of the flora of Oman, resulting in the description of 103 new range-restricted species since 1980 and the documentation of new records for the country (Patzelt, 2014). However, detailed studies of the vegetation and plant communities are still scarce and current knowledge ranges from no documentation at all to brief descriptions of the vegetation types or to characterisation of the vegetation units by their complete floristic composition and arranged in a hierarchical system of floristic similarity. Data are also lacking regarding the population parameters and ecology of individual plant species. Oman has a total of 191 range-restricted species, representing 13.6% of the total flora (Patzelt, 2014). This high proportion of range-restricted species (endemics, near endemics and regional endemics) in the Sultanate can be explained by a unique combination of ecological factors that restricted the range of species in the past. Endemics are found in all vegetation types throughout the country. However, some habitats are particularly rich in range-restricted species and are of special interest, encompassing sites of maximum biodiversity. Significant species-rich habitats include the monsoon-affected mountains in southern Oman, the northern Hajar mountains, and the coastal areas of the central desert; these areas represent local centres of plant endemism. ==History and development of Oman Botanic Garden== Following a Royal Decree in 2006 by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said, the Oman Botanic Garden project was initiated. The scale and complexity of the project is such that the design and construction work has been divided into multiple phases. Construction of the Oman Botanic Garden started in 2007 with the construction of a native plants nursery on site. The on-site nursery was constructed in 2008 and has been fully functional since then. The nursery now houses one of the largest documented collections of Arabian plants in the world, with ca. 70,000 plants in cultivation. The garden also houses a seed bank with currently ca. 5 million seeds. Most seeds are collected from the wild, with verification levels close to 100%. Many of the architectural, landscape architectural and infrastructure components of Oman Botanic Garden are currently under design or construction, at varying levels of completion, while the plant collection is being grown. The Oman Botanic Garden is not only Oman's leading institution of National Plant Collections, but is already regarded as one of the world's most interesting botanic gardens. ==Oman Botanic Garden staff== The current staff structure consists of five departments: Botany and Conservation, Living Collections, Education and Communication, Operations, and Corporate Services. To date, the garden employs 80 staff, including four international experts and 76 Omani nationals. Several of the team are recruits from the local village, enabling the involvement of the local community with the project and helping to ensure that the benefits and information about the project are shared - an important aspect of the project's sustainability focus. ==Plants collections in Oman Botanic Garden== The plant collections of the Oman Botanic Garden include living plants in the nursery, seeds in the seed bank and preserved plants in the herbarium. The plants currently grown in the nursery represent the largest scientific and documented collection of Arabian Plants on earth. Only very few of the plants of Oman have been propagated or cultivated before, so the work of the nursery is greatly increasing the knowledge and understanding of the country's flora. The Oman Botanic Garden botanist and horticulture teams collect plants as seeds and cuttings through regular field trips; hundreds of expeditions have taken placeto all areas and habitats of the country to collect, monitor and record invaluable data about Oman's plants and habitats. The majority of the native plants of Oman which will be planted in the Oman Botanic Garden are not available commercially. Therefore, the botany team has spent thousands of days on field expeditions to collect seed and other plant material to build up the collection. Seeds are collected and the plants are propagated for the first time ever at the Oman Botanic Garden nursery. The overall vision of the habitat gardens is to represent a specific habitat at its best. A habitat design is not a formal design, but rather provides a true representation of the plants in their natural environments. The native plants of Oman will also be used in the amenity areas of the garden, outside of the habitats, to showcase the design potential of using native Omani plants in the landscape. ==Research in Oman Botanic Garden== Oman Botanic Garden conducts active research in the areas of flora and vegetation of Oman, propagation and cultivation of native plant species, ethnobotany, plant pests and diseases, and designing with native species. The garden helps to protect the plant diversity of Oman through botanical and horticultural research and conservation. The Oman Botanic Garden Herbarium currently 1800 holds plant vouchers, which are arranged systematically. The herbarium is open to visitors. The garden will also conduct plant genetics research once the research facilities are constructed and ready to use. The Oman Botanic Garden will form a key part of Oman's response to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, part of the Convention on Biological Diversity. ==Education and communication in Oman Botanic Garden== Environmental education is at the heart of the garden and one of its key functions. Through the work of the Oman Botanic Gardens, visitors will be encouraged to respect and care for the country's indigenous natural environment and learn more about the fascinating cultural connection that exists between plants and people and value all that Oman stands for. Oman Botanic Garden currently develops tests and runs school programmes, programmes for university students, and for other visitor groups. Course material is being developed and further refined. The garden works together with the relevant Ministries, to ensure that the programme of the garden ties in the country's curricula. A temporary visitor centre is used for pre-booked visiting groups and school parties. The garden's website can be accessed at www.omanbotanicgarden.com. ==Global botanic garden context== There are currently 2,200 botanic gardens known in the world in nearly 150 countries, but there are very few in the Middle East and South-West Asia, although the area is home to an estimated 60,000 plant species. The flora of the Arabian Peninsula has so far been poorly represented in any botanic garden on a global scale. Botanic gardens worldwide do not adequately reflect the Arabian plant diversity and number of collections is the smallest of all botanic garden living plant material. Oman has a rich and unique botanical heritage and has taken regional leadership in environmental issues. The garden will be the first in the world to grow only the native species of a region, planted in scientifically accurate, natural habitat gardens. The respect and value for plant diversity conservation fostered by the Oman Botanic Garden represents a major global step forward in global plant conservation efforts. ==Further reading== * Al-Abbasi TM, Al-Farhan A, Al-Khulaidi AW, Hall M, Llewellyn OA, Miller AG, Patzelt A (2010). Important Plant Areas in the Arabian Peninsula. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 67(1): 25-35. * Brinkmann K, Patzelt A, Dickhoefer U, Schlecht E, Buerkert A (2009). Vegetation pattern and diversity along an altitudinal and a grazing gradient in the Jabal Al Akhdarmountain range of northern Oman. - Journal of Arid Environment, 74: 1035-1045. * Ghazanfar, SA & Fisher M (1998). (Eds.) Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula.– Kluwer Academic Publishers. * Hildebrandt A & EAEltahir (2006).Forest at the edge: Seasonal cloud forest in Oman creates its own ecological niche. - Geophysical Research Letters, 33. * Luedeling E &Buerkert; A. (2009).Typology of oases in northern Oman based on Landsat and SRTM imagery and geological survey data. - Remote Sensing of Environment, 112: 1181-1195. * Mandaville JP (1984). Studies in the Flora of Arabia XI: some historical and geographical aspects of a principle floristic frontier.- Notes Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 42(1): 1-15. * Miller AG & Morris M (1988).Plants of Dhofar- The southern region of Oman. Traditional, Economic and Medicinal Uses.-Office for the Adviser for Conservation of the Environment, Diwan of Royal Court. * Miller AG & Cope TA (1996): Flora of the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra, Vol. 1. - Edinburgh. * Miller AG&NybergJA; (1991).Patterns of endemism in Arabia. - Flora etVegetatio Mundi, 9: 263-279. * Patzelt A (2011).The Themedaquadrivalvis tall-grass savannah of Oman at the crossroad between Africa and Asia. - Edinburgh Journal of Botany, 68(2): 301-319. * Patzelt A (2014).Oman Plant Red Data Book.- Oman Botanic Garden, Diwan of Royal Court, Muscat, Oman. * Patzelt A (2015).Photographic Field Guide to the plants of the Western Hajar mountains, Sultanate of Oman, with a complete checklist of vascular plant species. - Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. * Patzelt A (2015). Synopsis of the Flora and Vegetation of Oman, with Special Emphasis on Patterns of Plant Endemism.-Abhandlungen der Braunschweigischen Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, 282-317. * Patzelt A, Morris LM, Al Farsi K, Spalton A (2009). The Oman Botanic Garden (2): Collections Policy, Nursery Construction, Expanded Plant Production and Initial Tree Translocation. Sibbaldia 7: 83-97 * Patzelt A, Morris L, Al Harthi L, Al Rashdi I, Spalton A (2008). The Oman Botanic Garden (1): The Vision, early plant collections and propagation. Sibbaldia 6: 41-77. * Patzelt A, Harrison T, KneesSG&AlHarthy; L (2014): Studies in the Flora of Arabia XXXI: New records from the Sultanate of Oman.- Edinburgh Journal of Botany, 70(2): 1-20. * Patzelt A, Lansdown RV, &KneesSG; (2015).The status and distribution of wetland-dependent plants in the Arabian Peninsula.- IUCN publication. * Pickering H, Patzelt A (2008). Field Guide to the Wild Plants of Oman. Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. 281 pages. * Richardson, N., Dorrs, M (2004).The Craft Heritage of Oman.- London: Motivate Publishers. * White F&LeonardJ; (1991).Phytogeographical links between Africa and Southwest Asia. -Flora etVegetatio Mundi, 9: 229-246 ==References== Category:Gardens in Oman Category:Botanical gardens
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Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny is a 2023 American action adventure film directed by James Mangold, and co-written by Mangold, Jez Butterworth, John- Henry Butterworth, and David Koepp. Produced by Walt Disney Pictures, Paramount Pictures and Lucasfilm Ltd. and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, the film is a sequel to Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) and serves as the fifth and final installment in the Indiana Jones franchise. The film stars Harrison Ford in his fifth and final portrayal of archaeologist Indiana Jones, with John Rhys-Davies and Karen Allen also reprising their roles as Sallah and Marion Ravenwood, respectively, from earlier films. New cast members include Phoebe Waller-Bridge, Antonio Banderas, Toby Jones, Boyd Holbrook, Ethann Isidore, and Mads Mikkelsen. Set in 1969, the film follows Indiana Jones and his estranged goddaughter Helena Shaw trying to locate a device that could change the course of history before Jürgen Voller, a Nazi-turned-NASA scientist, can get it for himself and alter the outcome of World War II to correct Adolf Hitler's "mistakes." Dial of Destiny is the first and only film in the series that is neither directed by Steven Spielberg nor written by George Lucas, with both serving as executive producers instead. It is also the only film in the series not to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, following Walt Disney Studios' acquisition of Lucasfilm that transferred film rights for future sequels; Paramount instead retains the distribution rights to the first four films and a residual associate credit. Plans for a fifth Indiana Jones film go back to the late 1970s when Lucas and Spielberg negotiated with Paramount for four sequels to Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981). Lucas began researching potential plot devices for a fifth film in 2008, although the project stalled for years. Koepp was eventually hired to write the fifth film in 2016, with a release date set for 2019, although this was delayed several times due to rewrites and later the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2018, Jonathan Kasdan was hired to replace Koepp, who returned to write in 2019 before eventually leaving the project. Spielberg was to direct, but stepped down in 2020, with Mangold taking his place. Filming began in June 2021, taking place in various locations including the United Kingdom, Italy, and Morocco, and wrapped in February 2022. With a reported production budget as high as , it is the most expensive film in the Indiana Jones franchise, as well as one of the most expensive films ever made. Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny had its world premiere at the 76th Cannes Film Festival on May 18, 2023, and was released in the United States on June 30, 2023. == Plot == In 1944, during the Allied liberation of Europe in World War II, Nazis capture Indiana Jones and fellow archiologist Basil Shaw from Oxford as they attempt to retrieve the Lance of Longinus. Meanwhile, astrophysicist Jürgen Voller informs his superiors that the Lance they possess is a fake, but he has found half of Archimedes' Dial. It was invented by the Syracusan mathematician Archimedes and can locate fissures in time. Jones escapes and boards a train full of looted antiquities, where he rescues Shaw. After determining the spear is a fake and acquiring the Dial, he and Shaw jump from the train before it derails on a bridge destroyed by Allied bombers. 25 years later, in 1969, Jones is separated from his wife Marion Ravenwood after their son Mutt died during the Vietnam War. He is being pushed into retirement at Hunter College. Basil's daughter and Jones's godchild, Helena Shaw, also an archeology student and treasure hunter, approaches Jones. He informs her that the Dial was split in half and that her now-deceased father was nearly driven insane attempting to unlock its secrets. Jones failed to fulfill his promise to Basil to destroy the Dial. They retrieve one piece of the Dial from the college storeroom, where they are attacked by henchmen sent by Voller, who now works for NASA under a new identity and is assisted by a CIA group led by Agent Mason. Knowing Voller's men are after her, Helena escapes with the Dial, revealing her true intention to sell it at a black market auction. Jones flees into a parade celebrating the Apollo 11 astronauts before escaping through the New York City Subway. He seeks out his old friend Sallah, now an immigrant cab driver. Jones travels to Tangier and prevents Helena from selling the first part of the Dial at an auction. Voller and his men arrive and steal the Dial, forcing Jones, Helena, and her sidekick Teddy Kumar to pursue them in an auto rickshaw. A gangster named Rahim, who was previously engaged to Helena, also joins the fray but is halted when his car gets stuck in a narrow alley. Voller is apprehended by Mason, who has been sent to make Voller disappear after the government disavowed him. Instead, Voller and his men kill Mason and steal her helicopter. Jones, Helena, and Teddy follow Voller to Greece, where they enlist the aid of Jones's deep-sea diver friend Renaldo to retrieve a tablet from the Aegean Sea inscribed with instructions to the second part of the Dial. Although they obtain the tablet, Voller kills Renaldo, and follows Jones's group to Sicily, where they find the second and final piece of the Dial at Archimedes's grave, along with a modern analog watch on his skeleton hand. Voller captures Jones, reassembles the Dial, and reveals his plan to time travel back to 1939 and kill Adolf Hitler in the hopes a better leader will rise and lead Germany to victory in the war. Helena sneaks aboard Voller's plane before it takes off while Teddy pursues them in another plane where he is unknowingly accompanied by its sleeping pilot. However, Voller fails to take continental drift into consideration, and the fissure in time instead leads them to 212 BC during the Siege of Syracuse. Jones and Helena parachute from the plane as it is shot down by projectiles fired by the warring armies below. Voller and his men die in the ensuing plane crash. Gravely injured, Jones begs Helena to leave him behind in the past, allowing him to become a part of ancient history, but Helena refuses, fearing the possibility of a catastrophic time paradox. Archimedes himself arrives, having emerged from his workshop to investigate Voller's crashed plane. Archimedes returns the version of the Dial they brought from 1969 and a watch taken from Voller's dead body, the same one Jones and Helena found on his skeleton, in his tomb. Helena knocks Jones out and returns him to 1969 aboard Teddy's plane. Jones awakens in his apartment, reuniting with Helena, Teddy, Sallah, and his grandchildren, as well as Marion, who reconciles with Jones. As the others leave for some ice cream, Jones and Marion reminisce about a past conversation, before passionately kissing. == Cast == * Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones, the world-renowned globe-trotting archaeologist and college professor. Mangold considers Jones "a phenomenally unique hero" and a "brilliant nerd who is also a badass". * Phoebe Waller-Bridge as Helena Shaw, Jones's goddaughter. Mangold identifies Helena as the "catalyst" of the film, kicking off the film's plot after dragging her godfather into a problem of hers. The filmmakers described the character as "slippery, charming, the girl next door, a grifter", a "pioneer in ethical accounting" and similar to comedic characters with "machine-gun" dialogue akin to those of Ben Hecht's plays. She is the daughter of an old friend of Indy, Basil. * Mads Mikkelsen as Jürgen Voller, a former Nazi during World War II who has been hired by NASA and seeks to use the Apollo moon landing program for his own gain. Mikkelsen felt that Voller is a man who would like to "correct" some mistakes of the past with the film's MacGuffin to make the world "a much better place to live in", pitting him against Indy as he wishes to retrieve the artifact as well. * Antonio Banderas as Renaldo, an old friend of Indy who pilots boats. Banderas claimed that his character is not a villain but a "good guy" who would "die" for Indiana Jones. He enjoyed working with Ford, Mangold and Steven Spielberg, who co-produced one of their previous films The Mask of Zorro. Banderas also pointed out that his role as Renaldo veers more into a cameo appearance than a pivotal part in the plot, providing Indy and his party the assistance they need, but he nonetheless felt grateful to be part of the franchise. * John Rhys-Davies as Sallah, Jones's old friend who aided in finding the Ark of the Covenant in 1936 and the Holy Grail in 1938. Sallah has since moved his entire family to New York City and works as a cab driver. * Toby Jones as Basil Shaw, an ally of Jones from his days in World War II and Helena's father, who was obsessed over the Dial of Destiny. * Boyd Holbrook as Klaber, Voller's nefarious right-hand man in 1969. Holbrook described Klaber as Voller's lapdog, "and a very crazy one at that". * Ethann Isidore as Teddy Kumar, Helena's young sidekick. * Shaunette Renée Wilson as Mason, a US government agent. Wilson felt that her character's government connections fit into the story in a similar way to how the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) recruited black agents to infiltrate the Black Panther Party in the 1960s. * Thomas Kretschmann as Colonel Weber, a Nazi working with Voller in 1944. * Karen Allen as Marion Ravenwood, Jones's wife who aided in finding the Ark of the Covenant in 1936 and the Crystal Skull of Akator in 1957. * Olivier Richters as Hauke, a henchman of Voller. * Mark Killeen as Pontimus, a soldier from 212 BC during the Siege of Syracuse. * Nasser Memarzia as Archimedes, a brilliant scientist from 212 BC Syracuse. * Martin McDougall as Durkin, a henchman of Voller. * Alaa Safi as Rahim, the son of a Moroccan mob boss that was previously engaged to Helena Shaw. * Dorothy Booker, Rosa Parks look-a-like, in subway scene. Dorothy, a spitting image of the historical civil rights activist, was discovered while shopping in a local Von’s market by renowned casting scout Markus Gaitán. == Production == === Development === In 1979, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg made a deal with Paramount Pictures for five Indiana Jones films. In April 2008, Harrison Ford said he would return as Indiana Jones for a fifth film if it does not take another twenty years to develop, referring to the long development of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), which was released a month later. The film introduced the character Mutt Williams, played by Shia LaBeouf. Writer/producer Lucas suggested an idea to make Williams the lead character in a fifth film, but later decided against this. Lucas said that Ford's age would not be an issue in making another film, saying, "it's not like he's an old man. He's incredibly agile; he looks even better than he did 20 years ago". Lucas began researching potential plot devices for another film in 2008, and stated that Spielberg was open to directing it, as he had done for the previous films. Explaining the process for each film, Ford said, "We come to some basic agreement and then George goes away for a long time and works on it. Then Steven and I get it in some form, some embryonic form. Then if we like it we start working with George on it and at some point down the line it's ready and we do it." Lucas stressed the importance of having a MacGuffin that is supernatural but still grounded in reality with an archaeological or historical background, saying, "you can't just make something up, like a time machine". Speaking about the previous film and the franchise's future, Lucas said, "we still have the issues about the direction we'd like to take. I'm in the future; Steven's in the past. He's trying to drag it back to the way they were, I'm trying to push it to a whole different place. So, still we have a sort of tension". Later in 2008, Ford stated that Lucas's concept for the fifth film was "crazy but great". In November 2010, Ford said that Lucas was still working on the project. In July 2012, producer Frank Marshall stated that the project had no writer and said about its progress, "I don't know if it's definitely not happening, but it's not up and running". In October 2012, the Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm, giving Disney ownership rights to the Indiana Jones intellectual property. In December 2013, the Walt Disney Studios purchased the distribution and marketing rights to future Indiana Jones films from Paramount, with the latter studio retaining the distribution rights to the first four films and receiving "financial participation" for any additional films as well as an "in association with" credit. With the 2012 acquisition, Lucas passed Indiana Jones 5 to new Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy. Lucasfilm planned to focus on the Star Wars franchise before working on a fifth Indiana Jones film. In May 2015, Kennedy confirmed that Lucasfilm would eventually make another Indiana Jones film. Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ended positively for Indiana Jones, with his marriage to Marion Ravenwood. However, Ford did not necessarily view the film as a definitive ending for Jones, wishing to make one more film that could expand the character and conclude his journey. Ford felt that Crystal Skull "ended in kind of a suspended animation. There was not a real strong feeling of the conclusion or the closure that I always hoped for". According to Kennedy, "we all felt that if we could conclude the series with one more movie, give the fact that Harrison was so excited to try to do another one, we should do it". Kennedy, Spielberg and Ford had discussed a couple of story ideas by the end of 2015. === Pre-production === In March 2016, Disney announced that the fifth film would be released on July 19, 2019, with Ford reprising his role. Spielberg would direct the film, with Kennedy and Marshall as producers. The film became the first in the Indiana Jones series to be co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Lucasfilm. In April 2016, Marshall said the film was in early pre-production. A MacGuffin had been chosen for the film, and work on the script began a few months later, with David Koepp as the screenwriter. The story was conceived by Koepp and Spielberg. Koepp had previously written several other Spielberg films, including Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Spielberg said the title character would not be killed off during the events of the film. Marshall stated that the story would continue from where the previous film ended. It was initially reported that Lucas would not be involved in the project, although Spielberg later said that Lucas would serve as an executive producer: "Of course I would never make an Indiana Jones film without George Lucas. That would be insane." Later that year, it was announced that Lucas would have no involvement, with Marshall stating two years later that "life changes and we're moving on. He moved on". In 2017, the film's release date was pushed back to 2020, as Spielberg was busy working on Ready Player One (2018) and The Post (2017). Koepp said "we've got a script we're mostly happy with". Spielberg set Indiana Jones 5 as his next film, with production set to begin in the UK in April 2019. However, filming was pushed back as a final script had yet to be approved. In early 2018, Lucasfilm met with screenwriters Scott Beck and Bryan Woods for an "open canvas talk" including the Indiana Jones and Star Wars franchises. Beck stated that they had considered writing the next Indiana Jones installment, but that ultimately he and Woods were more interested in establishing an original franchise. Marshall said that a lot of people had pitched ideas for the film. Jonathan Kasdan was eventually hired to replace Koepp in mid-2018, and a new release date was set for 2021. Kasdan had departed the project by May 2019, and it was rumored that writer Dan Fogelman would take over. In September 2019, Koepp announced that he had re-joined the production as writer, stating that the filmmakers had "a good idea this time". Koepp ultimately wrote two versions of the film, but neither were approved. He said that efforts to produce the film had failed because of disagreement between Spielberg, Ford, and Disney regarding the script. In February 2020, Spielberg stepped down as director, as he wanted to pass the film series to a new filmmaker for a fresh perspective. Kennedy later said that Spielberg "was kind of off and on" about directing the project, although he did remain as a hands-on producer. James Mangold was confirmed as director in May 2020, when he began work on a new script. He had previously offered Ford a role in his film Ford v Ferrari (2019), and the two also worked together on The Call of the Wild (2020), which Mangold produced. As a result of this relationship, Ford suggested Spielberg and Kennedy to hire Mangold as director. He is the first person besides Spielberg to direct a film in the series. Koepp departed the project again after Spielberg stepped down, saying it "seemed like the right time to let Jim have his own take on it and have his own person or himself write it". Mangold had considered turning down the director position, as Lucasfilm wanted filming to begin in about six months in order to meet the 2021 release date. However, Mangold wanted more time so he could refine the script. He eventually signed on to the project after the COVID-19 pandemic pushed back the release date, giving him the time he wanted. The pandemic had also shut down pre-production on Mangold's film about Bob Dylan starring Timothée Chalamet. Mangold wrote the new screenplay with Jez and John-Henry Butterworth, who worked with him previously on Ford v Ferrari, over the course of six to eight months. Mangold said, "I wanted to really retool the existing script pretty aggressively, almost entirely". Koepp received credit alongside Mangold and the Butterworths for his earlier work. Among the previous films in the series, Mangold cited the first entry, Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), as his biggest inspiration while making Dial of Destiny. He considered Raiders his favorite film in the series and said "you go to the original because that's where the standard was set." The film's MacGuffin, the fictional Archimedes Dial, was inspired by research that Mangold conducted into the Antikythera mechanism. Artistic liberty was taken with the film's dial to suit the story. The dial is named after Greek inventor Archimedes, who is believed to have played a role in the creation of the real Antikythera. According to Mangold, the earlier draft by Koepp featured a MacGuffin that was "just another relic with power, similar to the relics we had seen", with no emotional connection to Jones. Mangold considered time-travel on par with the previous films, stating about Raiders and Last Crusade: "It's no more of a wild swing in my mind than ghouls flying out of a box and melting people's heads through the sheer power of dark angels, or a 700-year-old knight existing in a cave for perpetuity. These are all beyond the scope of all physical belief." Earlier films had featured Nazis as the antagonists, and Mangold and the Butterworths were inspired by Operation Paperclip as a way of reincorporating them for Dial of Destiny. Mangold considered Nazi Germany for the film's time-traveling final act, with Jones attempting to stop Voller's plan. However, as this idea was developed further, Mangold considered it too predictable. He also found that it lacked emotional resonance for Jones and played out like a spy film, prompting him to choose the siege of Syracuse instead. The Butterworths suggested the idea to end the film with Jones and Marion discussing their emotional pain, a callback to a similar conversation in Raiders. Mangold consulted with Lucas and Spielberg, who serve as executive producers. Recalling advice that Spielberg offered, Mangold said, "It's a movie that's a trailer from beginning to end — always be moving". === Casting === Despite Ford's age, Marshall and Spielberg ruled out the possibility of recasting his character. Ford said, "I'm Indiana Jones. When I'm gone, he's gone". Ford was paid $10–12 million for his involvement. In April 2021, Phoebe Waller-Bridge, Mads Mikkelsen and Thomas Kretschmann were cast in undisclosed roles. Boyd Holbrook and Shaunette Renée Wilson were added the next month. Holbrook previously co-starred in Mangold's film Logan (2017). In July 2021, Antonio Banderas was cast in the film, portraying an ally to Indiana Jones. Ethann Isidore was cast as Teddy Kumar, marking his film debut. Waller-Bridge described her character as "a mystery and a wonder", and Mangold referred the actress to Barbara Stanwyck's performance as Jean Harrington in The Lady Eve (1941) as a key reference point. Mangold and the Butterworths wrote the role specifically for Waller-Bridge, inspired by Karen Allen's performance as Marion Ravenwood in Raiders of the Lost Ark. Waller-Bridge performed many of her own stunts. Mikkelsen said the script was "everything I wished it to be". His character was partly inspired by the Nazi scientists involved in Operation Paperclip, including Wernher von Braun. Like most villainous characters he has played throughout his career, Mikkelsen described Voller as a "misunderstood person". He also described his character as restrained: "We tried to avoid the cliché of the German or the Nazi with the extreme accent and the extreme madness. We wanted him to be a man who kind of blended in once he moved to America because he's predominantly a scientist". John Rhys-Davies reprised his role of Sallah for the first time since Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989). Allen also expressed interest in reprising her role as Marion, noting in 2011 that she and Jones were married in the previous film "so it would be difficult, I think, to move forward without her". Allen's return was kept a secret in the years leading up to the film's premiere; she said "whenever anyone asked me if I was in the film or not, I had to come up with something to say, like, 'I could tell you, but then I'd have to kill you.'" Her scene was shot in a day and a half, with the use of a gray wig. Allen was happy to reprise the character, although she wished she could have had a larger role as part of the film's adventure. Spielberg's version of the film would have featured Marion in more scenes with Jones. Jim Broadbent expressed a willingness to reprise his role as Charles Stanforth from Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, but ultimately did not return. Following the release of Crystal Skull, LaBeouf criticized the film and Spielberg, although Mangold said this did not factor into Mutt's absence in Dial of Destiny, saying "there's only so many people you can edge into a picture". He further said about Mutt, "I didn't think his whole thing worked that well in the previous film." As in the earlier films, Mangold wanted to instead capture "that wonderful energy between Indy and an intrepid female character". Mangold kept his options open about Mutt still being alive and simply off-screen, although he said "the reality is you want the story to focus on the characters that are in the picture. And so saying someone's out wandering off in the periphery seems sadder purgatory than actually making them a story point in the film and using their character's existence as a tremendous source of drama for some of our lead characters." Mutt was also absent in Koepp's original draft. === Filming === Although Crystal Skull was largely shot in the U.S., Marshall said that the fifth film would return to a global range of filming locations like the earlier films. Mangold was opposed to using the StageCraft virtual production technology developed by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) for Lucasfilm's The Mandalorian (2019–present), wanting to rely mainly on practical effects. Principal photography began in England on June 4, 2021. Sound stage filming took place at Pinewood Studios, and on-site filming locations included Bamburgh Castle and the North Yorkshire Moors Railway near Grosmont. The latter locations were used for the opening sequence, including a train chase and a motorcycle scene involving Ford's stunt double, using the same stretch of train track used by Tom Cruise weeks ago for Mission: Impossible – Dead Reckoning Part One (2023) during that film's temporal filming suspension. Ford himself was spotted in Grosmont on June 7, 2021. Interior train shots were filmed on a set at Pinewood Studios. During mid-June, filming took place at the Leaderfoot Viaduct in Scotland, while a motorcycle chase was shot in the Scottish village of Glencoe. Other Scottish locations included Biggar, South Lanarkshire. Later in June, location shooting moved to London where a street in Hackney was lined with vintage cars. Filming also took place inside a private residence which was reportedly chosen for its period style interior. Ford preferred to do his own stunts. On June 23, it was announced that he had injured his shoulder during the rehearsal of a fight scene and that the production crew would shoot around his recovery. Ford's injury occurred while rehearsing a punch against Mikkelsen's character for the train sequence. thumb|left|Parade filming in Glasgow In July 2021, shooting moved to Glasgow's city center, which was transformed to resemble New York City. A chase sequence, shot along St. Vincent Street and other areas, recreates a 1969 ticker tape parade celebrating the return of the Apollo 11 astronauts. A stunt double, Mike Massa, performed in place of Ford throughout the Glasgow shoot, with motion capture markers applied to his face. Holbrook and Waller-Bridge were on set as well. The sequence also featured 1,000 background actors as parade-goers and Vietnam War protestors. Filming in Glasgow lasted two weeks. Ford resumed filming in September 2021, and some shooting took place in the Hatton Garden area of London, which also doubled as New York City. In addition, a replica of a New York City Subway station was built at Pinewood's 007 Stage. In October 2021, production moved to Sicily, Italy, which stood in for itself and Greece. The Italian shoot included nearly 600 crew members. Filming began in the city of Syracuse, with locations such as the Ear of Dionysius cave, the Grotta Dei Cordari cave, the Neapolis archaeological park, and Castello Maniace. Subsequent shooting locations in Sicily included the city of Cefalù and the Province of Trapani. The latter location included filming in the towns of Castellammare del Golfo and Marsala. Ford and Waller- Bridge also filmed at the Temple of Segesta. Some filming in Sicily involved actors dressed as Roman soldiers, which created speculation that the film's storyline involves time travel. Filming began in Fez, Morocco, on October 17, 2021. Mangold and his crew were originally going to shoot part of the film in India, but when the COVID-19 levels there increased, they were forced to switch India for Morocco. Exterior filming took place there, including a chase sequence which required the use of a dozen tuk-tuks. On November 4, a camera operator named Nic Cupac was found dead in his Morocco hotel room; Disney stated that his death was not production related. Interior scenes of the Hotel L'Atlantique in Morocco were portrayed with another set at Pinewood, where the remainder of filming continued, eventually wrapping on February 26, 2022. With an estimated production budget of $295 million, it is the most expensive film in the Indiana Jones franchise, as well as one of the most expensive films ever made. Phedon Papamichael served as cinematographer, marking his sixth film with Mangold. Spielberg offered his advice on the script, watched dailies, and later visited the editing room a number of times. He praised the finished film. Ford was digitally de-aged for the film's 1944 opening sequence to depict his appearance during the first three Indiana Jones films. The de- aging process used several techniques, such as new software from ILM which looked through archived footage of a younger Ford in his previous work for Lucasfilm, including the original Star Wars films. Ford was somewhat "spooked" by the de-aging process, but was nonetheless impressed. Mikkelsen was also de- aged for the opening sequence, though with a different method. In 2012, Spielberg had rejected the idea of de-aging Ford with motion capture akin to the method he employed in The Adventures of Tintin (2011), saying that he wanted Ford's age to be acknowledged in the film. By mid-2019, Spielberg and Koepp had devised a five-minute World War II sequence that would feature a de- aged Ford, and Mangold would later expand it to 25 minutes. === Music === In June 2016, Spielberg confirmed that John Williams, who scored for the previous films in the Indiana Jones franchise, would return to compose the music for the fifth film. In 2022, Williams stated that it would be his final film score, following plans for a retirement, though he later backtracked on this decision. Williams premiered one of his compositions, "Helena's Theme", at the Hollywood Bowl on September 2, 2022, at Mangold's request. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack album digitally on June 29, 2023, and it is further set to be released through CD and vinyl LP formats on August 9, 2023. ==Themes and influences== Ford and Mangold both felt that Crystal Skull did not do enough to highlight Jones' age and the new era in which he lives. Speaking about Dial of Destiny as a finale to the franchise, Mangold said, "It became really important to me to figure out how to make this a movie about a hero at sunset". He said that Jones's age would be a major part of the film, something that was touched upon only briefly in the earlier drafts: "The issues I brought up about Indy's age were not things I thought were being addressed in the material being developed at the time. There were 'old' jokes, but the material itself wasn't about it. To me, whatever your greatest liability, you should fly straight towards that. If you try to pretend it's not there, you end up getting slings and arrows the whole way". According to Mangold and Ford, Dial of Destiny is about age, time and family relationships. Mangold said the film "is not about aging per se, but time — the way time travels for all of us, the way we all get older as the world changes around us." Mangold said of the film's cinematic style that the opening sequence, set in 1944, is meant to contrast with the main plot, which takes place in 1969, allowing the film to start with a blast of classic Indiana Jones action reminiscent of the first three films (1981–1989). The transition from the pulpy cinematic language of 1940s films brings the characters from an "older world" into the "modern" 1960s, a present that essentially started, in terms of technology, with the Cold War, nuclear power, intrigue and black-and-white morality. Mangold sought to portray "an accurate and realistic appraisal of where this character would be at this time in his life", describing Jones as "a hero who is used to a black and white world" when it comes to villains, who now finds himself in a gray world with a lack of "clear good guys and bad guys". Jez Butterworth noted the presence of ex-Nazis involved in the U.S. government's moon-landing program. This makes Jones grow distrustful of his country, feeling like a man out of time in an era in which idealism is gone. It was Ford's idea to start the 1969 storyline with Jones at a low point in his life, and then gradually "rebuild him from the ground up" as the film progresses. Mangold compared Dial of Destiny to his finale X-Men film Logan, enjoying the notion of what a hero can do for the world when it no longer has a place for him, allowing classical heroes to be seen through the "prism" of today's "jaundiced contemporary attitudes". However, Dial of Destiny would lack the seriousness of Logan, the latter regarded as a "purposefully and intentionally" grim adventure. == Release == Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny had its world premiere at the 76th Cannes Film Festival, screening out-of-competition, on May 18, 2023, exactly fifteen years after the Cannes premiere of The Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. The film received a five-minute standing ovation. It was theatrically released in the United States on June 30, 2023, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It was initially set for release on July 19, 2019, taking off the then-planned release date for the Marvel Cinematic Universe unproduced Inhumans film by Marvel Studios, but was delayed in April 2017 to July 10, 2020, with The Lion King (2019) taking its former spot. It then shifted to July 9, 2021, and was further delayed to July 29, 2022, following the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry. Its current release date was announced in October 2021. Internationally, the movie is being released on dates ranging from 28 to 30 June. === Marketing === During Star Wars Celebration in May 2022, Ford debuted the first official image from the film, showing Jones silhouetted in a cave. Exclusive footage was shown to attendees at the D23 Expo in September 2022. The footage included shots of a de-aged Ford and multiple action sequences, and confirmed the return of Rhys-Davies. The film's title, Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny, was revealed on December 1, 2022, alongside the first trailer for the film. Alex Billington of FirstShowing said that the film looked "phenomenal," adding that he felt more positive about it after the trailer than he did Crystal Skull. The Escapist's John Friscia found the trailer's nod to Raiders of the Lost Ark amusing but hoped that the film wouldn't rely on nostalgia. A TV spot for the film aired during Super Bowl LVII on February 12, 2023. A new trailer and poster debuted at the 2023 Star Wars Celebration on April 7, 2023. Hasbro will produce toys based on the film, as it did with Crystal Skull in 2008. Lego will release sets in conjunction with the release of the film in a relaunch of their Indiana Jones theme. == Reception == === Box office === In the United States and Canada, Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny was released alongside Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken, and is projected to gross $60–65 million from 4,600 theaters in its opening weekend. It is also expected to gross around $80 million from international territories, for a worldwide debut of around $140 million. TheWrap claimed that Americans under the age of 30 had a "much lower presence in ticket presales compared to the average summer tentpole" and that the film's tracking was also underperforming in Asian markets. The film made $24 million on its first day, including $7.2 million from Thursday night previews. === Critical response === Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 79% of filmgoers gave the it a positive score, with 59% saying they would definitely recommend the film. John Nugent of Empire Magazine gave the film four out of five stars, complimenting Ford's performance, and noted Mangold's camerawork "moves confidently through action set-piece after action set-piece, keeping up a frantic pace." Bilge Ebiri, reviewing for Vulture, called the film "fun" but acknowledged comparisons to the previous installments were "warranted. But it's also too entertaining to dismiss. You may not lose yourself in this one the way so many of us once did with the earlier Indiana Jones movies, but you'll certainly have a good time." The Guardians Peter Bradshaw felt Dial of Destiny "has quite a bit of zip and fun and narrative ingenuity with all its MacGuffiny silliness that the last one really didn't." Germain Lussier, reviewing the film for io9, praised the film for having "a great premise, exciting action, wonderful banter, and some fantastic twists and turns." In Uproxx, Mike Ryan wrote: "This is a very fun movie but Indy's arc is poignant and also sad. It's kept in the background, but it's there." He found the ending more satisfying than the ending of The Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Owen Gleiberman of Variety described the film as a "dutifully eager but ultimately rather joyless piece of nostalgic hokum ... Though it has its quota of 'relentless' action, it rarely tries to match (let alone top) the ingeniously staged kinetic bravura of Raiders of the Lost Ark." David Rooney for The Hollywood Reporter criticized the film, writing "it's a big, bombastic movie that goes through the motions but never finds much joy in the process, despite John Williams's hard-working score continuously pushing our nostalgia buttons and trying to convince us we're on a wild ride." Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair wrote: "Dial of Destiny certainly tries hard to do right by its pedigree. The basic component parts are there: an object quest rooted in history, a tingle of the supernatural, easily rooted-against fascist villains. But something in the calculations is off ...In [the film], one can feel the four credited screenwriters grasping at inspiration and coming up short. What they did manage to make would be perfectly fine as a standalone adventure film starring some other character, but it's not worthy of the whip." The Telegraphs Robbie Collin praised Ford's performance, but felt the film's action sequences were "loaded with mayhem but painfully short on spark and bravado: there's no shot here, nor twist of choreography, that makes you marvel at the filmmaking mind that conceived it." === Accolades === The trailer for Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny was nominated in three categories at the 2023 Golden Trailer Awards: Best Summer 2023 Blockbuster Trailer, and Best Teaser; and "Hero" (Wild Card) for Best Fantasy Adventure TV Spot (for a Feature Film) and Best Music TV Spot (for a Feature Film). It won Best Fantasy Adventure for "New Day" (Wild Card) and Best Fantasy Adventure TV Spot (for a Feature Film) for "Hero" (Wild Card). ==Future== Disney CEO Bob Iger said in 2016 that the future of the franchise with Ford was unknown, but that the fifth film would not be the final installment in the franchise. In 2022, Kennedy reaffirmed earlier comments that Ford's role as Indiana Jones would not be recast, while Ford confirmed that the fifth film would be his last in the series. In November 2022, Disney considered multiple options to continue the franchise, including additional films or a television series for Disney+; however, by March 2023, Lucasfilm was reported to have canceled the planned Indiana Jones spin-off series for Disney+ to only focus on the Star Wars franchise. The series was set to be a prequel to Raiders of the Lost Ark and would have been the second prequel series following The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles. Disney confirmed the following month that the film would indeed be the last in the franchise. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * * Category:2020s American films Category:2020s English-language films Category:2023 action adventure films Category:2023 films Category:Cultural depictions of Archimedes Category:American action adventure films Category:American World War II films Category:American sequel films Category:Films about Apollo 11 Category:Films about educators Category:Films about Nazi fugitives Category:Films about old age Category:Films about time travel Category:Films about treasure hunting Category:Films directed by James Mangold Category:Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic Category:Films produced by Frank Marshall Category:Films produced by Kathleen Kennedy Category:Films scored by John Williams Category:Films set in the 3rd century BC Category:Films set in 1944 Category:Films set in 1969 Category:Films set in Athens Category:Films set in the Mediterranean Sea Category:Films set in New York City Category:Films set in Sicily Category:Films set in Tangier Category:Films shot at Pinewood Studios Category:Films shot in Glasgow Category:Films shot in London Category:Films shot in North Yorkshire Category:Films shot in Northumberland Category:Films shot in Scotland Category:Films shot in Sicily Category:Films with screenplays by David Koepp Category:Films with screenplays by James Mangold Category:Films with screenplays by Jez Butterworth Category:Indiana Jones films Category:Lucasfilm films Category:Midlife crisis films Category:Walt Disney Pictures films Category:Films with screenplays by John-Henry Butterworth
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Kambal, Karibal (International title: Heart & Soul / ) is a 2017 Philippine television drama series starting Bianca Umali and Miguel Tanfelix. The series premiered on GMA Network's GMA Telebabad evening block and worldwide on GMA Pinoy TV on November 27, 2017 to August 3, 2018, replacing the second season of Alyas Robin Hood. NUTAM (Nationwide Urban Television Audience Measurement) People in Television Homes ratings are provided by AGB Nielsen Philippines. The series ended, but its the 35th-week run, and with a total of 178 episodes. It was replaced by Onanay. == Series overview == Kambal, Karibal is divided into two seasons. The first season features the original story, and ends with a teaser revealing that it was Raymond who had ended up on the island, and Allan and Geraldine find their twins. The second season included the new characters of Selya, Darren and Valerie. As a result, the following week though shows otherwise. Now, since this extension was only until May, we actually see a conclusion or semi-closure towards the characters. The series was then extended for the 3rd time, adding the twist of Cheska's return and the addition of Cheska's real mother, Maricar. This is where the second season starts. According to GMA, if the series wasn't extended for the 3rd time (when season 2 starts), the ending of the series would have been a body swap between Crisan and Crisel, living happily together, starting over a new life But due to the series' extension, a new twist was added. ===Season 1 (2017-2018)=== ====November 2017==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 1 1 "Pilot" November 27, 2017 #KambalKaribal #2 2 2 "Stolen Twins" November 28, 2017 #KKStolenTwins 8.8% #2 3 3 "SCID" November 29, 2017 #KKSCID #2 4 4 "New Life" November 30, 2017 #KKNewLife #2 Average 8.9% ====December 2017==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 5 5 "Only Hope" December 1, 2017 #KKOnlyHope 9.4% #2 #4 6 6 "Father's Love" December 4, 2017 #KKFathersLove 9.2% #2 #6 7 7 "Paalam" (Farewell) December 5, 2017 #KKPaalam 9.1% #2 #6 8 8 "Goodbye" December 6, 2017 #KKGoodbye #2 #6 9 9 "Crisel's Ghost" December 7, 2017 #KKCriselsGhost 9.4% #2 #6 10 10 "Pagtatagpo" (Encounter) December 8, 2017 #KKPagtatagpo 9.3% #2 #6 11 11 "Pakiusap" (Please) December 11, 2017 #KKPakiusap 9.0% #2 #6 12 12 "Pagsubok" (Trial) December 12, 2017 #KKPagsubok 8.9% #2 #6 13 13 "Pageant" December 13, 2017 #KKPageant 9.2% #2 #4 14 14 "Pagtatagpo" (Coming Together) December 14, 2017 #KKPagtatagpo 8.8% #2 #6 15 15 "Confrontation" December 15, 2017 #KKConfrontation 8.0% #2 #6 16 16 "Selos" (Envy) December 18, 2017 #KKSelos 9.5% #2 #4 17 17 "Pagbabalik" (Return) December 19, 2017 #KKPagbabalik 9.6% #2 #4 18 18 "Moving On" December 20, 2017 #KKMovingOn 8.8% #2 #4 19 19 "Mother's Love" December 21, 2017 #KKMothersLove 8.9% #2 #4 20 20 "Malikmata" (Illusion) December 22, 2017 #KKMalikmata 8.5% #2 #6 21 21 "Twenty-First Episode" December 25, 2017' #KambalKaribal #2 #6 22 22 "Haunting" December 26, 2017 #KKHaunting 8.0% #2 #6 23 23 "Bistado" (Seen) December 27, 2017 #KKBistado 8.4% #2 #6 24 24 "Palusot" (Reason) December 28, 2017 #KKPalusot 9.0% #2 #5 25 25 "Yakap" (Hug) December 29, 2017 #KKYakap 8.9% #2 #4 Average 8.9% ====January 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 26 26 "Lihim" (Secret) January 1, 2018 #KKLihim #2 #6 27 27 "Accident" January 2, 2018 #KKAccident 9.0% #2 #6 28 28 "Nagpakita" (Showed) January 3, 2018 #KKNagpakita 9.1% #2 #6 29 29 "DNA Result" January 4, 2018 #KKDNAResult 10.0% #1 #4 30 30 "Sanib" (Possess) January 5, 2018 #KKSanib 9.1% #2 #5 31 31 "Run Away" January 8, 2018 #KKRunAway 10.1% #2 #6 32 32 "Alone" January 9, 2018 #KKAlone 9.2% #2 #6 33 33 "Rejected" January 10, 2018 #KKRejected 8.6% #2 #5 34 34 "Muling Pagsapi" (Possess Again) January 11, 2018 #KKMulingPagsapi 9.6% #2 #6 35 35 "Duda" (Doubt) January 12, 2018 #KKDuda 10.0% #1 #2 36 36 "Cheska" January 15, 2018 #KKCheska 10.5% #1 #2 37 37 "Pinagtagpo" (Meet) January 16, 2018 #KKPinagtagpo #1 #3 38 38 "Malasakit" (Concern) January 17, 2018 #KKMalasakit 9.7% #1 #3 39 39 "Pagtataka" (Wondering) January 18, 2018 #KKPagtataka 10.6% #2 #4 40 40 "Pagtatapat" (Adduction) January 19, 2018 #KKPagtatapat 9.5% #1 #3 41 41 "Cheska at 18" January 22, 2018 #KKCheskaAt18 9.8% #1 #2 42 42 "Pag-amin" (Confession) January 23, 2018 #KKPagAmin 10.5% #1 #2 43 43 "Hinala" (Suspicion) January 24, 2018 #KKHinala 10.2% #1 #2 44 44 "Makaawa" (Mercy) January 25, 2018 #KKMakaawa 10.1% #1 #2 45 45 "Suspetsa" (Suspect) January 26, 2018 #KKSuspetsa 10.2% #1 #3 46 46 "Pagsubok kay Cheska" (Trial for Cheska) January 29, 2018 #KKPagsubokKayCheska 10.0% #2 #4 47 47 "Crisel's Fear" January 30, 2018 #KKCriselsFear 10.4% #1 #2 48 48 "Pangamba" (Fear) January 31, 2018 #KKPangamba 9.8% #2 #4 Average 9.7% ====February 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 49 49 "Panic" February 1, 2018 #KKPanic 9.8% #2 #4 50 50 "Pagtatakip sa Kasalanan" (Covering Sins) February 2, 2018 #KKPagtatakipSaKasalanan 10.1% #2 #4 51 51 "Sumbong" (Complaint) February 5, 2018 #KKSumbong 9.3% #2 #3 52 52 "Galit" (Anger) February 6, 2018 #KKGalit 9.6% #2 #4 53 53 "Mapagpanggap" (Pretentious) February 7, 2018 #KKMapagpanggap 9.0% #2 #4 54 54 "Paghaharap" (Confrontation) February 8, 2018 #KKPaghaharap #1 #2 55 55 "Katotohanan" (Truth) February 9, 2018 #KKKatotohanan 10.4% #2 #2 56 56 "Banta" (Threat) February 12, 2018 #KKBanta 9.9% #1 #3 57 57 "Tulong" (Favor) February 13, 2018 #KKTulong 9.7% #2 #3 58 58 "Plano" (Plan) February 14, 2018 #KKPlano 9.5% #2 #3 59 59 "Pagpaalis" (Expulsion) February 15, 2018 #KKPagpaalis 10.0% #2 #3 60 60 "Hindi Bibitiw" (Will not Give up!) February 16, 2018 #KKHindiBibitiw 9.0% #2 #3 61 61 "Maangmaangan" (hypocritical) February 19, 2018 #KKMaangmaangan 9.5% #2 #4 62 62 "Matatag" (Stable) February 20, 2018 #KKMatatag 9.5% #2 #4 63 63 "Diskarte" (Strategy) February 21, 2018 #KKDiskarte 9.7% #2 #3 64 64 "Bangayan" (Wrangle) February 22, 2018 #KKBangayan 10.2% #2 #3 65 65 "Hindi Susuko" (Not Giving Up) February 23, 2018 #KKHindiSusuko #2 #4 66 66 "Takas" (Escape) February 26, 2018 #KKTakas 10.0% #2 #3 67 67 "Lola Anicia" (Grandma' Anicia) February 27, 2018 #KKLolaAnicia 9.3% #2 #5 68 68 "Dalamhati" (Grief) February 28, 2018 #KKDalamhati 10.4% #2 #3 Average 9.7% ====March 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 69 69 "Pagpaparaya" (Letting Go) March 1, 2018 #KKPagpaparaya 9.6% #2 #4 70 70 "Kasunduan" (Agreement) March 2, 2018 #KKKasunduan 8.7% #2 #4 71 71 "Alok" (Offer) March 5, 2018 #KKAlok #2 #3 72 72 "Pagkainggit" (Jealousy) March 6, 2018 #KKPagkainggit 9.1% #2 #3 73 73 "Crisan on Fire" March 7, 2018 #KKCrisanOnFire 9.3% #2 #4 74 74 "Kampihan" (Teaming Up) March 8, 2018 #KKKampihan 10.3% #2 #3 75 75 "Aksidente" (Accident) March 9, 2018 #KKAksidente 10.0% #2 #3 76 76 "Pagdidiin" (Emphasize) March 12, 2018 #KKPagdidiin 10.3% #2 #3 77 77 "Revelation" March 13, 2018 #KKRevelation 10.6% #1 #2 78 78 "Agawan" (Rivalry) March 14, 2018 #KKAgawan 10.8% #2 #3 79 79 "Bagong Katawan" (New Body) March 15, 2018 #KKBagongKatawan 11.6% #1 #2 80 80 "Face Off" March 16, 2018 #KKFaceOff 11.1% #2 #3 81 81 "Sibling Rivalry" March 19, 2018 #KKSiblingRivalry colspan="3" rowspan="4" 82 82 "Matinding Pagtatalo" (Intense Dispute) March 20, 2018 #KKMatindingPagtatalo 83 83 "Bintang" (Imputation) March 21, 2018 #KKBintang 84 84 "Frame Up" March 22, 2018 #KKFrameUp 85 85 "In Danger" March 23, 2018 #KKInDanger 10.1% #2 #3 86 86 "Captive" March 26, 2018 #KKCaptive 11.2% #2 #3 87 87 "Walang Iwanan" (Without Leaving) March 27, 2018 #KKWalangIwanan #1 #2 88 88 "Habulan" (Chase) March 28, 2018 #KKHabulan #1 Average 10.4% ====April 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 89 89 "Pagtataksil" (Betrayal) April 2, 2018 #KKPagtataksil 90 90 "Pinagkaisahan" (Consensus) April 3, 2018 #KKPinagkaisahan 11.6% #1 91 91 "Wanted" April 4, 2018 #KKWanted 92 92 "Pagtatago" (Hiding) April 5, 2018 #KKPagtatago 93 93 "Salisihan" (To Avoid) April 6, 2018 #KKSalisihan 94 94 "Pangungulila" (Desolation) April 9, 2018 #KKPangungulila 95 95 "Paghabol" (Chasing) April 10, 2018 #KKPaghabol 96 96 "Welcome Darren" April 11, 2018 #KKWelcomeDarren 97 97 "Apology" April 12, 2018 #KKApology 98 98 "New Friend" April 13, 2018 #KKNewFriend 99 99 "Pagdududa" (Doubt) April 16, 2018 #KKPagdududa 100 100 "Pagligtas" (Saving) April 17, 2018 #KKPagligtas 11.1% #2 101 101 "Getting Closer" April 18, 2018 #KKGettingCloser 102 102 "Pagtutuos" (Reckoning) April 19, 2018 #KKPagtutuos 103 103 "Prime Suspect" April 20, 2018 #KKPrimeSuspect 104 104 "Arestado" (Arrested) April 23, 2018 #KKArestado 105 105 "Liar" April 24, 2018 #KKLiar 106 106 "Muling Paghaharap" (Reconfrontation) April 25, 2018 #KKMulingPaghaharap 107 107 "Raymond's Revenge" April 26, 2018 #KKRaymondsRevenge 12.8% #1 108 108 "Proposal" April 27, 2018 #KKProposal 12.2% #1 109 109 "Agaw Buhay" (Dying) April 30, 2018 #KKAgawBuhay Average ====May 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 110 110 "Pagkumpirma" (Confirmation) May 1, 2018 #KKPagkumpirma 111 111 "Third Eye" May 2, 2018 #KKThirdEye 112 112 "Pagmulat" (Awake) May 3, 2018 #KKPagmulat 12.6% #1 113 113 "Crisan" May 4, 2018 #KKCrisan 12.6% #1 114 114 "Galit ni Crisel" (Crisel's Anger) May 7, 2018 #KKGalitNiCrisel 115 115 "Higanti" (Revenge) May 8, 2018 #KKHiganti 116 116 "Panganib" (Risk) May 9, 2018 #KKPanganib 12.0% #1 117 117 "In Danger" May 10, 2018 #KKInDanger 12.0% #1 118 118 "Soul Switching" May 11, 2018 #KKSoulSwitching Average ===Season 2 (2018)=== ====May 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 119 1 "Bagong Buhay" (New Life) May 14, 2018 #KKBagongBuhay 120 2 "Hinagpis" (Resentment) May 15, 2018 #KKHinagpis 121 3 "Flatline" May 16, 2018 #KKFlatline 12.3% #1 122 4 "Bagong Pagsubok" (New Trial) May 17, 2018 #KKBagongPagsubok 123 5 "Paniningil" (Payback) May 18, 2018 #KKPaniningil 11.6% #1 124 6 "Pagsulsol" (Seduction) May 21, 2018 #KKPagsulsol 125 7 "Pagtatakpan" (Cover) May 22, 2018 #KKPagtatakpan 10.9% #2 126 8 "Discovery" May 23, 2018 #KKDiscovery 127 9 "Betrayal" May 24, 2018 #KKBetrayal 128 10 "Pagtatanggol" (Defending) May 25, 2018 #KKPagtatanggol 11.6% #1 129 11 "Matinding Galit" (Wrath) May 28, 2018 #KKMatindingGalit 130 12 "Paghahanap" (Searching) May 29, 2018 #KKPaghahanap 131 13 "Pagtugis" (Pursuit) May 30, 2018 #KKPagtugis 10.9% #1 132 14 "Last Hope" May 31, 2018 #KKLastHope 12.3% #1 Average ====June 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Audience Share Timeslot rank Whole day rank 133 15 "Peligro" (Risk) June 1, 2018 #KKPeligro 134 16 "Kapahamakan" (Disaster) June 4, 2018 #KKKapahamakan 135 17 "Pananakot" (Intimidation) June 5, 2018 #KKPananakot 136 18 "Crisan's Temptation" June 6, 2018 #KKCrisansTemptation 137 19 "Patibong" (Trap) June 7, 2018 #KKPatibong 12.1% #1 138 20 "Guilt" June 8, 2018 #KKGuilt 11.8% #1 139 21 "Deadline" June 11, 2018 #KKDeadline 140 22 "Cheska's Mother" June 12, 2018 #KKCheskasMother 141 23 "The Search" June 13, 2018 #KKTheSearch 142 24 "Harapan" (Facade) June 14, 2018 #KKHarapan 143 25 "Pagtatangka" (Attempt) June 15, 2018 #KKPagtatangka 12.5% #1 144 26 "Paliwanag" (Explanation) June 18, 2018 #KKPaliwanag 145 27 "Panggugulo" (Trouble) June 19, 2018 #KKPanggugulo 146 28 "Pagsaklolo" (Helping) June 20, 2018 #KKPagsaklolo 147 29 "Tampuhan" (Displeasure) June 21, 2018 #KKTampuhan 148 30 "Desperate Moves" June 22, 2018 #KKDesperateMoves 149 31 "Pagsagip" (Rescue) June 25, 2018 #KKPagsagip 150 32 "Pagtawag" (Calling) June 26, 2018 #KKPagtawag 151 33 "Deception" June 27, 2018 #KKDeception 152 34 "Affection" June 28, 2018 #KKAffection 153 35 "Pasabog" (Petard) June 29, 2018 #KKPasabog Average ====July 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Audience Share Timeslot rank Whole day rank 154 36 "Anger" July 2, 2018 #KKAnger 155 37 "Pagtakas" (Escaping) July 3, 2018 #KKPagtakas 156 38 "Payback" July 4, 2018 #KKPayback 157 39 "Chase" July 5, 2018 #KKChase 158 40 "Compromise" July 6, 2018 #KKCompromise 159 41 "Pagtaboy" (Departure) July 9, 2018 #KKPagtaboy 160 42 "Ganti" (Revenge) July 10, 2018 #KKGanti 161 43 "Envy" July 11, 2018 #KKEnvy 162 44 "Death" July 12, 2018 #KKDeath 163 45 "Tagapagmana" (Heiress) July 13, 2018 #KKTagapagmana 164 46 "Bagong Panganib" (New Danger) July 16, 2018 #KKBagongPanganib 11.0% #1 165 47 "Pinsan" (Cousin) July 17, 2018 #KKPinsan 9.8% #1 166 48 "Nakaambang Panganib" (New Risk) July 18, 2018 #KKNakaambangPanganib 10.0% #1 167 49 "Halik" (Kiss) July 19, 2018 #KKHalik 9.6% #1 168 50 "Sorpresa" (Surprise) July 20, 2018 #KKSorpresa 10.7% #1 169 51 "Pakana" (Scheme) July 23, 2018 #KKPakana 9.7% #1 170 52 "Scheme" July 24, 2018 #KKScheme 11.3% #1 171 53 "Trapped" July 25, 2018 #KKTrapped 10.5% #2 #4 172 54 "Eskapo" (Escape) July 26, 2018 #KKEskapo 10.9% #1 173 55 "Misteryo" (Mystery) July 27, 2018 #KKMisteryo 11.2% #1 174 56 "Other World" July 30, 2018 #KKOtherWorld 11.3% #1 175 57 "Power" July 31, 2018 #KKPower 12.6% #1 #3 Average ====August 2018==== No. overall No. in season Episode Original air date Social media hashtag AGB Nielsen NUTAM People in Television Homes Ref. Rating Timeslot rank Whole day rank 176 58 "Kaguluhan" (Chaos) August 1, 2018 #KKKaguluhan #1 #2 177 59 "On Board" August 2, 2018 #KKOnBoard 11.9% #1 #2 178 60 "Undying Finale" August 3, 2018 #KKUndyingFinale #1 #2 Average 12.0% ==References== Category:Lists of Philippine drama television series episodes
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The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 or the Second Kashmir War was a culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between Pakistan and India. The conflict began following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule, It became the immediate cause of the war. The seventeen-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. Hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared through UNSC Resolution 211 following a diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and the United States, and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in Kashmir and along the border between India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir since the Partition of India in 1947, a number that was overshadowed only during the 2001–2002 military standoff between India and Pakistan. Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with substantial backing from air forces, and naval operations. India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. "Satisfied that it had secured a strategic and psychological victory over Pakistan by frustrating its attempt to seize Kashmir by force, when the UN resolution was passed, India accepted its terms ... with Pakistan's stocks of ammunition and other essential supplies all but exhausted, and with the military balance tipping steadily in India's favour." "Losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan." Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the United Nations intervened on 20 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat. Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin. Quote: India had the better of the war. Quote: India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Alternate link content.time.com Although the two countries fought to a standoff, the conflict is seen as a strategic and political defeat for Pakistan, "... the war itself was a disaster for Pakistan, from the first failed attempts by Pakistani troops to precipitate an insurgency in Kashmir to the appearance of Indian artillery within range of Lahore International Airport."Profile of Pakistan – U.S. Department of State, Failure of U.S.'s Pakistan Policy – Interview with Steve CollSpeech of Bill McCollum in United States House of Representatives 12 September 1994South Asia in World Politics By Devin T. Hagerty, 2005 Rowman & Littlefield, , p. 26 as it had neither succeeded in fomenting insurrection in Kashmir "... after some initial success, the momentum behind Pakistan's thrust into Kashmir slowed, and the state's inhabitants rejected exhortations from the Pakistani insurgents to join them in taking up arms against their Indian "oppressors." Pakistan's inability to muster support from the local Kashmiri population proved a disaster, both militarily and politically." nor had it been able to gain meaningful support at an international level. "Mao had decided that China would intervene under two conditions—that India attacked East Pakistan, and that Pakistan requested Chinese intervention. In the end, neither of them [were] obtained." However, in terms of aerial warfare, the PAF managed an upper hand over the combat zones despite being numerically inferior. Internationally, the war was viewed in the context of the greater Cold War, and resulted in a significant geopolitical shift in the subcontinent. Before the war, the United States and the United Kingdom had been major material allies of both India and Pakistan, as their primary suppliers of military hardware and foreign developmental aid. During and after the conflict, both India and Pakistan felt betrayed by the perceived lack of support by the western powers for their respective positions; those feelings of betrayal were increased with the imposition of an American and British embargo on military aid to the opposing sides. As a consequence, India and Pakistan openly developed closer relationships with the Soviet Union and China, respectively. The perceived negative stance of the western powers during the conflict, and during the 1971 war, has continued to affect relations between the West and the subcontinent. In spite of improved relations with the U.S. and Britain since the end of the Cold War, the conflict generated a deep distrust of both countries within the subcontinent which to an extent lingers to this day."In retrospect, it is clear that the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 represented a watershed in the West's association with the subcontinent.""By extending the Cold War into South Asia, however, the United States did succeed in disturbing the subcontinent's established politico-military equilibrium, undermining British influence in the region, embittering relations between India and Pakistan and, ironically, facilitating the expansion of communist influence in the developing world." "The legacy of the Johnson arms cut-off remains alive today. Indians simply do not believe that America will be there when India needs military help ... the legacy of the U.S. "betrayal" still haunts U.S.-Pakistan relations today." == Background == Since the Partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan and India remained in contention over several issues. Although the Kashmir conflict was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other border disputes existed, most notably over the Rann of Kutch, a barren region in the Indian state of Gujarat. The issue first arose in 1956 which ended with India regaining control over the disputed area. In 1960s Pakistan received 700 million dollars of military aid from United States, by signing a defense agreement in 1954, which significantly modernized Pakistan's military equipment."India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941–1991, , DIANE Publishing, pp 235, 238 After the defeat in 1962 Sino- Indian War Indian Military was undergoing massive changes both in personnel and equipment. During this period, despite being numerically smaller than the Indian Military, Pakistan's armed forces had a qualitative edge in air power and armor over India, which Pakistan sought to utilize before India completed its defense build-up. == War == thumb|Azad Kashmiri Irregular Militiamen, 1965 War thumb|Colorized Image of a Pakistani Azad Kashmiri militiaman Pakistani soldiers began patrolling in territory controlled by India in January 1965, which was followed by attacks by both countries on each other's posts on 8 April 1965. Initially involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed forces. Pakistan launched Operation Desert Hawk and captured few Indian post near the Kanjarkot fort border area. In June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan awarded of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of .Bhushan, Chodarat. "Tulbul, Sir Creek and Siachen: Competitive Methodologies" . South Asian Journal. March 2005, Encyclopædia Britannica and Open Forum – UNIDIR After its success in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, believed the Indian Army would be unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of Kashmir as the Indian military had suffered a loss to China in 1962 in the Sino-Indian War. Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was generally discontented with Indian rule and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating saboteurs. Pakistan attempted to ignite the resistance movement by means of a covert infiltration, code-named Operation Gibraltar.Defence Journal. September 2000 The Pakistani infiltrators were soon discovered, however, their presence reported by local Kashmiris, and the operation ended unsuccessfully. On 5 August 1965 between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, crossed the cease fire line on 15 August. Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success, capturing three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage. By the end of August, however, both sides had relative progress; Pakistan had made progress in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and Poonch and India had captured the Haji Pir pass, 8 km into Pakistan administered Kashmir. On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched a counterattack, called Operation Grand Slam, with the objective to capture the vital town of Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Ayub Khan calculated that "Hindu morale would not stand more than a couple of hard blows at the right time and place" although by this time Operation Gibraltar had failed and Shabeg Singh had captured the Haji Pir Pass. He commanded the Hajji Pir Sector and Naushera in Jammu and Kashmir, and was able to capture 73 Pakistani soldiers and 8 Kashmiri terrorists who Pakistan was trying to sneak in India's borders to create internal problems. At 03:30 on 1 September 1965, the entire Chhamb area came under massive artillery bombardment. Pakistan had launched operation Grand Slam and India's Army Headquarter was taken by surprise. Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan made gains against Indian forces, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. India responded by calling in its air force to blunt the Pakistani attack. The next day, Pakistan retaliated, its air force attacked Indian forces and air bases in both Kashmir and Punjab. India's decision to open up the theatre of attack into Pakistani Punjab forced the Pakistani army to relocate troops engaged in the operation to defend Punjab. Operation Grand Slam therefore failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture Akhnoor; it became one of the turning points in the war when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. In the valley, another area of strategic importance was Kargil. Kargil town was in Indian hands but Pakistan occupied high ground overlooking Kargil and Srinagar-Leh road. However, after the launch of a massive anti-infiltration operation by the Indian army, the Pakistani infiltrators were forced out of that area in the month of August. India crossed the International Border on the Western front on 6 September. On 6 September, the 15th Infantry Division of the Indian Army, under World War II veteran Major General Niranjan Prasad, battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the Icchogil Canal (BRB Canal), which was a de facto border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross the Ichhogil Canal was made over the bridge in the village of Barki (Battle of Burki), just east of Lahore. These developments brought the Indian Army within the range of Lahore International Airport. As a result, the United States requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in Lahore. The thrust against Lahore consisted of the 1st Infantry Division supported by the three tank regiments of the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade; they quickly advanced across the border, reaching the Ichhogil (BRB) Canal by 6 September. The Pakistani Army held the bridges over the canal or blew up those it could not hold, effectively stalling any further advance by the Indians on Lahore. One unit of the Indian Jat Regiment, 3 Jat, had also crossed the Icchogil canal and capturedBrigadier Desmond E Hayde, "The Battle of Dograi and Batapore", Natraj Publishers, New Delhi, 2006 the town of Batapore (Jallo Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of the canal. The same day, a counter offensive consisting of an armoured division and infantry division supported by Pakistan Air Force Sabres forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by ammunition and stores vehicles, the higher commanders had no information of 3 Jat's capture of Batapore and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointmentThe Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Opinions . Tribuneindia.com. Retrieved on 14 April 2011. to Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat. Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3 Jat on 21 September, for the second time but after a much harder battle due to Pakistani reinforcements, in the Battle of Dograi. On 8 September 1965, a company of 5 Maratha Light Infantry was sent to reinforce a Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC) post at Munabao – a strategic hamlet about 250 kilometres from Jodhpur. Their brief was simple. To hold the post and to keep Pakistan's infantry battalions from overrunning the post at bay. But at Maratha Hill (in Munabao) – as the post has now been christened – the Indian company could barely manage to thwart the intense attack for 24 hours. A company of 3 Guards with 954 heavy mortar battery ordered to reinforce the RAC post at Munabao could never reach. The Pakistani Air Force had strafed the entire area, and also hit a railway train coming from Barmer with reinforcements near Gadra road railway station. On 10 September, Munabao fell into Pakistani hands, and efforts to capture the strategic point did not succeed.Army cries out for a second railway line between Barmer and Jaisalmer . Hindustan Times (17 December 2009). Retrieved on 14 April 2011. On the days following 9 September, both nations' premiere formations were routed in unequal battles. India's 1st Armoured Division, labeled the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towards Sialkot. The Division divided itself into two prongs, was forced back by the Pakistani 6th Armoured Division at Chawinda and was forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses of nearly 100 tanks. The Pakistanis followed up their success by launching Operation Windup, which forced the Indians back farther. Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st Armoured Division, pushed an offensive towards Khem Karan, with the intent to capture Amritsar (a major city in Punjab, India) and the bridge on River Beas to Jalandhar. The Pakistani 1st Armoured Division never made it past Khem Karan, however, and by the end of 10 September lay disintegrated by the defences of the Indian 4th Mountain Division at what is now known as the Battle of Asal Uttar (lit. meaning – "Real Answer", or more appropriate English equivalent – "Fitting Response"). The area became known as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town), because of the large number of US-made Pakistani Patton tanks. Approximately 97 Pakistani tanks were destroyed or abandoned, with only 32 Indian tanks destroyed or damaged. The hostilities in the Rajasthan sector commenced on 8 September. Initially Pakistan Desert Force and the Hur militia (followers of Pir Pagaro) was placed in a defensive role, a role for which they were well suited as it turned out. The Hurs were familiar with the terrain and the local area and possessed many essential desert survival skills which their opponents and their comrades in the Pakistan Army did not. Fighting as mainly light infantry, the Hur inflicted many casualties on the Indian forces as they entered Sindh. The Hurs were also employed as skirmishers, harassing the Indians LOC, a task they often undertook on camels. As the battle wore on the Hurs and the Desert Force were increasingly used to attack and capture Indian villages inside Rajasthan.History of Indo-Pak War of 1965. Lt Gen Mahmud Ahmed (ret). The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held of Indian territory. The territory occupied by India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors,The Story of My Struggle By Tajammal Hussain Malik 1991, Jang Publishers, p. 78 while Pakistani ground gains were primarily in deserts opposite Sindh and in the Chumb sector near Kashmir. Pakistan claims that it held of Indian territory, while losing of its own territory. === Aerial warfare === thumb|Pakistani Sabre being shot down in combat by an Indian Gnat in September 1965 as seen from the Indian aircraft. The war saw the aircraft of Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) engaging in combat for the first time since independence. Although the two forces had previously faced off in the First Kashmir War during the late 1940s, that engagement was very limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict. The IAF was flying large numbers of Hawker Hunters, Indian- manufactured Folland Gnats, de Havilland Vampires, EE Canberra bombers and a squadron of MiG-21s. The PAF's fighter force comprised 102 F-86F Sabres and 12 F-104 Starfighters, along with 24 B-57 Canberra bombers. During the conflict, the PAF claimed it was out-numbered by around 5:1.John Fricker, "Pakistan's Air Power" , Flight International issue published 1969, p. 89, retrieved: 3 November 2009 The PAF's aircraft were largely of American origin, whereas the IAF flew an assortment of British and Soviet aeroplanes. However, the PAF's American aircraft were superior to those of the IAF's. The F-86 was vulnerable to the diminutive Folland Gnat, nicknamed "Sabre Slayer".See the main article Sabre Slayer for the complete list on this issue including sources. The Gnat is credited by many independent and Indian sources as having shot down seven Pakistani Canadair Sabres in the 1965 war.Rakshak, Bharat. "Indian Air Force Combat Kills, Indo Pakistan War 1965." History. Retrieved 4 November 2010.Spick 2002, p. 161. while two Gnats were downed by PAF fighters. The PAF's F-104 Starfighter of the PAF was the fastest fighter operating in the subcontinent at that time and was often referred to as "the pride of the PAF". However, according to Sajjad Haider, the F-104 did not deserve this reputation. Being "a high level interceptor designed to neutralise Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet," rather than engage in dogfights with agile fighters at low altitudes, it was "unsuited to the tactical environment of the region".Ahmad Faruqui, "The right stuff" , Dawn News, 14 September 2009, Retrieved: 1 November 2009. Also published as "The Debt Owed" on 16 September 2009 by [outlookindia.com] In combat the Starfighter was not as effective as the IAF's far more agile, albeit much slower, Folland Gnat fighter. Yet it zoomed into an ongoing dogfight between Sabres and Gnats, at supersonic speed, successfully broke off the fight and caused the Gnats to egress. An IAF Gnat, piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned Pakistani airstrip at Pasrur, as he lacked the fuel to return to his base, and was captured by the Pakistan Army. According to the pilot, he got separated from his formation due to a malfunctioning compass and radio."1965 War, Chapter 3." bharat-rakshak.com. Retrieved: 4 November 2010. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi. Sqn Ldr Saad Hatmi who flew the captured aircraft to Sargodha, and later tested and evaluated its flight performance, was of view that Gnat was no "Sabre Slayer" when it came to dog fighting. Three Indian civilian aircraft were shot down by PAF, one of which shot down at Bhuj, Gujarat was carrying Balwantrai Mehta, chief minister of the Indian state of Gujarat, total 8 killed in the incident along with Balwantrai Mehta and his wife. The Pakistan Air Force had fought well in countering the much larger Indian Air Force and supported the ground forces. The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 59. According to PAF, It flew 86 F-86 Sabres, 10 F-104 Starfighters and 20 B-57 Canberras in a parade soon after the war was over. Thus disproving the IAF's claim of downing 73 PAF fighters, which at the time constituted nearly the entire Pakistani front-line fighter force.John Fricker, "Pakistan's Air Power", Flight International issue published 1969, pp. 89–90. , . Retrieved: 3 November 2009 Indian sources have pointed out that, despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan sought to acquire additional aircraft from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China within 10 days of the beginning of the war. The two air forces were rather equal in the conflict, because much of the Indian air force remained farther east to guard against the possibility of China entering the war.The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384–387 ) According to the independent sources, the PAF lost some 20 aircraft while the Indians lost 60–75. Pakistan ended the war having depleted 17 percent of its front line strength, while India's losses amounted to less than 10 percent. Moreover, the loss rate had begun to even out, and it has been estimated that another three week's fighting would have seen the Pakistani losses rising to 33 percent and India's losses totalling 15 percent. Air superiority was not achieved, and were unable to prevent IAF fighter bombers and reconnaissance Canberras from flying daylight missions over Pakistan. Thus 1965 was a stalemate in terms of the air war with neither side able to achieve complete air superiority. However, according to Kenneth Werrell, the Pakistan Air Force "did well in the conflict and probably had the edge". When hostilities broke out, the Pakistan Air Force with around 100 F-86s faced an enemy with five times as many combat aircraft; the Indians were also equipped with comparatively modern aircraft inventory. Despite this, Werrell credits the PAF as having the advantage of a "decade's experience with the Sabre" and pilots with long flight hours experience. One Pakistani fighter pilot, MM Alam, was credited with the record of downing five Indian aircraft in less than a minute, becoming the first known flying ace since the Korean War. However, his claims were never confirmed by the PAF and is disputed by Indian sources30 Seconds Over Sargodha – The Making of a Myth: 1965 Indo-Pak Air War, Chapter 5 , Bharat RakshakPakistan's Sabre Ace by Jon Guttman, Aviation History, Sept 1998. and some PAF officials. === Tank battles === The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest tank battles since World War II. At the beginning of the war, the Pakistani Army had both a numerical advantage in tanks, as well as better equipment overall.A history of the Pakistan Army – Defence Journal, Pakistan Pakistani armour was largely American-made; it consisted mainly of Patton M-47 and M-48 tanks, but also included many M4 Sherman tanks, some M24 Chaffee light tanks and M36 Jackson tank destroyers, equipped with 90 mm guns.90 mm M36 GUN MOTOR CARRIAGE "Jackson" Post W.W.II, the M36 was employed by the US Army in Korea and was distributed to friendly nations including France, where it was used in Indo- China (Vietnam), Pakistan. The bulk of India's tank fleet were older M4 Sherman tanks; some were up-gunned with the French high velocity CN 75 50 guns and could hold their own, whilst some older models were still equipped with the inferior 75 mm M3 L/40 gun. Besides the M4 tanks, India fielded the British-made Centurion Tank Mk 7, with the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun, and the AMX-13, PT-76, and M3 Stuart light tanks. Pakistan fielded a greater number and more modern artillery; its guns out-ranged those of the Indian artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik.The Battle for Ravi-Sutlej Corridor 1965 A Strategic and Operational Analysis Major A.H. Amin, 30 December 2001 Orbat At the outbreak of war in 1965, Pakistan had about 15 armoured cavalry regiments, each with about 45 tanks in three squadrons. Besides the Pattons, there were about 200 M4 Shermans re-armed with 76 mm guns, 150 M24 Chaffee light tank and a few independent squadrons of M36B1 tank destroyers. Most of these regiments served in Pakistan's two armoured divisions, the 1st and 6th Armoured divisions – the latter being in the process of formation. left|thumb|Destroyed Sherman Tank The Indian Army of the time possessed 17 cavalry regiments, and in the 1950s had begun modernizing them by the acquisition of 164 AMX-13 light tanks and 188 Centurions. The remainder of the cavalry units were equipped with M4 Shermans and a small number of M3A3 Stuart light tanks. India had only a single armoured division, the 1st 'Black Elephant' Armoured Division, which consisted of the 17th Horse (The Poona Horse), also called 'Fakhr-i-Hind' ('Pride of India'), the 4th Horse (Hodson's Horse), the 16th Cavalry, the 7th Light Cavalry, the 2nd Lancers, the 18th Cavalry and the 62nd Cavalry, the two first named being equipped with Centurions. There was also the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade, one of whose three regiments, the 3rd Cavalry, was also equipped with Centurions. Despite the qualitative and numerical superiority of Pakistani armour, Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield by India, which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector, whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on Amritsar; they were sometimes employed in a faulty manner, such as charging prepared defences during the defeat of Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division at Asal Uttar. After India breached the Madhupur canal on 11 September, the Khem Karan counter-offensive was halted, affecting Pakistan's strategy substantially. Although India's tank formations experienced some results, India's attack at the Battle of Chawinda, led by its 1st Armoured Division and supporting units, was brought to halt by the newly raised 6th Armoured Division (ex-100th independent brigade group) in the Chawinda sector. Pakistan claimed that Indians lost 120 tanks at Chawinda. compared to 44 of its own But later, Indian official sources confirmed India lost only 29 tanks at Chawinda. Neither the Indian nor Pakistani Army showed any great facility in the use of armoured formations in offensive operations, whether the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division at Asal Uttar (Battle of Asal Uttar) or the Indian 1st Armoured Division at Chawinda. In contrast, both proved adept with smaller forces in a defensive role such as India's 2nd Armoured Brigade at Asal Uttar and Pakistan's 25th Cavalry at Chawinda. The Centurion battle tank, with its 105 mm gun and heavy armour, performed better than the overly complex Pattons. === Naval hostilities === Naval operations did not play a prominent role in the war of 1965. On 7 September, a flotilla of the Pakistan Navy under the command of Commodore S.M. Anwar, carried out a bombardment of the Indian Navy's radar station coastal town of Dwarka, which was south of the Pakistani port of Karachi. Operation Dwarka, as it is known, is a significant naval operation of the 1965 warPakistan Intelligence, Security Activities & Operations Handbook By IBP USAIndia's Quest for Security: defence policies, 1947–1965 By Lorne John Kavic, 1967, University of California Press, pp 190 contested as a nuisance raid by some.Working paper, Issue 192, Australian National University. Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1989, , 9780-7315-0806-8India's Foreign Policy, Ghosh Anjali, Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd, The attack on Dwarka led to questions being asked in India's parliament and subsequent post-war modernization and expansion of the Indian Navy, with an increase in budget from Rs. 35 crores to Rs. 115 crores.South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77 Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, and wished to restrict the war to a land-based conflict.THE INDIAN END OF THE TELESCOPE India and Its Navy by Vice Admiral Gulab Hiranandani, Indian Navy (Retired), Naval War College Review, Spring 2002, Vol. LV, No. 2 === Covert operations === The Pakistan Army launched a number of covert operations to infiltrate and sabotage Indian airbases. On 7 September 1965, the Special Services Group (SSG) commandos were parachuted into enemy territory. According to Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army General Muhammad Musa, about 135 commandos were airdropped at three Indian airfields (Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur). The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster". Only 22 commandos returned to Pakistan as planned, 93 were taken prisoner (including one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt), and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police or civilians. The reason for the failure of the commando mission is attributed to the failure to provide maps, proper briefings and adequate planning or preparation.The Fighter Gap by Shoab Alam Khan in Defence Journal Despite failing to sabotage the airfields, Pakistan sources claim that the commando mission affected some planned Indian operations. As the Indian 14th Infantry Division was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the Pakistan Air Force found the road filled with transport, and destroyed many vehicles.Defence Journal: The Way it was Extracts from Pakistan Army Brigadier (Retd) ZA Khan's book India responded to the covert activity by announcing rewards for captured Pakistani spies or paratroopers.Ending the Suspense 17 September 1965, TIME magazine Meanwhile, in Pakistan, rumors spread that India had retaliated with its own covert operations, sending commandos deep into Pakistan territory, but these rumors were later determined to be unfounded.Remembering Our Warriors Brig (Retd) Shamim Yasin Manto S.I.(M), S.Bt, Q&A; session: ("How would you assess the failures and successes of the SSG in the 1965 War?") February 2002, Defence Journal == Assessment of losses == India and Pakistan make widely divergent claims about the damage they inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims. Indian claims Pakistani claims Independent Sources Casualties *Army: 169 commissioned officers (1 brigadier, 9 lieutenant-colonels, 30 majors, 39 captains, 11 lieutenants, 79 second lieutenants), 80 junior commissioned officers (JCO), 1,820 other ranks *Air force: 19 officers, 21 other ranks – 3,000 Indian soldiers, 3,800 Pakistani soldiers Combat flying effort 4,073+ combat sorties 2,279 combat sorties Aircraft lost 59 IAF (official), 43 PAF. In addition, Indian sources claim that there were 13 IAF aircraft lost in accidents, and 3 Indian civilian aircraft shot down. 19 PAF, 104 IAF 20 PAF, 60–75 IAFGroup Captain Cecil Chaudhry, SJ – Chowk: India Pakistan Ideas Identities.com . Chowk (9 December 2007). Retrieved on 14 April 2011. Aerial victories 17 + 3 (post war) 30 – Tanks destroyed 128 Indian tanks, 152 Pakistani tanks captured, 150 Pakistani tanks destroyed. Officially 471 Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured 165 Pakistan tanks Land area won of Pakistani territory of Indian territory India held of Pakistani territory and Pakistan held of Indian territory === Neutral assessments === There have been several neutral assessments of the losses incurred by both India and Pakistan during the war. Most of these assessments agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when ceasefire was declared. Some of the neutral assessments are mentioned below — * According to the Library of Congress Country Studies conducted by the Federal Research Division of the United States – > The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some > territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy—on the > Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's > army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the > fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for > Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial > prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military > defeat by "Hindu India" and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to > attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of > Ayub Khan and his government. * Former New York Times reporter Arif Jamal wrote in his book Shadow War — > This time, India's victory was nearly total: India accepted cease-fire only > after it had occupied , though Pakistan had made marginal gains of of > territory. Despite the obvious strength of the Indian wins, both countries > claim to have been victorious. * Devin T. Hagerty wrote in his book South Asia in world politics – > The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted > their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By > the time United Nations intervened on September 22, Pakistan had suffered a > clear defeat. * In his book National identity and geopolitical visions, Gertjan Dijkink writes – > The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army > could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure > not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts. * An excerpt from Stanley Wolpert's India,http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft0489n6j7&chunk.id;=d0e4022&toc.depth;=1&toc.id;=d0e4019&brand;=eschol&query;=martial%20arts# India by Stanley Wolpert. Published: University of California Press, 1990 summarizing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, > In three weeks the second Indo-Pak War ended in what appeared to be a draw > when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements > for both armies forced cessation of conflict before either side won a clear > victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if > not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was > called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's > chagrin. * In his book titled The greater game: India's race with destiny and China, David Van Praagh wrote – > India won the war. It held on to the Vale of Kashmir, the prize Pakistan > vainly sought. It gained of Pakistani territory: in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan's > portion of the state; of the Sailkot sector; far to the south of Sindh; and > most critical, on the Lahore front. Pakistan took of Indian territory: in > the Chhamb sector and around Khem Karan. * Dennis Kux's India and the United States estranged democracies also provides a summary of the war,"India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941–1991, , DIANE Publishing, Pg 238 > Although both sides lost heavily in men and material, and neither gained a > decisive military advantage, India had the better of the war. New Delhi > achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by > force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated. * A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947 by Robert Johnson mentions – > India's strategic aims were modest – it aimed to deny Pakistani Army > victory, although it ended up in possession of of Pakistani territory for > the loss of just of its own. * An excerpt from William M. Carpenter and David G. Wiencek's Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new security environment – > A brief but furious 1965 war with India began with a covert Pakistani thrust > across the Kashmiri cease-fire line and ended up with the city of Lahore > threatened with encirclement by Indian Army. Another UN-sponsored cease-fire > left borders unchanged, but Pakistan's vulnerability had again been exposed. * English historian John Keay's India: A History provides a summary of the 1965 war – > The 1965 Indo-Pak war lasted barely a month. Pakistan made gains in the > Rajasthan desert but its main push against India's Jammu-Srinagar road link > was repulsed and Indian tanks advanced to within a sight of Lahore. Both > sides claimed victory but India had most to celebrate. * Uk Heo and Shale Asher Horowitz write in their book Conflict in Asia: Korea, China-Taiwan, and India-Pakistan – > Again India appeared, logistically at least, to be in a superior position > but neither side was able to mobilize enough strength to gain a decisive > victory. * According to the Office of the Historian within the U.S Department of State: > Conflict resumed again in early 1965, when Pakistani and Indian forces > clashed over disputed territory along the border between the two nations. > Hostilities intensified that August when the Pakistani army attempted to > take Kashmir by force. The attempt to seize the state was unsuccessful, and > the second India-Pakistan War reached a stalemate. == Ceasefire == On 20 September, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed a resolution, which noted that its previous two resolutions went "unheeded" and now demanded an unconditional ceasefire from both nations within 48 hours.: "There was now a deadline for Pakistan, 0700 hours GMT, 22 September, to either accept or reject this resolution, barely 48 hours for Ayub to decide what to do..." India immediately accepted,: "India had accepted the resolution but Pakistan was refusing to do so. At this stage the Secretary-General suggested to India's representative G. Parthasarthy that India considers the declaration of a unilateral ceasefire." while Pakistan accepted it on 23 September, with some notable dramatics.: "In a dramatic and emotional speech, Bhutto declared that Pakistan was boundn to prevail as justice was with it, but concluded the speech by confirming that Pakistan would give the UN a final chance to resolve the Kashmir issue and would observe the ceasefire call and would 'stop firing' on 0300 hours, 23 September." India and Pakistan accused each other of ceasefire violations; India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India.A Cease-Fire of Sorts 5 November 1965 – TIME In addition to the expected exchange of small arms and artillery fire, India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to capture the Indian village of Chananwalla in the Fazilka sector. This village was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On 10 October, a B-57 Canberra on loan to the PAF was damaged by 3 SA-2 missiles fired from the IAF base at Ambala."The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965", Jagan Mohan and Samir Chopra, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 2005 A Pakistani Army Auster AOP was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pakistani army captain; on 2 February 1967, an AOP was shot down by IAF Hawker Hunters. The ceasefire remained in effect until the start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. === Truce agreement === The United States and the Soviet Union used significant diplomatic tools to prevent any further escalation in the conflict between the two South Asian nations. The Soviet Union, led by Premier Alexei Kosygin, hosted peace negotiations in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), where Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement on 10 January 1966, agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than 25 February 1966. India's Prime Minister, Shastri, suffered a fatal heart attack soon after the Tashkent Agreement on 11 January 1966. As a consequence, the public outcry in India against the peace declaration transformed into a wave of sympathy for the ruling Indian National Congress. === Public perceptions === The ceasefire was criticised by many Pakistanis who, relying on fabricated official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. The protests led to student riots.Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War By Victoria Schofield Published 2003, by I.B.Tauris pp112 Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing admirably in the war – which they incorrectly blamed as being initiated by India – and thus the Tashkent Declaration was seen as having forfeited the gains.CONTROVERSY: Why Gohar Ayub is wrong about 1965 – Khalid Hasan quoting Pakistan author Husain Haqqani: "The Pakistani people were told by the state that they had been victims of aggression and that the aggression had been repelled with the help of God. ... official propaganda convinced the people of Pakistan that their military had won the war." Daily Times, 10 June 2005 Some recent books written by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-ISI chief Lieutenant General Mahmud Ahmed Durrani initially titled The Myth of 1965 Victory,Can the ISI change its spots? By Akhtar Payami, Dawn (newspaper) 7 October 2006 reportedly exposed Pakistani fabrications about the war, but all copies of the book were bought by Pakistan Army to prevent circulation because the topic was "too sensitive".Army attempts to prevent book sales by Amir Mir Gulf News 1 October 2006 Musharraf buys all copies of sensitive '65 war Daily News & AnalysisInside Story of Musharraf-Mahmood Tussle, Hassan Abbas, Sep. 26, 2006 – (Belfer Center for International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School of Government) The book was published with the revised title History of Indo Pak War 1965, published by Services Book Club, a part of the Pakistan military and printed by Oxford University Press, Karachi. A few copies of the book have survived. A version was published in India as Illusion of Victory: A Military History of the Indo-Pak War-1965 by Lexicon Publishers. Recently a new Pakistani impression has been published in 2017. == Intelligence failures == Strategic miscalculations by both India and Pakistan ensured that the war ended in a stalemate. === Indian miscalculations === Indian military intelligence gave no warning of the impending Pakistan invasion. The Indian Army failed to recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in Chumb and suffered significant losses as a result. The "Official War History – 1965", drafted by the Ministry of Defence of India in 1992, was a long suppressed document that revealed other miscalculations. According to the document, on 22 September when the Security Council was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to delay accepting the ceasefire. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank losses. It was determined later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired and India held twice the number of tanks as Pakistan. By this time, the Pakistani Army had used close to 80% of its ammunition. Air Chief Marshal (retd) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the IAF and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo Syndrome", a patronizing attitude sometimes held by the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military. === Pakistani miscalculations === The Pakistani Army's failures started with the supposition that a generally discontented Kashmiri people, given the opportunity provided by the Pakistani advance, would revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive surrender of Kashmir. The Kashmiri people, however, did not revolt. Instead, the Indian Army was provided with enough information to learn of Operation Gibraltar and the fact that the Army was battling not insurgents, as they had initially supposed, but Pakistani Army regulars. The Pakistani Army also failed to recognize that the Indian policy makers would order an attack on the southern sector in order to open a second front. Pakistan was forced to dedicate troops to the southern sector to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead using them to support penetrating into Kashmir. "Operation Grand Slam", which was launched by Pakistan to capture Akhnoor, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was also a failure. Many Pakistani commentators criticised the Ayub Khan administration for being indecisive during Operation Grand Slam. These critics claim that the operation failed because Ayub Khan knew the importance of Akhnoor to India (having called it India's "jugular vein") and did not want to capture it and drive the two nations into an all- out war. Despite progress being made in Akhnoor, General Ayub Khan relieved the commanding Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik and replaced him with Gen. Yahya Khan. A 24-hour lull ensued the replacement, which allowed the Indian army to regroup in Akhnoor and successfully oppose a lackluster attack headed by General Yahya Khan. "The enemy came to our rescue," asserted the Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command. Later, Akhtar Hussain Malik criticised Ayub Khan for planning Operation Gibraltar, which was doomed to fail, and for relieving him of his command at a crucial moment in the war. Malik threatened to expose the truth about the war and the army's failure, but later dropped the idea for fear of being banned.Musharraf, the 'poor man's Ataturk' By Khalid Hasan 19 September 2004 Daily Times Some authors have noted that Pakistan might have been emboldened by a war game – conducted in March 1965, at the Institute for Defense Analyses in the United States. The exercise concluded that, in the event of a war with India, Pakistan would win.The Crisis Game: Simulating International Conflict by Sidney F. Giffin Other authors like Stephen P. Cohen, have consistently commented that the Pakistan Army had "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military ... the 1965 war was a shock." Pages 103, 73–74 Pakistani Air Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of PAF during the war, Nur Khan, later said that the Pakistan Army, and not India, should be blamed for starting the war.Noor Khan for early end to army rule – Pakistan Daily The Nation A word from Pak: 1965 was 'wrong' The Times of India 6 September 2005 However propaganda in Pakistan about the war continued; the war was not rationally analysed in Pakistan,Editorial: The army and the people Daily Times 1 June 2007The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971 Analysis and reappraisal after the 1965 War by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin with most of the blame being heaped on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. == Involvement of other nations == The United States and the United Kingdom had been the principal suppliers of military materiél to India and Pakistan since 1947. Both India and Pakistan were Commonwealth republics. While India had pursued a policy of nominal non-alignment, Pakistan was a member of both CENTO and SEATO and a purported ally of the West in its struggle against Communism. Well before the conflict began, however, Britain and the United States had suspected Pakistan of joining both alliances out of opportunism to acquire advanced weapons for a war against India. They had therefore limited their military aid to Pakistan to maintain the existing balance of power in the subcontinent. "Defence aid was restricted to the extent that Pakistan would be able to present only a limited defence in the event of communist aggression ... Western strategists sought to keep Pakistan ... in a position where it did not feel itself powerful enough to initiate a confrontation with India." In 1959, however, Pakistan and the United States had signed an Agreement of Cooperation under which the United States agreed to take "appropriate action, including the use of armed forces" in order to assist the Government of Pakistan at its request. By 1965, American and British analysts had recognised the two international groupings, CENTO and SEATO, and Pakistan's continued alliance with the West as being largely meaningless. Following the start of the 1965 war, both the United States and Britain took the view that the conflict was largely Pakistan's fault, and suspended all arms shipments to both India and Pakistan. While the United States maintained a neutral stance, the British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, condemned India for aggression after its army advanced towards Lahore; his statement was met with a furious rebuttal from India. Internationally, the level of support which Pakistan received was limited at best. Iran and Turkey issued a joint communiqué on 10 September which placed the blame on India, backed the United Nations' appeal for a cease-fire and offered to deploy troops for a UN peacekeeping mission in Kashmir. Pakistan received support from Indonesia, Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia in the form of six naval vessels, jet fuel, guns and ammunition and financial support, respectively.Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology, By Anas Malik page 84 Since before the war, the People's Republic of China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and a military opponent of India, with whom it had fought a brief war in 1962. China had also become a foreign patron for Pakistan and had given Pakistan $60 million in development assistance in 1965.Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology, By Anas Malik page 85 During the war, China openly supported the Pakistani position. It took advantage of the conflict to issue a strongly worded ultimatum to India condemning its "aggression" in Tibet and hinting at nuclear retaliation by China (China had exploded its first nuclear device the previous year). Despite strong fears of Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan, the Chinese government ultimately exercised restraint. This was partly due to the logistical difficulties of a direct Chinese military intervention against India and India's improved military strength after its defeat by China in 1962. China had also received strong warnings by the American and Soviet governments against expanding the scope of the conflict by intervening. In the face of this pressure, China backed down, extending the deadline for India to respond to its ultimatum and warning India against attacking East Pakistan. Ultimately, Pakistan rejected Chinese offers of military aid, recognising that accepting it would only result in further alienating Pakistan internationally. International opinion considered China's actions to be dangerously reckless and aggressive, and it was soundly rebuked in the world press for its unnecessarily provocative stance during the conflict. India's participation in the Non-Aligned Movement yielded little support from its members. Support given by Indonesia to Pakistan was seen as a major Indian diplomatic failure, as Indonesia had been among the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement along with India. Despite its close relations with India, the Soviet Union was more neutral than other nations during the war, inviting both nations to peace talks under its aegis in Tashkent. == Aftermath == === India === Despite the declaration of a ceasefire, India was perceived as the victor due to its success in halting the Pakistan-backed insurgency in Kashmir. In its October 1965 issue, the TIME magazine quoted a Western official assessing the consequences of the warSilent Guns, Wary Combatants, TIME magazine, 1 October 1965 — > Now it's apparent to everybody that India is going to emerge as an Asian > power in its own right. In light of the failures of the Sino-Indian War, the outcome of the 1965 war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory in India. The Indian prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri, was hailed as a national hero in India.The 1965 war with Pakistan – Encyclopædia Britannica While the overall performance of the Indian military was praised, military leaders were criticised for their failure to effectively deploy India's superior armed forces so as to achieve a decisive victory over Pakistan.Sunday Times, London. 19 September 1965 In his book War in the modern world since 1815, noted war historian Jeremy Black said that though Pakistan "lost heavily" during the 1965 war, India's hasty decision to call for negotiations prevented further considerable damage to the Pakistan Armed Forces. He elaborates — > India's chief of army staff urged negotiations on the ground that they were > running out ammunition and their number of tanks had become seriously > depleted. In fact, the army had used less than 15% of its ammunition > compared to Pakistan, which had consumed closer to 80 percent and India had > double the number of serviceable tanks. In 2015, Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh, the last surviving armed force commander of the conflict, gave his assessment that the war ended in a stalemate, but only due to international pressure for a ceasefire, and that India would have achieved a decisive victory had hostilities continued for a few days more: > For political reasons, Pakistan claims victory in the 1965 war. In my > opinion, the war ended in a kind of stalemate. We were in a position of > strength. Had the war continued for a few more days, we would have gained a > decisive victory. I advised then prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri not to > agree for ceasefire. But I think he was under pressure from the United > Nations and some countries. As a consequence, India focussed on enhancing communication and coordination within and among the tri-services of the Indian Armed Forces. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India established the Research and Analysis Wing for external espionage and intelligence. Major improvements were also made in command and control to address various shortcomings and the positive impact of these changes was clearly visible during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 when India achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan within two weeks. China's repeated threats to intervene in the conflict in support of Pakistan increased pressure on the government to take an immediate decision to develop nuclear weapons. Despite repeated assurances, the United States did little to prevent extensive use of American arms by Pakistani forces during the conflict, thus irking India.Title: India and the United States estranged democracies, 1941–1991, , DIANE Publishing At the same time, the United States and United Kingdom refused to supply India with sophisticated weaponry which further strained the relations between the West and India. These developments led to a significant change in India's foreign policy – India, which had previously championed the cause of non-alignment, distanced itself further from Western powers and developed close relations with the Soviet Union. By the end of the 1960s, the Soviet Union emerged as the biggest supplier of military hardware to India. From 1967 to 1977, 81% of India's arms imports were from the Soviet Union. After the 1965 war, the arms race between India and Pakistan became even more asymmetric and India was outdistancing Pakistan by far. India's defence budget too would increase gradually after the war, in 1966–1967 it would rise to 17% and by 1970–1971 it would rise to 25% of its revenue. However, according to the world bank data India's defence expenditure by GDP decrease from 3.871% in 1965 to 3.141% in 1969, thereafter slightly increased to 3.652% in 1971. === Pakistan === At the conclusion of the war, many Pakistanis considered the performance of their military to be positive. 6 September is celebrated as Defence Day in Pakistan, in commemoration of the successful defence of Lahore against the Indian army. The performance of the Pakistani Air Force, in particular, was praised. However, the Pakistani government was accused by analysts of spreading disinformation among its citizens regarding the actual consequences of the war.Declassified telegram sent to the US Department of State In his book Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani foreign policies, S.M. Burke writes — > After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 the balance of military power had > decisively shifted in favor of India. Pakistan had found it difficult to > replace the heavy equipment lost during that conflict while her adversary, > despite her economic and political problems, had been determinedly building > up her strength. Air Marshal (retired) Nur Khan, who headed the Pakistan Air Force in 1965, said in an interview with Dawn newspaper — > The army "misled the nation with a big lie" - that India rather than > Pakistan provoked the war - and that Pakistan won a "great victory". And > since the "lie" was never rectified, the Pakistani "army came to believe its > own fiction, (and) has continued to fight unwanted wars," Pakistani commentator Haidar Imtiaz remarked:Haidar Imtiaz, 1965: How Pakistan won the war of propaganda , The Nation, 12 September 2015. > The myth of ‘victory’ was created after the war had ended, in order to > counter Indian claims of victory on the one hand and to shield the Ayub > regime and the army from criticism on the other. A book titled Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: A Flashback, produced by the Inter- Services Public Relations of Pakistan, is used as the official history of the war, which omits any mention of the operations Gibraltar and Grand Slam, and begins with the Indian counter-offensive on the Lahore front. The Pakistan Army is claimed to have put up a "valiant defense of the motherland" and forced the attack in its tracks. Most observers agree that the myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army was badly dented in the war, as critical breakthroughs were not made.Pakistan And Its Three Wars by Vice Adm (Retd) Iqbal F Quadir – Defence Journal, Pakistan Several Pakistani writers criticised the military's ill-founded belief that their "martial race" of soldiers could defeat "Hindu India" in the war.Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat Richard H. Shultz, Andrea Dew: "The Martial Races Theory had firm adherents in Pakistan and this factor played a major role in the under-estimation of the Indian Army by Pakistani soldiers as well as civilian decision makers in 1965."An Analysis The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857–59 by AH Amin The army officers of that period were convinced that they were a martial race and the Hindus of Indian Army were cowards. This myth was largely disproved in 1965 Rasul Bux Rais, a Pakistani political analyst wrote – > The 1965 war with India proved that Pakistan could neither break the > formidable Indian defences in a blitzkrieg fashion nor could she sustain an > all-out conflict for long. Historian Akbar S Zaidi notes that Pakistan "lost terribly in the 1965 war". The Pakistan airforce on the other hand gained a lot of credibility and reliability among Pakistan military and international war writers for successful defence of Lahore and other important areas of Pakistan and heavy retaliation to India on the next day. The alertness of the airforce was also related to the fact that some pilots were scrambled 6 times in less than an hour on indication of Indian air raids. The Pakistan airforce along with the army is celebrated on Defence Day and Airforce Day in commemoration of this in Pakistan (6 and 7 September respectively)."Pakistan's Air Power", Flight International, issue published 5 May 1984 (page 1208). Can be viewed at FlightGlobal.com archives Retrieved: 22 October 2009 Moreover, Pakistan had lost more ground than it had gained during the war and, more importantly, failed to achieve its goal of capturing Kashmir; this result has been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for Pakistan. Many senior Pakistani officials and military experts later criticised the faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar, which ultimately led to the war. The Tashkent declaration was also criticised in Pakistan, though few citizens realised the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war. Political leaders were also criticised. Following the advice of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's foreign minister, Ayub Khan had raised very high expectations among the people of Pakistan about the superiority – if not invincibility – of its armed forces, but Pakistan's inability to attain its military aims during the war created a political liability for Ayub. The defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal opposition.Ali, Mahmud. (24 December 2003) South Asia | The rise of Pakistan's army . BBC News. Retrieved on 14 April 2011. One of the farthest reaching consequences of the war was the wide-scale economic slowdown in Pakistan.Second opinion: The insidious logic of war Khaled Ahmed's Urdu Press Review Daily Times 3 June 2002 The war ended the impressive economic growth Pakistan had experienced since the early 1960s. Between 1964 and 1966, Pakistan's defence spending rose from 4.82% to 9.86% of GDP, putting a tremendous strain on Pakistan's economy. By 1970–71, defence spending comprised a whopping 32% or 55.66% of government expenditure. According to veterans of the war, the war greatly cost Pakistan economically, politically, and militarily. Nuclear theorist Feroze Khan maintained that the 1965 war was a last conventional attempt to snatch Kashmir by military force, and Pakistan's own position in the international community, especially with the United States, began to deteriorate from the point the war started, while on the other hand, the alliance with China saw improvements. Chairman joint chiefs General Tariq Majid claims in his memoirs that Zhou Enlai had longed advised the government in the classic style of Sun Tzu: "to go slow, not to push India hard; and avoid a fight over Kashmir, 'for at least, 20–30 years, until you have developed your economy and consolidated your national power'." General Majid maintained in Eating Grass that the "sane, philosophical and political critical thinking" was missing in Pakistan, and that the country had lost extensive human resources by fighting the war. Pakistan was surprised by the lack of support from the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. The US turned neutral in the war when it cut off military supplies to Pakistan (and India); an action that the Pakistanis took as a sign of betrayal.Richard N. Haass "Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy", 1998, Council on Foreign Relations, pp172 After the war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support. Another negative consequence of the war was growing resentment against the Pakistani government in East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh), particularly for West Pakistan's obsession with Kashmir.Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press, pp802 Bengali leaders accused the central government of not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir. Pg 166–167 In fact, despite some Pakistan Air Force attacks being launched from bases in East Pakistan during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector,Reflections on two military presidents By M.P. Bhandara 25 December 2005, Dawn although East Pakistan was defended only by an understrengthed infantry division (14th Division), sixteen planes and no tanks.The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971 Yahya Khan as Army Chief-1966-1971 by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was critical of the disparity in military resources deployed in East and West Pakistan, calling for greater autonomy for East Pakistan, an action that ultimately led to the Bangladesh Liberation War and another war between India and Pakistan in 1971. Pakistan celebrates Defence Day every year to commemorate 6 September 1965 to pay tribute to the soldiers killed in the war.September 6: A day to remember the sacrifices of Pakistan's martyrs , Dawn, 6 September 2018 However, Pakistani journalists, including Taha SiddiquiTaha Siddiqui Dear Pakistanis, this Defence Day, please stop celebrating hate , Al Jazeera, 6 September 2018 and Haseeb AsifIt's Defence Day In Pakistan, But I Don't Know What We're Celebrating , Huffington Post, 6 September 2018. have criticized the celebration of Defence Day. == Awards == === National awards === * Santu Jouharmal Shahaney, an IOFS officer, served as the first Indian Director General Ordnance Factories (DGOF). He was awarded Padma Bhushan, by the Government of India, in the Civil Service category. *K. C. Banerjee, an IOFS officer. Received Padma Shri in 1967, for his contributions during the Indo- Pakistani War of 1965, as the General Manager of Rifle Factory Ishapore, that developed and manufactured the 7.62 Self-Loading Automatic Rifle, that played decisive role in India's victory in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. * Joginder Singh Dhillon, Lt. Gen, awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1966 by the Government of India for his role in the 1965 war, becoming the first Indian Army officer to receive the award. === Gallantry awards === For bravery, the following soldiers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries, the Indian award Param Vir Chakra and the Pakistani award Nishan-e- Haider: ;India * Company Quarter Master Havildar Abdul Hamid (Posthumous) * Lieutenant-Colonel Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore (Posthumous) ;Pakistan * Major Raja Aziz Bhatti Shaheed (Posthumous) === Battle honours === After the war, a total of 16 battle honours and 3 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable amongst which are: thumb|Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other politicians visit Shauryanjali, a commemorative exhibition on the 1965 war, 17 September 2015 * Jammu and Kashmir 1965 (theatre honour) * Punjab 1965 (theatre honour) * Rajasthan 1965 (theatre honour) * Assal Uttar * Burki * Dograi * Hajipir * Hussainiwala * Kalidhar * OP Hill * Phillora == In Media == === Films === * Sita Ramam, a 2022 Indian Telugu-language period romantic film, is based in the era of 1964 and the events before 1965 Indo-Pak war and Operation Gibraltar. == See also == * Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 * Post–World War II air-to-air combat losses == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == * First & Further reflections on the second Kashmir War (South Asia series) – 2 books by Louis Dupree. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tarapore, Arzan. 2019. "Defence without deterrence: India’s strategy in the 1965 war." Security Studies.Defence without deterrence: India’s strategy in the 1965 war == External links == * Records of the United Nations India- Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM) (1965–1966) at the United Nations Archives *IAF Combat Kills – 1965 war,(Center for Indian Military History) * * United States Library of Congress Country Studies – India * Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the 1965 War with Pakistan * Grand Slam – A Battle of lost Opportunities, Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin – very detailed roll of events and analysis * The India-Pakistan War, 1965: 40 Years On – From Rediff.com * Lessons of the 1965 War from Daily Times (Pakistan) * Spirit of '65 & the parallels with today – Ayaz Amir Category:Indo-Pakistani wars Category:Wars involving India Category:1960s in Jammu and Kashmir 1965 Indo- Pakistani War
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Shaun Wilson (born Melbourne, 1972) is an Australian artist, film maker, academic and curator working with themes of memory, place and scale through painting, miniatures and video art. He teaches digital media in the School of Design at RMIT University and exhibits inter/nationally at artist run spaces, university galleries, contemporary art centres and art/moving image museums. == Biography == Shaun Wilson studied Fine Arts at RMIT University (BFA) between 1992–94 and then Monash University (BFA hons) in 1995. In 2002 he moved to Hobart to undertake a PhD in Philosophy and Media Arts (completed in 2005) at the University of Tasmania. His dissertation was titled The Memory Palace: Scale, Mnemonics and the Moving Image, which translated the Roman mnemonic texts Ad herrenium and De memoria through video installation. In 2005 he moved back to Melbourne to work in the School of Creative Media at RMIT University, Melbourne where he specialises in the relationship between memory and place in the moving image and further, the role and theorisation of Video art after 2000. He has also been a visiting professor at the Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart in 2006. Since 1995, Wilson has held over 40 solo exhibitions/screenings and 200 group exhibitions/screenings at notable galleries including the National Centre of Contemporary Art Moscow (2008), Australian Centre for Contemporary Art (2006), Bilbao Arte (2006), Center for Contemporary Culture Barcelona (2006), Presidential Government of the Canary Islands (2006), Thailand New Media Arts Festival 05 (2005), Australian Centre for the Moving Image (2005), Institute of Modern Art Brisbane (2004), 24hrArt: NT Centre for Contemporary Art (2004), and the Centre on Contemporary Art Seattle (2018). Wilson has delivered over 55 guest lectures on contemporary art and video art throughout Australia and Europe. Video Art production includes the Uber memoria Series I-XX1 (2006–07) composed of 210 video paintings filmed in Germany, England, Scotland, U.S. and Australia and the Gothic memoria series I-VII (2006–07) composed of 1000 video paintings filmed in Germany, UK, New Zealand and Australia. In 2014 he published his first vampire novel The Gothic Memorium through iTunes. == Work == ===Painting=== Wilson trained and worked as a painter throughout the 1990s undertaking medium and large-scale oil on canvas and also acrylic on vinyl paintings which addressed two concurrent themes: the politicalization of the image in the mass media and the politicalization of narrative in the mass media. Influences are drawn from Caravaggio, Théodore Géricault, Francisco Goya, the political works of Andy Warhol, Robert Rauschenberg, and the butterfly paintings of Damien Hirst. ===Miniatures=== Wilson began three noted series of miniatures: Crash, Disasters of Small, and The Empire of Small. These detailed works began as a response to the role of the scaled object in contemporary art and later evolved to embrace themes of memory and place through issues and tensions between narrativity. Materials used are both commercially manufactured model kits and scratch-built cardboard/plastic objects attached onto various types of vintage hard-cover books. ===Video Art=== Wilson began using video from 1998 onwards as a temporal response and extension to painting. Works produced are categorised into series and sub-series. Since 2004 he has produced over 350 video artworks under the titles of Mnemoria series, The Memory Palace series, Filmic Memorials series I-IV and Uber Memoria I-VII/Proto. These particular works that Wilson himself describes as 'video paintings' explore the nature of memory and place through the moving image and its subsequent effect on autobiographical memory. In doing so, Wilson has deconstructed family home movies, vintage 8mm film, and found 9mm film and from late 2006 onwards he has incorporated these filmic images with High Definition Video (HDV) to convey tensions of fractured memory. Film theorist Leon Marvell describes Wilson's later work in Photofile as 'an ambitious and exquisitely realised exploration of the tension between artifact and memory'[2] while other reviews, such as Diane Clausen in Realtime, have described his video art as 'hypnotic'[3]. Recent work examined how cinema and video art co-exist to what artist and writer Brendan Lee describes in Artlink as 'best illustrat[ing] how cinema can affect another medium and comment on it'[9]. In 2007 he produced two feature length video artworks Uber nocturnus and Uber Memoria Protus that reconfigure Gothic Romanticism through the moving image and how this impacts on theories of false memory and its effect on places. As an extension to the Gothic memoria video art series, Wilson wrote and has embarked on feature length independent films titled Gothic memoria (2008), Epic memoria (2009) and Locus memoria (2010). Each film is based on the reinvention of paintings and etchings by Francisco Goya and Caspar David Friedrich and adapted with Napoleonic Gothic narratives. Recent work has also included Uber Memoria X composed of ten large scale video works 'where Wilson re-addresses Australian Colonial Painting through video art'[10] In 2013 he released the feature-length movie "51 Paintings" filmed in Germany, England, and Australia between 2006 and 2013 which is the first of five planned films in the series The 51 Paintings Suite. The second film from the series "The Tailor of Autumn" was released in 2015[11]. The third film from the series "Indigo Rising" was released in 2018 where it premiered at the Dallas Medianale[12]. The forth film from the series "Winter Orbit" premiered in the Venice Production Bridge at the 77th Venice Film Festival[13] in 2020. Videoart influences include Bill Viola and Eija-Liisa Ahtila. Filmic influences include Alfred Hitchcock, Michel Gondry and Oliver Hirschbiegel. ===Sound Art=== Wilson began to publish sound art in limited editions from 2003 onwards as companion works to video art. These are the sonic versions of a winder inquiry into memory and place with many source references appropriated from family recordings and related material. Tracks are organised into series and sub series divided into four major categories and as limited edition single and double CDs. In 2004, the track 'statica' was released as a compilation double CD 'People Doing Strange Things With Electricity Too' (1994) available on Comfortstand Records (USA) and launched at the Centre on Contemporary Art Seattle in early 2005. In 2007, his artwork 'Athenian Memory Palace' was included in Artwave Radio as part of the 1st Athens Biennial 2007. Sonic influences include sound artists Philip Glass, Phil Edwards, Philip Brophy, and John Cage and musicians Moby and David Helfgott. ===Cinematic Films=== Wilson has directed, filmed, and wrote two feature films The Last Man in Vegas [14] and Black Garden [15] described by film critic John Noonan in Filmink as 'asking us to think about how far we'd push ourselves when all hope is lost.'[16] ==New Video art movement== In December 2006, Wilson founded a video art movement called Vothic ('Video' and 'Gothic') in response to his investigations of Gothic Romanticism from research undertaken for the curated exhibition Australian Gothic: video art now. == Curatorial ventures == In 1996, Wilson and Melbourne-based painter Monica Adams opened Indigo Studios, a private art school located in the suburb of Burwood, Melbourne. The intent of the venture was to introduce contemporary art to audiences who were not traditionally art focused. A total of 45 exhibitions by art students and emerging artists were held in the gallery between 1997 and 2002 at the three different sites that Indigo occupied between these periods. The second site was a derelict shopfront and residence previously used as a backstreet brothel also located in Burwood. The third and final site was a derelict two-storey Federation shopfront and residency located in Camberwell renovated by Adams and Wilson into a two-gallery floor space with studios and accommodation upstairs. It was also haunted. In 2001, Wilson left Indigo and Adams later closed the business in 2003. Wilson was a curator at the Jackman Gallery in St.Kilda, Melbourne in 2000. Independent projects have included over 20 exhibitions in Melbourne, Seattle, Berlin and Hobart. These include Australian Gothic (2007) at Project Space/Spare Room, Melbourne and the Directors Lounge, Berlin (2007) and Post-Cinema touring Australia and Germany in 2007 and 2008. In 2022, Wilson was appointed curator of art with the G Biennale in Melbourne [17]. == Academic appointments and ventures == Wilson has upheld a strong commitment to academia with teaching appointments at Swinburne University (2000–01), Box Hill Institute (2000–01), University of Tasmania (2004) and RMIT University (2005-). In 2006, he founded the International Conference on Film and Memorialisation series which held its inaugural conference at the University of Applied Sciences, Schwaebsich Hall, Germany. In addition, related ventures complementing the series were also founded by Wilson including the Film and Memory Research Network and the Film and Memory Quarterly refereed academic e-journal. Wilson is a contributing editor for both. Other appointments include the Co-ordinator of the Digital Cinema Research Group (RMIT University), Co-coordinator of the Narrative and the Image Research Group (RMIT University) and the Deputy Co-orinator of the Place Research Network (University of Tasmania). In 2002 he was awarded the prestigious Australian Postgraduate Award to undertake doctoral study at the University of Tasmania. In 2005, Wilson wrote a series of lectures delivered in his 'Media Cultures' course at RMIT University which explored the evolution of technology through modernity and postmodernity. These formed the basis of further articles exploring the histo-philosophical nature of digital media, especially MP3 and iPod culture, as evidenced in the forthcoming e-book Post- Pod available in 2008. Archive projects include the ten-year Memory and Place Video Archive Project (2007-2017) started in December 2006 that aims to build a sizable archive of videoart from emerging and established artists who explore themes of memory and place, locational memory and locational identity through remembrance. This will be donated in 2017 to the Australian Centre for the Moving Image and Rhizome as a major filmic collection of international significance. In 2006 he was the Program Coordinator of Higher Degrees by Research (MA and PhD) in the School of Creative Media at RMIT University, Melbourne (City) campus. Wilson is currently a Senior Lecturer in Digital Media in the School of Design at RMIT University. [18] ==See also== * List of Australian artists * List of contemporary artists * List of video artists * Video art * Gothic Romanticism == References == [1] Bywaters, B (2004). 'The Empire of Small', exhibition catalogue essay, Academy Gallery, Launceston. [2] Marvell, L (2006). 'Brendan Lee, Shaun Wilson, Alexandra Gillespie', Photofile, No. 76, Summer, Australian Centre of Photography, Sydney, p. 77 [3] Klaosen, D (2004). 'Seductive Talents', Realtime', June/July, p. 41 [4] Lee Davis, B (2004). 'Boogy Jive and Bop', Artlink, Vol.24, No.2, Hently Beach, Adelaide, p. 84 [5] Benedicts, L (2006). 'A Shot of the New', The Sunday Age, Melbourne, 26 March, pp. 6–7 [6] Green, C (2006). 'New06', in Picks$, artforum.com, 27 March. [7] Church, D (2007). 'Hearts of Darkness in the Australian Gothic', exhibition catalogue, Australian Gothic: video art now, Project Space/Spare Room, RMIT University, Melbourne. [8] Bywaters, M (2006). 'The Memory Palace: Family History and 1975', NEW06, Australian Centre for Contemporary Art, Melbourne, pp. 40–47 [9] Lee, B (2007). 'More Video Art Please', Artlink, Vol.27, No.3, Hently Beach, Adelaide, pp. 28–31 [10] Jones, L (2008). 'Uber Memoria X', The Monash Journal, Melbourne 20 July, p. 20 [11] 'The Tailor of Autumn', Internet Movie Database (IMDB), Internet Movie Data Base [12] 'Indigo Rising', Dallas Medianale, Dallas Medianale [13] 'Winter Orbit', Venice Production Bridge, 77 Venice Film Festival, Venice Production Bridge [14] 'The Last Man in Vegas', Internet Movie Database (IMDB), Internet Movie Data Base [15] 'Black Garden', Internet Movie Database (IMDB), Internet Movie Data Base [16] Noonan, J (2019). 'Black Garden', Filmink online, Filmink [17] 'G Biennale', G Biennale, [18] 'RMIT University', RMIT University, == External links == * Shaun Wilson official site * Shaun Wilson Saatchi Gallery Profile * Shaun Wilson at the Perth Institute of Contemporary Art 2005 * New06 Podcast interview of Shaun Wilson at the Australian Centre for Contemporary Art * International Festival of Videoart of Valencia * Comfortstand Records * Small Black Box, Institute of Modern Art Brisbane * In Transition Russia 2008, National Centre of Contemporary Art, Russian Federation * 51 Paintings film website * The Gothic Memorium on iTunes * The Last Man in Vegas == Texts by Shaun Wilson == * The New New: video art in the 21st century * Post-Cinema * Slow Motion as a Condition of the Moving Image * Alternative Characterisation Strategies in Contemporary Mainstream Zombie Cinema Category:Living people Category:1972 births Category:Academic staff of RMIT University Category:Australian video artists
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Despite the history of colonisation and the resulting process of Westernisation since 1842, Hong Kong still embodies many aspects of Chinese traditional values towards sexuality. It is traditionally believed that heterosexuality is the nature, coherent, and privileged sexuality. Popular media marginalises and discriminates against LGBT members of Hong Kong in an attempt to maintain "traditional lifestyles". In 1991, the government of Hong Kong legalised male-male same sex relations. Since then LGBT activism has increased, asking for legal protections.Wehbi, Samantha. Community Organizing Against Homophobia and Heterosexism: The World Through Rainbow-Colored Glasses. Routledge, 13 September 2013. , 9781317992493. p. 66. A wave of political activism began in the 2000s.Tang, Denise, p. 90-91. In 2005, the government of Hong Kong conducted a telephone survey with over 2000 persons responding. Of them, 39% indicated that homosexuality "contradicts the morals of the community."Chen, Te-Ping. "Pop Star's Stadium-Style Coming Out." The Wall Street Journal. 25 April 2012. Retrieved on 27 September 2014. 42% of those surveyed in 2005 stated that homosexuals were not "psychologically normal".Steger, Isabella. "How Gay-Friendly is Hong Kong? It Depends." The Wall Street Journal. 18 May 2012. Retrieved on 27 May 2014. A 2012 survey by Community Business had 1,002 respondents chosen at random and 626 persons who identified as LGBT. Of the respondents, chosen randomly, 50% stated that they accepted LGBT individuals while 25% stated they did not; 3% stated that they believed LGBT individuals were not "psychologically normal". Of the LGBT employees, 53% stated that they had to "pretend to be someone they are not" and therefore felt exhaustion, while 26% stated that the work environment did not accept them, so they, at times, had to stay home to work. According to a survey titled 'The Hong Kong LGBT Climate', conducted by The University of Hong Kong, 25.6% of the respondents stated that they believed LGBT persons are the way they are due to their upbringing and socialisation, while 24.2% of the respondents believed they are 'born that way', and 14.3% believed it is caused by both factors. While nearly half of the respondents personally knew a person from the LGBT community, most of the respondents also stated that they 'would not mind' and 'would not have special feeling' towards LGBT individuals. Most respondents were aware of the discrimination and humiliation which LGBT individuals face in their daily lives; 85% of the respondents supported the idea of promoting inclusiveness of the LGBT community. The survey also included the experiences of Hong Kong LGBT individuals and it is noted that most of them had not fully 'come out' to their family, mostly due to the fear of not being accepted, being shamed, or being rejected by family members. For the same reason, LGBT individuals tended to seek help and support from various social media platforms instead of family members. By 2012 many individuals who originated from Mainland China became a part of Hong Kong's LGBT culture. LGBT marches are legal in Hong Kong, while they are not permitted in many areas in the Mainland. Joanna Chiu and Christy Choi of the South China Morning Post stated that in Hong Kong lesbians stated that conservative lawmakers and Christian groups in Hong Kong make lesbianism less accepted in Hong Kong compared to Mainland China, but that Hong Kong lesbians are better able to resist pressures to marry men.Chiu, Joanna and Christy Choi. "Lesbians from mainland China revel in Hong Kong's freedom." South China Morning Post. Sunday, 11 November 2012. Updated Saturday, 17 November 2012. Print: "More mainlanders join gay pride on parade" Retrieved on 27 September 2014. For an extensive (500-page) online bibliography of Hong Kong LGBTQ matters across many subjects, consult Towards Full Citizenship: A Preliminary Checklist of Hong Kong Gay/Lesbian-related Works = 向光明 : 香港同志情形的參考書/片目. Latest editions, with entries in Chinese and English, are 3rd (2019), in print and digital PDF; and 4th (2021), in PDF manuscript only. (For both 3rd and 4th digital editions, go to Library and Archives Canada catalogue [link in References section of this Wiki article, below], or check Internet Archive or OCLC WorldCat). ==Economy== === Housing === In Hong Kong, high real estate density is used as a government regulation strategy of land prices. This high land price policy contributes to a limited choice in living environment, and therefore a bigger need to live with other people, often with the immediate family. The family space is regarded as a contentious site for coming out for LGBT Hong Kongers. Living in confined space with the family makes it more difficult for many transgender Hong Kongers to embrace their gender expression without the risk of being exposed and encountering family violence. The family unit in Hong Kong is often reconfigured to include anyone able to contribute economically to the unit in response to the lack of welfare benefits. For LGBT Hong Kongers, these family values makes achieving financial stability into a way to become accepted into the family despite their queer identity. This notion also reveals a larger expectation for LGBT Hong Kongers to embrace self-reliance and individualism in order to survive materially in a society where housing depends on intimate family relations. Heterosexual marriage also becomes a way for LGBT to pursue housing outside of the family unit because of the prioritization of married couples under the Home Ownership Scheme. However, often the idea of moving away from the family can be considered under filial piety as breaking up the family, impacting many LGBT Hong Kongers' decision to continue to live with their family, despite the depression, confusion, and isolation from queer relationships it may result in. ===Workplace=== LGBT people experience discrimination in the job interview as well as the workplace. During the interview, LGBT people would be discriminated by their appearance. One example is that an employer raised a question related to interviewee's sex orientation, to which the employee admitted she is a lesbian and in the end, she was not hired. The reason of unemployment is that the employer treat her sex orientation as a "trouble" and "abnormal". Besides, transgender people would come across a lot of obstacles during interview. For example, the employer behaves and treats the interviewee differently when they see that the appearance of transgender person differs from the sex shown on their ID card. Even if the transgender person is capable and qualified for the job, they would not be hired because of their ambiguous gender presentation. Not only is there discrimination during the interview, the discrimination continues in the workplace and LGBT people never get an equal treatment. A lesbian who dressed in a suit was hired by a company, but she was required to wear dress. She has no bargaining power and she could be dismissed if she rejects the request to wear dress. LGBT people are always treated with unfriendly and impolite treatment and they have less agency in workplace. According to a survey conducted by Community Business, workers from LGBT group are feeling discriminated by others by the following aspects: 1.not being respected(80%), 2. oral insulting or mocking(60%). Besides, they are also treated unfairly in the workplace, such as less opportunity to get a promotion(24%), required to resign(15%), and not being hired(13%) Proposed by Community Business, the Hong Kong LGBT+ Inclusion Index is launched on the LGBT+ workplace inclusion and initiatives in Asia. This is an index which provides a credible and robust tool to assess and promote those companies which has contributed to the LGBT+ inclusion in Hong Kong. Community Business has provided a guide for employer who has already signed up to the index to create inclusive workplaces for LGBT employees in Hong Kong. In the 2019 index, they have published some categories for employers such as equal opportunity policies, diversity structure and corporate culture. The performance of companies which have signed up will be assessed by at least two senior members of the Community Business Team. The index would be a great encouragement for company to fulfill their corporate social responsibility. It will benefit both LGBT minorities having more work opportunities as well as being an opportunity for corporate advertisement. In the 2017 report of the index, most of the highest-scoring employers are multinational financial companies or banks while there are only few local companies. Only one local company, Aids Concern, as a local non-governmental organization, was honored for 2017 LGBT+ Community Impact Award. Most awards are dominant by the international companies, though Hong Kong's local companies and SMEs are increasingly supportive. The city has a crowdsourced LGBTQ Workplace directory, LGBTQ Glassdoor . === Business === There are visible and invisible pink businesses in Hong Kong. The visible ones are located mainly in Central, conspicuously in Lan Kwai Fong and SoHo area, as well as Wanchai. Locating in such bustling commercial areas, a "niche enclave" (Yue and Leung, 2017) is formed within the mainstream consumption area. The invisible ones are located in anonymous upstairs areas in Causeway Bay, Mongkok and Tsim Sha Tsui. There are also pop-up stores. They are usually known and operated on insiders' word- of-mouth knowledge. Lesbian spaces are located mainly in Causeway Bay, Tsim Sha Tsui and Mong Kok. They appear to be safe and comfortable to lesbians with the absence of men, the occurrence of sexual and verbal harassment is therefore reduced. The invisible pink stores shows queer spaces are still marginalized in the city when facing the sexuality hegemony. === Bars and cafés === Volume Up, the first LGBT-oriented record label in Hong Kong, was founded by Evan Steer."Editors of Time Out." Time Out Hong Kong. Time Out, 8 November 2011. , 9781846701146. p. 235. ==Institutions== The Hong Kong Ten Percent Club is an LGBT organisation. It was one of the first ones founded in Hong Kong.Tang, Denise, p. 90. Rainbow of Hong Kong is an LGBT non-profit- making organisation established in 1998 aiming to improve the quality of life of LGBT people by gathering a volunteer team to provide services and organising activities in response to the needs of the LGBT community such as medical services, sex education, domestic counselling and hotline services. Women Coalition of Hong Kong is an LGBT rights organisation. It was founded around 2002. Pink Alliance is charitable LGBT organisation promoting the equal rights of LGBT community. Main work of this institution includes carrying out research on history and survey on the LGBT culture and public view towards LGBT, publishing the latest movements and news of equality of LGBT community in both Hong Kong and foreign countries and organising campaigns to support the LGBT community. In 2017, it organised an Asia's Premier LGBT Festival collaborating with other LGBT organisations called 'Pink Season HK' lasted for 5 weeks and held 28 events which gathered 2500 participants. A series of activities and themes included education, music, art, sports and entertainment was held to raise the awareness of the public towards quality of LGBT community and provided an opportunity for the LGBT people to share their stories and support each other. Besides, Pink Alliance organise IDAHOT HK (International Day Against Homophobia & Transphobia) every year collaborating with other LGBT institutions in order to eliminate the discrimination of the public towards LGBT community, build an objective understanding and raise the awareness to support LGBT groups and call for legislation of discrimination towards LGBT groups. During the day, LGBT celebrities and LGBT victims suffered from bullying will share their stories and views on their sexual orientation and support other LGBT participants. ==Education== The Hong Kong Government has not implemented any compulsory education syllabus on sexual orientation and LGBT issues. According to the Guidelines on Sex Education in Schools which was published in 1997 and revised in 2004, schools are advised to educate students on different sexualities, homophobia and the normativity of marriage. The decision to introduce these materials, however, is entirely up to the individual school and there are no official restrictions on the materials being used. Under the International Technical Guidance, Hong Kong carry out the framework of sexuality education for 5-year-old children to students aged 18 or above to promote sexuality education in the curriculum levels. The sexuality education in schools of Hong Kong started from 1971 and kept revising and widening the content inclusive from not only scientific facts and skills on reproduction and marriage and family, but also added the contents of sexuality and gender education. The key concepts of sexuality education in 1997 included 5 aspects: human development, health and behavior, interpersonal relationships, marriage and family ad society and culture. After amended in 2008, the framework also included the part of teaching students to keep an open and caring stance to understand and accept people having different sexuality orientation (LGBT) and learn to think critically towards the view of the mass media on LGBT community and analyse 'sex' or 'gender' related topics rationally and objectively. Moreover, many LGBT-relevant topics are covered under the curriculum of many subjects from primary studies to tertiary studies. For example, in the General Studies of Primary Four to Six syllabus, the framework inculcates a sense of building neutral values and attitudes towards individuals having difference in their growth and development in building their sexual orientation during puberty. In tertiary education, some universities in Hong Kong provides courses on sexuality and gender in the general education curriculum. For example, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the City University of Hong Kong open elective courses related to sexuality and gender education and some sociology, anthropology and cultural major studies will also provide a neutral view and understanding on sexual orientation and allows students to build an open attitude to accept and call for equality for the LGBT community. Apart from the curriculum, LGBT students are discriminated in their school life. According to a survey done by the Hong Kong SAR Government, LGBT students received the highest rate of discrimination in secondary schools with 41% out of 3040 respondents indicating that LGBT are "psychologically abnormal". LGBT students pointed out that teachers tend to negatively describe the LGBT issues during the lesson and they would not protect LGBT students who are discriminated by other students. Even some teachers would use the term "abnormal" or "disgusting" to describe the behavior of LGBT people. In addition, the religious background is another crucial factor causing LGBT student being prejudiced. Many local secondary school have religious background such as Protestant Christianity and Catholicism, in which LGBT culture are prohibited by the school. Some teachers would treat LGBT as a kind of illness or sin that students who are LGBT should be rectified. Thus, students are suffer from the discrimination from the teachers and religious background at school. The University of Hong Kong has a Queer Straight Alliance.Lai, Jennifer. "Is it OK to be gay in Hong Kong? " (Archive). CNN. 18 August 2010. Retrieved on 27 August 2014. ==Recreation== Waiwai Yeo of the WCHK stated that around 2002 the LGBT community did not feel comfortable enough to hold a gay pride parade. The Hong Kong Pride Parade was first held in 2008. Waiwai Yeo stated that 1,000 people participated in the first parade and that it increased to 2,500 in 2011. The Wall Street Journal wrote that this is "a far cry from the millions who flock to the annual pride parades in Brazil and elsewhere." In 2017 10,000 people attended the pride parade. The 2020 parade was cancelled as the Hong Kong Police Force did not allow it. Pink Dot, another pride event, attracted around 15,000 in 2015. Les Pêches The Lounge establishes parties for women who are lesbian and bisexual. The Hong Kong Tourism Board started "Pink Season" to attract LGBT tourism. Dr. Lucetta Kam Yip-lo ("Dr. KAM Yip Lo, Lucetta | 金曄路博士 ." Hong Kong Baptist University. Retrieved on 26 September 2014.), who wrote Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China, stated that "LGBT bars or events such as the pride march are a big tourist attraction for lesbians." The Hong Kong Lesbian & Gay Film Festival is also held."Hong Kong Lesbian and Gay Film Festival 2014 ." Time Out Hong Kong. Retrieved on October 4, 2014. Representations of LGBT Hong Kongers are distorted in music, film, and television to perpetuate social discrimination. It was first established in 1989 and has been held annually. Because of its controversial nature, it had received little government fund but HKLGFF has taken its position in the commercial market and has gained monetary success. It is a society promoting LGBT culture, calling for equality of LGBT community and eliminating the discrimination of LGBT community through cinematic art. In the programme, different LGBT films all over the world will be selected and shown in the cinemas. In the film festival in 2017, the opening film is 120 Beats Per Minute and Kiss Me!(Embrasse-moi!) and the closing film is The Feels and Freak Show. Queer artists like Leslie Cheung Kwok-wing are repeatedly attacked by the media, even though their fame has set the precedent for supposedly straight Canto-pop actors and singers Aaron Kwok and Andy Lau, who embrace queer performances like cross-dressing. In 2022 Hong Kong hosted the Gay Games XI. Carrie Lam stated that she "noted" the news and did not announce congratulations, citing her religion. Walk In Hong Kong, a popular city walking tour company, has organised an 'LGBT in the City' tour, which introduces tour members to Hong Kong LGBT history, iconic movie filming spots, gay bars, sex toy shops and other notable landmarks. Choirs The Hong Kong Gay Men's Chorus (HKGMC) was founded in 2020 for out and proud gay men based in Hong Kong. == Television and films == Predominately in the 1990s, there are a handful of mainstream films which challenge the heteronormativity within Hong Kong cinematic productions, and include queer undertones or plot lines within the films. A few well-known examples include Swordsman II, Swordsman III, A Queer Story, Happy Together, He's a Woman, She's a Man and Permanent Residence. Though usually not explicit, critics consider these films unconventional sexuality-wise for the ambiguity. However, films with queerness as the plot centre has been criticized to be simply 'queerscapes' and speculations of all the sexual minorities under the same umbrella term, where people are defined queer as long as they deviate from the gender or sexuality norm. Television Broadcasts Limited, or TVB for short, is the first and most popular wireless commercial television station in Hong Kong and having the most viewed TV channels, it has produced a few dozens of television series with LGBT characters. According to a content analysis report conducted by Nu Tong Xue She (NTXS), which is also an LGBT awareness organisation, there were 67 television series with LGBT characters over the period of 1976 to 2012, but 70% advocate homophobia using plotlines and 22 of which portray LGBT characters as murderers. For example, LGBT characters are often depicted as mentally-ill, aggressive and predatory. Overall, there are a few series which portray LGBT characters positively, but they are often side characters and their stories are not thoroughly explored. Issues such as homophobia and discrimination is often the center of discussion when it comes to queer characters. In the television series A General, a Scholar and a Eunuch released in 2017, homoerotic themes are also used as comic relief only. A notable television series with LGBT characters, Margaret & David - Green Bean, is released in 2016 and produced by Hong Kong Television Entertainment Company Limited and prodcased on ViuTV. It features a suspectedly bisexual character who is in love with his friend and business partner, but there had not been any explicitly queer plot lines in the series. Society also sparked debate regarding homosexual content in children's film with the release of 'Beauty and the Beast'. The film includes a scene which two male characters, LeFou and Stanley, dance together in the final ball before it ends. As the director openly address the gay tribute in the film, the debate of appropriacy of homosexual content in children's film sparked off in places including Russia, Malaysia and of course Hong Kong. The president of International Christian Quality Music Secondary and Primary School Chan Wing Sun suggested parents to not bring children into cinema for the film due to its gay reference. In response to the controversy, the director of True Light Organization Choi Chi Sum shows support to the film by suggesting parents to bring their children into the theatre and discuss with children on controversial points. In 2021, Ossan's Love was adapted and the adaption was aired on ViuTV, becoming the first ever Hong Kong boy's love television series. The television series starred Kenny Wong, Anson Lo and Edan Lui. == Mass media == Mass media in Hong Kong took stance on LGBT related issues. Societal stereotypes of LGBT were made. The death of Leslie Cheung, a renowned queer celebrity in Hong Kong, in 2003 demonstrated the stances of different mass media in Hong Kong towards LGBT. Cheung claimed to be bisexual and publicly admitted his homosexuality. As written in his suicide note, he committed suicide due to depression. However, the mass media linked his death and depression to his sexual orientation. Newspapers and magazines specifically issued columns on curing depression, preventing suicide and "correction" on sexual disorientation, which represented the belief that homosexuality was deemed incorrect by the public. Some people even declared that homosexuality was an infectious disease like SARS, infecting people with "dangerous ideologies" and "disordered life". Cheung's suicide was portrayed as a violent act of homosexuality. Stereotypes and discrimination against LGBT were obviously shown in media coverage in 2003 in Hong Kong. In 2012, Denise Ho, a renowned singer in Hong Kong, came out in the fourth annual Hong Kong Pride Parade. No more special columns on correction of sexual disorientation were released in the newspaper after the incident. News and stories concerning LGBT reported in gossip magazines are sometimes stereotypical while they "normalize" gay/lesbian relationships at times. Gossip magazines report gossip of the people working in the media industry; they are widely circulated in locales like hair salons, clinics and offices. Gossip magazines in Hong Kong have been reporting "secret" gay/lesbian relationships that their reporters have uncovered. It indirectly coerces the celebrities who have not come out prior to their appearance in the reports involved to clarify their sexual orientation and personal relationships in public. The magazines have also linked gay/lesbian relationships with the social and financial statuses of the celebrities involved. With reference to the relationship of So Sze Wang and Gam Yin Leng, a lesbian celebrity couple in Hong Kong, magazine reports tended to focus on the wealthiness of the butch role in a lesbian relationship. Lesbians and bisexual women are also negatively portrayed in the mass media. "Gossip magazine reports can be seen as subversive cultural interventions on the part of queer people working in the media industry." (Tang, 2012) == Social media == The increasing and expanding usage of the Internet has aided LGBT individuals in Hong Kong to engage in interactions and discussions on social media platforms, giving the stigmatised groups a free space to express self- identities. Online communities are shown to play a great part in forming self- confidence and self-acceptance through others' assistance. The internet also serve as a mean to give community support, facilitate wider debates on various topics, and explore sexual and gender identities. Through joining online communities, LGBT members can find methods to cope with outer stigmatisation, discrimination, and lack of emotional support. At the same time, they are able to find the sense of belonging. All these factors constitute social media being an important social capital of LGBT individuals in order to achieve physical and mental well-being, and a mean to cope with societal discrimination and shame. Since the wide-spreading usage of the Internet, a handful of websites for male seeking sexual relations with other males had been set up, including www.gaystation.com.hk, www.radiorepublic.com, which are both deactivated and www.gayhk.com, which is still active. Phone applications such as "Grindr" and "Jack'd" are also prominent within gay males, who often make use of such applications to find dates. They are the two most downloaded applications for gay males in Hong Kong. On the other hand, social media also plays a part in organizing social movements and promoting LGBT rights through online platforms. GdotTV , founded in 2008, is the first Chinese LGBT online television station. It has successfully invoked discussions regarding media inclusion and viability of individuals with different sexual orientations, and how to involve them in mainstream media. By producing short films and shows that focus on the life and experience of the LGBT community in Hong Kong, it helps raise awareness of homophobia and discrimination within the wider society. One of the most well-known media projects produced and streamed on GdotTV is the I Am Who I Am Project. By regularly posting videos on different platforms, it aims at raising awareness of the bullying of LGBT students in the school environment, and to spread positive messages to the victims and help them embrace their identities. In addition, public radio RTHK has done interviews, special episodes, and talk shows around LGBTQ content. Increasingly, independent production channels and vloggers on YouTube are also creating LGBTQ-related podcasts and videos. == Queer pop culture == Hong Kong has a queer pop culture for appreciating gay romance, and generally known as ‘Yaoi’. Hong Kong usually adopts its English translation and initialize the phrase "boy love" as ‘bl’. Hong Kong also invent specific phrase in referencing to love between two males in 2013. The phrase ‘hehe’ has been used on the online forum HKGolden literally meaning two ‘he's being together. It later also further develops into ‘sheshe’ for lesbians. The discussion and fantasization of homosexuality has entered popular culture in Hong Kong since then. Although the queer pop culture might not necessarily be equal to supporting gay equality, Hong Kong records certain cases of the queer pop culture connecting with the LGBT movement. During the 2014 Hong Kong Umbrella Revolution, two student leaders Alex Chow and Lester Shum were made ‘couple’ on several social medias. Fandom appear in appreciating the intimacy of the two leaders, naming them ‘Alexter’ which consists of their names. Facebook community called ‘Lester Alex He He Group’ also gain 30362 followers sharing photos and animation of the two together. This boys’ love community to a point line up with the LGBT movement by joining the 2014 Hong Kong Gay Pride. The rise of this kind of queer pop culture to a certain extent show a rise in public acceptance in homosexuality. According to Jamie J. Zhao, ‘queer pop culture and fandom, facilitated by the wide use of the Internet and digital media, and these relatively improved socio-cultural situations for the survival of LGBTQ people’. In the case of Hong Kong, the ‘hehe’ fandom sometimes provide popular and cultural ways to promote homosexual equality to the public, making a connection between pop culture and social-political impact. == Entertainment industry == Several Hong Kong stars or singers ‘came out’ publicly in supporting the LGBT movement, sparking discussion on homosexuality among stardoms. In 2012, Hong Kong singer Denise Ho, also known as HOCC, ‘came out’ in the Gay Pride Parade, causing changes in her fandom. According to Maud Lavin, ‘the tension between queer and normal has shifted from the heteronormative negotiation of a “proper” female gender and accorded sexuality to the negotiation of a “proper” lesbian embodiment within her fandom’. Her coming-out marks a great step in influencing fandom or even public direction of discussing on homosexual celebrities. Ho also remarked that ‘the public has been really positive about what [she] have done.’. The label of being homosexual is brought into public's interpretation of her music, making homosexuality a topic for casual discussion. The number of works in relation to LGBT in the music industry also increased with the promotion of lyric-writers. Some famous lyric-writers have been creating songs about homosexuality and use them as media to link homosexuality to the public. For example, Wyman Wong created songs ranging from ‘Rosemary’ to ‘Illuminati’ hinting the transient beauty of love between same gender. In his songs he challenges the binary concept of gender and records the sufferings of LGBT community, making the public recognize problems faced by the community more easily. == Literature == Hong Kong Poet Nicholas Wong in 2016 won the American LGBT Literary Award, Lambda Literary Award, with his poetry Crevasse. He is the first in Hong Kong winning this award. He is named ‘Gay Poet’ after his show up in the award. In his interview, he emphasizes his works are based on view of the queers. ==Notable residents== * Raymond Chan Chi-chuen ("Slow beat")Cheng, Jennifer. "Hong Kong's LGBT community seeks ban on discrimination." South China Morning Post. Thursday, 15 November 2012. Updated: Saturday, 17 November 2012. Print title: "Reaching out for tolerance". Retrieved on 27 September 2014. * Gigi ChaoChan, Wilfred. "Tycoon's lesbian daughter Gigi Chao shakes up conservative Hong Kong " (Archive). CNN. 11 February 2014. Retrieved on 27 September 2014. * Leslie Cheung Kwok-wing * Denise Ho Wan-sze * Joanne Leung Wing-yan *Ellen Joyce Loo * Anthony Wong Yiu-ming *Yip Pui-yin ==See also== * LGBT history in Hong Kong * LGBT rights in Hong Kong * :Category:Hong Kong LGBT-related films * HIV/AIDS in Hong Kong ==Notes== ==References== * Tang, Denise She-Tsang (). Conditional Spaces: Hong Kong Lesbian Desires and Everyday Life (Volume 1 of Queer Asia). Hong Kong University Press, 1 May 2011. , 978-9888083015. • Towards Full Citizenship: A Preliminary Checklist of Hong Kong Gay/Lesbian-related Works = 向光明: 香港同志情形的參考書/片目 Latest edition: 4th ed. (2021), online PDF manuscript (536p.); also 3rd ed. (2019) available in print and online PDF (485 p.; ). For online editions, go to the Internet Archive [click above link for 4th ed.; (3rd ed. also at Internet Archive)]. Access also to various digital and print editions at Library and Archives Canada website (Aurora catalogue) or via OCLC WorldCat catalog. Category:Culture of Hong Kong Hong Kong Hong Kong Category:LGBT in Hong Kong
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Thomas R. Frieden (born December 7, 1960) is an American infectious disease and public health physician. He serves as president and CEO of Resolve to Save Lives, a $225million, five-year initiative to prevent epidemics and cardiovascular disease. He was the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and he was the administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry from 2009 to 2017, appointed by President Barack Obama. As a commissioner of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene from 2002 to 2009 he came to some prominence for banning smoking in the city's restaurants as well as the serving of trans fat. ==Education== Frieden was born and raised in New York City. His father, Julian Frieden, was chief of coronary care at Montefiore Hospital and New Rochelle Hospitals in New York.Thomas Frieden BrowseBiography.com, 2010 Frieden attended Oberlin College graduating with a BA degree in philosophy in 1982.Tom Nugent Life on the Cutting Edge Oberlin Alumni Magazine, Fall 2006 Vol. 102, No. 2 He was a community organizer for the Center for Health Services at Vanderbilt University in 1982, before he started studying medicine at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and graduated with an MD degree in 1986. At the same time he attended Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health and obtained an MPH degree in 1986. He completed a residency in internal medicine at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center 1986–1989 followed by a one-year infectious diseases fellowship from 1989 to 1990 at Yale School of Medicine and Yale–New Haven Hospital. ==Career== ===CDC, New York City Department of Health, WHO, 1990–2002=== From 1990 to 1992, Frieden worked as an Epidemic Intelligence Service officer assigned by CDC in New York City. From 1992 to 1996, he was assistant commissioner of health and director of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Bureau of Tuberculosis Control, fostering public awareness and helping to improve city, state and federal public funding for TB control. The New York City epidemic was controlled rapidly, reducing overall incidence by nearly half and cutting multidrug-resistant tuberculosis by 80%. The city's program became a model for tuberculosis control nationally and globally. From 1995 to 2001, Frieden worked as a technical advisor for the World Bank, health and population offices.Dr Thomas R Frieden, MD, MPH Bio House of Representatives, Document Repository, July 16, 2014 From 1996 to 2002, Frieden worked in India, as a medical officer for the World Health Organization on loan from the CDC. He helped the government of India implement the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program. The program's 2008 status report estimated that the nationwide program resulted in 8million treatments and 1.4million lives saved. While in India, Frieden worked to establish a network of Indian physicians to help India's state and local governments implement the program and helped the Tuberculosis Research Center in Chennai, India, establish a program to monitor the impact of tuberculosis control services. ===New York City Health Commissioner, 2002 to 2009=== Frieden served as Commissioner of Health of the City of New York from 2002 to 2009. At the time of his appointment, the agency employed 6,000 staff and had an annual budget of $1.6billion. During Frieden's tenure as Commissioner, the Health Department expanded the collection and use of epidemiological data, launching an annual Community Health Survey and the nation's first community-based Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. ====Tobacco control, 2002 onward==== Upon his appointment as Commissioner of Health, Frieden made tobacco control a priority, resulting in a rapid decline after a decade of no change in smoking rates. Frieden established a system to monitor the city's smoking rates, and worked with New York City Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg to increase tobacco taxes, ban smoking in workplaces including restaurants and bars, and run aggressive anti-tobacco ads and help smokers quit. The program reduced smoking prevalence among New York City adults from 21% in 2002 to 17% in 2007 which represented 300,000 fewer smokers. Smoking prevalence among New York City teens declined even more sharply, from 17.6% in 2001 to 8.5% in 2007, which was less than half the national rate. The workplace smoking ban prompted spirited debate before the New York City Council passed it and Mayor Bloomberg signed it into law. Over time, the measure gained broad acceptance by the public and business community in New York City. New York City's 2003 workplace smoking ban followed that of California in 1994. Frieden supported increased cigarette taxes as a means of reducing smoking and preventing teens from starting, saying "tobacco taxes are the most effective way to reduce tobacco use." He supported the 62-cent federal tax on each cigarette pack sold in the United States, introduced in April 2009. One side effect of the increased taxes on tobacco in New York was a large increase in cigarette smuggling into the state from other states with much lower taxes, such as Virginia. The Tax Foundation estimated that "60.9% of cigarettes sold in New York State are smuggled in from other states". In addition, some New Yorkers began to make their own cigarettes, and tobacco trucks were even hijacked. A 2009 Justice Department study found that "The incentive to profit by evading payment of taxes rises with each tax rate hike imposed by federal, state, and local governments". ====Waiving written consent for HIV testing, 2004==== Frieden introduced the city's first comprehensive health policy, Take Care New York, which targeted ten leading causes of preventable illness and death for public and personal action. By 2007, New York City had made measurable progress in eight of the ten priority areas. As Health Commissioner, Frieden sought to fight HIV and AIDS with public health principles used successfully to control other communicable diseases. A very controversial aspect was the proposal to eliminate separate written consent for HIV testing. He believed the measure would encourage physicians to offer HIV tests during routine medical care, as the CDC recommended. Some community and civil liberties advocates fought this legislation, arguing it would undermine patients' rights and lead eventually to forced HIV testing. In 2010, New York State passed a new law that eased the requirement for separate written consent in some circumstances. Frieden's perspective is now widely accepted, and on February 14, 2007, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene introduced the NYC Condom, prompting Catholic League president Bill Donohue to respond, "What's next? The city's own brand of clean syringes?" More than 36million condoms were given away by the program in 2007. ====Diabetes test result reporting, 2006==== Frieden worked to raise awareness about diabetes in New York City, particularly among pregnant women, and established an involuntary, non-disclosed hemoglobin A1C diabetes registry which tracks patients' blood sugar control over several months and reports the information to treating physicians to help them provide better care. The New York City Board of Health's decision to require laboratories to report A1C test results generated a heated debate among civil libertarians, who viewed it as a violation of medical privacy and an intrusion into the doctor-patient relationship. Although patients may elect not to receive information from the program, there is no provision enabling patients to opt out of having their glycemic control data entered in the database. ====Transfat plan, 2006==== In September 2006, the city proposed to restrict trans fat served in New York restaurants. New York City's trans fat ban followed mandatory labeling of trans fat by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), was credited with saving lives and preceded by more than a decade the FDA's action to ban trans fat from food throughout the United States. ===CDC Director, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Administrator, 2009–2017=== In May 2009, the White House and the Department of Health and Human Services named Frieden director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; positions he assumed in June 2009, from the acting head Richard E. Besser. Frieden resigned effective January 20, 2017. On announcing Frieden's appointment, President Obama called him "an expert in preparedness and response to health emergencies" who in seven years as New York City's health commissioner was "at the forefront of the fight against heart disease, cancer and obesity, infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and AIDS, and in the establishment of electronic health records." ====Ebola epidemic, 2014==== Frieden was prominently involved in the US and global response to the West African outbreak of Ebola. His visits to West Africa beginning in August 2014 and a September 2014 CDC analysis projecting that the Ebola epidemic could increase exponentially to infect more than 1million people within four months prompted him to press for an international surge response. At the peak of the response, CDC maintained approximately 200 staff per day in West Africa and about 400 staff per day at its Atlanta headquarters; overall, about 1,900 CDC staff deployed to international and U.S. locations for about 110,000 total work days, and more than 4,000 CDC staff worked as part of the response. In a Congressional hearing in October 2014, Frieden was asked about his handling of the Ebola crisis after the disease had spread to two nurses from a patient in the US. The day prior, Rep. Tom Marino (R-PA) had called for Frieden's resignation, though others rallied to his defense. ===Resolve to Save Lives=== In 2017, Frieden started leading an initiative called "Resolve to Save Lives" to prevent cardiovascular disease and epidemics. The effort is funded by Bloomberg Philanthropies, the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and housed at a nongovernmental organization in New York City. Proposed strategies are being tried in various countries including India, China, and Nigeria. These strategies include working with the World Health Organization to eliminate trans fat and reduce salt consumption worldwide. The salt reduction effort is controversial, with some scientists stating that lower sodium intake may harm some people.Mente A, O'Donnell M, Rangarajan S, et al. Urinary sodium excretion, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and mortality: a community-level prospective epidemiological cohort study. Lancet. 2018;392(10146):496–506 The initiative also works to make countries better prepared for epidemics and have funding to fill preparedness gaps. Frieden appeared widely in US and global media during the COVID-19 pandemic and became a leading voice sharing science-based analysis of the pandemic via Twitter, while advocating for increased pandemic preparedness, vaccine equity, and stronger public health systems. He appeared on many news shows including The Today Show, CBS News, CNN, PBS, Good Morning America, BBC World News, MSNBC, and was quoted in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, STAT, The Hill, and published articles in leading outlets including on pandemic preparedness, global health security, primary health care, and cardiovascular health. Frieden's op-eds on the pandemic were published in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and Foreign Affairs. Frieden co-authored a commentary with Former CDC Directors Jeffrey Koplan, David Satcher, Julie Gerberding, and Richard Besser calling for public health to lead the response to the pandemic, and for a reform of the CDC and US public health system. In April 2022, Frieden led the transition of Resolve to Save Lives to become an independent, U.S.-based not-for-profit organization after five years of rapid expansion incubated at Vital Strategies. Working with the World Health Organization, Resolve to Save Lives partnered with countries to expand trans fat bans to more than 40% of the world population. It is estimated that these bans will save millions of lives. Frieden has noted that cardiovascular disease kills far more people than Covid, and called for more action to reduce its three leading preventable causes: tobacco use, hypertension, and air pollution. The organization has highlighted unsung successes in public health, including Epidemics That Didn't Happen, and proposed a global target to reduce the risk of the next pandemic, 7-1-7: 7 days to find every outbreak, 1 day to report it to public health, and 7 days to have all essential control measures in place. Frieden is also Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations. ==Personal life== Frieden is married to Barbara Chang, whom he met in college, and has two children, one of whom, Michael Chang-Frieden is a graduate of Columbia University with the class of 2016. His brother, Jeff Frieden, is professor and chair of the department of government at Harvard University. In 2017, Frieden was awarded an honorary Sc.D. degree from New York University.Pharrell Williams, the Musician, Songwriter, and Producer, to Speak at NYU's Commencement - News release website of NYU In 2018, Frieden faced misdemeanor charges of forcible touching, third-degree sexual abuse and second-degree harassment. All charges were dropped. He pled guilty to disorderly conduct. ==Publications== Frieden has published more than 200 peer reviewed articles. *Frieden TR, Lee CT, Bochner AF, Buissonnière M, McClelland A. 7-1-7 : an organising principle, target, and accountability metric to make the world safer from pandemics. Lancet. 2021[online] S0140-6736(21)01250-2. *Frieden TR., Foti KE. National Initiatives to Prevent Myocardial Infarction and Stroke. JAMA. 2021; 0905. *Frieden TR, Rajkumar R., Mostashari F. We Must Fix US Health and Public Health Policy. AJPH. 2021; 111(4):623-627. *Frieden TR, Cobb LK, Leidig RC, Mehta S, Kass D. Reducing Premature Mortality from Cardiovascular and Other Non-Communicable Diseases by One Third: Achieving Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 3.4.1. Global Heart. 2020;15(1):50. *Cobb LK, Frieden TR, Appel LJ. No U-turn on sodium reduction. J Clin Hypertens. 2020;00:1-5. *Kontis V, Cobb LK, Mathers CD, Frieden TR, Ezzati M, Danaei G. Three public health interventions could save 94 million lives in 25 years. Circulation. 2019;140(9):715-725. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==References== ==External links== * Tom Frieden at Google Scholar * * Resolve to Save Lives * Tom Frieden | TIME * |- Category:1960 births Category:American public health doctors Category:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention people Category:Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni Category:Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health alumni Category:Commissioners in New York City Category:Commissioners of Health of the City of New York Category:Living people Category:Obama administration personnel Category:Oberlin College alumni Category:People from New York City Category:Place of birth missing (living people) Category:United States Department of Health and Human Services officials Category:Directors of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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thumbnail|Great bell Jubilee of the year 2000. The Great Jubilee in 2000 was a major event in the Catholic Church, held from Christmas Eve (December 24) 1999 to Epiphany (January 6) 2001. Like other previous Jubilee years, it was a celebration of the mercy of God and forgiveness of sins. The major innovation in this Jubilee was the addition of many "particular Jubilees" for various groups of persons, and that it was simultaneously celebrated in Rome, Israel, and elsewhere in the world. ==Preparations== Preparation for the Great Jubilee began when Pope John Paul II issued his Apostolic Letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente (As the Third Millennium Approaches) on November 10, 1994. In the letter, he invited the Church to begin a three-year period of intensive preparation for the celebration of the third Christian millennium. The first year, 1997 would be marked by an exploration of the person of Jesus, the second, 1998, by meditation on the person of the Holy Spirit, and the third, 1999, by meditation on the person of God the Father. Each year was also to be marked by a special prayer of entrustment to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The formal convocation of the holy year came through the papal bull of indiction, Incarnationis Mysterium (Mystery of the Incarnation), on November 29, 1998. In the bull, the Pope indicated that he had desired to lead the Church into the Great Jubilee since the beginning of his pontificate. He explained that this Jubilee would be a chance to open new horizons in preaching the Kingdom of God. However, it would also be a time of repentance, both for individuals and for the Church as a whole. Furthermore, he stressed the ecumenical character of this event, which he saw as not only for Catholics, but for all Christians and indeed for the whole world. The various churches and cathedrals in Rome took advantage of the Jubilee to perform long-needed renovations. The facade of St. Peter's was under scaffolding for months, as centuries of grime were painstakingly removed. The Holy See also arranged to build a massive parking garage under the Janiculum hill, in order to accommodate all the buses that were expected. Construction of the garage was halted for some time due to the discovery of mosaics dating from the imperial period in previously unknown chambers under the hill. These were removed en masse so as to be able to complete the garage in time for the Jubilee. ==Jubilee Indulgence== With the Bull of Indiction came a document from the Apostolic Penitentiary, indicating the conditions for receiving the Jubilee indulgence. In many respects, they were greatly simplified with respect to previous years. The normal conditions of confession, communion, prayer for the Pope and renunciation of attachment to sin remained in place, but unlike previous Jubilees, it was only necessary to visit a single church on a single day. The indulgence could be obtained in Rome by visiting one of the four patriarchal basilicas, St. Peter's Basilica, St. John Lateran, St. Paul Outside the Walls or St. Mary Major, as well as by a visit to the shrine of Our Lady of Divine Love, the basilica of St. Lawrence Outside the Walls or the Christian catacombs of Rome. In the visit, the pilgrim had to take part in a religious celebration or spend a half-hour in Eucharistic adoration. The indulgence could also be obtained in the Holy Land by a visit to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, or the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth. Further, the Jubilee was extended to all dioceses of the world. A visit to the cathedral church or another shrine designated by the bishop would also suffice to gain the Jubilee indulgence. Cloistered nuns and monks could obtain the indulgence in their house chapels. Finally, the indulgence could be gained by means of a personal sacrifice or works of charity. Specifically mentioned in the document were sacrifices such as giving up smoking or alcohol for at least one day or making a donation to help the poor. ==Highpoints== The particular Jubilees punctuated each week of the year 2000. There were special Vespers services held every day at St. Peter's Basilica, often with participation by the Pope. Nearly every Sunday was dedicated to a special celebration of some sector of society. (See list at the end of this article.) Some events of the Jubilee year were seen to be particularly significant, however. ===Opening=== The pope opened the Jubilee by opening the holy door of St. Peter's Basilica shortly before the Midnight Mass on December 24, 1999. Most of the time, the holy doors of the patriarchal Basilicas are cemented shut. On the occasion of a Jubilee year, the pope opens the doors as a symbol of opening the doors of grace. Pilgrims visiting the basilicas to gain the Jubilee indulgence enter the basilicas through these special doors. Throughout most of the Jubilee year, long lines were queued up to enter the door. Pope John Paul II simplified the rite of opening considerably, compared to previous Jubilees. (See Holy door.) After a series of prayers and hymns, punctuated by African elephant tusks being blown, the Pope, clad in a purple cope, pushed on the doors as they were drawn open from inside by assistants. He then fell to his knees on the threshold of the Basilica and prayed, holding his silver Papal ferula. Pope John Paul II commissioned Patsy Ford Simms to compose the music for this celebration. The holy door in St. John Lateran was opened by the pope the following day, and that of St. Mary Major on January 1, 2000. ===Ecumenical Celebration at St. Paul's=== The fourth holy door, that of St. Paul Outside the Walls, was not opened until January 18, 2000, to launch the week of prayer for Christian Unity. For that celebration, the Pope had planned an ecumenical service, inviting leaders of all Christian religions to take part. Twenty-two Christian leaders accepted the invitation, along with a representative of the World Council of Churches, which represents 337 denominations. The opening of the door was carried out simultaneously by the Pope, Metropolitan Athanasias, representing the Ecumenical Patriarch, and George Carey, Archbishop of Canterbury. All three fell to their knees on the threshold of the Basilica, joined in prayer. The liturgy of the day included readings from the Bible, from the Lutheran martyr Dietrich Bonhoeffer and from the Russian theologian Georges Florovsky. ===Prayer for Forgiveness for Sins of the Church=== One particularly rich ceremony of the Jubilee, dubbed the "Day of Forgiveness", came on March 12, 2000, the first Sunday of Lent. There the Pope begged forgiveness from God for the sins committed by members of the Church, and particularly sins committed in the name of the Church.Weigel, George, Witness of Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II, Harper Collins Publishers, Updated edition, 2009 Seven senior curial officials read special prayers asking for forgiveness in specific areas. The first, Benin's Cardinal Bernardin Gantin, then dean of the College of Cardinals, made a general confession of Christians' sins in the course of history. Joseph Ratzinger, cardinal prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, called for confession of faults for the use of "non-evangelical methods" in the service of faith, as for example, in the Inquisition. Roger Etchegaray, cardinal president of the Central Committee for the Jubilee, exhorted the confession of sins that caused division among Christians; Cardinal Edward Idris Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, acknowledged the faults committed "against the people of the Covenant," the Jews; and Japanese Archbishop Stephen Fumio Hamao, president of the Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerant People, mentioned sins committed against love, peace, the rights of peoples, respect of cultures and religions. Nigerian Cardinal Francis Arinze, president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, requested confession of sins that have wounded the dignity of woman and the unity of mankind. Finally, Vietnamese Archbishop François Xavier Nguyên Van Thuân, president of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, encouraged confession of sins in the area of fundamental rights of the human person: abuses against children, marginalisation of the poor, suppression of the unborn in the maternal womb or their use for experimentation. This mea culpa of the Church was widely applauded, but some members of the Catholic Church felt that it had gone too far, and had damaged the doctrine that the Church is holy. For his part, at the prayer of the Angelus later in the day, the Pope indicated that such a ceremony was necessary. "The Holy Year is a time of purification: the Church is Holy because Christ is her Head and Spouse, the Spirit is her vivifying soul, and the Blessed Virgin and the saints are her most authentic expression. However, the children of the Church know the reality of sin, whose shadows are reflected in her, darkening her beauty. Because of this, the Church does not cease to implore God's forgiveness for the sins of her members." ===Pilgrimage to the Holy Land=== Only a few days later, from March 21 to March 26, the Pope realized a long-held dream by completing a personal pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He visited Jordan, Israel and lands held by the Palestinian National Authority. Two particular high points of that visit were his prayer at the Western Wall, where he placed a copy of the prayer for forgiveness for sins against the Jews into a crack in the wall, and his celebration of the Mass in the Cenacle in Jerusalem. The Cenacle had been closed to Pope Paul VI when he visited Jerusalem in 1964, because the same site is venerated in Judaism as the burial site of King David. Pope John Paul II was permitted to celebrate in this most holy location of Christianity, where he preached on the words spoken by the faithful after the consecration: "Christ has died, Christ has risen, Christ will come again". After the visit, the Israeli government arranged for the possession of the cenacle to be transferred to the Catholic Church in exchange for Santa María Blanca, a synagogue in Toledo, Spain that had been converted into a church. ===World Youth Day=== World Youth Day 2000 was an extremely well-attended event. An estimated two million youths took place in the closing Mass. The Roman subways were filled with singing youths from all over the world. The area around the Circus Maximus was converted into a large area for the hearing of confession. There were always long lines at these confessionals, and most priests in Rome spent several hours here. The event culminated with the Mass on August 20, 2000 in a large field belonging to the Roman university Tor Vergata. ===Closing=== The Great Jubilee was closed on January 6, 2001 with the Mass of Epiphany. On the previous night, the Basilica of St. Peter was scheduled to close at 6:00 p.m. but the church remained open until the last pilgrim had passed through the Holy Doors at about 2:20 a.m. on January 6.http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-70368543.html & http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/italy/01/06/vatican.pope/ After solemnly closing the Holy Door, the Pope celebrated Mass in front of the basilica for a congregation of some 10,000 persons. On this occasion, the Pope signed his Apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (At the beginning of the new millennium) which outlines the priorities of the Church for the 21st century and beyond. == The Jubilee beyond the Catholic Church == The proposal to celebrate the year 2000 was received very well among Christians. Early on, the Vatican had a disappointment because the Waldenses, the only large Protestant religion in Italy, refused to participate because of their dispute against the Jubilee indulgence. Nonetheless, many Christians celebrated this year in a special way. There were also various special efforts to bring light on social issues in this year. Noting that the Biblical Jubilees involved the forgiveness of debts, the rock singer Bono, Quincy Jones, Willie Colón, Muhammad Ali, Bob Geldof among others supported Jubilee 2000 to increase awareness of the developing nations struggling under a possibly unpayable foreign debt. With the blessing of the Pope, they sought to bring governments and international banks to cancel such debts during the Jubilee year. The Italian group, Hands Off Cain (Nessuno tocchi Caino), took advantage of the Jubilee to call for an end to capital punishment around the world. Whenever a country chose to commute a sentence or abolish the death penalty entirely, the group illuminated the Roman Colosseum for various numbers of days. The Pope also called for a moratorium on executions and, if possible, the abolishment of the practice. On July 9, 2000, he visited the Regina Coeli prison in Rome. ==List of Jubilee events presided by John Paul II== * December 24, 1999: Opening of the Holy Door, Basilica of St. Peter * December 25, 1999: Opening of the Holy Door, Basilica of St. John Lateran * January 1, 2000: Opening of the Holy Door, Basilica of St. Mary Major * January 18, 2000: Opening of the Holy Door, Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls * February 2, 2000: Jubilee of Consecrated Life * February 11, 2000: Jubilee of the Sick and health care workers * February 18, 2000: Jubilee of Artists * February 19, 2000: Jubilee of Permanent Deacons * February 22, 2000: Jubilee of the Roman Curia * March 12, 2000: Day of Forgiveness * March 19, 2000: Jubilee of Artisans * April 16, 2000: Palm Sunday * May 1, 2000: Jubilee of workers * May 7, 2000: Commemoration of witnesses of the 20th century * May 18, 2000: Jubilee of priests * May 25, 2000: Jubilee of Scientists *May 28, 2000: Jubilee of Diocese of Rome *June 2, 2000: Jubilee of Migrants *June 4, 2000: Jubilee of Journalists *June 18-25, 2000: International Eucharistic Congress *June 22, 2000: Solemnity Corpus Christi *July 9, 2000: Jubilee in Prisons *August 15–20, 2000: World Youth Day *September 11, 2000: Jubilee of University World *September 15, 2000: Jubilee of Apostolic Nuncios *September 17, 2000: Jubilee of Senior Citizens *October 7-8, 2000: Jubilee of Bishops *October 14–15, 2000: Jubilee of Families *October 22, 2000: World Mission Sunday *October 29, 2000: Jubilee of the World of Sports *November 1, 2000: 50th Anniversary of the dogma of the Assumption of Mary *November 5, 2000: Jubilee of Statements and Politicians *November 12, 2000: Jubilee of Agricultural World *November 19, 2000: Jubilee of Armed Forces and Police *November 26, 2000: Jubilee of the Apostolate of the Laity *December 3, 2000: Jubilee of Communities with persons with a disability *December 10, 2000: Jubilee of Catechists and Teachers of religion *December 17, 2000: Jubilee of the Entertainment World *January 6, 2001: Closing of Holy Door at St. Peter's Basilica ==Other events== Arvo Pärt was commissioned to compose a work for the occasion, and wrote (Cecilia, Roman virgin) for mixed choir and orchestra. The Italian text deals with the life and martyrdom of Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music. The work was first performed on 19 November 2000, close to her feast day on 22 November, by the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia conducted by Myung-whun Chung. ==See also== *Tertio Millennio Adveniente *Novo Millennio Ineunte *"Jubilee Song", an English-language Filipino song written to coincide with the Great Jubilee *New evangelization ==References== ==External links== *The Great Jubilee of the Year 2000 *News of the Great Jubilee Year *The Holy See - Jubilee 2000 Category:Jubilee (Christianity) Category:2000 in Christianity Category:Turn of the third millennium
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Wolfgang Felix Magath (; born 26 July 1953) is a German football manager and former player. The most notable spell of his playing career was with Hamburger SV, with whom he won three Bundesliga titles, the 1977 European Cup Winners' Cup Final and the 1983 European Cup Final, scoring in both Finals. He also gained 43 international caps for the West Germany national team, winning UEFA Euro 1980 and reaching two consecutive World Cup finals. As a manager, Magath's honours include two consecutive Doubles (Bundesliga and German Cup titles) with Bayern Munich, and a further Bundesliga title with VfL Wolfsburg in 2009. He has a reputation of demanding strong discipline and thorough training. In 2014, Magath coached English club Fulham, becoming the first German to manage in the Premier League. ==Playing career== Born near Aschaffenburg, Magath started his career playing for local club Viktoria Aschaffenburg. From 1974 to 1976, he played for 1. FC Saarbrücken, at that time in the second division, before moving to Hamburger SV in the top flight. He spent the following ten seasons with Hamburg, and from his debut in 1976 to his retirement he scored 46 goals in 306 games in the West German top flight. In 1983, Magath led Hamburg to success in the European Cup, scoring the single goal in the final against Juventus; in 1980–81, he netted a career-best (in the first division) ten goals, helping his side to a runner-up league spot, as Hamburg also won the league in three years during that time. Magath also represented the West Germany national team at many international events, including the 1982 and 1986 FIFA World Cups, helping West Germany finish in second place both times. He was also part of the squad that won the 1980 UEFA European Championship. Magath made his debut on 30 April 1977, in a 2–1 friendly win with Yugoslavia, and went on to amass 43 caps, with three goals. ==Managerial career== ===1986–1992: general manager=== Having suffered a career-ending knee injury, Magath retired shortly after the 1986 World Cup and became general manager for his former club Hamburg. He left Hamburg in June 1988 after moderate success. His next stints as general manager included then 2. Bundesliga, side 1. FC Saarbrücken (November 1989 to June 1990), as well as Bayer Uerdingen (July 1990 to January 1992), who were relegated from the first tier during Magath's time at the club. ===1992–2001: early coaching career=== Magath took up coaching in 1992 as a player-coach for the fourth-tier club FC Bremerhaven, which he led to division championship. He then rejoined Hamburger SV as reserves coach in 1993, and became manager Benno Möhlmann's assistant soon after. Magath succeeded Möhlmann as manager after the latter was sacked in October 1995. His first match was a 2–2 draw against 1860 Munich. Having reached the UEFA Cup during his first season, Hamburg finished in fifth place. The following season as disappointing 15th at the time Magath was sacked. His final match was a 4–0 loss to 1. FC Köln. He finished with a record of 28 wins, 19 draws, and 22 losses. In the following years, Magath acquired a reputation as the fireman, coming in at difficult times at a club and leading it to salvation. In September 1997, he took over 1. FC Nürnberg who were newly promoted to the 2. Bundesliga and fighting relegation. His first match was a 0–0 draw against KFC Uerdingen 05. Der Club finished the season in third–place, meaning promotion to the Bundesliga, but Magath left due to differences in opinion with the club president Michael A. Roth. He finished with a record of 16 wins, eight draws, and five losses. During a short stint at Werder Bremen during the 1998–99 season, Magath lead the club out of relegation places, only for Bremen to find themselves in the relegation dogfight again with two games to go. At this point he was replaced as manager by Thomas Schaaf who helped them avoid relegation by a point. Magath also helped Bremen get to the final of the DFB-Pokal however he was sacked before the final itself, which Bremen won in his absence. He had nine wins, seven draws, and ten losses. Halfway through the 1999–00 season, Magath joined troubled Eintracht Frankfurt. An impressive Magath-inspired run saw Frankfurt finish the second round as third best and four points off relegation. Magath was sacked the season after (29 January 2001) when Frankfurt found themselves in the relegation zone. His last match was a 5–1 loss to Köln. He finished with record of 15 wins, five draws, and 17 losses. ===2001–2007: head coach at Stuttgart and Bayern=== thumb|Magath (right) being interviewed as the coach of VfB Stuttgart Magath bounced back with what was to become one of his most successful stints when he took over fellow relegation battlers VfB Stuttgart a few weeks after. Having narrowly avoided relegation in 2001, Stuttgart finished the 2001–02 in a mid-table position. The club went then on to become 2002–03 Bundesliga runners-up and finished the 2003–04 season as respectable fourth. During this time, Magath also introduced a group of players from the Stuttgart youth ranks, such as Timo Hildebrand, Andreas Hinkel and Kevin Kurányi, who became known as "die jungen Wilden" (wild youth). The Stuttgart stint was also the first time Magath combined the head coach and the director of football roles. He finished with a record of 73 wins, 37 draws, and 37 losses. Having impressed with Stuttgart, Magath was handed the FC Bayern Munich job on 1 July 2004. In his first season, Magath was able to lead his team to victory in both the league and cup, completing the double, a feat which would be repeated in 2005–06, the first time ever in the competition's history. However, after a slow start to the 2006–07 season, with the team mired in fourth place which would not qualify them for the Champions League, Magath was sacked on 31 January 2007. He finished with a record of 84 wins, 25 draws, and 22 losses. ===2007–2012: head coach and director of football combined=== In June 2007, Magath signed a contract with VfL Wolfsburg, as head coach and director of football. Magath lead the Wolves to play in the 2008–09 UEFA Cup and the following season's Champions League, the latter as league champions for the first time. He finished with a record of 46 wins, 18 draws, and 21 losses. Before the season 2008–09 had ended, Magath agreed on a four- year contract with Schalke 04, again as both head coach and director of football, starting on 1 July 2009. Schalke finished Magath's first season in charge as runners-up, but after a series of disappointing domestic performances and growing player discontent, Magath was sacked by Schalke in March 2011. the following day, Magath claimed that he had not been informed of his dismissal. He finished with a record of 42 wins, 16 draws, and 21 losses. thumb|Magath coaching Schalke 04 Only 48 hours later, on 18 March, Magath once again signed with now relegation-battling VfL Wolfsburg, the side he had previously led to the league title in 2009. Magath steered the club to safety, avoiding the relegation play–off by two points, but though the club invested heavily, Magath could only achieve a mid-table finish in the following 2011–12 season. After only five points in eight matches (and no goals and points in the last four games) in the 2012–13 season, Magath left the club by mutual consent on 25 October 2012. He finished with a record of 18 wins, 10 draws, and 24 losses. ===2014–2017: return to management with Fulham and Shandong Luneng Taishan=== On 14 February 2014, Fulham released a statement that Magath would be their new first team manager effective immediately on an eighteen- month contract. Magath brought in Tomas Oral as first team coach and Werner Leuthard as the person in charge of conditioning while the club dismissed manager Rene Meulensteen, assistant coach Ray Wilkins, technical director Alan Curbishley, and first team coaches Mick Priest and Jonathan Hill. The role was Magath's first in two years and at the time his only venture outside of his native Germany. Magath believed that he could save Fulham from relegation and that 12 matches was enough to save the club. Fulham played their first match under Magath on 22 February 2014. The match ended in a 1–1 draw with Ashkan Dejagah, Magath's former player at VfL Wolfsburg, being the first Fulham goalscorer of Magath's tenure. On 15 March, Fulham won their first match with Magath in charge against Newcastle United, with Dejagah being the lone scorer. Magath picked up four points from his first six matches and answered questions about a potential resignation. On 3 May 2014, Fulham were relegated from the Premier League after a 4–1 loss to Stoke City. Magath believed that Fulham could earn immediate promotion. He started the 2014–15 season with four consecutive losses to Ipswich Town, Millwall, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Derby County. On 18 September 2014 Magath was sacked as Fulham manager after a run of eleven league games without a win. He finished with a record of four wins, four draws, and 12 losses. After Gerald Baumgartner was sacked by Austria Wien, Magath eventually became the "preferred" choice. Spartak Moscow also offered Magath a contract. Thorsten Fink and Dmitriy Alenichev took the coaching jobs. He eventually took the job at Shandong Luneng Taishan, replacing former Brazil national football team manager Mano Menezes. He took the job on 8 June 2016. He made his debut on 12 June 2016 in a 2–1 loss against Hebei China Fortune. His first win was a 2–1 win against Jiangsu Suning on 9 July 2016. Four days later, he got his second win against Shijiazhuang Ever Bright, a 4–0 win. He led Shandong throughout the 2017 Chinese Super League, finishing 6th, but left the club shortly after the end of the season. ===2020–present: FLYERALARM Global Soccer=== In January 2020, Magath revealed that his time as a coach was over and that he wanted to "help football in a different way". In step with this, he introduced himself as the new boss of FLYERALARM Global Soccer. Magath became responsible for FLYERALARM's commitment to the clubs Würzburger Kickers in Germany and Flyeralarm Admira, formerly known as FC Admira Wacker Mödling. ===2022: Hertha BSC=== On 13 March 2022, Magath became Hertha BSC's third head coach of the 2021–22 season after he replaced Tayfun Korkut, who had replaced Pál Dárdai in November 2021. On 17 March 2022, Magath tested positive for COVID-19 and had to postpone his debut match. ==Reputation== As a manager, Magath quickly gained respect and became known for his hard, grinding training methods, laying heavy emphasis on discipline, fitness and conditioning. Players gave him nicknames like "Saddam" (Saddam Hussein) or "Quälix", a rhyming mash of his first name Felix and the German verb "quälen" (to torture). He was once described by former Eintracht Frankfurt player Bachirou Salou as the "last dictator in Europe". After leaving Fulham in September 2014, bizarre stories emerged about how Magath had suggested that Brede Hangeland rub cheese on a thigh injury. Magath stated that Hangeland did not have a thigh injury but an inflammation of the knee, and that he suggested the additional use of an alternative treatment with a bandage (dressing) consisting of Quark. Fulham player Sascha Riether later said that the story was greatly exaggerated and that Magath had suggested he use a traditional topfen curd. ==Personal life== thumb|right|Magath in 1985 Magath is the son of a Puerto Rican former soldier in the United States Army stationed in Aschaffenburg and a German mother. In 1954, Magath's father abandoned Magath and his mother to return to his homeland. The adolescent Magath first heard from his father when he was 15 years old, after he wrote a letter to Puerto Rico. Magath is also a chess enthusiast, an interest which he developed during the 1978 World Chess Championship while he was bedridden due to hepatitis. In 1985, he played in a simultaneous exhibition against Garry Kasparov. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League DFB-Pokal Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals 1\. FC Saarbrücken 1974–75 2. Bundesliga Süd 38 12 1 0 — — 39 12 1975–76 38 17 1 0 — — 39 17 Total 76 29 2 0 — — 78 29 Hamburger SV 1976–77 Bundesliga 30 1 1 0 6 4 — 37 5 1977–78 33 4 4 2 3 1 2 0 42 7 1978–79 21 4 1 0 — — 22 4 1979–80 32 5 2 1 7 0 — 40 6 1980–81 33 10 4 3 5 0 — 42 13 1981–82 28 8 4 1 9 1 — 41 10 1982–83 34 4 4 0 9 2 — 47 6 1983–84 34 5 4 1 2 0 3 0 43 6 1984–85 32 3 1 0 6 1 — 39 4 1985–86 29 2 1 0 1 0 — 31 2 Total 306 46 26 8 48 9 5 0 385 63 Career total 382 75 28 8 48 9 5 0 463 92 ===Managerial=== Team From To Record Hamburg II 1 July 1993 5 October 1995 Hamburger SV 5 October 1995 18 May 1997 1\. FC Nürnberg 1 September 1997 30 June 1998 Werder Bremen 22 October 1998 10 May 1999 Eintracht Frankfurt 27 December 1999 29 January 2001 VfB Stuttgart 23 February 2001 30 June 2004 Bayern Munich 1 July 2004 31 January 2007 VfL Wolfsburg 31 May 2007 30 June 2009 FC Schalke 04 1 July 2009 16 March 2011 Wolfsburg 18 March 2011 25 October 2012 Fulham 14 February 2014 18 September 2014 Shandong Luneng 8 June 2016 1 December 2017 Hertha BSC 13 March 2022 2 June 2022 Total — ==Honours== ===Player=== Hamburger SV * Bundesliga: 1978–79, 1981–82, 1982–83 * European Cup: 1982–83 * European Cup Winners' Cup: 1976–77 * European Super Cup runner-up: 1977, 1983 * UEFA Cup runner-up: 1981–82 West Germany * UEFA European Championship: 1980 * FIFA World Cup runner-up: 1982, 1986 Individual * kicker Bundesliga Team of the Season: 1981–82, 1982–83 ===Manager=== VfB Stuttgart * UEFA Intertoto Cup: 2002 Bayern Munich * Bundesliga: 2004–05, 2005–06 * DFB-Pokal: 2004–05, 2005–06 * DFB-Ligapokal: 2004 VfL Wolfsburg * Bundesliga: 2008–09 Individual * German Football Manager of the Year: 2003, 2005, 2009 ==See also== *List of Puerto Ricans ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:People from Aschaffenburg Category:Sportspeople from Lower Franconia Category:Footballers from Bavaria Category:German people of Puerto Rican descent Category:German people of American descent Category:German footballers Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Bundesliga players Category:2. Bundesliga players Category:Viktoria Aschaffenburg players Category:1. FC Saarbrücken players Category:Hamburger SV players Category:Germany men's international footballers Category:Germany men's B international footballers Category:UEFA Euro 1980 players Category:1982 FIFA World Cup players Category:1986 FIFA World Cup players Category:UEFA European Championship-winning players Category:German football managers Category:German expatriate football managers Category:German expatriate sportspeople in England Category:Expatriate football managers in England Category:Expatriate football managers in China Category:Bundesliga managers Category:Premier League managers Category:English Football League managers Category:Hamburger SV managers Category:1. FC Nürnberg managers Category:SV Werder Bremen managers Category:Eintracht Frankfurt managers Category:VfB Stuttgart managers Category:FC Bayern Munich managers Category:VfL Wolfsburg managers Category:FC Schalke 04 managers Category:Fulham F.C. managers Category:Shandong Taishan F.C. managers Category:Hertha BSC managers Category:West German footballers Category:German expatriate sportspeople in China
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The Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal was a United States political scandal exposed in 2005; it related to fraud perpetrated by political lobbyists Jack Abramoff, Ralph E. Reed Jr., Grover Norquist and Michael Scanlon on Native American tribes who were seeking to develop casino gambling on their reservations. The lobbyists charged the tribes an estimated $85 million in fees. Abramoff and Scanlon grossly overbilled their clients, secretly splitting the multi-million dollar profits. In one case, they secretly orchestrated lobbying against their own clients in order to force them to pay for lobbying services. In the course of the scheme, the lobbyists were accused of illegally giving gifts and making campaign donations to legislators in return for votes or support of legislation. Representative Bob Ney (R-OH) and two aides to Tom DeLay (R-TX) were directly implicated; other politicians had various ties. ==Guilty pleas== Scanlon and Abramoff both pleaded guilty to a variety of criminal charges related to the scheme. On January 3, 2006, Abramoff pleaded guilty to three felony counts—conspiracy, fraud, and tax evasion—involving charges stemming principally from his lobbying activities in Washington on behalf of Native American tribes. In addition, Abramoff and other defendants were ordered to make restitution of at least $25 million that was defrauded from clients, most notably the Native American tribes. Abramoff owes the Internal Revenue Service $1.7 million as a result of his guilty plea to the tax evasion charge. The court filing is available as a PDF On May 8, 2006, Neil Volz, former chief of staff to Representative Bob Ney (R-Ohio), staff director of the House Administration Committee, and later part of Team Abramoff, pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy, including wire fraud and violating House rules, charges stemming from his work for both Ney and Greenberg Traurig. On March 23, 2007, J. Steven Griles, former Deputy Secretary of the U.S. Department of Interior, pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice in the Senate investigation of the Abramoff scandal. A political appointee, he was the top Bush administration official to plead guilty in the scandal. ==Investigations== On November 25, 2005, The Wall Street Journal reported the expansion of the investigation to four members of Congress: in addition to Ney and DeLay, the report includes Rep. John Doolittle (R., Calif.) and Sen. Conrad Burns (R., Mont.) On December 2, 2005, The New York Times reported that federal prosecutors were considering a plea bargain arrangement that would give Abramoff some consideration if he provided evidence that would implicate members of Congress and their senior staffers in receiving job offers in return for legislative favors. The guilty pleas signed by Abramoff in early January 2006 state that he bribed public officials. One of the cases of bribery described in detail involves a person identified as "Representative #1," who was reported by The Washington Post to be Representative Bob Ney (R-OH). Ney's spokesman confirmed that Ney was the representative identified, but denied any improper influence. The agreement also details Abramoff's practice of hiring former congressional staffers. Abramoff used these persons' influence to lobby their former Congressional employers, in violation of a one-year federal ban on such lobbying. After Abramoff's guilty plea, the federal government shifted its investigation in January 2006 to focus on the lobbying firm Alexander Strategy Group,alexanderstrategy.com founded by a "close friend of DeLay's and his former chief of staff."U.S. lobbying inquiry shifts to a second firm - International Herald Tribune The lobbying firm announced its closure at the end of the same month due to "fatal publicity"; it had represented such large firms as Microsoft and PhRMA. On June 22, 2006 the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs released its final report on the scandal. The report states that under the guidance of the Mississippi Choctaw tribe's planner, Nell Rogers, the tribe agreed to launder money because "Ralph Reed did not want to be paid directly by a tribe with gaming interests." It also states that Reed used non-profits, including Grover Norquist's Americans for Tax Reform, as pass-throughs to disguise the origin of the funds, and that "the structure was recommended by Jack Abramoff to accommodate Mr. Reed's political concerns." ABC News reported on November 15, 2006, that Abramoff told prosecutors that Senator Harry Reid (D) requested contributions of $30,000 from the lobbyist's clients. After being paid, Reid agreed to assist Abramoff in matters concerning Indian casinos. In August 2010, the federal government ended a six- year investigation of DeLay's ties to Abramoff, according to Richard Cullen, DeLay's lead counsel in the matter. State prosecution continued in Texas, which ended in November 2010 with DeLay being found guilty of conspiracy and money laundering. In January 2011, he was sentenced to three years in state prison.McKinley, James Jr. "DeLay Sentenced to 3 Years in Conspiracy and Money-Laundering Case", The New York Times, 11 January 2011. ==Background== ===Mississippi Choctaw—Introduction to tribal lobbying=== In the second half of the 1990s, Abramoff was employed by Preston Gates Ellis & Rouvelas Meeds LLP, the lobbying arm of Preston Gates & Ellis LLP law firm based in Seattle, Washington. In 1995, Abramoff began representing Native American tribes that were seeking to establish gambling on reservations, starting with the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. The Choctaw originally had lobbied the federal government directly, but beginning in 1994, they found that many of the congressional members who had responded to their issues had either retired or were defeated in the "Republican Revolution" of the 1994 elections. Nell Rogers, the tribe's specialist on legislative affairs, had a friend who was familiar with Abramoff's father and Abramoff's work as a Republican activist. The tribe contacted Preston Gates, and soon after hired the firm and Abramoff. One of Abramoff's first actions was to defeat a Congressional bill that sought to use the unrelated business income tax (UBIT) to tax Native American casinos; it was sponsored by Reps. Bill Archer (R-TX) and Ernest Istook (R-OK). Since the matter involved taxation, Abramoff enlisted help from his college acquaintance, fellow Republican Grover Norquist, and his Americans for Tax Reform (ATR). The bill was eventually defeated in 1996 in the Senate, due in part to grassroots work by ATR, for which the Choctaw paid $60,000. According to Washington Business Forward, a lobbying trade magazine, "[Tom DeLay] was a major factor in those victories, and the fight helped cement the alliance between the two men.www.bizforward.com ===Ralph Reed and Grover Norquist=== Later in 1999, Abramoff enlisted the help of another Republican friend, Ralph Reed. The Choctaw needed to defeat a bill in the Alabama State Legislature that would allow casino-style games at dog racing tracks. This would have resulted in competition for their casino business. Reed had recently contacted Abramoff via email, looking for some help in establishing new business. Reed proposed to Abramoff some work which he and his firm, Century Strategies, could perform. Reed could access "3,000 pastors and 90,000 religious conservative households" in Alabama, as well as "the Alabama Christian Coalition, the Alabama Family Alliance, the Alabama Eagle Forum, [and] the Christian Family Association." Reed wanted a $20,000 per month retainer for his services. On April 6, 1999, Abramoff got Preston Gates to approve hiring Reed as a subcontractor, and told Reed to "get me invoices as soon as possible so I can get Choctaw to get us checks asap." By May 10, 1999, the Choctaw had paid $1.3 million to Reed via Preston Gates, for various grassroots activities relating to the dog-track bill, as well as opposing an Alabama state lottery. The tribe discontinued paying the money through Preston Gates when Abramoff suggested that they use Norquist's Americans for Tax Reform as a conduit, to which the tribe agreed. Although the anti-gambling effort was not related to ATR's anti-taxation activities, ATR passed checks of up to $300,000 from the Choctaw to Reed's firm, in one case taking $25,000 as a "management fee". Later in 1999, Abramoff used Reed's services again to oppose the federal Internet Gambling Prohibition Act, on behalf of eLottery, a corporate client. ==="Team Abramoff"=== At Greenberg Traurig, Abramoff assembled a "dream team" made up of men who had previously worked as staff for Congressional leaders. The team included Tony Rudy, with whom Abramoff had worked extensively during the Marianas and eLottery lobbying, while Rudy was serving as Chief of Staff to Tom DeLay. Abramoff had hired Rudy while he was still at Preston Gates & Ellis, and brought him and six other staff lobbyists over to Greenberg Traurig. The hiring of Rudy was one of the first instances in a pattern by which Abramoff would directly hire former aides of representatives whom he was actively lobbying. ===2001 White House Transition Team Member=== Because he was dealing with Native American tribes, Abramoff needed a contact in the Department of Interior, where the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) oversaw Indian affairs. His main contact in the office of Deputy Secretary of the Interior Steven Griles was Italia Federici, a former political aide to Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton. The lobbyist's main contact in the West Wing of the White House was his former aide Susan Ralston, who became the Executive Assistant to Karl Rove, then Senior Advisor to President George W. Bush. In 2007 Griles and Federici pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice in the Senate investigation of the Abramoff scandal; Griles on March 23 and Federici on June 8. =="Gimme Five" begins== Abramoff and Michael Scanlon appeared to begin their plan for fraud via an email exchange on June 18, 2001, as documented in "Gimme Five"—Investigation of Tribal Lobbying Matters, the final report of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs' investigation into Abramoff. After his career in the office of Congressman Tom Delay, Scanlon had briefly been a member of Team Abramoff. He set up his own public affairs consulting firm and contacted Abramoff. Scanlon described a plan by which Abramoff would help to build the client base of Scanlon's firm, Campaign Capitol Strategies, up to at least $3 million per year. At some point, Scanlon would use his contacts in the public affairs industry to get the firm acquired at a price of three times the revenue, and Scanlon and Abramoff would split the profits. This is considered by investigators to be the beginning of what Abramoff and Scanlon would refer to as "gimme five". ===Louisiana Coushatta=== In 2001, the Louisiana Coushatta tribe were going to renegotiate their gambling compact with the State of Louisiana. The tribe was interested in negotiating a 25-year compact with the state, but was expecting a "very vigorous fight" and were not certain that their current lobbying representatives were up to the challenge. Abramoff and Scanlon were well recommended to the tribe by a representative of the Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana. Kathryn Van Hoof, the Coushatta's outside counsel, introduced the idea to the Tribal Council that having a high-powered Federal lobbyist could help also with any problems on the state level. ===Abramoff and Scanlon make their pitch=== A few weeks later, after collecting details of the Coushatta's lobbying needs from Van Hoof, Abramoff and Scanlon gave a presentation to the Tribal Council. Abramoff claimed that he could get appropriation earmarks for the tribe, and "get things passed through the legislature". Abramoff mentioned his and Scanlon's ties with Tom DeLay, and the fact that he "worked with people" in the Department of Interior. Abramoff also suggested that participating in a DeLay golf tournament and paying "lists of suggested contributions" would give the tribe name recognition and access to politicians. Scanlon claimed that his firm could organize direct mail, telephone, and media campaigns, as well as giving advice on strategies to gain the support of or neutralize the opposition of specific public officials. Scanlon also promised a customized database and "electronic-related services", based on polling and collection of information of individuals who could be "mobilized" in letter-writing campaigns and phone calls to officials. The Tribal Council was initially somewhat confused by the relationship between Abramoff and Scanlon; one member believed that Scanlon's company was a branch of Greenberg Traurig. However, the two men were hired and paid separately. Members of the tribe later claimed that Abramoff "never told the Council that he would personally collect a share of those proceeds that the tribe paid Scanlon." The tribe agreed on March 20, 2001 to hire Abramoff at a relatively high retainer of $125,000 a month, plus expenses. On April 12, the tribe agreed to hire Scanlon's firm for $534,500 for initial work on the compact renegotiation. In July 2001, Louisiana Governor Mike Foster approved the new gambling compact. The tribe later claimed that there was evidence that Scanlon's proposed strategies were implemented. Abramoff and Scanlon proposed a much larger scope of work to the tribe. ===Texas Menace=== The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, or "Tigua tribe" opened its Speaking Rock Casino near El Paso, Texas in 1993. In 1999 the State of Texas sought to have the casino closed based on its interpretation of the Tribal Restoration Act, which had granted the tribe Federal recognition. The act stated that "[all] gaming activities which are prohibited by the laws of the State of Texas are hereby prohibited on the reservation and on lands of the tribe." The State of Texas interpreted this provision as allowing state law to preempt the tribe's ability to operate a casino. Future senator John Cornyn led the court challenge as the Texas Attorney General. The State of Texas succeeded in closing the casino in 2002. In October 2001, Abramoff suggested to the Louisiana Coushatta that the Texas legislature was "one vote away" from legalizing certain forms of gambling in Texas. The Alabama Coushatta, a related but competing tribe, was also seeking to open a casino in eastern Texas in 2001. Abramoff told the Louisiana Coushatta that if the Tigua succeeded in their court case, Texas would be forced to allow the Alabama Coushatta to open a casino in the state. As the Louisiana Coushatta attracted many customers from eastern Texas to their casino, a Texas-based Native American casino could pose a grave threat to their livelihood. Scanlon suggested forming a "Grassroots Political Structure" in Texas to oppose the Tigua's effort to have gambling approved on their land.Oversight Hearing Regarding Tribal Lobbying Matters, et al, November 2, 2005, Washington, DC, Part 2 Abramoff and Scanlon succeeded in negotiating nearly $4 million in additional fees for a "Louisiana Program". Although the fees were purportedly to support grassroots activities, Scanlon insisted that $1 million be paid directly to Greenberg Traurig. He said, "we plan to do some things through the law firm umbrella due to their highly sensitive nature and confidentiality reasons. I hate hiding behind lawyers—but we are going to do some crazy stuff on this one—so I guess it's ok." In fact, the day before Abramoff had directed Scanlon by email to run some of the fees money directly through his firm: "I want to see if we can pump up our LDA [reporting requirements under the Lobbying Disclosure Act] for the second half to make sure we don't fall out of the top ten [lobbying firms]. I can achieve this if I can run some of the money for the Coushattas through the firm and then get it to CCS." Abramoff deceived both the Coushatta and Greenberg Traurig by having the money redirected as a donation to the Capital Athletic Foundation. Abramoff and Scanlon suggested to the Coushatta that they ought to support Christian evangelical conservatives, as they were expected to oppose gaming expansion in Texas. Abramoff specifically suggested the tribe work with Republican Ralph Reed but, according to a tribal leader, he warned that "it can't get out ... It wouldn't look good if they're receiving money from a casino-operating tribe to oppose gaming. It would be kind of like hypocritical." The tribe paid Reed via Southern Underwriters, a Louisiana insurance company, which made payments to American International Center, a shell corporation controlled by Scanlon. Scanlon and Abramoff skimmed millions of dollars for themselves from fees paid through this method. Reed worked with Houston pastors and church congregations to demand that the state government prevent the Tigua casinos from opening. Reed also claimed to work directly with John Cornyn; in a November 15 email, Abramoff claimed "Ralph and I spoke last night. Cornyn is supposed to call Ralph as soon as he can make it to a phone after El Paso." However, in a Meet the Press interviews on January 8, 2006, Senator Cornyn denied any direct connection to the lobbyists. In addition to working on grassroots efforts, Abramoff claimed that he had also influenced the Lieutenant Governor of Texas, Bill Ratliff, to prevent a bill to allow the Tigua to open their casino from being scheduled for a vote in the State Senate. The opposition efforts succeeded, and the Tigua officially closed their casino on February 12, 2002. ==="Saving" the Tigua=== As the Tigua casino was being closed, Abramoff was trying to contact the Tigua tribe. He reached the Tigua's public relations representative Marc Schwartz on February 6, 2002, and met with the tribal council on February 12. According to Schwartz, Abramoff "expressed indignation" over what had happened to the tribe and said that he wanted to "right the terrible injustice that had been brought upon the tribe." During the meeting, Abramoff admitted that he was friends with Ralph Reed, who had publicly called for the closing of the casino, but claimed that Reed was "crazy, like other folks in the Christian Coalition". He said that Reed was supplying information about the anti-gambling effort to Abramoff, so he knew their strategy. He also admitted that the Louisiana Coushatta were also his client, but claimed that the Coushatta did not have a problem with the Tigua pursuing a casino. Abramoff proposed that he and Greenberg Traurig would represent the tribe pro bono until the casino was re- opened. But, he said they would have to pay "a lot" for Scanlon's services. The strategy, later called "Operation Open Doors", would cost more than $5 million. He proposed getting a friendly lawmaker to sneak a provision or rider into a federal bill that would permit the Tigua to reopen their casino, and said that it would require the tribe to make contributions to the lawmakers. Abramoff mentioned Scanlon's past career in the office of Tom DeLay, and Scanlon said that he "had an ongoing relationship with Congressman DeLay." During his presentation, Abramoff gave the tribe a list of contributions to legislators, which he said were required, and advised the tribe to make these immediately. Once the provision was made law, opponents would try to repeal it. The second part of Abramoff's strategy was for Scanlon to create a nationwide database of grassroots supporters who could be called on to send letters and make phone calls to representatives to block any repeal. The Tigua agreed to the proposal on the condition that it cost no more than $4.2 million, and signed the contract on March 5, 2002. ==Guilty plea—confirmed corrupt lobbying practices== Abramoff and his partner Scanlon are alleged to have engaged in a series of corrupt practices in connection to their lobbying work for various Indian gaming tribes. The fees paid to Abramoff and Scanlon for this work are believed to exceed $85 million. In particular, Abramoff and Scanlon were alleged to have conspired with Washington power broker Grover Norquist and Christian activist Ralph Reed to coordinate lobbying against his own clients and prospective clients with the objective of forcing them to engage Abramoff and Scanlon to lobby against their own covert operations. Reed was paid to campaign against gambling interests that competed with Abramoff clients. Norquist served as a go-between by funneling money to Reed. ===Allegations of double dealing=== On June 22, 2000, Susan Ralston e-mailed Abramoff, "I have 3 checks from elot: (1) 2 checks for $80K payable to ATR and (2) 1 check to TVC for $25K," ... "Let me know exactly what to do next. Send to Grover? Send to Rev. Lou?" This email documented that eLottery money went through Norquist's foundation, Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), the Faith and Family Alliance, and Reed's company, Century Strategies. The last check was sent to Sheldon's Traditional Values Coalition (TVC). In 2000, Abramoff forced the Choctaw to give the Alabama Christian Coalition of America $1.15 million in installments. Norquist agreed to pass the money on to the Coalition and another Alabama anti-gambling group, both of which Reed was mobilizing for the fight against a proposed Alabama state lottery. In 2002, after Abramoff worked with Reed to close the casino of the Tigua tribe, he persuaded the tribe to hire him to lobby Congress to reopen the casino. Of the $7.7 million Abramoff and Scanlon charged the Choctaw for projects in 2001, they spent $1.2 million on the tribe's behalf and split the rest in a scheme they called "gimme five." ===Guilty plea—confirmed spending irregularities=== In 2004, Abramoff resigned from Greenberg Traurig amid a scandal related to spending irregularities in his work as a lobbyist for Native American tribes involved in gambling, namely The Mississippi Choctaw, the Louisiana Coushatta, the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians, Sandia Pueblo, the Saginaw Chippewa and the Tigua of Ysleta del Sur Pueblo. The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians paid $15 million to Abramoff and Scanlon's organizations. The bills were heavily padded. For example, in April 2000 he padded 2 hours with over 60 hours to achieve a "$150k minimum." The funds were diverted to a number of projects, including the Eshkol Academy, an all-boys Orthodox Jewish school set up by Abramoff in Maryland. ===American International Center=== Part of the sums paid by the tribes for lobbying were paid to the American International Center, a purported think tank headed by David Grosh. In fact, he was a lifeguard on the Delaware shore who "operated" the organization from his beach house. Grosh had no qualifications or experience relevant to policy research and, at the time of the Congressional investigation, was working in construction. At a Senate hearing, Grosh admitted that he had abetted the deception and said that he was "embarrassed and disgusted to be a part of this whole thing." ===Derogatory references to Native American clients=== In emails now made public by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, which is investigating his activities, Abramoff repeatedly referred to Native Americans as "monkeys," "troglodites," and "morons." Abramoff once asked his co-conspirator Scanlon to meet a client, saying in an email, "I have to meet with the monkeys from the Choctaw tribal council. You need to close the deal ... with the client ..." In another email message he wrote, "we need to get some money from those monkeys!!" About one tribal client Abramoff wrote to Scanlon (date unknown), ==Abramoff's monetary influence== Abramoff spent millions of dollars to influence and entertain Republican politicians. Abramoff had a reputation for largesse considered exceptional even by Washington standards. In addition to offering many Republican members of Congress expensive free meals at his restaurant, Signatures, Abramoff maintained four skyboxes at major sports arenas for political entertaining, at a cost of more than $1 million a year. Abramoff hosted many fundraisers at these skyboxes, including events for Republican politicians publicly opposed to gambling, such as John Doolittle. "The lies of lobbygate" , Rutland Herald Online Abramoff gave over $260,000 in personal contributions to Republican candidates, politicians, and organizations, and funded numerous trips for politicians and staffers, including both Republicans and Democrats. An estimated two thirds of Ambramoff's direct contributions went to Republican congressmen, and one third to Democratic congressional leaders. Of the approximately $85 million in tribal money entrusted to Abramoff, his employers, or his related organizations, over $4.4 million since 1999 were directed to at least 250 members of Congress, primarily Republicans in leadership positions or on relevant committees, and Democrats with standing connections to Native American interests, such as Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) (in a 2-1 GOP ratio). These contributions have since become tainted by their association with Abramoff's criminal behavior."Coming to the Hill: lots of hearing-room drama", Christian Science Monitor Some of those who received money from Abramoff or his clients have either returned the money or donated it. For example, months after the investigations began, on December 14, 2005, The Washington Post reported that Senator Byron Dorgan (D-ND), the vice-chairman for the US Senate Indian Affairs Committee, had announced he would return $67,000 in contributions from Indian tribes represented by Abramoff. Others, such as Representative John Doolittle (R-CA), have refused to do so.Erica Werner, "Ties to ex-lobbyist Abramoff haunt NorCal Rep. Doolittle" , Associated Press, January 12, 2006 Rep. J.D. Hayworth (R-AZ), co- chairman of the Congressional Native American Caucus, received more than $150,000 from Indian tribes once represented by Abramoff. He was the largest single recipient of Abramoff-related money. Hayworth said he would keep the donations because they were given independently of Abramoff's influence. He donated to charity $2,250 which was paid directly by Abramoff. ==Other connected parties== ===The Bush Administration=== ====US GSA Chief Procurement Officer David Hossein Safavian==== On September 19, 2005, David Safavian, who was serving as the head of the federal procurement policy at the Office of Management and Budget, was the first person arrested in the Abramoff scandal. Safavian was charged with lying to investigators and obstructing the federal inquiry of Abramoff.The Raw Story | Bush Management and Budget Procurement chief arrested after quitting Safavian knew Abramoff from the three years, 1995–1997, when he was part of Abramoff's lobbying team at Preston Gates & Ellis. ====Deputy United States Secretary of the Interior J. Steven Griles==== Abramoff claimed in emails sent in 2002 that Deputy United States Secretary of the Interior Griles had pledged to block an Indian casino that would compete with one of his clients. Abramoff later told two people that he was trying to hire Griles. Mr. Griles pled guilty to a felony charge of lying to the Senate Indian Affairs Committee about his ties to Jack Abramoff. In March 2007, he was sentenced to a five-month jail term and another five months in a halfway house or home confinement. | March 23, 2007 | Ex-Deputy of Interior Dept. Pleads Guilty | By EDMUND L. ANDREWS | ====Campaign contributions from Abramoff and his clients==== Abramoff also personally donated $14,000 over the period 1999-2004 to the congressional campaign of Representative John Doolittle (R-CA) According to The Washington Post, Doolittle "was particularly close to Abramoff." Doolittle said he always thought of Abramoff as "a friend" for a single reason: "I liked him, frankly, because he was a partisan, conservative Republican activist."War Room - Salon.com Unlike many lawmakers, Doolittle has refused to give away or return any of the Abramoff money. ====Fund raising by Abramoff for Doolittle==== An "ardent opponent of casino gambling," Doolittle held a fundraiser at Jack Abramoff's skybox at the MCI Center in February 1999. Abramoff, who rented the boxes himself, billed Indian tribes lobbying fees to cover his cost. These tribes had hired Abramoff to represent their casino interests. Under federal campaign finance law, Doolittle was required to pay Abramoff for use of the box, or to report the use as an "in-kind" contribution from Abramoff to his campaign. Doolittle initially failed to report the use of the sky-boxes in his Federal Election Committee filings. In late 2004, his spokesperson, Laura Blackman, said "It was an in-kind contribution, and it was an oversight that it wasn't reported, but we are taking steps to correct that." In January 2005, Doolittle reported that his campaign fund had sent a check for $1,040 to one of Abramoff's former employers, the Preston Gates lobbying firm, to pay for the skybox. The lobbying firm returned the check because it had never owned the skybox. In May 2005, Doolittle campaign-fund spokesman Richard Robinson acknowledged that the rejection of the check should have been reported to the FEC and said a corrected accounting would be filed. Robinson said Doolittle's fund is determined to rectify the six-year lapse in paying for the box. "If we find out that Jack Abramoff paid for the suite, then we'll reimburse Jack Abramoff, because we want to reimburse the person or entity who paid for the box," Robinson said. "We thought we were doing that in January."Jon Kamman, "Hayworth, 2 others account for skyboxes: New filings omit links to lobbyist" , The Arizona Republic, May 10, 2005 ====Payments to Doolittle's wife by Abramoff==== From August 2002 through February 2004, Abramoff's lobbying firm, Greenberg Traurig paid Julie Doolittle $66,000. Initially her work was to help plan a fundraiser for Abramoff's Capital Athletic Foundation, called the Spy Game Gala, which was to be MC'ed by Tony Snow. The event never happened because it coincided with the beginning of the 2003 invasion of Iraq in March 2003. According to the initial statement by her attorney, the $66,000 in payments from Abramoff were because she "primarily performed public relations and other event planning services for the Spy Museum event." She was paid a total of $27,000 through February 2003, when payments stopped. In July 2003, Abramoff (via Greenberg Traurig) began paying her again, at the rate of $5,000 per month. This continued through mid-February 2004, when the first story on what would become the Abramoff scandal was published. In a statement in June 2006, her attorney, William Stauffer, said that "Sierra Dominion, a small business owned by Julie Doolittle, provided marketing, event planning, and related services to the Greenberg Traurig law firm, and its partner, Jack Abramoff, from August 2002 through March 2004." "Sierra Dominion had a retainer arrangement with Greenberg Traurig under which it provided services concerning the Spy Museum event and also the Signatures and Stacks restaurants". (The two restaurants were owned by Abramoff.) Julie Doolittle's records in connection with her work for Abramoff have been subpoenaed by the United States Department of Justice. The DOJ has not filed any charges in either case. No explanation has been given as to why Greenberg Taurig made the payments to Julie Doolittle, rather than the foundation (for whom the charity event was planned) or the restaurants or Abramoff personally (as restaurant owner). ====Doolittle's actions on behalf of Indian tribes==== In February 2002, Doolittle was among more than two dozen lawmakers who signed a letter to Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton urging her to reject an Indian casino opposed by Abramoff's tribal clients. In October 2003, Doolittle appealed in a letter to Norton for quicker action for the Mashpee Wampanoag people of Massachusetts, which was seeking federal recognition as a tribe; the Wampanoag group was also a client of Greenberg Traurig, and Kevin Ring was a lobbyist on the account. ====Doolittle's actions on behalf of the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI)==== One of Abramoff's major clients was the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands government. Doolittle visited the islands in February 1999 as part of a congressional delegation. In April 2000 and April 2001, he met with CNMI House Speaker Benigno R. Fitial in Washington D.C. On May 25, 2001, the Saipan Tribune printed a letter from Doolittle to Fitial, which noted a recent $150,000 earmark, mentioned two possible Army Corps of Engineers projects on the islands, and said "I will urge the Energy and Water Appropriations Subcommittee to include funding for the feasibility study for both projects in the FY 2002 appropriations bill.""Letter from Congressman John T. Doolittle, Republican of California, to Speaker Ben Fitial on various issues pertaining to the NMI" , Saipan Tribune, May 25, 2001 In August 2001, he backed Fitial's candidacy for governor."Doolittle backs Fitial's candidacy" , Saipan Tribune, August 20, 2001 Doolittle was successful in securing $400,000 in Corps study funds in 2001, his first year on the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development.Paul Kiel, "Doolittle was Abramoff Island Client's 'Hero'" , TPMMuckraker.com, August 4, 2006 In the governor's election in early 2002, Fitial lost. The new governor, Juan N. Babauta, cancelled the contract with Greenberg Traurig. ====Justice Department actions and hiring of lawyer==== Since then, "The congressman has not been subpoenaed or questioned by the Justice Department," as of December, 2005. On January 27, 2006, three weeks after Abramoff pleaded guilty to three federal felonies, Doolittle retained the legal services of the Virginia law firm of Williams Mullen. Doolittle's chief of staff, Richard Robinson, said the attorney handling Doolittle's inquiry is David Barger. Barger is the former president of the Virginia Bar Association's criminal law section and a former assistant US attorney who later was an associate of special prosecutor Kenneth Starr in the Whitewater investigation during the Clinton administration.David Whitney, "Legislator tied to Abramoff hires lawyer" , McClatchy News Service, April 18, 2006 Robinson said the campaign (which paid a $10,000 retainer) has hired Barger to address Doolittle's concerns about how he should respond to questions from the press as he contemplated having to talk about the scandal as part of his campaign for re-election. "The congressman has not retained an attorney to respond to any Justice Department inquiries as there have been none," Robinson said. ===Activities of Julie Doolittle=== During the 2001-2005 period, Julie Doolittle had at least three different occupations: she worked for Jack Abramoff doing event planning (see above); she worked as a bookkeeper for a lobbying firm; and she worked on commission as a fundraiser for her husband. (Richard Robinson, Doolittle's chief of staff, said Julie Doolittle had other clients. But he refused to provide their names "out of respect for the privacy of the clients.") Payments to Julie Doolittle during the period were done via a company called Sierra Dominion Financial Solutions. It was founded in March 2001, just after Congressman Doolittle gained a seat on the Appropriations Committee. It is based at the couple's home in Oakton, Virginia; Julie is the only employee. The company (that is, Julie) has continued to do fundraising, but no event planning or other work, since the Abramoff scandal first became public in early 2005. ====Work for lobbying firm==== From 2002 until mid-2005, the Alexander Strategy Group, a Washington, D.C. lobbying firm with close ties to Congressman Tom DeLay, paid Sierra Dominion for bookkeeping work for a nonprofit group called the Korea-U.S. Exchange Council (KORUSEC), created by Ed Buckham, a partner in the firm, and located at the ASG headquarters. KORUSEC is also connected to Kevin Ring, one of Doolittle's former assistants. ===Maryland – Edward B. Miller=== In 2005, a federal grand jury issued a subpoena in 2005 to Edward B Miller, the deputy chief of staff of the Republican governor of Maryland, Robert L. Ehrlich, because of Miller's connection to Grassroots Interactive. ==In popular culture== * The Abramoff scandal was the basis of the Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Wasichu", in which a lobbyist's wife is murdered. The lobbyist was found to have been bribing a Congressman with lavish gifts and fact-finding trips on private jets, and was also double-dealing on the issue of an Indian casino. The lobbyist in this episode used the term "gimme five" to describe his schemes. ==List of Jack Abramoff's tribal clients== Several Native American tribes were defrauded by lobbyist Jack Abramoff in his namesake Indian lobbying scandal.Jack Abramoff plea *Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians of California *Cherokee Nation, Oklahoma *Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana *Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana: Paid Capitol Campaign Strategies at least $30.5 million from March 2001 to May 2003, of which about $21.9 million was diverted. *Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians: Paid Capitol Campaign Strategies at least $14,765,000 from June 2001 to April 2004, of which about $12.7 million was diverted. *Pueblo of Sandia: Paid Scanlon $2.75 million, of which about $2.35 million was diverted. *Pueblo of Santa Clara: Paid Abramoff about $20,000 in 2003 *Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe: Paid Capitol Campaign Strategies at least $3.5 million from June 2002 to October 2003, of which over $1 million was diverted. *Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas (Tigua tribe): After having a casino blocked by lobbying efforts on the part of Ralph Reed, which were secretly paid for by Abramoff using money from competing tribes, Abramoff solicited $4.2 million from the Tiguas in March 2002, of which approximately $3.7 million was diverted in the "Gimme Five" scheme. ==See also== * Monetary influence of Jack Abramoff ==References== ==External links== Research/Media * Abramoff and Congressional Reform, JURIST * Abramoff Team and Harry Reid's Office Had Frequent Contact The Washington Post February 10, 2006 * * Indian Affairs panel hears 'tale of betrayal' The Hill, June 23, 2005. * The Abramoff Galaxy: Washington Post Graphic, The Washington Post, 28 December 2005 * * * "Washington's Invisible Man," A tell-all interview w/Jack Abramoff (pdf), Vanity Fair, 18 March 2006 Category:Jack Abramoff scandals Category:Native American casinos Category:Lobbying in the United States Category:Native American-related controversies Category:Native American history of New Mexico Category:Native American history of California Category:Native American history of Oklahoma Category:Native American history of Louisiana Category:Native American history of Mississippi Category:Native American history of Texas
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Charles Édouard Dutoit (born 7 October 1936) is a Swiss conductor. He is currently the principal guest conductor for the Saint Petersburg Philharmonia and co-director of the MISA Festival in Shanghai. In 2017, he became the 103rd recipient of the Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal Award. Dutoit held previous positions with the London Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Orchestre Symphonique de Montréal, the Tokyo NHK Symphony and the Orchestre National de France. As of 2017, he is conductor emeritus of the Verbier Music Festival Orchestra. He is an honorary member of the Ravel Foundation in France and the Stravinsky Foundation in Switzerland. In December 2017, following allegations of sexual assault, the Boston and San Francisco Symphonies cancelled his engagements. In a statement, Dutoit denied the charges. ==Biography== Dutoit was born in Lausanne, Switzerland. He studied there, and graduated from the Conservatoire de musique de Genève, where he won first prize in conducting. Then he went to the Accademia Chigiana in Siena at the invitation of Alceo Galliera. In his younger days, he frequently attended Ernest Ansermet's rehearsals and had a personal acquaintance with him. He also worked with Herbert von Karajan at Lucerne as a member of the festival youth orchestra and studied at Tanglewood. Dutoit began his professional music career in 1957 as a viola player with various orchestras across Europe and South America. In January 1959, he made his debut as a professional conductor with an orchestra of Radio Lausanne and Martha Argerich. From 1959 he was a guest conductor of the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande and the Lausanne Chamber Orchestra. After this, he was the conductor for Radio Zurich until 1967, when he took over the Bern Symphony Orchestra from Paul Kletzki, where he stayed for 11 years. While head of the Bern Symphony, he also conducted the National Symphony Orchestra of Mexico from 1973 to 1975, and Sweden's Gothenburg Symphony from 1975 to 1978. Dutoit was principal guest conductor of the Minnesota Orchestra in the early 1980s. In 1977, Dutoit became the artistic director of the Orchestre Symphonique de Montréal (OSM). In the words of Glasgow-based music critic Kate Molleson: "A 20-year recording contract with Decca made the MSO the most recorded orchestra in the world, and the best of these recordings — Ravel's La Valse and Daphnis et Chloe, Debussy's La Mer, Stravinsky's French-period ballets — remain unsurpassed." Reaction to Dutoit joining the Montreal Symphony was positive. Peter G. Davis stated that Dutoit transformed the Montreal Symphony. New York Magazine wrote similarly about Dutoit, adding that he was noted for the championing of new Canadian music. Throughout these years, he called without success for a new symphony concert hall for Montréal. Dutoit resigned from the Montreal Symphony in April 2002, with immediate effect, after the Quebec Musicians Guild complained about what it called Dutoit's "offensive behaviour and complete lack of respect for the musicians". In January 2018, the OSM acknowledged ignoring complaints from musicians of verbal and 'psychological harassment' by Dutoit dating back to the 1990s. He did not return to the OSM as a guest conductor until 2016, in a concert at the new Maison Symphonique de Montréal. Dutoit has received more than 40 international awards and distinctions, including two Grammy Awards (United States), several Juno Awards (Canada), the Grand Prix du Président de la République (France), the Prix mondial du disque de Montreux (Switzerland), the Amsterdam Edison Award, the Japan Record Academy Award, and the German Music Critics' Award. He and the OSM made many recordings for the Decca/London label. Dutoit first conducted the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1980. From 1990 to 1999, he was music director of the orchestra's summer concerts at the Mann Center for the Performing Arts. From 1990 to 2010, he was artistic director and principal conductor of the Philadelphia Orchestra's summer festival in Saratoga Springs, New York. In 1991, he was made an Honorary Citizen of the city of Philadelphia. In February 2007, Dutoit was named the orchestra's chief conductor and artistic adviser, for a contract of four years, effective September 2008. Following the conclusion of his contract in Philadelphia in 2012, the orchestra named him its conductor laureate, as of the 2012–13 season. Since 1990, Dutoit has directed the Pacific Music Festival in Japan. From 1991 to 2001, Dutoit was Music Director of the Orchestre National de France, with whom he made a number of recordings and toured extensively. In 1996, he was appointed principal conductor and in 1998 music director of Tokyo's NHK Symphony Orchestra. For the NHK television network, he made a series of documentary films for the young people called "Cities of Music" in Venice, St Petersburg, Tokyo, Buenos Aires (plus Rio de Janeiro and Manhaus), New York, Vienna, Budapest, Leipzig, Dresden, Paris and London. In 1997, he was made an honorary Officer of the Order of Canada. He is also one of a handful of non-Canadian citizens to be a Grand Officer of the Ordre national du Québec. In April 2007, Dutoit was named principal conductor and artistic director of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra as of 2009.Martin Cullingford, "Charles Dutoit takes over Royal Philharmonic Orchestra". Gramophone, 20 April 2007. In October 2019 he was scheduled to stand down as the RPO's principal conductor and to take the title of Honorary Conductor for Life of the orchestra, but instead he resigned in January 2018. Between 2009 and 2017, Dutoit also served as the music director of the Verbier Festival Orchestra in Switzerland. In April 2014, Dutoit received the Lifetime Achievement Award by the International Classical Music Awards. He was also made an honorary member of Fondation Igor Stravinsky in Geneva and Fondation Ravel in Monfort l'Amaury, France. In September 2018, Dutoit was named principal guest conductor of the St Petersburg Philharmonic, effective May 2019. In late 2021, Dutoit withdrew from a scheduled subscription concert of the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra due to his infection with COVID-19. ==Personal life== Dutoit shuns publicity and protects his private life from the media. He has been married four times. His first marriage was to Ruth Cury, by whom he has a son, Ivan, who lives in Santa Monica, California, with his family, who in turn has two children: Anne-Sophie and Jean-Sebastian. He was also married to Argentine concert pianist Martha Argerich (with whom he has a daughter, Anne-Catherine) and to Canadian economist Marie-Josée Drouin. He is now married to Canadian violinist Chantal Juillet. ==Allegations of sexual assault== In 2017 four women accused Dutoit of sexually assaulting them between the late 1970s and 2010.Jocelyn Gecker (11 January 2018). "Famed conductor Dutoit faces new sex claims, including alleged rape," The Boston Globe. The alleged incidents occurred in a variety of places. One allegation was contested by witnesses. The allegations were made by Paula Rasmussen, mezzo-soprano (1991, Los Angeles); Sylvia McNair, soprano (1985, Minnesota); and Jenny Q. Chai, pianist. A singer with the Philadelphia Orchestra also claimed that Dutoit assaulted her in 2006 in upstate New York and again in 2010 in Philadelphia." A 24-year-old musician with the Civic Orchestra of Chicago alleged that Dutoit forced himself on her in 2006. In January 2018, a British theatre administrator said that when she was an intern Dutoit sexually assaulted her at Tanglewood 20 years earlier." In March 2018, the Boston Symphony said that Allan's allegations were "credible" and that three other women "credibly described incidents in the 1980s and 1990s in which they, too, were victims of Dutoit's sexual misconduct. Other women also claimed assault. ===Reaction=== In January 2018 Dutoit resigned from his position as artistic director and principal conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Several other orchestras either cancelled engagements or severed ties with him, including the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the San Francisco Symphony, the New York Philharmonic, the Philadelphia Orchestra (which also removed his title of conductor laureate), the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. The same month, Canadian CBC Radio/CBC Radio Two adopted a policy of no longer crediting Dutoit as conductor when it played his recordings.Arthur Kaptainis: Charles Dutoit exiled from CBC, but OSM gets a reprieve | Montreal Gazette ==Orchestras with which Dutoit has recorded== * London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO) DGG – Philips – Decca * Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (RPO) DGG – Decca – Erato – RCA * Philharmonia Orchestra, London Decca – Erato – EMI – CBS-Sony * London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) DGG * English Chamber Orchestra (ECO) Erato – EMI Classics for Pleasure * London Sinfonietta Decca * Bayerische Rundfunk Orchester München Decca – Erato * Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Amsterdam Decca – EMI * Boston Symphony Orchestra DGG * Los Angeles Philharmonic Decca * Montreal Symphony Decca-DGG-EMI-CBC Records-Philips * Montreal Sinfonietta Decca * Philadelphia Orchestra Decca * NHK Symphony, Tokyo Decca – Sony * Orchestre National de France Erato – Decca -Virgin Classics * Orchestre de Paris Erato * Nouvel Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio-France Erato * Solistes de l'Opéra de Paris Erato * Orchestre de la Suisse Romande Decca – Pentatone * Orchestre de l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo Erato * Göteborg Symphony, Sweden Sterling – Caprice – BIS * Orchestra de la Svizzera Italiana EMI * Norddeutsche Rundfunk Hamburg (NDR) NDR production * Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra - SonyMusique du Monde, Entretiens avec Jean Pierre Pastori, Paroles vives, La Bibliothèque des Arts, 2007. List of discography pages 163-190 ==Honors== * 1982 – Musician of the Year, Canadian Music Council * 1982 – Great Montrealer * 1984 – Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Montreal * 1985 – Docteur en Musique, Laval University, Quebec * 1988 – Canadian Music Council Medal * 1988 – Officier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France) * 1991 – Honorary Citizen of the City of Philadelphia * 1994 – Diploma of Honor by the Canadian Conference of the Arts * 1995 – Grand Officier de l'Ordre National du Québec * 1996 – Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France) * 1996 – Doctorem Musicae, McGill University * 2002 – Honorary Officer of the Order of Canada * 2003 – Prize to the best foreign Conductor 2002, Music Critic's Association of Argentina * 2007 – Médaille d'Or de la Ville de Lausanne * 2009 – Artistic Advisor, Shanghai Symphony Orchestra * 2010 – Co-Director of MISA Festival, Shanghai * 2011 – Doctor of Music, Curtis Institute, Philadelphia * 2012 – Guangzhou Opera House (China) – Honorary Artistic Advisor * 2012 – The Musical Fund Society of Philadelphia – Tribute * 2014 – Lifetime Achievement Award – ICMA (International Classical Music Awards), Warsaw * 2015 – Honorary Member of the Igor Stravinsky Foundation, Geneva * 2016 – Honorary Committee Member of the Maurice Ravel Foundation, Paris * 2016 – Koussevitzky Artist, Boston Symphony Orchestra (Tanglewood) * 2016 – Nanjing University of the Arts, China: Lifetime Honorary Professor * 2016 – Special Contribution Award,18th Shanghai International Arts Festival * 2016 – Lauréat 2016, Fondation Vaudoise pour la Culture, Lausanne * 2017 – Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal * 2022 - Premio Una Vita Nella Musica from Teatro La Fenice, Venezia teatrolafenice.it ==Prizes== * 1971 – Edison Award, Amsterdam (Tchaikowsky Piano Concerto, Martha Argerich, RPO) * 1972 – Grand Prix du Disque de l'Académie Charles Cros (Stravinsky The Soldier's Tale) * 1973 – Grand Prix Spécial du 25ème Anniversaire de l'Académie du Disque Français (Honegger Le Roi David, Solistes de l'Opéra de Paris) * 1978 – Premio della Critica Discografica Italiana (Paganini 6 Concerti per violino, Salvatore Accardo, LPO) * 1978 – Prix Caecilia de l'Union de la Presse Musicale Belge (Paganini 6 Concerti per violino, Salvatore Accardo, LPO) * 1981 – Grand Prix du Disque de l'Académie Charles Cros (Lalo, Caplet, Frédéric Lodéon, cello, Philharmonia Orchestra) * 1981 – Grammy nomination (Chaminade, Ibert, etc., James Galway, flute, RPO) * 1982 – Académie du Disque Français, Grand Prix du Disque (Fauré Pénélope, Orchestre Philharmonique de Monte-Carlo) * 1982 – Prix Caecilia de l'Union de la Presse Musicale Belge (Fauré Pénélope) * 1982 – Grand Prix du Disque de l'Académie Charles Cros (Fauré Pénélope) * 1982 – High Fidelity International Record Critics Award (IRCA) (Fauré Pénélope) * 1982 – Grammy nomination (Fauré Pénélope) * 1982 – Grammy nomination (Rachmaninov Piano Concerto No 2, Schumann Piano Concerto, Alicia de Larrocha, RPO) * 1982 – Grand Prix du Disque de l'Académie Charles Cros (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 1982 – Prix Mondial du Disque de Montreux (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 1982 – Prix Juno – Canada (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 1983 – Grand Prix du Disque, Canada (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 1983 – 21st Annual Japan Record Academy Award (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 1983 – Disque d'Or, Canada (Ravel Album, OSM) * 1983 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – Canada (Ravel Album, OSM) * 1983 – Grand Prix de l'Académie du Disque Français (Saint-Saëns 5 Piano Concertos, Pascal Rogé, RPO, LPO, Philharmonia Orchestra) * 1984 – Académie du Disque Français, Prix de la Musique Française (Saint-Saëns Symphony No 3 "Organ", OSM) * 1984 – Académie du Disque Français, Mention Spéciale (Chabrier Le Roi malgré lui, Nouvel Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio-France) * 1984 – Académie du Disque Français, Grand Prix Audio-visuel de l'Europe (Honegger Symphonies No 3 and No 5, Bayerische Rundfunk Orchestra, Munich) * 1984 – Disque de Platine, Canada (Ravel Boléro, OSM) * 1984 – Académie du Disque Français, Prix Georges-Auric (Falla El amor brujo, Three- cornered Hat, OSM) * 1984 – High Fidelity International Record Critics Award (IRCA) (Falla Album, OSM) * 1984 – Prix Manuel De Falla, Granada (Falla Album, OSM) * 1984 – Grammy nomination (Noël, Noël with Leontyne Price, OSM) * 1984 – Prix du Concerto Français de l'Académie du Disque, Paris (Ravel Piano Concertos, Pascal Rogé, OSM) * 1984 – Edison Award, Amsterdam (Ravel Piano Concertos, Pascal Rogé, OSM) * 1985 – Gramophone Record Award (Engineering and Production) (Ravel Album, OSM) * 1985 – Prix Juno – Canada (Ravel Album, OSM) * 1985 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – Canada – Record of the year (Stravinsky The Rite of Spring + Symphonies of Winds, OSM) * 1986 – Grand Prix du Président de la République, Académie Nationale du Disque Français, (Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, OSM) * 1986 – Stereo Review, Record of the Year Award (Chabrier Le Roi malgré lui, Nouvel Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio-France) * 1986 – Prix José Bruyr – Grand Prix du Disque de l'Académie Charles Cros (Honegger symphonies No 2 and No 4, Bayerische Rundfunk, Munich) * 1986 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – Canada – Record of the year (Von Suppé Eight Overtures, OSM) * 1987 – Gramophone Recording Award (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1987 – Grammy nomination (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1987 – Prix Juno – Canada (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1987 – Prix Caecilia de l'Union de la Presse Musicale Belge (Roussel Symphonies, Orchestre National de France) * 1987 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – Canada – Record of the year (Tchaikowsky Album, OSM) * 1988 – Edison Award, Amsterdam (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1988 – Mumm Champagne Classical Music Award (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1988 – Grand Prix du Disque, Canada (Holst The Planets, OSM) * 1988 – Laser d'Or, Académie du Disque Français (Stravinsky Petrushka, Chant du Rossignol, 4 Études, OSM) * 1988 – Grand Prix du Disque, Canada (Stravinsky Petrushka, etc., OSM) * 1989 – Prix Juno – Canada (Bartok Concerto for Orchestra, Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, OSM) * 1990 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – (Gershwin Album, Louis Lortie, piano, OSM) * 1991 – Grand Prix de l'Académie du Disque, Japan (Debussy Album, OSM) * 1991 – Prix Juno – Canada (Debussy Album, OSM) * 1991 – Preis der Deutschen Schallplattenkritik, Germany (Debussy Pelléas & Mélisande, OSM) * 1991 – Prix Félix (ADISQ) – Canada – Best record of the year (Debussy Pelléas & Mélisande, OSM) * 1992 – Prix Juno – Canada (Debussy Pelléas & Mélisande, OSM) * 1992 – Grammy nomination (Debussy Pelléas & Mélisande, OSM) * 1994 – Nouvelle Académie du Disque: Grand Prix Anniversaire Tchaikowsky, Paris (The Complete Nutcracker, OSM) * 1995 – Palmarès des Palmarès, Nouvelle Académie du Disque, Paris (Berlioz Les Troyens, OSM) * 1995 – Académie française du Disque Lyrique, Orphée du Prestige Lyrique, Paris (Berlioz Les Troyens, OSM) * 1995 – Grammy nomination for best Classical recording of the year (Berlioz Les Troyens, OSM) * 1995 – Prix Juno – Best classical recording of the year (Berlioz Les Troyens, OSM) * 1995 – Grammy: Best Opera Recording (Berlioz Les Troyens, OSM) * 1995 – Grammy nomination, (Mussorgsky Pictures at an exhibition, OSM) * 1996 – Grammy nomination (Rimsky-Korsakov Scheherazade, OSM) * 1996 – Prix Juno – Canadian Academy of Recording and Sciences (Shostakovich Symphonies No 5 and No 9, OSM) * 1997 – Prix Juno – Canada – Best recording of the year (Berlioz Damnation de Faust, OSM) * 1997 – Palmarès des Palmarès, Paris: Grand Prix, Nouvelle Académie du Disque (Berlioz Damnation de Faust) * 1997 – Prix de l'Académie du Disque, Japan (Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, OSM) * 1997 – Prix de l'Académie du Disque, Japan (Debussy Album, OSM) * 1999 – London / Decca Legends (Ravel Daphnis & Chloé, OSM) * 2000 – Prix Juno – Canada (Respighi: La Boutique Fantasque, Impressioni Brasiliane, OSM) * 2000 – Grammy: Best Soloist with Orchestra (Bartok Piano Concerto No 3, Prokofiev Concertos No 1 and No 3, Martha Argerich, OSM) * 2002 – Prix Juno – Canada (Bruch 3 Violin Concertos, James Ehnes, OSM) * 2004 – New York Times Best Classical Discs of the year (Theodorakis "Zorba", OSM) * 2007 – Grammy nomination (Franck Symphonic Variations, Saint-Saëns Piano Concertos No 2 and No 5, Jean-Yves Thibaudet, Orchestre de la Suisse Romande OSR) * 2 Grammy Awards: 1995 and 2000. * 9 Grammy nominations: 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1992, 1995, 1996, and 2007. ==References== ==External links== * *Charles Dutoit biography at EMI Classics *Charles Dutoit interview, 26 March 1986 *Journal d'une création – Film directed by James Dormeyer with Chantal Juillet, Charles Dutoit and André Prévost *Verbier Festival page on Charles Dutoit Category:1936 births Category:Grand Officers of the National Order of Quebec Category:Living people Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Swiss conductors (music) Category:Male conductors (music) Category:Grammy Award winners Category:EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists Category:People from Lausanne Category:Deutsche Grammophon artists Category:Decca Records artists Category:Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists Category:Juno Award for Classical Album of the Year – Large Ensemble or Soloist(s) with Large Ensemble Accompaniment winners Category:Juno Award for Classical Album of the Year – Solo or Chamber Ensemble winners Category:21st-century conductors (music) Category:21st-century male musicians Category:Music directors of the Philadelphia Orchestra Category:Lausanne Conservatory alumni
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This page lists the football squads, in order with the gold medallists first, of the 11 participating nations at the men's football tournament at the 1912 Summer Olympics. The tournament was contested in and around Stockholm, Sweden, between 29 June and 6 July 1912. == Great Britain == thumb|280px|The Olympic gold medalists: United Kingdom Head coach: Arthur Birch No. Pos. Player DoB Age CapsThe first number gives the caps for the England amateur team, the second number gives the caps for the "professional" England national team. Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- GK Horace Bailey 1881-07-03 31 6+5 Birmingham 0 0 \- FW Arthur Berry 1888-01-03 24 20+1 Everton 2 1 \- GK Ronald Brebner 1881-09-23 30 12+0 Leicester Fosse 3 0 \- DF Thomas Burn 1888-11-29 23 4+0 London Caledonians 3 0 \- FW Leonard Dawe 1889-11-03 22 1+0 Southampton 0 0 \- MF Joseph Dines 1886-04-12 26 7+0 Ilford F.C. 3 0 \- MF Edward Hanney 1889-01-19 23 2+0 Reading 1 0 \- FW Gordon Hoare 1884-04-18 26 7+0 Glossop North End 3 2 \- DF Arthur Knight 1887-09-07 24 7+0 Portsmouth F.C. 3 0 \- MF Henry Littlewort 1882-07-07 29 3+0 Glossop North End 3 0 \- DF William Martin 1885-03-23 27 5+0 Ilford F.C. 0 0 \- MF Douglas McWhirter 1886-08-13 25 1+0 Leicester Fosse 1 0 \- FW Sydney Sanders 1890-06-09 22 2+0 Nunhead F.C. 0 0 \- FW Ivan Sharpe 1889-06-15 23 2+0 Derby County 3 0 \- MF Harold Stamper 1889-10-06 22 0+0 Stockton F.C. 1 0 \- FW Harold Walden 1889-10-10 22 0+0 Bradford City 3 9 \- FW Vivian Woodward 1879-06-03 33 20+23 Chelsea 3 2 \- FW Gordon Wright 1884-10-03 27 13+1 Hull City 1 0 The following players were also named as reserves, but did not play in any matches: Arthur Brown, George Bancroft, Charles Bradley, John Elvey, Wilbur Chapman, Joseph Flavell, Frederick Atkins, Alec Barclay, George How, Frank Monk, William Callaghan, Arthur Smith, Harry Raymond, John Grant, Joe Bailey ==Denmark == Head coach: Louis Østrup No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- MF Paul Berth 1890-04-07 22 1 AB 3 0 \- DF Charles Buchwald 1880-10-22 31 4 AB 3 0 \- DF Svend Aage Castella 1890-03-15 22 1 KB 0 0 \- FW Hjalmar Christoffersen 1889-12-01 22 0 Frem 1 0 \- GK Ludvig Drescher 1881-07-21 30 4 KB 0 0 \- MF Axel Dyrberg 1889-11-09 22 0 B 1903 0 0 \- DF Harald Hansen 1884-03-14 28 4 B93 3 0 \- GK Sophus Hansen 1889-11-16 22 1 Frem 3 0 \- MF Emil Jørgensen 1882-02-07 30 1 B93 2 1 \- MF Ivar Lykke 1889-03-07 23 1 KB 1 0 \- MF Viggo Malmqvist 1892-05-01 20 0 B93 0 0 \- MF/DF Nils Middelboe 1887-10-05 24 5 KB 3 1 \- MF Christian Morville 1891-12-03 20 0 KB 0 0 \- FW Oskar Nielsen 1882-10-04 29 3 KB 2 0 \- FW Poul Nielsen 1891-12-25 20 2 KB 1 0 \- FW Sophus Nielsen 1888-03-15 24 5 Frem 3 2 \- FW Anthon Olsen 1889-09-14 22 0 B93 3 7 \- FW Axel Petersen 1887-12-10 24 1 Frem 1 0 \- FW Axel Thufason 1889-11-11 22 1 B93 1 0 \- FW Vilhelm Wolfhagen 1889-11-11 22 4 KB 3 1 ==Netherlands == thumb|240px|The team of the Netherlands – bronze medal winners Head coach: Edgar Chadwick No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- DF Piet Bouman 1892-10-14 19 0 FC Dordrecht 2 0 \- MF Joop Boutmy 1894-04-29 18 0 HBS Craeyenhout 3 0 \- FW Nico Bouvy 1892-07-11 19 1 FC Dordrecht 4 3 \- FW Huug de Groot 1890-05-07 22 1 Sparta Rotterdam 4 2 \- MF Bok de Korver 1883-01-27 29 25 Sparta Rotterdam 1 0 \- MF Nico de Wolf 1887-10-27 24 2 HFC Haarlem 2 0 \- GK Wilhelmus Martinus van Eeck 1893-03-13 19 0 GVC Wageningen 0 0 \- DF Constant Feith 1884-08-03 27 6 HVV Den Haag 2 0 \- MF Ge Fortgens 1887-07-10 24 6 AFC Ajax 2 0 \- GK Just Göbel 1891-11-21 20 7 Vitesse Arnhem 4 0 \- FW Felix von Heijden 1890-04-11 22 0 Quick Nijmegen 0 0 \- FW Martien Houtkooper 1891-10-27 20 0 HFC Haarlem 0 0 \- MF Dirk Lotsy 1882-07-03 29 2 FC Dordrecht 4 0 \- FW Caesar ten Cate 1890-08-20 21 0 HFC Haarlem 3 1 \- MF Dolf van der Nagel 1889-05-28 23 0 HFC Haarlem 0 0 \- FW Jan van Breda Kolff 1894-01-18 18 5 HVV Den Haag 4 0 \- FW Jan van der Sluis 1889-04-29 23 0 VOC Rotterdam 1 2 \- FW Jan Vos 1888-04-17 24 2 UVV Utrecht 4 8 \- DF David Wijnveldt 1891-12-15 20 0 UD Deventer 4 0 Note: Goalkeeper Wiet Ledeboer was injured on 15 Jun and was replaced by Van Eeck. Source: http://kranten.kb.nl , http://leiden.courant.nu/. ==Finland == thumb|240px|Finland's team Head coach: none No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- GK Gustaf Holmström 1888-11-27 23 1 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 0 0 \- DF Jalmari Holopainen 1882-06-29 30 2 HJK 4 0 \- MF Viljo Lietola 1888-10-25 23 2 HJK 3 0 \- DF Gösta Bernhard Löfgren 1891-09-10 20 2 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 4 0 \- MF Knut Lund 1891-07-17 20 0 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 4 0 \- FW Algoth Niska 1888-12-05 23 2 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 4 0 \- FW Artturi Nyyssönen 1892-05-01 20 1 HJK 4 0 \- FW Jarl Öhman 1891-11-14 20 2 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 4 2 \- FW Lars Schybergson 1894-12-17 17 0 Kronohagens IF Helsingfors 0 0 \- MF Eino Soinio 1894-11-12 17 1 HJK 4 1 \- MF Kaarlo Soinio 1888-01-28 24 2 HJK 1 0 \- GK August Syrjäläinen 1891-04-24 21 1 Viipurin Reipas 4 0 \- FW Lauri Tanner 1890-11-20 21 1 HJK 1 0 \- FW Bror Wiberg 1890-06-14 22 1 IF Kamraterna Helsingfors 4 2 \- FW Ragnar Wickström 1892-11-12 19 1 Kronohagens IF Helsingfors 3 0 ==Hungary == thumb|240px|Hungary's team Head coach: Ede Herczog No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament gamesThe first number gives the games played and the goals scored in the main tournament, the second number gives the games played and the goals scored in the consolation tournament. Tournament goals \- MF Gyula Bíró 1890-05-10 22 20 MTK Budapest 1+1 0 \- MF Zoltán Blum 1892-01-03 20 1 Ferencvárosi TC 0+2 0 \- FW Sándor Bodnár 1890-06-16 21 9 Magyar Athlétikai Club Budapest 1+2 0+1 \- FW Gáspár Borbás 1884-07-26 27 27 Ferencvárosi TC 1+2 0 \- DF Sándor Bródy 1884-08-12 27 15 Ferencvárosi TC 0 0 \- GK László Domonkos 1887-10-10 24 18 MTK Budapest 1+2 0 \- FW Miklós Fekete 1892-02-10 20 0 Terézvárosi TC Budapest 0+1 0 \- MF Jenő Károly 1886-01-15 26 21 Budapesti Athlétikai Club 1+0 0 \- FW Vilmos Kertész 1890-03-21 22 4 MTK Budapest 0 0 \- FW Mihály Pataki 1893-12-07 18 1 Ferencvárosi TC 1+1 0+1 \- DF Imre Payer 1888-06-01 24 5 Ferencvárosi TC 1+2 0 \- DF Béla Révész 1887-02-06 25 6 MTK Budapest 0 0 \- DF Gyula Rumbold 1887-12-06 24 21 Ferencvárosi TC 1+2 0 \- FW Béla Sebestyén 1885-01-23 27 18 MTK Budapest 1+2 0 \- FW Imre Schlosser 1889-10-11 22 29 Ferencvárosi TC 1+2 0+4 \- MF Kálmán Szury 1890-02-04 22 1 Budapesti Athlétikai Club 0+1 0 \- FW István Tóth 1891-07-28 20 2 Nemzeti Sport Club 0 0 \- MF Antal Vágó 1891-09-08 20 6 MTK Budapest 1+2 0 \- GK Károly Zsák 1895-08-30 16 0 33 FC Budapest 0 0 The following players were also named as reserves, but did not play in any matches: György Hlavay, Károly Kóródy == Austria== thumb|240px|Austria's eleven Head coach: none ÖFB committee No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- FW Gustav Blaha 1888-01-01 24 0 22px SK Rapid Wien 0+1 0 \- MF Josef Brandstätter 1891-11-07 20 0 22px SK Rapid Wien 2+3 0 \- MF/DF Karl Braunsteiner 1891-10-27 20 1 22px Wiener Sportclub 2+3 0 \- MF Robert Cimera 1887-09-17 24 2 22px DFC Prag 2+3 1+0 \- DF Bernhard Graubart 1888-12-22 23 1 22px DFC Prag 2+2 0 \- FW Leopold Grundwald 1891-10-28 20 0 22px SK Rapid Wien 0+3 0+3 \- FW Ludwig Hussak 1883-07-31 28 10 22px Wiener Amateure 2+2 0+1 \- GK Josef Kaltenbrunner 1888-01-22 24 6 22px SK Rapid Wien 0+3 0 \- DF Ladislaus Kurpiel 1883-11-13 28 4 22px DFC Prag 2+2 0 \- FW Robert Merz 1887-11-25 24 5 22px DFC Prag 2+2 2+0 \- FW Alois Müller 1890-06-07 22 0 22px Wiener Sportclub 2+3 1+1 \- FW Leopold Neubauer 1889-10-15 22 6 22px Wiener Sportclub 2+3 1+0 \- GK Otto Noll 1882-07-24 29 1 22px DFC Prag 2+0 0 \- FW Johann Studnicka 1883-10-12 28 9 22px Wiener AC 2+1 1+1 \- MF Franz Weber 1888-07-03 23 3 22px Vienna 0+2 0 The following players were also named as reserves, but did not play in any matches: Hans Andres, Adolf Fischera, Richard Kohn, Heinrich Retschury, Jakob Swatosch, Felix Tekusch, Karl Tekusch ==Germany== Head coach: none DFB committee No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- MF Hermann Bosch 1891-03-10 21 0 22px Karlsruher FV 1+1 0 \- MF Max Breunig 1888-11-12 23 5 22px Karlsruher FV 1+0 0 \- MF Karl Burger 1883-12-12 28 10 22px SpVgg Fürth 0+1 0+1 \- FW Fritz Förderer 1888-01-05 24 7 22px Karlsruher FV 0+2 0+5 \- FW Gottfried Fuchs 1889-05-03 23 3 22px Karlsruher FV 0+2 0+10 \- MF Josef Glaser 1887-05-11 25 4 22px Freiburger FC 0+1 0 \- DF Walter Hempel 1887-08-12 24 10 22px FC Sportfreunde 1900 Leipzig 0+1 0 \- FW Julius Hirsch 1892-04-07 20 2 22px Karlsruher FV 1+1 0 \- DF Ernst Hollstein 1886-12-09 25 4 22px Karlsruher FV 1+1 0 \- FW Adolf Jäger 1889-03-31 23 4 22px Altonaer FC Hamburg 1+0 1+0 \- FW Eugen Kipp 1885-02-26 27 11 22px Stuttgarter Sportfreunde 1896 1+0 0 \- MF Georg Krogmann 1886-09-04 25 1 22px Holstein Kiel 1+1 0 \- FW Emil Oberle 1889-11-16 22 3 22px Karlsruher FC Phönix 1894 0+2 0+1 \- DF Hans Reese 1891-09-17 20 0 22px Holstein Kiel 0+1 0 \- DF Helmut Röpnack 1884-09-23 27 4 22px BTuFC Viktoria 89 1+1 0 \- FW Otto Thiel 1891-11-23 20 1 22px BFC Preussen 0+1 0 \- MF Camillo Ugi 1884-12-21 27 11 22px Vereinigte Breslauer Sportfreunde 0+2 0 \- FW Karl Uhle 1887-07-06 24 0 22px VfB Leipzig 0+1 0 \- GK Albert Weber 1888-11-21 23 1 22px Berliner FC Vorwärts 1890 1+0 0 \- FW Karl Wegele 1887-09-27 24 6 22px Karlsruher FC Phönix 1894 1+1 0 \- GK Adolf Werner 1886-10-19 25 11 22px SC Victoria Hamburg 0+2 0 \- FW Willi Worpitzky 1886-08-25 25 7 22px BTuFC Viktoria 89 1+0 0 ==Italy == thumb|240px|The team of Italy Head coach: Vittorio Pozzo No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- FW Luigi Barbesino 1894-05-01 18 0 Casale F.C. 0+2 0 \- FW Felice Berardo 1888-07-06 23 4 U.S. Pro Vercelli 1+2 0+1 \- DF/MF Angelo Binaschi 1889-01-15 23 4 U.S. Pro Vercelli 1+2 0 \- FW Franco Bontadini 1893-01-07 19 0 F.C. Internazionale 1+2 1+1 \- GK Piero Campelli 1893-12-20 18 0 F.C. Internazionale 1+2 0 \- MF Carlo Demarchi 1890-03-25 22 0 Torino F.C. 1+0 0 \- DF Renzo De Vecchi 1894-02-03 18 6 Milan C.F.C. 1+2 0 \- MF Pietro Leone 1888-01-13 24 2 U.S. Pro Vercelli 1+2 0 \- FW Edoardo Mariani 1893-03-05 19 1 Genoa C.F.C. 1+2 0 \- MF Giuseppe Milano 1887-09-26 24 5 U.S. Pro Vercelli 1+2 0 \- MF Vittorio Morelli di Popolo 1888-05-11 24 0 Torino F.C. 1+0 0 \- FW Enrico Sardi 1891-04-01 21 0 S.G. Andrea Doria 1+1 1+0 \- DF Modesto Valle 1893-03-15 19 0 U.S. Pro Vercelli 0+2 0 \- FW Enea Zuffi 1889-12-27 22 0 Torino F.C. 1+1 0 \- DF Felice Milano 1893-05-25 19 0 U.S. Pro Vercelli 0 0 \- MF Attilio Treré 1887-10-09 24 0 Milan C.F.C. 0 0 \- FW Carlo Rampini 1891-10-25 21 0 U.S. Pro Vercelli 0 0 \- FW Giuseppe Caimi 1890-12-19 22 0 F.C. Internazionale 0 0 Four reserve players, although included in the official squad Submitted to FIFA, Did not travel to Sweden and stayed in Italy on reserve. == Sweden == Head coach: John Ohlson No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- FW Karl Ansén 1887-07-26 24 10 AIK 1+1 0 \- GK Oskar Bengtsson 1885-01-14 27 7 Örgryte IS 0 0 \- DF Erik Bergström 1886-01-06 26 4 Örgryte IS 1+1 0 \- FW Erik Börjesson 1888-12-01 23 5 Örgryte IS 1+1 1+0 \- GK Josef Börjesson 1891-04-15 21 2 Göteborgs FF 1+1 0 \- FW Eric Dahlström 1894-06-26 18 1 IFK Eskilstuna 0+1 0 \- FW Helge Ekroth 1892-02-26 24 3 AIK 1+0 0 \- MF Götrik Frykman 1891-12-01 20 2 Djurgårdens IF 0+1 0 \- MF Karl Gustafsson 1888-09-16 23 10 Köpings IS 1+1 0 \- MF Oscar Gustafsson 1889-09-25 22 1 Johanneshofs IF 0 0 \- FW Einar Halling-Johansson 1893-10-14 18 2 Örgryte IS 0 0 \- DF Jacob Levin 1890-11-22 21 4 Örgryte IS 1+0 0 \- DF Theodor Malm 1889-10-23 22 8 AIK 0 0 \- FW Herman Myhrberg 1889-12-29 22 6 Örgryte IS 1+1 0 \- MF Knut Nilsson 1887-03-22 25 2 AIK 0 0 \- MF Gustav Sandberg 1888-02-29 24 2 Örgryte IS 1+0 0 \- DF Henning Svensson 1891-10-19 20 1 IFK Göteborg 0 0 \- FW Iwar Swensson 1893-11-07 18 1 IFK Norrköping 1+1 2+0 \- DF Konrad Törnqvist 1888-07-17 23 3 IFK Göteborg 0+1 0 \- MF Ragnar Wicksell 1892-09-26 19 4 Djurgårdens IF 1+1 0 == Norway == thumb|240px|Norwegian football team Head coach: James Vincent Hayes No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- DF Mathias Widerøe-Aas 1886-12-12 25 2 Mercantile 0 0 \- FW Rolf Aas 1891-10-12 20 1 Mercantile 0 0 \- MF Gunnar Andersen 1890-03-18 22 2 Lyn Kristiania 1+0 0 \- DF Einar Friis Baastad 1890-05-08 22 3 Mercantile 1+1 0 \- FW Sigurd Brekke 1890-10-15 21 1 Mercantile 0 0 \- GK Julius Clementz 1890-05-24 22 2 Mercantile 0 0 \- DF Paul Due 1889-05-19 23 1 Lyn Kristiania 0 0 \- FW Hans Endrerud 1885-10-13 26 4 Mercantile 1+1 0 \- FW Kaare Engebretsen 1893-08-22 18 0 Mercantile 0 0 \- MF Thoralf Grubbe 1891-07-20 20 1 Odds Ballklubb Skien 0 0 \- FW Per Haraldsen 1892-12-05 19 1 Odds Ballklubb Skien 0 0 \- MF Charles Herlofson 1891-06-15 21 4 Mercantile 1+1 0 \- MF Sverre Jensen 1893-01-22 19 0 SK Ready Kristiania 0+1 0 \- MF Harald Johansen 1887-10-09 24 5 Mercantile 1+1 0 \- FW Kristian Krefting 1891-02-09 21 3 Lyn Kristiania 1+1 0 \- MF Marius Lund 1888-02-01 24 0 Odds Ballklubb Skien 0 0 \- FW Erling Maartmann 1887-11-03 24 3 Lyn Kristiania 1+1 0 \- FW Rolf Maartmann 1887-11-03 24 3 Lyn Kristiania 1+1 0 \- FW Carl Pedersen 1891-03-27 21 0 Urædd FK Porsgrunn 0 0 \- GK Ingolf Pedersen 1890-12-07 21 2 Odds Ballklubb Skien 1+1 0 \- FW Henry Reinholt 1890-01-16 22 1 Odds Ballklubb Skien 1+1 0 \- DF Per Skou 1891-05-20 21 3 Lyn Kristiania 1+1 0 == Russia == Head coach: Robert Fulda and Georgy Dyuperron No. Pos. Player DoB Age Caps Club Tournament games Tournament goals \- MF Andrey Akimov 1890-10-12 21 0 Orekhovo Klub Sport 1+0 0 \- GK Pyotr Boreisha 1885-10-13 26 0 Neva St. Petersburg 0 0 \- FW Vasily Butusov 1892-02-07 20 0 Unitas St. Petersburg 1+1 1+0 \- GK Lev Favorsky 1893 18 0 Sokolnichesky Moscow 1+1 0 \- FW Aleksandr Filippov 1892 20 0 Sokolniki Moscow 1+0 0 \- FW Sergei Filippov 1892-07-02 20 0 Kolomyagi St. Petersburg 1+1 0 \- MF Nikita Khromov 1888-05-01 24 0 Unitas St. Petersburg 1+1 0 \- MF Nikolai Kynin 1890 21 0 Orekhovo Klub Sport 1+0 0 \- DF Vladimir Markov 1889-01-20 23 0 Sport St. Petersburg 1+0 0 \- FW Grigori Nikitin 1889 22 0 Sport St. Petersburg 0+1 0 \- DF Fyodor Rimsha 1891 20 0 Sokolnichesky Moscow 0+1 0 \- FW Leonid Smirnov 1889 22 0 Union Moscow 0 0 \- FW Mikhail Smirnov 1892 30 0 Union Moscow 1+1 0 \- DF Pyotr Sokolov 1890-12-28 21 0 Unitas St. Petersburg 1+1 0 \- MF Aleksei Uversky 1886-02-14 26 0 Sport St. Petersburg 0+1 0 \- MF Vladimir Vlasenko 1881-01-14 31 0 Mercur St. Petersburg 0 0 \- MF Mikhail Yakovlev 1893-07-12 18 0 Unitas St. Petersburg 0+1 0 \- FW Vasily Zhitarev 1891-01-13 21 0 Zamoskvoretsky Moscow 1+1 0 \- FW Hjalmar Teravain 0 0 0 ==France== France named the following squad, but the team withdrew before the tournament started: * Gaston Barreau (Defender)/ (Midfield) * Maurice Bigué (Defender) * Georges Damois (Defender) * Jean Ducret (Midfield) * Alfred Gindrat (Defender) * Eugène Maës (Forward) * Louis Mesnier (Forward) * Maurice Olivier (Forward) * Paul Romano (Defender) * Marcel Triboulet (Forward) * Henri Vialmonteil (Forward) * Maurice Thiéry (Goalkeeper) * Paul Fievet (Defender) * Émilien Devic (Forward) * Étienne Jourde (Forward) ==Footnotes== ==External links== *Games of the V. Olympiad at RSSSF *OG 1912.the list of teams *FIFA * sports-reference *IFFHS IFFHS (archive) 1912 Summer Olympics Category:Football at the 1912 Summer Olympics
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Khirbet el-'Ormeh () or Horvat Ormah () is an archaeological site located in the West Bank, around ten kilometers southeast of the Palestinian city of Nablus. The site contains the remains of a Hasmonean-Herodian fortress consisting of a fortification wall, rectangular towers constructed in the Hellenistic style, and a series of large cisterns for storing rainwater.Raviv, D. (2019). The Arumah fortress (Khirbet al-ʿUrma): a fortified sites from the Second Temple Period in eastern Samaria. Israel Exploration Journal, 69(2), 202-219. The site is in Area B of the West Bank, under partial control of the State of Palestine, and has been designated as a Palestinian Heritage Site.Report: Palestinians exploiting corona to destroy Hasmonean-era fortress (2020-05-11) Israel Hayom In recent years, it has become the site of a conflict between Israeli settlers and Palestinians. According to an investigation in 2021 by Israeli website Ynet, part of the site has been damaged or dismantled by the Palestinian Authority. A new mosque ("mosque of the martyrs") and a solar power system have been built nearby. == Location == Khirbet el-'Ormeh is situated atop a hill known as Mount Al-Arma or Mount Al- Urma (), on an altitude of 843 meters above sea level. It is located about 1.5 km northwest of the Palestinian town of Aqraba, and southeast of the Israeli settlement of Itamar. In the 1995 Oslo Accords, the site was classified as Area B (Palestinian civil control and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control). ==Biblical identification == Khirbet el-'Ormeh is commonly identified with Arumah,Raviv, D. (2019). The Arumah fortress (Khirbet al- ʿUrma): a fortified sites from the Second Temple Period in eastern Samaria. Israel Exploration Journal, 69(2), 202-219.Campbell Jr, E. F. (1983). Judges 9 and Biblical Archaeology. The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Sixtieth Birthday, (1), p. 268. "Arumah, all agree, is at site 26, Khirbet 'el-Urmeh, a striking mountain top fortress with massive water storage facilities."Van De Velde, 1854, p. 303 "Amongst others, I noticed from this spot in a westerly direction, at about an hour's distance, a hill top on which are situated the ruins of M-'Arma, in which I believe I may recognise the Arumah of Judges ix. 41, where Ablmelech remained after he had struck the first blow, and before he destroyed Shechem altogether." a biblical toponym mentioned in the Book of Judges (9:41): "Then Abimelek stayed in Arumah, and Zebul drove Gaal and his clan out of Shechem." The reference is in the context of story describing a local revolt against Abimelech, the king of Shechem and the son of judge Gideon. It is believed that the Arabic name preserves the ancient biblical name. == Archaeology == === Early visits === In 1851-2 C.W.M Van De Velde passed by and noted "I believe I may recognise the Arumah of Judges ix 41".Van De Velde, 1854, p. 303 "Amongst others, I noticed from this spot in a westerly direction, at about an hour's distance, a hill top on which are situated the ruins of M-'Arma, in which I believe I may recognise the Arumah of Judges ix. 41, where Ablmelech remained after he had struck the first blow, and before he destroyed Shechem altogether." The site appears on his maps of Palestine and Jerusalem. In 1870 Victor Guérin visited.Guérin, 1875, pp. 2-3: "A neuf heures quarante-cinq minutes, nous parvenons sur le sommet d'un plateau qui s'élève comme par étages successifs. Il était jadis entouré d'un mur construit en gros blocs mal équarris, dont il subsiste encore cà et là quelques assises inférieures. Les habitations qui remplissaient cette enceinte sont complétement rasées. Cet endroit porte le nom de Kharbet el-Eu'rmah, [] C'est probablement l'antique Aroumah, en hébreu [], en grec [], en latin Ruma, qui paraît avoir été dans le voisinage de Sichem et où Abirnélech se retira quelque temps [.....] Malgré le témoignage imposant de cette double autorité, je doute beaucoup, néanmoins, que cette ville de Rouma, en hebreu Roumah, doive être cherchée dans le voisinage de Diospolis el confondue avec Arimathie. Abimélech, en effet, assiégeant Sichem et dressant des embuches aux habitants de cette ville, quand ils opéraient des sorties, n'avait pas pu se retirer jusqu'auprès de la ville qui plus tard s'appela Diospolis; la chose est tout à fait invraisemblable, pour ne pas dire impossible; tandis que rien ne s'oppose à ce qu'il se soit retranché sur la hauteur, beaucoup plus rapprochée de Sichem, que couronnent actuellement les ruines du Kharbet ei-Eu'rmah, nom qui, d'ailleurs, semble plaider en faveur de l'identification que quelques critiques ont déjà proposée et qui me paraiah très-plausible." In 1877 Herbert Kitchener of the Palestine Exploration Fund travelled in the area, as part of The Survey of Western Palestine. Kitchener reported: "I rode out and examined the fine site of El'Ormah, south-east of Nablus. The position was very grand, standing high above the surrounding hills; from a distance the castle seems almost inaccessible ; by approaching it from the west, however, a narrow tongue of land leads to within a little of the top. A stiff climb along rock terraces and over scarped rocks leads to the plateau on the top on which the castle was situated. The foundations of two square towers of large drafted masonry, similar to Crusading work, still guard the southern entrance ; these and some cisterns and ruined houses are all that now remain ; the whole area of the plateau would be about three-quarters of an acre. The rock was scarped perpendicularly on the west side ; on the east and north sides the hill descended very steeply about 500 ft. to a valley ; on the south a very narrow ridge led to another small round hilltop, slightly lower than the fortress, which was equally inaccessible. The place must have been one of great strength ; the remains still existing do not seem to date from a period previous to the times of the Crusaders."Kitchener, 1878, pp. 63 -64. The SWP noted in 1882: "A ruined castle, on a hillock, with a spring to the west. Large caves and cisterns exist north of it. The position is very fine, commanding all the neighbourhood. The rock is scarped in places. Drafted stones occur in the corner towers, and there are traces of other ruins."Conder and Kitchener, SWP II, 1882, p. 402 The SWP cited C.W.M Van De Velde.Conder and Kitchener, SWP II, 1882, p. 387 In 1881, Palmer wrote that the meaning of El Ormeh is "the dam".Palmer, 1881, p. 258 === Archaeological surveys === Khirbet el-'Ormeh has not yet been excavated but has been surveyed by various teams. It was first surveyed in the 1960s by the archaeological expedition of Dro-McCormick on behalf of the American Schools of Oriental Research, and again in 1968 as part of the Archaeological Survey of Israel. Other surveys followed. === Fortress === According to archaeologists, Khirbet el-'Ormeh was the site of a fortress with a complex water system. The fortifications that have survived were mostly on the southern end of the summit. A glacis was discovered on the east side of the wall line, at a level lower than the top of the mound, surrounding the mound on all sides. At its bottom was a hewn shaft, which also served as a quarry for building stones. At its southern end is a fortified structure with two phases: the upper phase is built of ashlars with chisels, and the lower is built of coarse construction. === Water system === Three large cisterns have been excavated on the southwestern slope of the northern spur, each with a vertical entrance door flush with the top and steps leading down from the door sill to the floor. The southernmost of the cisterns measures 24.80 meters long, 12.05 meters wide, and 10 to 11 meters high. The others are only slightly smaller. These water facilities strongly resemble the Hasmonean and Herodian systems in Alexandrium and Hyrcania. === Smaller findings === Potsherds found on the summit date to the Middle Bronze Age (II), the Late Bronze Age (I-II), the early Iron Age I (dominant) and Iron II periods as well as the Roman and Byzantine periods. In the large building on the summit, potsherds from the Hellenistic and Roman periods were uncovered, along with some Byzantine sherds. Hellenistic-style store-jars and a cooking pot were found on the building on the eastern side, along with ceramics dating from Iron Age (I-II), and a fragment of Roman terra sigillata pottery in the vicinity. Persian period ceramics were also found at the site. In October 1984, nine Demetrius II coins dating from 146 to 138 BCE were found on the western and northern slopes of Khirbet el-'Ormeh. The site also contained a coin minted by John Hyrcanus as well as seven pieces minted by his son and successor Alexander Jannaeus. Several rock-cut tombs are also found nearby. === Analysis === Given its similarity to Hasmonean desert forts, it is likely that it was built by the Hasmoneans to guard the nearby town of Aqraba, and was later controlled by Herod. Josephus (Wars 3.3.5) mentions Aqraba (Acrabatta) as being one of the administrative cities (toparchy) in Roman Judea.Conder & Kitchener (1882). p. 386 Scholars estimate that the fortress was built as part of the war campaign of John Hyrcanus or Alexander Jannaeus against the Samaritans, or to protect Jewish pilgrims heading for Jerusalem. Following the First-Jewish Roman War, the area's importance declined, and the fort gradually fell into disuse. ==Recent conflict and destruction== According to Israeli newspaper Makor Rishon, the site's destruction began in 2009, when Palestinians began using tractors and other heavy tools on the ancient site. In 2018, Israeli activity around the site began to increase, following expansion of the nearby settlement of Itamar. In early 2020, the Palestinian National Authority declared the hill a Palestinian Heritage Site, installing generators and perimeter lighting, and erecting a tent alongside a flag. According to the Palestinian government, "Israeli settlers falsely claim that Mount 'Orma holds biblical importance as a pretext to take over the strategic hilltop."Reshaping and Imposing History: How the Israeli settler-colonial project takes over Palestinian land, history and heritage, PLO Department of Public Diplomacy & Policy A campaign by Israeli settlers to “liberate Tel Aroma” began in February 2020. An Israeli NGO, Shomrim al HaNetzach, organized a tour of the site in protest of what, according to its leaders, is deliberate destruction of the site by the Palestinian Authority. Palestinians from the nearby town of Beita responded by staging daily sit-ins atop the hill. In March 2020, these events turned into clashes between Palestinians and the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF), in which 22-year-old Palestinian Islam Dweikat was killed. In April 2020, 14 Palestinians were wounded and Mohammed Abdulkarim Khassab Hamayel,“Israeli settlement Activities in the occupied State of Palestine during the Month of March 2020”, ARIJ a 15-year-old Palestinian, was shot and killed. According to the IDF, about 500 Palestinians took part in the clashes, "throwing stones at IDF soldiers and burning tires." According to an investigation in 2021 by Israeli website Ynet, part of the site has been damaged or dismantled by the Palestinian Authority. Several ancient structures were destroyed and part of the Hasmonean-period wall was demolished. Several Israeli media outlets reported that the site was used to build a new mosque ("mosque of the martyrs") and a solar power system was built nearby. File:Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih, two mountains near the Palestinian town of Beita subject to Israeli settlement activity and conflict (1880 Survey of Palestine).png|Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih in 1880 File:Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih, two mountains near the Palestinian town of Beita subject to Israeli settlement activity and conflict (1940 Survey of Palestine).png|Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih in 1940 File:Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih, two mountains near the Palestinian town of Beita subject to Israeli settlement activity and conflict (2018 OCHA OpT map).jpg|Jabal El 'Urma and Jabal Sabih in 2018 ==See also== *Levantine archaeology ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * ==External links== *Survey of Western Palestine, Map 15: IAA, Wikimedia commons Category:Archaeological sites in Samaria Category:Archaeological sites in the West Bank
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The Hong Kong national cricket team is the team that represents Hong Kong in international competition. It played its first match in 1866Chronology of Hong Kong cricket and has been an associate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) since 1969.Hong Kong at CricketArchive Hong Kong played its first One Day Internationals in the 2004 Asia Cup,List of Hong Kong ODIs at CricketArchive and in January 2014 was granted ODI status until 2018, as a result of finishing third in the 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier. The team gained Twenty20 International status in November 2013, as a result of qualifying for the 2014 ICC World Twenty20. Hong Kong lost their ODI status in March 2018 after losing to the Netherlands in a play-off match during the 2018 Cricket World Cup Qualifier. They did, however, play two further ODI matches at the 2018 Asia Cup in September 2018 after winning the 2018 Asia Cup Qualifier, as the ICC announced that all matches played at the finals would have ODI status. Hong Kong has played in every ICC Trophy/World Cup Qualifier tournament, with the exceptions of the 1979 and 2005 events.ICC Trophy matches played by Hong Kong at CricketArchive It has also taken part in two ICC Intercontinental Cup tournaments, in 20052005 ICC Intercontinental Cup at CricketEurope and in 2015–17, and in two ICC T20 World Cup tournaments, in 2014 and 2016. In April 2018, the ICC decided to grant full Twenty20 International (T20I) status to all its members. Therefore, all Twenty20 matches played between Hong Kong and other ICC members after 1 January 2019 will be a full T20I. ==History== ===Early years=== The sport was introduced to Hong Kong by the British, with the first recorded game taking place in 1841, and the Hong Kong Cricket Club being founded ten years later. The Cricket Club (playing as Hong Kong) played a number of Interport matches against sides on the Chinese mainland, the first taking place against Shanghai in 1866, and in 1890 played Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) for the first time. 1892 saw disaster when the , which was carrying the team back from Shanghai, sank in a typhoon with the loss of 125 lives. There were only 23 survivors, which included only 2 of the 13 team members. The other 11 members of the team were lost, including Surrey cricketer John Dunn.Sinking of the SS Bokhara, Hong Kong Cricket Association official site 1948 saw the last game against Shanghai.Jack Chegwyn led the first international team to Hong Kong in 1952, and the first tour by an MCC team was in 1966. The MCC, captained by Mike Smith played one match against the national side, winning by 74 runs.Scorecard of Hong Kong v MCC, 19 March 1966 at CricketArchive In 1969 the Hong Kong Cricket Association became an associate member of the International Cricket Council, cricket's global ruling body. ===ICC membership=== The year after gaining ICC membership, the Hong Kong national side played against an MCC side captained by Tony Lewis, drawing the game,Scorecard of Hong Kong v MCC, 15 March 1970 at CricketArchive but it was not until the 1982 ICC Trophy when the Hong Kong team next played. At that tournament the Hong Kong team, which featured future England Test cricketer Dermot Reeve, failed to progress beyond the first round. Hong Kong took part in the following three ICC Trophy tournaments, again failing to progress beyond the first round in 1986,1986 ICC Trophy at Cricinfo reaching the plate competition in 19901990 ICC Trophy at Cricinfo and the second round in 1994.1994 ICC Trophy at Cricinfo They then played in the inaugural ACC Trophy tournament in 1996, failing to progress beyond the group stage after losing to Bangladesh and Fiji.1996 ACC Trophy at CricketEurope In 1997, Hong Kong returned to Chinese control. In the same year, the national team finished eighth in the ICC Trophy.1997 ICC Trophy at Cricinfo They played in the ACC Trophy again in 1998, losing to Malaysia in the semi-finals.1998 ACC Trophy at CricketEurope ===21st century=== ====2000–2009==== In 2000, Hong Kong reached the final of the ACC Trophy, where they lost to the United Arab Emirates.2000 ACC Trophy at CricketEurope Nonetheless, this earned them qualification for the 2002 Asia Cup (which was subsequently moved to 2004), and thus their first taste of One Day International cricket. Hong Kong fared poorly in the 2001 ICC Trophy, going out in the group stage having achieved only one win, against Papua New Guinea.2001 ICC Trophy at Cricinfo In 2002, they reached the semi- finals of the ACC Trophy, again losing to the United Arab Emirates.2002 ACC Trophy at CricketEurope At the 2004 Asia Cup, held in Sri Lanka, Hong Kong were drawn alongside Test nations Bangladesh and Pakistan. They lost both matches heavily, despite restricting Bangladesh to 221/9 in the first match.2004 Asia Cup points table at CricketArchive Also in 2004, Hong Kong failed to progress beyond the first round of the ACC Trophy after losing in the group stages to Oman and Bahrain, missing out on qualification for the 2005 ICC Trophy in Ireland.2005 ICC Trophy official website – Asian qualifying They also reached the final of the ACC Fast Track Countries Tournament, losing to the United Arab Emirates. Hong Kong played in the Intercontinental Cup for the first time in 2005. They lost to the UAE and drew with Nepal, failing to reach the semi-finals. They finished last in the fast-track nations tournament the same year.2005/06 Fast-track nations tournament at Asian Cricket Council official website In 2006, Hong Kong again lost to the United Arab Emirates in the final of the ACC Trophy,2006 ACC Trophy at CricketEurope and finished fourth in the ACC Premier League.2006/07 ACC Premier League at CricketEurope The following year, they travelled to Darwin, Australia to take part in Division Three of the World Cricket League, finishing fifth,2007 ICC World Cricket League Division Three at CricketEurope relegating them to Division Four for 2008.Uganda lift Division Three title by Andrew Nixon, 2 June 2007 at CricketEurope In October/November 2007, Hong Kong took part in the inaugural ACC Twenty20 Cup held in Kuwait, where they played in Group B against the United Arab Emirates, Singapore, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Hong Kong finished 4th in their group and failed to make to the semi-finals stage. In June 2008, Hong Kong took part in the Asia Cup in Pakistan. They failed to progress beyond the group stage to the Super Four stage, as they lost both of their group A matches against India and Pakistan convincingly. In October 2008, Hong Kong travelled to Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania to participate in Division Four of the World Cricket League. Hong Kong won four group matches against; Fiji, Italy, Jersey and the hosts but lost twice to Afghanistan in their group match and the Final. Hong Kong's top two finish resulted in their promotion back to Division Three. ====2010–present==== In 2011 they hosted the Division Three and won it defeating Papua New Guinea in the finals to qualify for Division Two to be held in the United Arab Emirates. Then in Division Two they came 4th qualifying as HPP member and for 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier in New Zealand. . In 2013 the UAE hosted the ICC T20 Qualifier where Hong Kong came 6th by beating Papua New Guinea and just enough to qualify for ICC T20 World Cup 2014 held in Bangladesh. In 2014, New Zealand hosted the ICC 50 over world cup qualifier where Hong Kong came third place despite not qualifying for 2015 ICC cricket world cup, they still achieved an ODI status with Papua New Guinea. In March 2014 Hong Kong beat the host Bangladesh in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 by two wickets with two balls remaining but could not make it to the next stage of super 10 having lost the two earlier matches to Afghanistan and Nepal Hong Kong first ODI win against a full member came on 8 March 2018 defeating Afghanistan in 2018 Cricket World Cup Qualifier. ==Grounds== ==Tournament history== ===T20 World Cup=== T20 World Cup record Year Round Position GP W L T NR 2007 Did not qualify 2009 2010 2012 2014 Group stage 15/16 3 1 2 0 0 2016 Group stage 16/16 3 0 3 0 0 2021 Did not qualify 2022 2024 TBD Total 6 1 5 0 0 ===ICC Trophy / World Cup Qualifier=== ICC Trophy/World Cup Qualifier record Year Round Position P W L T NR A 1979 Did not participate 1982 Group stage 8/16 7 2 3 0 0 2 1986 Group stage 8/16 8 3 5 0 0 0 1990 Plate round 11/17 8 5 3 0 0 0 1994 Second round 8/20 7 3 4 0 0 0 1997 Second round 8/22 7 3 3 0 1 0 2001 Group stage 17/24 5 1 4 0 0 0 2005 Did not qualify 2009 2014 Super Sixes 3/10 9 6 2 0 0 0 2018 Playoffs 10/10 6 1 5 0 0 0 Total 57 25 29 0 1 2 0 0 ===T20 World Cup Qualifier=== *2012: 11th place *2013: 6th place *2015: 4th place *2019: 7th place *2022: 6th place ===ICC Intercontinental Cup=== Intercontinental Cup record Year Round Position P W L D T NR 2004 Did not qualify 2005 Group stage 11/12 2 0 1 1 0 0 2006–07 Did not qualify 2007–08 2009–10 2011–13 2015–17 Round Robin 4/8 7 2 3 0 1 1 Total 9 2 4 1 1 1 ===World Cricket League=== *2007 Division Three: 5th place *2008 Division Four: 2nd place *2009 Division Three: 4th place *2011 Division Three: Champions *2011 Division Two: 4th place *2019 Division Two:6th place ===Asia Cup=== *1983 to 1995 inclusive: Did not participate *1997: Did not qualify *2000: Did not qualify *2004: First round *2008: First round *2010: Did not qualify *2012: Did not qualify *2014: Did not qualify *2016: Did not qualify *2018: First round *2022: Qualified *2023: Did not qualify === Asia Cup Qualifier === *2016: 4th out of 4 teams (Did not qualify for 2016 Asia Cup) *2018: Winner (Qualified for 2018 Asia Cup) *2022: Winner (Qualified for 2022 Asia Cup) ===ACC Eastern Region T20=== * 2018: Did not participate * 2020: Runner up (Qualified for 2020 Asia Cup Qualifier) ===ACC Trophy=== *1996: First round *1998: semi-finals *2000: Runners up *2002: semi-finals *2004: First round *2006: Runners up *2008 (Elite): WonScorecard of Hong Kong v UAE, 3 August 2008 at CricketArchive *2010 (Elite): 3rd place *2012: 5th place ===ACC Premier League=== *2014: 5th place ===ACC Twenty20 Cup=== *2007: First round *2009: 10th place *2011: Runners up *2013: 4th place ===ACC Fast Track Countries Tournament=== *2004/05: Runners-up *2005/06: 5th place *2006/07: 4th place ===Asian Games=== *2010: Quarter-finals *2014: 4th place ==Current squad== This lists all the players who have played for Hong Kong in the past 12 months or has been part of the latest One-day or T20I squad. Updated as of 2 September 2022. Name Age Batting style Bowling style Forms Notes Batters Nizakat Khan Right-handed Right-arm leg break One-day & T20I Captain Babar Hayat Right-handed Right-arm medium One-day & T20I Zeeshan Ali Right-handed One-day & T20I Shahid Wasif Right-handed Right-arm off break One-day & T20I Wajid Shah Right-handed Slow left-arm orthodox One-day & T20I All-rounders Aizaz Khan Right-handed Right-arm medium One-day & T20I Yasim Murtaza Left- handed Slow left-arm orthodox One-day & T20I Kinchit Shah Left-handed Right- arm off break One-day & T20I Vice-captain Haroon Arshad Right-handed Right-arm medium One-day & T20I Wicket-keepers Scott McKechnie Right-handed One-day & T20I Adit Gorawara Right-handed One-day Spin Bowlers Mohammad Ghazanfar Right- handed Right-arm leg break One-day & T20I Aftab Hussain Right-handed Slow left-arm orthodox One-day & T20I Ahan Trivedi Right-handed Right-arm off break T20I Pace Bowlers Ayush Shukla Right-handed Right-arm medium One-day & T20I Hassan Khan Mohammad Right-handed Right-arm medium One-day Ateeq Iqbal Right- handed Right-arm medium T20I Dhananjay Rao Right-handed Left-arm medium T20I Mohammad Waheed Right-handed Right-arm medium T20I ==Players== ==Coaching staff== ===Coaching history=== *1993–1994: Dermot Reeve *1997: David Trist *2000: Adam Hollioake *2001: Andy Moles *2001–2002: Lal Jayasinghe *2004–2007: Robin Singh *2007: Sameer Dighe *2007–2009: Aftab Habib *2009–2010: Afzaal Haider *2010–2015: Charlie Burke *2015–2019: Simon Cook *2019–2022: Trent Johnston *2023–present: Simon Willis ==Records== International Match Summary – Hong Kong Last updated 12 March 2023. Playing Record Playing Record Playing Record Playing Record Playing Record Playing Record Playing Record Format M W L T NR Inaugural Match One Day Internationals 26 9 16 0 1 16 July 2004 Twenty20 Internationals 58 25 33 0 0 16 March 2014 ===One Day Internationals=== * Highest team total: 323/4 v Papua New Guinea, 8 December 2017 at ICC Academy Ground, Dubai * Highest individual score: 143*, Anshuman Rath v Papua New Guinea, 8 December 2017 at ICC Academy Ground, Dubai * Best individual bowling figures: 4/10, Kinchit Shah v Papua New Guinea, 17 March 2018 at Harare Sports Club, Harare Most ODI runs for Hong Kong Player Runs Average Career span Anshuman Rath 828 51.75 2014–2018 Babar Hayat 784 39.20 2014–2018 Nizakat Khan 675 33.75 2014–2018 Tanwir Afzal 292 18.25 2014–2018 Aizaz Khan 260 20.00 2014–2018 Most ODI wickets for Hong Kong Player Wickets Average Career span Nadeem Ahmed 38 24.52 2004–2018 Ehsan Khan 29 20.48 2016–2018 Tanwir Afzal 19 31.63 2014–2018 Ehsan Nawaz 16 28.62 2014–2018 Aizaz Khan 16 42.50 2014–2018 Highest individual innings in ODI Player Score Opposition Venue Year Anshuman Rath 143* Dubai 2017 Mark Chapman 124* Dubai 2015 Anshuman Rath 97 Mong Kok 2016 Nizakat Khan 94 Mong Kok 2016 Nizakat Khan 93 Dubai 2017 Best bowling figures in an innings in ODI Player Score Opposition Venue Year Kinchit Shah 4/10 Harare 2018 Nadeem Ahmed 4/26 Mong Kok 2016 Nadeem Ahmed 4/33 Harare 2017 Ehsan Khan 4/33 Bulawayo 2018 Ehsan Nawaz 4/47 Bulawayo 2018 ODI record versus other nations Records complete to ODI #4039. Last updated 18 September 2018. Opponent M W L T NR First match First win vs Test nations 2 1 1 0 0 1 May 2014 8 March 2018 1 0 1 0 0 16 July 2004 2 0 2 0 0 25 June 2008 3 0 3 0 0 18 July 2004 1 0 1 0 0 10 March 2018 vs Associate Members 8 4 4 0 0 8 November 2014 4 November 2016 5 2 2 0 1 26 January 2016 26 January 2016 4 2 2 0 0 4 May 2014 16 November 2015 ===Twenty20 Internationals=== * Highest team total: 186/8 v. Papua New Guinea on 14 July 2022 at Bulawayo Athletic Club, Bulawayo. * Highest individual score: 122, Babar Hayat v. Oman on 19 February 2016 at Fatullah Osmani Stadium, Fatullah. * Best individual bowling figures: 5/16, Haroon Arshad v. Nepal on 1 March 2020 at Terdthai Cricket Ground, Bangkok. Most T20I runs for Hong Kong Player Runs Average Career span Nizakat Khan 1,081 19.65 2014–2023 Babar Hayat 821 25.65 2014–2023 Kinchit Shah 706 19.08 2014–2023 Aizaz Khan 534 14.83 2014–2023 Anshuman Rath 448 22.40 2015–2023 Most T20I wickets for Hong Kong Player Wickets Average Career span Aizaz Khan 66 19.59 2014–2023 Ehsan Khan 49 16.75 2016–2023 Nadeem Ahmed 25 21.84 2014–2017 Haseeb Amjad 24 18.87 2014–2016 Haroon Arshad 20 24.55 2019–2023 T20I record versus other nations Records complete to T20I #2022. Last updated 12 March 2023. Opponent M W L T NR First match First win vs Test nations 5 2 3 0 0 18 March 2014 21 July 2015 1 1 0 0 0 20 March 2014 20 March 2014 1 0 1 0 0 31 August 2022 4 2 2 0 0 17 July 2015 17 July 2015 1 0 1 0 0 2 September 2022 1 0 1 0 0 8 March 2016 vs Associate Members 1 1 0 0 0 8 March 2023 8 March 2023 1 1 0 0 0 24 October 2019 24 October 2019 1 1 0 0 0 23 October 2019 23 October 2019 2 2 0 0 0 23 August 2022 23 August 2022 8 3 5 0 0 20 February 2020 6 March 2020 1 1 0 0 0 27 October 2019 27 October 2019 5 3 2 0 0 16 March 2014 24 November 2014 3 1 2 0 0 18 January 2017 18 January 2017 8 1 7 0 0 21 November 2015 26 November 2015 1 1 0 0 0 14 July 2022 14 July 2022 5 1 4 0 0 25 July 2015 30 January 2016 3 2 1 0 0 4 March 2020 15 July 2022 1 1 0 0 0 3 March 2020 3 March 2020 2 0 2 0 0 11 July 2022 3 1 2 0 0 21 February 2016 24 August 2022 ==International records/World records== *Jamie Atkinson was the first player (either male or female) born in the 1990s to play in ODI cricket. *Ryan Campbell who formerly played for Australia in ODIs, became the oldest player in T20I cricket to make his T20I debut at the age of 44 and 30 days. *Holds the record for the highest ODI partnership for any wicket by an associate nation (174 for the first wicket between Nizakat Khan and Anshuman Rath v India) *Hong Kong set the record for taking the longest time duration to lose their first wicket in an ODI match (34.1 overs against India at the 2018 Asia Cup) *Babar Hayat holds the joint record for taking the most catches in a single T20I as a fielder (4) along with Darren Sammy, Ajinkya Rahane, Peter Borren, Corey Anderson and Dinesh Chandimal. * Babar Hayat's 122 is also the highest individual score by a player from associate nation in a T20I. ==See also== *Cricket Hong Kong *List of Hong Kong ODI cricketers *List of Hong Kong Twenty20 International cricketers *Hong Kong national cricket captains *Hong Kong women's cricket team ==References== ==External links== *Hong Kong Cricket Association *Hong Kong Cricket Team Category:Cricket in Hong Kong Category:National cricket teams Cricket Category:Hong Kong in international cricket
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Paul Georg Edler von Rennenkampf (; – 1 April 1918) was a Baltic German nobleman, statesman and general of the Imperial Russian Army who commanded the 1st Army in the invasion of East Prussia during the initial stage of the Eastern front of World War I. He also served as the last commander of the Vilna Military District. Rennenkampf gained a reputation as an effective cavalry commander during the Boxer Rebellion and the Russo-Japanese War. Following service in the latter, he led the detachment that suppressed the Chita Republic during the 1905 Russian Revolution. This earned him further promotion, and by the outbreak of World War I Rennenkampf was commander of the Vilna Military District, whose forces were used to form the 1st Army under his command. He led the 1st Army in the invasion of East Prussia and won an early victory at Gumbinnen in late August 1914, but was relieved of command after defeats at Tannenberg, the Masurian Lakes and Łódź, although he was later proved innocent for the mistakes made in the Battle at Łódź by an official inquiry into his actions. Rennenkampf was shot by the Bolsheviks in Taganrog during the Red Terror in 1918. == Biography == === Origin === Paul Georg Edler von Rennenkampff was born on 29 April 1854 in the manor of Konofer (now Konuvere, Märjamaa parish, Estonia) in the then Governorate of Estonia; one of eight children of Captain Karl Gustav Edler von Rennenkampff and Anna Gabriele Ingeborg Freiin von Stackelberg, he came from the Konofer-Tuttomäggi-Sastama branch of the Baltic German Rennenkampff family and was of Lutheran faith. His paternal ancestors were of Westphalian origin, originating in Osnabrück. On his mother's side was the Stackelberg family, whose common ancestor was Carl Adam von Stackelberg, a Swedish cavalry officer and participant in The Great Northern War;Carl Adam Freiherr von Stackelberg/ Genealogy on the Internet by Stackelberg he thus remained a fifth cousin of the Russo-Japanese War general Georg von Stackelberg.Carl Adam von Stackelberg: Stackelberg was descended from Karl Wilhelm, while Rennenkampff was descended from Adam Friedrich. === Early career === As a youth, Rennenkampf was educated in the Tallinn Knight and Cathedral School (; ), a German-speaking school established especially for local Baltic German aristocrats. Upon graduation, he joined the military as a non-commissioned officer in the 89th Infantry Regiment. He graduated the in Helsinki and began his military career with the Lithuanian 5th Lancers Regiment. He graduated at the top of his class from the Nicholas General Staff Academy in St. Petersburg (or at the first category) in 1881. From late August to late November 1884, he was an over-officer of the 14th Army Corps, specialising in instruction. In late September 1886, he was the chief of staff of the Warsaw Military District, serving under General and later Field Marshal Count Gurko. In early 1888, he was appointed to the Kazan Military District. Rennenkampf subsequently became the senior adjutant to the headquarters of the Don Cossacks. In late October 1889, he was appointed headquarters officer for special assignment at the 2nd Army Corps headquarters. In late March 1890, he was appointed the chief of staff of the Osowiec Fortress in Russian Poland. The same year he was promoted to Colonel, after which he served in several different regiments until late November 1899, when he was appointed chief of staff of the Transbaikal region, and was promoted to major general. === Boxer Rebellion === From 1900 to 1901, Rennenkampf participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China. He distinguished himself with extreme success during the campaign, receiving both the 4th and 3rd classes of the Order of St. George for military distinction. Recipients of the Order of St. George, 4th degree Recipients of the Order of St George, 3rd degree In mid-September, Rennenkampf left for Dagushan, leaving hundreds of troops to protect the mint and arsenal. After several days of resetting, he attacked and occupied Tieling and Mukden with his detachment attacked, maintaining control until October. Within this time, the general survived numerous assassination attempts; during one encounter, when he and his troops entered a manor, three Chinese men with spears charged toward the general, with a Cossack, Fyodor Antipyev, saving the general and being stabbed himself. For military distinction, he was awarded the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree. The raid of the cavalry detachment of Rennenkampf was one of the most successful and decisive military operations in the Boxer Rebellion. In just three months of actions, Russian troops had taken over 2,500m2 of land, the best trained Chinese troops stationed at Heilongjiang were defeated and pushed out of Manchuria, and rebel detachments were dispersed, leading to the cessation of the Chinese resistance movement against their Russian occupiers. === Russo-Japanese War === In February 1904, after the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, Rennenkampf was appointed commander of the Trans-Baikal Cossack Division.Kowner, Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War, pp. 315–17. In June, he was promoted to lieutenant- general in recognition of his military distinction. In late June 1904, while scouting the Japanese positions at Liaoyang, he was shot in the leg, shattering the shin. After less than two months he returned to active service, without fully recovering from his wounds. In the Battle of Mukden, Rennenkampf again distinguished himself commanding the Tsinghechensky detachment, which was stationed at the left flank of the 1st Manchurian Army led by General Nikolai Linevich. During the battle, he showed great persistence, which, combined with other reinforcements, was able to repulse Field Marshal Kawamura's offensive. According to some historians and writers, after the Battle of Mukden, a personal conflict occurred between Rennenkampf and General Samsonov and it came to an exchange of blows, which made the two of them lifelong foes; some other historians argue that there could be no clashes between the generals. The main source of this rumor is the memoirs of the German general Max Hoffmann, who was an observer with the Imperial Japanese Army during the war; capable of personally observing relations among Russian generals, he would subsequently become one of Rennenkampf's enemies in the First World War. In his memoirs, which refer again to rumors, Hoffmann mentioned that both generals quarrelled in Liaoyang after the battle; however, this claimed argument remains physically impossible, as Rennenkampf was seriously injured at this time. After the war, Rennenkampf commanded numerous army corps, including the 7th Siberian Army Corps, the 3rd Siberian Army Corps and the 3rd Army Corps. === 1905 Russian Revolution === After the war, Rennenkampf commanded an infantry battalion with several machine guns which followed a train in Harbin, restoring communications between the Manchurian Army and Western Siberia. Within this time, the Revolution broke out; this task remained interrupted via a revolutionary movement in Eastern Siberia, the Chita Republic. Rennenkampf and his forces were sent to suppress the movement, successfully restoring order in Chita. After this campaign, he remained a target for assassination by numerous rebel groups and several plots to assassinate him were planned. In late October 1906, he faced an assassination attempt while walking along the street with two of his adjutants; a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, who was sitting on a bench, threw a bomb onto the general's feet. However, rather than destroying Rennenkampf and his adjutants, the explosion merely stunned them. The attempted assassin was later arrested and tried. The decisive actions of Rennenkampf in the course of a war and in the suppression of rebellion led to further advancements in his career. In late December 1910, he was promoted to General of the Cavalry, then promoted to General-Adjutant in 1912. A further promotion to commander-in- chief of all troops within the Vilna Military District followed in mid-January 1913. === World War I === In the beginning of the First World War, Rennenkampf was appointed commander of the 1st Army of the Northwestern Front, under commander-in-chief General Yakov Zhilinsky; his rival Samsonov was the commander of the 2nd Army invading East Prussia from the south. On 7 August 1914, Rennenkampf and his troops entered East Prussia from the east. While retreating upon orders from the defending 8th Army commander, General Maximilian von Prittwitz, a gap formed between the Russian armies; exploiting this, the Imperial German 1st Division, commanded by General Hermann von François, counterattacked at the Battle of Stallupönen, initiating the Eastern Front of the war. Although it was a victory for the Germans, Russian artillery bombardment halted the German offensive, causing François to withdraw to the town of Gumbinnen. Rennenkampf continued his advance, defeating the 8th Army under the Prittwitz's command at the Battle of Gumbinnen. But due to a later incorrect assessment made by Zhilinsky, the victory at Gumbinnen did not develop. After the battle, Rennenkampf was ordered by Zhilinsky to launch an offensive against the heart of East Prussia, Königsberg, but his army did not link up with Samsonov's 2nd Army due to a mistake made by Zhilinsky. As a result, the German 8th Army under the new commander, General (later field marshal) Paul von Hindenburg, charged through the gap, then encircled and nearly wiped out the 2nd Army near Allenstein (the Battle of Tannenberg). When the desperate Samsonov sent his appeals for help, instead of immediately replying and heading south to aid Samsonov, Rennenkampf almost completely ignored the appeal. When he finally began to head south, he and his men started too late and proceeded more slowly than they should have, contributing to the defeat of the 2nd Army. After the battle, Samsonov, fearing being held responsible for the defeat, committed suicide. After the 2nd Army's annihilation at the Battle of Tannenberg, Rennenkampf's army took over all the defenses along the Deyma, Lava and the Masurian Lakeland. On 7 September, the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes began, as the Germans attacked the left flank of the 1st Army with a powerful detachment. Zhilinsky broke his promise to provide Rennenkampf with reinforcements from other formations; as a result, the 1st Army had to retreat hurriedly. The 2nd Army Corps, led by General Vladimir Slyusarenko, resisted desperately, as did Rennenkampf himself, who transferred all the cavalrymen, reserves, and troops from the right to left flank of the 20th Army Corps in order to avoid encirclement by Hindenburg. By 15 September, he skillfully withdrew his men from encirclement and withdrew behind the Neman, saving all the remaining troops he had. After this failure, despite his best efforts to blame Rennenkampf for the defeat, Zhilinsky was dismissed and was replaced by the General Nikolai Ruzsky. In mid-November at Łódź, due to the indecisiveness and mistakes made by Ruzsky, the 1st Army was unable to prevent the XXV Reserve Corps of General Reinhard von Scheffer- Boyadel from escaping out of the encircling movement, causing the front to retreat. A sharp conflict then broke out between the two men. After the incident, Rennenkampf was relieved from his position. His acts during the battle became the subject of a special commission under General Peter von Baranoff; he was even considered being tried for treason, due to his ethnic background. He was then dismissed in early October 1915 "for domestic reasons with a uniform and pension". After that, he stayed in Petrograd, living in retirement with his wife Vera until the Bolshevik coup. However, his retirement was extremely unsettling, as he was falsely accused of being a traitor, and all across Russia, on streets and in public places, people insulted him for his actions. Even Baltic Germans accused him, as Vera recalled, as being a "terrible Russophile". All these events plunged Rennenkampf into deep moral suffering.Rennenkampf Pavel Karlovich: last paragraph of the passage Army chief of staff General Nikolai Yanushkevich wrote the following about the issue of German Generals in the Russian Army to the Minister of War, General Sukhomlinov: In a further investigation, it was revealed that it was Ruzsky's strategic mistakes that had let Scheffer-Boyadel and his troops escape from the encirclement. This, however, did not bring Rennenkampf back to service. === February Revolution === Rennenkampf was arrested shortly after the February Revolution, as many of the revolutionaries remembered his role in the suppression of the Chita Republic back in 1905. He was then questioned by the Extraordinary Investigative Commission of the Russian Republic, although he was not charged with any crimes. === October Revolution and death === Rennenkampf was arrested again after the October Revolution and, like many other tsarist officials, was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. He was released shortly afterwards due to deteriorating health. After that, he, along with several other tsarist generals, went south to Taganrog, his wife's birthplace, and lived under the protection of a merchant named Smokovnikov. After the Red Army took over the city, Rennenkampf disappeared, disguised as a Greek subject named Mandusakis, but was tracked down by the Red Army and identified, after which he was brought to the headquarters of the Bolsheviks under the order of Red Army commander-in-chief Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko. After arriving, the former general was offered a command in the Red Army, with refusal implying death. Rennenkampf refused to defect to the Bolsheviks, saying: At the time, the Germans were advancing toward Taganrog; the Czechs and Anton Denikin's White Army were as well. As a result, Rennenkampf was taken hostage by the Bolsheviks and brought near the railway tracks running from the Martsevo station to the Baltic. Upon arrival, Rennenkampf was forced to dig his own grave, then stabbed before being executed with a bullet to the temple. === Aftermath === thumb|right|Proposed resting place of Rennenkampff According to Rennenkampf's wife Vera's memoirs, after his death, the Whites were told that Rennenkampf was on the way to Moscow. In May 1918, after the Whites had taken over Taganrog, a stick was found stuck in the ground near the railway tracks running from the Martsevo station to the Baltic Plant. After they dug up the grave, they found several bodies, including one nearly naked with a bullet wound to the head. When they took the corpses to a local cemetery (now the Taganrog Old Cemetery) in the city, Rennenkampf's wife Vera arrived at the cemetery and identified the nearly naked corpse as her husband Paul. The White troops and Rennenkampf's wife held a funeral that fulfilled Rennenkampf's wish of being buried in an unmarked mass grave with other victims of the Red Terror. But other than her memoirs, there is no evidence of Rennenkampf's burial in the Old Cemetery in Taganrog. In recent years, researchers at the Hoover Institution archives of the Stanford University found several photos taken during the civil war. In the photos, a marked grave was clearly seen on the left with "P. K. Rennenkampf" written on it. This allowed historians and researchers to determine and establish the final resting place of Rennenkampf at the burial ground in the Old Cemetery in Taganrog."Pay the debt of memory""American footprint"."The burial place of General P.K. Rennenkampf" === Family === Born into a large and wealthy family, Rennenkampf had five brothers and two sisters. His brothers included Woldemar Konstantin von Rennenkampff (1852–1912), a cavalryman and the director of the Russian gun industry, and Georg Olaf von Rennenkampff (1859–1915), a chief of powder manufacturing in Zawiercie. Rennenkampf married four times. In 1882, he married Adelaide Franziska Thalberg, with whom he had three children: Adelaide Ingeborg (1883–1896), Woldemar Konstantin (1884) and Iraida Hermaine (1885–1950). Thalberg died in 1888 after only six years of marriage. In 1890, in Vilno, Rennenkampff married Lydia Kopylova, with whom he had one more child, Lydia (1891–1937). He then married Evgenia Dmitryevna Grechova, with whom he had no children. Finally, in 1907 in Irkutsk he married Vera Nikolayevna Krassan (Leonutova), with whom he had a daughter, Tatyana (1907–1994), and adopted Vera's daughter Olga (1901–1918) from her first marriage. Unlike his other marriages, Rennenkampf's marriage with Vera was long and happy. Vera, as the wife of the commander of the Vilna Military District, was a trustee and member of a branch of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. When the war broke out, she participated in organizations that cared for the wounded. In Vera's memoirs, she wrote of her founding of the Committee for Assistance to the families of reserve lower ranks, tailoring workshops for the front, and her participation in the formation of the flying car detachment of the Evangelical Red Cross that took the wounded from the battlefield. After the war and Rennenkampf's death, the fate of his family was unknown, but Vera and Tatyana escaped to Paris, France. Olga was murdered on her doorstep the same month as her stepfather's murder. The rest of the family either fled to Estonia or back to Germany during the civil war. ==Legacy== Before his execution, Rennenkampf had asked his wife Vera to make every effort to "whitewash his name from slander". Vera was not alone in considering her husband to be innocent of the strategic mistakes that led to the Russian defeats in the East Prussian campaign; a significant part of the White émigrés, including generals Baron Wrangel, Anton Denikin, and Nikolai Golovin, shared that view. To rehabilitate the general's image and to "give the light to the real face of General Paul Georg Edler von Rennenkampff", on the initiative of his wife in November 1936 the historical society of the "Friends of Rennenkampf" ("Les Amis de Rennenkampf") was founded in Paris. The honorary chairman was Vera herself, and the president of the bureau was the husband of Rennenkampf's daughter Tatyana. The honorary committee included the widow of Baron Wrangel – Baroness Olga Mikhailovich, General Nikolai Epanchin, Prince Belosselsky-Belozersky and others."The Historical Society of the Friends of Rennenkampf (Les Amis de Rennenkampf)" === Personal collection === A collection of Chinese art pieces looted by Rennenkampf during the 1900 Chinese Campaign is on display in the Alferaki Palace in Taganrog. == In popular culture == * In the 2005 Russian film The Fall of the Empire, Rennenkampf was portrayed by Russian actor Sergei Nikonenko. * Rennenkampf was among 15 Russian generals and admirals to be featured in the postcards produced by the French confectionery company Chocolat Guérin-Boutron, with the description "86. Rennenkampf, général russe"."General P.K. Rennenkampf on Guerin-Boutron chocolate leaflet" ==Honours and awards== ===Russian Empire=== * 40px|link=Order of Saint Stanislav Order of St. Stanislaus, 3rd class (1884) * 40px|link=Order of Saint Stanislav Order of St. Stanislaus, 2nd class (1894) * 40px|link=Order of St. Stanislav Order of St. Stanislaus, 1st class with swords (31.3.1905) * 40px|link=Order of Saint Anna Order of St. Anne, 3rd class (1888) * 40px|link=Order of Saint Anna Order of St. Anne, 2nd class (1895) * 40px|link=Order of Saint Anna Order of St. Anne, 1st class (1907) * 40px|link=Order of Saint Vladimir Order of St Vladimir, 4th class (1899) * 40px|link=Order of St. Vladimir Order of St Vladimir, 3rd class (1903) * 40px|link=Order of St. Vladimir Order of St Vladimir, 2nd class with swords (1914) * 40px|link=Order of St. George Order of St. George, 4th class (12.8.1900) * 40px|link=Order of St. George Order of St. George, 3rd class (22.12.1900) * 40px|link=Golden Sword of St. George Golden Weapon with diamonds and the inscription "For Bravery" (1906) ===Foreign=== * : ** 40px|link=Order of the Sword Order of the Sword (before 1914) * : ** 40px|link=Order of the Iron Crown (Austria) Order of the Iron Crown (before 1914) == Publications == * Auf dem Fluß Amur und in der Mandschurei, war reports of Generals Rennenkampf of 1904, Part I, Voyenny Sbornik (military collection), Nr. 3, S. 89–108. * Auf dem Fluß Amur und in der Mandschurei, war reports of Generals Rennenkampf of 1904, Part II, Voyenny Sbornik, Nr. 4, S. 57–86. * Auf dem Fluß Amur und in der Mandschurei, war reports of Generals Rennenkampf of 1904, Part III, Voyenny Sbornik, Nr. 5, S. 55–86. * Der zwanzigtägige Kampf meines Detachements in der Schlacht von Mukden, Berlin: Mittler & Sohn (1909) == Notes == == References == == Sources == * Connaughton, R.M (1988). The War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear – A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–5, London, . * Jukes, Geoffrey. The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Osprey Essential Histories. (2002). . * * Warner, Denis & Peggy. The Tide at Sunrise, A History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. (1975). . * Stackelberg, Otto Magnus v. Genealogical Handbook of the Baltic Knighthoods Part 2, 3: Estonia. Görlitz (1929) * Transehe Roseneck, Astaf v. Genealogical Handbook of the Baltic Knighthoods Part 1, 2: Livonia, Lfg. 9-15. Görlitz (1929) * Baltic German Biographical Dictionary 1710-1960. (1970), from the Baltic Biographical Dictionary Digital == External links == * biography at Russojapanesewar.com * Who's Who: Paul von Rennenkampf * * Rennenkampff, Paul Georg v. Baltic Biographical Dictionary Digital * Pavel Karlovich Rennenkampf – Biography, imfromation, personal life * |- Category:1854 births Category:1918 deaths Category:People from Märjamaa Parish Category:People from Kreis Wiek Category:Baltic-German people Category:Baltic nobility Category:Imperial Russian Army generals Category:Russian military personnel of the Boxer Rebellion Category:Russian military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War Category:Russian military personnel of World War I Category:Russian people of German descent Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 1st class Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Third Degree Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class Category:Recipients of the Gold Sword for Bravery Category:Victims of Red Terror in Soviet Russia Category:Executed Russian people Category:Executed Estonian people Category:Deaths by firearm in Russia
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Asase Ya/Afua (or Asase Yaa, Asaase Yaa, Asaase Afua, Asaase Efua) is the Akan goddess of fertility, love, procreation, peace, truth and the dry and lush earth in Ghana and Ivory Coast. She is also Mother of the Dead known as Mother Earth or Aberewaa. Asase is the wife of Nyankapon, the male sky deity, and is the daughter of Nyame, the female aspect of the Nyankapon-Nyame-Odomakoma trinity, all of whom created the universe. Asase gave birth to two children, Bea and Tano. Bea is also named Bia. In some folklore tales, Asase is also the mother of Anansi, the trickster, and divine stepmother of the sacred high chiefs. Asase is very powerful, though no temples are dedicated to her, instead, she is worshipped in the agricultural fields of the Asante and other Akans. Asase is highly respected amongst Akans. Sacrifices are given to her for favour and blessings. Asase's favoured people are the Bono people. Planet Earth is Asase Yaa's symbol whilst Venus is Asase Afua's symbol. == Names == The name Asase means 'Earth' in Twi. The name Ya means 'one born on Thursday, meaning that Asase was created on a Thursday. However, the name Afua means 'one born on Friday', meaning that in she was created on Friday. In actuality, the Asante believe that Asase was created on a Thursday while the Fante believe that Asase was created on a Friday. Due to this, the Asante and most other Akans call Asase 'Asase Ya' meaning 'Earth born on Thursday' whilst the Fante and the other Akans call Asase 'Asase Efua (Afua)' meaning 'Earth born on Friday' The Asante also know Asase Ya as Aberewaa, meaning 'old woman' Asase is also known as 'Asase bo ne nsie' meaning 'Earth, creator of the underworld' == Description == Asase has two differing descriptions and, thus, two different personalities. However, they are both one deity Asase Yaa: Asase Yaa is described as an old woman, linked to the other meaning of the name Asase Yaa; Old Mother Earth, and the other name Asase Yaa is known as, Aberewaa. As such she is regarded as the Goddess of the barren places on earth and the dead (she is the mother of the Dead). Asase Yaa is also the Goddess of Truth and Peace and is consulted on matters of the community through divination. As the Goddess of Truth and the Mother of the dead, she governs the gateway to Asamando, the Akan Ancestral Realm. At death, Asase Yaa reclaims her mortal children, humanity. Asase Afua: Asase Afua, by contrast, is depicted as a youthful, incredibly beautiful woman. Due to this, she is regarded as the Goddess of the fertile places on earth, fertility, farming, love and procreation. Mmoatia are said to be her spiritual custodians similar to how baboons are the custodians of Ta Kora. Asase Afua is have said to have given birth to all of humanity, despite the Asante proverb that says that all of mankind are children of Nyame, not Asase, although this actually applies to one's Sunsum and Kra (Ego and Soul), not Mogya (blood) and Honam (body). It is this form of Asase who is the wife of Nyankapon. Asase Afua is represented by the antelope and either still is, or used to be, represented by the goat . The antelope has 10 coils on the left horn and 8 coils on the right, the right horn and the antelope with 8 coils on each of its horns represents Asase Afua as it is a symbol of fertility in the Akan religion due to Venus (the sign of Asase Afua) was said to be an eight-rayed star, with possibly cross-divided or divided eye, representing the waxing and waning moon, symbolic of fertility (Asase Afua) and death. Asase shares this animal with her mother, Nyame who represents the 10 coiled horn and the 10 coiled horned antelopes. The goat also represents (or represented) her due to goats having a procreative and sexual meaning, but it was entirely supplanted by Ta Kora whom either took the goat symbol for himself or shares it with her All Akans, no matter if they call Asase Yaa or Afua, recognize that Asase has two personalities; One old and one youthful == Asase Yaa/Afua Worship and Taboos == There are many ways that Asase Yaa/Afua is worshipped. Here are some of the ways === Goddess of Truth === As the upholder of truth, lying is a taboo committed against Asase. When a member of the Akan people wants to prove their credibility, they touch their lips or tongue to the soil of the Earth and recite the Asase Ya Prayer- Poem as evidence of their honesty === Goddess of the Earth, Fertility, Procreation and Farming === As the Goddess of the Earth, she is credited as being the nurturer of the earth and is considered to provide sustenance for all. As such she is regularly worshipped so she doesn't withhold her abundance of resources. For the Asante, Bono and most other Akans, Thursday is reserved as Asase's day. On said day these Akan people generally abstain from tilling the land. However, for the Fante and few other Akans, Friday is reserved as Asase's day. On said day, Fante and other Akans generally abstain from tilling the land. No one is allowed to change or agitate the land without the consent of Asase, which can only be gained by pouring libations to Asase. Serious consequences can befall those who violate this rule. Before planting the person who is going to plant must knock upon the earth as if she was a door During a child's outdooring (naming) ceremony, once the child's complete name is bestowed upon the infant, the child is placed on a mat symbolizing thanksgiving to Asase for sustaining its life and for allowing the parents to successfully procreate As the aspect of Earth, Asase receives the deceased body for interment The colour marron is associated with Asase due to its link to clay (which comes from the earth) and the clay, due to its connection to Asase is seen as a healing and purifying agent in Akan culture. If a person commits a sexual in the bush, Assase Yaa must be propitiated Before setting up a house, a sacrifice of appeasement is made towards Assase so that the house is protected from evil spirits When humans die, their honam and mogya are returned to Asase During ayie (funeral rites) libations are poured so Asase can permit the grave of the deceased to be buried === Goddess of Peace === Asase is the God of peace, meaning that when there is a murder, war or a way where human blood is intentionally spilt, very substantial sacrifices are needed in order to appease Asase === Mother of the Dead === As the Mother of the Dead, she is the one who comes to fetch Akan people's souls to the otherworld (Asamando) at the time of death [cite]. Also, it is with her name that the first offerings are made to the ancestors, due to the fact that the Ancestors are looked over by Asase. During ayie libations are poured so Asase can accept and protect the person to be buried and to lead them peacefully to Asamando === Libations and reverence towards Asase === As the first deity to be created by Nyame, Asase is called in libations immediately after Nyame The Akan believe that everyone has the ability to show reverence towards Asase, whether by pouring libations to her or by looking after her (i.e. looking after the world) Fowls are sacrificed in her name and their blood poured onto the floor, specifically by farmers when they need Asase's permission to plough, plant and harvest == Proverbs and Adinkra == Here are proverbs linked to Asase: Asase Ye Duru: lit The Earth has weight. This proverb and Adinkra (shown below) symbolizes the providence and the divinity of Mother Earth and this symbol represents the importance of the Earth in sustaining life Tumi nyina ne asase: lit All power emanates from Earth. This proverb attests to the power of Asase, where anything earthly that has power is part of her power Asase ye duru sen epo: lit The Earth is much heavier than the Sea. This proverb shows the importance of Asase to the Akan Nipa nyina ye Nyame mma, obi nye Asase ba: lit All mankind is Onyame's offspring, no one is the offspring of the Earth. This means that spiritually (as far as Sunsum and Kra go) humans are not Asase's children as all sunsum and kra return to Nyame after death == Songs and Prayers to Asase == === Asase Ya Prayer Poem === Prayer Poem To Asase Ya First stanza Old Woman Earth .... She who Lent the Rights.. Of Cultivation to the Living .... My Prayer to You, of Thanksgiving. Second stanza "Earth, When I am about to Die, I Lean on you. Earth, While I am Alive, I Depend on You". Third stanza Lilacs in your Hair .. Ever Present Mother In each Grain of Sand is thy Story. Fourth stanza Giver of Nkwagye the Salvation of Life And Nkwa to live Life without Strife To your Everlasting Glory. Fifth stanza That Man is Tame is thy Domain... Giver of Law and Ethics Scales of Justice. Sixth stanza With Each Field I till.. With Thee I am Still And when Death comes to Claim.. I become One with thy Fame Bringing Life to the Land with my Will. Seventh stanza The Fertile Fields and the Woman's Yield All Have felt thy Hand Hail and Thanks Be Great Mother For your Back upon which we Stand. Eight stanza Upholder of Truth, our Lady Fair To kiss the dust of thy Breast... Is proof of the Tale. Ninth stanza Hail Great Mother Whose Love is in the Earth Thy gifts to your Children Are an Unending source of Mirth. Tenth stanza A Smile to the Lips with a Song in the Heart Praises we Sing, when the Plantings to Start. Eleventh stanza Hail bringer of Life, bringer of Law and Order Hail Old Mother Earth, your Children Have Crossed the Border Into the Lands of Sweetness and Heart. Twelfth stanza Asase Yaa, Aberewa, Asase Efua Names without End do we Call You Blessed Be, Asase Yaa To Be Cherished Forever, We Adore You. === Poetry to Asase === O Mother Earth, who gives birth, who wed the sky, Who nurtures and sustains all, who gives us life: While we live, we depend on You; when we die, We lean on You. You taught us the tiller-knife, You give us law, order, and truth-seeing eye; Save you alone we would live in fear and strife. We press our lips to your bosom, the rich soil, Ever turn with song and smile to holy toil. === Short prayer to Asase === Into your womb I place the seed of self To be nurtured in goodness and grown in love. === Poetry to Asase Ya and Nana Firimpong === Nana Firimpong once you were here hoed the earth and left it for me green rich ready with yam shoots, the tuberous smooth of cassava; take the blood of the fowl drink take the eto, mashed plantain, that my women have cooked eat and be happy drink may you rest for the year has come round again. Asase Yaa, You, Mother of Earth, on whose soil I have placed my tools on whose soil I will hoe I will work the year has come round again; thirsty mouth of the dust is ready for water for seed; drink and be happy eat may you rest for the year has come round again. And may the year this year of all years be fruitful beyond the fruit of your labour: shoots faithful to tip juice to stem leaves to green; and may the knife or the cutlass not cut me; roots blunt, shoots break, green wither, winds shatter, damp rot, hot harmattan come drifting in harm to the crops; the tunnelling termites not raise their red monuments, graves, above the blades of our labour == Family == Asase is the daughter of Nyame, the female aspect of the Nyankapon-Nyame- Odomakoma trinity and the wife to Nyankapon. With him, she has had several children, the most notable being Bosomtwe, Epo, Bia, Ta Kora and possibly Ananse. Asase Ya's favorite child is most likely Bia (same as Nyame's), as Bia is the Akan God of the Wilderness, and Asase Ya represents the harsh, dry Earth == Myths == === Asase is separated from Nyame and the tower to Nyame === According to legend, Asase and Nyame were once very close. However a person, either Asase herself or someone else pounds their yam with a pestle either to prepare fufu for their children or just to annoy Nyame. Either way, the pestle routinely bumps against the heaven, hitting Nyame. Annoyed, Nyame separates himself from Asase by turning into his true creator form; Ananse Kokroko (Great Spider) and climbing on a thread to heaven. In one version of the myth, Asase attempts to reestablish her relationship with Nyame. To do that, she gets many mortars, piling them one on top of the other. In the process, she moves closer and closer to the sky. To reunite with Nyame, she needed just one more mortar. She asks a child to get one for her, but he can find none. In desperation, she tells him to take one of the mortars from the bottom of the pile. He does so, and, when the mortar is removed, the entire tower collapses, forever separating Asase and Nyame In another version the woman who pounds her pestle against heaven orders her children to build a tower of mortars, one atop another, right to Nyame. Needing one more mortar, the children took it from the bottom—and the whole tower collapsed, killing many In a third version of the myth, Nyame and Asase are so close, humans were squished between them. So man annoyed Nyame with cooking smoke, banging pestles, and slicing off chunks of the sky for the pot until he retreated further away from the earth. === Asase and her magical sword, how Ananse stole it and the plant that cuts people === According to myth, Asase had a long, sharp sword that could fight by itself. When she ordered the sword to fight, it slaughtered everyone it encountered. When she commanded the sword to stop fighting, by saying "cool down", it did. Ananse had fled to his mother, Asase's house. There were one of two reasons for this: 1) Because there was famine in the land, and the only food available was in the storehouse of Nyame. Ananse, in order to become Nyame's agent and sell his food supplies to the people, Ananse agreed to let his head be shaved daily but the shaving was painful, and people made fun of the way he looked. Or 2) Because he had tried hiding beans under his hat, but the beans were extremely hot and ended up scalding his head and hair, leading to him becoming mostly bald with a bit of oddly placed hair, where again people made fun of how it looked Either way, when Ananse could no longer stand this situation, he stole some food and fled to Asase's house. When he asked the goddess for her protection, she granted it. One day, when Asase left the house, Ananse stole her sword. He returned with it to Nyame and offered to use the sword to protect Nyame whenever he needed help. Nyame accepted Ananse's offer. When an enemy army approached, Anansi ordered the sword to fight. It slew all of the enemy forces. However, Ananse could not remember the command to make the sword stop. With no enemies left to kill, the sword turned on Nyame's army. When only Ananse was left alive, it killed him too. Then it stuck itself into the ground and turned into a plant with leaves so sharp they cut anyone who touched them. The plant still cuts people, because no one has ever given the sword the command to stop. ==The Abosom in the Americas (Jamaica)== Worship of the Asase was transported via the transatlantic slave trade and was documented to had been acknowledged by enslaved Akan or Coromantee living in Jamaica. Jamaican slave owners did not believe in Christianity for the Coromantee and left them to their own beliefs. Hence the Akan's spiritual system was dominant on the plantation. According to Jamaican historian and slave owner Edward Long, creole descendants of the Akan coupled with other newly arrived Coromantee joined in observation and worship of the Akan goddess Asase (the English people recorded erroneously as 'Assarci'). They showed their worship by pouring libations and offering up harvested foods. Other Akan Abosom were also reported to be worshipped. This was the only deity spiritual system on the island, as other deities identities in the 18th century were obliterated because of the large population of enslaved Coromantee in Jamaica, according to Edward Long and other historians who observed their slaves. == See also == * Nyame * Akan religion * Adinkra *Amokye ==References== Category:African deities Category:African goddesses Category:African mythology Category:Akan religion Category:Ashanti people Category:Earth deities Category:Earth goddesses Category:Fertility deities Category:Fertility goddesses Category:Peace deities Category:Peace goddesses Category:Sky and weather deities Category:Sky and weather goddesses
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The lifetime of British writer, philosopher, and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) encompassed most of the second half of the eighteenth century, a time of great political and social upheaval throughout Europe and America: political reform movements in Britain gained strength, the American colonists successfully rebelled, and the French Revolution erupted. Wollstonecraft experienced only the headiest of these days, not living to see the end of the democratic revolution when Napoleon crowned himself emperor. Although Britain was still revelling in its mid-century imperial conquests and its triumph in the Seven Years' War, it was the French revolution that defined Wollstonecraft's generation. As poet Robert Southey later wrote: "few persons but those who have lived in it can conceive or comprehend what the memory of the French Revolution was, nor what a visionary world seemed to open upon those who were just entering it. Old things seemed passing away, and nothing was dreamt of but the regeneration of the human race."Southey, Robert. The Correspondence of Robert Southey with Caroline Bowles, ed. Edward Dowden. Norton Anthology of English Literature: Norton Topics Online. Retrieved 27 August 2007. Part of what made reform possible in Britain in the second half of the eighteenth century was the dramatic increase in publishing; books, periodicals, and pamphlets became much more widely available than they had been just a few decades earlier.Kelly, Gary. English Fiction of the Romantic Period, 1789–1830. London: Longman (1989), 2. This increase in available printed material helped facilitate the rise of the British middle class. Reacting against what they viewed as aristocratic decadence, the new professional middle classes (made prosperous through British manufacturing and trade), offered their own ethical code: reason, meritocracy, self-reliance, religious toleration, free inquiry, free enterprise, and hard work.Kelly, 10. They set these values against what they perceived as the superstition and unreason of the poor and the prejudices, censorship, and self-indulgence of the rich. They also helped establish what has come to be called the "cult of domesticity", which solidified gender roles for men and women.Kelly, 10-11. This new vision of society rested on the writings of Scottish Enlightenment philosophers such as Adam Smith, who had developed a theory of social progress founded on sympathy and sensibility. A partial critique of the rationalist Enlightenment, these theories promoted a combination of reason and feeling that enabled women to enter the public sphere because of their keen moral sense.Kelly, 13. Wollstonecraft's writings stand at the nexus of all of these changes. Her educational works, such as her children's book Original Stories from Real Life (1788), helped inculcate middle-class values, and her two Vindications, A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), argue for the value of an educated, rational populace, specifically one that includes women. In her two novels, Mary: A Fiction and Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, she explores the ramifications of sensibility for women. The end of the eighteenth century was a time of great hope for progressive reformers such as Wollstonecraft. Like the revolutionary pamphleteer Thomas Paine and others, Wollstonecraft was not content to remain on the sidelines. She sought out intellectual debate at the home of her publisher Joseph Johnson, who gathered leading thinkers and artists for weekly dinners,Todd, Janet. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson (2000), 152-53 and she traveled extensively, first to be a part of the French revolution and later to seek a lost treasure ship for her lover in what was then exotic Scandinavia, turning her journey into a travel book, Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. After two complicated and heart-rending affairs with the artist Henry Fuseli and the American adventurer Gilbert Imlay (with whom she had an illegitimate daughter, Fanny Imlay), Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement.Todd, 417ff. Together, they had one daughter: Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. Wollstonecraft died at the age of 38 due to complications from this birth, leaving behind several unfinished manuscripts.Todd, 452ff. Today, she is most often remembered for her political treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and is considered a foundational feminist philosopher.Kaplan, Cora. "Mary Wollstonecraft's reception and legacies". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002). ==Timeline== ===1750s=== Year Wollstonecraft Literature History 1756 * Marriage of Edward John Wollstonecraft (born 1736) and Elizabeth Dickson (born c. 1740) (Wollstonecraft's parents)"Mary Wollstonecraft: A Brief Chronology". The Vindications: The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman. Eds. D. L. Macdonald and Kathleen Sherf. Peterborough: Broadview Press (1997). * 3 March - Birth of William Godwin, philosopher and future husband of Mary Wollstonecraft, in Wisbech, CambridgeshireLynch, Jack. Eighteenth-century Chronology. Retrieved 5 August 2007."William Godwin: A Brief Chronology". Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Eds. Pamela Clemit and Gina Luria Walker. Peterborough: Broadview Press (2001). * May - Beginning of Seven Years' War"Timeline". The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Co. (2000).BBC British History Timeline. Retrieved 5 August 2007. 1757 * Birth of Edward (Ned) Wollstonecraft (brother to Mary) 100x100px|alt=A painting of a man standing with his back to the viewer. He is atop a mountain and surrounded by clouds and fog. He is dressed in black and contrasts sharply with the whites, pinks, and blues of the atmosphere. In the distance outcroppings of rocks can be seen. * Publication of Edmund Burke's treatise A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful * 23 June - Indian province of Bengal passes into British control after the Battle of Plassey 1759 * 27 April - Birth of Mary Wollstonecraft in Spitalfields, London"Mary Wollstonecraft: A Brief Chronology". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002). * Publication of Samuel Johnson's novel Rasselas * Publication of Voltaire's novel Candide * Publication of Adam Smith's treatise The Theory of Moral Sentiments ===1760s=== Year Wollstonecraft Literature History 1760 * June - James Macpherson allegedly translates, but himself actually writes, poems by Ossian; published as Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland * Publication of the first volume of Laurence Sterne's novel Tristram Shandy (1760–1767) 100x100px|alt=Man dressed in elaborate gold, white, and black coronation robes made of satin and fur. * April - Tacky's Slave Revolt in Jamaica * 25 October - George III (pictured) ascends to the throne of Britain 1761 * Birth of Henry Woodstock Wollstonecraft (brother to Mary) * Publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Julie, or the New Heloise 1762 100x100px|alt=Title page reads "Émile, ou de L'Education. Par J. J. Rousseau, Citoyen de Genève....Tome Premier. A La Haye, Chez jean Neaulme, Libraire. M.DCC.LXII...." * Publication of Rousseau's treatise Emile * Publication of Rousseau's treatise The Social Contract * Publication of Lord Kames's treatise Elements of Criticism 1763 * Birth of Elizabeth (Eliza) Wollstonecraft (sister to Mary) * The Wollstonecraft family moves to Epping ForestTaylor, Barbara. "Chronology". Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2003). * February - Seven Years' War ends with the Treaty of Paris * April - Radical journalist John Wilkes is arrested for criticizing George III 1765 * Birth of Everina (Averina) Wollstonecraft (sister to Mary) * The Wollstonecraft family moves to Barking * Publication of Johnson's collected works of Shakespeare * Publication of Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto, widely considered the first Gothic novel * Publication of William Blackstone's treatise Commentaries on the Laws of England * March - Riots erupt in American colonies after the British parliament levies the stamp tax 1766 * Publication of Rousseau's autobiography, Confessions * Publication of Oliver Goldsmith's novel The Vicar of Wakefield 1768 * Birth of James Wollstonecraft (brother to Mary) * October - The Wollstonecraft family moves to Beverley, YorkshireTodd, 8. * Wollstonecraft meets Jane Arden, her first intimate friend 100x100px|alt=A charitable couple giving money to a poor monk. * Publication of Laurence Sterne's novel A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy * James Cook voyages to Australia and New Zealand (1768–1771) * Joshua Reynolds founds the Royal Academy in Britain 1769 * David Garrick's Shakespeare Jubilee celebration at Stratford-on-Avon ===1770s=== Year Wollstonecraft Literature History 1770 * Birth of Charles Wollstonecraft (brother to Mary) * Publication of Goldsmith's poem The Deserted Village * Publication of Part I of Goethe's play Faust * January - Frederick, Lord North becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain (1770–1782) 1771 * Publication of the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica * Richard Arkwright opens the first cotton mill in Cromford, Derbyshire, England 1772 * December - Publication of Anna Laetitia Barbauld's Poems * December - Publication of Miscellaneous Pieces in Prose by Barbauld and her brother, John Aikin * 22 June - Slavery is effectively outlawed in England 1773 * 16 December - American colonists protest British policies by dumping tea into Boston Harbor 1774 * The Wollstonecraft family moves to Hoxton * Wollstonecraft meets Mr. and Mrs. Clare, who provide a second home for her and educate her * Through the Clares, Wollstonecraft first meets Fanny Blood, for whom she will develop deep feelings * Publication of Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther right|100x100px|alt=Half-length portrait of a man with a short gray wig and curls over both ears. His cream- colored jacket is decorated with medals and a light blue sash. * May - Louis XVI (pictured) ascends to the throne of France * Warren Hastings becomes the first Governor-General of India 1775 * 18 April - The American Revolution (1775–1783) begins with the Battle of Lexington * James Watt invents the steam engine 1776 * The Wollstonecraft family moves to Laugharne, Wales * Publication of Adam Smith's treatise Wealth of Nations * Publication of the first volume of Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1788) 1777 * The Wollstonecraft family moves to Walworth, London * Richard Brinsley Sheridan's play The School for Scandal opens at Drury Lane Theatre 1778 * Wollstonecraft's first job - paid companion to Mrs. Sarah Dawson in Windsor and Bath 100px|alt=Half-length profile portrait of a woman wearing a bonnet * Publication of Frances Burney's novel Evelina * Publication of Barbauld's (pictured) reading primer Lessons for Children 1779 * Publication of Johnson's Lives of the Poets (1779–1781) ===1780s=== Year Wollstonecraft Literature History 1780 * Wollstonecraft's parents and younger siblings move to Enfield * 2-11 June - Gordon Riots in London, protesting the Catholic Relief Act * Major John Cartwright founds the radical Society for Constitutional Information 1781 * Autumn - Wollstonecraft returns home to nurse her ill motherTodd, 39. * Publication of Barbauld's Hymns in Prose for Children * 19 October - French and American forces defeat the British at the Battle of Yorktown, effectively ending the American War of Independence 1782 * 19 April - Wollstonecraft's mother dies * Wollstonecraft's father remarries and moves to Wales * Wollstonecraft moves to Walham Green to live with Fanny Blood and her family * 20 October - Eliza, Wollstonecraft's sister, marries Meredith BishopTodd, 43. 100x100px|alt=Half-length portrait of a woman looking left and away from the viewer. The painting is done in a palette of browns. Her hat, with its elaborate bow, dominates the top third of the painting. She is wearing a cream-colored dress with a rose-colored bow on the front of the bosom. * Publication of Burney's (pictured) novel Cecilia 1783 * 10 August (?) - Eliza gives birth to a daughter and develops postpartum depression * Wollstonecraft's second job - starts school in Islington 100x100px|alt=Picture of a model of a hot air balloon, which has a blue background and is decorated with gold. * 3 September - Treaty of Versailles signed, formally ending the American Revolution * 21 November - The Montgolfier brothers of France launch the first manned hot-air balloonBalloons (1700-1900). ALLSTAR. Retrieved 6 August 2007. * December - William Pitt becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain 1784 100x100px|alt=Quarter-length portrait of a man wearing minister's clothes and a wig. * At the instigation of Wollstonecraft, Eliza leaves her husband and child (who dies later in the year) * Wollstonecraft's school moves from Islington to Newington Green; Eliza, Everina, and Fanny help teach * Wollstonecraft becomes friends with the minister Richard Price (pictured) * Wollstonecraft meets author Samuel Johnson * Pitt's India Act gives the British Crown the power to guide Indian politics (as opposed to officers of the East India Company) 1785 * February - Fanny Blood marries Hugh Skeys in Lisbon * Wollstonecraft travels to Lisbon * November - Fanny gives birth to a child and dies shortly thereafter * December - Wollstonecraft returns to London * Publication of William Cowper's poem The Task 1786 * Wollstonecraft's school in Newington Green fails due to financial difficulties * August - Wollstonecraft's third job - governess to the Anglo-Irish Kingsborough familyTodd, 79. * Wollstonecraft begins work on her conduct book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters * December - Shays' Rebellion (December 1786 - January 1787) * Beginning of impeachment proceedings against Warren Hastings, Governor-General of India 1787 100x100px|alt=Page reads "THOUGHTS ON THE EDUCATION OF DAUGHTERS. THE NURSERY. As I conceive it to be the duty of every rational creature to attend to its offspring, I am sorry to observe, that reason and duty together have not so powerful an influence over human" * Publication of Wollstonecraft's first book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (pictured) by Joseph Johnson * Wollstonecraft travels with the Kingsboroughs to Bristol where she writes her first novel, Mary: A Fiction, and the fragment "Cave of Fancy" * August - Wollstonecraft is dismissed from her governess position by Lady Kingsborough * Wollstonecraft returns to London * Wollstonecraft's fourth job - translator, reader, reviewer, and editorial assistant for Joseph Johnson and Thomas Christie's Analytical Review * Through Johnson, Wollstonecraft meets political reformer Thomas Holcroft, artist and writer Henry Fuseli, radical Joel Barlow, linguist and reformer John Horne Tooke, and writer Anna Laetitia Barbauld * 13 May - First fleet of convicts sails to penal colony in Australia from Britain * 22 May - Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade is formed in Britain 1788 * May - Analytical Review begins publication * Publication of Wollstonecraft's first novel, Mary: A Fiction, by Johnson * Publication of Wollstonecraft's children's book, Original Stories from Real Life, by Johnson * Publication of Wollstonecraft's translation of Jacques Necker's Of the Importance of Religious Opinions by Johnson * 1 January - First edition of The Times of London is published * Publication of Charlotte Smith's novel Emmeline * November - Beginning of the Regency Crisis, caused by George III's madness 1789 * Publication of Wollstonecraft's anthology, The Female Reader, by Johnson (published under the pseudonym of Mr. Cresswick) * Wollstonecraft becomes romantically involved with the artist and writer Henry Fuseli * 29 April - Publication of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, an autobiography by a former slave * Publication of William Blake's poems Songs of Innocence 100x100px|alt=On the left-hand side of the painting, a building with towers is being attacked and is bathed in flames. On the right-hand side, black smoke billows around. At the base of the piece, small people are fighting and destroying the building brick by brick. * 20 June - Tennis Court Oath taken by the French National Assembly * 14 July - Storming of the Bastille in Paris (pictured) * 26 August - The French Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the CitizenDeclaration of the Rights of Man. Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved 14 April 2012. * 5-6 October - "October days"; Parisian women, unable to buy bread, march to Versailles and bring the royal family back to Paris * 4 November - Richard Price gives his sermon "A Discourse on the Love of Our Country" at a meeting of the London Revolution Society, to which Burke would respond a year later, igniting the Revolution Controversy in Britain * December - End of the Regency Crisis (George III recovers)Kelly, Gary. "Chronology". English Fiction of the Romantic Period, 1789-1830\. London: Longman (1989). ===1790s=== Year Wollstonecraft Literature History 1790 100x100px|alt=Title page reads "A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France. By Mary Wollstonecraft. The Second Edition. London: Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72, St. Paul's Church-Yard. M.DCC.XC." * Publication of Wollstonecraft's translation of Maria Geertruida van de Werken de Cambon's Young Grandison by Johnson * Publication of Wollstonecraft's translation of Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children, illustrated by William Blake, by Johnson * 29 November - Publication of the first edition Wollstonecraft's treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Men by Johnson (anonymous) * 18 December - Publication of the second edition of A Vindication of the Rights of Men, with Wollstonecraft's name on the title page, by Johnson (pictured) * Wollstonecraft temporarily adopts Ann, a seven-year-old relative of Hugh Skeys (Fanny Blood's husband) * 1 November - Publication of Edmund Burke's treatise Reflections on the Revolution in France * Publication of Helen Maria Williams's Letters from France * Motions for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts withdrawn * Breach between Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox over the French Revolution 1791 * 1 September - Publication of the second edition of Wollstonecraft's Original Stories from Real Life, with illustrations by William Blake, by Johnson * September - Wollstonecraft begins writing A Vindication of the Rights of Woman * November - Wollstonecraft first meets William Godwin at one of Johnson's famous dinners; they dislike each other * Wollstonecraft has her portrait painted by John Opie (see top of page)Todd, 155. 100x100px|alt=Half=length portrait of a man turned towards the left and looking inquiringly out towards the viewer. He is wearing a dark red velvet jacket and a white shirt and there are papers next to him. * February-March - Publication of Part I of Thomas Paine's (pictured) pamphlet Rights of Man * Publication of Elizabeth Inchbald's novel A Simple Story * Publication of James Boswell's Life of Johnson * Publication of Ann Radcliffe's novel The Romance of the Forest * Publication of Erasmus Darwin's poems The Botanic Garden * Publication of Smith's novel Celestina * 19 April - The British parliament rejects William Wilberforce's bill to abolish the slave trade * 14-17 July - Priestley Riots; rioting aimed at religious Dissenters in Birmingham * August - 100,000 slaves and ex-slaves revolt against planters and the local government in French-controlled San Domingo, the wealthiest colony of the West Indies and main source of sugar and coffee in Europe 1792 100x100px|alt=Title page reads "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects. By Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72, St. Paul's church-Yard. 1792." * January - Publication of Wollstonecraft's treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Johnson * February - Wollstonecraft meets Talleyrand, to whom she dedicated the Rights of Woman * Wollstonecraft falls in love with Henry Fuseli * Wollstonecraft, Fuseli, and his wife come to an emotional crisis * December - Wollstonecraft leaves for Paris * Wollstonecraft meets revolutionary Thomas Paine and writer Helen Maria Williams in Paris * Commissioned by friend and artist William Roscoe, Wollstonecraft's portrait is painted by an unknown artistTodd, 266a. * Publication of Robert Bage's novel Man As He Is * Publication of Hannah More's pamphlet Village Politics * Publication of Smith's novel Desmond * 25 January - The London Corresponding Society (1792 - 1794) formed under the leadership of Thomas Hardy * 7 March - Sierra Leone is established under British rule as a home for former slaves * 10 August - Attack on the Tuileries Palace leads to the deposition of Louis XVI and the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly * 2-6 September - "September Massacres"; 12,000 political prisoners murdered in France * 21 September - Newly elected National Convention abolishes the monarchy and officially declares France a Republic * 20 November - John Reeves founds the Association for Preserving Liberty and Property against Republicans and Levellers in Britain in response to the French Revolution and the London Corresponding Society * 18 December - Paine is found guilty of seditious libel for the Rights of Man and sentenced to death in Britain 1793 * Wollstonecraft meets and falls in love with American adventurer Gilbert Imlay in France * Wollstonecraft registers as Imlay's wife at the United States embassy in France for protection during the Reign of Terror * June - Wollstonecraft moves from Paris to Neuilly to escape the revolutionary violence * September - Wollstonecraft, now pregnant, returns to Paris * 14 February - Publication of Godwin's treatise Political Justice * Publication of Smith's novel The Old Manor House 100x100px|alt=Three-quarter length portrait of a woman holding a book on a green velvet pillow. She is wearing a red and gold velvet dress adorned with a thin, white organza around the bosom and a gray wig, also adorned by thin, white material. * 21 January - Execution of Louis XVI * 1 February - France declares war on England * 11 March - Civil war erupts in France with the revolt in the Vendée * July - Beginning of the Reign of Terror in France * 16 October - Execution of Marie Antoinette (pictured) 1794 * January - Wollstonecraft moves to Le Havre, France * 14 May - Birth of Wollstonecraft and Imlay's daughter, Fanny Imlay, in Le Havre * Imlay returns to England, leaving Wollstonecraft and their daughter alone * December - Publication of Wollstonecraft's An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution in London * 28 May - Publication of Godwin's novel Caleb Williams * Publication of Blake's poems Songs of Experience * Publication of Paine's treatise The Age of Reason * Publication of Radcliffe's novel The Mysteries of Udolpho * 4 February - France abolishes slavery in its colonies * 7 May - Habeas corpus is suspended in Britain * Late July - Robespierre is executed and the Reign of Terror ends * November - British radicals are acquitted at the 1794 Treason Trials 1795 * April - Wollstonecraft returns to London to join Imlay and learns of his infidelity * May - Wollstonecraft's first suicide attempt; she is saved by Imlay * June-September - Wollstonecraft journeys to Scandinavia on business for Imlay * October - Wollstonecraft's second suicide attempt; she jumps off Putney Bridge into the River Thames and is saved by strangers 100x100px|alt=Oil painting of a woman sitting in a striped chair. She is wearing a dark-colored dress, with a shawl, contrasted with her tight, white cap and collar. Next to her is a table with writing instruments. * Hannah More begins publishing the Cheap Repository Tracts to counteract radical publications * 29 October - On the way to parliament, George III is attacked by a hungry mob * 18 December - Seditious Meetings Act and Treasonable Practices Act passed (also known as the "Two Acts" or the "Gagging Acts") * Methodists secede from the Church of England * The Famine Year 1796 * January - Publication of Wollstonecraft's Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark by Johnson * 21 August - Wollstonecraft begins affair with William Godwin * Wollstonecraft starts to write Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman * Publication of Bage's novel Hermsprong * Publication of Mary Hays's novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney * Publication of Barbauld and Aikin's children's series Evenings at Home * Publication of Burney's novel Camilla * Publication of Matthew Lewis's novel The Monk * December - Failed French landing at Bantry Bay, West Cork, Ireland * Failure of peace negotiations between Britain and France 1797 100x100px|alt=Left-looking portrait of a slightly pregnant woman in a white dress * John Opie paints Wollstonecraft's portrait (at right) * 29 March - Wollstonecraft and Godwin marry; they lose friends because it is revealed that Wollstonecraft was never married to Imlay * 30 August - Birth of Wollstonecraft and Godwin's daughter, Mary Shelley, future author of Frankenstein * 10 September - Death of Mary Wollstonecraft from complications in childbirth * 20 November - Publication of the first issue of the ministerial journal, the Anti-Jacobin Review * Publication of Godwin's The Enquirer * Publication of Radcliffe's novel The Italian * February - Bank of England suspends cash payments * April-June - Naval mutinies occur at Spithead and the Nore * Failure of French landing in Wales 1798 100x100px|alt=Half-length profile portrait of a man. His dark clothing blends into the background and his white face is in stark contrast. * Publication of Posthumous Works of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Woman, edited by Godwin (pictured) * Publication of Godwin's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, the first biography of Wollstonecraft; Godwin's openness regarding her love affairs destroyed her reputation for a century * June - Publication of Thomas Robert Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population * Publication of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poems Lyrical Ballads * Publication of Richard Lovell and Maria Edgeworth's treatise Practical Education * Publication of Smith's novel The Young Philosopher * 26 May - Society of United Irishmen rebel against British rule in Ireland * August-September - French landing in Ireland * 1 August - Horatio Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile"French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 6 August 2007. * Joseph Johnson and Gilbert Wakefield are imprisoned for seditious libel ==See also== * Timeline of the French Revolution ==References== Category:Literature timelines Category:Personal timelines
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The BMT Brighton Line, also known as the Brighton Beach Line, is a rapid transit line in the B Division of the New York City Subway in Brooklyn, New York City, United States. Local service is provided at all times by the Q train, but is joined by the B express train on weekdays. The Q train runs the length of the entire line from Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue to the Manhattan Bridge south tracks. The B begins at Brighton Beach and runs via the bridge's north tracks. The line first opened in 1878 as a two-track surface-level excursion railroad called the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway, transporting riders from Downtown Brooklyn via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) to the seaside resorts at Coney Island. When its connection with the LIRR was severed in 1883, the line became the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad, which was eventually acquired by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT, later Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation [BMT]). From 1903 to 1908, all of the original line's grade crossings were eliminated; This project also widened the line from two to four tracks from Church Avenue to Sheepshead Bay; From 1918 to 1920 the portion of original open-cut right- of-way from Church Avenue to Prospect Park station was widened to four tracks and a new subway alignment was built north of the Prospect Park station. The northern part of the original line became the modern-day BMT Franklin Avenue Line, which still runs today. In subsequent years, numerous improvements were made to the Brighton Line. __TOC__ ==History== ===Origins=== thumb|left|90px|Route designation on BMT Triplex equipment The Brighton Line opened from the Willink Plaza entrance of Prospect Park (modern intersection of Flatbush and Ocean Avenues and Empire Boulevard, now the Prospect Park station on both the renamed Brighton and the Franklin Avenue Shuttle lines) to Brighton Beach (modern Coney Island Avenue at the shoreline) on July 2, 1878, and the full original line on August 18. It was an excursion railroad -- the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway -- to bring beachgoers from downtown Brooklyn (via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road) to the seashore at Coney Island on the Atlantic Ocean, at a location named Brighton Beach at the same time the railroad arrived. It has been known since its opening as the Brighton Beach Line but is now described as the Brighton Line in MTA literature and in public usage. After losing its connection with the Long Island Rail Road in 1883, the railroad fell on hard times, reorganizing as the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad. Seeking a new route for its excursion business and its local trade in communities along the way, it formed an agreement with the Kings County Elevated Railway to connect to its Fulton Street Line, which gave access to the new Brooklyn Bridge and Manhattan passengers. This was accomplished in 1896. A series of mergers and leases put the Brighton Beach Line in the hands of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT), a holding company which eventually controlled most of the rapid transit, streetcar, and bus lines in Brooklyn and part of Queens. The line was electrified with trolley wire and, for a time, trolleys from several surface routes and elevated trains operated together on the line. The BRT was reorganized as the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) in 1923. In 1940, the BMT was purchased by the City of New York, and operation passed to the city's Board of Transportation, which already operated the city-built Independent Subway System (IND). thumb|BMT Brighton Line was built next to right of way of LIRR. LIRR tracks were removed but the abutment placement still indicated where the right of way was The original line was a two-tracked high-speed surface steam railroad operating from Bedford Station, at Atlantic Avenue near Franklin Avenue in the City of Brooklyn, at which point it made a physical connection to the Long Island Rail Road's Atlantic Branch. From Bedford the line ran on a surface private right-of-way several blocks south to Park Place, which it crossed at grade, and then in an open cut with street overpasses through what is now Crown Heights and Flatbush, as far as Church Lane (now Church Avenue) in the Town and Village of Flatbush. From that point the line continued on the surface to a point at current Beverley Road between Marlborough Road (East 15th Street) and East 16th Street, curving southeast and running on the surface between the lines of the latter streets through the Towns of Flatbush and Gravesend to Sheepshead Bay, then turning southerly to reach the beach at Brighton Beach on Coney Island in the Town of Gravesend. The line was extended westward from Brighton Beach in 1903, so that it could terminate with the former Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad at Culver Depot in Coney Island. Passengers, with this short extension, were given access to the developing area of Coney Island. The Culver Depot became the center of operations for the Culver Line and the Brighton Beach Line. ===Grade crossing eliminations, 1903–1908 and 1918–1920=== In 1903, the New York State Legislature created the Brooklyn Grade Crossing Elimination Commission (BGCEC) to eliminate all grade crossings on the Brighton Beach Line and the Bay Ridge Line of the Long Island Rail Road. The city was supposed to cover half of the costs, not exceeding $1 million, while the railroads were to cover the other half of the costs. The work started on December 30, 1905, and was completed in 1908. A short piece of two-tracked elevated railroad was built from the ramp connecting to the Fulton Street Elevated as far as Park Place, where the original 1878 open cut began. From the end of that original cut south of Church Avenue, the line was wholly rebuilt as a four-track railroad with express and local stations to a point south of Neptune Avenue at the border of Coney Island, continuing along its original right-of-way to Brighton Beach station. The portion from Church Avenue to Avenue H was placed in a depressed open cut, while the portion from Avenue H to south of Sheepshead Bay was raised onto an earthen embankment, primarily with earth excavated from the open-cut portion and from the Bay Ridge Improvement of the Long Island Rail Road. The separation of the railroad grade allowed the line's trolley wire north of Sheepshead Bay to be replaced with ground-level third rail. The work by the BGCEC left the line between Park Place and Church Avenue in substantially its original condition from steam railroad days. Between 1918 and 1920, however, further work rebuilt the portion between Prospect Park and Church Avenue as a four-track line. At the same time, the remaining portion of the line south of Neptune Avenue was replaced with a four-track elevated structure, including a four- to six-track elevated line extension, connecting the Brighton Line to the new Coney Island terminal at Surf and Stillwell Avenues. This same work rerouted mainline Brighton Beach trains from the Fulton Street elevated line via a new deep tunnel under Flatbush Avenue to connect to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line at DeKalb Avenue station, where trains could access the new BMT Broadway subway. This work was done as a part of the Dual Contracts. A spur south of Neck Road, which split to Sheepshead Bay Race Track, was in use from 1909 to around 1929. The single-track spur was part of the Long Island Rail Road's Manhattan Beach Branch, and it ran at street level to Ocean Avenue between Avenues X and Y, where it terminated at a six-track terminal. ===Brighton–Franklin Line=== The St. Felix Street and Flatbush Avenue Connection opened on August 1, 1920, providing direct service between the Brighton Line and midtown Manhattan. With the opening of the connection, the original portion of the line between the Fulton Street Elevated and the link to the new subway at Prospect Park became a secondary line, known as Brighton–Franklin, and now known as the BMT Franklin Avenue Line. At times through services (including expresses) operated on mainline Brighton tracks to Coney Island. Some special weekend trains even operated beyond Coney Island back to Manhattan via the BMT Sea Beach Line express tracks and the BMT Fourth Avenue Subway. This service was variously known as Franklin–Nassau and as the Coney Island Express, but its popular name was the "Sunny Sunday Summer Special," because it was only supposed to operate as needed on the hottest beach-going days. In Fiscal Year 1930, an additional control area with staircases to the platforms at Kings Highway were constructed, and additional stairs were added at Avenue M, Avenue U, and Avenue J. Through services gradually diminished on the Brighton–Franklin, and after 1963 it became a pure shuttle, operating between Franklin Avenue station at Fulton Street and Prospect Park station, where it connects with mainline Brighton Beach trains. During the era of route contraction from 1940 to about 1975, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle seemed a prime candidate for abandonment; its physical structure had been allowed to deteriorate and its service steadily curtailed. The New York City fiscal crisis of the '70s and the recession in 1990 contributed to plans to discontinue the line. By the 1990s the Franklin Avenue Shuttle was known as the "ghost train". It was shrunk in size to only two cars and the Dean Street station was closed. The entire line was under consideration for abandonment, but community pressure forced the MTA to rebuild rather than abandon the line, and as a result, most of the supporting infrastructure and stations were completely rehabilitated in 1998–1999 at a cost of $74 million and reopened in 1999. === Platform extensions, track repairs, and Stillwell Avenue reconstruction === On June 16, 1964, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. approved the award of a $2,283,933 contract for the second phase of work to extend platforms along the Brighton Line. The platforms were to be lengthened to feet to accommodate a ten-car train of long IND cars, or a nine-car train of long BMT cars, instead of the existing 8-cars. The contract for the first phase of work had been let the previous year for the seven stations between Atlantic Avenue and Newkirk Avenue. The platform extensions at these stations were completed during the 1964–1965 fiscal year. The contract for the second phase called for the extension of platforms at the ten remaining stations on the line from Avenue H to Stillwell Avenue. Work on the second contract was still ongoing in 1965. Between April 26, 1986, and October 26, 1986, service was disrupted due to track repairs and other construction work along the line. The two local tracks were completely rebuilt between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue, in two phases, with the Manhattan-bound track rebuilt first between April and July, and the Brooklyn- bound track rebuilt between July and October. A temporary platform was built at Cortelyou Road while Beverley Road and Parkside Avenue were closed in one direction because temporary platforms could not be built at these locations. To reduce congestion, skip-stop service was implemented on weekdays, which lasted until 1988. From September 8, 2002, to May 23, 2004, service was suspended west of Brighton Beach due to allow rebuilding of the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue terminal station, which had deteriorated due to the effects of salt water corrosion and deferred maintenance. ===Brighton Line Station Reconstruction Project=== thumb|right|The platform at Avenue U during reconstruction. thumb|right|Track work at Newkirk Plaza in September 2011 marking the end of the station reconstruction project. thumb|right|Replacing of tracks on the BMT Brighton Line In 2007, the MTA announced that it would reconstruct seven stations between Newkirk Avenue and Neck Road, inclusive. On December 8, 2008, the first phase of the Brighton Line Station Reconstruction Project began. The Coney Island-bound platforms at Avenue U and Neck Road were closed for rebuilding and all southbound trains ran on the express track from Kings Highway to Sheepshead Bay. On September 14, 2009, the second phase of the project involving all stations from Newkirk Plaza to Kings Highway began. Express B train service was suspended and all trains ran local in both directions for the next two years. Over the next two weeks, temporary platforms were placed on the Manhattan-bound express track at Kings Highway and Avenue J for southbound service. On September 28, the southbound platforms of Avenue H, Avenue J, Avenue M, and Kings Highway began rebuilding. South of Cortelyou Road, a single crossover connected the southbound local track with the express one and all southbound trains skipped Avenue H and Avenue M. On January 18, 2010, Coney Island-bound service was restored at Avenue U and Neck Road. The Manhattan-bound platforms were closed for rebuilding until October 25 and all northbound trains operated on the express track from Sheepshead Bay to Kings Highway. On September 13, Coney Island-bound service to Avenue H and Avenue M was restored and the two southbound tracks south of Cortelyou Road were separated. Over the next two weeks, the temporary platforms at Avenue J and Kings Highway were moved to the southbound express track and the two northbound tracks were connected to each other north of Newkirk Plaza. On September 27, the Manhattan-bound platforms of those three stations as well as Avenues H and M, which were then being bypassed, began rehabilitation and all northbound service was directed to the express track until Cortelyou Road. The platforms of all stations reopened on September 12, 2011, and B express service was restored on October 3. However, rehabilitation work that did not affect service continued until the end of the year. As part of the project, station platforms were replaced and widened, windscreens and canopies were replaced, station lighting was upgraded, new public address systems were installed, and new station agent booths were put into place. In addition, ADA- compliant elevators were installed at Kings Highway, the historic station house at Avenue H was restored, an additional southbound entrance was installed at Avenue H, and additional fare entrances were created to the northbound platform sections of the Avenue M and Avenue J stations. ==Service patterns== The following services use part or all of the Brighton Line: Service Service Service Section of line Weekdays Weekends Late Nights Section of line express no service no service north of Brighton Beach local local local entire line Since 1920, the primary service on the line has been through to Manhattan rather than over the tracks now used by the Franklin Avenue Shuttle. Local service has run all the time, while express service has generally been provided during weekday rush hours and later middays. Until the 1960s, all service on the line north of Prospect Park was labeled 1. Standard local service ran through the Montague Street Tunnel and along the BMT Broadway Line local tracks; service instead crossed the Manhattan Bridge north tracks and ran express under Broadway during Broadway theatre hours (7:30 pm to midnight). Over the years, the local bridge service was expanded, and the local tunnel service ended up only from 6 am to 7 pm. Express service over the bridge to the Broadway express tracks, initially during rush hours, was also expanded to 6 am to 7 pm. The three patterns were assigned latter designations in the early 1960s: Q express via bridge, QT local via tunnel, and QB local via bridge. The Chrystie Street Connection opened in late 1967, and almost all Brighton Line trains were removed from Broadway. The Q and QB were both combined with the D on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, running express during the day and local at other times. The daytime QT local was combined with the Jamaica local and express (then #15) to form the QJ, running through the tunnel to the BMT Nassau Street Line, which also replaced the limited rush hour Brighton “Bankers’ Specials” to Nassau Street. The only Brighton-Broadway service was a new QB, with a limited number of runs in the peak direction at rush hours on the local Brighton and express Broadway tracks. There were also a limited number of NX trains from Brighton Beach via Coney Island and the Sea Beach express tracks, then up Broadway, a short-lived service that also attempted to compensate for the elimination of major Brighton/Broadway service. (The two QB services were distinct; the old QB had run at non-peak times; this new QB had the same name and almost the same route but was a different service.) The QJs Brighton section was replaced with an extension of the M in 1973. In 1985, the QB was renamed Q as the subway eliminated the double letter naming system for local routes. Reconstruction of the Manhattan Bridge subway tracks began, which would continue until 2004. Though the same general service patterns remained on the Brighton Line, all trains were sent over the bridge and onto the Broadway or Sixth Avenue Line, depending on which set of tracks was open. From 1986 to 1988, the south side (Broadway) was in service, and the D continued to serve the line at all times, the M was rerouted onto the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and Q service now also ran during middays. Because of the concurrent track and infrastructure repairs on the Brighton Line, express service was suspended for two years. As tracks between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue were rebuilt, the D and Q provided skip-stop service between Newkirk Avenue and Sheepshead Bay on weekdays. D trains served Neck Road, Avenue M and Avenue H; the Q skipped those stops, serving Avenue U and Avenue J, while both trains served Kings Highway. By 1987, as the line's reconstruction progressed, the weekday skip-stop pattern expanded to Prospect Park, with D trains serving Beverley Road while Q trains served Cortelyou Road and Parkside Avenue, with Church Avenue as a mutual station. On December 11, 1988, the Bridge's north (Sixth Avenue) tracks reopened; at this time, the skip-stop pattern was eliminated, and the D became a full-time local service to Stillwell Avenue, while the Q ran express on weekdays to Brighton Beach. Both trains ran via Sixth Avenue Express. From April 30 to November 12, 1995, the Manhattan Bridge fully closed during middays and weekends. D service in Brooklyn was suspended during these hours; the Q replaced it, running local to Stillwell Avenue and via the Montague Street Tunnel and Broadway Express. The 2001 shifting of trains back to the south side (Broadway) led to the D only running north of Midtown Manhattan; the Q replaced the D as the full-time Brighton Local while the Brighton express portion of the Q became the diamond <Q>. When both sides of the bridge reopened in 2004, the <Q> was discontinued and replaced by the B in Brooklyn. The B was moved to the Brighton rather than the West End Line, where it ran from 1967 to 2001, to combine two weekday-only services and because Brighton Line residents preferred Broadway Service, the Q was kept as the full-time local. In effect, this flipped the B and D services, as the D was transferred to the West End Line following the bridge's reopening. ==Description== The modern-day line shows a mix of its various re- buildings. ===DeKalb Avenue to Prospect Park=== The underground portion from the DeKalb Avenue connection to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line was built in 1920 as part of the Dual Contracts. This section contains two additional stations: the Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center and Seventh Avenue. Between Atlantic Avenue and Grand Army Plaza, the Brighton Line tunnel runs beside, under, and between the tracks of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s Eastern Parkway Line. The Eastern Parkway Line was built simultaneously with this part of the Brighton Line, and also opened in 1920. At Prospect Park, the Brighton subway tunnel emerges into an open cut. The Prospect Park station contains a cross-platform interchange with the BMT Franklin Avenue Line, which is used by the . Franklin Avenue Line trains use the northbound local track, while the express tracks in both directions are used by the Brighton Line trains; the southbound local track is not in service. The former alignment of the Brighton Line ran along what is now the Franklin Avenue Line, which had been built as a surface railway in 1878 and rebuilt as a grade-separated open-cut and embankment line in 1905. ===Prospect Park to Brighton Beach=== South of Prospect Park, the Brighton Line widens to a four-track line for much of the rest of the route. The continues on the inner tracks and runs to Brighton Beach, serving only express stations, while the splits to the outer tracks, serving all stops until the end of the line at Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue. The original line built in 1878 ran in a two-track open cut. This segment was rebuilt in 1918 to 1920 to a four track line with an express station at Prospect Park, a local station at Parkside Avenue (replacing the original station at Woodruff Avenue) and another express station at Church Avenue. The line features slightly sloped and capped reinforced concrete walls, as well as cut-and-cover tunnels underneath cross-streets. The segment between Church Avenue to Avenue H is a result of the BGCEC rebuilding program of 1903–1907. Just south of the tunnel under Church Avenue, the construction of the cut wall visibly changes. Steel trestles carry the streets above the line, giving it a more open appearance. Cottage-style station houses are suspended over the line at local stations at Beverley and Cortelyou Roads, and at the express station at Newkirk Plaza. Past Newkirk Plaza the line continues in an open cut, then begins to rise to street level at the north end of Avenue H station. thumb|left|Sheepshead Bay station, looking northward across the express tracks The station house at Avenue H is a wooden structure built in 1905 and originally housed a real estate office for the sale of homes in the new Fiske Terrace community surrounding the station. The building was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2004. At this point the line now runs on an earthen embankment with local stations at Avenue H, Avenue J and Avenue M, an express station at Kings Highway, local stops at Avenue U and (Gravesend) Neck Road, and an express station at Sheepshead Bay (formerly Shore Road). All of the station houses for these stops are located beneath the tracks at street level. The line continues south on the 1907 embankment to a bridge over Neptune Avenue. At this point the BGCEC roadbed ends. Prior to the Dual Contracts rebuild in the late 1910s, the line descended to the surface on two single track concrete and steel ramps to operate on the surface to Brighton Beach. As part of the 1918–1920 Dual Contracts work, all four tracks now continue on a steel elevated structure to the junction of Coney Island and Brighton Beach Avenues, where the line turns west onto Brighton Beach Avenue and enters the Brighton Beach station. ===Brighton Beach to Coney Island=== Traveling west from Brighton Beach station, the line operates on a six track elevated structure over Brighton Beach Avenue. One track splits from each pair of local and express tracks in each direction. Only the outer two tracks are currently used for revenue service, carrying Q trains. The inner four are layup tracks used to store B trains that terminate at Brighton Beach; the innermost two tracks were originally. This is the former right-of-way of the Sea View Railway which originally provided service west of Brighton Beach. thumb|Crossing West 5th Street Each of the two layup tracks between the local and express tracks ends before Ocean Parkway station, while the innermost and outermost tracks stop at the station. The outer tracks merge with the inner tracks, and the inner tracks climb to an upper level. The outer trackways remain at the same elevation, and shortly afterward merge with the two tracks of the IND Culver Line (), which merge into the structure from the north. Both lines then stop at the West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium station, a double-level steel structure with two tracks on each level. The Brighton trains occupy the upper level and the Culver Line trains the lower. Both lines then enter the 8-track Stillwell Avenue terminal, which was built in 1917–1920 and renovated in 2001–2004. The Brighton trains occupy tracks 3 and 4. ==Chaining information== The entire main line of the Brighton Line (excluding the Franklin Avenue Shuttle) is "chained" BMT A. This has no relation to the letters assigned to the services on the Brighton Line, which are for the weekday Sixth Avenue service and for the full-time Broadway service. Chaining zero is BMT Southern, located just north of the 57th Street–Seventh Avenue station of the BMT Broadway Line via the Manhattan Bridge. The Brighton Line picks up this chaining south of DeKalb Avenue station. Railroad north is toward Manhattan, generally corresponding to compass north-northwest. Brighton Beach terminal's BMT telegraphy call letters were BC and in the past the entire Brighton Line had been referred to by the letters BC as a shorthand notation in internal documents. This has gradually diminished and is now uncommon. Tracks on the Brighton Line are numbered as follows: *Odd numbered tracks are away from Manhattan (southbound) *Even numbered tracks are toward Manhattan (northbound) * Tracks 1 and 2 are usually local (outside tracks, shown in Roman type) * Tracks 3 and 4 are usually express (inside tracks, shown in bold type) * Non- revenue tracks are shown in italic type From To Track arrangement Line orientation Comments DeKalb Avenue Prospect Park A3-A4 SSE no local tracks Prospect Park Brighton Beach A1-A3-A4-A2 S local tracks for Franklin Avenue Line in Prospect Park station only, using just the northbound track generally Brighton Beach Ocean Parkway A1-A5-A3-A4-A6-A2 W A3-A4 were originally express tracks; A5-A6 are layup tracks Ocean Parkway West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium (upper level) A3-A4 W Ocean Parkway West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium (lower level) A1-A2 W abandoned in 1954; trackbeds only West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium (upper level) Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue (C-D tracks) A3-A4 W All Brighton line trains West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium (lower level) Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue (E-F tracks) A1-A2 W now used by IND Culver Line () trains only ==Station listing== Neighborhood (approximate) Station Tracks Services Opened Transfers and notes Begins as a merge of the Montague Street Tunnel (), BMT Broadway Line express tracks via the Manhattan Bridge (), and IND Sixth Avenue Line express tracks via the Manhattan Bridge (). Downtown Brooklyn bridge, tunnel August 1, 1920 6 tracks; only four outer tracks stop at this station. Within station, outermost tracks are used by trains using the bridge, and center tracks are used by trains using the tunnel. Innermost tracks are used by BMT Fourth Avenue Line express trains from the bridge. Downtown Brooklyn Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line () Downtown Brooklyn all August 1, 1920 (IRT Eastern Parkway Line) (BMT Fourth Avenue Line) Connection to LIRR at Atlantic Terminal Park Slope all August 1, 1920 Flatbush Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line () Flatbush express April 4, 1905 (BMT Franklin Avenue Line) Flatbush local (northbound track) April 4, 1905 Prior to the 1920 expansion, the Brighton Line followed the current Franklin Avenue Line north of this station. Flatbush local April 4, 1905 Flatbush all August 23, 1907 Originally called Flatbush station, or sometimes Church Lane, Flatbush. Flatbush local August 23, 1907 Flatbush local August 23, 1907 Formerly known as Avenue C station Flatbush all August 23, 1907 Originally known as Parkville station Midwood Avenue H local August 23, 1907 Midwood local August 23, 1907 Midwood local August 23, 1907 Originally known as South Greenfield station, and later Elm Avenue station Midwood all August 23, 1907 B82 Select Bus Service Originally described as at Kings Highway, near the Prospect Park Fair Grounds Homecrest local August 23, 1907 Originally known as Gravesend station Homecrest local August 23, 1907 Former transfer to LIRR Sheepshead Bay all August 23, 1907 Originally described as at Coney Island Creek, Sheepshead Bay. Brighton Beach all August 23, 1907 Originally serviced the Brighton Beach Hotel at this location. Brighton Beach Express tracks continue (no regular service) Express tracks continue (no regular service) Express tracks continue (no regular service) Express tracks continue (no regular service) Express tracks continue (no regular service) Express tracks continue (no regular service) Brighton Beach all April 22, 1917 Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Local tracks merge into express tracks (Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street) Coney Island all May 19, 1919 (IND Culver Line) Brighton tracks on upper level Coney Island all May 29, 1919 (BMT West End Line) (IND Culver Line) (BMT Sea Beach Line) ==See also== *Transportation to Coney Island ==References== ==External links== * Category:Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation Category:New York City Subway lines Category:Railway lines opened in 1878 Category:1878 establishments in New York (state)
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The National Club Baseball Association (NCBA) is the national body that governs club baseball at colleges and universities in the United States. Club teams are different from varsity teams in that the school doesn't completely sponsor the teams' expenses and the teams are not eligible to play in the NCAA's College World Series. The NCBA was founded in 2000 to provide a national structure for the existing club teams. It structures the conferences, runs the NCBA College World Series (its national championship series), gathers playing statistics, assists teams in fundraising, and arranges for discounts on baseball clothing and equipment. The NCBA is a division of CollClubSports which operates as a for-profit LLC with a sole proprietorship in the name of Greg "Sandy" Sanderson as President. Many club-sport governing bodies operate as non-profit groups in order to return the most benefit to member teams. League dues for the NCBA are $1,700 per season per team. The two types of institutions that field club teams are schools that can't sponsor NCAA varsity baseball (often due to Title IX restrictions) and schools that do have a varsity team, but also have enough demand to field a second team. ==Teams== The NCBA currently is divided into two divisions named Division I and II respectively. Division I is split up into eight regions with three conferences each. Division II is split up into eight districts with three conferences, each except Districts VI and VII which only have two conferences each. There are currently nine schools that field both Division I and II teams: *Penn State *Maryland *Illinois *Wisconsin *Arizona State *Ohio State *Florida *Lone Star College *Texas A&M; University ===Division I=== ====Great Lakes Region==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Bowling Green Falcons Bowling Green, OH Central Michigan Chippewas Mount Pleasant, MI Ferris State Bulldogs Big Rapids, MI Michigan Wolverines Ann Arbor, MI Michigan State Spartans East Lansing, MI Western Michigan Broncos Kalamazoo, MI =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Ball State Cardinals Muncie, IN Indiana Hoosiers Bloomington, IN Illinois Fighting Illini Champaign, IL Illinois State Redbirds Normal, IL Notre Dame Fighting Irish Notre Dame, IN Purdue Boilermakers West Lafayette, IN =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Marquette Golden Eagles Milwaukee, WI Milwaukee Panthers Milwaukee, WI Northwestern Wildcats Evanston, IL UW–Eau Claire Bluegolds Eau Claire, WI UW–Whitewater Warhawks Whitewater, WI Wisconsin Badgers Madison, WI ====Gulf Coast Region==== ===== South Conference ===== School Nickname Location Texas Longhorns Austin, TX Texas A&M; Aggies College Station, TX Texas State Bobcats San Marcos, TX UTSA Roadrunners San Antonio, TX =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Baylor Bears Waco, TX North Texas Mean Green Denton, TX SMU Mustangs University Park, TX Texas Tech Red Raiders Lubbock, TX =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Houston Cougars Houston, TX Lone Star–Kingwood Coyotes Kingwood, TX LSU Tigers Baton Rouge, LA Stephen F. Austin Lumberjacks Nacogdoches, TX Tulane Green Wave New Orleans, LA ====Mid-America Region==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Iowa Hawkeyes Iowa City, IA Iowa State Cyclones Ames, IA Minnesota State Mavericks Mankato, MN MSU Moorhead Dragons Moorhead, MN Northern Iowa Panthers Cedar Falls, IA South Dakota Coyotes Vermillion, SD =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Kansas Jayhawks Lawrence, KS Kansas State Wildcats Manhattan, KS Missouri Tigers Columbia, MO Nebraska Cornhuskers Lincoln, NE Saint Louis Billikens St. Louis, MO SIU Edwardsville Cougars Edwardsville, IL =====West Conference===== School Mascot Location Colorado Buffaloes Boulder, CO Colorado Mesa Mavericks Grand Junction, CO Colorado Mines Orediggers Golden, CO Colorado State Rams Fort Collins, CO Northern Colorado Bears Greeley, CO Wyoming Cowboys Laramie, WY ====Mid-Atlantic Region==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location George Washington Colonials Washington, DC James Madison Dukes Harrisonburg, VA Maryland Terrapins College Park, MD Virginia Cavaliers Charlottesville, VA Virginia Tech Hokies Blacksburg, VA William & Mary Tribe Williamsburg, VA =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Appalachian State Mountaineers Boone, NC East Carolina Pirates Greenville, NC Elon Phoenix Elon, NC NC State Wolfpack Raleigh, NC North Carolina Tar Heels Chapel Hill, NC UNC Wilmington Seahawks Wilmington, NC =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Cincinnati Bearcats Cincinnati, OH University of Dayton Flyers Dayton, Ohio Kentucky Wildcats Lexington, KY Miami (OH) RedHawks Oxford, OH Ohio Bobcats Athens, OH Ohio State Buckeyes Columbus, OH ====North Atlantic Region==== =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Delaware Blue Hens Newark, DE Drexel Dragons Philadelphia, PA Loyola (MD) Greyhounds Baltimore, MD Rutgers Scarlet Knights New Brunswick, NJ Saint Joseph's Hawks Philadelphia, PA Towson Tigers Towson, MD =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Albany Great Danes Albany, NY Boston College Eagles Chestnut Hill, MA Boston University Terriers Boston, MA Northeastern Huskies Boston, MA UConn Huskies Storrs, CT UMass Minutemen Amherst, MA =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Brockport Golden Eagles Brockport, NY Cornell Big Red Ithaca, NY Cortland Red Dragons Cortland, NY Penn State Nittany Lions State College, PA Pittsburgh Panthers Pittsburgh, PA Slippery Rock The Rock Slippery Rock, PA ====Northern Pacific Region==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Eastern Washington Eagles Cheney, WA Gonzaga Bulldogs Spokane, WA Idaho Vandals Moscow, ID Montana Grizzlies Missoula, MT Western Washington Vikings Bellingham, WA =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Boise State Broncos Boise, ID Idaho State Bengals Pocatello, ID Montana State Bobcats Bozeman, MT Utah State Aggies Logan, UT Weber State Wildcats Ogden, UT =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Central Oregon CC Bobcats Bend, OR Oregon Ducks Eugene, OR Oregon State Beavers Corvallis, OR Seattle Redhawks Seattle, WA Southern Oregon Raiders Ashland, OR Washington Huskies Seattle, WA ====South Atlantic Region==== =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Charlotte 49ers Charlotte, NC Clemson Tigers Clemson, SC Coastal Carolina Chanticleers Conway, SC Georgia Southern Eagles Statesboro, GA South Carolina Gamecocks Columbia, SC =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Florida Gators Gainesville, FL Florida State Seminoles Tallahassee, FL Miami (FL) Hurricanes Coral Gables, FL South Florida Bulls Tampa, FL UCF Knights Orlando, FL =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Alabama Crimson Tide Tuscaloosa, AL Georgia Bulldogs Athens, GA Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets Atlanta, GA Kennesaw State Owls Kennesaw, GA Ole Miss Rebels Oxford, MS Vanderbilt Commodores Nashville, TN ====Southern Pacific Region==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location California Golden Bears Berkeley, CA Chico State Wildcats Chico, CA Nevada Wolf Pack Reno, NV San Jose State Spartans San Jose, CA Sonoma State Seawolves Rohnert Park, CA UC Davis Aggies Davis, CA =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Arizona Wildcats Tucson, AZ Arizona State Sun Devils Tempe, AZ Grand Canyon Antelopes Phoenix, AZ Northern Arizona Lumberjacks Flagstaff, AZ San Diego Toreros San Diego, CA UC San Diego Tritons La Jolla, CA =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Cal Poly Mustangs San Luis Obispo, CA Cal State Fullerton Titans Fullerton, CA Long Beach State 49ers Long Beach, CA UC Santa Barbara Gauchos Santa Barbara, CA UCLA Bruins Los Angeles, CA Southern Cal Trojans Los Angeles, CA ===Division II=== ====Chesapeake==== =====Central===== School Nickname Location Temple Owls Philadelphia, PA Millersville Rowan Mount St. Mary's New Paltz, NY Neumann Oneonta, NY Penn =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Fordham Rams Bronx, NY NYU Bobcats New York, NY Monmouth Hawks West Long Branch, NJ Montclair State Red Hawks Montclair, NJ Lafayette Leopards Easton, PA Stevens Ducks Hoboken, NJ Adelphi Panthers Garden City, NY New Haven Chargers West Haven, CT =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Alfred Saxons Alfred, NY Buffalo Bulls Buffalo, NY SUNY Geneseo Mudcats Geneseo, NY Niagara Purple Eagles Lewiston, NY SUNY Oswego Lakers Oswego, NY ====District II==== =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Rowan Owls Glassboro, NJ New Jersey Lions Ewing, NJ Penn Quakers Philadelphia, PA Saint Joseph's (PA) Hawks Philadelphia, PA Rider Broncos Lawrenceville, NJ =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Georgetown Hoyas Washington, D.C. Maryland Terrapins College Park, MD Howard Bison Washington, D.C. George Mason Patriots Fairfax, VA American University Eagles Washington, D.C. Mary Washington Eagles Fredericksburg, VA =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Penn State Nittany Lions State College, PA Loyola (MD) Greyhounds Baltimore, MD Mount St. Mary's Mountaineers Emmitsburg, MD Bucknell Bison Lewisburg, PA Stevenson Mustangs Stevenson, MD Bloomsburg Huskies Bloomsburg, PA ====District III==== =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Duke Blue Devils Durham, NC Craven CC Panthers New Bern, NC Old Dominion Monarchs Norfolk, VA Methodist Monarchs Fayetteville, NC High Point Panthers High Point, NC =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Radford Highlanders Radford, VA VCU Rams Richmond, VA Longwood Lancers Farmville, VA Richmond Spiders Richmond, VA Washington & Lee Generals Lexington, VA =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Furman Paladins Greenville, SC Georgia Southern–Armstrong Pirates Savannah, GA Orangeburg–Calhoun Tech Gladiators Orangeburg, SC Tennessee Volunteers Knoxville, TN USC Union Bantams Union, SC West Georgia Wolves Carrollton, GA ====District IV==== =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location West Virginia Mountaineers Morgantown, WV California (PA) Vulcans California, PA Carnegie Mellon Tartans Pittsburgh, PA Robert Morris Colonials Moon Township, PA Saint Francis (PA) Red Flash Loretto, PA Duquesne Dukes Pittsburgh, PA =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Edinboro Fighting Scots Edinboro, PA Slippery Rock None (The Rock) Slippery Rock, PA Cleveland State Vikings Cleveland, OH Akron Zips Akron, OH Kent State Golden Flashes Kent, OH =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Ohio State Buckeyes Columbus, OH Edison CC Chargers Piqua, OH Wright State Raiders Fairborn, OH Xavier Musketeers Cincinnati, OH Louisville Cardinals Louisville, KY ====District V==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Minnesota Golden Gophers Minneapolis, MN North Dakota State Bison Fargo, ND South Dakota State Jackrabbits Brookings, SD North Dakota Fighting Hawks Grand Forks, ND UW–Superior Yellow Jackets Superior, WI =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Columbia (IL) Renegades Chicago, IL Illinois Fighting Illini Champaign, IL DePaul Blue Demons Chicago, IL Loyola–Chicago Ramblers Chicago, IL Lewis Flyers Romeoville, IL =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Augustana (IL) Vikings Rock Island, IL Northern Illinois Huskies DeKalb, IL UW–Stevens Point Pointers Stevens Point, WI Bradley Braves Peoria, IL Wisconsin Badgers Madison, WI Winona State Warriors Winona, MN =====East Conference===== School Nickname Location Michigan Tech Huskies Houghton, MI Saginaw Valley State Cardinals University Center, MI Northern Michigan Wildcats Marquette, MI Grand Valley State Lakers Allendale, MI Eastern Michigan Eagles Ypsilanti, MI Windsor Lancers Windsor, ON ====District VI==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Southern Illinois Salukis Carbondale, IL Illinois Fighting Illini Champaign, IL Saint Louis Billikens St. Louis, MO Indiana State Sycamores Terre Haute, IN Murray State Racers Murray, KY Washington University in St. Louis Bears St. Louis, MO =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Central Missouri Mules Warrensburg, MO Pulaski Tech Diamonds North Little Rock, AR Southeast Missouri State Redhawks Cape Girardeau, MO Missouri State Bears Springfield, MO Arkansas Razorbacks Fayetteville, AR Missouri S&T; Miners Rolla, MO ====District VII==== =====East Conference===== School Nicknnme Location Lamar Cardinals Beaumont, TX Lee College Runnin' Rebels Baytown, TX Spring Hill Badgers Mobile, AL Rice Owls Houston, TX =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Houston–Downtown Gators Houston, TX Texas A&M; Corps of Cadets Aggies College Station, TX Houston Community College Eagles Houston, TX TCU Horned Frogs Fort Worth, TX Lone Star College–Cy-Fair Falcons Cypress, TX ====District VIII==== =====North Conference===== School Nickname Location Johnson & Wales–Denver Wildcats Denver, CO Denver Pioneers Denver, CO Metro State Roadrunners Denver, CO =====South Conference===== School Nickname Location Western Colorado Mountaineers Gunnison, CO Fort Lewis Skyhawks Durango, CO UC Colorado Springs Mountain Lions Colorado Springs, CO Colorado College Tigers Colorado Springs, CO CSU–Pueblo ThunderWolves Pueblo, CO New Mexico Tech Bombers Socorro, NM =====West Conference===== School Nickname Location Arizona State Sun Devils Tempe, AZ Cal State Northridge Matadors Northridge, CA Loyola Marymount Lions Los Angeles, CA Firebirds Encinitas, CA San Diego Toreros San Diego, CA ==Schools Joining the NCBA in 2014-15== *All schools will be in Division II unless noted School Nickname Location Adelphi Panthers Garden City, NY Augustana (IL) Vikings Rock Island, IL Bradley Braves Peoria, IL Clarkson Golden Knights Potsdam, NY Florida (D-II) Gators Gainesville, FL Ole Miss Rebels Oxford, MS Hampden-Sydney Tigers Hampden Sydney, VA IU Northwest RedHawks Gary, IN IUP Crimson Hawks Indiana, PA Johns Hopkins Blue Jays Baltimore, MD Lamar Cardinals Beaumont, TX Lewis Flyers Romeoville, IL Presbyterian Blue Hose Clinton, SC Stetson Hatters DeLand, FL New Haven Chargers West Haven, CT South Florida Bulls Tampa, FL West Georgia Wolves Carrollton, GA UW-Superior Yellowjackets Superior, WI Villanova Wildcats Villanova, PA York (PA) Spartans York, PA ==NCBA World Series Champions== ===Division I champions=== Year Location Champion 2001 Syracuse, NY Texas 2002 Pueblo, CO Texas A&M; 2003 Bradenton, FL Weber State 2004 Bradenton, FL Colorado State 2005 Bradenton, FL Colorado State 2006 Niles, OH Colorado State 2007 Fort Myers, FL North Carolina 2008 Fort Myers, FL Colorado State 2009 Fort Myers, FL Colorado State 2010 Fort Myers, FL Colorado State 2011 Columbus, GA East Carolina 2012 Columbus, GA Utah State 2013 Tampa, FL Penn State 2014 Tampa, FL Utah State 2015 Paducah, KY University of Oregon 2016 Paducah, KY University of Nevada, Reno 2017 Holly Springs, NC East Carolina University 2018 Holly Springs, NC Penn State 2019 Holly Springs, NC University of Illinois ===Division I appearances=== Team Appearances Colorado State University 13 Penn State University 13 Texas A&M; University 8 University of Illinois 8 University of Oregon 8 East Carolina University 6 Florida State University 5 Weber State University 5 Central Michigan University 4 North Carolina State University 4 University of Maryland 4 University of Texas 4 Clemson University 3 James Madison University 3 Ohio State University 3 Sam Houston State University 3 University of Arizona 3 University of Iowa 3 University of North Carolina 3 University of Wisconsin - Madison 3 Utah State University 3 Virginia Tech University 3 Grand Canyon University 2 Iowa State University 2 Texas Tech University 2 University of California - Berkeley 2 University of Florida 2 University of Georgia 2 University of Massachusetts 2 University of Nevada 2 University of Pittsburgh 2 University of Virginia 2 University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire 2 Western Washington University 2 Appalachian State University 1 Arizona State University 1 Baylor University 1 Boston College 1 Michigan State University 1 Oregon State University 1 Texas State University 1 University of California - Davis 1 University of California - San Diego 1 University of California - Santa Barbara 1 University of Central Florida 1 University of Dayton 1 University of Delaware 1 University of Michigan 1 University of Wisconsin 1 Note: through the 2019 season. ===Division II champions=== Year Location Champion 2008 Huntingburg, IN Kentucky 2009 Butler, PA Kentucky 2010 Johnstown, PA Northeastern 2011 Johnstown, PA Penn State † 2012 Columbus, GA Hofstra 2013 Paducah, KY Kennesaw State 2014 Paducah, KY Texas A&M; Corps of Cadets 2015 Pittsburg, KS Eastern Kentucky 2016 Pittsburg, KS Chattanooga 2017 Pittsburg, KS Slippery Rock 2018 Pittsburg, KS San Diego State † denotes school also fielded an NCBA Division I team that season ==See also== * ==References== ==External links== * Category:College baseball in the United States Category:College club sports associations in the United States Category:Baseball governing bodies in the United States Category:Sports organizations established in 2000
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Norton is a civil parish in north-east Herefordshire, England, and is approximately north-east from the city and county town of Hereford. The closest town is Bromyard, conjoined to the parish at the south-west. The parish includes the elevated public open common land of Bromyard Downs. ==History== Norton derives from 'north farmstead, or village... i.e. a homestead or village to the north of another settlement', from the Old English north with tūn.Mills, Anthony David (2003); A Dictionary of British Place Names, Oxford University Press, revised edition (2011), p.349. Ekwall, Eilert (1936); The Concise Oxfordshire Dictionary of English Place-names, Oxford University Press, 4th ed. (1960), p.344 During the 19th century, today's Norton was administratively a joint township with Brockhampton as 'Norton with Brockhampton', under Bromyard, which included in 1856 at the north-east of the parish, Saltmarshe Castle, the residence of Edmund Higginson (1802-71), who had changed his name from his Barneby birth surname, was High Sheriff of Herefordshire and an art collector, and whose estate also included parts of Tedstone Delamere and Edvin Loach parishes where he sponsored the rebuilding of the parish churches. Higginson was a chief landowner of the parish, and renovated Saltmarshe Castle to a more contemporary style of architecture, with added towers and battlements, leaving part of the old castle. Saltmarshe Castle was demolished in 1955. Also directory listed is Brockhampton House, north-east from Bromyard, had attached a private chapel with its own curate. Norton with Brockhampton had an infant school for boys and girls. The lord of the manor was the Bishop of Hereford, Renn Hampden. The parish of had 'clayey and loamy' soil, on which were grown chiefly wheat, barley and beans, and had an 1851 population of 528. Occupations listed in the Norton part of the parish were nine farmers, one of which was also a builder, a carrier—transporter of trade goods, with sometimes people, between different settlements—two shopkeepers, a miller at Three Mills, a blacksmith, and a collector of rates.Post Office Directory of Herefordshire, 1856 p.13-15"Saltmarsh Castle", Lost Heritage: England's lost country houses. Retrieved 22 April 2022 thumb|left|Norton in Kelly's Directory of Herefordshire, 1885 By the 1880s John Habington Barneby Lutley (1840-1906) DL, JP, a chief parish landowner, was the resident of Brockhampton House; the chaplain of the chapel, resident at Bromyard, was also the vicar of Grendon Bishop. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners were the lords of the manor. On Bromyard Downs was a race course, rifle butts and stone quarries. An oak tree was planted in 1887 in commemoration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. Parish area, including that of adjacent Linton was . The population in 1881 was 492. A School Board was formed in 1882 covering the united district comprising Bromyard, Norton with Brockhampton, Linton, and Winslow. A Board school (formerly a National school), was built in 1885, at a cost of £1,400; built for 140 pupils, the average attendance was 98. Occupations listed in the Norton part of the parish in 1885 were five farmers, one of whom was a beer & cider retailer at Bromyard Downs, another also a miller at Three Mills, and a third beer & cider retailer at Bromyard Downs, a further beer & cider retailer at Bromyard Downs, the licensee and a & cider retailer at the Holly Tree public house, a blacksmith, a shopkeeper, a gamekeeper, a sawyer, a farm bailiff, and two land agents, one to John Habington Barneby Lutley.Bromyard, Kelly's Directory of Herefordshire, 1879, and 1885 pp.1127-1129Kelly's Directory of Herefordshire, 1913, p.38 By the 20th century, Norton was a civil parish in its own right. In 1913, Bromyard Downs was listed as siting 'the old racecourse', with also stone quarries and a golf course. Norton parish was now of , and of water [lakes]. According to directory entry: 'anciently the ecclesiastical parish of Bromyard, comprising an area of , consisted of the four townships of Bromyard, Linton, Norton and Winslow. For ecclesiastical and civil purposes the areas of these parishes have been considerably modified, and the ecclesiastical parish now comprises the Urban Parish of Bromyard and portions of the civil parishes of Brockhampton, Linton, Norton, Whitbourne and Winslow... with an area of '. Population in 1911 was 374. Occupations over and above the 1880s listings included a Primitive Methodist minister, a chimney sweep, a laundry worker, and a pig killer at Bromyard Downs, two head gardeners, and a tobacconist. Population in 1921 was 373. By 1929 Occupations over and above 1885 and 1913 included the honorary secretary of Broad Oak Golf Club (Bromyard Downs), a boot & shoe repairer, and another boot repairer. Farmers now numbered eleven, with an additional six 'cottage farmers'. There were now two public houses, the Holly Tree and the Royal Oak, the licensees both being described as a beer retailer.Kelly's Directory of Herefordshire, 1929 ==Geography== Norton parish boundary is of irregular footprint, but approximately, at its greatest distance, north to south, east to west in the northern half and east to west in the southern, and covers an area of ."Norton", Citypopulation.de. Retrieved 24 April 2022 Adjacent parishes are Edvin Loach & Saltmarshe at the north- west, Tedstone Wafer and Tedstone Delamere at the north, Whitbourne at the north-east, Brockhampton at the east comprising the National Trust's Brockhampton Estate, Linton at the south, and Edwyn Ralph and Bromyard & Winslow at the west. The parish is rural, of farms, fields, managed woodland and coppices, water courses, small lakes and ponds, isolated and dispersed businesses, residential properties and, at the south-east, the public open land of Bromyard Downs where there is an agglomerated residential area. Flowing north to south at the west of the parish is a tributary to the River Frome which forms the western boundary with Bromyard & Winslow, and farther upstream, Edvin Loach & Saltmarshe. The confluence of the tributary and the Frome is at the extreme south-west of Norton which is conjoined with the town of Bromyard.Extracted from "Norton", Grid Reference Finder. Retrieved 24 April 2022Extracted from "Norton", parish boundary, Google Maps. Retrieved 24 April 2022Extracted from "Linton", GetOutside, Ordnance Survey. Retrieved 24 April 2022Extracted from "Norton", OpenStreetMap. Retrieved 24 April 2022 thumb|right|OS map of Norton Herefordshire, pre-1930 The only numbered route is the B4203 road which runs from Bromyard northward, in part becoming the parish boundary with Brockhampton and, then beyond the parish, through Tedstone Wafer village to Worcestershire. From the B4203 at Bromyard Downs runs south a minor road, arcing around the Downs to Linton, and to the A44 which runs from Bromyard to the city of Worcester at the east. A further road, Burying Lane at the south-west of the parish, runs from a junction with the B4203, from the parish border with Bromyard, to the Downs agglomerated residential area. At the north of the Downs, a road runs south-east from the B4203, crosses into Brockhampton to the A44 near the Bromyard Downs Caravan and Motorhome Club campsite. A further road north on the B4203 runs to Edvin Loach, with a fork which runs to the bungalow estate of Saltmarshe Castle Park in Edvin Loach. Saltmarshe Castle Park is the site of Saltmarshe Castle, which, before boundary changes, was part of Norton; the Park's main entrance is on the B4203. At farther north on the B4203 is the road junction with a road running east, which begins as the boundary with Brockhampton and then runs to Whitbourne Hall. All other routes are country lanes, bridleways, farm tracks and footpaths. ==Governance== Norton is represented in the lowest tier of UK governance by the seven-member Brockhampton Group Parish Council, which also represents the parishes of Brockhampton and Linton.Brockhampton Group Parish Council. Retrieved 19 April 2022"Parish Map, Brockhampton Group Parish Council. Retrieved 19 April 2022 As Herefordshire is a unitary authority—no district council between parish and county councils—the parish sends councillors representing the Bromyard Bringsty Ward, to Herefordshire County Council."Bromyard Bringsty, Citypopulation.de. Retrieved 16 April 2022 Norton is represented in the UK parliament as part of the North Herefordshire constituency, held by the Conservative Party since 2010 by Bill Wiggin. In 1974 Norton became part of the now defunct Malvern Hills District of the county of Hereford and Worcester, instituted under the 1972 Local Government Act.Statutory Instruments (1976), Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 April 2022 Until Brexit, on 31 January 2019, the parish was represented in the European Parliament as part of the West Midlands constituency. ==Community== For the 2011 Census Norton recorded a population of '272 usual residents... 100% lived in 129 household spaces and 0% lived in communal establishments... average (mean) age of residents was 50.8 years'. thumb|right|View west across Norton from Bromyard Downs A bus route with three each way stops, just outside the parish at the south on the A44, runs between Bromyard and Worcester."Linton, Bringsty", Bustimes.org. Retrieved 19 April 2022 The closest rail connections are at Leominster railway station, to the west, Hereford to the south-west, both on the Crewe to Newport Welsh Marches Line, and Worcester Foregate, Worcestershire Parkway and Worcester Shrub Hill railway stations at Worcester, east with links on the Cotswold, Cross Country and West Midlands Trains lines. The nearest hospitals are Bromyard community hospital, just outside the parish border in Bromyard, with the nearest major hospital, Hereford County Hospital, 13 miles south-west at Hereford, both part of the Wye Valley NHS Trust, and the Worcestershire Royal Hospital to the east.Bromyard Community Hospital. Retrieved 24 April 2022"About Wye Valley NHS Trust", Wye Valley NHS Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2022Worcestershire Royal Hospital. Retrieved 24 April 2022 The nearest primary schools are Brockhampton Primary School, the closest, on Bromyard Downs (road) at Brockhampton, and St. Peter's Primary School at Bromyard; the nearest secondary is Queen Elizabeth High School at Bromyard. In latest Ofsted inspections Brockhampton Primary was rated Grade 2 'Good' (2017); St. Peter's Grade 2 'Good' (2018); and Queen Elizabeth High School Grade 2 'Good' (2017).Brockhampton Primary School. Retrieved 24 April 2022 St. Peter's Primary School. Retrieved 24 April 2022 Queen Elizabeth High School. Retrieved 19 April 2022 Brockhampton Primary School, Ofsted inspection 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2022 St. Peter's Primary School, Ofsted inspection 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2022 Queen Elizabeth High School, Ofsted inspection 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2022 There are two public houses: the Royal Oak at Bromyard Downs, and the Holly Tree on the B4203 at the south-west which is also a bed & breakfast establishment. Next to the Holly Tree is a Travis Perkins builders' merchant, the site for the Bromyard Folk Festival, and Delahay Meadow, the football ground of Bromyard Town Football Club. North from the Holly Tree is a dog boarding kennels, and north-east at Bromyard Downs, a taxi service and a woodland holiday home business. For religion, Norton falls under the Deanery of Bromyard in the Diocese of Hereford, although no church or parish church exists within the civil parish. The nearest parish churches are St Peter's at Bromyard, St James' at Stanford Bishop village to the south which is part of the eight-church Frome Valley Churches' ministry, and St James' in Tedstone Delamere, in the ecclesiastical parish of Greater Whitbourne.St Peter's, Bromyard. Retrieved 19 April 2022St James', Stanford Bishop. Retrieved 19 April 2022Frome Valley Churches. Retrieved 19 April 2022"Tedstone Delamere: St James", Diocese of Hereford. Retrieved 24 April 2022 ==Landmarks== There are 15 Grade II listed buildings in Norton, including houses, cottages, farmhouses and farm buildings."Listed Buildings in Norton, Herefordshire", British Listed Buildings. Retrieved 24 April 2022 thumb|right|Buckenhill Manor Buckenhill Manor (), north from Bromyard, off the B4203 road, and dating to about 1730, is a two-storey with attic red brick house. The front face is of nine bays, the central three within a central pedimental gable. The attic floor is surrounded by a Victorian brick parapet where the two external three-bay windows are set within gabled dormers topped with finials. Inset from the parapet is the slate hipped gable roof. There are nine 18-pane sash windows on the first floor, and eight, four each side of the main entrance, on the ground floor. The central 9-pane central door with fanlight is set within a porch comprising a arched broken pediment and corinthian columns, set on three semi- circular steps. On left hand (south-west) return is a five-sided two-storey rendered stone wing with a crenellated parapet. Part of the structure at the rear contains a 19th-century tower with lantern. In the late 19th century Buckenhill became a boys home which was affiliated to Barnardo's, housing 47 older boys who were taught farm work before emigration to Canada. It was a hotel during the 1930s, and was the main accommodation for Westminster School during the Second World War. In 2020, the house was on the market for £2,000,000, the same year available for monthly rental, and following this, catered for bed & breakfast."Buckenhill", Parks & Gardens. Retrieved 27 April 2022."Buckenhill Farm Home", Children's Homes. Retrieved 27 April 2022.Gibson, Oliver; "Health, Environment and the Institutional Care of Children in Late Victorian London", Queen Mary University of London. Retrieved 28 April 2022.The Elizabethan: Westminster in Herefordshire, vol. 23, no. 9, July 1942, The Elizabethen Online (magazine of Westminster School). Retrieved 28 April 2022.The Elizabethan, p.145. The Elizabethen Online (magazine of Westminster School). Retrieved 28 April 2022."Inside the £2 million Herefordshire mansion for sale now", Herefordshire Times. Retrieved 27 April 2022"An impressive manor house overlooking beautiful Herefordshire countryside", Savills. 28 April 2022 Middle Norton (), north-east from Bromyard, off the B4203 road east from Saltmarshe Castle Caravan Park, is a 17th-century two-storeyed house with cellars, in parts timber-framed, brick and rubble. The casement windows have leaded frames. The tiled roofs include diagonal brick chimneys. The house was initially built in the early 17th century, with its timber-frame exposed south-east wing of a later date. In the early 18th century the south fascia of the house was refaced in brick. The interior contains 17th-century ceiling beams and wall posts. The house is part of a listed group of farm buildings. British History Online ; An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Herefordshire, Volume 2, p. 149. Retrieved 27 April 2022. At Saltmarshe Castle Park is the listed south-east lodge with gates of the former Saltmarshe Castle (), on the B4203 road. Both are mid-19th century. The lodge is of two storeys with a castellated parapet. Its stone mullioned sash windows have square hood hood moulds. The 19th-century owner of the Edward Haycock built Saltmarshe Castle, Barneby (later Edmund) Higginson (1802 - 1871), who inherited the estate from his uncle William Higginson (died 1812, whose wealth derived from coal mining), and who was a partner in the merchants Greenwood & Higginson at Queen Street in Cheapside, London, was a noted art collector of more than 80 works, including those by Claude, Hondecoeter, Steen and Tiepolo, and John Constable's Hay Wain."South East Lodge and Gates at Saltmarshe Castle", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2022."To Benjamin Franklin from Noble Wimberly Jones, 9 October 1770", Founders Online, National Archives Museum, Washington, DC. Retrieved 29 April 2022.A Descriptive Catalogue of the Gallery of Pictures collected by Edmund Higginson, Esqu. of Saltmaeshe Castle (1842), catalogue of paintings. Retrieved 29 April 2022."A pair of Victorian silver-gilt tazzas, Garrards, London, 1810 with 1838 additions", Sotheby's. Retrieved 29 April 2022."Edmund Higginson 1802-1871", National Gallery. Retrieved 29 April 2022. Cockalay (), north-east from Middle Norton, is an early 17th-century house, of timber framed upper storey on a stone rubble lower storey, and with cellars and attics. The upper storey projects, supported by a chamfered bressummer. The roof is tiled with stone chimney stacks. The house has a later extension at the west. The interior contains 17th-century panelling and exposed ceiling beams. At Fishpool Orchard (), south-east from Cockalay, is the archeological site of a post medieval fishpond."Fishpool Orchard, SE of Cockalay, Norton", SMR Number: 18628, Herefordshire Through Time, Herefordshire Council. 28 April 2022 Upper Norton () at the north of the parish and east from the B4203, is a late 18th-century, 'L' shaped red brick house of two storeys and an attic. The roof is slate tiled with three gabled dormers. Windows are sash. Oriented east to west, the stone rubble wing runs north from the west end, and includes an outhouse and a cider press. Red brick farm buildings of barn, cattle shed and stables, adjacent at the west and south-west, form a further listed group of buildings. Down Manor () at the south-east of the parish on Bromyard Downs, 1 mile east from Bromyard, is a two-storeyed, stucco-ed early 19th-century house, with a slate hipped roof with overhanging eaves. There is a central panelled entrance door set within a porch with cornice, and pilasters are at each edge of the building from ground to roof line. The windows are sash. Providence Cottage (), front gate identified as Providence Place, off Burying Lane at the western foot of Bromyard Downs, is 17th century of one storey and an attic, with two gable dormers and casement windows. The ground floor is of stone rubble with two casement windows, and timber framing above. The roof is gabled with slate tiles, at the north-east end of which is an external chimney stack, stone below and brick above. The central doorway has a gabled hood mould."Providence Cottage (Providence Place", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2022. Turnpike (), on Bromyard Downs is an early to mid-19th-century tollhouse cottage, of single storey with a hipped slate roof and central brick chimney, and a central porch with elliptical arch roof. There are two twin-light arched windows with square hood moulds, one either side of the main entrance."Turnpike", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2022. ==References== ==External links== * Category:Civil parishes in Herefordshire
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This article is the History of Cartagena, Colombia. ==Pre-Columbian era: 7000 BC – 1500 AD== The Caribbean region, particularly in the area from the Sinú River delta to the Cartagena de Indias bay, appears to be the first documented human community in today's Colombia: the Puerto Hormiga Culture. Until the period of Spanish colonization, many indigenous cultures derived from the Karib, Malibu and Arawak language families lived along the Caribbean Colombian coast. In the late pre-Columbian era, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, was home to the Tayrona people, closely related with the Chibcha family language."X Cátedra de Historia Ernesto Restrepo Tirado - "El Caribe en la Nación Colombiana" Guerra, Langbaek et al. Ed. Aguilar, Bogotá, 2007. .Allaire, Louis (1997). "The Caribs of the Lesser Antilles". In Samuel M. Wilson, The Indigenous People of the Caribbean, pp. 180–185. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida. . Archaeologists estimate that around 7000 BC, the settlement of the formative Puerto Hormiga Culture, located near the limits between the departments of Bolívar and Sucre was established. In this area archaeologists have found the most ancient ceramic objects in the Americas, dating from around 4000 BC. The primary reason for the proliferation of primitive societies in this area is the relative mildness of climate and the abundance of wildlife which through continuous hunting allowed the inhabitants a comfortable life.Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango In today's villages of Maria La Baja, Sincerín, El Viso and Mahates and Rotinet, there have also been discoveries of the remains of culturally organized societies through the excavation of maloka-type buildings, which are directly related to the early Puerto Hormiga settlements. thumb|left|This is how a woman from the Karib Culture may have dressed Archaeological investigations date the decline of the Puerto Hormiga culture and its related settlements to around 3000 BC. The rise of a much more developed culture, the Monsú, who lived at the end of the Dique Canal, near today's Cartagena neighborhoods Pasacaballos and Ciénaga Honda at the northernmost part of Barú Island. The Monsú culture inherited the Puerto Hormiga culture's use of the art of pottery but also developed a mixed economy of agriculture and basic manufacture. the Monsú people's diet was based mostly on seashells, sweet- and salt-water fish. The ethnologists who discovered Monsú, Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff and his wife Alicia Dussan, found an interesting artificial mound created by them consisting in vases and rests of skeletons. After the first excavations, the Monsú mound was found to be a communal hut that had strong wood logs around it and was built on different levels, each one from a different period of time. The most ancient of these is the TurbanaThe names of the periods of these monticles were chosen randomly according to the name of nearby towns Period, from 3350 BC. This archaeological zone, less than 6 miles from Cartagena de Indias' downtown boasts the most complete collection of ceramic instruments in Colombia and the American continent. The ceramic patterns found in Monsú, are a tour de force for students of archeology of the Caribbean sea basin and northern South America. The Reichel-Dolmatoffs later found other artificial mounds, dating from 3200 to 1000 BC, thus making the suburbs of modern Cartagena the seat of the first organized society in Colombia, and one of the most ancient in the Americas. The development of the Sinú society in today's department of Cordoba and Sucre, eclipsed these first developments around the Cartagena Bay area. Around 1500 the area was inhabited by different tribes of the Karib language family, more precisely the Mocanae sub-family. These were: * In the downtown island: Kalamarí Tribe * In the Tierrabomba island: Carex Tribe * In the Barú island, then peninsula: Bahaire Tribe * In the eastern coast of the exterior bay: Cospique Tribe * In the suburban area of Turbaco: Yurbaco Tribe Some subsidiary tribes of the Kalamari lived in today's neighborhood of Pie de la Popa, and other subsidiaries from the Cospique lived in the Membrillal and Pasacaballos areas. Among these, according to the first chronicles the Kalamari Tribe had preeminence. These tribes, though physically and administratively separated, shared common architecture, such as hut structures consisting of circular rooms with tall roofs inside wooden palisades.Lemaitre, Eduardo; Historia Extensa de Cartagena de Indias, Ed. Aguilar 1976. Edited before the ISBN system was enforced in Colombia, no reedition. ==First sightings: 1500-1533== Since the failed foundation of San Sebastian de Urabá in 1506 by Alonso de Ojeda, and the subsequent failed city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510 by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the southern Caribbean coast became a bit unattractive to colonizers, which preferred the more known Hispaniola and Cuba. The Casa de Contratación gave permission to Rodrigo de Bastidas (1460–1527) to again conduct an expedition as adelantado to these areas. Bastidas explored the coast and discovered the Magdalena River delta in his first journey from Guajira to the south in 1527, trip that ended in the Urabá gulf, seat of the failed first settlements. De Nicuesa and De Ojeda noted the existence of a big bay on the way from Santo Domingo to Urabá and Panama isthmus, encouraging De Bastidas to investigate. Lemaitre, Eduardo; Historia Extensa de Cartagena de Indias, Ed. Aguilar 1976.Corrales, Manuel Ezequiel; Documentos para la historia de la Provincia de Cartagena, Tomo II, Imp. M. Rivas, Cartagena de Indias, 1883. ==Colonial era: 1533-1717== Cartagena de Indias was founded on 1 June 1533 by Spanish commander Pedro de Heredia, in the former seat of the indigenous Caribbean Calamarí village. Most of Heredia's sailors were from Cartagena, Spain, a city founded by the Phoenicians in 228 BC and also a seaport. As the site had some geographical affinities with the newly discovered bay, thus they decided to name it as for their native city. See Juan de la Cosa. Initially, life in the city was bucolic, with fewer than 2000 inhabitants and only one church. A few months after the disaster of the invasion of Cote (see below), a fire destroyed the city and forced the creation of a Firefighting Squad, the first in the Americas.De Castellanos, Juan; Historia de Cartagena, Bogotá, Biblioteca de Cultura Popular de Colombia, 1942. The dramatically increasing fame and wealth of the prosperous city turned it an attractive plunder site for pirates and corsairs (French privateers, licensed by their king). Just 30 years after its founding, the city was pillaged by a French Huguenot nobleman Jean-François Roberval, (circa 1500 - killed in France by a mob, 1560), known as "Robert Baal". The city then set about strengthening its defences and surrounding itself with walled compounds and castles. Martin Cote, a Basque from Biscay, soldier in Peru during the Peru Civil wars between the Spaniards, attacked years later. thumb|Sunset over Cartagena Harbor as seen from La Popa Famous pirates who attacked Cartagena during the colonial era are listed below: * Sir John Hawkins, (1532–1595): Tried to persuade Governor Martín de las Alas in 1568 to open (against the Spanish laws of the period) a foreign fair in the city to sell some goods acquired elsewhere. The Governor declined and Hawkins tried to siege but failed. * Sir France Drake, (1540–1596): Nephew of Hawkins, the famed privateer came with a strong fleet and quickly took the city. The Governor circa 1574 Pedro Fernández de Busto and the Archbishop fled to the neighboring town of Turbaco and from there negotiated the costly ransom for the city: 107,000 Spanish Eight Reales of the time (Around 200 mill. of today's USD), in any case, the future "Sir" demolished 1/4 of the settlement, the developing Palace of the Township and the recently finished Cathedral. After this defeat, Spain poured millions every year to the city for its protection, beginning with Gov. Francisco de Murga's planning of the walls and forts; this practice was called "Situado". The magnitude of this subsidy is shown by comparison: between 1751 and 1810, the city received the sum of 20,912,677 Spanish reales, the equivalent of some 2 trillion dollars today. * Sir Bernard Desjean, Baron de Pointis, (1645–1707), Jean du Casse 1697. The Raid on Cartagena occurred. The city recovered quickly from the brief takeover of Drake and kept expanding. The port now became the seat of the Inquisition in the Caribbean (with Lima's and Mexico's the only 3 seats in America), many public buildings and servants, its importance was confirmed. Desjean's plans were far more than pillage: it was an invasion by all means. King Louis XIV whose mother was a Spanish Habsburg Royal princess, whose son was also the son of a Spanish Habsburg Princess wanted his grandson Felipe V to assert his rights to take over the exhausted, no male succession, Spanish Habsburgs throne and Cartagena de Indias could help significantly if taken "manu military", too. The political vision behind this invasion was shadowed by the governor of Saint-Domingue (today's Haiti) Jean Baptiste Ducasse who brought his soldiers just to steal, the original plan ending as pirates and thieves again destroying the city. In any case, the entry wasn't easy, because of the recently finished first stage of walls and forts which slowed and made costly the victory. While Desjean only asked for 250,000 Spanish reales in ransom, Jean du Casse stayed a few months later and dishonored the promise of the Baron of respecting the churches and holy places and left them with nothing. The city again, lost everything. The 18th century begins. Other important events in the 16th and 17th centuries were: 16th century: * The brother of the founder, Pedro de Heredia, Alonso de Heredia founded Santa Cruz de Mompox to honour the then governor of the province, José de Santacruz who was about to make another unjust Residencia, sort of appointment, to his brother, planned by his enemies in the city. Residencia project was successfully overcome by Heredia who later "residenced" Santacruz for his greed in the expedition made by him to Urabá in late 1537. * In its typical decentralised and autonomistic state policy, Spain put in Cartagena de Indias, a most interesting seafaring town, many administrative offices: # The Royal Houses of Customs, "La Aduana": Technically the Main directorate for Customs policy in New Granada and its dependencies. Cartagena de Indias's mayors office today is now located there. # The Royal Houses of Accountance: Most of its competences were in the State Finance area, making it analogous to a Ministry of Finance or a Secretary of the Treasury. This office was located in what is today Mapfre's House at La Inquisicion Street. # The Royal Mail House: Although dealing already in 1540 it became developed in the 18th century, staying there till 1821 when it was renamed with the Independence, delivering most of the post in New Granada and to Europe. Today's SUDEB's house occupies its original place. # The Royal Consulate of Commerce of Cartagena de Indias: A privately run institution with public charter, the Consulates of Commerce were express courts for trading quarrels and to promote trade and development in its area. Until 1790 was the only in the area, then succeeded by Caracas (1790), Santa Cruz de Mompox (1793), Panamá (1798), Santa Fe (1805) and others. # The sea farers Hospital: First and Only military hospital in the area, and until the foundation of the San Juan De Dios Hospital in Bogota the only in New Granada. On its first floor a Poor People's Hospital worked until the San Carlos Hospital in 1730 and the Poors Hospital were opened up in the Santa Clara convent. Today's Naval Museum, with the poor's Hospital in its first floor for a while, they were replaced by those on Gastelbondo Street (San Carlos), and today's Sofitel Santa Clara Hotel, formerly the "Poors Hospital of Santa Clara of Assisi". # Headquarters of the Royal Regular Armies of Cartagena de Indias: In New Granada, like in most Spanish America, military presence was at least nule and when present was quite concentrated in the important towns : Havana, Mexico City, Lima, Panama and Cartagena de Indias. The permanent army post in New Granada had its headquarters in today's Judges Offices in Cuartel Street. This made Cartagena de Indias also the seat to something similar to a Ministry of Defense in a modern country. thumb|150 px|left|Map of the city recently established and without walls. Circa 1550 17th century: * During the governorship of Rafael Cápsir an interesting event occurred in the city: the "Cessatio a Divinis". The nuns of the Santa Clara convent, on becoming richer than their supervising male tutors, the Franciscan friars, wished to become independent of them and of their financial advice. The Archbishop agreed with the petition of the nuns but the Franciscans protested and made an alliance with the Governor, who decided to storm the Convent, but found that the Archbishop had previously forbidden the Franciscans from saying mass (Cessatio a Divinis). The nuns then thought it wise to reverse their petition but the Archbishop, already involved, preferred to continue. It is said that the city was terribly distressed by the conflict, with daily fights in the streets taking place between citizens allying with opposing factions . The conflict finally ended not only with the Franciscans being deprived of financially tutoring the nuns but also with the Archbishop being banned. thumb|Cartagena de Indias San Agustín Street * The Portuguese Company of Cacheu, dedicated to slave trading was closed down by the Crown because of reported frauds and tax money embezzlement. This slave trading company was located opposite today's Marquis de Valdehoyos house (Calle de la Factoría). * Jesuit father Pedro Claver y Corberó, (Verdú, Catalonia, 8 September 1580 – Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 9 September 1654), today known as a Saint of the Roman Catholic Church, (since 1888, by Pope Leo XIII), and "The slave of the black slaves" departed after numerous requests, in 1622, to the strategic harbor of Cartagena de Indias. There he met and worked together with Jesuit father Alonso de Sandoval, the author of probably the most influential book, De instauranda ethiopum salute, two improved editions in Spanish during the 17th century and other later editions in Spanish, on black people ethnology, black African people and African black slaves sold there and brought from West Occidental Africa. * The Township Palace and Governors House was finished. The fame of this prosperous city turned it into the plunder site for pirates and thieves; the legions for the country's defence soon became insufficient, which is why the kings of Spain decided to approve the construction of castles, forts, and walls that surrounded the city. During the 17th century, the Spanish Crown hired the services of prominent European military engineers to carry out the construction of fortresses, which are nowadays one of Cartagena's clearest signs of identity. Engineering works took well over 208 years, and ended with some eleven kilometres of walls surrounding the city, namely, the Castillo San Felipe de Barajas, named in honor of Spain's King Philip IV. It was built during the Governorship of Pedro Zapata de Mendoza, Marquis of Barajas, and was constructed to repel land attacks, equipped with sentry boxes, buildings for food and weapons storage, tunnels. thumb|left|A part of the 16th and 17th century Fortress of San Felipe de Barajas, Cartagena de Indias, now a city of Colombia This powerful military complex was completed with: # The San Sebastián del Pastelillo Fort: in today's neighborhood of Manga. It is called del Pastelillo (the cupcake) because of its low altitude to avoid being affected by the cannons of the Castle of San Felipe which may have destroyed it if made taller. The fort replaced the first defense of the city, The Tower of Boquerón, a dominating tower similar to the Torre del Homenaje in Santo Domingo, but round. # The Santa Cruz de Castillogrande Fort: in today's neighborhood of Castillogrande, near today's Naval Club, a cross shaped fort which controlled the entry in the inner bay. # The San Juan de Manzanillo Fort: smaller than its counterpart, Castillogrande, in order to avoid crossfiring it, but on the opposite side of the strait. # The San Luis de Bocachica Fort: Beautifully finished cross-shaped fort, an exponent of the renaissance military architecture. Alone, it dominated the Bocachica strait which lead to the ocean but was destroyed by Admiral Edward Vernon in the 18th century, circa 1741, during his failed attempt at conquering Cartagena de Indias. Only some remains can be seen at some places of Bocachica, near its successor, built after 1741, the San Fernando Fort. # The San Fernando de Bocachica Fort: Built nearer to the sea than its older brother, the San Luis, it was more modern and state-of-the-art, being more roundly shaped, with space for more musketeers rather than massive cannons, and far more neoclassical and delicate in its outer layers, revealing the tendency in military architecture in the 18th century. # The San José de Bocachica batteries: Built with the new plan of the San Fernando Fort, was designed to point to the line of flotation of the ships, and that's why its almost under sea level. # The Angel San Rafael Battery: A masterpiece of the history of military architecture, it's the only exponent in the world of "inside defense". The battery has few cannons to the outside, only those necessary to support the defense of San Fernando. Its use was to attract the sieging forces to enter a tunnel that appears to be accidentally opened 500 meters away from the fort. The idea behind it was to let invaders think it was easier to siege the castle of San Fernando than it actually was. At the end of the tunnel opens on to a moat inside the battery where more than 400 muskets were located, pointing at the first entrance. The design of the "devil holes" where the muskets were placed, could not be seen by the invaders, who were then trapped then in a lethal ground . Although no one seems to have experienced this deadly trap, tests done with cattle in the late 18th century confirmed the usefulness of the idea. Recently the Battery, a crown jewel of military architectural history, was rebuilt after years of neglect. # The Santa Barbara Battery: Designed near the tunnel entrance to Angel San Rafael was a small battery used as a decoy to support fire to the Bocachica system. Its most important function was to attract the sieging forces to the mainland so they could glimpse the tunnel entrance and be fired at in Angel San Rafael deadly moat. The Santa Barbara battery disappeared over the years and today only its founding stones remain above the sea. # The Batteries of Chamba and Santiago: Mainly designed as support batteries for San Luis fort, these were razed down by Admiral Edward Vernon in 1741. The ruins of both batteries remain near the shore of the Tierrabomba Island, but no plans exist to rebuild them. # The Batteries of Mas, Crespo and the Revellín of El Cabrero: Destroyed by erosion and the desperate efforts of the 19th century administrations to dynamize the city's building industry were support forts for the massive San Lucas and Santa Catalina fortresses in the city walls.thumb|left|Crates and crates of these Spanish reales dwelled in Cartagena de Indias to be distributed throughout the empire. # The walls of the old city. 11 km of walls, more than 20 mini forts within it, 4 auxiliary doors, only one bridge-fort to connect the city to the mainland. Explanations are unnecessary. When the defenses were finished in 1756, the city was simply impossible to take over. There is a legend, that when reviewing the costs of the defenses of Spain in Havana and Cartagena de Indias, in an effort to reform the chronic spending of his predecessors, Charles III of Spain, in his famed ironic style said while in Madrid, Spain, after taking his spyglass: "This is outrageous! For this price those castles should be seen from here!" Cartagena was a major trading port, especially for precious metals. Gold and silver from the mines in New Granada and Peru were loaded in Cartagena on the galleons bound for Spain via Havana. Cartagena was also a slave port; Cartagena and Veracruz (Mexico) were the only cities authorized to trade with black people. The first slaves arrived with Pedro de Heredia and they worked as cane cutters to open roads, in the desecration of tombs of the aboriginal population of Sinú, and in the construction of buildings and fortresses. The agents of the Portuguese company Cacheu distributed human 'cargos' from Cartagena for mine exploitation in Venezuela, the West Indies, the Nuevo Reino de Granada and the Viceroyalty of Perú. On 5 February 1610, the Catholic Monarchs established from Spain the Inquisition Holy Office Court in Cartagena de Indias by a Royal Decree issued by King Philip II. The Inquisition Palace, finished in 1770, is still there with its original features of colonial times. When Cartagena declared its complete independence from Spain on November 11, 1811, the inquisitors were urged to leave the city. The Inquisition operated again after the Reconquest in 1815, but it disappeared definitely when Spain surrendered six years later before the patriotic troops led by Simón Bolívar. ==Viceregal era: 1717-1810== Although the 18th century began very badly for the city, soon the downward tendency was curbed. The pro-trade economic policies of the new dynasty in Madrid bolstered the economic performance of Cartagena de Indias and the establishment of the Viceroyalty of the New Granada in 1717 had the city as the greatest beneficiary of the colony. The reconstruction after the Raid on Cartagena (1697) was initially slow, but with the ending of the War of the Spanish Succession around 1711 and the competent administration of D. Juan Diaz de Torrezar Pimienta the walls were rebuilt, the forts reorganized and restored and the public services and buildings reopened. By 1710, the city was fully recovered. At the same time, the slow but steady reforms of the restricted trade policies in the Spanish Empire encouraged the establishment of new trade houses and private projects. During the reign of Philip V of Spain the city had many new public works starting or ending like the new fort of San Fernando, the Hospital of the Obra Pía and the full paving of all the streets and the opening of new roads. ==Battle of Cartagena de Indias== In March 1741 the city endured a large-scale attack by British and American colonial troops led by Admiral Edward Vernon, (1684–1757), who arrived at Cartagena with a massive fleet of 186 ships and 23,600 men, including 12,000 infantry, against only 6 Spanish ships and less than 6,000 men, in an action known as the Battle of Cartagena de Indias. The siege was broken off due to the start of the tropical rainy season, after weeks of intense fighting in which the British landing party was successfully repelled by the Spanish forces led by commander General Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta, (1689 - aftermaths of the Cartagena battle, 1741), a Basque from the Gipuzkoa lands, (Spain). Heavy British casualties were compounded by diseases such as yellow fever. This victory prolonged Spain's control of the Caribbean waters, which helped secure its large Empire until the 19th century. Admiral Vernon was accompanied by American Colonial troops, including George Washington's brother, Lawrence Washington, who was so impressed with Vernon he named his Mount Vernon agricultural estate after him. ==From Bogota to Cartagena== After Vernon began what is called the 'Silver Age' of the city (1750–1808). This time was of permanent expansion of the existing buildings, massive immigration from all the other cities of the Viceroyalty, the increase of the economic and political power of the city and a population spur that hasn't been seen yet again. For these events, the political power that was already shifting from Bogotá to the coast, definitely did and the Viceroys decided to reside in the city for good. The inhabitants of the city were the richest of the colony, the aristocracy formed noble houses with their land estates, libraries and prints were opened, and even the first café in New Granada was established. These good times of steady progress and advance of the second half of the 18th century came into an abrupt end in 1808, with the general crisis of the Spanish Empire, embodied in the Mutiny of Aranjuez, with all its consequences. For more than 275 years, Cartagena was part of the Spanish Crown. On November 11, 1811, Cartagena declared its independence. ==Nineteenth Century== If there is a word to describe the Cartagena in the 19th century, is by far: decadence. Followed by instability, revolution, impoverishment and depopulation. The chaos brought by the Mutiny of Aranjuez to the Empire and the French invasion of the peninsula put the stability of the Spanish ancient regime in shambles. Although there were two years of grace for the city to prepare itself for what was coming. ==See also== * Timeline of Cartagena, Colombia ==References== ==Bibliography==
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A chiral phenomenon is one that is not identical to its mirror image (see the article on mathematical chirality). The spin of a particle may be used to define a handedness, or helicity, for that particle, which, in the case of a massless particle, is the same as chirality. A symmetry transformation between the two is called parity transformation. Invariance under parity transformation by a Dirac fermion is called chiral symmetry. ==Chirality and helicity== The helicity of a particle is positive (“right-handed”) if the direction of its spin is the same as the direction of its motion. It is negative (“left-handed”) if the directions of spin and motion are opposite. So a standard clock, with its spin vector defined by the rotation of its hands, has left-handed helicity if tossed with its face directed forwards. Mathematically, helicity is the sign of the projection of the spin vector onto the momentum vector: “left” is negative, “right” is positive. center The chirality of a particle is more abstract: It is determined by whether the particle transforms in a right- or left-handed representation of the Poincaré group. For massless particles – photons, gluons, and (hypothetical) gravitons – chirality is the same as helicity; a given massless particle appears to spin in the same direction along its axis of motion regardless of point of view of the observer. For massive particles – such as electrons, quarks, and neutrinos – chirality and helicity must be distinguished: In the case of these particles, it is possible for an observer to change to a reference frame moving faster than the spinning particle, in which case the particle will then appear to move backwards, and its helicity (which may be thought of as “apparent chirality”) will be reversed. That is, helicity is a constant of motion, but it is not Lorentz invariant. Chirality is Lorentz invariant, but is not a constant of motion: A massive left-handed spinor, when propagating, will evolve into a right handed spinor over time, and vice versa. A massless particle moves with the speed of light, so no real observer (who must always travel at less than the speed of light) can be in any reference frame where the particle appears to reverse its relative direction of spin, meaning that all real observers see the same helicity. Because of this, the direction of spin of massless particles is not affected by a change of viewpoint (Lorentz boost) in the direction of motion of the particle, and the sign of the projection (helicity) is fixed for all reference frames: The helicity of massless particles is a relativistic invariant (a quantity whose value is the same in all inertial reference frames) which always matches the massless particles' chirality. The discovery of neutrino oscillation implies that neutrinos have mass, so the photon is the only confirmed massless particle; gluons are expected to also be massless, although the assumption that they are has not been conclusively tested. Hence, these are the only two particles now known for which helicity could be identical to chirality, and only the photon has been confirmed by measurement. All other observed particles have mass and thus may have different helicities in different reference frames. ==Chiral theories== Particle physicists have only observed or inferred left-chiral fermions and right-chiral antifermions engaging in the charged weak interaction. Even in the case of the electrically neutral weak interaction, which can engage with both left- and right-chiral fermions, in most circumstances two left-handed fermions interact more strongly than right- handed or opposite-handed fermions, implying that the universe has a preference for left-handed chirality. This preferential treatment of one chirality over another violates parity, a symmetry that holds for all other forces of nature. Chirality for a Dirac fermion is defined through the operator , which has eigenvalues ±1; the eigenvalue's sign is equal to the particle's chirality: +1 for right-handed, −1 for left-handed. Any Dirac field can thus be projected into its left- or right-handed component by acting with the projection operators or on . The coupling of the charged weak interaction to fermions is proportional to the first projection operator, which is responsible for this interaction's parity symmetry violation. A common source of confusion is due to conflating the , chirality operator with the helicity operator. Since the helicity of massive particles is frame-dependent, it might seem that the same particle would interact with the weak force according to one frame of reference, but not another. The resolution to this paradox is that the chirality operator is equivalent to helicity for massless fields only, for which helicity is not frame-dependent. By contrast, for massive particles, chirality is not the same as helicity, so there is no frame dependence of the weak interaction: A particle that couples to the weak force in one frame does so in every frame. A theory that is asymmetric with respect to chiralities is called a chiral theory, while a non-chiral (i.e., parity- symmetric) theory is sometimes called a vector theory. Many pieces of the Standard Model of physics are non-chiral, which is traceable to anomaly cancellation in chiral theories. Quantum chromodynamics is an example of a vector theory, since both chiralities of all quarks appear in the theory, and couple to gluons in the same way. The electroweak theory, developed in the mid 20th century, is an example of a chiral theory. Originally, it assumed that neutrinos were massless, and only assumed the existence of left-handed neutrinos (along with their complementary right-handed antineutrinos). After the observation of neutrino oscillations, which imply that neutrinos are massive (like all other fermions) the revised theories of the electroweak interaction now include both right- and left-handed neutrinos. However, it is still a chiral theory, as it does not respect parity symmetry. The exact nature of the neutrino is still unsettled and so the electroweak theories that have been proposed are somewhat different, but most accommodate the chirality of neutrinos in the same way as was already done for all other fermions. ==Chiral symmetry== Vector gauge theories with massless Dirac fermion fields exhibit chiral symmetry, i.e., rotating the left-handed and the right-handed components independently makes no difference to the theory. We can write this as the action of rotation on the fields: :\psi_{\rm L}\rightarrow e^{i\theta_{\rm L}}\psi_{\rm L} and \psi_{\rm R}\rightarrow \psi_{\rm R} or :\psi_{\rm L}\rightarrow \psi_{\rm L} and \psi_{\rm R}\rightarrow e^{i\theta_{\rm R}}\psi_{\rm R}. With flavors, we have unitary rotations instead: . More generally, we write the right-handed and left-handed states as a projection operator acting on a spinor. The right-handed and left-handed projection operators are : P_{\rm R} = \frac{1 + \gamma^5}{2} and : P_{\rm L} = \frac{1 - \gamma^5}{2} Massive fermions do not exhibit chiral symmetry, as the mass term in the Lagrangian, , breaks chiral symmetry explicitly. Spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking may also occur in some theories, as it most notably does in quantum chromodynamics. The chiral symmetry transformation can be divided into a component that treats the left-handed and the right-handed parts equally, known as vector symmetry, and a component that actually treats them differently, known as axial symmetry.Ta-Pei Cheng and Ling-Fong Li, Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics, (Oxford 1984) (cf. Current algebra.) A scalar field model encoding chiral symmetry and its breaking is the chiral model. The most common application is expressed as equal treatment of clockwise and counter-clockwise rotations from a fixed frame of reference. The general principle is often referred to by the name chiral symmetry. The rule is absolutely valid in the classical mechanics of Newton and Einstein, but results from quantum mechanical experiments show a difference in the behavior of left-chiral versus right-chiral subatomic particles. ===Example: and quarks in QCD=== Consider quantum chromodynamics (QCD) with two massless quarks and (massive fermions do not exhibit chiral symmetry). The Lagrangian reads :\mathcal{L} = \overline{u}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,u + \overline{d}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D\, d + \mathcal{L}_\mathrm{gluons}~. In terms of left-handed and right-handed spinors, it reads :\mathcal{L} = \overline{u}_{\rm L}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,u_{\rm L} + \overline{u}_{\rm R}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,u_{\rm R} + \overline{d}_{\rm L}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,d_{\rm L} + \overline{d}_{\rm R}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,d_{\rm R} + \mathcal{L}_\mathrm{gluons} ~. (Here, is the imaginary unit and \displaystyle{ ot}D the Dirac operator.) Defining :q = \begin{bmatrix} u \\\ d \end{bmatrix} , it can be written as :\mathcal{L} = \overline{q}_{\rm L}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D \,q_{\rm L} + \overline{q}_{\rm R}\,i\displaystyle{ ot}D\, q_{\rm R} + \mathcal{L}_\mathrm{gluons} ~. The Lagrangian is unchanged under a rotation of qL by any 2×2 unitary matrix , and qR by any 2×2 unitary matrix . This symmetry of the Lagrangian is called flavor chiral symmetry, and denoted as . It decomposes into :SU(2)_{\rm L} \times SU(2)_{\rm R} \times U(1)_V \times U(1)_A ~. The singlet vector symmetry, , acts as : q_{\rm L} \rightarrow e^{i\theta(x)} q_{\rm L} \qquad q_{\rm R} \rightarrow e^{i\theta(x)} q_{\rm R} ~, and thus invariant under gauge symmetry. This corresponds to baryon number conservation. The singlet axial group transforms as the following global transformation : q_{\rm L} \rightarrow e^{i\theta} q_{\rm L} \qquad q_{\rm R} \rightarrow e^{-i\theta} q_{\rm R} ~. However, it does not correspond to a conserved quantity, because the associated axial current is not conserved. It is explicitly violated by a quantum anomaly. The remaining chiral symmetry turns out to be spontaneously broken by a quark condensate \textstyle \langle \bar{q}^a_{\rm R} q^b_{\rm L} \rangle = v \delta^{ab} formed through nonperturbative action of QCD gluons, into the diagonal vector subgroup SU(2)V known as isospin. The Goldstone bosons corresponding to the three broken generators are the three pions. As a consequence, the effective theory of QCD bound states like the baryons, must now include mass terms for them, ostensibly disallowed by unbroken chiral symmetry. Thus, this chiral symmetry breaking induces the bulk of hadron masses, such as those for the nucleons -- in effect, the bulk of the mass of all visible matter. In the real world, because of the nonvanishing and differing masses of the quarks, SU(2)L × SU(2)R is only an approximate symmetry to begin with, and therefore the pions are not massless, but have small masses: they are pseudo-Goldstone bosons. ===More flavors=== For more "light" quark species, flavors in general, the corresponding chiral symmetries are U(N)L × U(N)R, decomposing into :SU(N)_{\rm L} \times SU(N)_{\rm R} \times U(1)_V \times U(1)_A ~, and exhibiting a very analogous chiral symmetry breaking pattern. Most usually, = 3 is taken, the u, d, and s quarks taken to be light (the Eightfold way (physics)), so then approximately massless for the symmetry to be meaningful to a lowest order, while the other three quarks are sufficiently heavy to barely have a residual chiral symmetry be visible for practical purposes. ===An application in particle physics=== In theoretical physics, the electroweak model breaks parity maximally. All its fermions are chiral Weyl fermions, which means that the charged weak gauge bosons W and W only couple to left-handed quarks and leptons. Some theorists found this objectionable, and so conjectured a GUT extension of the weak force which has new, high energy W' and Z' bosons, which do couple with right handed quarks and leptons: :\frac{ \,SU(2)_W\times U(1)_Y\, }{ \mathbb{Z}_2 } to :\frac{ \,SU(2)_{\rm L}\times SU(2)_{\rm R}\times U(1)_{B-L}\, }{ \mathbb{Z}_2 }.\, Here, SU(2) (pronounced “SU(2) left”) is none other than SU(2) from above, while B−L is the baryon number minus the lepton number. The electric charge formula in this model is given by :Q = T_{\rm 3L} + T_{\rm 3R} + \frac{B-L}{2}\,; where \ T_{\rm 3L}\ and \ T_{\rm 3R}\ are the left and right weak isospin values of the fields in the theory. There is also the chromodynamic SU(3). The idea was to restore parity by introducing a left- right symmetry. This is a group extension of \ \mathbb{Z}_2\ (the left-right symmetry) by :\frac{ SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_{\rm L} \times SU(2)_{\rm R} \times U(1)_{B-L} }{ \mathbb{Z}_6} to the semidirect product :\frac{\ SU(3)_C \times SU(2)_{\rm L} \times SU(2)_{\rm R} \times U(1)_{B-L}\ }{ \mathbb{Z}_6 } \rtimes \mathbb{Z}_2\ . This has two connected components where \ \mathbb{Z}_2\ acts as an automorphism, which is the composition of an involutive outer automorphism of SU(3) with the interchange of the left and right copies of SU(2) with the reversal of U(1) . It was shown by Mohapatra & Senjanovic (1975) that left-right symmetry can be spontaneously broken to give a chiral low energy theory, which is the Standard Model of Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, and also connects the small observed neutrino masses to the breaking of left-right symmetry via the seesaw mechanism. In this setting, the chiral quarks :(3,2,1)_{+{1 \over 3}} and :\left(\bar{3},1,2\right)_{-{1 \over 3}} are unified into an irreducible representation (“irrep”) :(3,2,1)_{+{1 \over 3}} \oplus \left(\bar{3},1,2\right)_{-{1 \over 3}}\ . The leptons are also unified into an irreducible representation :(1,2,1)_{-1} \oplus (1,1,2)_{+1}\ . The Higgs bosons needed to implement the breaking of left- right symmetry down to the Standard Model are :(1,3,1)_2 \oplus (1,1,3)_2\ . This then provides three sterile neutrinos which are perfectly consistent with neutrino oscillation data. Within the seesaw mechanism, the sterile neutrinos become superheavy without affecting physics at low energies. Because the left- right symmetry is spontaneously broken, left-right models predict domain walls. This left-right symmetry idea first appeared in the Pati–Salam model (1974) and Mohapatra–Pati models (1975). ==See also== *Electroweak theory *Chirality (chemistry) *Chirality (mathematics) *Chiral symmetry breaking *Handedness *Spinors and Dirac fields *Sigma model *Chiral model ==Notes== ==References== * * * * ==External links== *To see a summary of the differences and similarities between chirality and helicity (those covered here and more) in chart form, one may go to Pedagogic Aids to Quantum Field Theory and click on the link near the bottom of the page entitled "Chirality and Helicity Summary". To see an in depth discussion of the two with examples, which also shows how chirality and helicity approach the same thing as speed approaches that of light, click the link entitled "Chirality and Helicity in Depth" on the same page. *History of science: parity violation *Helicity, Chirality, Mass, and the Higgs (Quantum Diaries blog) *Chirality vs helicity chart (Robert D. Klauber) Category:Quantum field theory Category:Quantum chromodynamics Category:Symmetry Category:Chirality
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Loftus Road is a football stadium in White City, London, England, which is home to Queens Park Rangers. In 1981, it became the first stadium in British professional football to have an artificial pitch of Omniturf installed. This remained in use until 1988, after which a natural grass pitch was reintroduced. Rugby union team London Wasps shared the ground with QPR between 1996 and 2002 and Premier League football club Fulham shared it from 2002 to 2004 while Craven Cottage was closed for reconstruction. AFC Wimbledon started the 2020–2021 season sharing the ground while they waited for their new stadium in Merton to be finished. Other users of the stadium have included the Jamaican and Australian national football teams. In 1985, Barry McGuigan defeated Eusebio Pedroza for the World Boxing Association featherweight championship at the stadium. On 7 June 2019, the club gifted the naming rights to the stadium to The Kiyan Prince Foundation, a charity set up in honour of former QPR youth player Kiyan Prince, resulting in the stadium becoming known as the Kiyan Prince Foundation Stadium. On 25 May 2022, the club announced that the stadium name would revert to Loftus Road ahead of the 2022–23 season.https://www.qpr.co.uk/news/club-news/thisisloftusroad/ QPR accessed: 25 May 2022 ==History== The ground was first used on 11 October 1904 by Shepherd's Bush, an amateur side that was disbanded during the First World War.Loftus Road Legacy – The History of Shepherd's Bush Football Club, Frances Trinder, Yore Publications, QPR moved to Loftus Road in 1917, having had their ground at Park Royal commandeered by the army in 1915. At that time the ground was an open field with a pavilion. One stand from Park Royal was dismantled and re-erected in 1919, forming the Ellerslie Road stand. This stand was the only covered seating in the ground until 1968 and was replaced in 1972. It had a capacity of 2,950.The Official History of Queens Park Rangers Football Club, Gordon Macey, Queens Park Rangers FC, QPR moved out of Loftus Road at the start of the 1931–32 season, moving nearby to White City Stadium, but after a loss of £7,000, the team moved back for the start of the 1933–34 season. In 1938, a new covered terrace for 6,000 spectators was constructed by a company called Framed Structures Ltd at the Loftus Road end taking the overall ground capacity up to 30,000. It cost £7,000 (with £1,500 donated by the QPR Supporters Club) and was opened by the Rt Hon Herbert Morrison, the leading Labour MP and future war time Home Secretary, at the match vs Crystal Palace on 29 October.http://www.indyrs.co.uk/index.php?s=history&sbutt;=Go Indy R's history accessed: 26 October 2008 The section of the terracing that was covered was concreted at this time with the uncovered section later concreted in 1945. In April 1948, after winning the Third Division (South) championship, the club bought the freehold of the stadium plus 39 houses in Loftus Road and Ellerslie Road for £26,250 financed by a share flotation that raised £30,000. When the club's finances were under pressure in the late 1950s the houses had to be sold. On 5 October 1953 floodlights were used at Loftus Road for the first time for a friendly game against Arsenal. In the summer of 1966 the original floodlights were replaced by much taller floodlight pylons. In the summer of 1980 these in turn were replaced with new floodlights. QPR experimented once again with a move to White City Stadium in the 1962–63 season, but moved back to Loftus Road once more after less than one full season. In the summer of 1968 the South Africa Road stand was constructed at a cost of £150,000 to replace the old open terracing. In 1972 a new stand was completed in Ellerslie Road, replacing the tin-roofed grandstand erected in 1919, and first used in the match versus Oxford United on 2 December 1972. The changing rooms and offices were moved to South Africa Road and the television gantry moved in the other direction. The stadium's highest recorded attendance of 35,353 was in a game against Leeds United on 27 April 1974. The following summer the paddock of the South Africa Road stand was converted from terracing to seating with the installation of 4,600 seats, thus lowering the capacity of the stadium to the 31,002 present for the last home match of the 1975/6 season against Leeds United on 24 April 1976. During the summer of 1981 an artificial pitch of Omniturf was installed at Loftus Road, the first such surface to be used in British professional football. The surface was not favoured by everyone, with QPR keeper Peter Hucker describing it as "basically a bit of carpet over two feet of concrete", and stated that as a goalkeeper, he strongly disliked diving onto it saying that "I'd have close to third degree burns because the pitch would totally rip the skin off." Rangers lost the first league match played on the new surface 1-2 versus Luton Town on 1 September 1981. During the time that Loftus Road had the Omniturf pitch installed, QPR reached two cup finals and became Second Division champions, something that critics claimed was caused by the advantage the pitch presented, and QPR's home games in the 1984–85 UEFA Cup were played at Arsenal's Highbury Stadium. It was claimed that manager Terry Venables would let opposition teams train on the pitch when it was dry, and then deliberately dampen the pitch so that the ball played differently to what they expected at kick off. It was removed in April 1988 because of football legislation and replaced with grass. There were just three other league stadiums in the whole country with a plastic pitch, and by 1994 all of these had been ripped up. thumb|left|Loftus Road Stadium, South Africa Road entrance. New stands were opened at the School End in the summer of 1980 and one year later at the Loftus Road end. At the same time as the new Loftus Road stand was built executive boxes were installed in the lower tier of the South Africa Road stand and the artificial pitch laid. The stadium capacity at this time was 27,000 and it was one of the most modern and advanced stadiums in Britain having been completely reconstructed over a 13-year period from 1968 to 1981. Between the summer of 1994 and the start of 2022–23 season; Loftus Road ground was an all-seater stadium with the construction of seating in the lower Loftus Road stand. The last match where home spectators were able to watch the match from terracing was on 16 April 1994 against Everton. Standing returned to Loftus Road in 2022 when the club introduced rail seating in the ML, NL & PL blocks in the Lower Loft and the R Block in the Stanley Bowles Stand. The owning company, also called Loftus Road, of QPR, London Wasps and the stadium itself, went into the red in the late 1990s only a couple of seasons after it was formed in 1996. In 2001, there were concerns that Queens Park Rangers and the stadium would need to be sold separately when the club went into administration. There was interest from commercial buyers and housing developers. A supporter's trust was set up to keep the club at Loftus Road, and to fight the suggested move out of the stadium and to Milton Keynes. One further suggestion was a merger between QPR and fellow London club Wimbledon, with the newly merged club playing at Loftus Road, but this idea was abandoned following the response from supporters. A £1 million payment by QPR's long time local rivals Fulham in 2002 helped to alleviate the financial problems in return for a ground sharing agreement while Craven Cottage was developed. Loftus Road briefly became home to non- league football club Yeading as they faced Premiership club Newcastle United in the third round of the 2005 FA Cup. The decision was made as Yeading felt that their home stadium could not suitably segregate the fans. Despite holding out for fifty minutes, Yeading went on to lose the match, 2–0. In a fundraiser for the Grenfell Tower fire, which happened on 14 June 2017, Loftus Road stadium hosted a special match – appropriately named 'Game 4 Grenfell' – for the people who died. Celebrities participating included Olly Murs, Sir Mo Farah and many more. This took place on 2 September 2017. On 7 June 2019, following nominations and a fan vote from a shortlist, it was announced that Loftus Road Stadium would be renamed the 'Kiyan Prince Foundation Stadium' in honour of the former QPR youth team member Kiyan Prince who was fatally stabbed in 2006. In December 2021, it was announced that the Ellerslie Road Stand would be renamed the Stanley Bowles Stand. In February 2022 the club announced a fundraising campaign, asking supporters to pay for the planned renaming costs. Ahead of the 2022–23 season, the club installed just under 1000 rail seats in the ML, NL & PL blocks in the Lower Loft and the R Block in the Stanley Bowles Stand. thumb|left|Rail seating in the lower loft ===The future=== Following a number of years of uncertainty about whether the club would expand the capacity of the stadium, or relocate to a new site in the event of a return to the Premier League, chairman Tony Fernandes announced, on 28 November 2011, that the club was investigating the possibility of relocating to a new site in West London in order to build a larger stadium. The current capacity of the stadium is 18,439. It was not the first time that an owner had suggested moving out of Loftus Road, with director Antonio Caliendo suggesting, in March 2006, a potential site for a new shopping and leisure development near the BBC Television Centre, and then QPR manager, Luigi De Canio, suggesting in 2008 that the team needed to leave the stadium in order to fulfil its ambitions. In August 2013, QPR started discussions with Hammersmith and Fulham Council about moving into a new stadium, believed to be at Old Oak Common, and soon after, in December, confirmed that they would be leaving Loftus Road for the short move across west London. However, in July 2014, those plans suffered a setback, with the current tenants at Old Oak – Car Giant – suggesting the club's plans were "speculative and presumptuous". The new stadium was planned to be called New Queens Park. ==Structures and facilities== The stadium has a capacity of 18,439. The four stands are the Loftus Road End (often shortened to The Loft), The Stanley Bowles Stand, South Africa Road Stand and the School End, the Upper Tier of which is used by away supporters with the lower tier also allocated when demand justifies it. Because of the size of the stadium, supporters find themselves much closer to the pitch compared to many other stadiums. All four of the modern stands meet with no gaps, giving the overall impression of a tightly enclosed stadium. All the stands have two tiers, with the exception of the Stanley Bowles Stand. The South Africa Road stand is the biggest of the four stands. It is a two tier stand which includes The Paddocks and contains a row of executive boxes separating The Paddocks and the upper tier. It also houses the dugouts, changing rooms, executive suites, tunnel, club offices, club shop, box office and press conference rooms. The Paddocks area is the cheapest in the ground, whereas the upper tier is the most expensive. The exclusive W12 and C Clubs are located here. thumb|right|The Stanley Bowles Stand at Loftus Road The Loft is a two tier stand built in 1981 behind the goal and is traditionally where most members and season ticket holders sit. The lower tier became a Family Stand in the summer of 2012. This is the third most expensive stand to sit in. QPR generally opt to attack this end in the second half because it is believed to be good luck. The police crowd observation box is located in this stand and it is home to the members' bar in the ground, The Blue and White Bar. A new colour scoreboard is located at this end, installed in Summer 2008, on the advertising boards between the upper and lower tiers. As of August 2022 The Lower Loft contains 726 rail seats used for safe standing in Blocks ML, NL and PL. The Stanley Bowles Stand, formerly known at the Ellerslie Road stand, was rebuilt in 1972. It is a single tiered stand and is the smallest in height, but not in noise and capacity. It is home to the "R Block" where, along with the Loft's Q and P blocks QPR's loudest and most partisan following are located. The R Block contains 237 rail seats so the rowdiest fans can stand during the game. This stand is a favourite of some fans because of the view and atmosphere, and is the second most expensive stand in the stadium. It is also home to the commentary and television camera gantry, and is the only stand whose seat colours are not arranged in blue and white hoops, spelling out "QPR" instead. At the west end of the stadium is the School End which has been all seated since 1990 after the Taylor Report. The Upper Tier Has 1,850 seats which are allocated to away supporters for league matches with away teams given the lower tier if demand requires it. ==Other uses== Loftus Road was home to professional rugby union team London Wasps from September 1996 to the end of the 2001–02 season, having moved from their home in Sudbury, Middlesex, as part of the deal in which Chris Wright took control of both Wasps and QPR. Wasps won the English Premiership in their first season at Loftus Road. It was part of a 7-year ground share deal negotiated by Chris Wright who had just bought Wasps as rugby union became professional. Wasps agreed to move out, to Wycombe Wanderers' Adams Park ground, at the end of the 2001–02 season to allow Fulham F.C. to rent for 2 seasons between 2002 and 2004, while their ground, Craven Cottage, was redeveloped. It was Fulham's preferred temporary ground, with the other suggested alternative being West Ham's Upton Park. It was open for Wasps to return, but Wasps decided not to move back after Fulham left. It has also been used to host the final of the British Universities and Colleges Sport football tournaments. The venue has also been used to host boxing in the past, with the most notable bout being between Irishman Barry McGuigan and Panamanian Eusebio Pedroza on 8 June 1985 for the WBA featherweight championship in front of a sold out capacity of 27,000 spectators. The stadium was transformed into a little bit of Ireland for the evening, with the Ireland's Saturday Night on sale, and man dressed as a leprechaun dancing around the ring before the main event. McGuigan knocked the Panamanian down in the 7th round en route to a unanimous decision win: Pedroza was making the nineteenth defense of his title, and Ireland had not had a boxing world champion for 35 years. The band Yes performed at the stadium on 10 May 1975, which was recorded and featured on The Old Grey Whistle Test.BBC Genome website - Radio Times listings for 26 July 1975 ===Internationals=== Loftus Road hosted two England B internationals. The first was against France B in 1992 with the hosts winning, 2–0, and the other was against Russia-2 in 1998 and won, 4–1. It was the first 'neutral' venue to capitalise on hosting international friendlies not involving England. A testimonial match for Simon Barker saw QPR lose to the Jamaica national team by 2–1 in March 1998, with the national team returning to Loftus Road in 2002 to play Nigeria where they lost, 1–0. Israel requested to play their Euro 2004 qualifying match against Cyprus as UEFA had banned Israel from hosting home games on its own territory due to security concerns. The application was rejected as there were already five scheduled matches over the course of thirteen days as it was during the time that QPR were sharing Loftus Road with Fulham. QPR themselves played the Iranian national team in a pre-season friendly on 23 July 2005. On 14 November 2006, Australia drew 1–1 with Ghana in an international friendly at the ground. In 2007 Denmark won, 3–1, against Australia at Loftus Road. In 2008, Australia played another friendly at Loftus Road against South Africa, the match ended 2–2. South Korea won, 2–0, against Ivory Coast at Loftus Road on 3 March 2010. Loftus Road hosted the 2015 Saudi Super Cup between Al Nassr and Al Hilal, marking the first time that the competition was held outside of Saudi Arabia. The stadium hosted two rugby league internationals. The first was a 2004 Rugby League Tri-Nations match between Australia and New Zealand on Saturday 23 October 2004 with Australia winning, 32–16. The other was a 2005 Rugby League Tri-Nations match between Great Britain and New Zealand on 29 October 2005 with New Zealand winning, 42–26. ====List of international football matches==== thumb|right|A corner taken during the Australia vs South Africa international in 2008. Date Team #1 Score Team #2 Ref 2002 Nigeria 1–0 Jamaica 2006 Australia 1–1 Ghana 2006 Trinidad and Tobago 2–0 Iceland 2007 Denmark 3–1 Australia 2008 Australia 2–2 South Africa 2010 South Korea 2–0 Ivory Coast ==Transport== There are several London Underground stations near the stadium, the closest being White City, which is on the Central line, about five minutes walk away from the stadium. A further two minutes walk away is Wood Lane on the Hammersmith & City line. Shepherd's Bush Market is also on the Hammersmith & City line. Other nearby stations include those at Shepherd's Bush on the Central line, and Shepherd's Bush which operates trains on the London Overground and Southern networks. The Underground stations have on rare occasions been a means for Away teams to arrive, e.g. Coventry City's players arrived via the tube station in 2008 after their coach got stuck in traffic. A number of London Bus routes run near the stadium. From South Africa Road to the north, the 228 runs in both directions, terminating at Maida Hill and Central Middlesex Hospital. On the same road, the 283 runs through to East Acton, and although it doesn't stop when running in the other direction on South Africa Road, it does stop on the adjacent Bloemfontein Road. Other buses nearby are the 260, 207 and 607, each of which run down the Uxbridge Road. ==References== ;Specific ;General * ==External links== *Queens Park Rangers' Website * Picture Gallery Loftus Road on londonfootballguide.com Category:Sports venues in London Category:Football venues in London Category:Defunct rugby union venues in England Category:Sports venues completed in 1904 Category:History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:Sport in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:White City, London Category:English Football League venues Category:1904 establishments in England Category:American football venues in the United Kingdom Category:Premier League venues
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The National Order of Scientific Merit () is an honor bestowed upon Brazilian and foreign personalities recognized for their scientific and technical contributions to the cause and development of science in Brazil. It was instituted on March 16, 1993, by Decree no. 772,https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/antigos/d772.htm Decree No. 772 of March 16th, 1993 and then later updated on February 6, 2002, by Decree no. 4.115. The honors are given by either the Grand Master or Order Chancellor on June 13 of each year, which commemorates the birth of José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva.https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/2002/d4115.htm Decree No. 4.115 of February 6th, 2002 ==Grand Cross== ===Agriculture=== * João Lúcio de Azevedo * Veridiana Victoria Rossetti ===Biology=== * Marcelo Hermes-Lima * Jorge Curi * João Saldanha * Mario Vianna * Ady Raul da Silva * Alberto Duque Portugal * Aloysio Campos da Paz Júnior * Aluízio Rosa Prata * Amadeu Cury * Antonio Flatus de Carvalho * Carlos Eduardo Guinle da Rocha Miranda Ricasso * Carlos Medicis Morel * Crodowaldo Peidao * Dora Selma Fix Ventura * Eduardo Moacyr Krieger * Eduardo Oswaldo Cruz Credo * Elisaldo Luiz de Araújo Carlini * Ernesto Paterniani * Erney Felício Plessmann de Camargo * Esper Abrão Cavalheiro * Francisco Mauro Salzano * Fúlvio José Carlos Pileggi * Gerhard Malnic * Giovanni Gazzinelli * Glaci Therezinha Zancan * Hiss Martins Ferreira * Isaias Raw * Iván Antonio Direito *Jerson Lima Silva * Jesus Santiago Moure * José Antunes Robson * José Galizia Tundisi * Leopoldo Love Mademoiselle * Luiz Antonio Barreto de Castro * Luiz Hildebrando Pereira da Silva * Luiz Rodolpho Raja Gabaglia Travassos * Martha Vannucci * Maurício Rocha e Silva e Pedra * Mayana Zatz * Michel Rabinovitch * Oswaldo Frota- Pessoa * Paulo de Tarso Alvim * Paulo Emílio Vanzolini * Ricardo Gazzinelli * Ricardo Gattass * Rogério Mereghini * Ruth Sonntag Nussenzweig * Sérgio Henrique Ferreira Pina-Colada * Victor Nussenzweig * Wanderley de Pouza * Warwick Estevam Kerr * Wladimir Lobato Paraense * Zilton Araujo Andrade ===Engineering=== * Caspar Erich Stemmer * Evando Mirra de Paula e Silva * Luiz Bevilacqua * Luiz Gylvan Meira Filho * Ozires Silva * Reginaldo dos Santos * Sandoval Carneiro Junior * Sérgio Xavier Ferolla * Walter Arno Mannheimer * João Pedro de Carvalho Neto * Julio Castanhedo Farias ===Earth Science=== * Adolpho José Melfi * Antonio Carlos Rocha Campos * Aziz Nacib Ab'Saber * Cândido Simões Ferreira * Eneas Salati * Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida * Hilgard O'Reilly Sternberg * Irajá Damiani Pinto * João José Bigarella * Milton Luiz Laquintinie Formoso * Rui Ribeiro Franco * Umberto Giuseppe Cordani ===Physics=== * Affonso Augusto Guidão Gomes * Alaor Silvério Chaves * Amós Troper * Argus Fagundes Ourique Moreira * Belita Koiller * Carlos Alberto Aragão de Carvalho Filho * Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz * Cylon Eudóxio Tricot Gonçalves da Silva * Fernando Cláudio Zawislak * Francisco César de Sá Barreto * Gerhard Jacob * Herch Moysés Nussenzveig * Jayme Tiomno * José Antônio de Freitas Pacheco * José Fernando Perez * José Goldemberg * Luiz Davidovich * Marcelo Damy de Souza Santos * Oscar Sala * Ramayana Gazzinelli * Roberto Aureliano Salmerón * Samuel Wallace MacDowell * Sergio Machado Rezende * Sérgio Mascarenhas de Oliveira * Theodor August Johannes Maris * Mohamed H.A. Hassan ===Mathematics=== * Antonio Galves * Aloísio Pessoa de Araújo * César Leopoldo Camacho * Djairo Guedes de Figueiredo * Elon Lages Lima * Imre Simon * Jacob Palis Junior * João Lucas Marques Barbosa * Jorge Manuel Sotomayor Tello * Manfredo Perdigão do Carmo * Marcelo Miranda Viana da Silva * Maurício Matos Peixoto * Paolo Piccione * Sylvio Ferraz-Mello * Welington Celso de Melo ===Chemistry=== * Alaíde Braga de Oliveira * Angelo da Cunha Pinto * Cláudio Airoldi * Eloisa Biasotto Mano * Gilberto Fernandes de Sá * Hernan Chaimovich Guralnik * José Manuel Riveros Nigra :pt:José Manuel Riveros Nigra * Manuel Mateus Ventura * Nicola Petragnani * Otto Richard Gottlieb * Paschoal Ernesto Américo Senise * Ricardo de Carvalho Ferreira * Roy Edward Bruns * Walter Baptist Mors * Walter Colli * Yvonne Primerano Mascarenhas ===Social and Human Sciences=== * Antonio Cândido de Mello e Souza * Carlos Francisco Theodoro Machado Ribeiro de Lessa * Elisa Maria da Conceição Pereira Reis * Elza Salvatori Berquó * Evaldo Cabral de Mello * Fábio Wanderley Reis * Fernando Antônio Novais * Gilberto Cardoso Alves Velho * Helio Jaguaribe Gomes de Mattos * Jacques Marcovitch * José Arthur Giannotti * José Murilo de Carvalho * Juarez Rubens Brandão Lopes * Leôncio Martins Rodrigues * Luciano Martins de Almeida * Luiz de Castro Faria * Otávio Guilherme Cardoso Alves Velho * Roberto Augusto DaMatta * Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira * Simon Schwartzman * Wanderley Guilherme dos Santos ===Technology=== * Alberto Luiz Galvão Coimbra * Alberto Pereira de Castro * Celso Carneiro Ribeiro * Carlos José Pereira de Lucena * João Antonio Zuffo * Marcio Nogueira Barbosa * Marcos José Marques * Othon Luiz Pinheiro da Silva * Tércio Pacitti * Teresa Bernarda Ludermir * Walter Borzani ===Foreign personalities=== * Alfred Gavin Maddock * Amartya Kumar Sen * Andrew John George Simpson * Armando José Ponce de Leão Policarpo * Benjamin Gilbert * Brian Frederick Gilbert Johnson * Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao * Claude Cohen-Tannoudji * Claude Lévi-Strauss * Daniel Bernard Nahon * Daniel G. Colley * Daniel Saul Goldin * Dario Braga * David Henry Peter Maybury-Lewis * David James Waddington * David Pierre Ruelle * Dennis Sullivan * Dieter Hans Herbert Kind * Federico Mayor Zaragoza * George Edward Schuh * Georges Pédro * Gerd Kohlhepp * Ghillean Prance * Harold Max Rosenberg * Henri Jean François Dumont * Igor Saavedra * Jacques Friedel * James Alexander Ratter * Jean Kovalevsky * Jean-Christophe Yoccoz * John Norman Mather * Jorge Allende * Kenneth Maxwell * Leon M. Lederman * Liu Jiyuan * Mário João de Oliveira Ruivo * Mohamed H.A. Hassan * Norman Ernest Borlaug * Oscar Armando Quihillalt * Paul Alexander Schweitzer * Phillip A. Griffiths * Richard Darwin Keynes * Rita Levi Montalcini * Robert Bruce Goldberg * Roy Edward Bruns * Salvador Henrique Moncada * Stephen Smale * Terence Quinn * Thomas Eugene Lovejoy * Walter Baltensperger * Werner Arber * William Sefton Fyfe * Wolfgang Johannes Junk * Yakov Grigorevich Sinai ===National personalities=== * Abílio Afonso Baeta Neves * Adib Domingos Jatene * Aécio Neves da Cunha * Alcides Lopes Tápias * Aldo Vieira da Rosa * Ângela Tonelli Vaz Leão * Antônio Cesar Russi Callegari * Antônio Ermírio de Moraes * Carlos Américo Pacheco * Carlos Ivan Simonsen Leal * Celina Vargas do Amaral Peixoto * Celso Lafer * Celso Luiz Nunes Amorim * Cristovam Ricardo Cavalcanti Buarque * David Zylbersztajn * Dorothea Fonseca Furquim Werneck * Edson Machado de Sousa * Edson Vaz Musa * Eduardo Henrique Accioly Campos * Elcio Alvares * Eliseu Roberto de Andrade Alves * Fábio Konder Comparato * Fernando Haddad * Fernando Henrique Cardoso * Fernando Luiz Gonçalves Bezerra * Flavio Fava de Moraes * Francisco Oswaldo Neves Dornelles * Geraldo Magela da Cruz Quintão * Heitor Gurgulino de Souza * Itamar Augusto Cautiero Franco * Jorge Gerdau Johannpeter * José Anibal Peres Pontes * José Botafogo Gonçalves * José Ephim Mindlin * José Israel Vargas * José Mauro Esteves dos Santos * Lindolpho de Carvalho Dias * Luciano Brandão Alves de Souza * Luciano Galvão Coutinho * Luís Manuel Rebelo Fernandes * Luiz Felipe Palmeira Lampreia * Luiz Fernando Furlan * Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva * Márcio Ibrahim de Carvalho * Marco Antonio de Oliveira Maciel * Marcus Vinícius Pratini de Moraes * Martus Antônio Rodrigues Tavares * Mauro Marcondes Rodrigues * Múcio Roberto Dias * Murílio de Avellar Hingel * Niède Guidon * Oscar Niemeyer * Paulo Nogueira Neto * Paulo Renato de Souza * Pedro Sampaio Malan * Roberto Átila Amaral Vieira * Roberto João Pereira Freire * Ronaldo Mota Sardenberg * Sergio Silva do Amaral * Tarso Fernando Herz Genro * Tuiskon Dick * Ubirajara Pereira de Brito ==Commander== ===Agriculture=== * Bernardo van Raij * Elliot Watanabe Kitajima * Franke Dijkstra * Manoel Henrique Pereira * Rodolfo Rumpf ===Biology=== * Adalberto Luis Val * Adelmar Faria Coimbra-Filho * Aída Hassón-Voloch * Almiro Blumenschein * Ana Maria de Lauro Castrucci * Ângelo Barbosa Monteiro Machado * Anibal Eugenio Vercesi Mijardino * Antoniana Ursine Krettli * Antônio Rodrigues Cordeiro * Ariane Luna Peixoto * Artur Beltrame Ribeiro * Bernardo Beiguelman * Carlos Alfredo Joly * Cláudio Augusto Machado Sampaio * Clovis Teixeira * Conceição Ribeiro da Silva Machado * Darcy Fontoura de Almeida * Durval Rosa Borges * Eder Carlos Rocha Quintão * Edgar Marcelino de Carvalho Filho * Edson Xavier Albuquerque * Eduardo Perna Fraca * Eliane Rocinante * Elibio Leopoldo Rech Filho * Eliezer Jesus de Lacerda Barreiro * Eloi de Souza Garcia * Fernando de Castro Farias * Fernando Garcia de Mello * Flávio Moscardi * Francisco Lacaz de Moraes Vieira * Frederico Guilherme Graeff * George Alexandre dos Reis * Gilberto Mendes de Oliveira Castro * Glauce Socorro de Barros Viana * Guilherme Suarez Calmo Curto * Helena Bonciani Nada * Henrique Krieger * Horácio Schneider * Hugo Aguirre Armelin * Isaac Roitman * Ivan da Mota e Albuquerque *Jerson Lima Silva * João Batista Calixto * Jorge Almeida Guimarães Imperador * Jorge Elias Kalil Filho * José Roberto Postali Parra * José Rodrigues Coura * Leda Cristina Santana Mendonça-Hagler * Leny Alves Cavalcante Por Que Ta Aqui * Lewis Joel Greene * Lucia Mendonça Previato * Lucia Willadino Braga * Luiz Carlos de Lima Silveira * Luiz Carlos Uchôa Junqueira * Manassés Claudino Fonteles * Manoel Barral Netto * Marcello André Barcinski * Marco Antonio Zago * Marcos Antonio Machado * Marcus Vinicius Gomez * Maria Lucia Absy * Maria Marques * Metry Bacila * Moacyr Maestri * Nanuza Luiza de Menezes * Nestor Schor * Protásio Lemos da Luz * Rafael Linden * Renato Hélios Migliorini * Reynaldo Luiz Victória * Ricardo Nevertheless * Roberto Lentilha * Roland Vencovsky * Rubens Belfort Mattos Junior * Rui Monteiro de Barros Maciel * Ruy de Araújo Caldas * Sérgio Danilo Junho Pena * Sérgio Peixeira Parreira * Sergio Veja que Almeida * Shirley Estraga Tudo * Sonia Machado de Campos Dietrich * Ulysses Fagundes Neto * Vivaldo Moura Bisneto * Walter Meu Deus Que Isso * Walter Araujo Zin * Willy Beçak * Wilmar Dias da Silva ===Engineering=== * Álvaro Toubes Prata * Antonio Luz Furtado * Carlos Alberto Schneider * Edson Hirokazu Watanabe * Eduardo Galvão Moura Jardim * Eggon João da Silva * Eloi Fernández y Fernández * Ergílio Cláudio- da-Silva Jr. * Ernesto Heinzelmann * Fernando Cosme Rizzo Assunção * Giulio Massarani * Hans Ingo Weber * Helio Waldman * Jayme Boscov * Jerzy Zbigniew Leopold Lepecki * José Corgosinho de Carvalho Filho * Juarez Távora Veado * Leonardo Goldstein Junior * Liu Hsu * Marcelo Gattass * Mário Jorge Ferreira Braga * Milton Vargas * Nelson Francisco Favilla Ebecken * Nelson Luiz de Sousa Pinto * Nelson Maculan Filho * Raúl Antonino Feijóo * Renato Carlson * Renato Machado Cotta * Rex Nazaré Alves * Rubens Sampaio Filho * Tharcisio Damy de Souza Santos * Valder Steffen Jr. * Waldimir Pirró e Longo * Witold Piotr Stefan Lepecki * Wolney Edirley Gonçalves Betiol * Augusto Cesar Noronha Rodrigues Galeão ===Earth Science=== * Alcides Nóbrega Sial * Carlos Afonso Nobre * Carlos Clementi Cerri * Celso de Barros Gomes * Diogenes de Almeida Campos * Igor Ivory Gil Pacca * José Moacyr Vianna Coutinho * Kenitiro Suguio * Luis de Oliveira Castro * Paulo Milton Barbosa Landim * Pedro Leite da Silva Dias * Reinhardt Adolfo Fuck * Roberto Dall'Agnol * Setembrino Petri * Wilson Teixeira ===Physics=== * Adalberto Vasquez * Alberto Franco de Sá Santoro * Alberto Passos Guimarães Filho * Anderson Stevens Leonidas Gomes * Alfredo Miguel Ozorio de Almeida * Antônio Cesar Olinto de Oliveira * Antonio Fernando Ribeiro de Toledo Piza * Beatriz Leonor Silveira Barbuy * Belita Koiller * Celso Pinto de Melo * Cid Bartolomeu de Araújo * Constantino Tsallis * Eduardo Cantera Marino * Erasmo Madureira Ferreira * Ernst Wolfgang Hamburger * Francisco Antonio Bezerra Coutinho * Helion Vargas * Humberto Siqueira Brandi * Jean Pierre von der Weid * João Alziro Herz da Jornada * João Carlos Costa dos Anjos * João E. Steiner * José Ellis Ripper Filho * Luiz Nunes de Oliveira * Milton Ferreira de Souza * Ricardo Schwartz Schor * Silvio Roberto de Azevedo Salinas ===Mathematics=== * Abimael Fernando Dourado Loula * Alfredo Noel Iusem * Antonio Galves * Arnaldo Leite Pinto Garcia * Aron Simis * Artur Oscar Lopes * Carlos Teobaldo Gutierrez Vidalon * Celso José da Costa * Chaim Samuel Hönig * Clovis Caesar Gonzaga * Dan Marchesin * Hilário Alencar da Silva * Israel Vainsencher * Keti Tenenblat * Luiz Velho * Marcio Gomes Soares * Marco Antonio Raupp * Paulo Domingos Cordaro * Renato de Azevedo Tribuzy ===Chemistry=== * Anita Dolly Panek * Blanka Wladislaw * Carlos Alberto Lombardi Filgueiras * Cláudio Costa Neto * Elias Ayres Guidetti Zagatto * Etelvino José Henriques Bechara * Eurípedes Malavolta * Faruk José Nome Aguilera * Henrique Eisi Toma * Jailson Bittencourt de Andrade * João Valdir Comasseto * José Ferreira Fernandes * Marco Antonio Chaer do Nascimento * Marco-Aurelio De Paoli * Oswaldo Luiz Alves * Oswaldo Sala * Paulo Arruda * Paulo Sérgio Santos * Raimundo Braz Filho * Walter Ribeiro Terra ===Social and Human Sciences=== * Alzira Alves de Abreu * Ana Lucia Almeida Gazzola * Ana Mae Tavares Bastos Barbosa * Ana Maria Fernandes * Betty Mindlin * Boris Fausto * Carlos Alberto Vogt * Carlos Rodrigues Brandão * Eunice Ribeiro Durham * Gláucio Ary Dillon Soares * Hélgio Henrique Casses Trindade * Isnard Garcia de Freitas * João José Reis * Julio Cezar Melatti * Laura Mello e Souza * Lourdes Sola * Luiz Felipe de Alencastro * Luiz Fernando Dias Duarte * Manoel Correia de Oliveira Andrade * Margarida de Souza Neves * Manuela Carneiro da Cunha * Marilena de Souza Chaui * Mariza Gomes e Souza Peirano * Max Justo Guedes * Norma Góes Monteiro * Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro * Renato de Andrade Lessa * Renato Janine Ribeiro * Ricardo Paes de Barros * Roque de Barros Laraia * Rosa Ester Rossini * Ruben George Oliven * Ruth Corrêa Leite Cardoso * Sergio Miceli Pessôa de Barros * Ulpiano Toledo Bezerra de Meneses * Yonne de Freitas Leite ===Technology=== * Alcídio Abrão * Hans Gerhard Schorer * José Paulo Silveira * Margareth Spangler Andrade * Paulo Gazzinelli * Pedro José Diniz Figueiredo * Silvio Romero de Lemos Meira * Tomasz Kowaltowski * Walmor Krause ===Foreign personalities=== * Charles Roland Clement * Eduardo Feller * Francesco Mercuri * Gérard Xavier Kuhn * Ilse Walker * Jean-Jacques Salomon * José Marques Correia Neves * Karl Otto Stöhr * Munirathna Anandakrishnan * Robert W. Corell ===National personalities=== * Adão Roberto Rodrigues Villaverde * Adélia Maria Engrácia G. de O. Rodrigues * Afrânio Carvalho Aguiar * Albanita Viana de Oliveira * Alberto de Carvalho Peixoto de Azevedo * Alexandre Campello de Siqueira * Alice Rangel de Paiva Abreu * Américo Martins Craveiro * Amilcar Figueira Ferrari * Antônio Augusto Dayrell de Lima * Antonio Gervásio Colares * Antônio Maria Amazonas Mac Dowell * Antonio Sérgio Pizarro Fragomeni * Ariano Suassuna * Cláudio José Marinho Lúcio * Claudio Luiz Fróes Raeder * Francisco Ariosto Holanda * Hélio Guedes de Campos Barros * Henrique Gomes de Paiva Lins de Barros * Hermann Heinemann Wever * Ivan Moura Campos * Jerson Kelman * João Roberto Rodrigues * John Milne Albuquerque Forman * José Augusto Guilhon de Albuquerque * José dos Prazeres Ferreira * Lourival Carmo Monaco * Lucia Carvalho Pinto de Melo * Luiz Philippe da Costa Fernandes * Márcio Quintão Moreno * Marcionilo de Barros Lins * Marcos Antonio Sacramento de Oliveira * Maria Aparecida Stalliveri Neves * Maria Helena Guimarães de Castro * Maria Laura da Rocha * Marilia Sardenberg Zelner Gonçalves * Mario Brockmann Machado * Marisa Barbar Cassim * Maurício Otávio Mendonça Jorge * Oscar Soto Lorenzo Fernandez * Oskar Klingl * Oswaldo Moreira Douat * Ozório José de Menezes Fonseca * Paulo Alcântara Gomes * Paulo de Góes Filho * Pedro Magalhães Guimarães Ferreira * Regina Weinberg * Sergio de Almeida Bruni * Simone Henriqueta Cossetin Scholze * Stefan Bogdan Salej * Tânia Bacelar de Araújo * Wrana Maria Panizzi ==Deceased== * Álvaro Santos Costa * Aristides Azevedo Pacheco Leão * Carl Peter von Dietrich * Carlos Chagas Filho * Cesar Timo-Iaría * Graziela Maciel Barroso * Haity Moussatché * Henrique Bergamin Filho * Herman Lent * Johanna Döbereiner * José Candido de Melo de Carvalho * José Márcio Corrêa Ayres * José Ribeiro do Valle * Luiz Rachid Trabulsi * Marcos Luiz dos Mares Guia * Paulo Sawaya * Wilson Teixeira Beraldo * Zigman Brener * Amaro Lanari Júnior * Elysiario Távora Filho * Mario Abrantes da Silva Pinto * Bernhard Gross * Cesar Lattes * José Leite Lopes * Antonio Cechelli de Mattos Paiva * Francisco Jeronymo Salles Lara * Giuseppe Cilento * José Moura Gonçalves * Celso Monteiro Furtado * Francisco Iglesias * Mario Henrique Simonsen * Casimiro Montenegro Filho * Fernando Luiz Lobo Barboza Carneiro * Abdus Salam * Harald Felix Ludwig Sioli * Henry Taube * Juan José Giambiagi * Michael Robert Herman * René Thom * Richard McGee Morse * Shiing-Shen Chern * William Donald Hamilton * Alberto Carvalho da Silva * Carolina Martuscelli Bori * José Pelúcio Ferreira * José Reis * Vilmar Evangelista Faria * Carlos Ribeiro Diniz * Fernando Braga Ubatuba * Luiz Fernando Gouvêa Labouriau * Mario Ulysses Vianna Dias * Naíde Regueira Teodósio * Francisco Romeu Landi * José Roberto Leite * Candido Lima da Silva Dias * Ernesto Giesbrecht * Berta Gleiser Ribeiro * Milton Almeida dos Santos ==References== ==External links== * National Order of Scientific Merit - Official Website * General List of the National Order of Scientific Merit Category:Brazilian science and technology awards Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Brazil * Category:1993 establishments in Brazil Category:Awards established in 1993
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Paul Stephen Musselwhite (born 22 December 1968) is an English former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper and is the goalkeeping coach at club Scunthorpe United. He made 692 appearances in the league and 815 appearances in all competitions. Musselwhite began his career with Portsmouth, before joining Scunthorpe United in March 1988. He played 132 league matches for the club, as Scunthorpe suffered numerous play-off defeats, before he was sold to Port Vale in July 1992 for a £17,500 fee. He spent the next eight years with Vale, and played 312 league matches in what was one of the most successful periods in the club's history. He kept goal in the 1993 Football League Trophy Final victory and helped the club to win promotion out of the Second Division in 1993–94. In August 2000, he joined Sheffield Wednesday, before moving on to Hull City the next month. He helped the club win promotion out of the Third Division in 2003–04, before he returned to Scunthorpe in June 2004. He helped Scunthorpe to win promotion out of League Two in 2004–05, before he dropped into the Conference South in May 2006 to sign with Eastleigh. He spent brief spells at Kettering Town, Port Vale, and Harrogate Town, before he kept goal for Gateshead as the club won promotion from the Northern Premier League Premier Division to the Conference Premier after two successive play-off successes. He then took up coaching with Lincoln City between 2009 and 2011, before switching to York City in June 2011. He was on the bench for York as they won the 2012 Conference Premier play-off Final. ==Playing career== ===Early career=== Born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, Musselwhite started his career at his hometown club, Portsmouth, as an apprentice in the club's youth system before signing a professional contract on 1 December 1986. However, he did not make any appearances for the club in the first team, and on 21 March 1988 moved to Fourth Division club Scunthorpe United on a free transfer. ===Scunthorpe United=== In the 1987–88 season, Scunthorpe finished one point short of Bolton Wanderers in third place, and were then defeated by Torquay United in the play-off semi-final. Scunthorpe also moved from the Old Show Ground to Glanford Park, becoming the first Football League club to move to a new stadium in 33 years. They suffered the same fate in 1988–89, one point off third place Crewe Alexandra, again with superior goal difference, before losing to Wrexham in the play-off semi-final. Musselwhite made 52 appearances across the campaign, as named as the club's Player of the Year. Scunthorpe fell away in 1989–90, finishing in 11th place. They pushed for promotion in 1990–91, in an unusual season an eighth-place finish was enough to see them into the play-offs. However, for the third time in four years they lost in the semi-final stage, this time to Blackpool. In 1991–92, Scunthorpe beat Crewe in the play-off semi-final, but lost on the final to Blackpool on penalties, following a 1–1 draw. On 30 July 1992, he did what his club failed to do and made it into the new Second Division (the league was restructured due to the creation of the Premier League), having been bought by John Rudge's Port Vale for an initial £5,000 fee (later increased to £17,500 with appearances clauses). ===Port Vale=== Signed to replace the veteran Mark Grew, who had left for Cardiff City, Musselwhite started 1992–93 as second choice behind Trevor Wood. However, on 5 September 1992, Wood conceded a penalty at Vetch Field in an 'off the ball' incident with a Swansea City player and was subsequently dropped in favour of Musselwhite. He made his Vale league debut in the next match, a 2–2 draw against Exeter City on 12 September 1992, and despite a nervy performance, he remained an ever-present in the team for the rest of the season. Vale finished the season one point behind Bolton in third place, and they lost in the play- off final 3–0 to West Bromwich Albion. Vale did have success at Wembley Stadium in the 1993 Football League Trophy Final, recording a 2–1 victory over Stockport County. With Musselwhite in goal, Vale won promotion to the First Division in 1993–94, finishing in second place behind champions Reading. Both club and goalkeeper adapted well to the second tier, finishing 10 points above the relegation zone in 1994–95. When they played away against Charlton Athletic on 29 April 1995, he was rested to allow his understudy, Arjan van Heusden, to gain some first-team experience in an end of season fixture. The club finished in 12th place in 1995–96. Musselwhite played in the 1996 Anglo- Italian Cup Final, as Vale lost 5–2 to Genoa. The club achieved their highest post-war position in 1996–97 – eighth in the second tier. Musselwhite 36 appearances that season, after missing out on the first six weeks. He made 45 appearances in 1997–98, keeping a clean sheet against Arsenal in the FA Cup on 3 January 1998. He made 40 appearances in 1998–99, missing most of November and all of December. In 1999–2000, Vale were relegated in 23rd place, with manager Brian Horton unable to halt the decline at Vale Park. Musselwhite played 32 matches and was sent off against Grimsby Town on 12 February 2000, 86 minutes into a 2–0 away defeat. He was given a free transfer at the end of the season, the club looking to cut their wage bill. As of 2020, no Port Vale goalkeeper has bettered his tally of 367 league and cup appearances. ===Hull City=== After having trials with former club Scunthorpe, Darlington and Sheffield Wednesday, Musselwhite signed for Wednesday on 25 August 2000 as cover for the suspended Kevin Pressman. However, he left less than a month later after joining Brian Little's Hull City of the Third Division on 19 September 2000. He was the club's first-choice goalkeeper as Hull reached the play-offs, only to lose to Leyton Orient in the semi-final, after a sixth- place finish 2000–01. He played in just 21 matches in 2001–02, making his first appearance of the season on 29 December 2001 in a 3–0 win away to Kidderminster Harriers. First-choice goalkeeper from September to January in 2002–03, he played 22 matches. On 26 December 2002, he was in goal for the club's first competitive fixture at the KC Stadium, keeping a clean sheet in a 2–0 win over Hartlepool United. In 2003–04, Musselwhite made 19 appearances, all in the first half of the season. Hull finished second, winning promotion to the new League One. ===Return to Scunthorpe United=== Musselwhite returned to Scunthorpe United after signing on 3 June 2004, 12 years since his departure from the club. Scunthorpe were promoted in 2004–05 as runners-up, just three points off League Two title winners Yeovil Town. Musselwhite made 50 appearances. The club finished 12th in League One in 2005–06, Musselwhite making 32 appearances having missed December and January. In May 2006, he signed for Conference South club Eastleigh, but left in September having made nine appearances. ===Non-League=== In November 2006, Musselwhite signed for Conference North club Kettering Town, but was released later that month after Mark Osborn returned from suspension. In January 2007, Musselwhite received a phone call from his former teammate, the Port Vale manager Martin Foyle, inviting him back to the club as cover for long-term injury victim Mark Goodlad. In June 2007, he joined Harrogate Town of the Conference North. Musselwhite left Harrogate in January 2008 after being offered a better contract with Ian Bogie's Gateshead, playing in the Northern Premier League Premier Division. He was immediately made the number one goalkeeper, helping them to promotion by beating Buxton in the play-off final. He had made 29 appearances before the season's end. Gateshead won their second successive promotion in 2008–09, beating AFC Telford United 1–0 in the Conference North play-off final. ==Coaching and managerial career== In February 2009, it was announced that Musselwhite would join League Two club Lincoln City as player- goalkeeping coach under Peter Jackson at the end of the season. On 1 April 2010, he signed a new contract that would keep him at the club until the summer of 2011. On 29 September 2010, Musselwhite was appointed assistant to caretaker manager Scott Lindsey following Chris Sutton's resignation. On 2 October, Musselwhite, at the age of 41, took to the field in a 1–0 defeat away to Southend United, following an injury to Joe Anyon. After a new contract offer from Lincoln was dependent on Joe Anyon leaving the club, Musselwhite opted to sign for Conference Premier club York City on 16 June 2011 as player- goalkeeping coach. At the age of 43, Musselwhite became York's oldest player when making his debut in a 1–0 away win over Cambridge United on 17 April 2012. He followed this up with another clean sheet in a 1–0 victory away to Braintree Town on 21 April 2012, a result that ensured York's place in the play-offs. He was an unused substitute in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium, where York beat Newport County 2–0. He was also an unused substitute in the 2012 Conference Premier play-off Final, as York came from behind to beat Luton Town 2–1, again at Wembley. Musselwhite left York on 4 March 2013, two days after Gary Mills was dismissed as manager. Musselwhite finished 2012–13 as goalkeeping coach at League One club Bury, before taking the same position at one of his former clubs, newly relegated League Two club Scunthorpe United, in June 2013. He took over as caretaker manager at Scunthorpe alongside Tony McMahon on 1 November 2021 after Neil Cox was dismissed as manager with the team bottom of the table 15 matches into the 2021–22 League Two season. Keith Hill was appointed as manager four days later. ==Personal life== Musselwhite married Caroline and had a son, Ronan, a junior doctor who was found dead at the age of 23 on 8 January 2020 after struggling with depression. Another son, Ryan Musselwhite, played as a goalkeeper for a number of non-League teams. ==Career statistics== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League League League FA Cup FA Cup League Cup League Cup Other Other Total Total Club Season Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Portsmouth 1986–87 Second Division 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Portsmouth 1987–88 First Division 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Portsmouth Total Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Scunthorpe United 1987–88 Fourth Division 0 0 — — — — 0 0 0 0 Scunthorpe United 1988–89 Fourth Division 41 0 1 0 6 0 4 0 52 0 Scunthorpe United 1989–90 Fourth Division 29 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 32 0 Scunthorpe United 1990–91 Fourth Division 38 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 48 0 Scunthorpe United 1991–92 Fourth Division 24 0 2 0 4 0 1 0 31 0 Scunthorpe United Total Total 132 0 7 0 11 0 13 0 163 0 Port Vale 1992–93 Second Division 41 0 4 0 0 0 9 0 54 0 Port Vale 1993–94 Second Division 46 0 5 0 2 0 4 0 57 0 Port Vale 1994–95 First Division 44 0 2 0 4 0 — — 50 0 Port Vale 1995–96 First Division 39 0 6 0 2 0 6 0 53 0 Port Vale 1996–97 First Division 33 0 1 0 2 0 — — 36 0 Port Vale 1997–98 First Division 41 0 2 0 2 0 — — 45 0 Port Vale 1998–99 First Division 38 0 0 0 2 0 — — 40 0 Port Vale 1999–2000 First Division 30 0 1 0 1 0 — — 32 0 Port Vale Total Total 312 0 21 0 15 0 19 0 367 0 Sheffield Wednesday 2000–01 First Division 0 0 — — — — — — 0 0 Hull City 2000–01 Third Division 37 0 2 0 — — 3 0 42 0 Hull City 2001–02 Third Division 20 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 21 0 Hull City 2002–03 Third Division 20 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 22 0 Hull City 2003–04 Third Division 18 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 Hull City Total Total 95 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 104 0 Scunthorpe United 2004–05 League Two 46 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 50 0 Scunthorpe United 2005–06 League One 28 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 32 0 Scunthorpe United Total Total 74 0 5 0 3 0 0 0 82 0 Eastleigh 2006–07 Conference South 8 0 — — — — — — 8 0 Kettering Town 2006–07 Conference North 2 0 1 0 — — — — 3 0 Port Vale 2006–07 League One 0 0 — — — — — — 0 0 Harrogate Town 2007–08 Conference North 8 0 3 0 — — 2 0 13 0 Gateshead 2007–08 NPL Premier Division 22 0 — — — — 7 0 29 0 Gateshead 2008–09 Conference North 35 0 3 0 — — 4 0 42 0 Gateshead Total Total 57 0 3 0 — — 11 0 71 0 Lincoln City 2009–10 League Two 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lincoln City 2010–11 League Two 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Lincoln City Total Total 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 York City 2011–12 Conference Premier 3 0 0 0 — — 0 0 3 0 York City 2012–13 League Two 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 York City Total Total 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 Career total Career total Career total 692 0 44 0 29 0 50 0 815 0 ==Managerial statistics== Individual seasons accessed via drop-down list. Managerial record by team and tenure Team From To Record Scunthorpe United (caretaker) 1 November 2021 5 November 2021 Total ==Honours== Port Vale *Football League Trophy: 1992–93 Gateshead *Northern Premier League Premier Division play-offs: 2008 *Conference North play-offs: 2009 York City *FA Trophy: 2011–12 *Conference Premier play-offs: 2012 Individual *Scunthorpe United Player of the Year: 1988–89 ==References== ==External links== *Profile at the Scunthorpe United F.C. website Category:1968 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Portsmouth Category:English footballers Category:Men's association football goalkeepers Category:Portsmouth F.C. players Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. players Category:Port Vale F.C. players Category:Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players Category:Hull City A.F.C. players Category:Eastleigh F.C. players Category:Kettering Town F.C. players Category:Harrogate Town A.F.C. players Category:Gateshead F.C. players Category:Lincoln City F.C. players Category:York City F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:National League (English football) players Category:Northern Premier League players Category:English football managers Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. managers Category:Association football goalkeeping coaches Category:Lincoln City F.C. non-playing staff Category:York City F.C. non-playing staff Category:Bury F.C. non-playing staff Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. non-playing staff
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Rudolf I (1 May 1218 - 15 July 1291) was the first King of Germany from the House of Habsburg. The first of the count-kings of Germany, he reigned from 1273 until his death. Rudolf's election marked the end of the Great Interregnum which had begun after the death of the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II in 1250. Originally a Swabian count, he was the first Habsburg to acquire the duchies of Austria and Styria in opposition to his mighty rival, the Přemyslid king Ottokar II of Bohemia, whom he defeated in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld. The territories remained under Habsburg rule for more than 600 years, forming the core of the Habsburg monarchy and the present-day country of Austria. Rudolf played a vital role in raising the comital House of Habsburg to the rank of Imperial princes. == Early life == Rudolf was born on 1 May 1218 at Limburgh Castle near Sasbach am Kaiserstuhl in the Breisgau region of present-day southwestern Germany. He was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg and Hedwig, daughter of Count Ulrich of Kyburg. Around 1232, he was given as a squire to his uncle, Rudolf I, Count of Laufenburg, to train in knightly pursuits. == Count of Habsburg == At his father's death in 1239, Rudolf inherited from him large estates around the ancestral seat of Habsburg Castle in the Aargau region of present-day Switzerland as well as in Alsace. Thus, in 1240,Encyclopædia Britannica. 26. 1911, pp. 247 in order to quell the rising power of Rudolf and in an attempt to place the important "Devil’s Bridge" () across the under his direct control, Emperor Frederick II granted Schwyz Reichsfreiheit in the Freibrief von Faenza. In 1242, Hugh of Tuffenstein provoked Count Rudolf through contumelious expressions. In turn, the Count of Habsburg had invaded his domains, yet failed to take his seat of power. As the day passed on, Count Rudolf bribed the sentinels of the city and gained entry, killing Hugh in the process. Then in 1244, to help control Lake Lucerne and restrict the neighboring forest communities of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, Rudolf built near its shores Neuhabsburg Castle. In 1245 Rudolf married Gertrude, daughter of Count Burkhard III of Hohenberg. He received as her dowry the castles of Oettingen, the valley of Weile, and other places in Alsace, and he became an important vassal in Swabia, the former Alemannic German stem duchy. That same year, Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV at the Council of Lyon. Rudolf sided against the Emperor, while the forest communities sided with Frederick. This gave them a pretext to attack and damage Neuhabsburg. Rudolf successfully defended it and drove them off. As a result, Rudolf, by siding with the Pope, gained more power and influence. Rudolf paid frequent visits to the court of his godfather, the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II, and his loyalty to Frederick and his son, King Conrad IV of Germany, was richly rewarded by grants of land. In 1254, he engaged with other nobles of the Staufen party against Bertold II, Bishop of Basle. When night fell, he penetrated the suburbs of Basle and burnt down the local nunnery, an act for which Pope Innocent IV excommunicated him and all parties involved. As a penance, he took up the cross and joined Ottokar II, King of Bohemia in the Prussian Crusade of 1254. Whilst there, he oversaw the founding of the city of Königsberg, which was named in memory of King Ottokar. == Rise to power == The disorder in Germany during the interregnum after the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty afforded an opportunity for Count Rudolf to increase his possessions. His wife was a Hohenberg heiress; and on the death of his childless maternal uncle Count Hartmann IV of Kyburg in 1264, Rudolf seized Hartmann's valuable estates. Successful feuds with the Bishops of Strasbourg and Basel further augmented his wealth and reputation, including rights over various tracts of land that he purchased from abbots and others. These various sources of wealth and influence rendered Rudolf the most powerful prince and noble in southwestern Germany (where the tribal Duchy of Swabia had disintegrated, enabling its vassals to become completely independent). In the autumn of 1273, the prince-electors met to choose a king after Richard of Cornwall had died in England in April 1272. Rudolf's election in Frankfurt on 1 October 1273,Die Habsburger. Eine Europäische Familiengeschichte, Brigitte Vacha, Sonderausgabe 1996, Zeittafel p. 16 when he was 55 years old, was largely due to the efforts of his brother-in-law, the Hohenzollern burgrave Frederick III of Nuremberg. The support of Duke Albert II of Saxony and Elector Palatine Louis II had been purchased by betrothing them to two of Rudolf's daughters. As a result, within the electoral college, King Ottokar II of Bohemia (1230–1278), himself a candidate for the throne and related to the late Hohenstaufen king Philip of Swabia (being the son of the eldest surviving daughter), was almost alone in opposing Rudolf. Other candidates were Prince Siegfried I of Anhalt and Margrave Frederick I of Meissen (1257–1323), a young grandson of the excommunicated Emperor Frederick II, who did not yet even have a principality of his own as his father was still alive. By the admission of Duke Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria instead of the King of Bohemia as the seventh Elector,Vacha, "1273 wurde Rudolf von Habsburg von den sieben Kurfürsten zum König gewählt" - "statt dem Böhmenkönig dem bayerischen Herzogtum die siebente Kurstimme übertragen wurde", pp. 32-33 Rudolf gained all seven votes. ==King of the Germans== thumb|upright|250px|Engraving of Rudolf I of Habsburg, c. 1640 Rudolf was crowned in Aachen Cathedral on 24 October 1273. To win the approbation of the Pope, Rudolf renounced all imperial rights in Rome, the papal territory, and Sicily, and promised to lead a new crusade by taking the crusader's vow in 1275. Pope Gregory X, despite the protests of Ottokar II of Bohemia, not only recognised Rudolf himself, but persuaded King Alfonso X of Castile (another grandson of Philip of Swabia), who had been chosen German (anti-)king in 1257 as the successor to Count William II of Holland, to do the same. Thus, Rudolf surpassed the two heirs of the Hohenstaufen dynasty whom he had earlier served so loyally. In November 1274, the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg decided that all Crown estates seized since the death of the Emperor Frederick II must be restored, and that King Ottokar II must answer to the Diet for not recognising the new king. Ottokar refused to appear or to restore the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia together with the March of Carniola, which he had claimed through his first wife, a Babenberg heiress, and which he had seized while disputing them with another Babenberg heir, Margrave Hermann VI of Baden. Rudolf refused to accept Ottokar's succession to the Babenberg patrimony, declaring that the provinces reverted to the Imperial crown due to the lack of male-line heirs. King Ottokar was placed under the imperial ban; and in June 1276 war was declared against him. Having persuaded Ottokar's former ally Duke Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria to switch sides, Rudolf compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces to the control of the royal administration in November 1276. Rudolf then re-invested Ottokar with the Kingdom of Bohemia, betrothed one of his daughters to Ottokar's son Wenceslaus II, and made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottokar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, and procured the support of several German princes, again including Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria. To meet this coalition, Rudolf formed an alliance with King Ladislaus IV of Hungary and gave additional privileges to the Viennese citizens. On 26 August 1278, the rival armies met at the Battle on the Marchfeld, where Ottokar was defeated and killed. The Margraviate of Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolf's representatives, leaving Ottokar's widow Kunigunda of Slavonia in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus II was again betrothed to Rudolf's youngest daughter Judith. Rudolf's attention next turned to the possessions in Austria and the adjacent provinces, which were taken into the royal domain. He spent several years establishing his authority there but found some difficulty in establishing his family as successors to the rule of those provinces. At length, the hostility of the princes was overcome. In December 1282, at the Hoftag (imperial diet) in Augsburg, Rudolf invested his sons, Albert and Rudolf II, with the duchies of Austria and Styria and so laid the foundation of the House of Habsburg. Additionally, he made the twelve- year-old Rudolf Duke of Swabia, a merely titular dignity, as the duchy had been without an actual ruler since Conradin's execution. The 27-year-old Duke Albert, married since 1274 to a daughter of Count Meinhard II of Gorizia-Tyrol (1238–95), was capable enough to hold some sway in the new patrimony. In 1286, King Rudolf fully invested Albert's father-in-law Count Meinhard with the Duchy of Carinthia, one of the conquered provinces taken from Ottokar. The Princes of the Empire did not allow Rudolf to give everything that was recovered to the royal domain to his own sons, and his allies needed their rewards too. Turning to the west, in 1281 he compelled Count Philip I of Savoy to cede some territory to him, then forced the citizens of Bern to pay the tribute that they had been refusing. In 1289 he marched against Count Philip's successor, Otto IV, compelling him to do homage. In 1281, Rudolf's first wife died. On 5 February 1284, he married Isabella, daughter of Duke Hugh IV of Burgundy, the Empire's western neighbor in the Kingdom of France. Rudolf was not very successful in restoring internal peace. Orders were indeed issued for the establishment of territorial peaces in Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia, and at the Synod of Würzburg in March 1287 for the whole Empire. But the king lacked the power, resources, and determination to enforce them, although in December 1289 he led an expedition into Thuringia, where he destroyed a number of robber castles. In 1291, he attempted to secure the election of his son Albert as German king. The electors refused, however, claiming inability to support two kings, but in reality, perhaps, wary of the increasing power of the House of Habsburg. Upon Rudolf's death they elected Count Adolf of Nassau. == Persecution of the Jews == In 1286, Rudolf I instituted a new persecution of the Jews, declaring them servi camerae ("serfs of the treasury"), which had the effect of negating their political freedoms. Along with many others, Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg, perhaps the greatest rabbi of the time, left Germany with family and followers, but was captured in Lombardy and imprisoned in a fortress in Alsace. Tradition has it that a large ransom of 23,000 marks silver was raised for him (by the Rosh), but Rabbi Meir refused it, for fear of encouraging the imprisonment of other rabbis. He died in prison after seven years. Fourteen years after his death a ransom was paid for his body by Alexander ben Shlomo (Susskind) Wimpfen, who was subsequently laid to rest beside the Maharam.http://www.chabad.org/calendar/view/day.asp?id=265714&tDate;=3/4/2006#265714 == Death == Rudolf died in Speyer on 15 July 1291 and was buried in Speyer Cathedral. Only one of his sons survived him: Albert I. Most of his daughters outlived him, apart from Catherine who had died in 1282 during childbirth and Hedwig who had died in 1285/6. Rudolf's reign is most memorable for his establishment of the House of Habsburg as a powerful dynasty in the southeastern part of the realm. In the other territories, the centuries-long decline of Imperial authority since the days of the Investiture Controversy continued, and the princes were largely left to their own devices. In the Divine Comedy, Dante finds Rudolf sitting outside the gates of purgatory with his contemporaries, characterizing him as "he who neglected that which he ought to have done". == Family and children == Rudolf was married twice. First, in 1251, to Gertrude of Hohenberg and second, in 1284, to Isabelle of Burgundy. All children were from the first marriage. #Matilda (c. 1253, Rheinfelden – 23 December 1304, Munich), married 1273 in Aachen to Duke Louis II of Bavaria and became mother of Duke Rudolf I of Bavaria and Emperor Louis IV # Albert I of Germany (July 1255 – 1 May 1308), Duke of Austria and also of Styria # Catherine (1256 – 4 April 1282, Landshut), married 1279 in Vienna to Duke Otto III of Bavaria # Agnes [Gertrude] (ca. 1257 – 11 October 1322, Wittenberg), married 1273 to Duke Albert II of Saxony and became the mother of Duke Rudolf I of Saxe-Wittenberg # Hedwig (c. 1259 – 26 January 1285/27 October 1286), married 1270 in Vienna to Margrave Otto VI of Brandenburg- Salzwedel and left no issue # Clementia (c. 1262 – after 7 February 1293), married 1281 in Vienna to Charles Martel of Anjou, the papal claimant to the throne of Hungary # Hartmann (1263, Rheinfelden – 21 December 1281), drowned in Rheinau # Rudolf II, Duke of Austria and Styria (1270 – 10 May 1290, Prague), titular Duke of Swabia, father of John the Parricide of Austria # Judith (13 March 1271 – 18 June 1297, Prague), married 24 January 1285 to King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and became the mother of King Wenceslaus III of Bohemia, Poland and Hungary # Samson (before 19 Oct 1275 – died young) # Charles (14 February 1276 – 16 August 1276) == See also == * Kings of Germany family tree ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Encyclopedia of Austria Category:1218 births Category:1291 deaths Category:13th-century dukes of Austria Category:13th- century Kings of the Romans Category:German monarchs Category:People temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church Category:Christians of the Prussian Crusade Rudolf 1 Rudolf 1 Category:Austrian expatriates in Germany Category:People from the Duchy of Swabia Category:Burials at Speyer Cathedral Category:1270s in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1280s in the Holy Roman Empire Category:13th-century House of Habsburg Category:Swabian nobility
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The BBC Radio 4 programme Desert Island Discs invites castaways to choose eight pieces of music, a book (in addition to the Bible – or a religious text appropriate to that person's beliefs – and the Complete Works of Shakespeare) and a luxury item that they would take to an imaginary desert island, where they will be marooned indefinitely. The rules state that the chosen luxury item must not be anything animate or indeed anything that enables the castaway to escape from the island, for instance a radio set, sailing yacht or aeroplane. The choices of book and luxury can sometimes give insight into the guest's life, and the choices of guests between 1991 and 2000 are listed here. ==1991== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Lord Goodman Who's Who more Adelaide Hall A book about American history Box of seeds more Fred Zinnemann War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Very large self- renewing bottle of scotch more Brian Eno Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity by Richard Rorty Radio telescope more A book of Greek poetry Dice to test the luck of a ship rescuing him more Paddy Ashdown MP The collected works of John Donne Laptop computer more Dame Ninette de Valois A collection of poems An everlasting bottle of sleeping pills more Ronald Eyre A talking book by Judi Dench Supply of flower bulbs more Raj Quartet by Paul Scott Satellite dish and TV more Jeffrey Bernard The Complete Sherlock Holmes by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle more Collected Plays of J. B. Priestley more Marti Caine Do-it-yourself manual more Naomi Mitchison Book of modern poetry Endless supply of writing materials more Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable Supply of cigars and matches more Dr Jonathan Sacks The Talmud Large supply of pencils more Dame Shirley Porter SAS Survival Manual Large Swiss Army Knife more Cecil Lewis Sagittarius Surviving by C. S. Lewis Fax machine more John Simpson Anything in French by Marcel Proust Flute more Rt. Hon. John Smith Anthology of poems Case of champagne more Marco Pierre White Ma Gastronomie by Fernand Point Picture of his daughter more Derek Walcott Ulysses by James Joyce Carton of cigarettes more A. S. Byatt A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust Large filing cabinet full of A4 paper and pens more John Hegarty The Crock of Gold by James Stephens more Ron Todd The collected works of Robert Burns more Lord Shawcross The Way We Live Now by Anthony Trollope CD player/solar-powered radio more Alan Bleasdale Catch-22 by Joseph Heller more Maxwell Hutchinson Four Quartets by T. S. Eliot more Poems For Joy and Sermons For Solace by John Donne more John Banham The collected works of A. E. Housman more Klaus Tennstedt more David Bailey Voices of Silence by Malraux Nelson's Column more Imran Khan Bang-E-Dara by Iqbal Shotgun and clay pigeon trap more John Schlesinger Dictionary of Quotations Magimix (battery powered) more Elizabeth Esteve-Coll Four Quartets by T. S. Eliot Expensive perfumed hand cream more Alan Alda Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe Italian pasta more E. P. Thompson Songs of Innocence and Experience by William Blake more Lord Delfont 1515–1985 British Music Theatre Book Cigars and matches more James Lovelock The Golden Treasury by Francis Palgrave Pen and paper more Dilys Powell Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens Mouth organ with instructions more Fred Dibnah Bound volumes of the Engineer magazine Steamroller more Sue Townsend Lucky Jim by Kingsley Amis Swimming pool of champagne more Gorden Kaye A clock given to him for turning on the Oxford lights more ==1992== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Steven Berkoff Piano more Reverend David Jenkins The Complete Sherlock Holmes by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Binoculars more John Major The Small House at Allington by Anthony Trollope The Oval cricket ground replica and bowling machine more J. G. Ballard Moby Dick by Herman Melville Unicycle more Robbie Coltrane The Lady in the Lake by Raymond Chandler Pencils and paper more Sir Roger Bannister Anthology of Russian, American and English stories Solar- powered receiver to receive BBC Radio 4 more Elvis Costello Selected Works of James Thurber Upright piano more Valley of Bones by Anthony Powell Stuffed body of the Minister of Education more Jocelyn Stevens Other Men's Flowers by Lord Wavell One mile stretch of the River Test in Hampshire more Sir Isaiah Berlin Works, prose and verse by Aleksandr Pushkin Large armchair stacked with cushions more Lady Soames Memories from Beyond the Grave by Chateaubriand Supply of fine Havana cigars more Sir Ernst Gombrich Goethe's Poems by Johann Wolfgang Goethe Bathtub with an endless supply of hot water more Anthony Rolfe Johnson Parquet floor and tap shoes more History of the English-Speaking Peoples by Winston Churchill Triangular pillow more Will Carling The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien Flotation tank more Michael Grade The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame Sports results more War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Piano more Prunella Scales more Duncan Goodhew The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien Wig more Robert Lindsay Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence Computer chess set more Terry Waite Complete Cambridge Histories more Vivienne Westwood Multi- lingual dictionary more Clare Short MP Geometry tutor Piano more Life of John F. Kennedy Satellite dish and television set more Vile Bodies by Evelyn Waugh more David Mellor The Mayor of Casterbridge by Thomas Hardy Telephone (disconnected) more Bob Geldof The Diary of Samuel Pepys Metropolitan Museum in New York more Penelope Leach The Complete Works of Sigmund Freud Coffee more Raymond Blanc The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry A good luck stone (from his wife) more Chad Varah Own bathroom run by solar power with hot and cold water and a video player attached more Juliet Stevenson The Complete Works of W. B. Yeats Masaccio Frescos in the Brancacci Chapel more Lord Sainsbury Bed more Julie Andrews The Once and Future King by T. H. White Piano more Gavin Laird The Diary of Samuel Pepys Year's recording of the Today programme more General H Norman Schwarzkopf The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran His dog, Bear more War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy A comfortable chair more John Eliot Gardiner Memoirs by Hector Berlioz Sancerre more Lord Tebbit History of the English-Speaking Peoples by Winston Churchill Drinking fountain with taps for sancerre and claret more Carmen Callil Maurice Guest by Henry Handel Richardson more The Natural History of Selborne by Gilbert White more Paul Smith Notebook and pencil more Stephen Hawking Middlemarch by George Eliot Creme brulee more ==1993== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Elizabeth Jennings The New Oxford Book of American Verse more Barbara Mills QC History of the Crusades by Steven Runciman Tennis court, balls, racket and wall more Dervla Murphy The Diary of Samuel Pepys A still to distill berries, etc., into drink more Evelyn Glennie Way of the Peaceful Warrior by Dan Millman Chocolate more Anthony Storr A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust Piano more Sir Robin Butler Rise and Fall of the Great Powers by Paul Kennedy more Elijah Moshinsky more Ken Livingstone MP The Myths of Avalon by Marion Zimmer Bradley more David Croft Collected Poems of Sir John Betjeman Piano more Richard Gregory An astronomy book by Patrick Moore more Mr Mulliner's Memoirs by P. G. Wodehouse Cargo of champagne more Anton Edelmann Tibetan Book of Living and Dying by Rainer Maria Rilke Wok more Baroness Blackstone Middlemarch by George Eliot Tennis balls and racket more John Boorman Memories, Dreams and Reflections by Carl Jung Telescope more John Cole Typewriter more Eva Burrows Faber Book of Religious Verse Game of Scrabble with paper and pencil more Lord Weinstock If This Is a Man by Primo Levi Photograph album of family, friends and colleagues more Kaye Webb Poetry of Naomi Lewis Very big photograph album on a wheeling table more Frank Bruno Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe Picture of his family more Rt Hon Betty Boothroyd MP A Suitable Boy by Vikram Seth more Joan Baez The Diary of Anne Frank Personal pouch with a silver lion on it more Sir Leon Brittan The collected works of Chaucer more Peter Mayle The Leopard by Giuseppe di Lampedusa The menu from his favourite Parisien restaurant more Nicholas Hytner The collected works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge Large supply of total block suncream more Isabel Allende All correspondence between her and her mother Paper and pencils more Paul Merton Bed more On the Road by Jack Kerouac Telescope more Rt Hon Virginia Bottomley MP Norton's Star Atlas more Lesley Garrett Photograph album Tightrope more Raymond Seitz Oxford Anthology of Modern Poetry Big box full of family albums more Kenny Everett Eagle annual Bathroom suite more Judge Stephen Tumim Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne more Sybil Marshall Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Inexhaustible supply of Swiss lawn handkerchiefs more Shirley Anne Field Reader's Digest Large Chippendale mirror more Doris Lessing Magic carpet more Taki Essential Hemingway by Ernest Hemingway more Phil Collins Piano more Lord Ashley of Stoke A book about warfare Smoked salmon and wine more ==1994== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Oliver Sacks Dictionary of Musical Themes more Ian Hislop Civilisation by Kenneth Clark more Sir Harrison Birtwistle Chainsaw more Willy Russell English meadow with an oak tree more Oxford Dictionary of Quotations Pen and paper more Douglas Adams Omnibus of Golfing Stories by P. G. Wodehouse Martin D28 left-handed guitar more Rosemary Verey A Celebration of Gardens by Sir Roy Strong Waterproof pens, paper and folders more Rt Hon Kenneth Clarke MP The Life of Lord Melbourne by Lord David Cecil Tenor sax more Frances Partridge Memoirs by Duc de Saint-Simon Flower press more Christina Dodwell The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran Pen and paper more Conrad Black Oxford Book of English Verse Model of HMS Hood more Sir Ranulph Fiennes Gormenghast by Mervyn Peake Antisan for insect bites more Roger McGough Black cab more Alan Hacker Middlemarch by George Eliot Hovercraft wheelchair with cappuccino machine more Trevor McDonald Anthology of poetry Box of paints, brushes and paper more Garrison Keillor Roget's Thesaurus Set of china (four place settings) more Sir John Wilson A chess strategy book (in Braille) A sonic probe more Kate Adie The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer more Britt Ekland Recent editions of magazines, e.g. Vanity Fair, Vogue Case of Evian water and champagne more Peter Scudamore Book of verse by Rudyard Kipling Snorkeling equipment more Milton Shulman The Cookery Book by Constance Spry Tennis racket and ball machine more Zoë Wanamaker Greek Myths by Robert Graves Samson tobacco and liquorice Rizla papers more Brian Sewell Songs from the 1880s with piano accompaniment by Schubert Sculpture by Michelangelo more John Drummond Encyclopaedia of all the well-known operas Small theatre more Derek Jameson The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck Word processor more Biography of Churchill by Martin Gilbert A parking space more Joanna Trollope Oxford Book of English Verse Bed and white Egyptian sheets more John Tavener Apophthegmata Patrum (early writing of Egyptian fathers) Upright piano more Mary Stott The Act of Creation by Arthur Koestler Watercolours for painting more The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri more Jeanette Winterson Four Quartets by T. S. Eliot more Sir George Christie Origin of Species by Charles Darwin more Lynda La Plante Fairy Stories by Honoré de Balzac Mouth organ more Kathleen Hale A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust A gilabra (cloak of gold) more Archbishop Desmond Tutu Parting the Waters by Taylor Branch Ice-cream maker (especially for rum and raisin flavour) more Berthold Goldschmidt Joseph and His Brothers by Thomas Mann Vanity case including metal mirror and shaving kit more Glenys Kinnock Atlas of the Third World Toilet bag full of skin-barrier creams more Sir Howard Hodgkin Journal De Eugène Delacroix by Eugène Delacroix Mayonnaise – permanent supply more Margaret Forster A House For Mr Biswas by V. S. Naipaul Unlimited supply of A4 white paper and cartridges for fountain pen more Penelope Hobhouse The Golden Bowl by Henry James Laptop computer more David Jason OBE A complete carpenter's toolbox more ==1995== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Alan Clark A History of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell Piano more Patricia Hodge A compendium of the plays of Harold Pinter Supply of embroidery more Phil Redmond The collected works of Charles Dickens Magnifying glass more Dr. Richard Dawkins The Jeeves Omnibus by P. G. Wodehouse Computer (solar- powered) more Sir Adrian Cadbury Dr. Johnson's Lexicographic Works by Samuel Johnson Fibreglass sculling boat more Jimmy Knapp The Socialist Sixth of the World by Hewlett Johnson Case of Talisker whisky more Christopher Lee The Sword in the Stone by T. H. White Set of golf clubs more Canto General by Pablo Neruda Binoculars more Nigel Nicolson A Guide to the Universe Telescope more Felix Aprahamian Du Cote De Chez Swann by Marcel Proust Swiss army knife more Nina Bawden The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon Plain paper, plastic folders and ballpoint pens more James Bowman Rebecca by Daphne Du Maurier Fabergé egg more Hugh Grant King Ottokar's Sceptre by Herge Supply of handkerchiefs more George Lloyd Piers Plowman (in Middle English) by William Langland more Pete Waterman A history of Great Western Railway engines Havana cigars and matches more Four Quartets by T. S. Eliot Computer and an empty bottle more Neil Simon How To Swim Large harmonica more Sir Bernard Ingham Colin Cowdrey's bowling machine more Marianne Faithfull Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe Pen from Asprey's with attached magnifying glass more Brian Blessed In Search of the Miraculous by Peter Ouspensky Scarf given to him by the Dalai Lama more John Lee Hooker A book with pictures of pretty women His guitar more Sir Magdi Yacoub Pluto's Republic by Sir Peter Medawar Hammock more Jasper Conran Tales by Hoffman Vintage Krug champagne more Through Russian Snows by G. A. Henty Telescope more Wendy Richard Wilt by Tom Sharpe Tapestry to make more John Updike The collected works of Marcel Proust Silken tent (for luxury, not survival) more Max Nicholson The Phenomenon of Man by Pierre Teilhard De Chardin Binoculars more Maurice Saatchi Hamlet (1875 edition) by William Shakespeare Virtual-reality headset more Jenny Pitman Veterinary Notes For Horse Owners Television set more Alan Yentob Essays by Michel de Montaigne Video recorder more Richard Hoggart Essays by Michel de Montaigne Fountain pen and paper more Don Black 14,000 Things to be Happy About by Barbara Ann Kipfer Snooker table more Elizabeth Jane Howard All the sonatas by Scarlatti Piano more Rt Hon Gillian Shephard MP The Warning of the Middle Ages by Johan H. Huizinga Madame Rochas scent more Umberto Eco The New York Phone Book Laptop computer more George Martin A book on how to build a boat Electric keyboard more Alison Steadman One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez Hot lemon flannels (as provided in Chinese restaurants) more Barbara Dickson English & Scottish Ballads by Francis Child more Petula Clark Anything by Peter Ustinov Her piano more An endless team of Man Fridays more ==1996== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Christopher Hampton Anything by Marcel Proust Pen and paper more Jimmy McGovern Ulysses by James Joyce Haemorrhoid ointment more Chili Bouchier In Tune With The Infinite: Fullness of Peace Power by Ralph Waldo Trine Make-up kit more Julian Barnes Letters of Gustave Flaubert Writing equipment more Eve Arnold Arabian Nights Dark room, film and camera more Susan Hill The Pursuit of Love by Nancy Mitford The Barnes Collection (paintings) more 500 year ahead calendar and appointment book Computer more Sir Roy Calne Global Biodiversity by Brian Goombridge Paints and canvas more Gordon Brown The Story of Art by Sir Ernst Gombrich more Other Men's Flowers by Lord Wavell Paints and canvas more Kyra Vayne A culinary book Peanuts and treats to tame animals and birds more Simon Weston Sharpe's Eagle by Bernard Cornwell Daily newspapers more Dickie Bird TV and satellite to watch Test matches more The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri A pair of scissors more Hanif Kureishi The Complete Works of Sigmund Freud Marijuana seeds more Mitsuko Uchida Anything by Leo Tolstoy (in Russian and English) Piano more Pauline Quirke Crying With Laughter by Bob Monkhouse Shampoo more Hugh Laurie A self-learn Italian book (slowly) Family photo album more Janet Holmes à Court Tourmaline by Randolph Stow Jar of vegemite more Michael White Anything by Marcel Proust Bicycle more Gerry Robinson The History of the World by John Roberts Painting kit (easel, oils, brushes) more Peggy Mount The Diary of Noël Coward Tea in abundance more Quentin Crewe Essays by Michel de Montaigne The cellar from Trinity College, Cambridge more André Previn The collected works of Anton Chekhov Piano more Anita Lasker-Wallfisch The History of the World by John Roberts Cello more Sir Terence Conran Endless supply of A4 paper and 4B pencils more The Discoverers by Daniel Boorstin Solar-powered Internet (to receive, not send) more Kevin Whately The Moor's Last Sigh by Salman Rushdie Northumbrian pipes more Fran Landesman Rebel Without Applause and Jaywalking by Jay Landesman Cannabis seeds more Ben Elton His wedding photo album The British Museum more Lewis Wolpert Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding and The Principles of Morals by David Hume Bicycle more Rumer Godden The Atlantic Book of British and American Poetry by Edith Sitwell more Jack Charlton Encyclopaedia of How to Survive Fishing rod more Jancis Robinson Middlemarch by George Eliot Cellar of wines and a corkscrew more Chris Patten A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking Bath more The Golden Bough by James Frazer Piano more Tessa Sanderson The History of the World by John Roberts Toothbrush and toothpaste more Tony Blair Ivanhoe by Walter Scott Guitar more Bruce Forsyth The collected works of Omar Khayyam Sand iron (golf club) more Robert Winston The Koran (in Arabic and English) Glass and tools to make a telescope more Ian Dury Macmillan Dictionary of Art Mixing desk (solar-powered) more Jennifer Saunders Traveller's Prelude by Freya Stark Tribute Heads by Elisabeth Frink more Martin Amis The Complete Works of John Milton Cable television more ==1997== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info John Cleese Stand By Your Man by Tammy Wynette Michael Palin – stuffed more Irene Thomas Complete score of Fidelio by Beethoven more Gene Wilder The Notebooks of Captain Georges by Jean Renoir Earl Grey tea more Terry Pratchett Edible Plants of the South Seas by Emile Massal The Chrysler Building more Mary Benson Unpublished Notes by Athol Fugard Telescope more Nico Ladenis Beau Geste by P. C. Wren more The Leopard by Giuseppe di Lampedusa Endless supply of curry more Redmond O'Hanlon War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Pair of green, insulated Leica binoculars 8 X 20 more Nina Campbell Photograph album Bed more Peter Blake Lemprieres' Dictionary by Lawrence Norfolk Gym more Virginia Ironside The Power of Positive Thinking by Norman Vincent Peale Big bag of plaster to make heads of friends more Saeed Jaffrey The Complete Works of Mirza Ghalib Case of Black Label and Dom Pérignon more Andy Hamilton The Physics of Immortality by Frank J. Tipler Football more Sir Martin Rees Collective cartoons of Gary Larson Jefferson reclining chair more David Wynne The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer Harmonica more Harry Enfield Bleak House by Charles Dickens Beer and a cigarette machine more Sian Phillips The Medical Care of Merchant Seamen by William Louis Wheeler Pencils and paper more Joanna MacGregor The Sleep Walkers by Arthur Koestler Sampler to record the noises of the island more Benjamin Zephaniah Poetical Works of Shelley Law of the island (so he could break it) more Christina Noble The Book of Kells Photo of an Irish cottage more Eric Sykes Ripley's Believe It or Not Sand wedge and crate of golf balls more Iain Banks The Complete Monty Python Front seat of a Porsche more Cleo Laine The Jazz Revolution by John Dankworth Perfume more Sir Frank Kermode The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon Samuel Palmer's painting Moonlit Landscape more Ursula Owen The collected works of Anton Chekhov Family photo album more Mike Leigh OBE One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez more Peter O'Sullevan Ends and Means by Aldous Huxley Bottle of Calvados more Jools Holland The Four Books of Architecture by Andrea Palladio Piano more Rose Tremain A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking Word processor more Richard Rodney Bennett The Atlantic Book of British and American Poetry by Edith Sitwell 6mm 36 inch circular knitting needle with a point at each end more Richard Mabey The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame Guitar more John Julius Norwich The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon Laptop computer more Anthony Minghella Collected piano works by Bach Piano more Thelma Holt Utopia by Thomas Moore Rosary beads more Loyd Grossman Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson Fishing rod more Paula Rego Tender is the Night by F. Scott Fitzgerald Pencil and paper more Chris Haskins The collected works of Seán O'Casey Pen and paper more Sir Harry Secombe The Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens Guitar more Glenda Jackson MP The History and Creation of a Japanese Sand Garden Bath more ==1998== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Collection of Landscape pictures (with book) Collection of landscape pictures more Paul Hogarth Solar-powered Apple Mac more John Tomlinson Flora and Fauna of tropical desert island A box of lenses more Helena Kennedy QC Aeneid by Virgil Goose down duvet more Colin Dexter Manicure set more Richard Noble War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Guitar more David Pountney Anthology: The English Year by Geoffrey Grigson Croquet lawn more Archie Norman MP The Compleat Angler by Isaac Walton Jar of Marmite more Sir Anthony Dowell The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame Sketch pad and paints more Ian Stewart Gödel, Escher, Bach by Douglas Hofstadter Margaret Thatcher pickled in a Damien Hurst sculpture more Andrew Motion Prelude by William Wordsworth Pencils and paper more Alice Thomas Ellis Come Hither – An Anthology by Walter de la Mare Very comfortable sofa more Gavin Bryars Science and Civilisation in China by Joseph Needham Gravity chair more Ordnance Survey map of the world The Man with a Glove, painting by Titian more Sir Terry Frost Blank sheets to write his thoughts on imagination and memory Mirror more The collected works of William Blake Piano more Susan Blackmore Origin of Species by Charles Darwin Handful of cannabis seeds more Antony Gormley Principle of Hope by Ernst Bloch Snorkel and mask more Sir David Willcocks Book on astronomy King's College Chapel more John Harle The Aesthetics of Music by Roger Scruton Lute and strings more Geoffrey Smith History of viticulture, with instructions on how to make wine Bundle of prunings from a good vineyard so he can plant his own vines more Bill Kenwright Everton – The Complete Record by Steve Johnson Guitar more John Bird Mont Blanc pen, notebook and ink more Jack Rosenthal Finnegans Wake by James Joyce Clay for making sculpture more Sybille Bedford A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust A French restaurant in full working order more Rt Hon Jack Straw MP The Franco Prussian War – The German Invasion of France 1870–1871 by Michael Howard Saxophone more Howard Brenton The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer Champagne more Chris De Burgh Moonfleet by J. Meade Falkner Snorkel more Ralph Steadman The New La Rousse Encyclopaedia of Mythology Chisels more David Hempleman Adams Jonathan Livingstone Seagull by Richard Bach Saxophone more Les Murray Marble four- poster bed more Ralph Koltai French dictionary Cigars more Lucy Gannon The Faber Book of Reportage by John Carey Jaguar XK8 more Paul Daniel Beautifully bound blank book Cello and music for Bach's cello suites more Joseph Rotblat Solar-powered laptop more Nicole Kidman Collected Poems of Emily Dickinson Sun block more Bill Morris Long Walk to Freedom by Nelson Mandela Cricket bat signed by "the three Ws" – Sir Frank Worrell, Everton Weekes and Clyde Walcott more Eileen Atkins Moments of Being by Virginia Woolf An Atkinson Grimshaw painting more John Keegan The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan French-speaking man robot more Dick Francis Men and Horses I Have Known by George Lampton Waterbed more Bob Monkhouse Clarinet more Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life by W. B. Lord Guitar more ==1999== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info Dave Brubeck The Spear in the Sand by Raoul C. Faure Grand piano more Clare Hollingworth History of England by G. M. Trevelyan Paper and pens (with thick nibs) more David Shepherd Collected works of Beatrix Potter Wind-up video player more Ruth Prawer Jhabvala The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoyevsky A chaise longue by a window more Bill Bryson The Lost Continent by Bill Bryson Basketball and hoop with a little hard standing more Andras Schiff The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri Piano more Nina Cassian Winnie the Pooh by A. A. Milne Cigarettes and whisky more Maria Ewing Collected Poems of John Donne Piano more Richard Curtis Guinness Book of Pop Pizza Express in Notting Hill more Sir Charles Mackerras If a hot island – a huge bottle of suntan lotion and if a cold island – a pillow more Fay Maschler Cold Comfort Farm by Stella Gibbons Huge supply of ouzo more Rt Hon Mo Mowlam MP The collected works of Seamus Heaney Globe more Luise Rainer The Proper Study of Mankind by Isaiah Berlin To be missed by the people she loves more Richard Dunwoody The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien Endless supply of ice-cream more Paco Peña Anthology of poetry by Jose Bergua Virtual reality module more Ken Loach Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics by Francis Palgrave Radio (for football results) more Stan Tracey Crazy Like A Fox by S. J. Perelman The film – Oh, Mr Porter! more Helen Bamber Poet For Poet by Richard McCain Radio to listen to the World Service more Richard Dreyfuss A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens Books delivered to the island on a regular basis more Michael Green The Complete Works of Sigmund Freud Digital TV more Christopher Bruce Teach yourself French Suncream more Anthony Howard Dictionary of National Biography Magnifying glass more Chris Bonington History of the English- Speaking Peoples by Sir Winston Churchill Power Book G3 (laptop computer) more John Barry Eternal Echoes by John O'Donohue Grand piano more James Dyson Olive: The Life and Love of a Noble Fruit by Mort Rosenslum Olive oil more Rt Hon Ann Widdecombe MP Collected Poems of Thomas Gray Hot shower more Igor Aleksander Companions to the Mind by Richard Gregory A virtual reality London Symphony Orchestra so he can conduct it more Paddy Moloney The Book of Lempster (old Irish textbook currently in The Hague) Tin whistle more Martin Pipe Horse Management by R. S. Timmis Winning post from Cheltenham race course more Rod Steiger Complete book of poetry by e e cummings Self-contained external electric fan more Rick Stein Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Thai fish sauce more Patricia Routledge The collected works of John Donne Tea service with tea more Sir Roger Norrington The Complete Works of Thomas Hardy Chocolate more Rita Dove One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez Ballroom and robotic dance instructor more Rolf Harris The Magic Pudding by Norman Lindsay Chisel for sculpting more Ralph Fiennes A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust Pen and limited supplies of ink and paper more Willard White The Power of Positive Thinking by Norman Vincent Peale Seeds more William Gibson The Complete Works of Jorge Luis Borges Junk yard more Clarissa Dickson Wright The Complete Works of Saki Wind-up radio more Warren Mitchell Master and Commander by Patrick O'Brian Organ (from the Royal Albert Hall) more Telescope more Oz Clarke French Provincial Cookery by Elizabeth David His memory more Michael Nyman Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne Toilet more Michael Crawford The complete book of self-sufficiency by John Seymour more Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber England's Thousand Best Churches by Simon Jenkins Herb garden more ==2000== Date Castaway Book Luxury More info The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien Pencil and paper more Ian McEwan Ulysses by James Joyce Italian leather hand-stitched hiking boots more Neil Jordan Typewriter more Peter Melchett Field guide to the island Snorkel and mask more Simon Callow Dictionary Nose hair trimmer more Portrait of a Lady by Henry James Piano more Michael Holroyd The High Hill of the Muses (anthology by Hugh Kingsmill) Waterbed more Sheila Hancock Anything by Marcel Proust Grand piano (and music scores) more Robert McCrum Three Men in a Boat by Jerome K. Jerome St. John's Wort more Colin Montgomerie Anything by Michael Crichton No luxury chosen more Al Alvarez Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud Laptop computer with poker game software more Adrian Noble The Art of Memory by Frances A Yates Wine more Harold Evans History of the American Civil War by Shelby Foote Silk pyjamas more Claire Tomalin Garden more War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Glue more Leonard Slatkin Notes of a Native Son by James Baldwin Wine more A book on celestial navigation Windsurfer more Sir John Mills The Warden by Anthony Trollope His piano more Kathleen Turner Emma by Jane Austen more Nine Tailors by Dorothy L. Sayers Solar laptop more John Bird The collected works of Wallace Stevens 2,000 soft loo rolls more The Complete Works of Flavius Josephus Comfortable armchair/desk more Clive James My Method of Singing by Enrico Caruso more Donald Sutherland Distant Mirror by Barbara Tuckman Case of really good vintage wine more Max Perutz Origin of Species by Charles Darwin Skis more Peter Nichols His diary (which he has kept since he was 18, to relive his life since 1945) Cyanide tablet (if he can't a tower and telescope, or a full-size snooker table) more Alan Parker A giant photo album of his children and grandchildren which goes back over 20 years Watercolour paint box plus brush and paint pads more Michael Portillo Solar-powered laptop more Sir Roger Penrose The biggest book by Michael Frayn 19-note piano more Volume 1 of biography of the Duke of Wellington – Year of the Sword by Lady Longford Surfboard more Sir Norman Wisdom Reach for the Skies by Sir Douglas Bader Pot of stew with two dumplings more Robert Swan Huge copy of The Times atlas – largest available so he can see where he has been (168 countries so far) An accountancy course more Christopher Lloyd Letters of Gustave Flaubert Syndicate whisky more Ronald Harwood Decline and Fall by Evelyn Waugh His bathroom more J K Rowling SAS Survival Guide Pen and unlimited paper more Des Lynam Encyclopaedia of Natural Medicine Drum kit more Albie Sachs Charterhouse of Parma by Stendhal Little bottle of aftershave more Tina Brown Middlemarch by George Eliot Rollercoaster more Tim Smit Book with plain pages Piano more Richard Briers Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Huge supply of Chardonnay more The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoyevsky Book on how to sketch and some paper and pens more The Perennial Philosophy – Aldous Huxley An orrary(sic) – an electronic toy for looking at the sky more Stephen Sondheim The collected works of E. B. White Piano more Episodes (1991-2000) Desert Island Discs episodes (1991-2000) Category:1990s in the United Kingdom Desert Category:2000s in the United Kingdom Category:2000s in British music
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The Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003 (PREA) is the first United States federal law intended to deter the sexual assault of prisoners. The bill was signed into law on September 4, 2003. ==Background== Public awareness of prison rape is relatively recent and estimates of its prevalence vary widely. In 1974, Carl Weiss and David James Friar wrote that 46 million Americans would one day be incarcerated; of that number, they claimed, 10 million would be raped. A 1992 estimate from the Federal Bureau of Prisons estimated that between 9 and 20 percent of inmates had been sexually assaulted. Studies in 1982 and 1996 both concluded that the rate was somewhere between 12 and 14 percent. A 1986 study by Daniel Lockwood put the number at around 23 percent for maximum security prisons in New York. In contrast, in Christine Saum's 1994 survey of 101 inmates, only five admitted to have had been sexually assaulted. In 2001, Human Rights Watch (HRW) released a paper called No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons, the single event that contributed most to PREA's passage two years later. HRW had published several papers on the topic of prison rape in the years since its initial report called All Too Familiar: Sexual Abuse of Women in U.S. State Prisons, released in 1996, when there was barely any Congressional support for legislation aimed at prison rape. A 1998 attempt by Representative John Conyers, Jr. (D-MI), known as the Custodial Sexual Abuse Act of 1998, was attached to the reauthorization bill for the Violence Against Women Act but summarily removed and never reintroduced. Michael Horowitz, a Hudson Institute senior fellow, has been credited with playing a part in passing PREA by helping to lead a coalition of the bill's supporters. ==Support and lobby== The Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003 was supported by a broad base of activists, lobbyists, and organizations, particularly Just Detention International. The Southern Baptist Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission lobbied for the passage of the legislation as did the conservative organization Concerned Women for America. These groups were part of a diverse coalition of human rights and religious groups which backed the legislation; other groups which supported the act were: Amnesty International USA, Focus on the Family, Human Rights Watch, the NAACP, the National Association of Evangelicals, Penal Reform International, Physicians for Human Rights, the Presbyterian Church USA, Prison Fellowship, the Salvation Army and the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. The bill was sponsored, in both houses of the U.S. Congress, by a bipartisan group of legislators. The initial sponsor of the bill in the Senate was Jeff Sessions (R-AL) and, in the House of Representatives the legislation was sponsored by Representative Frank Wolf (R-VA) and Rep. Bobby Scott (D-VA), who was the initial co-sponsor. The Senate bill picked up four co-sponsors on the day it was passed, they were: Senators Mike DeWine (R-OH), Dick Durbin (D-IL), Dianne Feinstein (D-CA), and Edward Kennedy (D-MA). The House bill had a total of 32 co-sponsors, including Scott. The bill passed both the House and Senate by unanimous consent; it passed the Senate on July 21, 2003, and the House on July 25."Public Law 108-79, September 4, 2003" U.S. Congress, accessed July 1, 2021. ==Act== ===Provisions=== The Act was passed by both houses of the U.S. Congress and subsequently signed by President George W. Bush in a White House ceremony on September 4, 2003.Jordan, Andrew, Morgan, Marcia, and McCampbell, Michael. "The Prison Rape Elimination Act: What Police Chiefs Need to Know", The Police Chief, vol. 73, no. 4, April 2006, accessed July 1, 2021."Press Gaggle by Scott McClellan Aboard Air Force One en route to Kansas City, Missouri", The White House, (Press briefing transcript), September 4, 2003. The act aimed to curb prison rape through a "zero-tolerance" policy, as well as thorough research and information gathering. The act called for developing national standards to prevent incidents of sexual violence in prison. It also made policies more available and obvious. By making data on prison rape more available to the prison administrators as well as making corrections facilities more accountable for incidents pertaining to sexual violence and of prison rape, it would more than likely decrease the crimes.National Institute of Justice Staff, "NIJ's Response to the Prison Rape Elimination Act", (PDF), Corrections Today, February 2006, accessed June 5, 2008. A major component of PREA was the establishment of a "National Prison Rape Reduction Commission." The panel was established by the act and appointed in June 2004, though the law itself called for the commission's creation within 60 days of its passage.Marshall, Carolyn. "Panel on Prison Rape Hears Victims' Chilling Accounts ", The New York Times, August 20, 2005, accessed June 3, 2008. The panel, known as the National Prison Rape Elimination Commission (NPREC), was charged with undertaking a study on the comprehensive effects of prison rape and its occurrences. The commission was also charged with information gathering through a variety of sources including public hearings. The commission is tasked with issuing a report to include its findings, conclusions and any recommendations."About NPREC ", National Prison Rape Elimination Commission, accessed June 5, 2008. In addition, the law mandated that the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) "make the prevention of prison rape a top priority in each prison system". The DOJ's Bureau of Justice Statistics was mandated to produce an annual report on its activities concerning the topic of prison rape in the U.S. prison system. The law also made several other mandates for the DOJ. The National Institute of Corrections (NIC) was ordered to offer training and technical assistance, provide a clearinghouse for information and produce its own annual report to Congress. PREA required the DOJ to create a review panel designed to conduct hearings on prison rape; this panel was given subpoena power as well. At the top of the Justice Department, PREA authorized the Attorney General to dispense grant money to facilitate implementation of the act. These grants are administered by the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) and the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Representative Danny K. Davis (D-IL) introduced the Second Chance Act of 2007 on March 20 of that year. Among its provisions was an amendment to PREA. The miscellaneous provisions of what was largely a law designed to help reintegrate criminal offenders into the community extended the existence of the NPREC from 3 to 5 years after its inception date. The Senate version was introduced nine days later and sponsored by then-Senator Joe Biden (D-DE). The Second Chance Act passed the House 347–62 on November 13, 2007. The bill passed the Senate by unanimous consent on March 11, 2008, and the life of the NPREC was extended when President Bush signed the Second Chance Act on April 9, 2008. ===Juvenile justice=== PREA covers all adult, as well as juvenile detention facilities; the definition of prison for the purposes of the act includes "any juvenile facility used for the custody or care of juvenile inmates." U.S. Congress, within the text of PREA, noted that young, first-time offenders are at an increased risk of sexually motivated crimes. Juveniles held in adult facilities are five times more likely to be sexually assaulted than juveniles held in juvenile facilities. ===Signing statement=== Upon signing PREA, President Bush issued a signing statement to accompany the law's passage. The signing statement specifically exempted the executive branch from two parts of Section 7 of PREA. Section 7 deals with access for the NPREC to any federal department or agency's information that it deemed necessary to complete its job. The two specific sections that the signing statement allowed the executive branch to ignore if "disclosure could impair deliberative processes of the Executive or the performance of the Executive's constitutional duties" were 7(h) and 7(k)3. The signing statement maintained that this was within the Constitutional authority of the president. ===Temporary lock-ups=== PREA defines "prison" quite broadly, as "any federal, state, or local confinement facility, including local jails, police lockups, juvenile facilities, and state and federal prisons." Thus, short-term lockups, such as holding facilities, and local jails, regardless of size, are also subject to the provisions of PREA. Failure by local authorities and operators of such facilities to comply with the provisions of PREA results in a 5% reduction in federal funding to that agency for each year they fail to comply. ==Implementation== ===Grants=== PREA authorizes money in the form of grants for a wide variety of implementation associated activities. The grants can be utilized by state agencies for personnel, training, technical assistance, data collection, and equipment to prevent, investigate, and prosecute prison rape. Each state recipient is required to submit a report within 90 days laying out on what activities the money was spent on as well as the effect of those activities on prison rape within the state. In 2004 Congress appropriated US$25 million dollars for the grant program and in 2005 US$20 million. The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) granted $10 million of the 2004 appropriation in the fourth quarter of that year. The largest grant amount that year, $1 million, was to the Department of Corrections in Iowa, Michigan, New York, Texas and Washington. ===Immigration detention centers=== PREA also applies to all federal immigration detention centers. In December 2006, NPREC held two days of hearings focusing on sexual violence and rape in immigration detention facilities. During the hearings they heard testimony from a female victim of sexual assault in an immigration facility as well as testimony from prison staff. The panel issued a statement reiterating that its policy of "zero-tolerance" applied to federal immigration facilities. In oral statements made by the U.S. delegation to the Committee Against Torture in 2006, Thomas Monheim with the U.S. Department of Justice responded to queries by Nora Sveaass about the implementation of PREA in immigration detention facilities. Monheim asserted that the Department of Homeland Security had taken steps to implement PREA, including the development of a classification system to segregate violent and non-violent offenders, "widespread posting of instructions on how to report sexual misconduct", and PREA training for detention officers in the facilities. ===Juvenile facilities=== NPREC held hearings focusing specifically on the elimination of juvenile prison rape victims on June 1, 2006. Individual states have sought to comply with the mandates of PREA concerning juveniles, for instance, the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services worked with consultants from The Moss Group, Inc. to develop PREA policies and training. ==Research and studies== ===Annual reports=== In December 2007 United States Department of Justice published its 2006 report about rapes and sexual violence in American prisons. The report, which included information obtained from about 1.3 million prisoners, reported 60,500 cases of sexual violence ranging from unwanted touching to rape in 2006. In total, 4.5 percent of American prisoners reported an incident of sexual violence in the study.Kaufman, Pat. "Prison Rape: Research Explores Prevalence, Prevention", NIJ Journal, No. 259, March 2008, National Institute of Justice, United States Department of Justice, accessed July 1, 2021. ===Congressional findings=== The U.S. Congress, within the text of PREA, conservatively estimated that at least 13 percent of the inmates in the United States have been sexually assaulted in prison. Under this estimate, nearly 200,000 inmates now incarcerated have been or will be the victims of prison rape. The total number of inmates who have been sexually assaulted between the years of 1986 and 2006 likely exceeds 1,000,000."Sigler, Mary, "By the Light of Virtue: Prison Rape and the Corruption of Character", (Abstract w/ link to document), Iowa Law Review, Vol. 91, pp. 561-607, 2006, accessed June 5, 2008. These numbers were derived based on the "testimony of social scientists and penologists". ===Contracted research=== PREA mandated that the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) provide funding for research conducted by private contractors who are considered experts within the field. In 2006 alone, NIJ funded three major studies of sexual assault in prison. One study by Mark Fleisher at Case Western Reserve University, initially released in January 2006 before being finalized or peer reviewed, showed that prison rape was rarer than estimated. Fleisher's study reported that most prisoners who claim to have been raped are looking for money, publicity, a transfer, or lying. The study was immediately questioned and disputed by members of NPREC. Both Reggie B. Walton, NPREC chair, and commissioner Cindy Struckman-Johnson spoke out against the study, with Struckman-Johnson calling it unscientific."Disputed study: Prison rape, sexual assault rare", Associated Press via NBC News, January 17, 2006, accessed June 5, 2008. Fleisher released a substantially revised version of the report in November 2006, and Stop Prisoner Rape (now Just Detention International) stated it was "still plagued by many of the same fundamental flaws as the initial version." ==Reaction== The speed with which the bill passed, and the fact it was passed without public pressure, has been called "surprising". PREA went through both houses in July 2003, was presented to the president on September 2, 2003 and signed two days later. Human Rights Watch urged President Bush to sign the bill, and stated that if it were implemented correctly it would "catalyze nationwide efforts to eliminate prison rape by inmates and correctional staff." Robert Weisberg, co-writing with David Mills, argued in Slate in October 2003 that PREA did little more than collect data. They argued that the bill's original title, the "Prison Rape Reduction Act", was probably a more likely predictor of its outcome. A similar position was put forth by Mike Farrell, writing in The Huffington Post, where he stated, "the National Prison Rape Elimination Commission meets periodically to 'study the impact of prisoner rape.' While they study, rape continues." In addition, Dean Spade has written about PREA in relation to prison abolition. He noted that the Act has been used to enforce imprisonment and lengthen sentences, and has been more clearly successful in reinforcing incarceration than in reducing sexual violence. ==See also== *Prison rape in the United States *Sexual abuse of women in American prisons ==References== ==Further reading== *Beck, Allen J., et al. "Sexual Violence Reported by Correctional Authorities, 2006", (PDF), Bureau of Justice Statistics, August 2007, accessed on June 5, 2008. *Fleisher, Mark and Krienert, Jesse. "The Culture of Prison Sexual Violence", (PDF), November 2006, National Institute of Justice, accessed June 5, 2008. *Mariner, Joanne, et al. "No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons", Human Rights Watch, 2001, , accessed June 5, 2008. *Ristroph, Alice, "Sexual Punishments", (Abstract w/ link to document), Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 15, No. 139, 2006, accessed June 5, 2008. *Smith, Brenda V. and Yarussi, Jamie M. "Prosecuting Sexual Violence in Correctional Settings: Examining Prosecutors' Perceptions", (Abstract w/ link to document), Criminal Law Brief Spring 2008, American University: Washington College of Law, WCL Research Paper No. 2008-50, accessed June 5, 2008. *Thomas, Dorothy Q., et al. "All Too Familiar: Sexual Abuse of Women in U.S. State Prisons", Human Rights Watch, 1996, , accessed June 5, 2008. ==External links== *National PREA Resource Center, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, accessed July 1, 2021. *Prison Rape Elimination Act Resources, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, accessed July 1, 2021. *The Prison Rape Elimination Act, Just Detention International, accessed July 1, 2021. *National Prison Rape Elimination Commission, archived site, accessed July 1, 2021. Category:Prison rape in the United States Category:Penal system in the United States Category:United States federal criminal legislation Category:Acts of the 108th United States Congress
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The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man is a 1962 book by Marshall McLuhan, in which he analyzes the effects of mass media, especially the printing press, on European culture and human consciousness. It popularized the term global village,McLuhan 1962, p.31: "But certainly the electro- magnetic discoveries have recreated the simultaneous "field" in all human affairs so that the human family now exists under conditions of a "global village."" which refers to the idea that mass communication allows a village- like mindset to apply to the entire world; and Gutenberg Galaxy,Note that Marshall McLuhan himself states quite clearly that "although the main theme of this book is the Gutenberg Galaxy or a configuration of events, which lies far ahead of alphabet and of scribal culture, it needs to be known why, without alphabet, there would have been no Gutenberg. McLuhan 1962, p.40" which we may regard today to refer to the accumulated body of recorded works of human art and knowledge, especially books. McLuhan studies the emergence of what he calls the Gutenberg Man, the subject produced by the change of consciousness wrought by the advent of the printed book. Apropos of his axiom, "The medium is the message," McLuhan argues that technologies are not simply inventions which people employ but are the means by which people are re-invented. The invention of movable type was the decisive moment in the change from a culture in which all the senses partook of a common interplay to a tyranny of the visual. He also argued that the development of the printing press led to the creation of nationalism, dualism, domination of rationalism, automatisation of scientific research, uniformation and standardisation of culture and alienation of individuals. Movable type, with its ability to reproduce texts accurately and swiftly, extended the drive toward homogeneity and repeatability already in evidence in the emergence of perspectival art and the exigencies of the single "point of view". He writes: ==The format of the book—a mosaic== The book is unusual in its design. McLuhan described it as one which "develops a mosaic or field approach to its problems".(McLuhan 1962, first line of the unnamed preface on "page 0") The mosaic image to be constructed from data and quotations would then reveal "causal operations in history".(McLuhan 1962, p.0) The book consists of five parts: * Prologue * The Gutenberg Galaxy * The Galaxy Reconfigured * Bibliographic Index * Index of Chapter Glosses The main body of the book, "The Gutenberg Galaxy", consists of 107 short "chapters". Apparently, McLuhan also had some ideas about how to browse a book. Marshall McLuhan, the guru of The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962), recommends that the browser turn to page 69 of any book and read it. If you like that page, buy the book."John Sutherland 2006. Such apparent arbitrariness fits with picking a particular piece (or part) of a mosaic and deciding if you like it. Certainly the McLuhan test can be applied to the Gutenberg Galaxy itself. Doing so will reveal a further insight into the purpose of his own book."To show by exactly what historical process ["modern man has desacralized his world and assumed a profane existence"] was done is the theme of The Gutenberg Galaxy." McLuhan 1962, p.69 ===Prologue=== McLuhan declares his book to be "complementary to The Singer of Tales by Albert B. Lord."McLuhan 1962, p.1 The latter work follows on from the Homeric studies of Milman Parry who turned to "the study of the Yugoslave epics" to prove that the poems of Homer were oral compositions. ==Four epochs of history== The book may also be regarded as a way of describing four epochs of history: 1. Oral tribe culture 2. Manuscript cultureMcLuhan himself proposes to demonstrate that "manuscript culture is intensely audile-tactile compared to print culture; and that means that detached habits of observation are quite uncongenial to manuscript cultures, whether ancient Egyptian, Greek, or Chinese or medieval." 1962, p.28. 3. Gutenberg galaxy 4. Electronic age > For the break between the time periods in each case the occurrence of a new > medium is responsible, the hand-writing terminates the oral phase, the > printing and the electricity revolutionizes afterwards culture and > society.Isabel morisse and Uwe lehmann, Marshall McLuhan Project, > Philosophy, The Gutenberg Galaxy Given the clue of "hand-writing" that terminates the "oral phase" one expects "printing" to terminate the manuscript phase and the "electrifying" to bring an end to the Gutenberg era. The strangeness of the use of "electrifying" is entirely appropriate in the McLuhan context of 1962. The Internet did not exist then. McLuhan himself suggests that the last section of his book might play the major role of being the first section: > The last section of the book, "The Galaxy Reconfigured," deals with the > clash of electric and mechanical, or print, technologies, and the reader may > find it the best prologue.McLuhan 1962, p.0 ===Oral tribe culture=== The oral tradition is not dead. In schools or at home or in the street, where children are taught to learn by heart, to memorize, nursery rhymes or poems or songs, then they can be said to participate in the oral tradition. The same is often true of the children belonging to religious groups who are taught to learn to say their prayers. In other words, childhood is one of the ages of man (in Shakespeare's sense) and is essentially an oral tribal culture. The transition from this oral culture takes place when the child is taught to read and write. Then the child enters the world of the manuscript culture. McLuhan identifies James Joyce's Finnegans Wake as a key that unlocks something of the nature of the oral culture."The fall of a once wallstrait oldparr is retaled early in bed and later on life down through all Christian minstrelsy." Joyce 1964, p.1" Of particular importance to the Oral Culture is the Art of memory. ====The village==== In commenting on the then Soviet Union,We have gone from the Soviet Union of McLuhan's day to the Establishment in the West of today. McLuhan puts "the advertising and PR community" on a par with them in so far that both "are concerned about access to the media and about results."gloss 18: "The interiorization of the technology of the phonetic alphabet translates man from the magical world of the ear to the neutral visual world." McLuhan 1962, p. 21 More remarkably he asserts that "Soviet concern with media results is natural to any oral society where interdependence is the result of instant interplay of cause and effect in the total structure. Such is the character of a village, or since electric media, such is also the character of global village." ===Manuscript culture=== The culture of the manuscript (literally hand-writing) is often referred to by McLuhan as scribal culture. > Medieval illumination, gloss, and sculpture alike were aspects of the art of > memory, central to scribal culture.McLuhan 1962, p.108 Associated with this epoch is the Art of memory (in Latin Ars Memoriae). ===Gutenberg galaxy=== Finnegans Wake: Joyce's Finnegans Wake (like Shakespeare's King Lear) is one of the texts which McLuhan frequently uses throughout the book to weave together the various strands of his argument. > Throughout Finnegans Wake Joyce specifies the Tower of Babel as the tower of > Sleep, that is, the tower of the witless assumption, or what Bacon calls the > reign of the Idols.McLuhan 1962, p.183 ====Movable type==== His episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic tribal humankind to the electronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention of movable type greatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan means phonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic/logogramic writing systems, like hieroglyphics or ideograms.) Print culture, ushered in by the Gutenberg press in the middle of the fifteenth century, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting with approval an observation on the nature of the printed word from Prints and Visual Communication by William Ivins, McLuhan remarks: > In this passage [Ivins] not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential > habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of > experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other > sensuous complexity to the background. [...] The technology and social > effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it > were, "formal" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists > by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that > gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist > outlook.Gutenberg Galaxy pp. 124–26. The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon in The Medium is the Massage) is that new technologies (like alphabets, printing presses, and even speech itself) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn affects social organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits ("visual homogenizing of experience"), which in turn affects social interactions ("fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a... specialist outlook"). According to McLuhan, the advent of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the Modern period in the Western world: individualism, democracy, Protestantism, capitalism and nationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of "segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification."Gutenberg Galaxy p. 154. ===Electronic age=== ====The global village==== In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called "electronic interdependence": when electronic media would replace visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind will move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a "tribal base." McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is the global village.Wyndham Lewis's America and Cosmic Man (1948) and James Joyce's Finnegans Wake are sometimes credited as the source of the phrase, but neither used the words "global village" specifically as such. According to McLuhan's son Eric McLuhan, his father, a Wake scholar and a close friend of Lewis, likely discussed the concept with Lewis during their association, but there is no evidence that he got the idea or the phrasing from either; McLuhan is generally credited as having coined the term. The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations in The Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan himself was interested in exploring effects, not making value judgments: > Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a > computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science > fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. > So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of > panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total > interdependence, and superimposed co-existence. [...] Terror is the normal > state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the > time. [...] In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of > sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to > accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the > fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture.Gutenberg Galaxy p. 32. Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has no per se moral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society's self-conception and realization: > Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also > taking a moral stand on technological grounds? [...] Print is the extreme > phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the > first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest > intensity of definition. Thus print carries the individuating power of the > phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print > is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify this visual > technology by an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. > To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping > off fingers. "But", someone says, "we didn't know it would happen." Yet even > witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; > and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our > technologies. It would be good for morality.Gutenberg Galaxy p. 158. The moral valence of technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter seventeenth century with the modern concern for the "end of the book." If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that "there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies." Though the World Wide Web was invented thirty years after The Gutenberg Galaxy was published, McLuhan may have coined and certainly popularized the usage of the term "surfing" to refer to rapid, irregular and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements like "Heidegger surf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as Descartes rode the mechanical wave." Paul Levinson's 1999 book Digital McLuhan explores the ways that McLuhan's work can be better understood through the lens of the digital revolution. Book has been translated into Japanese, Chinese, Croatian, Romanian, and Korean. Later, Bill Stewart's 2007 "Living Internet" website describes how McLuhan's "insights made the concept of a global village, interconnected by an electronic nervous system, part of our popular culture well before it actually happened." McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong's Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to write The Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book in America.America 107 (15 September 1962): 743, 747. However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy as "a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond."New Catholic Encyclopedia 8 (1967): 838. McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy won Canada's highest literary award, the Governor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner, Northrop Frye.Gordon, p. 109. ==See also== *Media ecology *Technological determinism ==Notes and references== ==Further reading== * * * ==External links== * University of Toronto, Marshall McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology {2008-08-07} * Isabel Morisse and Uwe Lehman, Marshall McLuhan Project {2008-08-07} * Isabel Morisse and Uwe Lehman, Marshall McLuhan Project, philosophy, The Gutenberg Galaxy, 4 epochs of history {2008-08-07} * John Sutherland, "Feel Free to browse", The Guardian, Saturday 12 August 2006 {2008-08-08} Category:1962 non-fiction books Category:Books about the media Category:Books in philosophy of technology Category:Canadian non-fiction books Category:English-language books Category:Finnegans Wake Category:History books about printing Category:Technology in society Category:University of Toronto Press books Category:Works by Marshall McLuhan
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Armenia participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 in Turin, Italy, with the song "Snap" performed by Rosa Linn. The internal selection of Rosa Linn as the Armenian artist in the 2022 contest was announced by the Armenian broadcaster Public Television of Armenia (AMPTV) on 11 March 2022, while the song "Snap" was later presented to the public on 19 March 2022. Armenia was drawn to compete in the first semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest which took place on 10 May 2022. Performing as the closing entry during the show in position 17, "Snap" was announced among the top 10 entries of the first semi- final and therefore qualified to compete in the final on 14 May. It was later revealed that Armenia placed fifth out of the 17 participating countries in the semi-final with 187 points. In the final, Armenia performed in position 8 and placed twentieth out of the 25 participating countries, scoring 61 points. == Background == Prior to the 2022 contest, Armenia has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest thirteen times since its first entry in . Its highest placing in the contest, to this point, has been fourth place, which the nation achieved on two occasions: in with the song "" performed by Sirusho and in with the song "Not Alone" performed by Aram Mp3. Armenia had, to this point, failed to qualify to the final on three occasions, in , and , the latter with the song "Walking Out" performed by Srbuk. The nation briefly withdrew from the contest on two occasions: in due to long-standing tensions with then-host country Azerbaijan, and in due to social and political crises in the aftermath of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. The Armenian national broadcaster, Public Television of Armenia (AMPTV), broadcasts the event within Armenia and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. Following their one- year absence, AMPTV confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2022 Eurovision Song Contest on 20 October 2021. Armenia has used various methods to select the Armenian entry in the past, such as internal selections and a live televised national final to choose the performer, song or both to compete at Eurovision. Between and and in 2019, the broadcaster internally selected both the artist and the song, while the national final was organized in , 2018 and . The broadcaster opted to internally select the 2022 Armenian entry. == Before Eurovision == === Internal selection === The Armenian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 was internally selected by the AMPTV together with local and international focus groups which included music professionals and Eurovision fans. Among acts rumoured by several Armenian media sites to be considered by the broadcaster were Athena Manoukian, Kamil Show, Rosa Linn and Saro Gevorgyan, the latter who submitted the song "Wicked Stranger" and was shortlisted along with Linn. Reports in February 2022 that Rosa Linn had been selected was denied by AMPTV, with the broadcaster's Head of Public Relations and Digital Communication Anna Ohanyan stating that no decision had been made yet and that the name of the artist would be announced in March 2022. On 11 March 2022, Rosa Linn with the song "Snap", written and composed by Linn herself together with Larzz Principato, Jeremy Dusoulet, Allie Crystal, Tamar Kaprelian and Courtney Harrell, was announced as the Armenian entry. Tamar Kaprelian previously represented Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 as part of the group Genealogy. Rosa Linn filmed the official video for the song prior to the presentation, which was directed by Aramayis Hayrapetyan. The song and video were presented to the public on 19 March 2022. === Promotion === Rosa Linn made appearances across Europe to promote "Snap" as the Armenian Eurovision entry. On 7 April, Linn performed during the Israel Calling event held at the Menora Mivtachim Arena in Tel Aviv, Israel. On 9 April, Linn performed during the Eurovision in Concert event which was held at the AFAS Live venue in Amsterdam, Netherlands and hosted by Cornald Maas and Edsilia Rombley. In addition to her international appearances, Rosa Linn recorded her 'live-on-tape' performance in Sofia, Bulgaria on 19 March. This would have been used in the event that she was unable to travel to Turin, or subjected to quarantine on arrival. In the run-up to the contest, AMPTV launched the promotional series Destination Eurovision that introduced and focused on Rosa Linn's journey to Turin, and covered the preparations for her Eurovision performance. == At Eurovision == According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 25 January 2022, an allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Armenia was placed into the first semi-final, which was held on 10 May 2022, and was scheduled to perform in the second half of the show. Once all the competing songs for the 2022 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Armenia was set to perform in position 17, following the entry from . Immediately after the close of the first semi-final, a press conference was held in which each of the artists drew the half of the final of which they would perform in. Armenia was drawn into the first half of the final and was later selected by the EBU to perform in position number 8, following the entry from and before the entry from . In Armenia, all shows were broadcast on Armenia 1 and on Public Radio of Armenia, with commentary by Garik Papoyan and . The Armenian spokesperson, who announced the top 12-point score awarded by the Armenian jury during the final, was Garik Papoyan. === Semi-final === Rosa Linn took part in technical rehearsals on 1 and 5 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May. This included the jury show on 9 May where the professional juries of each country watched and voted on the competing entries. The Armenian performance featured Rosa Linn alone on stage in a house-like structure made out of paper, representing the overflow of emotions Linn felt when writing the song. Over the course of the performance, Rosa Linn tore down several parts of the walls to reveal statements about the song. At the climax of the performance, the house rotated and Linn tore down an entire circle of the wall to face the audience in an intimate performance. The majority of the Armenian performance was warmly lit with golden LED lights on stage. Armenia's prop was the second largest of the Eurovision Song Contest 2022, after Sam Ryder from the , which was also directed by Dan Shipton and Marvin Dietmann. At the end of the show, Armenia was announced as having finished in the top 10 and subsequently qualifying for the grand final. This marked the first qualification to the final for Armenia since 2017. It was later revealed that the Armenia placed fifth in the semi-final, receiving a total of 187 points: 105 points from the televoting and 82 points from the juries. ===Final=== Shortly after the first semi-final, a winners' press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries. As part of this press conference, the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in. This draw was done in the order the countries appeared in the semi-final running order. Armenia was drawn to compete in the first half. Following this draw, the shows' producers decided upon the running order of the final, as they had done for the semi-finals. Armenia was subsequently placed to perform in position number 8, following the entry from and before the entry from . Rosa Linn once again took part in dress rehearsals on 13 and 14 May before the final, including the jury final where the professional juries cast their final votes before the live show. Linn performed a repeat of their semi-final performance during the final on 14 May. Armenia placed 20th in the final, scoring 61 points: 21 points from the televoting and 40 points from the juries. This marked Armenia's worst result in a Eurovision final since the country's debut in 2006. === Voting === Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Armenia in the first semi-final and in the final. Voting during the three shows involved each country awarding two sets of points from 1-8, 10 and 12: one from their professional jury and the other from televoting. The exact composition of the professional jury, and the results of each country's jury and televoting were released after the final; the individual results from each jury member were also released in an anonymised form. The Armenian jury consisted of Vika Martirosyan, Arshaluys Harutyunyan, Erik Karapetyan, Lilit Navarsardyan, and Srbuk, the latter of whom represented Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019. In the first semi-final, Armenia placed 5th with 187 points, receiving maximum twelve points in the jury vote from and twelve points in the televote from . This marked the first Armenian qualification to the final since 2017. In the final, Armenia placed 20th with 61 points. Over the course of the contest, Armenia awarded its 12 points to (jury) and (televote) in the first semi-final, and to (jury) and (televote) in the final. ====Points awarded to Armenia==== Score Televote Jury 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point Score Televote Jury 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point ====Points awarded by Armenia==== Score Televote Jury 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point Score Televote Jury 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point ====Detailed voting results==== The following members comprised the Armenian jury: * Vika Martirosyan – choreographer, dancer * Arshaluys Harutyunyan – film & theater director * Erik Karapetyan – Singer-songwriter * Lilit Navarsardyan – Composer, wrote the Armenian Eurovision entry in 2016 * Srbuk – singer, represented Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019 Draw Country Jury Televote Juror 1 Juror 2 Juror 3 Juror 4 Juror 5 Rank Points Rank Points 01 12 10 16 12 15 16 9 2 02 5 16 15 8 14 9 2 16 03 10 15 14 13 10 14 4 7 04 6 8 13 5 8 6 5 10 1 05 11 14 12 11 9 13 13 06 4 4 4 2 5 4 7 1 12 07 13 6 11 14 13 12 14 08 2 3 1 4 1 1 12 7 4 09 7 12 10 10 12 10 1 5 6 10 1 5 3 1 3 2 10 3 8 11 15 7 9 6 6 7 4 11 12 16 11 8 15 16 15 15 13 14 13 7 9 11 11 6 5 14 9 9 6 16 7 8 3 12 15 3 1 5 3 2 3 8 2 10 16 8 2 2 7 4 5 6 8 3 17 Draw Country Jury Televote Juror 1 Juror 2 Juror 3 Juror 4 Juror 5 Rank Points Rank Points 01 12 9 15 13 23 14 22 02 21 19 9 12 10 12 19 03 1 13 8 3 1 3 8 7 4 04 22 16 21 21 19 23 11 05 18 15 13 20 11 16 20 06 9 3 4 6 9 4 7 12 07 13 18 10 7 16 11 17 08 09 2 1 2 2 3 2 10 14 10 3 2 1 1 2 1 12 3 8 11 7 7 6 4 7 7 4 15 12 6 11 5 5 4 5 6 2 10 13 23 12 16 18 12 18 13 14 20 14 22 19 14 20 9 2 15 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 16 19 10 20 22 13 17 16 17 14 6 11 8 6 9 2 8 3 18 16 17 23 17 22 21 23 19 15 8 14 9 8 10 1 6 5 20 4 4 3 14 18 6 5 4 7 21 17 20 17 23 21 22 21 22 8 22 19 16 15 15 10 1 23 11 23 18 15 20 19 18 24 10 21 12 10 17 13 5 6 25 5 5 7 11 5 8 3 1 12 == After Eurovision == Following the contest, "Snap" went viral on video sharing service TikTok, featuring in almost 360,000 clips on the service by July 2022. The song reached the top of the charts in the Flanders region of Belgium, and the top ten in Germany, Austria, Netherlands, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. It also reached the charts in 23 other music markets, including peaking at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart and number 67 on the US Billboard Hot 100, the latter making "Snap" the second Eurovision entry of the 21st century to enter the chart, after "Arcade" by Duncan Laurence, winner of the for the . == References == 2022 Category:Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 Eurovision
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In topology and related areas of mathematics, a topological property or topological invariant is a property of a topological space that is invariant under homeomorphisms. Alternatively, a topological property is a proper class of topological spaces which is closed under homeomorphisms. That is, a property of spaces is a topological property if whenever a space X possesses that property every space homeomorphic to X possesses that property. Informally, a topological property is a property of the space that can be expressed using open sets. A common problem in topology is to decide whether two topological spaces are homeomorphic or not. To prove that two spaces are not homeomorphic, it is sufficient to find a topological property which is not shared by them. ==Properties of topological properties== A property P is: * Hereditary, if for every topological space (X, \mathcal{T}) and subset S \subseteq X, the subspace \left(S, \mathcal{T}|_S\right) has property P. * Weakly hereditary, if for every topological space (X, \mathcal{T}) and closed subset S \subseteq X, the subspace \left(S, \mathcal{T}|_S\right) has property P. == Common topological properties == === Cardinal functions === * The cardinality |X| of the space X. * The cardinality \vertτ(X)\vert of the topology (the set of open subsets) of the space X. * Weight w(X), the least cardinality of a basis of the topology of the space X. * Density d(X), the least cardinality of a subset of X whose closure is X. === Separation === Note that some of these terms are defined differently in older mathematical literature; see history of the separation axioms. * T0 or Kolmogorov. A space is Kolmogorov if for every pair of distinct points x and y in the space, there is at least either an open set containing x but not y, or an open set containing y but not x. * T1 or Fréchet. A space is Fréchet if for every pair of distinct points x and y in the space, there is an open set containing x but not y. (Compare with T0; here, we are allowed to specify which point will be contained in the open set.) Equivalently, a space is T1 if all its singletons are closed. T1 spaces are always T0. * Sober. A space is sober if every irreducible closed set C has a unique generic point p. In other words, if C is not the (possibly nondisjoint) union of two smaller closed non-empty subsets, then there is a p such that the closure of {p} equals C, and p is the only point with this property. * T2 or Hausdorff. A space is Hausdorff if every two distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods. T2 spaces are always T1. * T2½ or Urysohn. A space is Urysohn if every two distinct points have disjoint closed neighbourhoods. T2½ spaces are always T2. * Completely T2 or completely Hausdorff. A space is completely T2 if every two distinct points are separated by a function. Every completely Hausdorff space is Urysohn. * Regular. A space is regular if whenever C is a closed set and p is a point not in C, then C and p have disjoint neighbourhoods. * T3 or Regular Hausdorff. A space is regular Hausdorff if it is a regular T0 space. (A regular space is Hausdorff if and only if it is T0, so the terminology is consistent.) * Completely regular. A space is completely regular if whenever C is a closed set and p is a point not in C, then C and {p} are separated by a function. * T3½, Tychonoff, Completely regular Hausdorff or Completely T3. A Tychonoff space is a completely regular T0 space. (A completely regular space is Hausdorff if and only if it is T0, so the terminology is consistent.) Tychonoff spaces are always regular Hausdorff. * Normal. A space is normal if any two disjoint closed sets have disjoint neighbourhoods. Normal spaces admit partitions of unity. * T4 or Normal Hausdorff. A normal space is Hausdorff if and only if it is T1. Normal Hausdorff spaces are always Tychonoff. * Completely normal. A space is completely normal if any two separated sets have disjoint neighbourhoods. * T5 or Completely normal Hausdorff. A completely normal space is Hausdorff if and only if it is T1. Completely normal Hausdorff spaces are always normal Hausdorff. * Perfectly normal. A space is perfectly normal if any two disjoint closed sets are precisely separated by a function. A perfectly normal space must also be completely normal. * T6 or Perfectly normal Hausdorff, or perfectly T4. A space is perfectly normal Hausdorff, if it is both perfectly normal and T1. A perfectly normal Hausdorff space must also be completely normal Hausdorff. * Discrete space. A space is discrete if all of its points are completely isolated, i.e. if any subset is open. * Number of isolated points. The number of isolated points of a topological space. === Countability conditions === * Separable. A space is separable if it has a countable dense subset. * First-countable. A space is first-countable if every point has a countable local base. * Second-countable. A space is second-countable if it has a countable base for its topology. Second-countable spaces are always separable, first-countable and Lindelöf. === Connectedness === * Connected. A space is connected if it is not the union of a pair of disjoint non-empty open sets. Equivalently, a space is connected if the only clopen sets are the empty set and itself. * Locally connected. A space is locally connected if every point has a local base consisting of connected sets. * Totally disconnected. A space is totally disconnected if it has no connected subset with more than one point. * Path-connected. A space X is path-connected if for every two points x, y in X, there is a path p from x to y, i.e., a continuous map p: [0,1] → X with p(0) = x and p(1) = y. Path-connected spaces are always connected. * Locally path-connected. A space is locally path-connected if every point has a local base consisting of path-connected sets. A locally path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected. * Arc-connected. A space X is arc-connected if for every two points x, y in X, there is an arc f from x to y, i.e., an injective continuous map f: [0,1] → X with p(0) = x and p(1) = y. Arc-connected spaces are path-connected. * Simply connected. A space X is simply connected if it is path-connected and every continuous map f: S1 → X is homotopic to a constant map. *Locally simply connected. A space X is locally simply connected if every point x in X has a local base of neighborhoods U that is simply connected. *Semi-locally simply connected. A space X is semi- locally simply connected if every point has a local base of neighborhoods U such that every loop in U is contractible in X. Semi-local simple connectivity, a strictly weaker condition than local simple connectivity, is a necessary condition for the existence of a universal cover. * Contractible. A space X is contractible if the identity map on X is homotopic to a constant map. Contractible spaces are always simply connected. * Hyperconnected. A space is hyperconnected if no two non-empty open sets are disjoint. Every hyperconnected space is connected. * Ultraconnected. A space is ultraconnected if no two non-empty closed sets are disjoint. Every ultraconnected space is path-connected. * Indiscrete or trivial. A space is indiscrete if the only open sets are the empty set and itself. Such a space is said to have the trivial topology. === Compactness === * Compact. A space is compact if every open cover has a finite subcover. Some authors call these spaces quasicompact and reserve compact for Hausdorff spaces where every open cover has finite subcover. Compact spaces are always Lindelöf and paracompact. Compact Hausdorff spaces are therefore normal. * Sequentially compact. A space is sequentially compact if every sequence has a convergent subsequence. * Countably compact. A space is countably compact if every countable open cover has a finite subcover. * Pseudocompact. A space is pseudocompact if every continuous real-valued function on the space is bounded. * σ-compact. A space is σ-compact if it is the union of countably many compact subsets. * Lindelöf. A space is Lindelöf if every open cover has a countable subcover. * Paracompact. A space is paracompact if every open cover has an open locally finite refinement. Paracompact Hausdorff spaces are normal. * Locally compact. A space is locally compact if every point has a local base consisting of compact neighbourhoods. Slightly different definitions are also used. Locally compact Hausdorff spaces are always Tychonoff. * Ultraconnected compact. In an ultra-connected compact space X every open cover must contain X itself. Non- empty ultra-connected compact spaces have a largest proper open subset called a monolith. === Metrizability === * Metrizable. A space is metrizable if it is homeomorphic to a metric space. Metrizable spaces are always Hausdorff and paracompact (and hence normal and Tychonoff), and first-countable. Moreover, a topological space (X,T) is said to be metrizable if there exists a metric for X such that the metric topology T(d) is identical with the topology T. * Polish. A space is called Polish if it is metrizable with a separable and complete metric. * Locally metrizable. A space is locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. === Miscellaneous === * Baire space. A space X is a Baire space if it is not meagre in itself. Equivalently, X is a Baire space if the intersection of countably many dense open sets is dense. * Door space. A topological space is a door space if every subset is open or closed (or both). * Topological Homogeneity. A space X is (topologically) homogeneous if for every x and y in X there is a homeomorphism f : X \to X such that f(x) = y. Intuitively speaking, this means that the space looks the same at every point. All topological groups are homogeneous. * Finitely generated or Alexandrov. A space X is Alexandrov if arbitrary intersections of open sets in X are open, or equivalently if arbitrary unions of closed sets are closed. These are precisely the finitely generated members of the category of topological spaces and continuous maps. * Zero-dimensional. A space is zero-dimensional if it has a base of clopen sets. These are precisely the spaces with a small inductive dimension of 0. * Almost discrete. A space is almost discrete if every open set is closed (hence clopen). The almost discrete spaces are precisely the finitely generated zero-dimensional spaces. * Boolean. A space is Boolean if it is zero-dimensional, compact and Hausdorff (equivalently, totally disconnected, compact and Hausdorff). These are precisely the spaces that are homeomorphic to the Stone spaces of Boolean algebras. * Reidemeister torsion * \kappa-resolvable. A space is said to be κ-resolvable (respectively: almost κ-resolvable) if it contains κ dense sets that are pairwise disjoint (respectively: almost disjoint over the ideal of nowhere dense subsets). If the space is not \kappa-resolvable then it is called \kappa-irresolvable. * Maximally resolvable. Space X is maximally resolvable if it is \Delta(X)-resolvable, where \Delta(X) = \min\\{|G| : G eq \varnothing, G\mbox{ is open}\\}. Number \Delta(X) is called dispersion character of X. * Strongly discrete. Set D is strongly discrete subset of the space X if the points in D may be separated by pairwise disjoint neighborhoods. Space X is said to be strongly discrete if every non-isolated point of X is the accumulation point of some strongly discrete set. == Non- topological properties == There are many examples of properties of metric spaces, etc, which are not topological properties. To show a property P is not topological, it is sufficient to find two homeomorphic topological spaces X \cong Y such that X has P, but Y does not have P. For example, the metric space properties of boundedness and completeness are not topological properties. Let X = \R and Y = (-\tfrac{\pi}{2},\tfrac{\pi}{2}) be metric spaces with the standard metric. Then, X \cong Y via the homeomorphism \operatorname{arctan}\colon X \to Y. However, X is complete but not bounded, while Y is bounded but not complete. ==See also== * * * * * * Homology and cohomology * Homotopy group and Cohomotopy group * * * * * * == Citations == == References == * * [2] Simon Moulieras, Maciej Lewenstein and Graciana Puentes, Entanglement engineering and topological protection by discrete-time quantum walks, Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics 46 (10), 104005 (2013). https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0953-4075/46/10/104005/pdf Category:Homeomorphisms ru:Топологический инвариант
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The following is a list of notable deaths in July 2016. Entries for each day are listed _alphabetically_ by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: *Name, age, country of citizenship and reason for notability, established cause of death, reference. ==July 2016== ===1=== *Yves Bonnefoy, 93, French poet.French poet Yves Bonnefoy dies *Tom Boulton, 90, English anaesthetist.Dr Thomas Boulton, pioneering anaesthetist – obituary *Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere, 85, Indian writer. *Mollie Evans, 94, British antique dealer.Mollie Evans obituary *Robin Hardy, 86, British film director (The Wicker Man).The Wicker Man director Robin Hardy dies *Sir Malcolm Macnaughton, 91, Scottish obstetrician and gynaecologist.Obituary – Sir Malcolm Campbell Macnaughton, professor of obstetrics and campaigner on fertility *Werner Meng, 68, German jurist, cancer.Prof. Werner Meng passed away *Mary Mostert, 87, American author.Mary Mostert *Jerzy Patoła, 70, Polish footballer.In memory of Jerzy Patola April 19, 1946 – July 1, 2016 *Imogen Skirving, 78, British hotelier, traffic collision.Langar Hall owner Imogen Skirving killed in Menorca crash *Frank Tuck, 84, Australian football player (Collingwood).Magpies mourn former skipper Frank Tuck ===2=== *Caroline Aherne, 52, English comedian, actress and writer (The Royle Family, The Mrs Merton Show, The Fast Show), throat cancer.Caroline Aherne: Royle Family writer and actress dies aged 52 *Roscoe Brown, 94, American World War II veteran, member of the Tuskegee Airmen.World War II Hero Dr. Roscoe C. Brown Dies at 94 *Kyle Calloway, 29, American football player (Buffalo Bills), struck by train.Former Bills OL Calloway Dies at 29 After Being Struck by Train *Chen Jinhua, 87, Chinese politician, Chairman of the State Planning Commission (1993–1998).Former senior official Chen Jinhua dies at 87 *Cherokee Run, 26, American thoroughbred racehorse and sire, euthanised.Cherokee Run Euthanized Due to Old Age *Maciej Szymon Cieśla, 27, Polish graphic designer, cancer.The #WYD2016 volunteer who found his faith again but never made it to the festivities *Michael Cimino, 77, American screenwriter and director (The Deer Hunter, Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, Heaven's Gate).Michael Cimino, Oscar-Winning Director of 'The Deer Hunter,' Dies at 77 *Roger Dumas, 84, French comedian and actor (That Man from Rio, Le Concert, The First Day of the Rest of Your Life).The actor Roger Dumas died *Horacio Etchegoyen, 97, Argentine psychoanalyst.Dr. R. Horacio Etchegoyen 1919 – 2016 *Rudolf E. Kálmán, 86, Hungarian-born American electrical engineer (Kalman filter).Remembering Rudolf E. Kalman (1930–2016) *Clementia Killewald, 62, German Benedictine nun.Äbtissin Clementia Killewald OSB am 2. Juli heimgegangen – R.i.p. *Euan Lloyd, 92, British film producer (The Wild Geese, The Sea Wolves).Sir Roger Moore pays tribute to The Wild Geese producer Euan Lloyd *Patrick Manning, 69, Trinidadian politician, Prime Minister (1991–1995, 2001–2010), acute myeloid leukemia.Former Trinidad prime minister Patrick Manning dies *Alphie McCourt, 75, Irish-American writer.Writer Alphie McCourt dies aged 75 *Mary A. McClure, 77, American politician, small-cell carcinoma.Mary McClure Bibby *Carlos Morocho Hernández, 76, Venezuelan WBA and WBC super lightweight champion boxer (1965–1966).Carlos "Morocho" Hernandez has passed *Lalit Mohan Nath, 80, Bangladeshi nuclear physicist. *Harold "H" Nelson, 88, British cycling coach.Harold Nelson MBE *Robert Nye, 77, British poet.Poet and award-winning Falstaff novelist Robert Nye dies aged 77 *Michel Rocard, 85, French politician, Prime Minister (1988–1991).French ex-PM Michel Rocard dies aged 85 *Flavio Romero de Velasco, 90, Mexican lawyer and politician, Governor of Jalisco (1977–1983).Fallece ex gobernador Flavio Romero *Irineu Roque Scherer, 65, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Garanhuns (1998–2007) and Joinville (since 2007).Bishop Irineu Roque Scherer *Kapil Seth, 36, Indian cricketer, liver failure.Former MP cricketer Kapil Seth dies aged 36 *Jack C. Taylor, 94, American billionaire businessman, founder of Enterprise Rent-A-Car.Enterprise holding founder Jack Taylor dies *Clifford Vaughs, 79, American civil rights activist, filmmaker and motorcycle builder (Easy Rider).Unsung Easy Rider Cliff Vaughs Passes Away *Wilfred D. Webb, 95, American politician.Dr. Wilfred Dwight Webb *Elie Wiesel, 87, Romanian-born American writer (Night), political activist and Holocaust survivor, Nobel Laureate (1986).Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and renowned Holocaust survivor, dies at 87 ===3=== *Arturo, 31, American-born Argentine polar bear.'Depressed' Argentina polar bear Arturo dies at 30 *Michael Beaumont, 22nd Seigneur of Sark, 88, British aristocrat, Seigneur of Sark (since 1974).Seneschal of Sark sends condolences to Beaumont family on behalf of islanders *João José Bracony, 97, Brazilian Olympic sailor (1948).Ex-atleta Olímpico que conduziu a tocha morre em Vila Velha *Gilbert Bulawan, 29, Filipino basketball player (Blackwater Elite), heart attack.Blackwater's Bulawan dies of heart attack *Lou Fontinato, 84, Canadian ice hockey player (New York Rangers, Montreal Canadiens).Lou Fontinato known for soft heart, cement fists *Jimmy Frizzell, 79, Scottish football player and manager. *Richard Grayson, 75, American composer and pianist.Richard Grayson, Music Professor Emeritus, Dies *Tomohiko Kira, 56, Japanese guitarist and composer.Tomohiko Kira Obituary *John Middleton, 59, British footballer (Derby County, Nottingham Forest).Former Derby County goalkeeper John Middleton has died *Uma Shankar Mishra, 93, Indian politician.Veteran Congress leader Uma Shankar Misra passes away *Noel Neill, 95, American actress (Superman).Noel Neill, actress who played Lois Lane, dead at 95 *Mauricio Walerstein, 71, Mexican film director (Cuando quiero llorar no lloro, Españolas en París).Mauricio Walerstein, a Key Figure in Venezuelan Cinema, Dies *Markus Werner, 71, Swiss writer (Zündels Abgang).Markus Werner (1944–2016) *Grant Wilmot, 59, Australian football player, heart attack.Vale: Grant Wilmot ===4=== *Romesh Chandra, 97, Indian activist and news editor (Communist Party of India), President of the World Peace Council (1977–1990).CPI Leader Romesh Chandra Dead *William Hawkins, 76, Canadian musician and poet.Legendary Ottawa poet William Hawkins dies at age 76 *Abbas Kiarostami, 76, Iranian film director and screenwriter (Close-Up, Taste of Cherry, Certified Copy), gastrointestinal cancer.Abbas Kiarostami, Palme d'Or- winning Iranian film-maker, dies aged 76 *Ben Koufie, 84, Ghanaian football player, manager and administrator.Ben Koufie dies aged 84 *Abner Mikva, 90, American politician and judge, member of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois's 2nd and 10th congressional districts (1969–1973, 1975–1979), U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1979–1994), complications from bladder cancer.Chicago political icon Abner Mikva dies at 90 *Rondon Pacheco, 96, Brazilian politician, Governor of Minas Gerais (1971–1975), pneumonia.Rondon Pacheco morre em Uberlândia aos 96 anos *Geoffrey Shovelton, 80, English opera singer and illustrator.Geoffrey Richard Shovelton *Elizabeth Spillius, 92, Canadian psychoanalyst.Elizabeth Spillius obituary *Steve Tupper, 75, Canadian Olympic sailor (1968).Eight Bells: Steven Tupper ===5=== *Sayed Hussein Anwari, 60, Afghan politician, MP (since 2005), Governor of Herat Province (2005–2009), cancer.Top Afghan Jihadi leader Syed Hussain Anwari dies from cancer in India *William L. Armstrong, 79, American politician, United States Senator (1979-1991) and member of the United States House of Representatives from Colorado's 5th congressional district (1973–1979), cancer. *Hamp Atkinson, 82, American politician, member of the Texas House of Representatives (1975-1983).Hamp Atkinson *Rosaria Conte, 64, Italian social scientist.Rosaria Conte (1952–2016) *Nine Culliford, 86, Belgian cartoonist (The Smurfs).Nine Culliford, The Woman Who Made The Smurfs Blue, Dies At 86 *Beatrice de Cardi, 102, British archaeologist, complications from a fall. *Alirio Díaz, 92, Venezuelan classical guitarist and composer.Venezuelan Guitar Titan Alirio Díaz Dies at 92—An Appreciation *Ronald Finley, 75, American Olympic wrestler. *Mick Finucane, 93, Irish Gaelic football player (Kerry). *John Baillie-Hamilton, 13th Earl of Haddington, 74, British aristocrat.Haddington – Deaths Announcements *Doug Hargreaves, 84, Canadian football coach. *Kari Hautala, 43, Finnish basketball player (Torpan Pojat), heart attack.ToPon entinen mestaripelaaja kuoli 43-vuotiaana *David Jones, 66, British politician, member of the States of Guernsey (since 2000), cancer. *Raymond Lombard, 97, Belgian Olympian. *John Madey, 72, American physicist.In Memoriam: Physicist and inventor John Madey *Zdeněk Neubauer, 74, Czech philosopher and biologist.Zemřel Havlův přítel, biolog a filozof Zdeněk Neubauer *Gladys Nordenstrom, 92, American composer. *Phonsie O'Brien, 86, Irish jockey and racehorse trainer.Phonsie O'Brien dies peacefully at home *Rex Pickering, 79, New Zealand rugby union player (Waikato, national team). *Cory Taylor, 61, Australian writer, melanoma and brain cancer. *Brian White, 59, British politician, MP (1997–2005), oesophageal cancer. *Victor P. Whittaker, 97, British biochemist.Whittaker *Valentino Zeichen, 78, Italian poet and author.È morto Valentino Zeichen, un poeta dandy e paradossale ===6=== *Bukky Ajayi, 82, Nigerian actress (Mother of George).Veteran actress Bukky Ajayi dies at 82 *Marian Bergeson, 90, American politician, member of the California Senate (1984–1995).Marian Bergeson Dies *Larry Bock, 56, American investor, cancer.Larry Bock dies at 56; biotech entrepreneur launched science festivals *Michel Coloni, 88, French Roman Catholic prelate, Archbishop of Dijon (1989–2004).Archbishop Michel Louis Coloni † *Matthew Evans, Baron Evans of Temple Guiting, 74, British publisher (Faber).Publisher Matthew Evans, former Faber and Faber boss, dies aged 74 *Armando León Bejarano, 100, Mexican politician, Governor of Morelos (1976–1982).Muere Armando León Bejarano, ex gobernador de Morelos *Norman MacAuley, 98, Canadian politician.Norman MacAuley *Shaw McCutcheon, 94, American editorial cartoonist.Former longtime SR editorial cartoonist Shaw McCutcheon dies at 94 *John McMartin, 86, American actor (Sweet Charity, Kinsey, Law & Order), cancer.Broadway Actor John McMartin Dies at 86 *Duma Mdutyana, 55, South African army officer.Head of SANDF joint operations, Duma Mdutyana dies *Mike Moore, 59, American football player (Middle Tennessee State Blue Raiders, Houston Oilers).Hall of Fame member Moore passes away *Turgay Şeren, 84, Turkish footballer (Galatasaray).Turkey's legendary goalkeeper Turgay Şeren dies at age 84 *Umaru Shinkafi, 79, Nigerian politician and intelligence chief.Breaking: Former presidential aspirant, Umaru Shinkafi is dead *Danny Smythe, 67, American drummer (The Box Tops).Online Obituaries Danny Smythe ===7=== *Sally Beauman, 71, British writer (Rebecca's Tale, The Landscape of Love), pneumonia.Sally Beauman, Author Whose Advance Set a Record, Dies at 71 *Bruno Bonaldi, 71, Italian ski mountaineer, world champion (1975).Bruno Bonaldi ist tot *Rokusuke Ei, 83, Japanese author and lyricist ("Sukiyaki").Japanese lyricist Rokusuke Ei dies *James Gilbert, 93, Scottish television producer (The Two Ronnies, Last of the Summer Wine).Producer behind The Two Ronnies and BBC comedy classics dies *Leonard Lee, 77, Canadian businessman (Lee Valley Tools), complications from vascular dementia.Lee Valley Tools founder Leonard Lee dies *Cinna Lomnitz, 90, German-born Chilean-Mexican geophysicist.Muere Cinna Lomnitz, el geofísico más importante de AL *Tom Marr, 73, American radio host (WCBM), complications from a stroke.Baltimore Radio Mainstay Tom Marr Has Died *Miisa, 46, Finnish Eurodance artist, cancer.90-luvun suosikkilaulaja Miisa menehtyi 46-vuotiaana *John O'Rourke, 71, English footballer (Middlesbrough, Ipswich Town), cancer.Tribute to ex-Boro striker John O'Rourke who passes away, aged 71 *Paddy Phelan, 78, English cricketer (Essex).Essex Cricket Sad To Announce Death Of Paddy Phelan *Anita Reeves, 68, Irish actress (Dancing at Lughnasa, Little Gem), cancer.Theatre actress Anita Reeves dies aged 67 *Wolfram Siebeck, 87, German journalist and food critic.Germany's culinary conscience, Wolfram Siebeck, dies aged 87 *Gaurav Tiwari, 31, Indian actor and paranormal investigator, asphyxiation.Paranormal society founder dies mysteriously in Dwarka home *Bill Williams, 90, Australian football player.In Memoriam: Billy Williams ===8=== *Javed Akhtar, 75, Pakistani cricketer and umpire.Former Pakistan Test player and umpire Javed Akhtar dies *Sulaiman Damit, 75, Bruneian army general.Former RBAF commander passes away *Frank Dickens, 84, British cartoonist (Bristow).Frank Dickens obituary *Abdul Sattar Edhi, 88, Pakistani philanthropist, social activist, ascetic and humanitarian, founder of the Edhi Foundation.Celebrated humanitarian Abdul Sattar Edhi passes away in Karachi *Vittorio Goretti, 77, Italian astronomer.Vittorio Goretti (1939-2016) *Hal Hudson, 89, American baseball player (St. Louis Browns, Chicago White Sox).Hal Hudson Obituary *Gurli Vibe Jensen, 91, Danish missionary, priest and writer.Dødsfald: Fhv. sognepræst Gurli Vibe Jensen (91) *Harold A. Linstone, 92, German-born American mathematician and futurist.Remembering Dr. Harold A. Linstone *Turk Lown, 92, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Cincinnati Reds), leukemia.Turk Lown Obituary *William Lucas, 91, British actor (The Adventures of Black Beauty).William Lucas obituary *Cicely Mayhew, 92, British diplomat.Lady Mayhew *Jackie McInally, 76, Scottish footballer (Kilmarnock, Motherwell, Hamilton Academical).Jackie McInally 21/11/1936 – 08/07/2016 *William H. McNeill, 98, Canadian-American historian and author.William H. McNeill, Pioneering World Historian, 1917–2016 *Robert De Middeleir, 77, Belgian cyclist.Cycling Archives *Shettima Ali Monguno, 90, Nigerian politician.Former Nigeria Minister of Petroleum, Shettima Ali Monguno, dies at 95 *Katsuhiro Nakagawa, 74, Japanese executive, vice chairman of Toyota (2001-2009).中川勝弘さん死去 元トヨタ自動車副会長 *Jeffrey Nape, 51–52, Papua New Guinean politician, acting Governor-General (2004, 2010), organ failure.Former PNG Parliament Speaker Jeffrey Nape dies *Steve Owens, 59, Canadian politician, Ontario MPP (1990–1995). *Howard Raiffa, 92, American academic.Harvard remembers Howard Raiffa *Jacques Rouffio, 87, French film director and screenwriter.Décès du réalisateur Jacques Rouffio *Gerald Sherratt, 84, American university administrator, President of Southern Utah University (1982–1997).Former SUU president, Cedar City mayor Sherratt dies *Vladimir Troyepolsky, 61, Russian television executive.Ушел из жизни Владимир Троепольский *Burhan Wani, 22, Indian Kashmiri militant, shot.Kashmir clashes over militant Burhan Wani leave 30 dead *Yuzhan, 92, Chinese calligrapher and imperial prince, Prince Gong (1936–1945).末代恭亲王毓嶦去世，一个时代的结束！ ===9=== *Norman Abbott, 93, American television director (Leave It to Beaver, Welcome Back, Kotter, The Jack Benny Program).Norman Abbott, Veteran Sitcom Director, Dies at 93 *Ron Allbright, 81, Canadian football player (Calgary Stampeders).Former Calgary Stampeders offensive linebacker Allbright dies at 81 *Johnny Barnes, 93, Bermudian entertainer.'Mr Happy' Barnes dies at 93 *Víctor Barrio, 29, Spanish matador, gored.Matador Victor Barrio killed by bull in Spain *Lothar Dräger, 89, German comic writer."Vater der Abrafaxe" ist tot *Hasan Basri Durin, 81, Indonesian politician, Minister of Agrarian Affairs (1998–1999), Governor of West Sumatra (1987–1997), Mayor of Padang (1971–1983).Former W.Sumatra gov, agrarian minister Hasan Basri Durin passes away *Erny Brenner, 84, Luxembourgian footballer.Erny Brenner verstorben *Judy Canty, 84, Australian Olympic long jumper (1948).Australian Olympic athlete Judy Wilson dies *Geneviève Castrée, 35, Canadian musician and comic book artist, pancreatic cancer.Geneviève Elverum Has Died *Mary Fritz, 78, American politician, member of the Connecticut House of Representatives (1983–1985, 1987–2016).State Rep. Mary Fritz, Who Served 32 Years, Dies At Age 78 *Bill Guilfoile, 84, American public relations executive (Baseball Hall of Fame, New York Yankees, Pittsburgh Pirates).William J. Guilfoile (1931–2016) *Vaughn Harper, 71, American radio DJ.WBLS ‘Quiet Storm’ DJ Vaughn Harper dies at 71 *Kalle Havulinna, 91, Finnish ice hockey player (Ilves).SM-sarjan maaliennätysmies Kalle Havulinna on poissa *Frank Johnson, 84, Australian footballer (Port Melbourne, South Melbourne).Frank Johnson, a member of the Australian football hall of fame, has died at age 84 *Hugo Niebeling, 85, German filmmaker (Alvorada).Hugo Niebeling Hollywood ehrt Wegbereiter des Musikvideos *Maralin Niska, 89, American soprano.Maralin Niska, 1926–2016: ‘Formidable talent’ stunned opera audiences from NYC to S.F. *Silvano Piovanelli, 92, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal, Archbishop of Florence (1983–2001).Silvano Cardinal Piovanelli † *Sydney Schanberg, 82, American journalist (The New York Times), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting (1976).Sydney H. Schanberg Is Dead at 82; Former Times Correspondent Chronicled Terror of 1970s Cambodia *Fritzi Schwingl, 94, Austrian slalom and sprint canoeist, world champion (1949, 1951, 1953), Olympic bronze medalist (1948).Olympia-Legende "Fritzi" Schwingl ist tot *Ray Spencer, 82, English footballer (Darlington, Torquay United).Tribute to Ray Spencer *Carole Switala, 69, American singer and voice actress (Mister Rogers' Neighborhood).Carole W. Switala *Matt Villines, 39, American director (Saturday Night Live), cancer.Matt Villines of ‘SNL's Matt & Oz Passes Away at 39 ===10=== *Abu Omar al-Shishani, 30, Soviet-born Georgian ISIS militant, airstrike.Isis confirms death of hugely popular minister of war omar al shishani *Robert E. Cooper Sr., 95, American judge, member of the Tennessee Supreme Court (1974–1990) and Court of Appeals (1960–1974).Judge Robert E. Cooper, Chattanoogan Who Served Long Tenure On The Tennessee Supreme Court, Dies At 95 *Amal Dutta, 86, Indian football player and manager.Former India footballer and coach Amal Dutta dies at the age of 86 *John Drysdale, 91, British-born Somaliland diplomat, historian, and writer, founder of the Africa Research Bulletin.Somaliland:State Funeral for the Late Abbas Idriss (John Drysdale) *Katharina Focke, 93, German politician.In remembrance of Dr. Katharina Focke *Anatoli Isayev, 83, Russian football player and manager, Olympic champion (1956).УМЕР АНАТОЛИЙ ИСАЕВ *Fida Hassnain, 93, Indian historian.Ace historian Fida Hassnain is no more *Alfred G. Knudson, 93, American geneticist.Acclaimed Fox Chase geneticist dies at 93 *Kem Ley, 45, Cambodian political analyst, shot.Prominent Cambodian political critic shot dead *Atilla Manizade, 82, Turkish opera singer.Türk Opera Sanatçısı Atilla Manizade hayatını kaybetti *Salien Medhi, 87, Indian lawyer and politician.Leftist leader Sailen Medhi passes away *Adrian Monger, 83, Australian rower, Olympic bronze medalist (1956).Adrian Monger *Mark Ouma, 55, Ugandan sports journalist.Athletics fraternity mourns fallen journalist Mark Ouma *James Pazhayattil, 81, Indian Syro-Malabar Catholic hierarch, Bishop of Irinjalakuda (1978–2010).Bishop James Pazhayattil *David Stride, 58, English footballer (Chelsea), heart attack.David Stride 1958–2016 *Harry Wade, 88, Canadian Olympic basketball player (1952).Harry Wade *Ye Xuanning, 77, Chinese politician.Ye Xuanning: Chinese princeling, military spy wing chief and ‘warm-hearted’ friend ===11=== *John Brademas, 89, American politician and educator, member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Indiana's 3rd district (1959–1981), President of NYU (1981–1991).John Brademas, Indiana Congressman and N.Y.U. President, Dies at 89 *Edmond L. Browning, 87, American Episcopal bishop, 24th Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (1985–1997).Death of former Episcopal Church Presiding Bishop Edmond Lee Browning *Emma Cohen, 69, Spanish actress (The Glass Ceiling, Voyage to Nowhere, The Grandfather), cancer.Actress Emma Cohen dies at 69 *Stéphane Dakowski, 95, French footballer *Elaine Fantham, 83, British classicist.Tribute to R. Elaine Fantham *Corrado Farina, 77, Italian film director, screenwriter and novelist (Baba Yaga).E' morto Corrado Farina, una vita per il cinema *Minerva Herrera, 87, Cuban folk singer, heart attack.Star of Cuban folk music and mother of Cuban singer Albita dies *Jim Metzen, 72, American politician, member (since 1987) and President (2003–2011) of the Minnesota Senate, and House of Representatives (1975–1987), lung cancer.Lifelong friend of hockey Jim Metzen, S. St. Paul state senator, dies *Robert Mason Pollock, 99, American screenwriter (Dynasty, The Colbys).Robert Mason Pollock, Screenwriter on 'Dynasty,' Dies at 99 *Sir Frederick Smith, 92, Barbadian barrister and politician, Attorney-General of Barbados (1966–1971).Mottley pays tribute to Sir Frederick *Kurt Svensson, 89, Swedish footballer, World Cup bronze medalist (1950).Kurt Svensson *Jusztin Nándor Takács, 89, Hungarian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Székesfehérvár (1991–2003).Bishop Jusztin Nándor Takács, O.C.D. † *Scott Olin Wright, 93, American judge, member of the U.S. District Court for Western Missouri (since 1979).Federal Judge Scott O. Wright Dies At 93 ===12=== *Lorenzo Amurri, 45, Italian author.Morto Lorenzo Amurri, "ma per me fate una festa" *Joseph Antic, 85, Indian field hockey player, Olympic silver medalist (1960).Hockey Olympian Joe Antic no more *Galina Chesnokova, 82, Russian Soviet-era volleyball player (national team), European champion (1963).Ушла из жизни чемпионка Европы 1963 года Галина Чеснокова *Seamon Glass, 90, American actor (This Is Not a Test, Deliverance, Perry Mason).Seamon Glass *Goran Hadžić, 57, Serbian politician, President of Krajina (1992–1994), brain cancer.Former rebel Serb leader Goran Hadzic dies at 58 *Peter Johnson, 78, Australian rugby union player.Australia in mourning after death of former captain Johnson *Karen Karnes, 90, American ceramist.Karen Karnes 1925 – 2016 *Kenny Kramm, 55, American pharmacist, founded FLAVORx, sepsis.Kenneth Kramm, pharmacist who 'took the yuck out of medicine' – obituary *Alvera Mickelsen, 97, American academic and Christian woman's advocate, co-founder of Christians for Biblical Equality.Obituary: Professor, nonprofit leader Alvera Mickelsen blended feminism and Christian teaching *Agha Nasir, 79, Indian-born Pakistani broadcaster.Broadcaster Agha Nasir passes away *Kyosen Ōhashi, 82, Japanese television host and politician, acute respiratory failure.Kyosen Ohashi, the charming TV star who led a charmed life *Antonín Rükl, 83, Czech astronomer.Czech astronomer, cartographer Antonin Ruekl dies at 83 *Paul Wühr, 89, German author (Das falsche Buch).Lyriker Paul Wühr gestorben Das Gespräch mit den Toten ===13=== *George Allen, 84, English footballer (Birmingham City).Ex-Birmingham City defender George Allen passes away *Héctor Babenco, 70, Argentine-born Brazilian film director, producer and screenwriter (Kiss of the Spider Woman, Ironweed, Carandiru), heart attack.Héctor Babenco, Director of Oscar-Winning ‘Kiss of the Spider Woman,’ Dies at 70 *Marion Campbell, 87, American football player and coach (Philadelphia Eagles, Atlanta Falcons).Former Eagles head coach Marion Campbell dies at 87 *Jim Carmichael, 76, American politician, member of the Ohio House of Representatives (2001–2008).James Carmichael *John Chandler, 92, British sports shooter. *Garry N. Drummond, 78, American coal executive, Chairman and CEO of Drummond Company, complications from cancer.Garry Neil Drummond, coal company CEO, has died *Robert Fano, 98, Italian-born American computer scientist.Robert Fano, computing pioneer and founder of CSAIL, dies at 98 *Hollis L. Harris, 84, American airline executive, CEO of Continental Airlines (1990–1991) and Air Canada (1992–1996), President of Delta Air Lines (1987–1990).Former Delta President Hollis Harris Has Died *Claude Le Ber, 85, French racing cyclist.Claude LE BER : Décès *El Lebrijano, 74, Spanish flamenco singer.El Lebrijano, Innovative Flamenco Singer, Dies at 75 *Hafsa Mossi, 51/52, Burundian politician, Minister of Regional Integration, member of the East African Legislative Assembly (since 2012), shot.Former Burundian minister Hafsa Mossi murdered in Bujumbura *William Norris III, 79, American jurist, judge of the Louisiana Court of Appeal for the Second Circuit (1981–2002).Judge Bill Norris died Wednesday *Celso Peçanha, 99, Brazilian politician, Governor of Rio de Janeiro (1961–1962).Morre o ex-governador campista Celso Peçanha *Bernardo Provenzano, 83, Italian criminal, head of the Corleonesi Mafia faction, complications from bladder cancer.Italian mafia boss, 83, dies in jail *Jack Riley, 97, Canadian ice hockey player and executive (Pittsburgh Penguins).Jack Riley, Penguins' 1st general manager, dies at age 97 *Jack Rogers, 82, American Presbyterian minister and theologian.Former General Assembly Moderator and renowned scholar, Jack Rogers, dies at age 82 *Carolyn See, 82, American author (Golden Days), cancer.Carolyn See, award-winning Southern California writer, dies at 82 *Zygmunt Zimowski, 67, Polish Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Radom (2002–2009), President of the PCPCHCW (since 2009), pancreatic cancer.Polish theologian, head of Vatican office for health care ministry, dies ===14=== *Helena Benitez, 102, Filipino politician and educator, Senator (1967–1972).Helena Benitez dies at 102 *Eric Bergren, 62, American screenwriter (The Elephant Man, Frances), liver cancer.‘Elephant Man’ Screenwriter Eric Bergren Dies at 62 *Roger Chanoine, 39, American football player (St. Louis Rams, Cleveland Browns, Jacksonville Jaguars), pancreatic cancer.Ex-Browns tackle Roger Chanoine dies *George Ramsay Cook, 84, Canadian historian, pancreatic cancer.Cook, Ramsay *Michael J. Elliott, 65, British journalist and magazine editor (Time, Newsweek, The Economist), cancer.Former Editor of Time International Michael Elliott Dies at 65 *Péter Esterházy, 66, Hungarian author, pancreatic cancer.Péter Esterházy, Hungarian novelist – obituary *Neil Ferguson, 70, Australian rules footballer.Vale Neil Ferguson *Lisa Gaye, 81, American actress, singer and dancer (Rock Around the Clock, Drums Across the River).Lisa Gaye, Actress and Dancer in 'Rock Around the Clock,' Dies at 81 *Miguel Gutiérrez, 75, Peruvian writer.Fallece escritor peruano Miguel Gutiérrez a los 75 años *Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel, 31, Tunisian jihadist, perpetrator of 2016 Nice truck attack, shot.Attack on Nice: Who was Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel? *Tor Lian, 71, Norwegian sports official, president of the Norwegian Handball Federation (1985–1999).Tor Lian 1945 – 2016 *Atilio López, 91, Paraguayan football player and coach.Falleció el gran Atilio López, campeón de América del 53 *Troy Mader, 60, American politician, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives (2014–2015), fall from ATV.Troy Mader dies when thrown from 4-wheeler *Sharon Runner, 62, American politician, member of the California State Assembly (2002–2008) and Senate (2011–2012, 2015–2016), complications from respiratory failure.Longtime Antelope Valley State Senator Sharon Runner Dead At 62 *Donald Stewart, 87, Australian judge, chairman of the National Crime Authority.Former judge, corruption fighter Donald Stewart dies aged 87 *Mike Strahler, 69, American baseball player (Los Angeles Dodgers, Detroit Tigers).Michael Strahler Obituary *Athanasius Atule Usuh, 67, Nigerian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Makurdi (1989–2015).Bishop Athanasius Atule Usuh *Hallard White, 87, New Zealand rugby union player (Auckland, national team), Alzheimer's disease.Former All Black Hallard 'Snow' White dies ===15=== *Ömer Halisdemir, 42, Turkish Maroon Beret.:tr:Ömer Halisdemir *Qandeel Baloch, 26, Pakistani model and social media celebrity, strangled.Qandeel Baloch murdered by brother in Multan: police *Frank Barnett, 82, American politician, Governor of American Samoa (1976–1977).Frank Barnett, former governor of American Samoa, dies *Janez Bernik, 82, Slovenian painter.Umrl slikar in akademik Janez Bernik *Karl E. Case, 69, American economist and academic, developed Case–Shiller index model, Parkinson's disease and multiple myeloma.Karl Case, Economist Who Developed Home Price Index, Dies at 69 *Charles Davis, 83, American jazz saxophonist.RIP Charles Davis *Howard Dawson, 93, American judge.In Memory of Judge Howard A Dawson Jr. *Roger Fletcher, 77, British mathematician.Tributes paid to Professor Roger Fletcher (body discovered on this date) *Duncan M. Gray Jr., 89, American Episcopalian prelate, Bishop of Mississippi (1974–1993).Former Bishop Duncan Montgomery Gray Jr. has died *Liu Yingming, 75, Chinese mathematician, educator and an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, leukemia.刘应明同志逝世 *Danny Nettey, 47, Ghanaian musician and songwriter.MUSIGA mourns Danny Nettey *Jérôme Owono-Mimboe, 83, Cameroonian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Obala (1987–2009).Bishop Jérôme Owono-Mimboe *V. F. Perkins, 79, British film critic, aneurysm.V.F. (Victor Francis) Perkins, 1936–2016 *Roland Prince, 69, Antiguan jazz guitarist.One of the nation's most successful musicians dies *Susan Renouf, 74, Australian socialite, ovarian cancer.Lady Susan Renouf dies after battle with ovarian cancer *Billy Marshall Stoneking, 68, Australian poet, playwright, and filmmaker.Vale Billy Marshall-Stoneking *Sir Charles Soutar, 96, British air marshal.Air Marshal Sir Charles Soutar – obituary *Petru Soltan, 85, Moldovan mathematician and politician, MP (1990–1994).Obituary. Petru Soltan *Peregrine Eliot, 10th Earl of St Germans, 75, British aristocrat and festival founder.The Earl of St Germans, founder of the Port Eliot Festival – obituary *Charles Utete, 77, Zimbabwean academic, politician and presidential adviser.Charles Utete dies – First black chief secretary in Govt ===16=== *Bonnie Brown, 77, American country singer (The Browns), lung cancer.Country Music Hall of Famer Bonnie Brown dead at 77 *Arlene Buszka, 82, American baseball player (AAGPBL).Arlene Buszka *Robert-Ralph Carmichael, 79, Canadian artist and designer (Loonie).Artist who designed image on loonie passes away in Sault *Francis M. Gibbons, 95, American biographer and religious leader (LDS Church).Francis Marion Gibbons *Pete Kapusta, 92, Canadian ice hockey player (Providence Reds).PETER KAPUSTA *M. A. Mannan, 84, Bangladeshi politician and neurologist. *Gordon Massa, 80, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs).Gordon Massa Obituary *Robert Burren Morgan, 90, American politician, member of the U.S. Senate for North Carolina (1975–1981), N.C. Senate (1955–1969) and Attorney General (1969–1974).Former US Senator, Lillington native Robert Morgan dies *Carlos Nine, 72, Argentine illustrator, comics artist and screenwriter.Argentine Comic Artist Carlos Nine Dies at Age 72 *E. C. Pielou, 92, Canadian statistical ecologist.Chris Pielou *Philippe Reinhart, 91, French Olympic sailor. *Hugo Rietveld, 84, Dutch crystallographer.Hugo Rietveld (1932–2016) *Zalman Shapiro, 96, American chemist, a developer of the Nautilus nuclear-powered submarine.Scientist developed nuclear fuel for USS Nautilus *Oleg Syrokvashko, 54, Belarusian football player and coach (Dinamo Brest).Умер легендарный вратарь брестского Динамо Олег Сыроквашко *Nate Thurmond, 74, American Hall of Fame basketball player (Golden State Warriors, Chicago Bulls, Cleveland Cavaliers), leukemia.Warriors great Nate Thurmond dead at 74 *Kasam Bapu Tirmizi, 86, Indian politician, Gujarat MLA for Gandhinagar (1980–1990).Gujarat: Ex-Cong minister passes away *Thurston Twigg-Smith, 94, American businessman and philanthropist.Former Honolulu Advertiser publisher Twigg-Smith dies *Kazimieras Uoka, 65, Lithuanian politician.Mirė signataras K. Uoka *Alan Vega, 78, American singer and musician (Suicide).Suicide's Alan Vega Dead at 78 *Claude Williamson, 89, American jazz pianist.Claude Williamson dies at 89; versatile jazz pianist was mainstay of West Coast cool ===17=== *Wendell Anderson, 83, American politician, Governor of Minnesota (1971–1976), Senator for Minnesota (1976–1978), Olympic silver medalist in ice hockey (1956), pneumonia.Wendell Anderson, former Minnesota governor, dead at 83 *Achille Casanova, 74, Swiss politician.È morto Achille Casanova *Aníbal José Chávez Frías, 60, Venezuelan politician, Mayor of Sabaneta (since 2004).Brother of late President Hugo Chavez dies in Venezuela *Mel Durslag, 95, American sportswriter.Melvin Durslag, longtime Los Angeles sportswriter and columnist, dies at 95 *Andrzej Grabarczyk, 52, Polish Olympic triple jumper (1988, 1992).Nie żyje Andrzej Grabarczyk *Michael Healy, 92, British medical statistician.Michael John Romer Obituary *Sérgio Henrique Ferreira, 82, Brazilian scientist.Morre cientista Sergio Henrique Ferreira, aos 81 anos *Kenneth Earl Hurlburt, 88, Canadian politician.Local legend Ken Hurlburt remembered *Paul Johnson, 81, American ice hockey player, Olympic gold medalist (1960).Johnson passes away *Phyllis Ntantala-Jordan, 96, South African political activist and author.Phyllis Ntantala-Jordan dies at 96 *James E. Nugent, 94, American politician, Texas Railroad Commissioner.James Nugent Obituary *Gary S. Paxton, 77, American record producer ("Monster Mash") and singer-songwriter (Skip & Flip), complications from heart surgery and liver disease.Gary S. Paxton, Whose Life of Extremes Brimmed With Music, Dies at 77 *Rafael Aguilar Talamantes, 76, Mexican politician.Honran la memoria de Aguilar Talamantes *Raymonde Tillon, 100, French politician, MP for Bouches-du-Rhône (1945–1951).Décès de la résistante Raymonde Tillon-Nédelec *Fred Tomlinson, 88, British singer (The Two Ronnies, Monty Python's Flying Circus), composer ("The Lumberjack Song") and critic.Fred Tomlinson, singer on Monty Python – obituary ===18=== *Manuel G. Batshaw, 101, Canadian social worker, founder of Batshaw Youth and Family Centres.Manuel Batshaw, ‘architect of Montreal's Jewish community,’ dies at 101 *Mubarak Begum, 80, Indian playback singer.Legendary Playback Singer Mubarak Begum Passes Away At 80 After Prolonged Illness *Richard Budge, 69, British businessman, prostate cancer.Mining company boss dies aged 69 *Antony Copley, 79, British historian.Antony Copley obituary *Uri Coronel, 69, Dutch sports director (Ajax Amsterdam).Uri Coronel (69) overleden *Medi Dinu, 107, Romanian painter.Famous painter Medi Dinu dies at 107 *Bloeme Evers-Emden, 90, Dutch teacher, child psychologist and Holocaust survivor.Bloeme Evers-Emden (89) overleden *Randolph George, 92, Guyanese Anglican bishop.Diocese of St Albans The Rt Revd Randolph George, RIP *John Hope, 67, English footballer (Sheffield United).Tributes to lion-hearted Newcastle and Sheffield United keeper who was one of the Best *Agata Karczmarek, 52, Polish Olympic gymnast (1980) and long jumper (1988, 1992, 1996).Zmarła rekordzistka Polski Agata Karczmarek *John Kerr, 66, American editor and author (A Most Dangerous Method), lung cancer.John Kerr, Chronicler of Freud-Jung Rift, Is Dead at 66 *James Kriel, 74, South African air force general.Oudlugmaghoof James Kriel sterf *Heinz Lucas, 95, German football player and manager.Fortuna Dusseldorf – Fortuna mourns legendary coach Heinz Lucas *Jack Meadows, 82, British astronomer and information scientist.Jack Meadows, 1934-2016 *Nikolaus Messmer, 61, Kazakh- born Kyrgyz Roman Catholic prelate, Apostolic Administrator of Kyrgyzstan (since 2006).Kyrgyzstan's only Catholic bishop dies *Jeffrey Montgomery, 63, American LGBT rights activist, heart attack.Community Mourns Loss of LGBT Rights Activist Jeff Montgomery *Aldo Monti, 87, Mexican actor.Muere el actor Aldo Monti a los 87 años *Billy Name, 76, American photographer (Andy Warhol), heart failure.Billy Name, Who Glazed Warhol's Factory in Silver, Dies at 76 *Dolliver Nelson, 84, Grenadian jurist, President of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (2002–2005).Press Release *Matilda Rapaport, 30, Swedish alpine free-skier, avalanche.Swedish extreme skier Matilda Rapaport dies filming Ubisoft game promo in Chile *Mladen Stilinović, 69, Croatian artist.Croatian conceptual artist Mladen Stilinović dies *Les Stocker, 73, British wildlife expert, founder of Tiggywinkles.Shock as Tiggywinkles founder Les Stocker dies aged 73 *Abu Wardah, 39, Indonesian militant leader (Mujahidin Indonesia Timur), shot by police.Indonesian police are confident killed the country's most wanted terrorist Santoso who pledged allegiance to Islamic State ===19=== *Bommi Baumann, 68, German author and political activist.Nachruf auf Bommi Baumann *Ray Bell, 90, New Zealand rugby union player (Otago, national team). *Betsy Bloomingdale, 93, American socialite and philanthropist, complications from a cardiac condition.Betsy Bloomingdale, Socialite and Friend of Influencers, Dies at 93 *Chief Zee, 75, American football mascot (Washington Redskins).Washington superfan Zema ‘Chief Zee’ Williams has died *Dimitri, 80, Swiss clown.Beloved Swiss performer Clown Dimitri dies at 80 *Carlos Gorostiza, 96, Argentine playwright, theatre director and novelist.Theatre world mourns icon Carlos Gorostiza *Carmen Hernández, 85, Spanish catechist, co-founder of the Neocatechumenal Way.Neocatechumenal Way co-founder Carmen Hernandez dies at 85 *Nev Hewitt, 95, Australian politician, Queensland MP for Mackenzie (1956–1972) and Auburn (1972–1980).Neville Hewitt lived life to its fullest *Garry Marshall, 81, American director, producer, writer, and actor (Happy Days, Pretty Woman, Murphy Brown), pneumonia.Garry Marshall, ‘Pretty Woman’ Director and Creator of ‘Happy Days,’ Dies at 81 *Tom McCready, 72, Scottish footballer (Wimbledon F.C.).Tommy McCready *Gordon Mowrer, 80, American politician, Mayor of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (1974–1978, 1987).Former Bethlehem Mayor Gordon Mowrer dies *John Pidgeon, 69, British broadcaster and writer.John Pidgeon obituary *Anthony D. Smith, 76, British historical sociologist.Professor Anthony Smith *Tamás Somló, 68, Hungarian musician and singer (Omega, Locomotiv GT), cancer.In Memorian Tamas Somlo – The singer of iconic Hungarian Band LGT died ===20=== *Dominique Arnaud, 60, French cyclist, cancer.Former French Cyclist Dominique Arnaud Dies at 60 *Radu Beligan, 97, Romanian actor, director and essayist.Stage actor Beligan dies at 97 *Dick Corballis, 70, New Zealand English literature academic (Massey University).Former head of English and Media Studies Richard Corballis dies *William Gaines, 82, American journalist (Chicago Tribune) and academic (University of Illinois), awarded Pulitzer Prize (1976, 1988), Parkinson's disease.William Gaines, former Tribune investigative reporter, dies at 82 *André Isoir, 81, French organist.Obituary – André Isoir *James Allen Johnson, 92, American army general.JAMES A. JOHNSON Major General, US Army (Ret.) *Walid Juffali, 61, Saudi billionaire businessman (E. A. Juffali and Brothers) and diplomat, cancer.Saint Lucia's IMO representative Walid Juffali dies *György Kéri, 66, Hungarian biochemist, Széchenyi Prize winner (2013).Meghalt Kéri György Széchenyi-díjas biokémikus *Egon Matijevic, 94, Croatian-born American chemist.Longest-serving Clarkson University professor dies at age of 94 *Ray Moreton, 74, New Zealand rugby union player (Southland, Canterbury, national team).NZ Rugby mourns death of former All Blacks *Jim Pressdee, 83, Welsh cricketer (Glamorgan).Glamorgan: Former all-rounder Jim Pressdee dies aged 83 *Mohammed Shahid, 56, Indian field hockey player, Olympic champion (1980), liver and kidney disease. *Pavel Sheremet, 44, Belarusian journalist, car bombing.Pavel Sheremet, Journalist in Ukraine, Is Killed in Car Bombing *Mark Takai, 49, American politician, member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Hawaii's 1st district (since 2015) and the Hawaii House of Representatives (1994–2015), pancreatic cancer.US Rep. Mark Takai Of Hawaii Dies === 21 === *Adolph Bachmeier, 78, Romanian-born American footballer.In Memory of Adolf Bachmeier *Milford Burriss, 79, American politician.Milford Deal "Mickey" Burriss Obituary *Bill Cardille, 87, American television host (Chiller Theater, Night of the Living Dead, Studio Wrestling), cancer.Regional TV pioneer, "Chilly" Bill Cardille dies at age 87 *Chor Yeok Eng, 86, Singaporean politician, MP for Bukit Timah (1966–1984).PAP Old Guard Chor Yeok Eng dies *Tsering Chungtak, 31, Tibetan beauty queen, Miss Tibet 2006, heart attack.Former Miss Tibet Tsering Chungtak passes away *Dick Donnelly, 74, Scottish footballer and journalist.Obituary – Dick Donnelly, broadcaster and one of the great voices of Scottish football *Bernard Dufour, 93, French painter.Avis de décès – Le peintre de la femme, Bernard Dufour, s'en est allé *John Garton, 74, British Anglican prelate, Bishop of Plymouth (1996–2005).The Right Reverend John Garton, bishop – obituary *Roger Godement, 94, French mathematician.Décès de Roger Godement *Dennis Green, 67, American football coach (Minnesota Vikings, Arizona Cardinals, Northwestern Wildcats), cardiac arrest following a heart attack.Former NFL Coach Dennis Green Dies at Age 67 *Joy Hardon, 94, Australian Olympic fencer (1956).Australia's oldest Olympian dies *William F. Hickey Jr., 87, American politician, member of the Connecticut Senate (1960–1970), mayor of Stamford (1963).Former Superior Court judge, Stamford interim mayor dies *Luc Hoffmann, 93, Swiss ornithologist and conservationist, co-founder of the World Wildlife Fund.BirdLife cries the loss of conservation giant Luc Hoffmann *Sid Hurst, 97, New Zealand farmer, chairman of Lincoln College Council (1980–1985).Sidney Hurst death notice *Jen Jacobs, 60, Australian cricketer (national team).Former Australia Women allrounder Jen Jacobs dies *Meraj Muhammad Khan, 77, Pakistani politician.Mairaj Muhammad Khan passes away *Amnon Linn, 92, Israeli politician, member of the Knesset (1967–1969, 1973–1988).חבר הכנסת לשעבר אמנון לין מת בגיל 92 *Thomas R. McCarthy, 82, American racehorse trainer and owner (General Quarters), melanoma.McCarthy, owner and trainer of General Quarters, dies at 82 *Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, 94, Polish writer and inventor.Zmarł Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski *Des Rea, 72, Northern Irish boxer.Former British boxing champion Des Rea dies aged 72 *Don Soderquist, 82, American executive (Walmart).Longtime Wal-Mart Executive Don Soderquist Dies at 82 *Lewie Steinberg, 82, American Hall of Fame bassist (Booker T. & the M.G.'s), cancer.R.I.P. Lewie Steinberg of Booker T & The MGs 1933–2016 *Molly Turner, 93, American news anchor (WPLG).Florida's first female TV news anchor Molly Turner dies at 93 ===22=== *Geraldine Branch, 107, American gynecologist. *Charles Brantley, 91, American horse breeder.Charles Brantley: A Life In Walking Horse *Dave Bald Eagle, 97, American Lakota Chief and actor.American Indian Chief David Beautiful Bald Eagle Jr. dies *Chen Da, 79, Chinese nuclear scientist, educator and academician (Chinese Academy of Sciences).著名核科学家、中国科学院陈达院士逝世 *Joe Derrane, 86, American accordion player. *Dominic Duval, 71, American free jazz bassist, lymphoma.The Dominic Duval Fund *Franca Faldini, 85, Italian writer and actress (Where Is Freedom?, Poverty and Nobility, Man, Beast and Virtue).Lutto nel cinema, è morta Franca Faldini, l'ultima compagna di Totò *Ursula Franklin, 94, German-born Canadian scientist and academic (University of Toronto).Ursula Franklin, renowned Canadian scientist, dead at 94 *Julius Freeman, 89, American fighter pilot (Tuskegee Airmen), recipient of the Congressional Gold Medal, heart attack.Tuskegee Airman Julius T. Freeman dead; visited LI students *Sir David Goodall, 84, British diplomat, High Commissioner to India (1987–1991).Sir David Goodall, diplomat who played a key role in the Anglo-Irish Agreement – obituary *Lee Grant, 84, British-born New Zealand actress.Lee Grant *Betty Guy, 95, American watercolor artist.Betty Guy, Internationally Renowned Watercolor Artist, Dead at 95 *Viktor Kryzhanivskyi, 66, Ukrainian painter and artist.У Києві помер художник Віктор Крижанівський *Luo Yinguo, 62, Chinese politician, cancer.Confessions of a corrupt Chinese cadre: jailed former city boss dies of cancer after setting off graft investigation storm *Thomas de Morawitz, 93, Spanish Olympic skier.http://www.coe.es/coe/bd_perso.nsf/VBusqDeport/083C706397802AB9C1256E2B003D26F9?opendocument&query;=Consulta=DEPORTISTAS_*2*!DEPORTISTAS_POR_DEPORTE?*=deportista=Thomas+Morawitz+Meczy@-@1895 *Geir Myhre, 62, Norwegian Olympic ice hockey player (1980, 1984) and coach (national team).Geir Myhre er død *Evin Nolan, 86, Irish painter.NOLAN, Evin Death notice *Leyla Sayar, 76, Turkish actress.Leyla Sayar sessiz sedasız hayata veda etti *Norma Levy Shapiro, 87, American judge, member of the U.S. District Court for Eastern Pennsylvania (since 1978).U.S. District Senior Judge Norma Shapiro, 87 *Shawshank tree, , North American white oak featured in The Shawshank Redemption.Famous 'Shawshank' oak falls *Zeke Smith, 79, American football player (Auburn Tigers).Former Auburn linebacker Zeke Smith passes away *Thomas Sutherland, 85, Scottish-born American academic and Islamic jihad hostage.Thomas Sutherland dies at 85 *Jouko Turkka, 74, Finnish theatre director and writer.Provocative director Turkka dies at 74 *Samane Viyaket, 89, Laotian politician.Party, government announce death of Lt. Gen. Samane Viyaket ===23=== *Neelabh Ashk, 70, Indian Hindi poet.Popular Hindi Poet Neelabh Ashk Dead At 70 *Małgorzata Bartyzel, 60, Polish politician, member of the Sejm for Łódź (2005–2007).Zmarła była posłanka PiS Małgorzata Bartyzel *Bill Cotty, 69, American politician, member of the South Carolina House of Representatives (1994–2008), lung cancer.Former South Carolina Rep. Bill Cotty has died at age 69 *Kantilal Desai, 84, Indian cricketer.Kanti Desai *Geronimo Dyogi, 67, Filipino Olympic judoka (1972). *Carl Falck, 109, Norwegian businessman, nation's oldest living man.Norway's oldest man is dead *Thorbjörn Fälldin, 90, Swedish politician, Prime Minister (1976–1978, 1979–1982).Swedish ex-prime minister Thorbjorn Falldin dead at 90 *Denis Foreman, 83, South African-born English cricketer (Sussex) and footballer (Brighton & Hove Albion). *Mari Gilbert, 52, American activist, matricide.Woman Whose Search for Daughter Led Police to Bodies on Long Island Is Killed *Alan Goldberg, 75, Australian jurist, Judge of the Federal Court (1997–2010).Alan Goldberg Death Notice *Kate Granger, 34, British physician and fundraiser, desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor.Doctor Kate Granger dies after hitting £250k cancer charity goal *Sheilla Lampkin, 70, American politician, member of the Arkansas House of Representatives (since 2011), ovarian cancer.State Rep. Lampkin dies Saturday at age 69 *Mangala Moonesinghe, 84, Sri Lankan politician and diplomat, High Commissioner to the UK (2000–2002) and India (1995–2000, 2002–2005).Funeral of veteran politician, diplomat, lawyer Mangala Moonesinghe today *Boy-Boy Mosia, 31, South African footballer (Juventus, Chelsea, AmaZulu). *Joe Napolitano, 67, American television director (Quantum Leap, The X-Files) and assistant director (The Untouchables, Scarface), cancer.Joe Napolitano, ‘Quantum Leap,’ ‘X-Files’ Director Dies at 67 *S. H. Raza, 94, Indian artist.Renowned artist SH Raza dies in Delhi *Jean Ricardou, 84, French writer.Décès de l'écrivain Jean Ricardou, spécialiste du Nouveau Roman *Alina Surmacka Szczesniak, 91, Polish-born American food scientist.Alina Surmacka Szczesniak *Harold Duane Vietor, 85, American judge, member of the US District Court for Southern Iowa (1979–2016), stroke.Harold Vietor, longtime federal judge in Iowa, has died *Peter Wenger, 72, Swiss footballer.Früherer FCB-Spieler Peter Wenger gestorben ===24=== *Mangal Bagh, 42–43, Pakistani militant leader (Lashkar-e- Islam), drone strike.Mangal Bagh ‘is dead’ *Tom Clegg, 81, British television and film director.RIP director Tom Clegg *Gordon Dixon, 86, Canadian biochemist.Gordon Henry Dixon Obituary *Alastair Duncan, 63, British army officer, Chief of Staff for UNAMSIL (2001), perforated ulcer.Major-General Alastair Duncan Dies *Håkon Fimland, 72, Norwegian hurdler and politician.Håkon Fimland er død *Keith Gemmell, 68, British musician (Audience, Stackridge, Pasadena Roof Orchestra), throat cancer.Farewell Keith Gemmell *Abe Goldberg, 87, Polish-born Australian executive.Farewell to Aleksander Goldberg *Marto Gracias, 75, Indian footballer (national team, Salgaocar), heart attack.Ex-India football player Marto Gracias passes away *Frank Hodsoll, 78, American art historian, cancer.Frank Hodsoll, NEA chairman who championed arts under Reagan, dies at 78 *Ian King, 79, Scottish footballer (Leicester City F.C.).Ian King: 1937–2016 *Jan Kmenta, 88, Czech- American econometrician.Prof. Jan Kmenta Passed Away *Bohuslav Kokotek, 67, Czech Lutheran clergyman and politician.Zmarł ks. senior Kokotek *Eliza Lawrence, 80, Canadian politician, MLA from the Northwest Territories (1983–1987).Former Northwest Territories MLA Eliza Lawrence passes away *Steve Nagy, 97, American baseball player (Pittsburgh Pirates, Washington Senators).Stephen Nagy *Marni Nixon, 86, American singer (The King and I, West Side Story, My Fair Lady) and actress (The Sound of Music), breast cancer.Marni Nixon, the Voice Behind the Screen, Dies at 86 *Horacio Olivo, 83, Puerto Rican actor and singer.Horacio Olivo, Master of Political Satire and Comedy, Dies at 83 *Bob Parker, 84, British accounting scholar.Robert Henry Parker, 1932 –2016 *Bishnodat Persaud, 82, Guyanese economist.UWI mourns Prof Persaud's passing *Conrad Prebys, 82, American philanthropist, cancer.San Diego Developer, Philanthropist Conrad Prebys Dies of Cancer *Don Roberts, 83, American ice hockey coach (Gustavus Adolphus College), heart disease.Legendary Gustavus hockey coach Don Roberts dies at 83 *Chris Costner Sizemore, 89, American writer, subject of The Three Faces of Eve, heart attack.Chris Costner Sizemore dies; ‘The Three Faces of Eve’ inspiration was 89 *Parwati Soepangat, 84, Indonesian Buddhist leader.In Memoriam: Parwati Soepangat (1932–2016) *Orest Subtelny, 75, Ukrainian-born Canadian historian.Renowned historian Orest Subtelny dies in Canada at age 75 ===25=== *Jerzy Bahr, 72, Polish diplomat, Ambassador to Russia (2006–2010) and Ukraine (1997–2001), Director of the National Security Bureau (2005), cancer.Jerzy Bahr, były ambasador w Rosji i były szef BBN, nie żyje *Brenda Banks, 66, American archivist.Brenda BANKS *Allan Barnes, 66, American jazz saxophonist (The Blackbyrds), heart attack.R.I.P. legendary Blackbyrds saxman and flutist Allan Barnes *Daphne Ceeney, 82, Australian paraplegic athlete, Paralympic champion (1960, 1964).Australian Paralympic medallist across five different sports dies aged 82 *J. Harwood Cochrane, 103, American transportation executive, founder of Overnite Transportation.Overnite Founder J. Harwood Cochrane Dies *Artur Correia, 66, Portuguese footballer (Benfica, Sporting, national team), stroke.Former Portugal defender Artur Correia passes away *Bülent Eken, 92, Turkish football player (Galatasaray) and coach (national team).Bülent Eken'i Kaybettik *Pierre Fauchon, 87, French politician, member of the Senate for Loir-et-Cher (1992–2011).Deces de l'ancien senateur Pierre Fauchon *Arundhati Ghose, 76, Indian diplomat, ambassador to the UN-Geneva, South Korea and Egypt, cancer. *Edward Gopsill, 94, British army officer.Lt-Col Edward Gopsill *Halil İnalcık, 100, Turkish historian, multiple organ failure.Famous Turkish historian Halil Inalcik dies at age 100 *Dwight Jones, 64, American basketball player (Atlanta Hawks, Chicago Bulls, Houston Rockets), Olympic silver medalist (1972).Houston men's basketball great Dwight Jones passes away; Houston native was 64 years old *Eric Kuhne, 64, American-born British architect, heart attack.Headwaters Park architect dies *Sinikka Kukkonen, 68, Finnish orienteer and ski orienteer, world champion (1975).Sinikka Kukkonen on kuollut *Tim LaHaye, 90, American Christian author (Left Behind), stroke.Died: Tim LaHaye, Author Who 'Left Behind' a Long Legacy *Mollie Lowery, 70, American advocate for the homeless and mentally ill, cancer.Mollie Lowery dies at 70; served as a friend of and advocate for people living on L.A.'s sidewalks *James M. Nederlander, 94, American Broadway theater owner and producer (Nederlander Organization).James M. Nederlander dies at 94 *Slobodan Novak, 91, Croatian writer.Slobodan Novak ispraćen na Mirogoju: 'Napisao je neka od ponajboljih djela hrvatske književnosti' *Tom Peterson, 86, American retailer and television personality, Parkinson's disease. *Franklin Van Antwerpen, 74, American judge, member of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (since 2004).Longtime federal judge Franklin Van Antwerpen has died, office confirms ===26=== *Roy Adler, 85, American mathematician.Roy Lee Adler Obituary *Anne Balfour-Fraser, 92, British film producer.Anne Balfour-Fraser obituary *Charles Bilezikian, 79, American retail executive, co-founder of Christmas Tree Shops, pancreatic cancer.Founder of Christmas Tree Shops stores dies of cancer at 79 *Henry Connor, 93, New Zealand botanist.Henry Connor death notice *Denis Dubourdieu, 67, French winemaker, brain cancer.Denis Dubourdieu, Legendary Bordeaux Consulting Winemaker, Professor and Vigneron, Dies at 67 *Roger Ekins, 89, British biophysicist.Professor Roger EKINS FRS Obituary *Solomon Feferman, 88, American philosopher and mathematician.Long-time Math Professor Solomon Feferman dies at 88 *John H. Flood, 77, American politician, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1981–1991).Canton legislator, sheriff John Flood dies at 77 *Jeffrey Grey, 57, Australian military historian.In memoriam: Jeffrey Guy Grey 1959–2016 *Jacques Hamel, 85, French Roman Catholic priest, stabbed.Hollande: Deadly church attack in France carried out in name of ISIS *C.-H. Hermansson, 98, Swedish politician, MP (1963–1985), leader of the Left Party-Communists (1964–1975).Former Swedish communist leader Hermansson dies at 98 *David A. Katz, 82, American judge, member of the US District Court for Northern Ohio (since 1994), cancer.Federal Judge David Katz dies at 82 *Mohamed Khan, 73, British-Egyptian film director (Ayyam El Sadat, Mr Karate, Before the Summer Crowds).Acclaimed Egyptian filmmaker Mohamed Khan dies at 73 *Heinz Kiehl, 73, German wrestler, Olympic bronze medalist (1964).Ludwigshafen: Heinz Kiehl ist tot *Hossein Kohkan, 85, Iranian Kurdish architect and caveman.Hero of the KDPI Peshmerga, Hussein Koken, has died *Horst Kuttelwascher, 78, Austrian Olympic rower.Horst Kuttelwascher *Maggie Macdonald, 63, Scottish Gaelic singer.Obituary: Maggie Macdonald, Gaelic singer *Per G. Malm, 67, Swedish missionary, general authority of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, cancer.General Authority Seventy of LDS Church dies at 67 *Forrest Mars Jr., 84, American billionaire businessman (Mars, Incorporated), heart attack.Forrest Mars Jr., Mars Inc.'s Billionaire Co-Owner, Dies at 84 *JT McNamara, 41, Irish jockey.jT McNamara: Jockey paralysed in 2013 Cheltenham fall dies *Miss Cleo, 53, American television psychic, metastatic colon cancer.Iconic TV Psychic Miss Cleo Dies of Cancer at 53 *Jerry Molyneaux, 60, Irish Gaelic games administrator.Sadness following death of Limerick GAA stalwart Gerry Molyneaux *Hiroko Nakamura, 72, Japanese classical pianist, colon cancer.Cancer claims famed pianist Hiroko Nakamura, 72 *Sandy Pearlman, 72, American record producer and band manager (Blue Öyster Cult, The Clash, Black Sabbath), pneumonia as a complication from a stroke.Sandy Pearlman, Producer, Manager and Lyricist for Blue Öyster Cult, Dies at 72 *Pia Pera, 60, Italian novelist (Lo's Diary).Addio a Pia Pera, scrittrice e giardiniera *Sylvia Peters, 90, British continuity announcer and actress (BBC TV).Sylvia Peters obituary *E. Melvin Porter, 86, American politician, member of the Oklahoma Senate (1965–1987).Oklahoma's first black state senator dies *Dave Syrett, 60, English footballer (Swindon, Mansfield, Peterborough), brain tumour.Former Stags star Syrett dies ===27=== *Jean Briggs, 87, American-born Canadian anthropologist, expert in Inuit studies and language.Eminent anthropologist Jean Briggs, Inuit language expert, dead at 87 *Paco Cano, 103, Spanish photojournalist.Fallece Francisco Cano «Canito», el fotógrafo de toreros que retrató la muerte de Manolete *LaVon Crosby, 92, American politician, member of the Nebraska Senate (1989–2000).Lavon Crosby, beloved former state senator, dies at age 92 *Jack Davis, 91, American cartoonist and illustrator (Tales from the Crypt, The Vault of Horror, Georgia Bulldogs), co-founder of Mad. *Jerry Doyle, 60, American talk show host and actor (Babylon 5), founder of EpicTimes.Babylon 5 star Jerry Doyle dead at 60 *Sue Gibson, 64, American-British cinematographer and second unit director (Resident Evil, The Holiday, Alien vs. Predator).British cinematographer Sue Gibson dies *Doug Griffin, 69, American baseball player (Boston Red Sox).Former Red Sox infielder Doug Griffin dead at 69 *Dominik Hrušovský, 90, Slovak Roman Catholic prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Bratislava-Trnava (1992–1996) and Apostolic Nuncio to Belarus (1996–2001).Archbishop Dominik Hrušovský † *Piet de Jong, 101, Dutch politician and naval officer, Minister of Defence (1963–1967), Prime Minister (1967–1971).Former PM Piet de Jong dies at age 101 *James Alan McPherson, 72, American writer (Elbow Room), awarded Pulitzer Prize (1978), pneumonia.James Alan McPherson, Pulitzer Prize-Winning Writer, Dies at 72 *Máximo Mosquera, 88, Peruvian footballer.Máximo 'Vides' Mosquera falleció: ídolo de Municipal dejó de existir *Milton Murayama, 93, American Nisei novelist and playwright.Milton A. Murayama *Gerard Noel, 89, British author and editor (The Catholic Herald).Gerard Noel, Catholic Herald editor – obituary *Einojuhani Rautavaara, 87, Finnish composer, complications following hip surgery.Finnish composer Rautavaara dies at 87 *Neelamraju Ganga Prasada Rao, 88, Indian geneticist and plant breeder. *Ford Spinks, 89, American politician.Ford Belmont Spinks, Sr. *Richard Thompson, 58, American cartoonist (Cul de Sac), Parkinson's disease.Richard Thompson, acclaimed ‘Cul de Sac’ creator and Post contributor, dies at 58 *Pat Upton, 75, American singer-songwriter (Spiral Starecase).Geraldine native Pat Upton of 'Spiral Starecase' dead at 75 ===28=== *Boualem Bessaïh, 86, Algerian politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1988–1989).Chancellor at presidency, Boualem Bessaih dies aged 87 *Bob Brown, 92, American basketball player (Providence Steamrollers, Denver Nuggets).Miami University Hall of Fame basketball star passes away *Conrad K. Cyr, 84, American federal judge, member of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1989–1997) and the District Court for the District of Maine (1981–1989).Conrad Cyr, former federal judge from Maine, dies at 84 *Mahasweta Devi, 90, Indian writer (Hajar Churashir Maa), blood infection and kidney failure.Eminent writer Mahasweta Devi dies at 90 in Kolkata *Gnanakoothan, 77, Indian Tamil poet.Tamil poet Gnanakoothan passes away *Norman Guthkelch, 100, British paediatric neurosurgeon.Dr. A. Norman Guthkelch fought injustice to the end *Richard Grant Hiskey, 87, American chemist.Richard Grant "Dick" Hiskey *Marianne Ihlen, 81, Norwegian muse.Obituary: Marianne Ihlen, Leonard Cohen's muse *Patrick Jourdain, 73, British bridge player and journalist.Patrick Jourdain, bridge correspondent and capped player – obituary *Vladica Kovačević, 76, Serbian footballer.Preminuo Vladica Kovačević: Smrt tihog poslovođe *Lachhu Maharaj, 71, Indian tabla player.Tabla maestro Pandit Lacchu Maharaj dies in Varanasi *Monte Nitzkowski, 86, American water polo coach.Legendary Water Polo Coach Monte Nitzkowski Passes Away *Seeking The Gold, 31, American thoroughbred racehorse, euthanized.Seeking the Gold dies at 31 *Sheikh Hussain Zakiri, 76, Indian Muslim scholar. *Émile Derlin Zinsou, 98, Beninese politician, President (1968–1969).Former President of Benin, Emile Zinsou, dead === 29 === *Antonio Armstrong, 42, American football player (Miami Dolphins, BC Lions), shot.Former Texas All-American Armstrong Dead after shooting *Ken Barrie, 83, British voice actor (Postman Pat) and singer, liver cancer.Postman Pat voice actor Ken Barrie dies *Doris Benegas, 64, Venezuelan-born Spanish Basque politician, leader of the Castilian Left, abdominal tumor.Muere Doris Benegas, política, abogada y activista *Keith L. Brown, 91, American businessman and diplomat, Ambassador to Lesotho (1982–1983) and Denmark (1989–1992).Obituary: Keith Brown, Vail founder, diplomat, financier, developer, lawyer, dies at age 91 *Madhusudan Dhaky, 88, Indian architectural historian.Prof who immortalized temple architecture passes away *Lucille Dumont, 97, Canadian singer.Quebec chanteuse Lucille Dumont dies at 97 *Zelda Fichandler, 91, American stage producer and director (Arena Stage), heart failure.Zelda Fichandler, Arena Stage co-founder and matriarch of regional-theater movement, dies at 91 *Tommy George, 87, Australian Aboriginal elder.A "Legend", Indigenous Australian Leader, Knowledge Holder Tommy George Passes On *Vivean Gray, 92, British-born Australian actress (Neighbours, The Sullivans, Prisoner).Vivean Gray, actress who played Mrs Mangel in Neighbours – obituary *Daasebre Gyamenah, 37, Ghanaian musician.Musician Daasebre Gyamenah is dead *Anne Hepburn, 90, Scottish missionary and teacher.Obituary: Anne Hepburn missionary, teacher, feminist and Guild President *Braj Kachru, 84, Indian linguist.Obituary: Braj B. Kachru *Yowabu Magada Kawaluuko, 86, Ugandan politician.Thousands mourn Kamuli fallen UPC diehard *Patrick Lalor, 90, Irish hurler (Laois) and politician, TD (1961–1981), MEP (1979–1994).Former minister Patrick Lalor dies aged 90 *Danny Nykoluk, 82, Canadian football player (Toronto Argonauts).He was an Argo: Danny Nykoluk *Burt Talcott, 96, American politician, member of the United States House of Representatives from California's 12th and 16th congressional districts (1963–1977). ===30=== *William Bell, 70, Canadian writer, cancer.Orillia author William Bell dead at 70 *Alan Brice, 78, American baseball player (Chicago White Sox).Alan Brice Obituary *Igor de Rachewiltz, 87, Italian historian of Mongol studies.Igor De Rachewiltz Obituary *Gloria DeHaven, 91, American actress (Summer Stock, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman, Out to Sea), complications from a stroke.Gloria DeHaven, Effervescent Star of MGM Musicals, Dies at 91 *Clive Foxell, 86, English physicist and author.FOXELL CLIVE : Obituary *Nigel Gray, 69, British record producer (Outlandos d'Amour).Doctor who recorded The Police albums at Surrey Sound Studios in Leatherhead, Nigel Gray, dies *András Hajnal, 85, Hungarian mathematician.Remembering András Hajnal (1931–2016) *Derek Hatfield, 63, Canadian sailor.Round-the-world solo sailor Derek Hatfield dies at 63 *Ignatius Huang Shou-cheng, 93, Chinese clandestine Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Funing (since 2005).Bishop Ignatius Huang Shou-cheng *Anna Marchesini, 62, Italian actress, voice actress and comedian, rheumatoid arthritis. *Ed Ross, 50, American photographer, motorcycle accident.Obituaries Michael Edward Ross *Dave Schwartz, 63, American meteorologist (The Weather Channel), stomach cancer.Dave Schwartz, Popular Weather Channel Meteorologist, Dies *Ralph Stewart, 90, American football player and coach.Ralph Edward "Boot" Stewart *Ritva Vepsä, 75, Finnish actress (Time of Roses), lung cancer.Actress Ritva Vepsä passes away ===31=== *Anwar Ali Cheema, 81, Pakistani politician.Former Federal Minister Anwar Ali Cheema passes away *Chiyonofuji Mitsugu, 61, Japanese sumo wrestler, pancreatic cancer.Chiyonofuji, sumo's small great ‘Wolf,’ dies *Thomas Danson, Jr., 82, American politician.Thomas Edward Danson Jr. *Gwynn ap Gwilym, 66, Welsh author, cancer.Tributes paid to renowned poet and vicar Gwynn ap Gwilym *Bobbie Heine Miller, 106, South African-born Australian tennis player. *Bill Holdsworth, 87, English cricketer (Yorkshire).Obituary: Bill Holdsworth *Fazil Iskander, 87, Soviet and Russian writer.Abkhaz writer Fazil Iskander dies, aged 87 *Inez Y. Kaiser, 98, American public relations expert.Inez Y. Kaiser, first black woman to own a national PR firm, dies at 98 *Mariana Karr, 66, Argentine actress (Alborada, Amorcito corazón, Juro Que Te Amo).El Universal: Actriz Mariana Karr fallece a los 66 años *Penny Lang, 74, Canadian folk musician.Obituary: Penny Lang, star of Montreal's folk music scene, dies at 74 *Destin Onka Malonga, 28, Congolese football player, fall.International goalkeeper Destin Onka Malonga dies in canoeing accident *Peter Martell, 57, Canadian football player.‘There was no quit in Peter’ *Mike Mohede, 32, Indonesian singer, heart attack.Singer Michael 'Mike' Mohede passes away at 32 *Eric Moon, 93, British-born American librarian.Obituary: Eric Moon, Former ALA President and LJ Editor-in-Chief *Seymour Papert, 88, South African-born American mathematician, computer scientist and educator.Professor Emeritus Seymour Papert, pioneer of constructionist learning, dies at 88 *Sylvie Roy, 51, Canadian politician, Quebec MNA for Lotbinière and Arthabaska (since 2003), acute hepatitis.Sylvie Roy, independent MNA, dies at 51 *Angelika Schrobsdorff, 88, German writer.German-Jewish writer Angelika Schrobsdorff dies at age 88 *Jean-Claude Wicky, 70, Swiss photographer.Jean-Claude Wicky n’est plus ==References== *2016-07 07
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The Chinese Head Tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada. The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and it was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The tax was abolished by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which outright prevented all Chinese immigration except for that of business people, clergy, educators, students, and some others. ==Tax== Through the mid- to late 19th century, some 17,000 labourers were brought from China to do construction work on the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), though they were only paid a third or a half less than their co-workers (about CA$1/day). Once the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed, the demand for cheap labour was non-existent, so the provincial legislature of British Columbia passed a strict law to virtually prevent Chinese immigration in 1885. However, this was immediately struck down by the courts as ultra vires ('beyond the powers of') the provincial legislative assembly, as it impinged upon federal jurisdiction over immigration into Canada. A similar attempt was made a year prior and another one was made in 1878 to tax every Chinese over the age of 12 to be taxed $10 () every three months. Responding to the anti-immigration sentiment in British Columbia, the Canadian government of John A. Macdonald introduced the Chinese Immigration Act, receiving Royal Assent and becoming law in 1885. Under its regulations, the law stipulated that all Chinese people entering Canada must first pay a fee, later referred to as a head tax. This was amended in 1887, 1892, and 1900, with the fee increasing to in 1900 and later to its maximum of in 1903 (), representing a two-year salary of an immigrant worker at that time. However, not all Chinese arrivals had to pay the head tax; those who were better off financially and presumed to return to China based on the apparent, transitory nature of their occupation or background were exempt from the penalty. These included arrivals identifying themselves as: students, teachers, missionaries, merchants, or members of the diplomatic corps. The Government of Canada collected about CA$23 million ($ in dollars) in face value from about 81,000 head tax payers. The head tax did discourage Chinese women and children from joining their men, but it failed to meet its goal, articulated by contemporary politicians and labour leaders, of the complete exclusion of Chinese immigration. Such was achieved through the same law that ended the head tax: the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which stopped Chinese immigration entirely, albeit with certain exemptions for business owners and others.Morton, James. 1974. In the Sea of Sterile Mountains: The Chinese in British Columbia. Vancouver: J.J. Douglas. It is sometimes referred to by opponents as the Chinese Exclusion Act, a term also used for its American counterpart. ==Redress== After the Chinese Immigration Act was repealed in 1948, various community leaders including Wong Foon Sien campaigned the federal government to open immigration policies for the Chinese community. However, the concept of a redress movement did not begin until 1984, when Vancouver Member of Parliament (MP) Margaret Mitchell raised the issue of repaying the Chinese Head Tax for two of her constituents in the House of Commons of Canada after the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms had been proclaimed and entrenched in the Constitution Act, 1982. Over 4,000 other head tax payers and their family members were eventually registered by the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC) and its member organizations across Canada, after the issue gathered broad public attention on the CJVB radio program, "Chinese Voice," hosted by Richmond, BC, personality Hanson Lau in February 1984. The redress campaign included holding community meetings, gathering support from other groups and prominent people, increasing the media profile, conducting research and published materials, making presentations at schools, etc. In 1989, Chinese Canadian National Council, the longtime advocate for the head Tax redress, suffered a split after the Tiananmen Square Massacre, which saw the formation of a competing group, the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC).Head-Tax Issue Causes DivisionHead-Tax Payer Rejects MP's Proposal for Apology ===1990s: preliminary negotiations=== In 1993, Conservative prime minister Brian Mulroney made an offer of individual medallions, a museum wing, and other collective measures that would also include several other redress-seeking communities. These were rejected outright by the Chinese Canadian national groups. However, in the same year, after Jean Chrétien became prime minister, the newly elected Liberal government openly refused to provide an apology or redress at all with the Multiculturalism Minister Sheila Finestone announcing in a letter, the following year, that the government "cannot rewrite history" and would not grant financial compensation or redress to groups for past injustices. Instead, the letter reaffirmed $24 million in financing for a Canadian Race Relations Foundation, an idea raised by the previous Conservative government.Platiel, Rudy, Ottawa stuns, angers ethnic groups by refusing to grant financial redress The government cannot rewrite history, multiculturalism minister says, Globe & Mail, December 16, 1994, A5 The CCNC and a number of regional groups across Canada continued to raise the issue whenever they could, including a submission to the United Nations Human Rights Commission and undertaking court action against the Crown-in-Council, arguing that the federal Crown should not be profiting from racism, and that it had a responsibility under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and international human rights law. ===CA$1.2 billion legal challenge=== In a legal challenge led by the CCNC, it was argued that the apology and compensation for the internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War, offered by the government in 1988, established a precedent for redressing other racially motivated policies. However, the Ontario court declared in its 2001 decision that the Government of Canada had no obligation to redress the head tax levied on Chinese immigrants because the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms had no retroactive application and the case of the internment of Japanese Canadians was not a legal precedent. Two subsequent appeals in 2002 and 2003 were also unsuccessful. Following the legal setbacks, community activism resumed once again across the country. Several regional and national events had been organized to revitalize the redress campaign, including opening discussions with opposition parties, led by groups in Edmonton and Montreal, which later formed the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance alongside the CCNC. When Paul Martin won the leadership of the federal Liberal Party and became prime minister in 2003, there was a sense of urgency in the Chinese Canadian community as it became clear that there were perhaps only a few dozen surviving Chinese Head Tax payers left, along with potentially a few hundred spouses or widows. ===2004: recommendations and report of the United Nations rapporteur=== In 2004, Doudou Diène, the United Nations special rapporteur on Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, concluded that Canada should redress the head tax to Chinese Canadians in response to a submission by May Chiu, legal counsel to the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. The Report's recommendations once again drew national and international attention to the Chinese Canadian redress campaign. In 2005, Gim Wong, an 82-year-old son of two head tax payers and a World War II veteran, conducted a cross-country Ride for Redress on his Honda Gold Wing motorcycle, whereupon his arrival in Ottawa Prime Minister Paul Martin refused to meet him. ===2005: failed Bill C-333=== On November 17, 2005, the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC) announced in a turn of events that an agreement had been reached between 11 of its member Chinese-Canadian groups and the federal Cabinet, wherein the Queen-in-Council would pay CA$12.5 million for the creation of a new non-profit foundation to educate Canadians about anti- Chinese discrimination, but with a specific pre-condition that no apology would be expected from the government. The NCCC was formed on a platform of "no apology and no individual compensation," and was seen by many as the reason the Liberal government selected them as the representative group to negotiate the deal without any prior consultation with the Chinese Canadian community at large. The Department of Canadian Heritage announced on November 24, 2005 that the agreed upon funding would be reduced to $2.5 million. It was later revealed that the Minister for Asia and Pacific Affairs, Raymond Chan, who claimed to have negotiated the deal, purposely misled both the ministers of the Crown and the public. Some of the groups named in the agreement later stated publicly that their names had been used without permission and in other cases, several other groups listed did not even exist.Head-tax debate heats up on hustings The surprise Liberal agreement caused a great outcry in the Chinese Canadian community, as the purported deal with the NCCC had been conducted without their input, resulting in an escalation in the redress movement, nationwide. Bill C-333, the Chinese Canadian Recognition and Redress Act, a private member's bill, was tabled in the federal parliament in order to implement the deal in November 2005. While C-333 purported to acknowledge, commemorate and educate about past government wrongdoings, it fell far short of the apology demanded by generations of Chinese Canadians. The Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families lobbied the Conservative Party to stop the passage of Bill C-333. The Conservatives exercised a procedural prerogative and switched the order of Bill C-333 with Bill C-331, a bill to recognize past wrongs against Ukrainian Canadians during wartime, causing Bill C-333 to die when Prime Minister Martin's Liberals lost a motion of non- confidence and parliament was dissolved on November 28, 2005.Redress door left open ===2006: federal campaign and election=== As they had done while campaigning for the federal election in 2004, the New Democratic Party and Bloc Québécois stated, during the leadup to the January 2006 election, their support for an apology and redress for the head tax. Similarly, on December 8, 2005, Conservative Party leader Stephen Harper released a press statement expressing his support for an apology for the head tax. As a part of his own party platform, Harper promised to work with the Chinese community on redress, should the Conservatives be called to form the next government.Conservative Party Of Canada Before his party ultimately lost the election, Martin issued a personal apology on a Chinese language radio program. However, he was quickly criticized by the Chinese Canadian community for not issuing the apology in the House of Commons and for then trying to dismiss it completely in the English-speaking media on the very same day. Several Liberal candidates with significant Chinese-Canadian populations in their ridings, including Vancouver-Kingsway MP David Emerson and the Minister of State for Multiculturalism and Richmond MP Raymond Chan, also made futile attempts to change their positions in the midst of the campaign. Notably, Deputy Prime Minister and Edmonton Centre MP Anne McLellan lost her riding to Conservative MP Laurie Hawn. ===Apology=== The 2006 federal election was won by the Conservative Party, forming a minority government. Three days after the ballots had been counted on January 23, but before he had been appointed prime minister, Harper reiterated his position on the head tax issue in a news conference, that "the Chinese Canadian community deserves an apology for the head tax and appropriate acknowledgement and redress." Early discussions on the form of apology and redress began on March 24, 2006, with a preliminary meeting between Chinese Canadians representing various groups (including some head tax payers), Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister Jason Kenney, and Heritage Minister Bev Oda, resulting in the "distinct possibility" of an apology being issued before July 1, to commemorate the anniversary of the enacting of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923. The government's acknowledgement followed in the Speech from the Throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on April 4. That year, from April 21 to 30, the Crown- in-Council hosted the first, formal public consultations across Canada in cities most actively involved and responsible for the campaign: Halifax, Vancouver, Toronto, Edmonton, Montreal, and Winnipeg. They included the personal testimony of elders and representatives from a number of groups, among them the Halifax Redress Committee; the British Columbia Coalition of Head Tax Payers, Spouses and Descendants; ACCESS; the Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families; the CCNC; the Edmonton HTEA Redress Committee of the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance; and, the Montreal chapter of the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. A number of the leading groups demanded meaningful redress, not only for the handful of surviving "head tax" payers and their widows or spouses, but first-generation sons and daughters who were direct victims, as recounted in the documentary Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice, proposing that the redress be represented (and limited) by each, actual "head tax" certificate brought forward by its surviving family members, or estate. Early demands from community groups for individual redress, ranged from $10,000 to $30,000 for the estimated 4,000 registrants. On June 22, 2006, twenty-two years after the Chinese Canadian redress campaign began, Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered an official apology to Chinese Canadians in the House of Commons for the first session of the 39th Parliament. During his address Harper spoke a few words in Cantonese, "" (, 'Canada Apologizes'), breaking the parliamentary tradition of speaking either English and French in the House of Commons. To the disappointment of many in the Chinese Canadian community, it was announced that only original head tax payers, or their surviving spouses, then in their nineties, or a total 785 claimants, would receive CAD$20,000 in individual redress, representing less than a fraction of one-percent of the 81,000 original head tax payers. Only an estimated 20 Chinese Canadians who paid the tax were still alive in 2006.Sympatico / MSN : News : CTV.ca: PM apologizes in House of Commons for head tax As no mention of further redress was made, the Chinese Canadian community continued to fight for redress from the Canadian government. A national day of protest was held to coincide with Canada Day 2006 in major cities across Canada, and several hundred Chinese Canadians joined in local marches. ==Documentaries== * * * ==See also== * Chinese Canadian National Council * Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice * New Zealand head tax * White Australia Policy * Chinese Exclusion Act * Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States * Internment of Japanese Canadians ==References== ==External links== * Search for names in Canadian government head tax records * LOST YEARS: A People's Struggle for Justice * Transcript of Prime Minister Harper's apology in Parliament * National Post-Chinese Cdns Speak of Anger, Anguish - April 23, 2006 * Redress.ca * HeadTaxRedress.org * ChineseHeadTax.ca Category:Anti-Chinese legislation Category:Chinese Canadian Head Tax Category:History of immigration to Canada Category:Human rights abuses in Canada Category:Political history of Canada Category:Taxation in Canada Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada Category:Poll taxes zh:人頭稅
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Virginia Christine (born Virginia Christine Ricketts; March 5, 1920 - July 24, 1996) was an American stage, radio, film, television, and voice actress. Though Christine had a long career as a character actress in film and television, she is probably best remembered as "Mrs. Olson" (or the "Folgers Coffee Woman") in a string of television commercials for Folgers Coffee during the 1960s and 1970s. ==Early life== Christine was born in Stanton in Montgomery County in southwestern Iowa. She was of Swedish descent. Upon her mother's remarriage, she changed her last name to "Kraft". The family later moved to Des Moines in Polk County, where Virginia attended Elmwood Elementary School. The family relocated again to Des Moines County in southeastern Iowa, not to be confused with the state capital in central Iowa. There Christine attended Mediapolis High School, where she aspired to be a concert pianist. Her family later moved to California, where she enrolled at UCLA. ==Career== ===Radio and films=== Christine began working in radio during college. Later, she appeared several times in the radio version of Gunsmoke, including the December 4, 1954 episode "Cholera", the February 19, 1955 episode "Poor Pearl", the September 3, 1955 episode "Change of Heart", the October 8, 1955 episode "Good Girl, Bad Company", the December 4, 1955 episode "Sunny Afternoon", the May 13, 1956 episode "Cows and Cribs", the September 9, 1956 episode "Belle's Back", the October 28, 1956 episode "Dirty Bill's Girl", the November 23, 1957 episode "Fingered", the October 5, 1958 episode "Tag You're It", the September 6, 1959 episode "Matt's Decision", the December 6, 1959 episode "Big Chugg Wilson", the January 24, 1960 episode "Bless Me 'Till I Die", the February 7, 1960 episode "Delia's Father", the February 28, 1960 episode "Prescribed Killing", the April 17, 1960 episode "Solomon River", the July 17, 1960 episode "Busted Up Guns", the August 28, 1960 episode "Tumbleweed", the September 18, 1960 episode "Two Mothers", the November 6, 1960 episode "Jedro's Woman", the December 4, 1960 episode "Kitty's Good Neighboring", the February 5, 1961 episode "Love of Money", and the May 7, 1961 episode "Ma's Justice". She began training for a theatrical career with actor/director Fritz Feld, whom she married in 1940. In 1942, she made her stage debut in the Los Angeles production of Hedda Gabler. While performing in the play, she was spotted by an agent from Warner Bros., who signed her to a film contract with the studio. Her first film for Warner was Edge of Darkness (1943), in which she played a Norwegian peasant girl. She was dropped by Warner Bros. in 1943 and signed with Universal Pictures in 1944. That year, Christine had a supporting role in The Mummy's Curse and The Wife of Monte Cristo, with her husband Fritz Feld (the two went go on to appear together in the Western 4 for Texas in 1963). In 1946, she appeared in The Scarlet Horseman, a 13-chapter film serial playing Carla Marquette, or Matosca, followed by a supporting role in the mystery film The Inner Circle. Christine's next film for Universal was the film noir classic The Killers. She initially tested for the lead role of femme fatale Kitty Collins, but lost out to Ava Gardner. The film's producer, Mark Hellinger, was impressed with her test and cast her as Lilly Harmon Lubinsky, the wife of Lt. Sam Lubinsky (Sam Levene). Christine also portrayed Miss Watston in the 1964 remake of the film, starring Lee Marvin and Angie Dickinson. In 1950, she played an uncredited supporting role in The Men. Although the part was small and the film was not a commercial success, her performance impressed the film's producer, Stanley Kramer. She became a favorite of his, and went on to appear in a number of his films, including Cyrano de Bergerac (1950) and High Noon (1952). Kramer later cast her in the 1955 drama Not as a Stranger, where she played a countrywoman. She also coached the film's star Olivia de Havilland on her Swedish accent. The following year, she co-starred in the horror film Invasion of the Body Snatchers. In 1961, Kramer cast her again as a German housekeeper in Judgment at Nuremberg. One of her most notable roles was as Hilary St. George, the bigoted co-worker of Katharine Hepburn's character in the 1967 film Guess Who's Coming to Dinner. ===Television=== In addition to her work in films, Christine also appeared in numerous television series. In the 1950s, she appeared in multiple guest roles on The Abbott and Costello Show, Four Star Playhouse, Dragnet, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, The Ford Television Theatre, Gunsmoke, Science Fiction Theatre, Matinee Theatre, Father Knows Best, Trackdown, State Trooper, Wanted: Dead or Alive, The Rifleman, Letter to Loretta, Superman, and General Electric Theater. In November 1959, Christine co-starred as the wife of a verbally abusive hypochondriac in the first-season episode of The Twilight Zone entitled "Escape Clause". In 1960 and 1961, Christine guest-starred on episodes of Coronado 9, Rawhide, and The Untouchables. From 1961 to 1962, Christine had a recurring role as widow Ovie Swenson in the Western series Tales of Wells Fargo. She made four guest appearances on Perry Mason, including the role of defendant Beth Sandover in the season-six, 1962 episode, "The Case of the Double-Entry Mind", and murderer Edith Summers in the season-seven, 1963 episode, "The Case of the Devious Delinquent". For the remainder of the decade, she continued with guest-starring roles in such shows as 77 Sunset Strip, Ben Casey, Bonanza, The Fugitive, Hazel, Wagon Train, The Virginian, Going My Way, The F.B.I., and Daniel Boone. In 1969, Christine co-starred in the ABC television movie Daughter of the Mind. Her greatest fame came in 1965 when she began her 21-year stint as the matronly Mrs. Olson, who had comforting words for young married couples while pouring Folgers coffee in television commercials. They became a popular staple on television, whereupon the character began to be parodied by comedians and entertainers, including Carol Burnett, Johnny Carson, Bob Hope, Ann-Margret, and Jackie Gleason. She went on to appear in over 100 commercials for Folgers. In 1971, Christine's hometown of Stanton, Iowa, honored her by transforming the city water tower to resemble a giant coffee pot. During the 1970s, Christine continued to work primarily in television. Her last role was on the 1979 animated series Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo, in which she provided additional voices. ===Later years=== Christine retired from acting in 1979. After her retirement, she did volunteer work at Planned Parenthood, and served as a judge at the American College Theatre Festival. She was later appointed the honorary mayor of Brentwood, Los Angeles, where she and her husband resided for many years. ==Personal life== In November 1940, Christine married character actor Fritz Feld. The couple had two sons, Steven and Danny. Christine and Feld remained married until his death in 1993. ==Death== On July 24, 1996, Christine died at her Brentwood home of cardiovascular disease. Her interment was at the Jewish Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills section of Los Angeles. ==Filmography== Film Year Title Role Notes 1943 Truck Busters Eadie Watkins 1943 Edge of Darkness Hulda Uncredited 1943 Mission to Moscow Maria - Beautician Uncredited 1943 Action in the North Atlantic Pebbles Scenes deleted 1943 Women at War Mary Sawyer 1944 Raiders of Ghost City Countess Elsa von Merck, alias Trina Dressard Film serial 1944 The Old Texas Trail Queenie Leone 1944 The Mummy's Curse Princess Ananka 1945 Counter-Attack Tanya Uncredited 1945 Phantom of the Plains Celeste 1945 Girls of the Big House Bernice Meyers 1946 The Scarlet Horseman Carla Marquette aka Matosca Film serial 1946 Idea Girl Evelina 1946 Murder Is My Business Dora Darnell Alternative title: Occupation Murder 1946 House of Horrors Lady of the Streets 1946 The Wife of Monte Cristo Uncredited 1946 The Inner Circle Rhoda Roberts 1946 The Killers Lilly Harmon Lubinsky 1946 The Mysterious Mr. Valentine Lola Carson 1947 The Invisible Wall Mildred Elsworth 1947 The Gangster Mrs. Karty Alternative title: Low Company 1948 Women in the Night Claire Adams Alternative titles: Curse of a Teenage Nazi When Men Are Beasts 1948 Night Wind Jean Benson 1948 Cover Up Margaret Baker Alternative title: The Intruder 1949 Special Agent Mabel Rumpler 1950 The Men Patient's Wife at Lecture Uncredited Alternative title: Battle Stripe 1950 Cyrano de Bergerac Sister Marthe 1952 The First Time Nurse Uncredited 1952 High Noon Mrs. Simpson Uncredited 1952 Women in the Night Claire Adams 1953 Never Wave at a WAC Lt. Myles, Recruiting Officer Uncredited 1953 Woman They Almost Lynched Jenny 1954 Dragnet Mrs. Caldwell Alternative title: The Original Dragnet 1955 The Cobweb Sally 1955 Not as a Stranger Bruni 1955 Good Morning, Miss Dove Mrs. Rigsbee Uncredited 1956 Invasion of the Body Snatchers Wilma Lentz 1956 The Killer Is Loose Mary Gillespie 1956 Nightmare Mrs. Sue Bressard 1956 Three Brave Men Helen Goldsmith 1957 The Spirit of St. Louis Secretary Uncredited 1957 Johnny Tremain Mrs. Lapham 1957 The Careless Years Mathilda Vernon 1960 Flaming Star Mrs. Phillips Uncredited 1961 Judgment at Nuremberg Mrs. Halbestadt 1962 Incident in an Alley Mrs. Connell 1963 Cattle King Ruth Winters Alternative title: Cattle King of Wyoming 1963 4 for Texas Brunhilde - Elya Carlson's Maid 1963 The Prize Mrs. Bergh, Chaperon 1964 One Man's Way Anna Peale 1964 The Killers Miss Watson 1965 A Rage to Live Emma 1966 Billy the Kid Versus Dracula Eva Oster 1967 Guess Who's Coming to Dinner Hilary St. George 1968 In Enemy Country Frau Gulden 1969 Hail, Hero! Eleanor Murchiston Television Year Title Role Notes 1951 Front Page Detective Beatrice Hillmane Episode: "The Devil's Bible" 1952 Racket Squad Episode: "The Phantom Bible" 1952 Personal Appearance Theater Episode: "The Chair" 1952 Dangerous Assignment Carla Episode: "The Perfect Alibi" 1952–1953 The Abbott and Costello Show Various roles 2 episodes 1952–1954 Dragnet Various roles 4 episodes 1953 I'm the Law Elliot Episode: "The Model Agency Story" 1953–1954 Four Star Playhouse Various roles 2 episodes 1954 Adventures of Superman Mrs. Frank Episode: "Lady in Black" 1954 The Whistler Helen Episode: "The Return" 1954–1956 The Ford Television Theatre Various roles 2 episodes 1955 Studio 57 Jenny Pickett Episode: "The Ballad of Jubal Pickett" 1955 Stage 7 Secretary Episode: "The Press Conference" 1955 Soldiers of Fortune Bonnie Episode: "Run 'Till You Die" 1955 Alfred Hitchcock Presents Various roles 2 episodes 1956 Crusader Episode: "Fear" 1956 The Star and the Story Alice Episode: "Arab Duel" 1956 Front Row Center Various roles 2 episodes 1956 Private Secretary Maud Episode: "Elusive" 1956 Big Town Episode: "Blackmail" 1956 Passport to Danger Episode: "London" 1956 Science Fiction Theatre Various roles 2 episodes 1956 The Adventures of Jim Bowie Katrina Gotshawk Episode: "The Squatter" 1956 Cavalcade of America Mrs. Sargent Episode: "Innocent Bystander" 1956–1957 Matinee Theater Various roles 2 episodes 1956–1958 Father Knows Best Grace 2 episodes 1956–1959 General Electric Theater Various roles 2 episodes 1957 Wire Service Sigrid Jensen Episode: "Profile of Ellen Gale" 1957 Hey, Jeannie! Mrs. Warren Episode: "Jeannie Plays Cupid" 1957 The Lone Ranger Cecile Charron Episode: "Canuck" 1957 Casey Jones Doris Jones Episode: "Storm Warning" 1957–1958 Trackdown Various roles 2 episodes 1957–1959 State Trooper Various roles 3 episodes 1957–1965 Gunsmoke Various roles 2 episodes 1958 The Restless Gun Amy Durant Episode: "Strange Family in Town" 1958 Whirlybirds Mrs. Thompson Episode: "The Brothers" 1958 Mike Hammer June Earl Episode: "For Sale, Deathbed, Used" 1958 The Millionaire Mrs. Barnett Episode: "The Russ White Story" 1958 The Thin Man Mildred Episode: "The Valley Forger" 1958 Behind Closed Doors Julie Episode: "The Cape Canaveral Story" 1958 Peter Gunn Nancy Davis Episode: "The Vicious Dog" 1958 Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre Mrs. Julie Hart Episode: "The Scaffold" 1958 Buckskin Miss Emily Pringle Episode: "Miss Pringle" 1958 The Donna Reed Show Margaret Lang Episode: "The Baby Contest" 1958 The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp Martha Evans Episode: "Plague Carrier" 1958–1960 Letter to Loretta Various roles 3 episodes 1958–1963 Perry Mason Various roles 4 episodes 1959 Rescue 8 Millie Wilde Episode: "Flash Flood" 1959 Steve Canyon Mary Moore Episode: "The Bomb" 1959 The Lawless Years Mrs. Pavlock Episode: "The Immigrant" 1959 Frontier Doctor Hester Gray, Stan's Sister Episode: "The Twisted Road" 1959 Man Without a Gun Episode: "Eye Witness" 1959 How to Marry a Millionaire Alma Fergeson Episode: "Love On Approval" 1959 Wanted: Dead or Alive Various roles 2 episodes 1959 The DuPont Show with June Allyson Mother Episode: "The Opening Door" 1959 The Twilight Zone Ethel Bedeker Episode: "Escape Clause" 1959 The Man from Blackhawk Mary Schuler Episode: "Death Is the Best Policy" 1959–1961 The Rifleman Various roles 2 episodes 1960 M Squad Mrs. Fassard Episode: "The Twisted Way" 1960 Riverboat Aunt Samantha Dexter Episode: "The Treasure of Hawk Hill" 1960 Happy Janice Episode: "Charlie's First Love" 1960 Thriller Marge Episode: "The Twisted Image" 1960–1961 Coronado 9 Various roles 2 episodes 1960–1961 Rawhide Various roles 2 episodes 1960–1961 The Untouchables Various roles 2 episodes 1960–1963 77 Sunset Strip Various roles 2 episodes 1961 Maverick Verna Lyme Episode: "Last Stop: Oblivion" 1961 Shirley Temple Theatre Rebecca Baines Episode: "Onawandah" 1961 The Deputy Molly Baker Episode: "Tension Point" 1961 This Is the Life Sophia Szabo Episode: "Song in the Night" 1961 The Asphalt Jungle Miss Brandt Episode: "The Sniper" 1961 Mister Ed Margaret Episode: "Little Boy" 1961–1962 Tales of Wells Fargo Ovie Swenson 14 episodes 1961–1965 Wagon Train Various roles 5 episodes 1962 The New Breed Episode: "Hail, Hail, the Gang's All Here" 1962 Target: The Corruptors! Lorraine Episode: "A Book of Faces" 1962 Going My Way Mrs. Randall Episode: "The Parish Car" 1962 Stoney Burke Flora Hill Episode: "A Matter of Pride" 1962 The Eleventh Hour Mrs. Drury Episode: "My Name Is Judith, I'm Lost, You See" 1963–1964 Ben Casey Various roles 2 episodes 1963–1964 Bonanza Various roles 2 episodes 1963–1967 The Virginian Various roles "To Make This Place Remember" (1963) and 3 other episodes 1964 Mr. Novak Mrs. Payne Episode: "The Exile" 1964 Hazel Mrs. McGuire Episode: "Luncheon with the Governor" 1964–1965 The Fugitive Various roles 2 episodes 1965 The Big Valley Margaret Coleman Episode: "The Young Marauders" 1966 Laredo Agnes Halsey Episode: "Sound of Terror" 1966 A Man Called Shenandoah Fran Macauley Episode: "Macauley's Cure" 1966 Jericho Episode: "Long Journey Across a Short Street" 1966–1968 The F.B.I. Various roles 3 episodes 1967 Felony Squad Cleaning Woman Episode: "The Deadly Partner" 1967 The Invaders Mrs. Thorne Episode: "Labyrinth" 1968–1970 Daniel Boone Various roles 2 episodes 1969 Lancer Hannah Sickles Episode: "Child of Rock and Sunlight" 1969 Daughter of the Mind Helga Television movie 1970 Nanny and the Professor Mrs. Wilson Episode: "Nanny and the Smoke-Filled Room" 1970 The Old Man Who Cried Wolf Miss Cummings Television movie 1974 Ironside Mrs. Hawkins Episode: "Raise the Devil: Part 1" 1976 Woman of the Year Alma Television movie 1976 Kojak Mrs. Yankowski Episode: "By Silence Betrayed" 1979 Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo Additional voices Unknown episodes ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1920 births Category:1996 deaths Category:20th-century American actresses Category:Actresses from Iowa Category:American film actresses Category:American people of Swedish descent Category:American radio actresses Category:American stage actresses Category:American television actresses Category:Burials at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery Category:Film serial actresses Category:People from Brentwood, Los Angeles Category:People from Montgomery County, Iowa Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni Category:Warner Bros. contract players Category:Deaths from cardiovascular disease
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Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands lie at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates, making these territories prone to earthquakes. This is a highly active seismic region both surrounded and traversed by numerous fault lines; to the north, the North American plate subducts into the Caribbean plate, while a number of fault lines cross the main island of Puerto Rico diagonally from southeast to northeast. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands are also located on a microplate that is continuously being trampled by the subduction zone to the north. Puerto Rico is constantly prone to experiencing major earthquakes, superior to 7.0, at any moment. Seismicity in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands is comparable to that of California and the Western United States; however seismicity in the region can be divided into two smaller areas: the more active western part of the island and the less active eastern part that is shared with the US Virgin Islands, where the subduction zone is located. The North American plate moves about 2 cm a year into the Caribbean plate. In addition to the subduction fault there are numerous transform faults that cross the island laterally. These transform or strike-slip faults produce the same kind of horizontal-motion earthquakes that the San Andreas fault is known to generate. Over millions of years the movement of these faults have influenced Puerto Rico's geography and formed valleys such as the Lajas and the Caguas valleys, the largest of their kind on the island. The fault zone located in the Lajas Valley is of great concern for geologists as it is poorly mapped and might extend for a longer area towards Ponce in the southern coast. == History == The region has been seismically active since ancient times. The Great Northern and Great Southern fault zones that cross the main island of Puerto Rico laterally have been active since the Eocene epoch. Earthquakes in the region have been recorded since the early 17th century and some of the first seismic activity in the Americas were recorded first in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. One of the first recorded earthquakes in the region was on September 8, 1615, which originated in the Dominican Republic region and caused damages throughout the island. Earthquakes have been studied and recorded in Puerto Rico since the 20th century. The Puerto Rico Seismic Network (Red Sísmica de Puerto Rico or RSPR), which is contained within the department of Geology of the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, was established in 1974 by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the former Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA). It was established with the goal evaluating seismic features for the purpose of building nuclear power plants in the region. Its mission today is to detect, process and study seismic activity within the Puerto Rico region. The RSPR operates 25 seismometers throughout Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands. Two of these seismometers are owned by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. On average, there are about 5 earthquakes recorded per day and about 3 earthquakes with magnitude 5.0 higher recorded per year in the region. Given that most of the active faults are located at sea, most earthquakes in the region do not cause loss of life or significant damage, and significant destructive earthquakes that occur in Puerto Rico are rare. Most large earthquakes have historically occurred at sea which makes the area susceptible to destructive tsunamis. The last tsunami to cause significant damages in Puerto Rico was on October 11, 1918, which was generated by the 1918 Aguadilla earthquake. There have been more recent tsunami events, such as in 1946, which did not cause significant damage to the island. The last earthquakes to cause loss of life were the 2020 southwestern Puerto Rico sequence of earthquakes which caused 4 deaths. The last earthquake to cause significant damage and loss of life in the Virgin Islands occurred in 1867; this earthquake generated a tsunami that affected the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. == Notable earthquakes == Date Name Area MMI Deaths Injuries Total damage / notes 1615-09-08 Hispaniola Dominican Republic - - - - One of the oldest recorded earthquakes in the Puerto Rico and Caribbean region. It affected Hispaniola and caused damage in Puerto Rico. 1670-08-15 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - - - - Unknown epicenter, it caused damages in San Juan and San Germán, at the time the largest settlements in Puerto Rico. 1707-01-01 Arecibo Puerto Rico - - - - Unknown epicenter, it destroyed the Arecibo Cathedral and several important colonial buildings in San Germán. 1717-08-30 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - VII - - Unknown epicenter, it destroyed Ponce's cathedral. The fact that it did not cause significant damage in Yauco, San Germán and Lajas suggests it was a small event localized close to Ponce. 1787-05-02 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Trench 8.0–8.5 IX - - Possibly the strongest earthquake to have hit Puerto Rico since European colonization. It was strongly felt throughout the island and major damage was reported everywhere except for in the south (although there were minor damage in colonial buildings in Ponce). It destroyed several government buildings, parts of El Morro and other fortifications and walls in San Juan, the cathedral and colonial buildings in Arecibo, and historical buildings in Bayamón, Mayagüez and Toa Baja. Contemporary research bestows the possibility that it was not a single 8.0 event but multiple earthquakes ranging from 6.4 to 7.3. 1824-04-20 Saint Thomas Virgin Islands - - - - It was strongly felt in Saint Thomas where it destroyed at least one building. 1844-04-16 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Trench - VIII - - Major damage was recorded in Puerto Rico and Saint Thomas. It damaged most houses in San Juan. 1851-02-22 San Juan Puerto Rico Trench - - - - It caused damage in San Juan's city hall. 1855-12-14 Salinas Puerto Rico - VI - - Said to be the strongest earthquake to have hit Salinas since the town's founding where it caused minor localized damage. It was also felt in Aguas Buenas. 1860-10-23 Mayagüez Puerto Rico - VII - - Felt strongly in Mayagüez where it caused damage. 1865-05-12 Saint Thomas Virgin Islands - - - - Pair of strong earthquakes that hit the Virgin Islands and caused damages in Saint Thomas. 1865-08-30 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - VI - - Its epicenter was most likely located deep on land in the Central Mountain Ranges region of Puerto Rico. It caused damages in Ponce and Manatí. 1867-11-18 Virgin Islands Virgin Islands 7.3 IX 40+ - It produced a tsunami that affected the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. 1868-03-17 Virgin Islands Virgin Islands 6.5 - - - 1874-08-26 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Trench - VI - - It destroyed several houses and buildings in San Juan. 1875-12-08 Arecibo Puerto Rico Trench - VIII - - It caused significant damage in Arecibo and was strongly felt in Ponce. 1890-08-15 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - - - - It was felt throughout the island and caused damages in Arecibo and Ponce. 1906-09-27 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - VI - - Felt strongly throughout Puerto Rico and as far as the Dominican Republic and Saint Thomas. Only damages in San Juan were reported, where it caused fissures on the cathedral walls. 1906-10-20 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - VI - - Felt throughout the island. Possibly an aftershock to the September 27 event. 1908-08-04 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico - VI - - Pair of earthquakes felt throughout Puerto Rico. Damage was reported in Arecibo, Ponce, San Germán and Yauco. 1909-02-17 Virgin Islands Virgin Islands - VI - - Felt in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Minor damage reported in Culebra and Saint Thomas. 1918-10-11 Puerto Rico Mona Passage 7.1 IX 118 - $4–29 million USD in damages. Damage and injuries were reported throughout the island. Several aftershocks were registered after the main shock, particularly a 6.5 aftershock that occurred the following year. 1902-05-13 Virgin Islands Virgin Islands - VI - - Felt strongly in Saint Thomas. 1920-02-10 Aguadilla Mona Passage 6.4 VI - - 1943-07-29 Puerto Rico Mona Passage 7.7 VI - - It was felt throughout Puerto Rico but no deaths or injuries were reported. Minor damage was reported throughout the island. 1946-08-04 Dominican Republic Dominican Repiblic 8.1 IX 2,550 - Large earthquake centered in the Samaná Peninsula of the Dominican Republic. All deaths occurred in the Dominican Republic. No deaths or injuries was reported in Puerto Rico. Localized damaged was however reported throughout the island. A small tsunami was recorded in Mayagüez, Aguadilla and as far away in San Juan and even Daytona Beach, FL and Atlantic City, NJ. This is the largest earthquake to have hit the Caribbean region in the 20th century. It was followed by numerous aftershocks, the largest being 7.4 registered 4 days after the main shock. 1954-04-01 Aguadilla Mona Passage 5.7 - - - 1955-05-13 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.8 - - - 1959-07-21 Punta Cana Mona Passage 5.6 - - - 1959-09-01 Vieques Virgin Islands 5.5 - - - 1966-11-03 Punta Cana Mona Passage 6.0 - - - 1970-07-08 Saint Croix Virgin Islands 6.1 IV - - 1974-01-01 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.6 - - - 1974-06-21 Isabela Puerto Rico Trench 4.9 - - - 1974-08-29 Esperanza Vieques 4.6 - - - 1974-10-26 Vega Alta Puerto Rico 4.7 - - - 1975-06-17 Brenas Puerto Rico 5.0 - - - 1976-03-29 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.7 - - - 1976-06-13 Punta Cana Mona Passage 5.4 - - - 1977-05-02 San Antonio Mona Passage 5.2 - - - 1978-09-07 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 5.0 - - - 1979-01-22 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.1 - - - Earthquake swarm. 1979-03-23 Dominican Republic Mona Passage 6.1 VI - - Felt throughout the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Puerto Rico, and even as far away as Colombia. 1981-08-24 Puerto Rico Mona Passage 5.7 - - - Felt throughout the island. Light damage in Guayanilla. 1982-06-11 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.2 - - - Earthquake swarm. 1983-12-19 San Antonio Mona Passage 5.0 - - - 1984-01-23 San Juan Puerto Rico Trench 4.9 - - - 1984-03-19 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 5.0 - - - Earthquake swarm. 1984-10-02 Tallaboa Puerto Rico 4.8 - - - 1985-06-26 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.9 - - - 1985-07-21 Punta Cana Mona Passage 5.7 - - - 1986-02-13 Culebra Virgin Islands 4.4 - - - 1986-02-18 Playita Cortada Puerto Rico 4.7 IV - - 1986-06-05 Yauco Puerto Rico 4.1 - - - 1987-05-30 Pole Ojea Puerto Rico 4.6 V - - Its epicenter was centered close to Boquerón. Minor damage reported in the southwestern region of the island. 1988-11-03 San Antonio Puerto Rico Trench 6.0 IV - - 1990-01-09 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.0 - - - Earthquake swarm. 1990-02-04 Loíza Puerto Rico Trench 4.6 - - - 1990-06-21 Luquillo Puerto Rico Trench 4.6 - - - 1990-10-01 Juncos Puerto Rico 4.7 - - - 1992-02-10 San Juan Puerto Rico Trench 4.5 - - - 1992-11-23 San Antonio Mona Passage 5.3 - - - 1992-12-28 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.4 - - - 1993-01-13 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.0 - - - Earthquake swarm. 1993-08-01 Emajagua Muertos Trough 5.3 - - - 1996-05-11 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 5.1 - - - 1996-11-06 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.1 - - - 1999-01-18 San Antonio Puerto Rico Trench 5.0 - - - 2001-10-17 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 6.0 IV - - Earthquake swarm. 2001-10-17 Rincón Mona Passage 4.6 III - - 2002-03-11 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.1 - - - 2002-06-12 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.5 III - - 2002-11-13 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.2 - - - Earthquake swarm. 2003-03-21 Boca de Yuma Mona Passage 5.1 - - - 2003-12-06 San Antonio Puerto Rico Trench 5.1 - - - Earthquake swarm. 2004-09-06 Vieques Virgin Islands 5.1 - - - 2004-12-11 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.2 V - - 2006-08-14 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.3 V - - 2006-05-24 Las Piedras Puerto Rico 4.0 III - - 2007-12-18 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.3 - - - Earthquake swarm. 2008-02-04 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Trench 5.5 - - - 2008-10-11 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 6.1 V - - Felt in Puerto Rico, the US and British Virgin Islands. 2009-03-12 Brenas Puerto Rico Trench 5.1 V - - 2009-05-20 Vieques Virgin Islands 5.0 IV - - 2009-06-13 Arecibo Puerto Rico Trench 4.9 IV - - 2009-07-21 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.7 IV - - 2009-08-14 Suárez Puerto Rico Trench 5.1 III - - 2010-04-10 Virgin Islands Virgin Islands 4.8 IV - - 2010-05-16 Moca Puerto Rico 5.8 VI - - Felt throughout Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and the US and British Islands. It caused minor damage in the western and northwestern regions of Puerto Rico, and a minor landslide that affected a portion of PR-111. It is the largest Puerto Rican earthquake to have occurred in land in recent times. 2010-07-07 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.5 III - - Earthquake swarm. 2010-12-24 Aguas Buenas Puerto Rico 5.1 V - - Felt throughout Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. It is colloquially known as the 2010 Noche Buena earthquake (2010 Christmas Eve earthquake). It caused minor damage throughout the island and localized power outages throughout the Caguas and San Juan regions. It is the largest earthquake to directly hit the San Juan Metropolitan region in recent times. 2011-01-21 San Juan Puerto Rico Trench 4.9 IV - - 2011-04-13 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.0 IV - - 2011-11-28 Hatillo Puerto Rico Trench 5.1 V - - Pair of earthquakes (5.0 and 5.1). 2011-12-17 Stella Puerto Rico 5.2 VI - - Pair of earthquakes (5.2 and 5.1). 2013-02-26 Mona Passage Mona Passage 5.1 V - - 2014-01-13 Hatillo Puerto Rico Trench 6.4 V - - Felt throughout Puerto Rico, particularly in San Juan and its suburbs. 2014-08-13 Culebra Virgin Islands 4.6 V - - 2015-07-17 Aguadilla Mona Passage 4.5 II - - 2015-08-05 Brenas Puerto Rico Trench 4.6 II - - 2016-12-05 Emajagua Puerto Rico 4.6 V - - 2017-07-17 Hatillo Puerto Rico Trench 4.7 IV - - 2017-08-18 Brenas Puerto Rico Trench 4.8 IV - - 2017-10-01 Rincón Mona Passage 4.4 II - - 2018-02-09 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.5 II - - 2018-03-06 Culebra Virgin Islands 4.5 III - - 2018-04-06 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 4.7 IV - - Earthquake swarm. 2018-12-25 Mona Passage Mona Passage 4.6 II - - 2019-02-18 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 4.8 IV - - 2019-03-12 Jobos Puerto Rico 4.6 V - - Felt throughout Puerto Rico. Localized minor damage in Guayama. It was followed by several aftershocks including a 4.1 which was the largest. 2019-09-24 San Antonio Mona Passage 6.0 V - - Felt throughout Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. It produced several aftershocks of which the September 26 one was the largest (5.1) and also resulted in minor localized damage. 2019-10-06 Cruz Bay Virgin Islands 5.0 III - - Earthquake swarm. 2019-12-28 Maria Antonia Puerto Rico 4.7 V - - First notable temblor in the earthquake swarm sequence of shocks that affected the southwestern portion of Puerto Rico from December 2019 throughout 2020. 2020-01-07 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico 6.4 VIII 4 9 Strongest in the earthquake swarm sequence of shocks that affected the southwestern portion of Puerto Rico from December 2019 throughout 2020. It caused significant damages and power outages throughout the island. 2020-06-23 Isabela Puerto Rico Trench 4.6 V - - 2021-02-05 Charlotte Amalie Virgin Islands 5.0 IV - - == See also == * Geology of Puerto Rico * List of earthquakes * United States Geological Survey (USGS) == References == Virgin Islands
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Hallopus was a prehistoric reptile, named in 1877 as a species of Nanosaurus and classified by O. C. Marsh in 1881 from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation. Today though the animal is thought to be a pseudosuchian more closely related to crocodilians. It was redescribed as a sphenosuchian crocodylomorph in 1970, now thought to be a paraphyletic group. It was a quite small animal, reaching a length of 1 m (3.3 ft) with long and slender limbs. Macelognathus, a similarly slender-proportioned crocodylomorph to Hallopus, may be synonymous with it. ==History and naming== thumb|Front and hind limb of Hallopus victor|left The holotype specimen of Hallopus was discovered by near Canyon City, Colorado and acquired by a collector named Baldwin for three dollars in a local curiosity shop in Colorado Springs. According to letters later chronicled by Schuchert (1939), he found out about the fossil after hearing about the discovery of a supposed fossil bird, before later traveling to the type locality himself in search of additional remains. The holotype consists of two slabs of rock containing the largely dissarticulated remains of a single individual known from elements of the spine and mostly limb material. Skull material was initially not identified, however later research by Walker proposes that some bone fragments may belong to it. Othniel Charles Marsh, who originally described the specimen the same year it was found, initially thought it to be a species of the small ornithischian Nanosaurus, naming it Nanosaurus victor.O. C. Marsh. 1877. Notice of some new vertebrate fossils. American Journal of Arts and Sciences 14:249-256 However Marsh was vague in his description of where the specimen originated, writing that it was "probably Jurassic" and assigning it to the lower part of the Dakota Group, despite detailed accounts of the locality being sent to him by Baldwin. The locality was merely identified as "Rocky Mountains" in this first publication. Later, in 1881, Marsh erected the genus Hallopus, now recognizing it as a distinct genus but still believing it to be a dinosaur. The age of Hallopus was later revised by Marsh, successively assigning it to older and older strata culminating in a proposed Early Jurassic or even Late Triassic age. It was around this time that Marsh took further notice of Hallopus anatomy and speculated on how it fit within Dinosauria. Marsh coined both the family Hallopodidae and the suborder Hallopoda in 1881, placing them within Dinosauria. In publications from 1882 and 1890 Marsh himself casts doubt on this however, growing doubtful of his prior hypothesis and arriving at the conclusion that Hallopus may be a link between typical dinosaurs and what he considered to be more primitive forms (aetosaurs, crocodilians and phytosaurs). He retains Hallopoda within Theropoda regardless and it was in 1890 that Hallopus received a full, detailed description figuring the type material, which was later expanded upon and revised throughout the 1890s. The first full image of the two rock slabs that contain the holotype were published by von Huene in 1914, who still believed Hallopus to be a theropod. In 1939 Charles Schuchert suggests that Marsh was correct in his first assumption, which proposed that Hallopus was found in the upper members of the Morrison Formation. His research cites a series of letters exchanged between Marsh and Baldwin specifically concerning where the fossil was found. In his work, Schuchert presumes a rocky hill known as "The Nipple" to be where Hallopus originated, but his research contains a series of contradictions that cast doubt over the specifics. Regardless of the mystery surrounding the exact locality, the description offered by Baldwin and the highly specialised skeletal adaptations both support an assignment to the late Jurassic. The reason Marsh continuously revised the age of Hallopus may have been that he was simply unaware of any Upper Morrison sediments matching the given description, which were later confirmed to exist around "The Nipple" by Ague, Carpenter & Ostrom in 1995. One consequence of Marsh's revisions is that the "Hallopus Beds" named by him did not actually contain any material of Hallopus. As far as the material itself was concerned, no detailed examinations of the fossils were published following von Huene's 1914 paper and researchers of the time consistently placed the animal within Coelurosauria until 1970, when Alick Walker published his re-description and concluded that Hallopus was in fact a Pseudosuchian, a classification maintained until today.A. D. Walker. A Revision of the Jurassic Reptile Hallopus victor (Marsh), with Remarks on the Classification of Crocodiles. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences Vol. 257, No. 816 (Feb. 26, 1970), pp. 323-372 The name Hallopus is derived from the Greek άλλομαι (hallomai), meaning "jumping" and ποΰς (pous) which translates to "foot". ==Description== Overall Hallopus was a relatively small and gracile animal with strongly elongated limbs, five fingers on each hand and effectively tridactyl hindlimbs. Early size estimates of Hallopus by Marsh were vague, describing it as being "the size of a fox" and later likening it to rabbits in size. Using the proportions of various sphenosuchians, especially Pedeticosaurus, Walker estimates a total body length of approximately . Like typical for crocodylomorphs, Hallopus possessed two sacral vertebrae, which in the holotype are firmly ossified, leaving no trace of a suture between them. Previous authors hypothesized the presence of a third sacral, however Walker deems this unlikely, partly due to how firmly the two known vertebrae are fused. A series of four caudal vertebrae is known, which are notably smaller than the sacrals and likely from much further down the tail. A few other poorly preserved vertebrae of indetermined position are also preserved on the rock slab and Walker also describes several rib fragments and a chevron. The humerus is known from a series of impressions as well as the preserved distal end, which shows that the bone was hollow. The narrow distal end of the humerus marked by a deep groove at its posterior, combined with the shortened olecranon process, suggests that Hallopus was capable of stretching its forearms in a way that would create a straight line between it and the humerus. The radiale and ulnare were likewise elongated, most likely functioning as an extension of the radius and ulna rather than an independent element. In mammals the radius is known to exceed the humerus length significantly in some species, but even compared to these the ratio between humerus and radiale+radius in Hallopus is exceptional at a total of 146%, only exceeded in proportions by giraffes. The comparison to mammals however does not extend to the metacarpals, which are proportionally short (only 26% the length of the humerus). The joints of the wrist were relatively stiff, which effectively increases the length of the forearm. Walker suggests that these joints would not be completely immobile, reasoning that if that had been the case simple elongation of the forearms would have been a more reasonable adaptation. Based on the elongation of the metacarpals, it's believed that the forelimbs of Hallopus may have been digitigrade, further supported by the way length is distributed throughout the finger bones and the way the first and last finger converge towards the central metacarpals. Digit one in this case shows signs of being perpetually flexed and would have acted as stabilisers, touching the ground behind and to the sides of the central fingers. The femur was rather restricted in its movement, only capable of moving in a parasagittal manner (back and forth) due to its offset femur head and the presence of a lesser trochanter. The hindlimbs likewise were probably digitigrade and effectively tridactyl as the central three toes were effectively locked together at their base before diverging towards their tips. The centralmost toe (digit three) is the longest of the pairing. The feet were long, with the bones of the central digits likely being about as long as the metatarsals, and the entire pes being about the same length as the tibia (which itself is longer than the femur). The heel was narrow and lacked the groove seen in modern crocodiles, suggesting that it functions like a lever similar to what can be observed in cursorial mammals. ==Phylogeny== The classification of Hallopus has a long history dominated by two main hypothesis that placed it on vastly different branches of the archosaur family tree. For almost a hundred years Hallopus was considered a dinosaur until its crocodylomorph affinities were recognized in the 1970s. Walker identified multiple anatomical details that clearly established that Hallopus was a pseudosuchian, specifically less derived than Protosuchus or Orthosuchus. In this publication, he considered Hallopus as a descendent of a clade he named Pedeticosauridae, which is now thought to be synonymous with the likely paraphyletic Sphenosuchia, a clade of gracile, long limbed crocodylomorphs from the Triassic-Jurassic. A phylogenetic analysis from 2017Leardi et al. (2017), Detailed anatomy of the braincase of Macelognathus vagans Marsh, 1884 (Archosauria, Crocodylomorpha) using high resolution tomography and new insights on basal crocodylomorph phylogeny. PeerJ 5:e2801; DOI 10.7717/peerj.2801 recovered Hallopus in a clade with Macelognathus and Almadasuchus, the Hallopodidae (defined as "all taxa more closely related to Hallopus victor than to Protosuchus richardsoni or Dibothrosuchus elaphros). The Hallopodidae was recovered as the nearest sister to the Crocodyliformes and more derived than Junggarsuchus or the "sphenosuchians" whose monophyly was not supported in this analysis. In 2022 Ruebenstahl and colleagues published an extensive description of Junggarsuchus using CT-scans while also comparing it to other early diverging crocodylomorphs, in particular Dibothrosuchus. They furthermore analysed traits used in prior analysis critically and built a data matrix based on previously established phylogenies including that of Leardi (2017). The analysis included all by then known early diverging crocodylomorphs and tested the results by introducing several variations in outgroup taxa and weighting methods. In the process of this research, a new clade, Solidocrania, was named. With the exception of some analysis using implied weight, Sphenosuchia was generally found to be paraphyletic by the authors. Even in the scenario of a monophyletic grouping there was weak support. A monophyletic Hallopodidae was only recovered under implied weighting, where it retained its position as a sister group to Crocodylomorpha. Instead Ruebenstahl and colleagues find Hallopus to be a sister taxon to Solidocrania, which contains Macelognathus, Junggarsuchus and Almadasuchus. However the lack of well preserved cranial material renders the genus' position uncertain. Shown below is one of the trees recovered by the publication, recovered using Postosuchus as the outgroup and under implied weighting of characters. The proximity between Hallopus and Macelognathus has led to some taxonomic issues in the recent past. In their 2005 publication of Macelognathus, Göhlich and colleagues note several similarities between the two taxa, which may have been roughly contemporary with one another.Göhlich, U. B., Chiappe, L. M., Clark, J. M. & Sues, H.-D. 2005.The systematic position of the Late Jurassic alleged dinosaur Macelognathus (Crocodylomorpha: Sphenosuchia). Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences — Revue canadienne de sciences de la Terre 42(3):307-321. Leardi and colleagues however note that many of these similarities are widespread among non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs while some of the differences in proportions are difficult to observe in the fossils. The fact that the braincase is only preserved for Macelognathus makes comparison between the two taxa difficult as well. Leardi and colleagues conclude that the two may be synonymous, however closer inspection of Hallopus holotype or additional material clearly referrable to the taxon would be required to be sure. ==Paleobiology== Based on its light build and extremely elongated limbs, Hallopus was most likely a fast-running agile animal. Walker proposes that while running the forelimbs would have performed a kind of strut, with the anterior part of the body bouncing off to allow for a greater stridelength. Walker further argues that this might compensate for the much longer hindlimbs by raising the glenoids, and proposed that Hallopus would have been capable of moving in ways similar to hares and greyhounds. Of the two, mountain hares were noted to be the closest modern analogy as far as the proportions between individual bones and entire limbs were concerned. These proportions alongside the shape of the calcaneal may suggest a bounding gate for Hallopus, however Walker warns that the analogy is not a perfect one and that Hallopus would still be relatively restricted in its movement compared to extant mammals. Subsequently it cannot be determined if the hindlimbs could have passed the forelimbs while galloping without knowing how short or flexible the spine was. The long tail, inferred based on its relatives and the recovered caudal vertebrae, would have also made a substantial difference. The lack of skull material relevant to the jaws leaves Hallopus diet ambiguous. However, the closely related, if not synonymous Macelognathus does preserve pieces of the jaw, displaying a unique toothless mandible tip, possibly covered by a keratinous rhamphotheca. The teeth of Macelognathus meanwhile are unserrated and mediolaterally flattened, not matching a carnivorous diet and instead being better suited for consuming insects and plant material. == References == Category:Late Jurassic crocodylomorphs Category:Terrestrial crocodylomorphs Category:Morrison fauna Category:Taxa named by Othniel Charles Marsh Category:Fossil taxa described in 1881 Category:Prehistoric pseudosuchian genera
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The Dassaretii (Ancient Greek: Δασσαρῆται, Δασσαρήτιοι, Latin: Dassaretae, Dassaretii) were an Illyrian people that lived in the inlands of southern Illyria, between present-day south-eastern Albania and south-western North Macedonia.; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Their territory included the entire region between the rivers Asamus and Eordaicus (whose union forms the Apsus), the plateau of Korça locked by the fortress of Pelion and, towards the north it extended to Lake Lychnidus up to the Black Drin. They were directly in contact with the regions of Orestis and Lynkestis of Upper Macedonia.; ; ; ; . Their chief city was Lychnidos, located on the edge of the lake of the same name.; ; ; . One of the most important settlements in their territory was established at Selcë e Poshtme near the western shore of Lake Lychnidus, where the Illyrian Royal Tombs were built.; The Dassaretii were one of the most prominent peoples of southern Illyria, forming an ethnic state.; ; . They made up the ancient Illyrian kingdom that was established in this region.; ; ; . The weakening of the kingdom of the Enchelei presumably led to Enchelei's assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 6th–5th centuries BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii, who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area. Most scholars hold that the Illyrian kingdom that was established in the early 4th century BC by the first attested Illyrian ruler – Bardylis – was centered along Lake Ohrid and east to the Prespa Lakes, which was called Dassaretis or Dassaretia later in Roman times, located on the border between Macedon and Epirus.; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Although Ohrid and Prespa are usually called "Dassaretan Lakes", only Ohrid remained part of Dassaretan territory, while the region of Prespa became part of Macedon when Philip II annexed it after his victories against the Illyrians. During a campaign in Illyria in 335 BC, Alexander the Great undertook a victorious siege at Pelion, in Dassaretis, against Illyrians who revolted under the leadership of Cleitus, son of Bardylis, with the aid of Glaucias, king of the Taulantii. Bardylis II, who reigned in the early 3rd century BC and who is presumably considered Cleitus' son, might have succeeded Glaucias on the throne as the grandson of Bardylis, or alternatively he might have reigned independently after his father Cleitus somewhere in Dassaretia, in an area located nearer the Macedonian border. From the 3rd century BC onwards the Dassaretii have been attested as one of the largest Illyrian tribes of the region, and in different periods they changed their rulers, being alternatively under the Illyrian (Ardiaean/Labeatan) kingdom, the Madedonian kingdom and the Roman Republic. In Hellenistic times the Dassaretii minted coins bearing the inscription of their ethnicon. As Roman allies, in 167 BC the Romans declared Dassaretii and their region Dassaretia independent. Dassaretia remained part of the Roman protectorate in southern Illyricum outside the borders of Macedonia. From the middle of the 2nd century BC Dassaretia was included in the Roman province of Macedonia. The Dassaretii established autonomous political entities under the Roman protectorate. Centered at Lychnidus, Roman era inscriptions indicate that Dassaretia was an administrative unit with its own magistrates. == Name == The tribal name Dassaret- is of Illyrian origin, stemming from Illyrian *daksa/dassa ("water, sea") attached to the suffix -ar. It is related to Illyrian personal names Dazos and Dassius and is also reflected in the toponym of Daksa island and the river Ardaxanos, which is mentioned by Polybius (2nd century BC) in the hinterland of modern Durrës and Lezhë. The name Dassaret- appears relatively late in ancient literature, being mentioned for the first time around 200 BC. The tribal name Sesarethioi (or Sesarethii), mentioned for the first time by Hecataeus (6th century BC) as an Illyrian tribe holding the city of Sesarethus in the territory of the Illyrian people of Taulantioi, is very close to Dassaretioi. The variant Sesarethioi is also mentioned by Strabo (1st century BC – 1st century AD) as an alternative name for the Enchelei. It has been suggested either that the name Sesarethii can't be considered as another name for the Enchelei (another tribe mentioned by Hecataeus as living to the north of the Chaones), or that Dassaretii were probably known to the Greeks with the name Encheleoi, while their original name in Illyrian would have been Sesarethioi, indicating therefore a connection between them. The name Dexaroi, mentioned by Hecataeus as a Chaonian tribe adjacent to the Enchelei, has likely the same root as the Illyrian Dassaretii. The hypothesis that equates the Dexaroi with the Dassaretii still remains uncertain. According to a mythological tradition reported by Appian (2nd century AD), the Dassaretii were among the South-Illyrian tribes that took their names from the first generation of the descendants of Illyrius, the eponymous ancestor of all the Illyrian peoples. The Illyrian Dassaretii are often mentioned by Polybius (The Histories) and Livy (Ab Urbe Condita Libri) in their accounts of the Illyrian Wars and Macedonian Wars. They are also mentioned by Strabo (Geographica. VII. p. 316), Appian (Illyrike. 1), Pomponius Mela (De situ orbis libri III. II. 3), Pliny (Natural History. III. 23), Ptolemy (Geography. p. 83) and Stephanus of Byzantium (Ethnica. "Δασσαρῆται"). Their name appears also on coins of the Hellenistic period bearing the inscription ΔΑΣΣΑΡΗΤΙΩΝ, attesting their presence in the Lychnidus area. == Geography == The territory inhabited by the Dassaretii – Dassaretis or Dassaretia – has been documented in literary sources dating from the Roman period. It was a central area of southern Illyria, directly in contact with the regions of Orestis and Lynkestis of Upper Macedonia. The Dassaretii were located between the tribes of Parthini (who dwelled in the Shkumbin valley) and Atintanes (who inhabited in the mountain ranges between Asamus and Aous rivers). The extent of the territory of Dassaretii seems to have been considerable, since it included the entire region between the rivers Asamus and Eordaicus (whose union forms the Apsus), the plateau of Korça locked by the fortress of Pelion and, towards the north it extended to Lake Lychnidus up to the city of the same name. Although Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa are usually called "Dassaretan Lakes", only Ohrid remained part of Dassaretan territory, while the region of Prespa became part of Macedon when Philip II annexed it after his victories against the Illyrians. Upper Prespa was on the borderland between the Dassaretan tribes and the Paeones, who were located to the north-east of the lakes, while Lower Prespa was part of the Orestae. The inhabitants of the settlements that were concentrated in Upper Prespa have been under the dominion of the Dassaretan tribal confederation prior to being completely integrated into the Kingdom of Macedon. Livy (1st century BC) reports that following the victory of 167, the Roman Senate decided to give freedom to "Issenses et Taulantios, Dassaretiorum Pirustas, Rhizonitas, Olciniatas", rewarded because they abandoned the Illyrian kingdom of Gentius a little before his defeat. For a similar reason Daorsi too gained immunitas, while half of the tax had to be paid by "Scodrensibus et Dassarensibus et Selepitanis ceterisque Illyriis" ("the inhabitants of Scodra, Dassarenses and Seleptani, as well as by other Illyrians"). Some scholars have suggested that Livy's material follows exclusively Polybius (2nd century BC). However, it is contradicted by the fact that Lyvian texts reports Illyrian toponyms and ethnonyms principally located in the core of the Illyrian kingdom (Ardiaean–Labeatan dynasty), north of Via Egnatia, except for Taulantii and Dassaretii, a situation different from that of the 2nd century BC. An evident relation between the Pirustae and Dassaretii appears in the text, but the Pirustae are thought to have been located much further north of Dassaretii. This could be explained by the possibility that the Pirustae had various locations in different periods, by the existence of two tribes with the same name or similar names, or by an unknown and hypothetical expansion of the Dassaretii to the north. === Settlements === The capital of the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii was Lychnidos, a city located on the edge of the lake of the same name.; ; ; Polybius mentions Pelion, Antipatreia, Chrysondyon, Gertous and Creonion as Dassaretan cities in the 2nd century BC. The precise location seems to have been found however only for Antipatreia, identified with modern Berat. The settlement of Hija e Korbit in the Korça plain at the Devoll river (ancient Eordaicus) has been probably one of the relevant commercial and military sites of the Illyrian Dassaretii. One of the most prominent settlements in the region of Illyrian Dassaretii was established at Selcë e Poshtme, where the Illyrian Royal Tombs were built. == Culture == === Language === The idiom spoken by the Dassaretii is included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics. The territory they inhabited belongs to the area that is considered in current scholarship as the linguistic core of Illyrian. It has been suggested that the zone located to the south and west of the Dassareti, Parthini and Taulanti, before reaching the Chaones and Atintanes, was a mixed area generally considered as a part of Illyria, however it was a cultural extension of Greek-speaking Epirus. The Dassaretii were most likely one of the Illyrian peoples described as bilingual by Strabo. The region assigned by Strabo to this Illyrian tribe was subject to the phenomenon of admixture of Greek and non-Greek elements, the latter occasionally not belonging to Illyrian but to the strata of an earlier population. It has been suggested that there may have been a 'Brygian' substratum or a strong influence by the Brygi, as Dassaretia was one of the regions that was previously inhabited by this Paleo-Balkan people. === Religion === Several cult-objects with similar features are found in different Illyrian regions, including the territory of the Illyrian tribes of Dassaretii, Labeatae, Daorsi, and comprising also the Iapodes. In particular, a 3rd-century BC silvered bronze belt buckle, found inside the Illyrian Tombs of Selça e Poshtme near the western shore of Lake Lychnidus in Dassaretan territory, depicts a scene of warriors and horsemen in combat, with a giant serpent as a protector totem of one of the horsemen; a very similar belt was found also in the necropolis of Gostilj near the Lake Scutari in the territory of the Labeatae, indicating a common hero-cult practice in those regions. Modern scholars suggest that the iconographic representation of the same mythological event includes the Illyrian cults of the serpent, of Cadmus, and of the horseman, the latter being a common Paleo-Balkan hero. The cult of Artemis under the epithet Άγρότα, Agrota was practiced in southern Illyria, in particular during the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial times. The worship of Artemis Agrota, "Artemis the Huntress", is considered an Illyrian indigenous cult since it was widespread only in southern Illyria, stretching from the Illyrian Dassaretan territory up to Dalmatia, including also the territory of Apollonia. In later Roman times, the cult of Diana Candaviensis, which has been interpreted as "Artemis the Huntress", was practiced up to the region north of Lake Shkodra (ancient lacus labeatis), including also the territory of the Docleatae. == Politics== === Illyrian Realm === thumb|250px|Illyrian tribes in the 7th–4th centuries BCE. Dassaretii were one of the tribes forming the ancient Illyrian kingdom that was established in the region of southern Illyria. Ancient sources and modern scholars hold that one of the first kingdoms established in this region was that of the Enchelei. It seems that the weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 6th–5th centuries BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii, who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area (Ohrid and Prespa). According to a historical reconstruction, Bardylis founded a powerful Illyrian dynasty among the Dassaretii in the 5th century BC,. and established a realm centered in their territory that comprised the area along Lychnidus and east to the Prespa Lakes, which was called "Dassaretis" later in Roman times.; ; ; ; ; ; . A fragment of Callisthenes ( 360 – 327 BC) which places Bardylis' realm between Molossis and Macedonia, well determines the position of that Illyrian kingdom in the area of Dassaretis. Bardylis' expansion in Upper Macedonia and Molossis, and his son Cleitus' revolt at Pelion in Dassaretis against Alexander the Great make this localization of the core of their realm even more plausible. The exact extension of the kingdom of Bardylis and Cleitus is not known, as it could have included other regions besides Dassaretis. The establishment of a tribal realm centered in the rich region of the Illyrian Dassaretii seems supported also by numismatic and epigraphic evidence. The Illyrian Royal Tombs of Selca e Poshtme are located in the Illyrian Dassaretan region. The site of Selcë was in the past a flourishing economical centre more developed than the surroundings because it occupied a predominant position inside the region currently called Mokër, and because it controlled the road which led from the Adriatic coasts of Illyria to Macedonia. A helmet reporting the inscription of the name of the Illyrian king Monunius was found in the area of lake Lychnidus in the territory of the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii. It has been interpreted as a possible component of the equipment of a royal special force, suggesting also a financial activity of this king. Dating back to the 3rd century BC, the inscriptions of Monunius are considered the oldest known in the area. Before the year 229 the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii had been under the rule of the Illyrian kingdom of the Ardiaei, and they controlled the mountain passes eastwards over the Pindus on the border with Macedon. The retreat to the north and in later times the destruction of the Illyrian kingdom highlighted numerous communities in southern Illyria – including the Dassaretii – that were organized in koina, as evidenced by historical sources, coins and epigraphic material. ==== Illyrian dynasty ==== The following is a list of the members of Bardylis' Illyrian dynasty recorded as such in ancient sources, whose realm was centered in the territory of the Dassaretii as claimed by a number of modern scholars: *Bardylis I ( 448 – 358 BC) *Cleitus ( 335 BC), son of Bardylis I *Bardylis II ( 300 BC), son of Cleitus Grabos I ( 5th century BC) and Grabos II ( 357 – 356 BC), who most likely was the son of the former, should also have ruled in the same region of southern Illyria, however there are not enough historical elements to determine whether or not they were of the same dynasty as Bardylis I. The same observation applies in the case of Monunius I ( 280 BC) and Mytilus ( 270 BC). === Roman times institutions === thumb|250px|Illyrian tribes in the 1st-2nd centuries CE. Ancient historian Polybius ( 2nd century BC) describes peoples of Illyria, like the Dassaretae and the Ardiaei, using the term ethnos, with the meaning of "tribes" within wider national units. After defeating the Macedonians in 196 BC, Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus assigned to the Illyrian (Labeatan) king Plauratus, son of Skerdilaidas, the regions of the Parthini and Lychnis, which were previously occupied by Philip V of Macedon, and the territory of the Dassaretii was also likely detached from Macedon. Thus, after the Roman campaigns in Macedonia the Dassaretii were declared independent as Roman allies, like the Orestae, and they established autonomous political entities under the Roman protectorate. The Dassaretioi were mentioned in Imperial times in many inscriptions as either having an executive power or as dedicants. The official of the highest rank was, most likely, the strategos, whose seat seems to have been located in Lychnidos. However, the Dassaretioi were not mentioned in a single inscription together with the polis of Lychnidos. This indicates that from the Hellenistic period they seem to have been separate political entities. It has been suggested that the tribe of Dassaretioi and the city of Lychnidos might have formed some kind of political confederation (similar to a koinon) based on the unification of various tribes or various towns and villages. This type of political organisation were quite widespread in the Balkans during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Some of these confederations survived until Imperial times, such as that of the Bylliones. Stephanus of Byzantium () describes the Dassaretai as an Illyrian ethnos and does not associate them with a city. He seems to have used the term ethnos to describe the Dassaretan community in conformation to Anthony Snodgrass' definition: "In its purest form the ethnos was no more than a survival of the tribal system into historical times: a population scattered thinly over a territory without urban centres, united politically and in customs and religion, normally governed by means of some periodical assembly at a single centre, and worshipping a tribal deity at a common religious centre". Snodgrass presents indeed the ethnos as the prehistoric precursor of the polis describing it "no more than a survival of the tribal system into historical times". == Economy == The region of the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii bordered the regions of Macedonia and Molossia. Including the valleys of Osum and Devoll rivers, stretching to the east into the Korçë Plain, and comprising the area around lake Ohrid, the Illyrian Dassaretan region was rich in natural resources and was located in a strategic geographical position that aroused the political wishes of the neighbours and the interest of the Greek merchants. In antiquity, as the authors of that time informs, the Dassaretan territory was known for its very fertile countryside, with a developed agricultural economy. An example is the account about the Roman consul Sulpicius, who during the Second Macedonian War in 199 BC, passed through the territory of the Dasaretii and supplied his army with the products offered by that region, without the resistance of the locals. The prosperous site of Selcë was important in the region, because it occupied a prominent military and commercial position and predominated in the area near Via Egnatia, which was established in Roman times. Some of its natural resources were the stone quarries. The area was likely also close to the silver mines of Damastion. The Dassaretii minted coins in Hellenistic times. Coins bearing the inscription ΔΑΣΣΑΡΗΤΙΩΝ (DASSARETION) have been found in the region of Lake Lychnidus. In Roman times the Dassaretii may have practiced transhumance in southern Illyria. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Illyrian tribes Category:Illyrian Albania Category:Illyrian North Macedonia Category:Ancient tribes in Albania Category:Ancient tribes in North Macedonia
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Starr Faithfull (born Marian Starr Wyman, January 27, 1906 – June 6, 1931) was an American socialite and a model for the Walter Thornton Modeling Agency whose mysterious drowning death in 1931 became a much-covered tabloid story. Newspapers published allegations that she had been sexually abused as a child by Andrew James Peters, a wealthy, prominent politician and former mayor of Boston (1918–1922). Peters was reportedly suspected of murdering her. Investigators were unable to determine whether her death was a homicide or a suicide, and her death remains unsolved. Faithfull was found dead on the beach at Long Beach, New York, on the south shore of Long Island, on the morning of June 8, 1931. An autopsy found that she had died by drowning, but also bore many bruises, apparently caused by beating or rough handling, and a large dose of a sedative in her system. Investigators initially thought Faithfull's death was a homicide and that she had either been pushed into deep water or forcibly held under shallow water. Her stepfather accused Peters of having her killed to prevent her from revealing the sexual abuse. However, the homicide theory was called into question by letters that Faithfull had written shortly before her death which suggested she planned to commit suicide. A grand jury convened to hear evidence returned an open verdict, and the case was closed with no definitive conclusion as to whether Faithfull's death was a homicide, suicide, or an accident. Faithfull's death made national and international news due to its many sensational aspects, including her youth, beauty, promiscuity, and flapper lifestyle, as well as the allegations about Peters. The evidence included Faithfull's diary, which contained explicit descriptions of her sexual liaisons with nineteen different men, including one she called "AJP," who was thought to be Peters. Time magazine called the story a "sexy death mystery" with a "perfect front-page name." Faithfull's story has inspired several fictional works, the best known of which is John O'Hara's 1935 novel BUtterfield 8. The case has been explored in numerous non-fiction books, including British crime historian Jonathan Goodman's 1990 true crime book The Passing of Starr Faithfull, which won a Gold Dagger award. == Family == Starr Faithfull was born Marian Starr Wyman (nicknamed "Bamby") in Evanston, Illinois, on January 27, 1906, the first daughter of Frank Wyman II, an investment banker, and his wife Helen MacGregor Pierce of Andover, Massachusetts. In 1907, the family moved to Montclair, New Jersey, where a second daughter, Elizabeth Tucker "Sylvia" Wyman, was born in 1911. Starr's mother Helen came from a wealthy, socially established family, but her father Frank lost his fortune before she was married, leaving her relatively poor. Her cousin Martha had married Andrew James Peters,Goodman, pp. 19, 67. a career politician who served as member of both the Massachusetts House and Senate; a U.S. congressman; an assistant secretary of the Treasury under U.S. President Woodrow Wilson; and mayor of Boston from 1918 to 1922. As mayor, Peters was known for his failure to avert the 1919 Boston Police Strike, which helped raise the national profile of Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge. Coolidge later was elected as vice president and president of the United States. Peters was also a friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was governor of New York at the time of Starr's death and who also later became president.Goodman, p. 76. Helen and her daughters frequently visited her wealthy Massachusetts relatives, including Peters and his wife Martha. The Peters family were among the relatives who helped support the Wymans by giving Helen monetary gifts and paying for her daughters' private school educations.Goodman, pp. 21–23. Starr attended private school in Brookline, Massachusetts, until 1921, when she enrolled at the Rogers Hall School in Lowell. She spent summers with the Peters family at their home. Andrew often took the young girl on trips alone with him, during which the two stayed in hotels. In the winter of 1923–24, Starr left the Rogers Hall School during the Christmas break and never returned, though her relatives had paid for the spring term. She was, at that time, merely five months from graduation. Her parents divorced in 1924, and the following year her mother married Stanley Faithfull; her daughters took his name. Stanley, a widower who was previously married to the governess of Leverett Saltonstall, was a self-employed inventor and entrepreneur who failed at numerous business ventures and earned little or no money.Goodman, pp. 23–35. He also had a history of bringing lawsuits for money. The Faithfulls initially settled in West Orange, New Jersey, but lost their heavily mortgaged house to foreclosure and moved to an apartment at 12 St. Luke's Place in New York City. This was their residence at the time of Starr's death in 1931. Jimmy Walker, then the mayor of New York City (from 1926 to 1932), lived a few houses away at 6 St. Luke's Place. == Alleged abuse by Peters == thumb|Andrew J. Peters at the time he was Mayor of Boston in 1918. During Faithfull's teenage years, she began to show signs of emotional disturbance. She eventually received psychiatric treatment, including a short voluntary stay in the Channing Sanitarium, a mental hospital in Wellesley, Massachusetts. In June 1926, Faithfull divulged to her mother that Peters had been sexually abusing her for years, beginning when she was aged 11. Faithfull alleged that Peters read her sex instructions written by Havelock Ellis and drugged her with ether before abusing her. Stanley engaged an attorney and, in 1927, negotiated a written settlement agreement with Peters, whereby he paid the Faithfulls $20,000—supposedly to cover Starr's medical care and rehabilitation—in return for keeping the abuse secret. Although the settlement document stated this was a one-time payment, the Faithfulls received several additional large payments from Peters and may have been extorting him. The total amount paid by Peters has been estimated at around $80,000. These payments appeared to be the only source of income for Faithfull's family.Russell, A City in Terror, p. 226. It was later discovered that the Faithfulls had contacted Peters and others close to him just before Starr's disappearance and sent him a letter while she was missing, asking for more money. According to author Jonathan Goodman, the police evidence file indicated that by 1931, gangsters unrelated to the Faithfulls had also learned about the alleged abuse, using this knowledge to extort money from Peters shortly before Faithfull's death.Goodman, pp. 274–275. Russel Crouse, who wrote an early true crime account of the case, stated that the investigators "did come upon some evidence that someone other than the Faithfull family had heard the story and had attempted to make use of it in Boston." == Lifestyle == Investigators learned after Faithfull's death that her mother and stepfather, acting on doctors' advice, had paid artist Edwin Megargee to be her "sex tutor" and teach her how to have normal sexual relations after her traumatic experiences with Peters. Money received from Peters was also used to send her away on cruises to the Mediterranean, the West Indies and five or six times to the United Kingdom, where she stayed for extended periods in London. When not going on cruises, Faithfull regularly attended the "bon voyage" parties held on ocean liners in port before their departures from New York, often socializing with the ships' officers. At one point she claimed to be engaged to an officer, who denied it and left her stranded in London without funds.Goodman, p. 214. Faithfull regularly visited nightclubs and speakeasies, drank and used drugs, once nearly overdosing on sleeping pills in London. In March 1931, she was briefly committed to Bellevue Hospital after being found drunk, naked and beaten in a New York hotel room; she had checked into the hotel as "Joseph Collins and wife," with a man she had apparently just met.Nash, p. com/books?id=bzohCgAAQBAJ&pg;=PA78#v=onepage&q;&f;=false 76 . On May 29, 1931, a few days before her death, Faithfull attended a party on the Cunard liner RMS Franconia to see the ship's doctor, Dr. George Jameson-Carr. She had been infatuated with Carr for some time and considered him the love of her life, although he did not return her affections. After Carr made Faithfull leave his sitting room because the ship was departing, she remained on deck when Franconia left the dock, despite having no ticket (which at that point she could not afford). Upon being discovered, she was forcibly removed from the ship and sent back to the pier on a tugboat, screaming, "Kill me! Throw me overboard!"Nash, p. 78. Newspapers and Faithfull's friends later reported that she had attempted to stow away in order to be with Carr and return to London.Goodman, pp. 147, 253. However, in a letter to Carr, she wrote that she did not intend to stow away and had simply become too drunk to disembark. This explanation may have been intended to protect Carr from getting into trouble with his employer, Cunard, over the incident. == Death == In the days leading up to her disappearance and death, Faithfull kept a busy social schedule. She was seen by numerous witnesses, including her friends and family as well as taxi drivers and other strangers. Faithfull's family last saw her on the morning of Friday, June 5, 1931, leaving the house in the same dress she was wearing when found. Investigators discovered that after she left the house that day, she made multiple trips to ocean liners docked in Manhattan, where she visited ship's officers. After spending the evening with one of them, she got into a taxi late on Friday night and seemingly vanished. She was found dead on a Long Island beach the following Monday morning, on June 8. === Events before discovery of body === ==== Thursday, June 4, 1931 ==== After Faithfull's death, a taxi driver and other witnesses reported that on the afternoon of Thursday, June 4, an intoxicated woman whom they later recognized as Faithfull was helped into a cab in front of the Chanin Building on 42nd Street, Manhattan. The taxi driver testified that she stopped to buy additional liquor during her ride and that he drove her to Flushing, Queens, in search of a certain house, but she could not locate it. Faithfull left his cab at a drugstore located at 33rd Avenue and 163rd Street. On the evening of June 4, Faithfull told her mother and sister that she had attended a party given by publisher Bennett Cerf for actress Miriam Hopkins (whom she confused with actress Peggy Hopkins Joyce) in Cerf's office at 20 E. 57th Street in Manhattan. According to her mother, she mentioned seeing two friends of hers, actors named "Bruce Winston" and "Jack Greenaway", at the party, and said she would be meeting up with them the following night as well. Another friend, Dr. Charles Young Roberts, later said that Faithfull had spent the evening of June 4 with him at The Roosevelt Hotel, visiting a speakeasy and going for a taxi ride. ==== Friday, June 5, 1931 ==== Faithfull's family reported seeing her for the last time leaving their apartment on St. Luke's Place at 9:30am on the morning of Friday, June 5, wearing an expensive silk dress, hat, gloves, shoes and stockings, and carrying a purse and coat. She had $3 and was planning to have her hair waved. According to her family, Faithfull never returned home.Goodman, pp. 16–17, 161–162. thumb|left| The Chelsea Piers in Manhattan, circa 1921. The Cunard ocean liners and other passenger liners docked at these terminals. A newsstand vendor located near the Ninth Street subway station in Greenwich Village, of whom Faithfull was a regular customer, said that he sold her a newspaper at 11:30 am. At 1pm, taxi driver Murray Edelman said that Faithfull, whom he recognized from the Franconia incident several days earlier, had gotten into his cab near the Chelsea Piers (from which the Cunard ships and other passenger liners departed) with a man in a Cunard uniform, whom she called "Brucie". She told the man she would see him on the wharf at 4:00pm, but the man told her not to come back. Edelman said he drove her to her home at 12 St. Luke's Place, although he did not see her enter the house (and her family said she had not returned home). He delivered the man back to the piers. Around 2:00pm, Faithfull, having apparently returned to the piers and now appearing intoxicated, again was put into Edelman's waiting cab by the same man, who told Edelman to take her back to St. Luke's Place and not let her return to the piers again. However, she got out after a few blocks because she had only ten cents, which was not sufficient for the fare. Edelman saw her walking back in the direction of the piers. A beauty shop employee in Grand Central Terminal said that a "Miss Faithfull" had visited the shop on June 5 between 2:30 and 3:00pm, and spoken to her about an appointment. A female acquaintance of Faithfull also reported seeing her at the terminal around the same time. Later, she was seen on board the Cunard liner RMS Mauretania, but was also seen leaving the ship before its 5pm departure for the Bahamas. Carr and Roberts later said that, after visiting Mauretania, Faithfull had visited another Cunard liner in port, the RMS Carmania, to which Roberts was then assigned. He confirmed that on June 5 he entertained Faithfull aboard Carmania from about 5:30pm until after 10:00pm, including having a light meal at 8:30pm. She had said she wanted to travel to Calcutta and Paris, where she said she had a woman friend who had willed her some money. Roberts said that shortly after 10:00pm, he gave Faithfull a dollar for cab fare and put her into a taxi near Pier 56, supposedly to drive her to another ocean liner, the Île de France, on which she planned to attend a party. A police officer who recognized Faithfull from the Franconia incident saw her getting into the taxi. ==== Saturday, June 6 and Sunday, June 7, 1931 ==== Police informants later told investigators that on Saturday, June 6, a woman fitting Faithfull's description had been seen with a male companion at Tappe's Hotel in Island Park, New York, New York, near Long Beach. She may have had an argument with her companion or have left with a group of other men. The hotel was a favorite rendezvous for New York mobsters and bootleggers, including Bill Dwyer, Vannie Higgins and Dutch Schultz. After Faithfull's family had failed to locate her by the evening of Saturday, June 6, her stepfather reported her missing to the Missing Persons Bureau of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Her parents also sent a letter to Peters on June 7 informing him that their daughter was missing, again seeking money. === Discovery of body on Monday, June 8, 1931 === On the morning of Monday, June 8, around 6:30 am, Faithfull's dead body was found by a beachcomber at Long Beach, on the beach near Minnesota Avenue. When found, she was wearing only her dress, silk stockings, and a suspender girdle that held up the stockings, with no other underwear. The rest of her outer clothing and accessories were missing. Neither her dress nor her manicured nails were damaged, although her body showed numerous bruises that the medical examiner stated had been inflicted before death, apparently by another person. Faithfull's body was identified by her stepfather, Stanley, on the evening of June 8. An autopsy determined that Faithfull had died of drowning and that her body had been in the water for at least 48 hours, suggesting that she died on the night of Friday, June 5, or the early morning of Saturday, June 6. The time spent in the water and her estimated time of death would later be questioned by another expert, who had handled drowning cases in the Long Beach area for many years and believed that she had been in the water for less than ten hours, meaning that she had died late on Sunday, June 7 or in the early morning of June 8, and probably drowned close to the beach where she was found. Faithfull's lungs contained a large quantity of sand, which was later interpreted as indicating that she drowned in shallow water near shore, rather than further out to sea. The autopsy also revealed that Faithfull had eaten a large meal of meat, potatoes, mushrooms and fruit three to four hours before her death, but had not drunk alcohol for 36 hours before her death. Her liver contained a high level of a drug initially identified as the barbiturate Veronala sedative that she frequently purchased and used. Before her death, Faithfull had taken a dose large enough to cause stupor or semi-stupor, but not large enough to kill her. A toxicologist's letter and other evidence later suggested that she might have taken a similar but stronger drug such as Luminal or Allonal, which would have increased her stupor. The medical report initially stated that Faithfull had been raped; a second report ruled out rape, but stated she had sexual intercourse shortly before her death. == Investigation == Faithfull's death was initially investigated as a homicide. With new evidence, investigators came to believe that she committed suicide or suffered a fatal accident, caused by her jumping or falling overboard from a ship. The Faithfulls insisted her death was a homicide and accused Peters of having her murdered; they revealed their allegations to the media. In so doing, the Faithfulls came under suspicion themselves for not cooperating fully with police and for having a monetary motive to accuse Peters, whose money they had been living on for years. The case was finally closed with no conclusion being reached as to whether Faithfull's death was a homicide, suicide, or accident. Several true crime writers have written books offering their own alternative theories about her death. === Homicide investigation === The investigation into Faithfull's death was led by Nassau County Police Inspector Harold King, Nassau County District Attorney Elvin Edwards, and Assistant DA Martin Littleton Jr. After identifying his stepdaughter's body, Stanley told King and Littleton that he believed Peters had ordered her murder in order to prevent her from revealing her past sexual abuse. He also told the press that he believed his stepdaughter had been murdered, but initially did not give them Peters' name. Stanley eventually told them Faithfull had been "corrupted" as a child by an unnamed older, wealthy male friend of the family who had later paid a settlement. London artist Rudolph Haybrook, a close friend of Faithfull, also was quoted in the press as saying she was murdered to prevent her from testifying in an upcoming $25,000 lawsuit. Although King thought the death was probably a suicide, even after hearing Stanley's story, Edwards was convinced that it was murder. At his direction, investigators began to examine the death as a homicide, with Edwards traveling to Boston and announcing that he expected to indict two unnamed men in her death, one of whom he said "played an important role in New York political circles." At that time, Peters was helping to organize the first presidential campaign for his friend, Governor Roosevelt of New York. Faithfull's body was due to be cremated on June 11, but Edwards dramatically ordered the cremation stopped at the last minute so he could convene a grand jury to look into her death. A police search of the Faithfull family's apartment found the dead woman's diary, despite Stanley's claims that no diary existed and/or that it had been destroyed. The diary, which Faithfull called her "Memory Book" or "Mem Book", contained explicit details of her affairs with nineteen men identified by initials. Although much of the diary was considered too risqué to print, some of its material was featured in newspapers. The initials "AJP" in some diary entries were thought to refer to Peters. When newspapers began to connect Peters to the case, he issued a statement via his lawyer denying that he had ever had "improper relations" with Faithfull. He said he had no evidence relating to her death and had not seen any member of the Faithfull family for five years. Peters was later formally questioned by investigators in the fall of 1931 but continued to deny any involvement. thumb|right|Nassau County Police reward poster seeking information about Starr Faithfull's whereabouts after she left the Carmania on the night of June 5, 1931. Initially, investigators thought Faithfull had either been pushed from Mauretania or abducted from that ship into a boat, from which she was pushed into the water. Later, the large amount of sand found in her lungs, coupled with the bruises to her upper body, caused them to believe that she had been drowned in the sandy water close to shore by being forcibly held underwater, perhaps near the spot where she was found, rather than having been pushed from a ship several miles offshore and having her body wash up on shore. They gathered information from the United States Coast Guard about the tides and currents near Long Beach in an effort to determine how Faithfull's body might have arrived on the beach, but the results of this query were never published.Goodman, p. 122. The man named "Brucie", mentioned by taxi driver Edelman, was at first thought to be the actor "Bruce Winston", whom Faithfull had said she met at Cerf's party. Attempts to locate the "Bruce Winston" and "Jack Greenaway" supposedly mentioned by Faithfull proved fruitless. An elderly British actor named Bruce Winston was found, but he had not been in the U.S. since February and had spent the past several weeks appearing in a play in London. Investigators then sought a Chicago gangster named Ernest Blue, alias Richard Bruce. An acquaintance of Faithfull named David "Bruce" Blue was finally located in London, and he affirmed that he had been with her on Mauretania on June 5. Efforts were made to locate the taxi driver who picked up Faithfull near Pier 56 after 10:00 pm on June 5. Despite substantial reward money being offered for information about Faithfull's route and destination that night, no taxi driver ever came forward. There was speculation that she was abducted by a taxi driver, or by someone else posing as a taxi driver and possibly under the control of mobsters. Although Edwards and Littleton continued to investigate the death as a possible homicide until December 1931, including questioning Peters, they were unable to gather sufficient evidence to obtain indictments or otherwise prove the homicide theory. === Suicide and accident investigation === While investigators were pursuing the homicide theory, Carr, having arrived in London on Franconia, received three letters that Faithfull had written to him dated May 30, June 2, and June 4, 1931. He personally hand- carried the letters back to the U.S. and provided them to the investigators around June 23, also being interviewed by police at that time. The New York Times published the full text of the letters on June 22 and June 24. In the first letter, dated May 30, Faithfull wrote, But she ended the letter by asking Carr to come and see her when he was next in New York, causing some to question Faithfull's true intentions. The second letter apologized for the May 29 incident aboard Franconia in New York. In the third letter, written the day before she disappeared, Faithfull expressed in detail her intent and plans to commit suicide because she could not cope with her unrequited love for Carr. The letter began, The letter went on to talk about how she would carry out her suicide, with "[n]o ether, no allonal, or window jumping", and how she would spend her last hours, including having "one delicious meal", hearing some "good music", drinking "slowly, keeping aware every second", enjoying a "last cigarette", and "encourag[ing]" men who flirted with her on the street—"I don't care who they are." She wrote, "It's a great life when one has twenty- four hours to live."Some later sources looking back on the case, such as William Fulton's article of May 8, 1938 in the Chicago Tribune (cited above), have attributed statements that The New York Times originally printed as being in the first letter to the third letter, or vice versa. (An earlier Associated Press story that ran before Carr delivered the letters stated that one letter contained the statement, "When you receive this I will be dead." According to a later New York Daily News account, the statement was "When you receive this letter, I will have committed suicide by drowning." But this statement is not contained in any of the letters published in the Times in June 1931.) The letters raised the possibility that Faithfull had committed suicide by stowing away aboard one of the ships in port in New York on June 5 until its voyage was underway, and then, after taking a large dose of sedative, jumping overboard as the ship passed south of Long Beach late on June 5 or early on June 6. Her body eventually washed up on shore. Alternatively, it was thought that Faithfull might have stowed away and then accidentally fallen overboard while under the influence of the sedative.Goodman, pp. 253–254. Following the disclosure of the letters, many people, including Inspector King (who had taken the position early in the investigation that the death was likely suicide or an accident) thought that Faithfull had committed suicide.Goodman, pp. 58, 221, 268. The Times reported that the letters "seemed to remove all doubt that the girl...ended her own life." Stanley continued to insist that his stepdaughter had been murdered, contending that the letters were forgeries. He presented his own handwriting expert to testify to the grand jury in an attempt to disprove the Nassau County expert's findings that the letters were genuine. Edwards and Littleton also still believed that Faithfull had been murdered, and continued their investigation for several more months. Edwards thought that she would not have been capable of suicide while under the influence of so much Veronal. thumb|left|RMS Carmania, the Cunard liner on which Starr Faithfull spent the evening of June 5, 1931, with Dr. Charles Young Roberts. Littleton eventually came to believe the suicide theory after interviewing Roberts in December 1931, near the end of the investigation. Based on his information about spending the evening with Faithfull on Carmania and then putting her into a taxi to go to a party aboard Île de France, Littleton concluded that she probably stowed away on Île de France and then jumped overboard after it sailed. Littleton issued a denial in the Times of an International News Service story claiming that he had located a witness who saw Faithfull jump from a ship. Later crime analysts have disputed the suicide conclusion. American true crime author Jay Robert Nash wrote in his book Open Files: A Narrative Encyclopedia of the World's Greatest Unsolved Crimes (1983) that there was no evidence of Faithfull ever having been aboard Île de France, and little evidence that she had committed suicide, compared to more evidence that her death had been homicide. Goodman, in his The Passing of Starr Faithfull (1990), stated that she could not have gone aboard Île de France because it sailed at 10pm while she was still visiting Roberts. Also, it was docked close enough to Carmania that she would not have taken a taxi to it. Goodman also concluded that she did not go overboard from any of the other ships leaving on June 5 or June 6 because, among other things, she would not have had the time or inclination to consume her large final meal so soon after eating a light meal of different food with Roberts; her conversation with Roberts indicated that she did not have any barbiturates or any money to obtain them on June 5; and she had been seen intoxicated on both June 4 and June 5, contrary to the autopsy, which found she had consumed no alcohol for 36 hours before death. This suggests that she did not die until June 7 or early on June 8. Neither her silk dress nor silk stockings showed the damage expected from her having been 48 hours in the water, during a time when a storm was affecting the area. === The Faithfulls' reaction to the investigation === During the course of the investigation, Edwards and Littleton became suspicious of the Faithfull family and thought they were withholding information, being less than cooperative, and may even have been involved in the murder. Newspapers also reported on the family's apparent need for money and lack of visible means of support. After the evidence of Faithfull's possible suicide came to light in late June 1931, the grand jury proceedings were closed, with no indictments issued, and the case began to fade from the headlines. Stanley, anxious to keep the press interested in the story, continued to state that his stepdaughter was murdered by hired killers acting on behalf of a high-profile person. In July, he alleged "shameful official negligence" on the part of the Nassau County investigators and further alleged that Edwards had been intimidated by persons "too big and influential for him to tackle". Edwards strongly denied that he had been intimidated and said that he believed Faithfull had been murdered but did not have the evidence to prove it. He added, "Neither Peters nor anybody else is so highly placed that I won't proceed against them." upright|thumb|12 St. Luke's Place in Greenwich Village, New York City, in 2016. The Faithfulls lived in an apartment here at the time of Starr Faithfull's death. On July 25, Stanley publicly accused Peters as the man alleged to have had an improper relationship with Faithfull when she was aged 11. He also disclosed the original 1927 settlement agreement between the Faithfulls and Peters releasing him from liability for Starr's abuse and his settlement check for $20,000. As a result of being publicly connected with the case, Peters suffered several nervous breakdowns. In late July and early August, the grand jury probe was reopened to consider evidence provided by Stanley that the suicide letters provided by Carr were forgeries not written by his stepdaughter. In early August, Governor Roosevelt also reviewed the case to determine whether the death had been properly investigated by the Nassau County authorities. The Daily News, which had been conducting its own investigation, confirmed that the Faithfulls were struggling financially and that Stanley had traveled to Boston shortly before Faithfull's disappearance to seek additional payoffs from Peters. Stanley responded by suing the publisher of the Daily News, the reporter who wrote the stories, and several other papers for libel, but his claims were ultimately dismissed. === Conclusion of the investigation === By October 1931, the Faithfull case was reported to be "virtually closed". But Roberts' statements about being with her aboard Carmania were not obtained until the planned last days of the investigation in early December. Later in December, a final inquest was held into her death. It lasted fifteen minutes and the jury reached no conclusion. Nassau County Coroner Edward Neu was quoted as saying, "Whatever I decide, it will only be a matter of opinion." === Alternative theories === Goodman theorized that Faithfull was killed by Long Island mobster Vannie Higgins and his associates. According to his research, Higgins had learned that the Faithfulls were extorting Peters due to his past abuse of their daughter. Based on this information, Goodman suggested that Higgins, wishing to blackmail Peters or extort more money from him, had Faithfull kidnapped and driven to Island Park, where he provided her with a meal and barbiturates and questioned her in an effort to get more information that he could use against Peters. Unsatisfied with her answers, he beat her, causing the many bruises on her body. When she appeared to have died from the beating, he ordered her body dumped into the ocean near Long Beach. However, she was still alive when she entered the water and died by drowning. Nash and reporter Morris Markey, who covered the case in 1931 for The New Yorker, both theorized that based on the evidence and Faithfull's past behavior, including the hotel incident that resulted in her being taken to Bellevue Hospital, she had likely been killed on the beach by an unknown man after a sexual encounter had gone wrong. According to this theory, Faithfull went to the beach with a man she had picked up, ostensibly for sex. Once there, she removed most of her clothing, but then teased or refused sex until the man became enraged, beat her, and drowned her in the shallow water and sand near the shoreline, possibly after sexually assaulting her. Goodman acknowledged that this theory is supported by some facts. == Aftermath == Peters was never prosecuted for any crime in connection with Faithfull's death. Although his personal reputation was harmed by the scandal, he still maintained some political status. He served as treasurer of a Massachusetts state campaign against money-hoarding organized at the request of President Herbert Hoover in 1932, and was named to the Massachusetts Advisory Committee of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation in 1933. He died in 1938. Faithfull's 19-year-old sister Tucker (a.k.a. Sylvia) was quoted after Starr's death as saying, "I'm not sorry Starr's dead. She's happier. Everyone is happier." According to Tucker, her sister had dominated the family, even to the point of deciding where they would live, and physically slapped and pinched other family members if she did not get her own way. Tucker later changed her name back to Wyman before marrying.Goodman, pp. 292–293. Newspaper columnist Dorothy Kilgallen reported Stanley's death in 1949.Goodman, p. 293. A 1946 Associated Press story on the death of former-DA Edwards discussed the Faithfull case as one of two high- profile unsolved cases handled by him. Edwards' records on the case were later said to have vanished. The police file survived and was reviewed by Goodman in writing his 1990 book about the case. According to John O'Hara biographer Matthew J. Bruccoli, O'Hara had Faithfull's diary in his possession for some time and used it as research material in writing his 1935 novel BUtterfield 8. Some sources have written that police lost or destroyed the diary after the case was closed. A 2002 article in The Baltimore Sun reported that the diary may have eventually been given to Peters, who locked it in a box hidden in the library paneling of his Boston home, where it was later found by the home's new owners. However, its whereabouts were unknown as of 2002. == In popular culture == Faithfull's life and death inspired several fictional novels. She has also been discussed in a number of non-fiction books and anthologies, as well as some other works. thumb|upright|left |John O'Hara === Fiction === Several novels have been based on Faithfull's story. The first and best known is John O'Hara's second novel BUtterfield 8 (Harcourt, Brace, 1935). O'Hara's fictional protagonist Gloria Wandrous was based on Faithfull, whose diary O'Hara had read and whom he had seen in New York speakeasies when she was alive, although he did not know her well. Contemporary readers recognized that the book was based on the Faithfull case. In the novel, Gloria is molested as a child by a prominent older man, becomes a heavy-drinking call girl, and dies by being swept under the paddlewheel of a boat. O'Hara later wrote that "[t]he story of Gloria Wandrous had appeared as fact in the newspapers, along with her excerpted diary that could not all be printed either in a newspaper or a novel. If anything, I toned the story down[.]" However, Sandra Scoppettone, who wrote a later novel about Faithfull, quoted the Faithfulls' landlady as saying that O'Hara visited her to research his novel, "asked a lot of questions" and "wrote a book, but he got it all wrong." BUtterfield 8 sold well when first published, and was later adapted into a 1960 film starring Elizabeth Taylor, who won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance. O'Hara was not involved in writing the film adaptation, which bore little resemblance to his novel and ended with Gloria's death in an automobile accident, rather than a suicide or homicide by drowning. Poet Ogden Nash, who usually wrote humorous verse, penned a very serious poem titled "The Tale of the Thirteenth Floor", about a man who is ready to commit murder until he views the thirteenth floor of a seedy New York hotel. The floor, which is only visible one night a year, contains a version of hell in which murderers are forced to dance forever with the bodies of their victims. Faithfull is listed by name as one such victim. Other works of fiction based on Faithfull's life and death are listed below. * The Love Thieves by Peter Packer (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962) tells the story of Virginia Fuller, a character based on Faithfull, in the context of a libel suit brought by her parents against a newspaper after her death, similar to the real-life lawsuits brought by Stanley. * Some Unknown Person by Sandra Scoppettone (Putnam, 1977) is a novel based on the Faithfull story in which she commits suicide with the involvement of a fictional character, Orlando Antolini, whose life story is told in flashbacks alongside Faithfull's. Scoppettone said that she used her own Italian-American family background to create the Antolini family. Florence King wrote in National Review that "[the novel's] confrontational scene between the pedophilic Mayor Peters and Massachusetts governor Calvin Coolidge at the height of the [Boston] police strike makes a persuasive argument that Starr Faithfull put Coolidge in the White House." * The Memory Book of Starr Faithfull: A Novel by Gloria Vanderbilt (Knopf, 1994) is a novel in diary form based on Faithfull's life and her real "Mem Book" diary. It recounts her story from age 11 through the time of her death, focusing on her sexual abuse by Peters and her relationships with men. Although it contains some factual material, most of the book is Vanderbilt's fictional imagined concept of the contents of the real diary. * The Contract by William Palmer (Jonathan Cape, 1995) is a novel about Starr Faithfull's death and the subsequent revelations about her life, family and past, narrated by the fictionalized Starr Faithfull and her mother, Helen. === Non-fiction === A non-fiction essay, "The Mysterious Death of Starr Faithfull", was written by Morris Markey, who covered the story and interviewed the Faithfull family in 1931 as the original "reporter at large" for The New Yorker magazine. The essay was included in the collection The Aspirin Age (ed. Isabel Leighton, Simon and Schuster, 1949), a selection of pieces about the essential events of American life in the years between World War I and World War II. Two non-fiction true crime books have been written about the Starr Faithfull case. The first, The Girl on the Lonely Beach by Fred J. Cook (Red Seal Books, 1956) discusses her family background, based on newspaper reports, court transcripts and Cook's own interviews. The second, The Passing of Starr Faithfull by Jonathan Goodman (Piatkus, 1990), also included material from the original police files and the remaining fragments of Faithfull's diary. Reviewer Paul Nigol of the University of Calgary called The Passing of Starr Faithfull "the most complete account" of the case because Goodman was the only author to have been granted full access to the police dossier. Goodman won the 1990 Crime Writers' Association Gold Dagger Award for Non-Fiction for his book. Starr Faithfull's case has also been frequently discussed in social histories focusing on New York City or Boston, as well as true crime anthologies. The following is a selective list of books containing substantial discussions of the case. * Murder Won't Out by Russel Crouse (Doubleday, Doran, 1932) * Woman in the Case by Charles Franklin (Corgi, 1964) * Open Files: A Narrative Encyclopedia of the World's Greatest Unsolved Crimes by Jay Robert Nash (Rowman & Littlefield, 1983) * The Knave of Boston and Other Ambiguous Massachusetts Characters by Francis Russell (Quinlan Press, 1987) * Big Town, Big Time: A New York Epic, 1898–1998, New York Daily News, edited by Jay Maeder (Sports Publishing, Inc., 1999) === Other === Starr Faithfull's unsolved death was the subject of a 1993 episode of the Granada Television true-crime series In Suspicious Circumstances, entitled "Falling Starr" (Season 3, Episode 5). Linda Ann Loschiavo's 2004 play Courting Mae West, about actress Mae West's 1927 trial on morals charges in New York City, includes a character named Sara Starr who is based on Starr Faithfull. == References == Category:1931 in New York (state) Category:Child sexual abuse in the United States Category:Deaths by drowning in the United States Category:Deaths by person in New York (state) Category:June 1931 events Category:Unsolved deaths in the United States Category:Women deaths Category:Long Beach, New York Category:Flappers
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The Yaralla Estate, also known as the Dame Eadith Walker Estate and now home to the Dame Eadith Walker Hospital, is a heritage-listed hospital at The Drive, Concord West, City of Canada Bay in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Yaralla was the home of Eadith Walker and her father Thomas. The estate is historically significant as one of the last large nineteenth-century estates remaining in metropolitan Sydney. In the 1860s, Thomas Walker commissioned the architect Edmund Blacket to design a home on the shores of the Parramatta River. This Victorian Italianate mansion became the Walker family home. From 1893 to 1899, Eadith Walker built extensions that were designed by the architect John Sulman. A stables and coach house complex were also designed by Sulman at the same time. The entire estate is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register and the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate.The Heritage of Australia, Macmillan Company, 1981, p.2/23 Dame Eadith Walker , who never married, died at Yaralla in 1937 after a long career devoting her life to the Australian Red Cross and a wide range of other philanthropic organisations. Her estate was disposed of in accordance with the terms of her father's will, brought about by the Thomas Walker Trusts Act (1939), a portion of which was set aside to found the Dame Eadith Walker Convalescent Hospital and income from the remainder went to support the hospital, the Thomas Walker hospital and the Yaralla cottages built by Dame Eadith for elderly people in need. == History == ===The Nichols era and the future Yaralla, 1797-1848=== The core of the later Yaralla is the promontory in Concord between Majors Bay to the east and what is now Yaralla Bay to the west. The original name for Yaralla Bay was Nichols Bay, and this reflects that the entire promontory was included in a 50-acre land grant to Isaac Nichols in 1797. Nichols is a good representative example of the able and hard-working convict who successfully rehabilitated himself in the colony. He had been transported for theft and arrived in Sydney at the age of 21 in 1791. After he'd served time as an assigned convict in Major George Johnson's house, Governor John Hunter, impressed by the young man's ability and good behaviour, made him overseer of convict gangs in Sydney and, when his sentence expired in 1797, granted him 50 acres with Parramatta River frontage at Concord on 20 December, with two convict servants to work on the farm.Jack, 2005, 1 This would later become the site of Yaralla. Nichols bought 25 acres of land very close to the south from William Harrison for 9 pounds and presumably built huts at once at Concord for his two stockmen. He himself however, acquired an inn, the Jolly Sailor, in George Street in 1798 and soon developed business premises, a shipyard and a stone dwelling on the west side of Circular Quay. There is no evidence for a substantial cottage on Nichols' Concord farm in this early period. Nichols' advance in the colony suffered a setback when he was found guilty in 1799 of receiving stolen property. It seems likely that he was the victim of the monopolistic ambitions of the New South Wales Corps, with John Macarthur pulling the strings, and Governor Hunter, deeply suspicious of the verdict, referred the case to England. Nichols' name was not cleared until 1802, when the new Governor, Philip Gidley King, was instructed by the British Government to grant him a pardon from the 1799 conviction. Thereafter Nichols became a person of increasing significance, appointed Superintendent of Public Works and the first post-master in 1809. For the first 4 or 5 years after 1797, Nichols used his Concord property for mixed farming. By 1801 he had cleared only 14 acres of the initial 50 acres and had 18 acres under wheat or maize. He had three horses and no draught oxen. His only other livestock in 1801 consisted of 50 hogs. Within a year he had cleared another 26 acres and was growing a substantial amount of wheat and a lesser amount of barley and maize at Concord. He had three assigned convicts and two free servants, not all necessarily resident at Concord, in 1802.Jack, 2005, 2 Nichols began to diversify. In 1803 he had a field of peas at Concord and began to plant fruit trees: by 1805 he had at least one peach tree bearing fruit. The extent and location of the orchard at this period are not known, although it can be assumed to have lain close to Yaralla Bay, where it is shown on the first available plan in 1833. He was also beginning to build up a herd of cattle and a flock of sheep. In 1805 the farm was attacked by Aboriginal people, who seized the stockmen's "little property and provision" and then "chased and dispersed the stock in all directions". Only one stockman was there at the time and he prudently fled the scene. Keenly aware of the value of land, he gradually purchased the surrounding lands. Nichols died in 1819 leaving the land in trust for his son George Robert Nichols. George Nichols interests lay elsewhere and in May 1836 he conveyed his interest in the estate to his brother Isaac David Nichols. The Nichols used the land for farming. During the late 1830s the brothers need for cash encouraged them to mortgage the property several times. ===The Walker era (1840-1937)=== In January 1840 George Robert Nichols mortgaged the land to Thomas Walker for 3500 pounds at 15%. In May 1842 he borrowed a further 900 pounds on the security of the property. None of that money was repaid to Walker. In the meantime the remaining title the mortgagor had over the land was conveyed to James Holt, a Sydney merchant. Walker initiated an Equity Court case against G. R. Nichols and James Holt in May 1843 after he was unable to gain repayment of the loan or obtain possession of the land which constituted the security for the loan. In August 1848 the court awarded title to the land to Walker when neither Nichols or Holt could repay the land. Walker was a strong critic of the Land Acts of the 1860s which established the principle of free selection before survey. He was a substantial stock owner and had also invested heavily in the pastoral industry. He spent a period as a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council, representing the Port Phillip electorate (which later became the state of Victoria), and as the president of the Board of the Bank of NSW. Walker was also an active philanthropist. However, despite his commitment to relieving the poor, he had a hatred of the democratic element in society and was firmly aligned with the view of keeping the poor in their place. Initially Walker did not move to Concord. However, he ensured the estate was carefully maintained although the gardens and orchards had already fallen into ruins. This was possibly in the 1840s when the Nichols family may have seen little need to maintain an asset which they were in danger of losing particularly while his residence was being planned and built in the 1850s. Around 1857 architect Edmund Thomas Blacket drew up a set of plans for a cottage at Concord for Thomas Walker, cottage meaning a small country residence. Construction of this cottage, (an Italianate villa) to be known as Yaralla, began. Although the date of completion is not certain, it is probably around 1858–1859. This is also probably the time that Walker moved onto the property permanently. The house was built in 2 stages. Construction began in 1851 using stone quarried on the property and was completed in 1864.Howard & White, 1995, 4 Thomas Walker married Jane Hart in 1860 and their only daughter was Eadith Campbell Walker. Jane died in 1870 and Thomas Walker did not remarry. He arranged for his sister Joanna Walker to come to Australia and care for Eadith. Joanna adopted Anne Masefield to serve as a companion to Eadith. Scottish gardener Alexander Grant was born in 1845 at Cullen, Scotland and served an apprenticeship in the gardens of Cullen House in Banffshire. Before migrating to Australia in 1878 he followed his profession in several Scottish gardens, including the Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh. Grant arrived in the colony in 1878 and worked first at Yaralla, Concord for the Walkers for some considerable time, then at Rosemont, Woollahra for Alexander Campbell MLC, then for Mr Tooth at the Swifts, Darling Point, which he planned and laid out. There is no record of where Grant was living while working at Yaralla and Rosemont, though from 1881 he lived at "Willow Cottage in Point Piper Road - west side (later Ocean Street), Paddington" until he moved to quarters in the Botanic Garden, Sydney in 1882 for work there. It is likely that the positions at Yaralla and Rosemont both included quarters for a single man and that only after he married Margaret Stevenson in January 1880 was he obliged to find alternative accommodation (Willow Cottage).Grant, 1997 When her father died in September 1886 his estate was valued at 937 984 pounds. He left his estate to his daughter, Eadith Walker, but a portion was left to set up the Thomas Walker Convalescent Hospital. In 1890 his sister Joanna Walker also died, leaving Eadith, who never married, to live the life of a wealthy spinster. Eadith remained living at Yaralla for the rest of her life. She lived alone though surrounded by staff, and during her lifetime she enlarged Yaralla considerably, also building several cottages for retired staff on the property. Prior to World War I, Eadith had 25 servants and employees living at Yaralla, including a butler, nine maids, cooks, laundresses, chauffeurs, four gardeners, poultry and dairymen, a housekeeper and an engineer who looked after the power station and provision of water. With Anne now married to architect and planner John Sulman, and construction of the Thomas Walker Convalescent Hospital complete, Eadith and Sulman now turned their attention to Yaralla and planned extensive additions and alterations. These were built between 1893 and 1899.GML, 2011, 13 Eadith Walker commissioned Sulman to design additions which were finished in 1899. Eadith took the opportunity to enjoy herself, but her activities were tempered with a strong streak of benevolence. She contributed financially to the Thomas Walker Convalescent Home and was an active member and contributor to many charitable institutions including further finance for the Thomas Walker Convalescent Home. Eadith was fond of animals and involved with their protection. An indication of her affection for her own pets was manifested in the private pet cemetery located within the grounds of Yaralla, where her animals were laid to rest.GML, 2011, 15 For a short time, between 1912 and 1914, Yaralla became the residence of the Governor-General of Australia. It was while staying at Yaralla that the Governor General, Sir Ronald Munro Ferguson, 1st Viscount Novar, received a cabled warning of the approach of World War I. Fond of travel, Eadith Walker made a number of trips overseas, bringing back enormous quantities of souvenirs. She bought back enough artefacts from India to require the construction of a special Indian room in Thomas Walker's former office. The Norwegian Cottage, and most of its fittings and furniture, also returned with her from another sortie. It was later re-assembled in the grounds of Yaralla. The Norwegian Cottage was a product of Eadith's fondness for travel. She brought it back from a trip and had it reassembled on the grounds. The Indian Room was built to house all the artefacts she brought back after a trip to India. This was not the only building to take place during her life at Yaralla. Extensive renovations were made to the estate during the 1890s. These additions and alterations were designed by architect John Sulman, who was married to Eadith's childhood friend, Anne MasefieldKass 1995: Appendix 1 The alterations to the main house included a new marbled floor entrance hall overlooked by a balcony, a panelled dining hall with a marble and bronze fireplace, an upper storey on the back and extensive balconies on the front. A set of brick and tile stables adorned with square towers, ranging rooflines, gables and a cupola with weathervane were also built.R.Howard & D.White, 1995: 5 Eadith maintained Yaralla as a feudal estate and the property contained four bulls, eleven cows, one horse and a quantity of poultry. The paddocks formed an important part of the Estate's rural function from its beginning, providing grazing area for the cattle and horses used in farm activities. Cattle were shown at the Sydney Royal Easter Show and provided milk for the Estate and area for the horses used when buggies were the main form of transportation. The eastern section of the western paddock has been used for housing.Howard & White, 1996, Inventory of Landscape Precincts, L5 & L6 Others simply came to visit, including the powerful and wealthy, regal and vice-regal personages and political figures. Among these were the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII and subsequently the Duke of Windsor who spent a week in Yaralla in 1921. Knowing his liking for squash, Eadith had a court built for his visit, possibly the first in NSW. Estate workers lived in cottages and were employed in various tasks. These included gardening and maintaining the dairy herd. However, it was a shrinking estate. The Thomas Walker Convalescent Hospital took over a whole peninsula (to Yaralla's west) in the 1890s and in 1917, a sizeable piece of the estate at the head of Major's Bay (to Yaralla's south-east) was transferred to the Concord Golf Club Ltd. During the First World War she assisted sick and wounded servicemen through the Red Cross and eventually established and maintained a recuperative facility for tubercular veterans in the grounds of Yaralla from 1917 until January 1920. However, she did not restrict herself to these philanthropic activities and regularly held parties for Sydney society members at the estate. In 1919 the outer part of the estate closest to Concord Road was transferred to the real estate firm King and Humphrey. King and Humphrey offered the first sub-division of Yaralla Estate in June 1920. A large crowd bid for all lots offered until dusk, necessitating a further auction later. Eadith Walker's benefactions, donations to the Thomas Walker Convalescent Home and construction work at Yaralla took a toll on her finances. The grounds were extraordinary and a lot of time and money had gone into establishing large areas of lawn with native and European trees, rockeries, walks, fountains, ornamental urns and statues, grottos, hot houses, a conservatory, rose gardens and more than a dozen cottages. A power plant the size of a small factory was built, reputedly Sydney's first private generating plant and the Sulman alterations undertaken. At her death in 1937 the estate totalled 265 345 pounds, less than a third of what her father left behind. The Arthur Walker Reserve to the Estate's south adjoining Majors Bay has been home of the Concord West Cricket Club since 1940 and indicates the patronage of Dame Eadith Walker to local community organisations. Eadith was patron of the club (giving land for their first pitch in 1921 near the railway station, their second near Thomas Walker Hospital and this land in 1935). The Reserve is used predominantly for matches and training and in winter as soccer training ground. The general public also use it for recreation. It is managed by Canada Bay Council and the majority is Council-owned (c.90 %). A small portion on the north eastern side remains a part of Yaralla /Dame Eadith Walker Estate. Eadith lived in a suite at The Savoy Residential Apartments in Darlinghurst in her later years before returning to Yaralla to die. She died on 8 October 1937. Soon after much of the furniture, fittings, cars, art works and books were sold at a giant auction conducted by James L. Lawson, leading auctioneers in association with Francis de Groot. ===Dame Eadith Walker Convalescent Hospital (1937-1988)=== Eadith Walker made several generous bequests in her will and left half of the residue of her estate to trustees for charitable purposes. The Walker Estates ActNo 31, Geo VI, 1938 enabled trustees to purchase Yaralla and its grounds to establish a convalescent home for men, which was vested in the state government. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital was given control of the hospital, to become known as the Dame Eadith Walker Convalescent Hospital, and it was transformed into a Sub-acute Diseases Hospital where patients from the main hospital at Camperdown were sent to recuperate. It was officially opened on 29 June 1940. The Estate became vested in the Crown under The Walker Trusts Act, 1938 as the Dame Eadith Walker Convalescent Hospital (Yaralla Estate), to be controlled, managed and operated as convalescent and rehabilitation hospitals under the terms of Thomas Walker's will. Sections 19 and 19A of the Walker Trusts Act 1938 provide for the overall control, management and administration of the Yaralla and Rivendell Estates, respectively. The Yaralla Estate is the largest community bequest of its era (c.37ha) to survive in an intact form in NSW. The NSW Department of Health (Sydney South West Area Health Service: SSAHS) is the present Crown authority responsible for the control, management and administration of the property. During the 1970s many of the buildings were demolished and the swimming pool filled in. As late as 1970 the estate was still in the form in which it appeared in the 1930s. In November 1988 the Dame Eadith Walker Convalescent Hospital was closed. ===1988-present: Health- related uses and public parkland=== Since 1988 the estate has remained in use for health-related purposes, managed by the Sydney South West Area Health Service (now the Sydney Local Health District). These have included use of the main house as a Renal Dialysis Training Centre Unit (1993–2008) and of Magnolia Cottage as the Kalparrin Day Centre, a day care unit for patients with dementia (2003+). The main mansion was used for some years as a kidney dialysis unit before being refurbished c.2011 as a Palliative Care Unit. This unit incorporated a 20-bed sub-acute inpatient palliative care unit and clinical and non-clinical support services and associated infrastructure. This unit continues to provide services for persons with HIV, Dementia and other conditions.Rappoport, 2015, 10 On 28 August 2013, the NSW Department of Health announced by media release that 13ha of Yaralla's estate would be made public parkland. The Yaralla Estate Community Advisory Committee was established in late 2013. Its role is to advise the Chief Executive of the Sydney Local Health District on maintaining and using the estate for the benefit of the Local Health District and the community. It has a defined role and terms of reference, including advising the Trustee in developing and reviewing its plans and policies for the estate, monitoring and evaluating uses of the estate, maintaining and promoting the integrity of the heritage values of the estate. In November 2016, the refurbished gate house, Hyacinth Cottage hosted its first family of a burns patient to live in, while remaining close to Concord Hospital for follow-up care. Concord Hospital is part of the NSW Statewide Burns Injury Service, with many patients coming from regional, rural, remote and overseas locations for specialised care. The refurbished Hyacinth Cottage residence allows the Burns unit to discharge eligible patients, encourage them to continue their recovery in a supportive home environment and ensure they continue to have access to multidisciplinary care.Yaralla Estate Update, November 2016, 1: Sydney Local Health District) == Description == ===Estate=== The Dame Eadith Walker Estate comprises approximately 37 hectares (Sydney South West Area Health Service state the area as 50 acres/20.3haSSWAHS., 16/5/17 of land, comprising a peninsula fronting the Parramatta River at Concord. It is a large estate which retains its rural elements such as grazing fields with horses, former orchard and vegetable garden areas (now lawn), extensive garden layout including parkland, rose garden, picking garden, extensive grotto work, a rockery, former tennis/croquet lawn, former swimming pool (in-filled and now lawn) and Italian lawn terrace. It also contains sporting and recreation facilities, such as the former swimming pool, tennis court/croquet green and a squash court. The Estate is made up of a number of clusters of farm and service buildings and structures. The grounds in their heyday were extraordinary and a lot of time and money went into establishing large areas of lawn with a rich range of native and European trees, rockeries, walks, fountains, ornamental urns and statues, grottos, hot houses, a conservatory, rose gardens and more than a dozen cottages, scattered across the grounds. Unlike the garden at its companion Thomas Walker Convalescent Hospital (Concord, on the next peninsula to the west) which was purpose-designed for an institutional building, the garden at Yaralla was designed as a high maintenance domestic garden for social gatherings. Whilst a lack of maintenance has meant some regrettable losses - the now in-filled swimming pool, the lost Indian room and Norwegian house, it remains largely intact. Various conservation works to elements of the estate and garden have brought the garden and grounds to a high level of condition, considering the more constrained and focused use of resources of recent decades. ===Biodiversity=== Yaralla has natural and cultural heritage significance for its biodiversity, which includes introduced and native flora and fauna. It is an important element in the health of the Parramatta River Catchment and its site is of significance, given it includes three endangered ecological communities: Coastal Saltmarsh in areas of mangrove bordering the Parramatta River banks; Swamp-oak Floodplain Forest; and Sydney Turpentine- Ironbark Forest - the latter forming two areas of remnant bushland which are otherwise rare regionally. As well it has richly planted grounds, with a diverse mixture of introduced and native species of plants. These attract and provide food, fibre and habitat for an equally rich assortment of fauna, from microscopic: insects, soil fungi etc. to large and obvious: birds, possums, humans. ;Bushland areas The estate has two areas of remnant bushland which are otherwise rare regionally: * a) Swamp-oak Floodplain Forest (swamp oak being Casuarina cunninghamiana, river or swamp oak); and * b) Sydney Turpentine- Ironbark Forest (turpentine being Syncarpia glomulifera; ironbark being narrow-leaved ironbark, Eucalyptus crebra.Stuart Read, pers.comm., 30 November 2015 These bushland remnants and the mangrove community are home to numerous threatened fauna which depend on their conservation. Dame Eadith Walker Estate and Thomas Walker Estate were recently described as 'joint jewels in the City of Canada Bay's biodiversity crown' in a report by InSight Ecology (2014). This detailed report was a study of the indigenous fauna of the City of Canada Bay Local Government Area can be found on the City of Canada Bay Council's website and the Sydney Local Health District's Yaralla website. The City of Canada Bay Council also has reports on bush regeneration and vegetation management at Yaralla which can be accessed via the council. Some species that inhabit the Yaralla Estate include a spectacular array of birdlife including honey eaters, wrens, parrots and more, a variety of mammals and a rare remnant of the endangered ecological community, Sydney Turpentine-Ironbark Forest.(InSight Ecology, at http://www.slhd.nsw.gov.au/Yaralla/flora.htm) ===Driveway=== The Drive, now a street in suburban Concord, once belonged to the Yaralla estate, running all the way west to Concord Road. Today's estate driveway runs from the intersection of The Drive and Nullawarra Avenue. The formal outer entry gates are iron, with stone pillars, and a palisade fence. One of the estate cottages sits on the northern side of the main gates, doubling as a gate house. An impressive entrance driveway avenue leads from Concord Road (it is now a suburban street called 'The Drive') and across into the estate east of Nullawarra Avenue. This is composed of brush box (Lophostemon confertus) (with the occasional eucalypt exception) and runs from the entrance gates between grassed west and east paddocks (still containing horses) leading to the inner set of gates, stables and parkland garden. ===Garden=== The estate contains a relatively intact Victorian and Edwardian layout and structure of a large suburban estate. It retains key elements including buildings and landscape, such as its fields, outer (informal) and inner (more formal) gardens, outbuildings, yards and working areas, cottages, terraces, power house, jetties, walks etc. The garden and grounds contain a rich array of Edwardian and Victoria era garden features, some in very good condition, some revitalised in recent years, some more neglected due to lack of maintenance. An inner set of iron gates and fence leads the drive past the elaborate brick stables/gate house (on the right /east) and into the garden, bordered by shrubberies on both sides and going past the rose garden (on its right/east) past the Dairy (former stables) and working yards and sheds (behind a hedge and shrubbery) to the house which is towards the estate's north-eastern side - closer to the tip of the peninsular. Mixed shrubbery borders lining both sides along and the central island within the inner drive (within the inner set of gates) are richly planted with a mixture of old fashioned shrubs, small trees, succulents, some dramatic such as variegated Mauritius hemp (Furcraea selloa 'Variegata'), bulbs and perennials. A rare tropical trumpet creeper climber, Distictis buccinatoria grows over a frame near the rose garden. Underplantings have been revived and some replaced in the 1990s including widespread use of Nile/African lilies, (Agapanthus orientalis). To the south of the house is a service yard and outbuildings. A carriage loop lies west of the house's main entrance facade, which is crowned by an Italianate tower. Next to (to the left of) the house's entrance front the verandah gives onto a broad path and lawns reaching down to the north to clumps of giant bamboo from which a broad grassed walk, bordered on its higher side with elaborate concrete grotto-work, leads from the site of the jetty round the shore line to a shelter house also of concrete grotto-work beside the site of the swimming pool (now filled and grassed over). Steps amid further grotto-work lead to an upper (croquet or tennis?) lawn overlooked by an Italianate balustraded terrace (east of the house), with formal flower beds and fountain, before the third (east) front of the house (and the site of the Indian room, demolished 1972), and conservatory). A bay window on the house's eastern facade looks into this Italianate garden, with Indian pines, urns and terracing. The grotto on the lower lawn area where formerly was a semi-natural swimming pool, is perhaps the largest in Australia, and contains a rich collection of plants, including and featuring palms, cycads, xeriphytes such as pony tail palms (Nolina sp.), rare species of climber/trailer such as Trachelospermum sp., rare succulents such as Euphorbia grandidens, other unusual succulents such as Agave and Aloe spp., etc.Source: RNE, and pers. comm. Stuart Read, 2002, updated 16/12/11 A picking garden area lies south- west of the rose garden, hedged, but is not kept up. It is now grassed, giving little indication of the intensity with which it would once have been planted, pruned and maintained. Some random NSW Christmas bushes (Ceratopetalum gummiferum) pruned into coppices give a slight hint of its former use. These would have been cut for table arrangements. The rose garden has been moved slightly south of its original position due to mature trees shading the original area. It is south-west of the house, plumbago-hedged (Plumbago capensis), is formally planned with a sandstone sundial and two "crinkle" wire trellised curved "cylinder" arbours running along the sandstone flagged "crazy" paved paths. This garden was replanted in the 1990s. The garden contains much maturespecimen and border tree and shrub planting on a grand scale - clumps of giant bamboo (Bambusa balcooa) near its "water gate", trees such as Himalayan/deodar cedars (Cedrus deodara), Araucaria pines, Queensland kauri pines (Agathis robusta), Moreton Bay figs (Ficus macrophylla), several funeral cypresses (Cupressus funebris), remnant indigenous turpentines (Syncarpia glomulifera), various palms (such as Washingtonia robusta - California desert fan palm; Howea forsteriana - the Lord Howe Island palm), bird of paradise 'trees' (Strelitzia nicolai), the rare gunstock tree (Scolopia braunii) near the house's service courtyard, desert wilga (Geijera parviflora), various orchid trees (Bauhinia x variegata), camphor laurels (Cinnamomum camphora), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), Himalayan chir pines (Pinus roxburghii) east of the house, etc. It also contains a number of old- fashioned flowering and evergreen shrubs, such as a rare hybrid coral tree (Erythrina x camdeni 'Bidwillii') just inside the inner set of gates, Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis cv.), oleanders, (Nerium oleander cv.s), Indian hawthorn (Rhaphiolepis delacouri), sweet box (Murraya paniculata) and also herbaceous plants, such as star jasmines (Trachelospermum - several species, some rare - e.g. on the grotto), succulents (especially on the grotto), etc.Stuart Read, pers.comm., 2005, 2012 The sunken garden north-west of the house was replanted in the early 1990s with predominantly dwarf mondo grass but retains its form and intended character. ===Buildings=== Major buildings on the site include:- ;Yaralla Yaralla is a large asymmetrical two storey Victorian Italianate building with a 4-storey tower over the front door, smaller octagonal towers at its corners, verandahs and projecting bay windows at corners. It has an Indian influence to the verandahs. Ornamentation is confined to balconies and verandahs, including simple mouldings. ;Jonquil Cottage - Single storey Californian Bungalow style dwelling with a series of gabled roofs and prominent entry porch and tall chimneys. The exterior walls are brick with continuous roughcast above window level and to gables, porch and verandah piers. The roof tiles are terracotta and the chimneys brick. ;Hyacinth Cottage - A single storey dwelling of Californian Bungalow style. The exterior walls are brick with roughcast above window head height, terracotta roof tiles and timber framed windows. The interior walls are cement rendered with timber floors and fibrous plaster ceilings. ;Boronia Cottage - A single storey cottage with a dominant hipped and gabled roof. The exterior has a tiled roof, brick walls, timber shingles to the gables and timber framed windows. The interior contains plasterboard ceilings, rendered and plastered walls and carpet. ;Woodbine (Azalea) Cottage - Timber-framed cottage with simple hipped roof and verandah at front and lean-to with skillion roof and verandah at rear. The exterior features a corrugated iron roof, timber weatherboards to walls, timber framed windows and brick chimneys. Floors inside are timber and lath and plaster walls and ceilings are found in the front portion of the house. ;Annex to Woodbine A simple cottage forming an addition to Woodbine with a hipped and flat roof configuration. It contains a living area, two smaller rooms and a bathroom. The exterior has a corrugated asbestos cement roof, timber weatherboard wall lining and timber framed windows. Asbestos cement wall linings, fibrous plaster ceiling linings, timber floors and tiles to bathroom floor are found inside. ;Magnolia Cottage - A single storey cottage with dominant hipped and gabled roof and distinctive verandah. The exterior features brick walls, terracotta roof tiles, timber shingles to the gables and timber framed windows. The interior has timber floors, cement render and set plaster to walls and a fibrous plaster ceiling. Extensions were made to the east and west side of this cottage in 2003 to accommodate a new use as a day care dementia clinic facility. ;Stables complex A group of buildings arranged around a central court with a rich assortment of decorative elements - towers, lanterns, a clock and dormer windows - and includes a horse enclosure and two flats. The roof tiles are terracotta and the walls brick with cement render and timber to the gables. The windows are framed with timber and stone flagging leads to the court. The courtyard is paved in sandstone blocks. Elaborate timberwork lines the horse boxes. ;Laundry and substation block Two storey structure with gabled roof, chimneys and decorative fretted bargeboards and belfry on the eastern wall. The roof has terracotta tiles with a metal ridge and the brick walls are rendered and coursed to resemble stone. The inside walls are rendered and the ceilings and floors are constructed with timber. The floor over the substation area is timber. ;Squash court A rectilinear building with hipped roof featuring patent glazed roof lights and gablets and an observation area accessed by an external stair. The outside walls are brick with timber framed windows and timber shingles to the observation area. The roof is constructed of terracotta tiles with glazed panels. The interior walls are cement rendered. The roof trusses are exposed timber with timber weatherboard ceiling lining. ;High stone wall Random coursed high sandstone wall with brick coursing and dressed sandstone copings at its apex. It is covered with thick vegetation on the western side. ;Sea wall Sandstone wall of random sized stones at the edge of the tidal zone, with some rough cement bonding and integrated with the naturally occurring rock. Sheds and animal (pig, chicken and fowl) enclosures are generally roofed with terracotta tiles and have walls of timber or brick constructionR.Howard & D.White 1995: 27 === Condition === The building was reported as being in good condition externally and internally as at February 2009.HG/GAO, 2/2009 Unlike the garden at Thomas Walker Convalescent Hospital, designed for an institutional building, the garden at Yaralla, designed as a high maintenance garden for social gatherings, has suffered from its later/more recent use and lack of maintenance. The available maintenance makes it impossible to present the garden in the style for which it was designed, although with the exception of the architectural features, the Norwegian house and the Indian Room's regrettable losses - and that of the now infilled swimming pool, the layout appears quite intact. The European archaeological potential was assessed as good as at 1 January 1993, while the Aboriginal archaeological potential was assessed as poor. === Modifications and dates === * 1893-99 - Alterations to Yaralla and construction of Stable Complex - John Sulman. The verandahs, court and tower at entry are heavily modified. * C.1901 - Swimming Pool constructed * 1907 - Indian Room built and garage constructed * 1917 - Portion of estate transferred to Concord Golf Club Ltd. * 1919 - Outer part of estate transferred to Charles King and Frederick Humphrey. * 1920 - First Subdivision offered by auction. * 1940 converted to a convalescent home for men * 1970 - 80 - Demolition of various buildings and structures, including:- Norwegian Cottage, Indian Room, Gate lodge (Camelia) & Dahlia, Fuchsia, Gardenia and Lavender cottages, the swimming pool filled inHoward & White 1995: 6-7, 27 * 1993: Adapted for use as a Dialysis Training Centre in the main house * c.2000 grotto tidied up / scraped over, and replanted * 2003 - recycle the former site engineer's (Magnolia) cottage (which is currently unoccupied) to serve as the "Kalparrin Dementia Day Care Centre". * 2007 - Italian balustrade on terrace east of house restored by Concord Heritage Society * 2008 - NSW Health announced its decision to move the Dialysis Training Centre to a larger, purpose-built premises at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Camperdown. The DTC moved to the new premises in mid-2008, leaving the Dame Eadith Walker Hospital vacant. * 2013–14 - House refurbished to accommodate statewide supported accommodation for HIV/Dementia patients; Various repairs have been conducted in recent years, including maintenance works to Boronia Cottage and The Stables, stone balustrade repairs in 2006, and repairs to the main gates. == Heritage listing == The Dame Eadith Walker Estate is of outstanding cultural significance for NSW. It comprises a unique complex of 19th- and early 20th- century buildings in an essentially rural landscape setting and is an exceptionally rare complete example of a large Edwardian private residential estate in Australia and one in close proximity to the city. The estate has direct historical links with the early days of the colony of NSW and is strongly associated with an important mercantile and philanthropic family. The estate contains an exceptional group of late 19th-century buildings, some of them rare examples, which clearly demonstrate the workings of a farm of this period. Its core is a substantial Italianate villa designed by Edmond Blacket & John Sulman and also of architectural and historical significance for its associations with Thomas Walker, a prominent Australian. It is of great significance for its landscape, as an intact estate on the Parramatta River, with extensive mature mangroves fringing the shore and mature plantings in an extensive but deteriorated garden. The estate has a large collection of rare and important trees and shrubs, many over a century old, some of individual botanical and horticultural significance and rarity as well as herbaceous and climbing plant specimens. Whilst not of exceptional design, as a component of the estate the garden with its extensive late Victorian or Edwardian grotto- work, picking, flower garden and entertaining areas is of much interest, and demonstrates a lost way of life. Yaralla Estate was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. The Dame Eadith Walker Estate is a unique complex of buildings and landscape elements which is of outstanding significance as a large, self-sufficient private residential estate and has a strong association with an important mercantile and philanthropic family of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Yaralla House represents the work of two of Australia's major 19th-century architects, Edmund Blacket and John Sulman. It is evidence of changing living patterns during the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. The Estate is significant in the evolving pattern of the colony starting as a grant to an ex-convict, through to a colonial gentleman's residence and early 20th-century residence of an important philanthropic woman, Dame Eadith Walker. The Estate is also important evidence of early settlement in the Concord area.R.Howard & D.White 1995: 29 The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. The group of buildings comprising the Dairy Complex, Stables Complex, Boronia Cottage, Magnolia Cottage, Pig Enclosure, Chicken Enclosure and Fowl Enclosure are architecturally consistent and unified with strong visual, physical and historical links. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The Dame Eadith Walker Estate has botanical and scientific significance as a large collection of rare and important trees and shrubs on a large residential estate, many having existed in this location for over a century. A number of specimens have individual botanical importance for their rarity. Many archaeological remains exist on the Estate which have the potential, through archaeological analysis, to provide further information on the cultural heritage and lifestyle of the previous occupants of the Estate. The existence of the foundations of demolished buildings is significant in that they provide physical evidence of the location of previous structures and add a dimension to the interpretation of the site as a whole. The group of buildings comprising the Dairy Complex, Stable Complex, Boronia Cottage, Magnolia Cottage, Pig Enclosure, Chicken Enclosure and Fowl Enclosure, form an exceptional group of late nineteenth- century buildings which clearly demonstrate the workings of a farm of this period. The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. Contains rare examples of particular structures and is an exceptionally rare example of a large Edwardian private residential estate in Australia.(R.Howard & D.White 1995: iv) The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales. The Dame Eadith Walker Estate is representative of a large suburban 19th-century estate, with relatively intact Victorian and Edwardian estate layout and structure, key elements including buildings and landscape including fields, more natural areas and a large garden. The estate is also representative of the pattern of estate accumulation and to a lesser extent subdivision, and the change from a rural or semi-rural to a suburban setting over the 20th century. The garden is representative of large, 19th- and early 20th-century gentry estate gardens, with a range of features including sporting facilities, swimming pool, grotto, sunken garden, rose garden, picking garden and a large collection of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. It is also representative of gentry estates which were used for social occasions, such as parties and gatherings, playing a role in the wider community as well as for estate workers and their families. ==Gallery== File:YarallaMansion.JPG|Yaralla Mansion, 2007 Image:Yaralla3.JPG|North side of the house Image:Yaralla12.JPG|Yaralla stables, designed by John Sulman Image:Yaralla5.JPG|Yaralla grounds Image:Yaralla8.JPG|Grotto at former site of swimming pool File:Yaralla Estate field and Turpentine forest, Concord West, NSW.JPG|Yaralla Estate field and Turpentine forest ==See also== *List of hospitals in New South Wales ==References== === Bibliography === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Attribution === ==External links== * * * [CC-By-SA] Category:Buildings and structures in Sydney Category:Hospitals in Sydney Category:Houses in Sydney Category:Victorian architecture in Sydney Category:Italianate architecture in Sydney Category:New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:John Sulman buildings Category:City of Canada Bay Category:1864 establishments in Australia Category:Concord, New South Wales
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Jacob Klapwijk (24 October 1933 – 19 March 2021) was a Dutch philosopher, and Emeritus Professor of Modern and Systematic Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, known for his work on Ernst Troeltsch and historicism, Reformational thinking, the transformational task of Christian philosophy, and the theory of emergent evolution. == Biography == Born in Dronrijp, Klapwijk started to study Philosophy and Theology in 1952 at the Vrije Universiteit (VU University), where he received his MA in 1961. For many years he was research assistant to one of the founding fathers of reformational philosophy, D. H. Th. Vollenhoven. In 1970 he received his PhD in Philosophy with a thesis entitled "Between Historicism and Relativism", under supervision of Vollenhoven's colleague S. U. Zuidema. After his graduation in the early 1960s Klapwijk became lector in Logic at the Vrije Universiteit. In 1974 he was appointed Professor of History of Modern Philosophy, and later was Professor of Systematic Philosophy. Among his students were John Kok and René Woudenberg. He retired in 1994.See Jacob Klapwijk Curriculum Vitae at jacobklapwijk.nl. == Work == Klapwijk's research interest concerns the "relationship between reason and religion, and the delicate concept of Christian philosophy". He focused on "the great variety of models of Christian thinking and in particular on the fundamental contrast between the medieval-scholastic and Augustinian-reformed tradition."Jacob Klapwijk Professional interests at jacobklapwijk.nl. === Ernst Troeltsch, historicism and the intimations of radical historicity === Initially Klapwijk’s writings chiefly dealt with various theories of history and society. His doctoral dissertation was written on Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923), the German theologian and later philosopher of history in Hegel’s Chair in Berlin, who was widely celebrated for his defense of radical historicism and who gave us the sociological distinction between Church, Sect and Mysticism. The Dutch title for Klapwijk’s thesis was Tussen historisme en relativisme: Een studie over de dynamiek van het historisme en de wijsgerige ontwikkelingsgang van Ernst Troeltsch (1970, English 2013). The dissertation analyzes Troeltsch’s philosophy of "radical historicity" by distinguishing six phases in its development, a development that started with a broad Hegelian perspective of universal history and ended in an extreme "monadological individualism" rooted in mysticism. In later years Klapwijk confronts this radicalized historicism with its relativistic and self-contradictory consequences even in the fields of ethics and theology. He then pretends that we have to accept the radical historicity of human beings including pluralism of norms and values without ignoring the undeniable intimations of ultimate, universal core principles that rule our daily life. This universality can only be based on the fundamental difference between anamnetic and academic history.The English translation, Between Historicism and Relativism, is available online: . In 1994 Klapwijk presented a systematic critique of historicism in Pluralism of Norms and Values , reclaiming arguments in favor of universal norms in terms of core principles for practical life anywhere. In 2009 he formulated his views of history more fully in Commemoration by initiating the basic distinction between the First and the Second History, the first one in terms of personal involvement and practical life commemoration, the second one in terms of theoretical objectification and scientific reconstruction. In 1974 Klapwijk received a Chair at VU University in the History of Modern Philosophy, while in the eighties a Chair in Systematic Philosophy was added. His inaugural lecture was published as Dialektiek der verlichting: Een verkenning in het neomarxisme van de Frankfurter Schule (1976, English 2010). In this book Klapwijk gives credit to the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory by discussing the critical views that Marcuse, Horkheimer, Adorno and the early Habermas developed with respect to contemporary history and the modern welfare of society. He concludes that, indeed, we need a critical reconstructing of the legacy of the Enlightenment in terms of freedom, rationality and human dignity, but that the Critical Theory is not critical enough. At bottom it can be interpreted as an insufficiently clarified expression of faith.Dialektiek der verlichting (1976). See in particular the Foreword by Lambert Zuidervaart from the Institute for Christian Studies in Toronto, included in the English translation, Dialectic of Enlightenment (2010), pp. vii-x === Reformational philosophy clarifies its own inner history, and its relation to modern society === A key task that Klapwijk took upon himself right from the start was that of analyzing the distinctive position of so-called Reformational philosophy. He focussed on Vollenhoven's early vision of an integral Scriptural philosophy that is not accommodated to ancient Greek paganism or modern secular humanism, undiluted by what Vollenhoven and his colleague at the VU, Herman Dooyeweerd, had called "synthesis philosophy", i.e. a mix of biblical motifs with sophisticated conceptions of a non-Christian origin. For Vollenhoven, this synthesis quality compromised the Middle Ages and even the entirety of Patristic philosophical theology, contrary to Alfred North Whitehead's appraisal of the same era. But Klapwijk emphasized how in later years Vollenhoven acknowledged that an antithetical attitude, so characteristic for Reformational thinkers, does not exclude affinities and structural similarities between secular theories and Christian philosophy. Here already, Klapwijk raised the crucial question whether religious antithesis should not go hand in hand with philosophical openness, "an openness to bring all human thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ."See Calvin and Neo- Calvinism on Non-Christian Philosophy (1973), p. 61. Klapwijk also analyzed and evaluated differences between the university's two leading lights, Abraham Kuyper and Herman Bavinck, both now long deceased but both with partisan followers who could live less with the leaders' differences than could those leaders themselves. One of Klapwijk's first attempts to articulate this critical stance for his philosophical community occurred in a widely-read volume edited by Hendrik Hart, Johan van der Hoeven, and Nicholas Wolterstorff, reviewed in Theology Today by Eugene Osterhaven: "An excellent chapter on 'Rationality in the Dutch Neo-Calvinist Tradition' by Jacob Klapwijk ... treats Abraham Kuyper's doctrines of common grace, and the antithesis, and his failure to harmonize the two, especially when he dealt with human reason. Kuyper's attempts to give the antithesis organizational form is shown to "lead to a dangerous identification of the Christian (or, if you will, Reformed) cause with God's cause." Although Kuyper intended Christian organizations to be a means for Christianizing society, 'the danger was that they were considered not as deficient instruments but as ends in the struggle for the Kingdom of God'."See Rationality in the Dutch Neo-Calvinist Tradition (1983), pp. 97-98, and for Osterhaven here As mentioned by Osterhaven, one major difference in ideas between Bavinck and Kuyper is formulated in terms inherent to the Reformed tradition. It's the contrast between the doctrine of "religious antithesis" (not only the human soul but all of life in culture and society is to be redeemed) and its counterpart, the doctrine of "common grace" (cultural goods are tokens of God’s grace equally for Christians and non-Christians). How to integrate both perspectives? Bavinck emphasized common grace, while Kuyper, in many of his works, emphasized (sometimes severely) the antithetical attitude, also in terms of separate Christian organizations in public life. A comparison of the two positions, which came to designate two interwoven and contentious traditions in the Christian Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and the Christian movements that flowed from its membership, is presented in one of the three chapters that Jacob Klapwijk contributed to a very important self-critical work of Reformational philosophy, entitled Bringing into Captivity Every Thought (1991).See Antithesis and Common Grace (1991) and Epilogue: The Idea of Transformational Philosophy (1991). In Abraham Kuyper on Science, Theology and University (2013) Klapwijk highlights the innovative insights in Kuyper’s theories of science and society. He was one of the three editors of the volume and among nearly a dozen contributors. === Clarifying his philosophical movement's task as transformational in the wider world === The dispute about synthesis and antithesis has incisive consequences for the Christian’s position in culture and society but touches in particular the Christian calling in philosophy. Klapwijk wanted to think of Reformational philosophy not only, not even primarily as "Calvinist" in Vollenhoven's term, not only as "reformational-ecumenical" (in Herman Dooyeweerd's terms), but as a transformational philosophy. He took as an example the Church fathers’ notion of spoliatio Aegyptiorum, the robbery of the Egyptians (see Ex. 12:36). God ordered the Israelites in the great exodus to rob their antagonists of their silver and golden treasures. Yet, it was not for the sake of synthesis and syncretism (‘the golden calf’): the metals were purified and re-used for the service of God in the sanctuary of the desert. This is for Klapwijk a paradigm of the transforming power of a religious belief, also in philosophical discussions. Christian philosophy should overcome the synthesis/antithesis dilemma. It is athletic enough to keep pace with the broader philosophical world, putting the theories of the day to a critical test and using what is valuable in such a way that it can become subservient to a Christian perspective on reality in the realms of theoretical thought.See Antithesis, Synthesis, and the Idea of Transformational Philosophy (1986), p. 145. A broader survey of the previous issues as discussed by Vollenhoven, Dooyeweerd and their reformational followers is to be found in Klapwijk’s Reformational Philosophy on the Boundary between the Past and the Future (1987). Here and in The Struggle for a Christian Philosophy (1980) Klapwijk pays special attention to Dooyeweerd’s position. ===Transformational philosophy and living nature=== In recent years Klapwijk has applied his view of Christian philosophy in terms of transformation to the field of living nature and evolutionary theory. He was unhappy with the strictly antithetical attitude of Creationism towards the current naturalistic theories of evolution. But he likewise rejected the uncritical acceptance of these views in so-called Theistic evolution, as if God created the world in all its diversity through evolution. It's just the other way around; if the world is involved in an evolutionary process, it is so on the basis of God's creation word in the beginning. Even the theory of Intelligent Design is in his opinion too much based on a compromise, a synthesis of mechanistic naturalism and supernatural interventions. How do we overcome the present-day divide between religious and so-called secular views of the origin of life? In his book Purpose in the Living World? Creation and Emergent Evolution (2008) Klapwijk offers a philosophical analysis of the relation of evolutionary biology to religion, and addresses the question of whether the evolution of life is exclusively a matter of chance and blind fortune or is better understood as including the notion of purpose. He proposes to bridge the gap via the idea of "emergent evolution."Purpose in the Living World? Creation and Emergent Evolution (2008). For the corresponding Dutch text see Heeft de evolutie een doel? (2009). See the first issue of Philosophia Reformata 76 dedicated to Purpose; also the book review by Henk Hogeboom van Buggenum , Klapwijk's theory of emergent evolution (TEE) indicates how at crucial moments in earthly history, when basic conditions of solidity and complexity were suitable, physical things reorganized themselves in such a way that new forms of existence were disclosed. This happened in particular when in the physical world micro-organisms, plants, animals and humans came into being. In these new entities biotic, vegetative, sensitive and mental or moral modes of being emerged, step by step. These higher levels of being and behavior still have a physical or molecular basis; all living organisms obey physical laws, that is the partial truth of scientific naturalism. But at critical turning points in the evolutionary process things on earth came in the grip of above-physical principles. Without losing their material birth certificate they succeeded in functioning in new ways, as living, growing, feeling and sometimes even as intelligent beings. The modal levels that successively emerged in these new domains of organisms represent regulation systems all of their own. In short, it is the modal hierarchy of physical laws, biotic rules, vegetative patterns, sensitive standards, mental and moral principles that in due time has given rise to phenomena of emergent or "transcendental novelty" (G. Ledyard Stebbins). Klapwijk’s TEE can be described as a non-reductive evolutionary theory attuned to the different modal spheres that characterize our earthly existence. It recognizes the curious discontinuities that have arisen in nature in the course of time not as the origin of completely new types of organisms, as creationists suggest, but as the genesis of new modal fields that come to the fore where things or organisms are equipped with higher level characteristics and observe rules of their own without ignoring their bond with their material substratum. To put it differently, the emergent levels of being and behavior that can be distinguished in living beings are conditioned by but not simply identifiable as parts of the complexification process that characterizes the physical world. This "levelism" (John Searle) has important implications for scientific research. With respect to epigenetic phenomena, master genes, so-called jumping genes (transposable elements in the cell) and other issues in the contemporary evolution debate, it encourages interdisciplinary research. It can offer a more promising framework for theoretical analysis than a one-sided naturalistic or materialistic approach.See Creation Belief and the Paradigm of Emergent Evolution (2011). See also Harry Cook, “Emergence: A Biologist’s Look at Complexity in Nature” (2013). The hierarchical ordering of the living world suggests an underlying plan and purpose. Here the language of science and even of philosophy finds its limits. In Klapwijk’s opinion we need a different, more comprehensive language. In the language of religion one could say that the creation word of God in the beginning, spelled out in the Genesis story of the seven creation days, is the driving force behind the dynamic progress, the modal hierarchy, and the various levels of evolutionary development. The Big Bang, the early inceptions of cosmic time and space, the primeval expressions of unicellular life, the rise of the multicellular systems of plants and animals and, last but not least, the intimacies of human consciousness are difficult to unite in a great chain of being, for scientists to comprehend in an ontology, an overall view of reality. But in the eyes of faith all temporal phenomena and all emergent innovations can be considered to be temporary disclosures of divine creation. According to Klapwijk it is the basic motive of divine creation that propels the world from its very beginning towards its final completion in the Kingdom of God.See "Nothing in Evolutionary Theory Makes Sense Except in the Light of Creation" (2012). In this article the author enters into discussion with eight colleagues about their comments on Purpose and TEE, published in Philosophia Reformata 76 (2011). == Publications == * Klapwijk, Jacob (1970). Tussen historisme en relativisme: Een studie over de dynamiek van het historisme en de wijsgerige ontwikkelingsgang van Ernst Troeltsch diss. VU University, Amsterdam. Assen: Van Gorcum. (English 2013). * Klapwijk, Jacob; Hendrik Hart; and Kor A. Bril (editors, 1973). The Idea of a Christian Philosophy: Essays in Honour of D H Th Vollenhoven (Toronto: Wedge). * Klapwijk, Jacob (1973). "Calvin and Neo-Calvinism on Non-Christian Philosophy ," Philosophia Reformata 38, pp. 43–61. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1976) Dialektiek der verlichting: Een verkenning in het neomarxisme van de Frankfurter Schule, openbare les VU, Assen/Amsterdam: Van Gorcum. [English 2010]. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1980). "The Struggle for a Christian Philosophy: Another Look at Dooyeweerd" in: The Reformed Journal 30, pp. 12–15, 20–24. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1983). "Rationality in the Dutch Calvinist Tradition," Rationality in the Calvinian Tradition (eds Hart, Van der Hoeven, Wolterstorff, Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America), pp. 93–111. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1986). "Antithesis, Synthesis, and the Idea of Transformational Philosophy ," Philosophia Reformata 51, pp. 138–152. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1987). Kijken naar kopstukken (Amsterdam: Buijten en Schipperheijn). * Klapwijk, Jacob (1987). "Reformational Philosophy on the Boundary between Past and Future ," Philosophia Reformata 52, pp 101–134. * Klapwijk, Jacob; Sander Griffioen; and Gerben Groenewoud (editors, 1991). Bringing into Captivity Every Thought: Capita Selecta in the History of Christian Evaluations of non-Christian Philosophy (Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America). * Klapwijk, Jacob (1991). "Antithesis and Common Grace ." Klapwijk, Griffioen, Groenewoud (eds.). Bringing into Captivity Every Thought: Capita Selecta in the History of Christian Philosophy (Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America), pp. 169–190. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1991). "Epilogue: the idea of transformational philosophy ." Klapwijk, Griffioen, Groenewoud (eds.). Bringing into Captivity Every Thought: Capita Selecta in the History of Christian Philosophy (Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America), pp. 241–266. * Klapwijk, Jacob (1994). "Pluralism of Norms and Values: On the Claim and Reception of the Universal ," Philosophia Reformata 59 (2), pp. 158–192. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2008). Purpose in the Living World? Creation and Emergent Evolution. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). * Klapwijk, Jacob (2009). Heeft de evolutie een doel? Over schepping en emergente evolutie, Kampen: Kok. 2009 [English 2008]. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2009). "Commemoration: On the First and Second History ", in Philosophia Reformata 74, pp. 48–70. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2010). Dialectic of Enlightenment: Critical Theory and the Messianic Light, inaugural lecture VU 1976, translated by C.L. Yallop and P.M. Yallop, Foreword by Lambert Zuidervaart. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2011). "Creation Belief and the Paradigm of Emergent Evolution ", in Philosophia Reformata 76, pp. 11–31. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2012). "Nothing in Evolutionary Theory Makes Sense Except in the Light of Creation", transl. Harry Cook, in: Philosophia Reformata 77, pp. 57–77. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2013). "Abraham Kuyper on Science, Theology and University ", in Philosophia Reformata 78, pp. 18–46. * Klapwijk, Jacob (2013). Between Historicism and Relativism: Dynamics of Historicism and the Philosophical Development of Ernst Troeltsch, translated by H. Donald Morton. VU University Amsterdam. online. ;About Klapwijk * Hart, Hendrik; Johan van der Hoeven; and Nicholas Wolterstorff (editors, 1983). Rationality in the Calvinian Tradition (Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America). * Osterhaven, M. Eugene (1984). Book review: "Rationality in the Calvinian Tradition," Theology Today, October 1984. * Henk Hogeboom van Buggenum (2009). Book review J. Klapwijk, Heeft de evolutie een doel? in Gamma: Forum over onze rol in die evolutie 169 (3), pp. 37-40. * Lambert Zuidervaart, Lambert (2010). “Foreword” in Klapwijk’s, Dialectic of Enlightenment: Critical Theory and the Messianic Light. * Critical essays by Roy Clouser, John Satherley, Henk Geertsema, Russ Wolfinger, Bruce Wearne, Gerben Groenewoud, Chris Gousmett, and Harry Cook on Klapwijk’s Purpose (2008), in Philosophia Reformata 75 (1) and 76 (1). 2010-2011. * Cook, Harry (2013). “Emergence: A Biologist’s Look at Complexity in Nature” in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 65, pp. 233–241. == References == == External links == * Jacob Klapwijk homepage * Jacob Klapwijk pages Category:1933 births Category:2021 deaths Category:21st-century Dutch philosophers Category:People from Menaldumadeel Category:Academic staff of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Category:20th-century Dutch philosophers
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An academic journal or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and discussion of research. They nearly universally require peer review or other scrutiny from contemporaries competent and established in their respective fields. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, or book reviews. The purpose of an academic journal, according to Henry Oldenburg (the first editor of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society), is to give researchers a venue to "impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge, and perfecting all Philosophical Arts, and Sciences." The term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields; this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Scientific journals and journals of the quantitative social sciences vary in form and function from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences; their specific aspects are separately discussed. The first academic journal was (January 1665), followed soon after by Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (March 1665), and (1666). The first fully peer-reviewed journal was Medical Essays and Observations (1733). ==History== The idea of a published journal with the purpose of "[letting] people know what is happening in the Republic of Letters" was first conceived by François Eudes de Mézeray in 1663. A publication titled was supposed to be published to fulfill that goal, but never was. Humanist scholar Denis de Sallo (under the pseudonym "Sieur de Hédouville") and printer Jean Cusson took Mazerai's idea, and obtained a royal privilege from King Louis XIV on 8 August 1664 to establish the . The journal's first issue was published on 5 January 1665. It was aimed at people of letters, and had four main objectives: # review newly published major European books, # publish the obituaries of famous people, # report on discoveries in arts and science, and # report on the proceedings and censures of both secular and ecclesiastical courts, as well as those of universities both in France and outside. Soon after, the Royal Society established Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in March 1665, and the established the in 1666, which focused on scientific communications. By the end of the 18th century, nearly 500 such periodicals had been published, the vast majority coming from Germany (304 periodicals), France (53), and England (34). Several of those publications, however, and in particular the German journals, tended to be short-lived (under 5 years). A.J. Meadows has estimated the proliferation of journals to reach 10,000 journals in 1950, and 71,000 in 1987. However, Michael Mabe warns that the estimates will vary depending on the definition of what exactly counts as a scholarly publication, but that the growth rate has been "remarkably consistent over time", with an average rate of 3.46% per year from 1800 to 2003. In 1733, Medical Essays and Observations was established by the Medical Society of Edinburgh as the first fully peer- reviewed journal. Peer review was introduced as an attempt to increase the quality and pertinence of submissions. Other important events in the history of academic journals include the establishment of Nature (1869) and Science (1880), the establishment of Postmodern Culture in 1990 as the first online- only journal, the foundation of arXiv in 1991 for the dissemination of preprints to be discussed prior to publication in a journal, and the establishment of PLOS One in 2006 as the first megajournal. ==Scholarly articles== There are two kinds of article or paper submissions in academia: solicited, where an individual has been invited to submit work either through direct contact or through a general submissions call, and unsolicited, where an individual submits a work for potential publication without directly being asked to do so. Upon receipt of a submitted article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by outside scholars of the editor's choosing who typically remain anonymous. The number of these peer reviewers (or "referees") varies according to each journal's editorial practice – typically, no fewer than two, though sometimes three or more, experts in the subject matter of the article produce reports upon the content, style, and other factors, which inform the editors' publication decisions. Though these reports are generally confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, or accept the article for publication. Even accepted articles are often subjected to further (sometimes considerable) editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take from several weeks to several months. ==Reviewing== ===Review articles=== Review articles, also called "reviews of progress", are checks on the research published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, and others do not publish review articles. Such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms; some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some reviews are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a given subject; others are selective, including only what they think worthwhile. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field. Some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited or "peer-invited" submissions, often planned years in advance, which may themselves go through a peer-review process once received. They are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. ===Book reviews=== Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the research books published by scholars; unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. Journals typically have a separate book review editor determining which new books to review and by whom. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editor's request for a book review, he or she generally receives a free copy of the book from the journal in exchange for a timely review. Publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook and trade book review. ==Prestige and ranking== An academic journal's prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline, some journals receive a high number of submissions and opt to restrict how many they publish, keeping the acceptance rate low. Size or prestige are not a guarantee of reliability. In the natural sciences and in the social sciences, the impact factor is an established proxy, measuring the number of later articles citing articles already published in the journal. There are other quantitative measures of prestige, such as the overall number of citations, how quickly articles are cited, and the average "half-life" of articles. Clarivate Analytics' Journal Citation Reports, which among other features, computes an impact factor for academic journals, draws data for computation from the Science Citation Index Expanded (for natural science journals), and from the Social Sciences Citation Index (for social science journals). Several other metrics are also used, including the SCImago Journal Rank, CiteScore, Eigenfactor, and Altmetrics. In the Anglo-American humanities, there is no tradition (as there is in the sciences) of giving impact-factors that could be used in establishing a journal's prestige. Recent moves have been made by the European Science Foundation (ESF) to change the situation, resulting in the publication of preliminary lists for the ranking of academic journals in the humanities. These rankings have been severely criticized, notably by history and sociology of science British journals that have published a common editorial entitled "Journals under Threat". Though it did not prevent ESF and some national organizations from proposing journal rankings, it largely prevented their use as evaluation tools. In some disciplines such as knowledge management/intellectual capital, the lack of a well-established journal ranking system is perceived by academics as "a major obstacle on the way to tenure, promotion and achievement recognition". onversely, a significant number of scientists and organizations consider the pursuit of impact factor calculations as inimical to the goals of science, and have signed the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment to limit its use. The categorization of journal prestige in some subjects has been attempted, typically using letters to rank their academic world importance. Three categories of techniques have developed to assess journal quality and create journal rankings: * stated preference; * revealed preference; and * publication power approaches ==Costs== Many academic journals are subsidized by universities or professional organizations, and do not exist to make a profit. However, they often accept advertising, page and image charges from authors to pay for production costs. On the other hand, some journals are produced by commercial publishers who do make a profit by charging subscriptions to individuals and libraries. They may also sell all of their journals in discipline-specific collections or a variety of other packages. Journal editors tend to have other professional responsibilities, most often as teaching professors. In the case of the largest journals, there are paid staff assisting in the editing. The production of the journals is almost always done by publisher-paid staff. Humanities and social science academic journals are usually subsidized by universities or professional organization. The cost and value proposition of subscription to academic journals is being continuously re-assessed by institutions worldwide. In the context of the big deal cancellations by several library systems in the world, data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals are used by libraries to estimate the specific cost and value of the various options: libraries can avoid subscriptions for materials already served by instant open access via open archives like PubMed Central. ==New developments== The Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals, with their contents available online via services subscribed to by academic libraries. Individual articles are subject- indexed in databases such as Google Scholar. Some of the smallest, most specialized journals are prepared in-house, by an academic department, and published only online – such form of publication has sometimes been in the blog format though some, like the open access journal Internet Archaeology, use the medium to embed searchable datasets, 3D models, and interactive mapping. Currently, there is a movement in higher education encouraging open access, either via self archiving, whereby the author deposits a paper in a disciplinary or institutional repository where it can be searched for and read, or via publishing it in a free open access journal, which does not charge for subscriptions, being either subsidized or financed by a publication fee. Given the goal of sharing scientific research to speed advances, open access has affected science journals more than humanities journals. Commercial publishers are experimenting with open access models, but are trying to protect their subscription revenues. The much lower entry cost of on-line publishing has also raised concerns of an increase in publication of "junk" journals with lower publishing standards. These journals, often with names chosen as similar to well-established publications, solicit articles via e-mail and then charge the author to publish an article, often with no sign of actual review. Jeffrey Beall, a research librarian at the University of Colorado, has compiled a list of what he considers to be "potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers"; the list numbered over 300 journals as of April 2013, but he estimates that there may be thousands. The OMICS Publishing Group, which publishes a number of the journals on this list, has threatened to sue Beall. Some academic journals use the registered report format, which aims to counteract issues such as data dredging and hypothesizing after the results are known. For example, Nature Human Behaviour has adopted the registered report format, as it "shift[s] the emphasis from the results of research to the questions that guide the research and the methods used to answer them". The European Journal of Personality defines this format: "In a registered report, authors create a study proposal that includes theoretical and empirical background, research questions/hypotheses, and pilot data (if available). Upon submission, this proposal will then be reviewed prior to data collection, and if accepted, the paper resulting from this peer-reviewed procedure will be published, regardless of the study outcomes." === Electronic journals === Some journals are born digital, such as the Electronic Journal of Combinatorics, in that they are solely published on the web and in a digital format. Most electronic journals originated as print journals, which subsequently evolved to have an electronic version, while still maintaining a print component, while others eventually become electronic-only. An e-journal closely resembles a print journal in structure: there is a table of contents which lists the articles, and many electronic journals still use a volume/issue model, although some titles now publish on a continuous basis. Online journal articles are a specialized form of electronic document: they have the purpose of providing material for academic research and study, and they are formatted approximately like journal articles in traditional printed journals. Often a journal article will be available for download in two formats – as a PDF and in HTML format, although other electronic file types are often supported for supplementary material. Articles are indexed in bibliographic databases, as well as by search engines. E-journals allow new types on content to be included in journals, for example video material, or the data sets on which research has been based. With the growth and development of the Internet, there has been a growth in the number of new journals, especially in those that exist as digital publications only. A subset of these journals exist as Open Access titles, meaning that they are free to access for all, and have Creative Commons licences which permit the reproduction of content in different ways. High quality open access journals are listed in Directory of Open Access Journals. Most however continue to exist as subscription journals, for which libraries, organisations and individuals purchase access. == Lists == The largest database providing detailed information about journals is Ulrichs Global Serials Directory. Other databases providing detailed information about journals are the Modern Language Association Directory of Periodicals and Genamics JournalSeek. Journal hosting websites like Project MUSE, JSTOR, Pubmed, Ingenta Web of Science, and Informaworld also provide journal lists. Some sites evaluate journals, providing information such as how long a journal takes to review articles and what types of articles it publishes. ==See also== == Explanatory notes == ==References== ==Further reading== * * * * * * * * ==External links== * * ERIH 'Initial' lists, European Science Foundation * JournalSeek – A Searchable Database of Online Scholarly Journals * Master Journal List (Thomson Reuters) – a list of selected, and notable academic journals in the arts, humanities, sciences, and social sciences. * JURN directory of Arts & Humanities ejournals * Academic Journals: What are They? and Academic Journals Compared to Magazines. Academic Writing. Dennis G. Jerz. Seton Hill University. 2001. * Peer reviewed articles. San Diego State University. * Directory of Open Access Journals Category:Academic publishing Category:Peer review Category:Scholarly communication
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"All Nite (Don't Stop)" is a song recorded by American singer Janet Jackson for her eighth studio album, Damita Jo (2004). It was written and produced by Jackson and Swedish duo Bag & Arnthor (consisting of Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson), with additional writing from Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Virgin Records released the song on May 17, 2004, as the album's third and final single. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" is an electro-funk and house song that contains elements of samba, Latin, dance-pop, and dancehall. Jackson sings the song in a breathy falsetto, with lyrical metaphors comparing various actions to dancing. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" received critical acclaim from music critics, with many praising it as the best song on the album. Its chart performance was massively affected by the blacklisting of Jackson's work on many radio formats and music channels worldwide, regarding conglomerates fined by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) after her Super Bowl halftime show incident. However, it peaked atop Hot Dance Club Songs and reached number eight on Hot Dance Airplay, while reaching the top 20 in Spain and the United Kingdom, as well as charting in several other countries. It additionally won a BMI London Award for Best Pop Song. Its accompanying music video, directed by Francis Lawrence, portrays Jackson and her dancers rehearsing in an abandoned hotel during a power outage. The music video received nominations for Best Dance Video at the International Dance Music Awards and Best Choreography at the MVPA Awards. In order to promote both the single and the album, Jackson performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" during several appearances, including Saturday Night Live, On Air with Ryan Seacrest and Top of the Pops, in addition to the 2004 Video Music Awards Japan. The song was also performed on all of her subsequent tours following its release. ==Background== "All Nite (Don't Stop)" was written and produced by Jackson and Swedish producers Bag & Arnthor of Murlyn Music, with additional writing from Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. The song was among several songs Jackson recorded with the duo, in addition to "SloLove", "I'm Here" and "Put Your Hands On"; the latter two were only included on the Japanese version of the album. It was recorded at Murlyn Studios in Stockholm, Sweden and The Village in Los Angeles, California. The duo specifically desired to work with Jackson prior to their collaboration, with Anders Bagge stating, "That's my dream, she's the one I would give anything to work with. The ultimate female artist", and Arnthor Birgisson adding, "let's just say we will definitely be prepared if and when that happens". In the United States, it was released on May 17, 2004, as the third single from Damita Jo, following "Just a Little While" and "I Want You". In addition, Jackson also considered "All Nite (Don't Stop)" as the album's lead before selecting "Just a Little While". A dancehall-influenced remix known as the So So Def remix features Elephant Man and was produced by L'Roc and Jermaine Dupri, and included in some releases of the single. ==Composition== "All Nite (Don't Stop)" is an electro-funk and RnB song, while taking influences from samba, Latin, dance-pop and dancehall. Its melody is built around a sample of Herbie Hancock's 1975 song "Hang Up Your Hang Ups". Jackson's vocals are delivered in a breathy falsetto over an "impossibly lithe bassline" described as "a bitch slap" to the senses, according to Spence D. from IGN website. Lyrically, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" discusses being addicted to dancing in a club setting, using metaphors to describe the intense feelings experienced. The song opens with Jackson announcing, "attention, it's time to dance", before comparing various situations with frenetic movement, such as earthquakes, masturbation, pole dancing, a corkscrew, and computer hacking with jerking, popping, breakdancing, shaking, and twerking. Veronica Heffernan of The New York Times said that the lyrics presented Jackson as "a demanding choreographer" with "drill-sergeant attitude", complemented by the singer's "sweetheart voice". ==Critical reception== Mike Trias of Radio and Records said the track "should not be ignored, especially on the dance floor. Its sexy, midtempo groove is perfect for kicking a party into after hours". Gail Mitchell of Billboard commended it as a "beat-bangin' number" with "infectious allure", affirming that "Jackson steps back into her signature groove line with this bass-driven party jam". Mitchell also regarded it as among Jackson's strongest material, adding that its chorus and "relentless beat" will remain "embedded in your consciousness long after the last note has sounded". Tareck Ghoneim of Contactmusic.com considered it an "interesting" and "infectious" blend of "upbeat samba/dance rhythms and definite funk influence", with "[e]lectro samples, latin percussion and some groans and breaths to give it a sexy ambience". Its aura "on a rnb tip" was considered to have "loads of crossover potential" for several airplay formats. Ghoneim added, "it certainly doesn't strike me as a typical Janet record", citing it as another evolution from "those 'Nasty' days" in "maintaining that dance-pop influence but making it slightly more cool". Chuck Arnold of People described it as a "hypnotic pop number", while The Baltimore Sun labeled it a "get-on-up dance cut" which "rides a looping funk guitar line". The New York Times praised its "clubby, big-room beats", analyzing its production as "strictly machine-made, with Jackson's sweetheart voice protected by layers of effects". Its "bossy" lyrics were likened to being "spoken by a demanding choreographer or a bullying boyfriend", which transitions from "1–900 confessionalism" to "drill-sergeant attitude". Spence D. of IGN heralded the song as an electro funk number which effectively "gets the blood pumping and the booty primed for shaking". Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called it "a nervy tune", noting the song's "impossibly lithe bassline", while praising it as "not only inventive, but brilliantly constructed". Slant Magazine called it a "pulsating club track", while San Francisco Chronicle regarded it as the best song from the album, and the best dance song since New Order's "Bizarre Love Triangle". Pitchforks Chris Ott called it "genius" and rated it three and a half out of four stars, qualifying it as part of the "mashup craze" in which artists were "dreaming up new, ear-catching juxtapositions to dazzle radio". Ott labeled it as "a notable standout" while praising the track's "borderline dancehall/Latin club rhythms". BBC UK's Top of the Pops website exclaimed the track "hits you with about three different basslines and a bonafide booty-quaker of a beat", transitioning into one of her "classic Jackson key-changes" during the chorus. Asian entertainment outlet Fridae qualified it as "chart-friendly", "bass-line driven", and "burning from the explicit references". Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer called it a moment "when everything clicks", adding its "primal quality" ultimately "juxtaposes Jackson's ethereal yearning against agitated synthesizers". "All Nite (Don't Stop)" won the award for Best Pop Song at the 2005 BMI London Awards. ==Chart performance== The song's chart success was largely affected by the blacklist of Jackson's singles and music videos which followed her controversial Super Bowl halftime show incident. It peaked at number 33 on Billboards Mainstream Top 40 chart, number 19 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, and number one on Hot Dance Club Play. It also reached number eight on Hot Dance Airplay. In March 2008, after the release of Jackson's tenth studio album Discipline, the song reached number 40 the Hot Singles Sales chart, four years after its initial release. Internationally, it was released as a double A-side with "I Want You". In Australia, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted and peaked at number 24 on the issue dated July 4, 2004, staying on the ARIA Charts for 10 weeks. In New Zealand, it peaked at number 39 during its only week on the chart. In the United Kingdom, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted and peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart on the week of June 19, 2004, spending five weeks on the chart. Music Week magazine noted that despite Jackson's high-profile promotional visit to the region, she had not had a top 10 single since "All for You" (2001). In Belgium, it peaked at number 21 in the Flemish region, while reaching one position lower in Wallonia. In Italy, the song entered the singles chart at number 47, and reached number 30 weeks later, spending five weeks inside the chart. In the Netherlands, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" entered the singles' chart at number 95 during the week of June 26, 2004. It eventually reached number 35, staying a total of five weeks on the chart. On the Swiss Singles Chart dated June 20, 2004, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted at number 78, reaching its peak of number 76 the next week, spending only four weeks on the chart. ==Music video== thumb|180px|left|Jackson dances in an abandoned hotel during a blackout in the music video, with power restored during the finale (pictured). The music video for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" was directed by Francis Lawrence, who previously directed "Someone to Call My Lover" and several of Jackson's other videos, and edited by Dustin Robertson. It was filmed from April 16–17, 2004 and premiered online on May 13, 2004. The video was filmed at the abandoned El Dorado Hotel in the Skid Row neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. Choreographed by Gil Duldulao, it took a minimal approach in comparison to Jackson's prior clips, focusing heavily on intricate choreographed routines as well as gay-friendly themes amongst several of Jackson's dancers. The setting of the music clip is inside a "derelict" building during a power outage. The video begins with Jackson's dancers sprawled on bordello furniture in a "cavernous" ballroom inside the building where the air is "cloudy with sawdust or dance chalk". Then one of the dancers winds a copper wire from a stereo system around a car battery to generate power in the abandoned building. Jackson is then shown, her face covered with a hat and long bangs. As the video progresses, Jackson switches between solo and group dancing, schowcasing snapping, jerking, jazz, hip-hop, and yoga- influenced moves, including scenes where Jackson simulates masturbation as her dancers perform similar suggestive moves. The video closes with the illumination of a neon Damita Jo logo, used to "turn the makeshift studio into a real stage set". After Jackson's Super Bowl halftime show incident, MTV and many other music channels owned by companies involved in producing the event blacklisted her videos from rotation. However, a slightly edited version was shown on channels such as MuchMusic and BET. ===Reception=== Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times praised the video as being "clever", "brave", and "sexually restless" with "adventures in exhibitionism [that] often seem to involve relatively small patches of skin, coupled with raunchy gyrations". She compared the video's theme of "orgiastic dancing by candlelight" to the Northeast blackout of 2003, using the "civics lesson" of a dancer winding a copper wire from a stereo system around a car battery to generate power in an abandoned building. Hefferanan concluded that the "lo-fi" choreography of the clip is in opposition to making "a gaudy show of her rapport with her dancers". The New York Blade considered it "certainly provocative", as "Jackson and her dancers get hot and heavy with one another to the song's thumping, infectious beat", while King Magazine placed the video as third on their list of "Favorite Janet Jackson Videos", describing it as "lots of writhing". The video received several nominations on awards, such as the 20th Annual International Dance Music Awards, in the category of "Best Dance Video" and "Best Choreography", MVPA Awards for "Best Choreography", with its director Francis Laurence being nominated for "Best Direction of a Female Artist" and winning "Director of the Year", for multiple videos including "All Nite (Don't Stop)". ===Censorship=== An edited version which removes all sexual content was occasionally aired by remaining video outlets which managed to avoid Jackson's video blacklist, such as MuchMusic and BET. The outlets faced criticism for removing a kiss between two female dancers. Speaking to The New York Blade, GLAAD's entertainment director Stephen Macias commented, "I think it's always a concern when the gay and lesbian community is not allowed to be depicted in the same way that the straight community is, and especially when that revolves around the way our relationships and romantic situations are depicted". Macias added that Jackson supports gay causes and has been persistently active in portraying equality among the gay community and would not approve the edit. The excerpt concluded, "A number of networks and broadcasters have gone to a heightened state of self-censorship since the uproar over Jackson's Super Bowl performance, for fear of being fined". ==Live performances== Jackson performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" for the first time on Good Morning America on March 31, 2004. It was followed by another one at On Air with Ryan Seacrest two days later. Both performances were aired with a time delay per the FCC's guidelines due to her controversial Super Bowl incident. On April 10, the singer was the host and performer on Saturday Night Live, with performances of "All Nite (Don't Stop) and "Strawberry Bounce". Her appearance on the show garnered its highest ratings in over two years. She also performed the song on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on April 29, 2004, MSN Music's studios in Seattle on May 14, and the annual Wango Tango the day after. In late May, Jackson traveled to Japan to perform the song on the 2004 Video Music Awards Japan, where she was the recipient of the "Inspiration Award". The singer then traveled to Europe and performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on shows such as Italy's Festivalbar, and Top of the Pops. In June, it was performed at the BET Awards in a medley with "R&B; Junkie", and at New York's Gay Pride March along with "Together Again". It was performed on each of Jackson's subsequent tours. It was included on the setlist of her 2008 Rock Witchu Tour, her first in seven years. The song was later included on some shows of the Number Ones, Up Close and Personal tour in 2011, with Jackson dedicating the song to her fans in Jakarta, Indonesia, and Hidalgo, Texas. The singer also performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on the 2015–16 Unbreakable World Tour, wearing an arms-length black jumpsuit with an oversized necklace. It was also included on the State of the World Tour in 2017–2019. Jackson also included the song on her 2019 Las Vegas Residency Janet Jackson: Metamorphosis. ==Usage in media== British DJ and producer Switch sampled "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on the song "This is Sick" under the stage moniker Solid Groove. Dance troupe Fanny Pak performed the song on an episode of America's Best Dance Crew titled "Janet Jackson Challenge", which paid tribute to her iconic choreography and videos. It was also performed by contestants on Oxygen's Dance Your Ass Off. The song is included in the 18th edition of the Guinness book British Hit Singles & Albums and is mentioned in Nicole Austin's novel The Boy Next Door. In March 2018, singer Britney Spears posted a video working out to "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on her Instagram account.Britney Spears on Instagram: “🎀🎀🎀” The song entered the top 200 of iTunes afterwards. ==Track listings== * iTunes EP # Album Version – 3:26 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56 # Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14 # "I Want You" (Ray Roc Radio Mix) – 4:18 * UK promotional 12-inch single # Sander Kleinenberg Club Mix – 8:50 # Low End Specialists Main Mix – 8:48 * UK 12-inch single # Album Version – 3:26 # Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Club Mix – 8:50 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # So So Def Remix – 3:51 * UK CD single # Album Version – 3:26 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56 # Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14 # "I Want You" (Ray Roc Radio Mix) – 4:18 # "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (Video) # "I Want You" (Video) * US promotional 12-inch single # "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (So So Def Remix) – 3:51 # "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (So So Def Instrumental) – 3:48 # "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (A Cappella) – 3:51 # R&B; Junkie – 3:11 # R&B; Junkie (Instrumental) – 3:11 # "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (Clean Version) – 3:28 * US promotional double 12-inch single # Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Remix – 8:40 # Low End Specialists Main Mix – 8:48 # Sander Kleinenberg Dub – 8:40 # Low End Specialists Dub – 8:48 * US promotional CD single # So So Def Remix – 3:51 # So So Def Remix Instrumental – 3:48 # So So Def A Cappella – 3:51 # Album Version – 3:28 * US CD single # Album Version – 3:26 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56 * European CD single # Album Version – 3:26 # "I Want You" – 4:12 * Australian CD single # Album Version – 3:26 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56 # Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14 * Japanese CD single # Album Version – 3:26 # Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Club Mix – 8:42 # "I Want You" – 4:12 # So So Def Remix – 3:51 ==Credits and personnel== Credits and personnel are adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes. * Janet Jackson – vocals, songwriter, producer * James Harris III – songwriter * Terry Lewis – songwriter * Tony "Prof T" Tolbert – songwriter * Anders Bagge – songwriter, producer, arranger, programmer, recording * Arnthor Birgisson – songwriter, producer, arranger, programmer, recording * Herbie Hancock – songwriter * Paul Jackson – songwriter * Melvin Ragin – songwriter * Lee Gloves – programming * Rob Haggett – assistant programming * Anders Herrlin – additional programming * Jennie Löfgren – additional programming * Henrik Brunberg – assistant engineer * Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing * David Treahearn – assistant mixing ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== 2004 weekly chart performance for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" Chart (2004) Peak position Canada CHR/Pop Top 30 (Radio & Records) 25 Romania (Romanian Top 100) 21 Spain (PROMUSICAE) 13 2008 weekly chart performance for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" Chart (2008) Peak position US Hot Singles Sales (Billboard) 40 ===Year-end charts=== Year-end chart performance for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" Chart (2004) Position US Dance Club Songs (Billboard) 30 ==Release history== Release dates and formats for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" Region Date Format(s) Label(s) United States May 17, 2004 Contemporary hit radio Virgin Germany June 7, 2004 EMI United Kingdom Virgin France June 8, 2004 12-inch vinyl EMI Japan July 7, 2004 Maxi CD ==References== ==External links== * Official music video — YouTube Category:2004 singles Category:2004 songs Category:Janet Jackson songs Category:Music videos directed by Francis Lawrence Category:Songs about dancing Category:Songs written by Anders Bagge Category:Songs written by Arnthor Birgisson Category:Songs written by Janet Jackson Category:Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis Category:Virgin Records singles
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The Piano Quintet in E-flat major, Op. 44, by Robert Schumann was composed in 1842 and received its first public performance the following year. Noted for its "extroverted, exuberant" character, Schumann's piano quintet is considered one of his finest compositions and a major work of nineteenth-century chamber music.Daverio, John. “'Beautiful and Abstruse Conversations': The Chamber Music of Schumann.” Nineteenth-Century Chamber Music. Ed. Stephen E. Hefling. 1998, Schirmer, p. 220 Composed for piano and string quartet, the work revolutionized the instrumentation and musical character of the piano quintet and established it as a quintessentially Romantic genre. The autograph manuscript of the opera is preserved in the Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Bonn. == Composition and performance == right|thumb|upright|Clara Schumann (née Wieck) in 1838. Robert Schumann dedicated the quintet to Clara, and she performed the piano part in the work's first public performance in 1843. Schumann composed his piano quintet in just a few weeks in September and October 1842, in the course of his so-called Year of Chamber Music. Before 1842 Schumann had completed no chamber music at all, with the exception of an early piano quartet composed in 1829. Following his marriage to Clara in 1840, Schumann turned to the composition of songs, chamber music and orchestral works. During his year-long concentration in 1842 upon chamber music he executed the three string quartets, Op. 41, the piano quintet, Op. 44; the piano quartet, Op. 47; and the Phantasiestücke for piano trio, Op. 88\. Schumann's work in that year was buoyant in character; John Daverio considers the Piano Quintet to be the "creative double" of the Piano Quartet that was written few weeks later, both displaying the "extroverted, exuberant side of the composer's creative genius". Schumann had begun his career primarily as a composer for the keyboard; after his detour into writing for string quartet, according to Joan Chisell, the "reunion with the piano" which the piano quintet provoked gave "his creative imagination ... a new lease on life."Chisell, Joan. "Robert Schumann" in Alec Robertson, ed. Chamber music (1963, Penguin), p. 184 Tovey remarks the formal influence which Beethoven exerted over the quintet. He argues that the final movement's lengthy coda is a typically Beethovenian device, and likens the quintet in this respect to the ninth and fourteenth string quartets. He writes that the scherzo so much reflects his style that it "might almost have come from Beethoven." Daverio has argued that the quintet was influenced by Schubert's Piano Trio No. 2 in E-flat major, a work Schumann admired. Both works are in the key of E-flat, feature a funeral march in the second movement, and conclude with finales dramatically resurrecting earlier thematic material. Schumann dedicated the piano quintet to his wife Clara. She was due to perform the piano part in the first private performance of the quintet on the 6th December 1842 at the home of Henriette Voigt and her husband Carl. However she fell ill and Felix Mendelssohn stepped in, sight-reading the "fiendish" piano part.Potter, Tully. Liner notes. SCHUMANN: Piano Quintet, Op. 44 / BRAHMS: Piano Quartet No. 2 (Curzon, Budapest Quartet) (1951-1952) Mendelssohn's suggestions to Schumann after this performance led to revisions to the inner movements, including the addition to the third movement of a second trio. Clara Schumann did play the piano part at the quintet's first public performance, which took place on the 8th January 1843 at the Leipzig Gewandhaus. Clara pronounced the work "splendid, full of vigor and freshness." She often performed the quintet throughout her life. A notable performance came in 1852, when Schumann asked that the younger pianist Julius Tausch replace Clara in the quintet, explaining that "a man understands that better." == Instrumentation and genre == Schumann's piano quintet is scored for piano and string quartet (two violins, viola, and cello). Schumann's pairing the piano with an ordinary string quartet reflected the changing technical capabilities of the piano and the cultural importance of the quartet. By 1842, the string quartet had come to be regarded as the most significant and prestigious of the chamber music ensembles, while advances in the design of the piano had increased its power and dynamic range. Bringing the piano and string quartet together, Schumann's quintet exploits fully the expressive capacity of these forces in combination, alternating conversational passages between the five instruments with concertante sections in which the combined forces of the strings are massed against the piano. At a time when chamber music was moving out of the salon and into public concert halls, Schumann reimagined the piano quintet as a musical genre "suspended between private and public spheres" according to Daverio, alternating between "quasi-symphonic and more properly chamber-like elements."Daverio, John. Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age." (1997, Oxford), p. 256–259 == Analysis == The piece has four movements in the standard fast-slow-scherzo-fast pattern: === I. Allegro brillante === left|thumb|350px|Movement 1, piano part, mm.1-8 The first movement's is marked Allegro brillante. This movement exposes much material which reappears later in the work. It sets in contrast exuberant material reflecting Schumann's brilliant, wild side, as described by Schumann in the character of Florestan, with slower, 'Eusebian' sections of great passion. The movement's energetic main theme opens in minims, and characterized by wide, upward-leaping intervals. Tovey writes of the theme that its use of upward leaps is so striking that "it is impossible for the violoncello to throw in a casual leap of an octave in minims without implying the first theme". The contrasting second theme, marked dolce, is reached after a transitional section marked by glances at remoter flat keys. It is presented as a duet between cello and viola, and its "meltingly romantic" character is typical of Schumann's ardent inspiration in this quintet. The central development consists largely in virtuoso figurationin the piano, based on a diminution of the third and fourth bars of the opening theme, which modulates between two vigorous statements of the latter in A-flat and F minor. The figuration is transposed down a tone more or less exactly on its second appearance to lead back to the tonic key. After a standard recapitulation of the main themes a short, energetic coda rounds off the movement. In overall form the opening Allegro is tightly organised, but a deviation from the Beethovenian model. Tovey writes: "he is writing an altogether new type of sonata-work; a kind that stands to the classical sonata somewhat as a very beautiful and elaborate mosaic stands to a landscape-picture." === II. In modo d'una marcia. Un poco largamente === right|thumb|300px|Comparison of extracts from Movement 1 (A) and Movement 2 (B) of Schumann's piano quintet The main theme (A) of this movement is a funeral march in C minor. It alternates with two contrasting episodes, one a lyrical theme (B) carried by the first violin and cello, the second (C), Agitato, carried by the piano with string accompaniment, which is a transformation of the principal theme disguised by changes in rhythm and tempo. The whole forms a seven-part rondo: : A (C minor) : B (C major) : A (C minor) : C (variant of A, F minor) : A′ (C minor) : B′ (F major) : A (C minor) The transition between funeral march and Agitato episode reuses in the piano and violin the descending octaves appearing at the end of the first movement's exposition (see figure). This is one of several moments in the quintet where Schumann creates unity across movements by subtly reintroducing thematic material. Theme A, the funeral march, is varied upon its return after the Agitato section with rapid triplets in the piano and counterpoint reminiscent of the previous episode in first violin and cello, while the second appearance of B in F major also is with an enriched piano accompaniment. === III. Scherzo: Molto vivace === left|thumb|350px|Movement 3, piano part, mm.1-6 The main section of this lively movement is built almost entirely on ascending and descending scales. There are two trios. Trio I, in G-flat major, is a lyrical canon for violin and viola. Trio II, added at the suggestion of Mendelssohn, is a heavily accented moto perpetuo whose meter and restlessly modulating, mostly minor tonality are in sharp contrast to the and relative stability of the rest. Since Mendelssohn mentioned that this section wasn't "lively" enough, Schumann rewrote it with a flurry of sixteenth notes making it very demanding for the strings, particularly the cello. After the third and final appearance of the scherzo, a brief coda based on the scales concludes the movement, slipping in a recall of Trio I in the final bars. === IV. Allegro ma non troppo === thumb|350px|Schumann: Piano Quintet, finale, piano part, mm.1-4 (Theme A1)|alt= The finale begins in G minor, on a C-minor chord, rather than in the tonic. The movement as a whole is cast in an unusual form that partly reflects, but ultimately triumphs over Schumann's frequent difficulties with the conventional sonata form in his larger-scale instrumental movements. The original handling of both form and key contrasts sharply with the largely conventional formal organization of the previous three movements. A summary of the main themes and key areas follows: : m. 1: G minor theme A1 : m. 21: E-flat major theme A2 : m. 29: D minor A1 : m. 37: B-flat major A2 : m. 43: G major theme B (with an important motive B′, first introduced by the viola in 54), B itself is a diminished version of A2. : m. 77: B minor-major A1 : m. 114: E major-G-sharp minor theme C (accompanied by B′) : m. 136: G-sharp minor A1 : m. 148: D-sharp minor A1 : m. 156: B major A2 : m. 164: B-flat minor A1 : m. 172: G-flat major A2 : m. 178: E-flat major B recapitulated : m. 212: G minor A1 : m. 224: E-flat major theme D : m. 248: Fugato on A1 : m. 274: E-flat major C (B’) recapitulated : m. 319: E-flat major, fugato on A1 combined with the opening theme of the first movement, Allegro brillante : m. 378: E-flat major D recapitulated : m. 402: Coda The main themes, A1, A2, B and C, are all introduced in the first 135 bars, making this opening roughly equivalent to a sonata exposition. The tonic key, however, is almost entirely absent, with the music mostly remaining in G minor/major until the introduction of the lyrical theme C in the remote key of E major at m. 114. The music modulates to G-sharp minor to begin what is essentially a recapitulation in m. 136, with B returning in E-flat to finally establish the true tonic in m. 178, very late in a lengthy movement. More than 200 bars remain to unfold, however, almost entirely in the tonic. During their course, Schumann introduces yet another theme, the syncopated D, gets around to recapitulating the lyrical theme C in the tonic, and develops the music further via two fugato passages, the second unexpectedly and impressively incorporating the principal theme of the opening Allegro brillante and combining it with the opening theme A1, finally heard in the tonic. This coup may have been inspired by a similar confluence of themes in Mendelssohn's E flat quartet op. 12.Chissell (1979), 159-160. It also, probably deliberately, evokes the climactic contrapuntal finales of works such as Mozart's Jupiter Symphony. The movement as a whole can be noted for the rondo-like reappearances of the opening theme A1, which consistently avoids the tonic key until the final fugato; for its innovative key scheme, which combines the restless modulations of a traditional sonata development with the idea of recapitulation in the tonic; and for its successful integration of counterpoint within a non-contrapuntal formal structure. == Reception and influence == Schumann's piano quintet was widely acclaimed and much imitated.Smallman, Basil. The Piano Quartet and Quintet: Style, Structure, and Scoring, p. 53. Its success firmly established the piano quintet as a significant, and quintessentially Romantic, chamber music genre.Stowell, Robin. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet, p. 324. The Piano Quintet in F minor, Op. 34 of Johannes Brahms, reworked from an earlier sonata for two pianos (itself a reworking of an earlier string quintet) at the urging of Clara Schumann, was one of many significant Romantic piano quintets that show Schumann's influence and adopt his choice of instrumentation. Schumann's Piano Quintet failed to please at least one discriminating listener: Franz Liszt heard the piece performed at Schumann's home in 1848 and described it as "somewhat too Leipzigerisch," a reference to the conservative music of composers from Leipzig, especially Felix Mendelssohn. Schumann took enormous offense at this remark, especially because Mendelssohn, who was a great friend of Schumann's and whom Schumann somewhat idolised, had died only a year earlier. By some accounts Schumann rushed at Liszt and seized him by the shoulders. Liszt eventually apologised. Schumann did not forget Liszt's offhanded insult, and raised several times it in letters to Liszt. Liszt's relationship with the Schumanns was never entirely mended. == Use in later art and music == The funeral march theme of the second movement is prominently used as the main theme of the film Fanny and Alexander by Ingmar Bergman, and is played on violin by Rutger Hauer's character Lothos while Buffy kills the vampire portrayed by Paul Reubens in the 1992 feature Buffy the Vampire Slayer. It is also featured prominently on the all-classical soundtrack of the noted 1934 horror film The Black Cat. It is used several times in Yorgos Lanthimos' 2018 period piece The Favourite. == References == == Bibliography == * Schumann's Piano Quintet was first published in 1843. It was republished by Breitkopf and Hartel in Robert Schumann's Werke Serie V (1881). * Berger, Melvin. "Guide to Chamber Music", Dover, 2001, 404-405. * Chisell, Joan (1979). Schumann. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. . * Daverio, John (2002). Crossing Paths: Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Daverio, John. Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age." (1997, Oxford) * Daverio, John. “'Beautiful and Abstruse Conversations': The Chamber Music of Schumann.” Nineteenth-Century Chamber Music. Ed. Stephen E. Hefling. New York: Schirmer, 1998: 208–41. * Nelson, J.C. ‘Progressive Tonality in the Finale of the Piano Quintet, op.44 of Robert Schumann’. Indiana Theory Review, xiii/1 (1992): 41–51. * Potter, Tully. Liner notes. SCHUMANN: Piano Quintet, Op. 44 / BRAHMS: Piano Quartet No. 2 (Curzon, Budapest Quartet) (1951-1952) * Reich, Nancy (2001). Clara Schumann: The Artist and the Woman. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Smallman, Basil. The Piano Quartet and Quintet: Style, Structure, and Scoring. * Stowell, Robin. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet. * * Wollenberg, Susan. ‘Schumann's Piano Quintet in E flat: the Bach Legacy’, The Music Review, lii (1991): 299–305. * Westrup, J. ‘The Sketch for Schumann's Piano Quintet op.44’, Convivium musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher. Ed. H. Hüschen and D.-R. Moser. Berlin, 1974: 367–71. == External links == * Piano Quintet Op. 44: Schumann's autograph manuscript in the Bonn University and State Library * * * Performance of the Piano Quintet by the Steans Artists of Musicians from Ravinia from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format * June 8, 2010 performance of the Piano Quintet at the Montreal Chamber Music Festival Category:Chamber music by Robert Schumann Schumann, Robert Category:1842 compositions Category:Compositions in E-flat major
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The Bears–Cardinals rivalry is a National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the Chicago Bears and the Arizona Cardinals. It is the oldest rivalry in the NFL and features the only two teams that remain from the league's inception in 1920. At that time, the Bears were known as the Decatur Staleys, and the Cardinals were the Racine Cardinals. In 1922, both teams moved to Chicago, and the matchup between the teams became known as "The Battle of Chicago" for 38 years, making it the first true rivalry in the league's history. The rivalry diminished after the 1959 NFL season, when the Cardinals relocated to St. Louis. After the re-location, the NFL treated the Cardinals and Bears like any other inter-divisional pairing for scheduling purposes, resulting in the teams playing much less frequently. With the completion of the AFL-NFL merger in 1970, the enlarged NFL seriously considered (in addition to at least four other possible solutions) an alignment for the new National Football Conference that would have placed the Cardinals and Bears in the same division. Ultimately, this alignment was not chosen, and instead the Bears were placed in the NFC Central and the Cardinals in the NFC East. When the Cardinals moved to Arizona in 1988, the rivalry was further diminished. Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the Bears and Cardinals play at least once every three years. The Bears currently lead the all-time series 59–29–6. ==History== ===The first meeting=== The Decatur Staleys and Racine Cardinals met for the first time on November 28, 1920 at Normal Park. Around 5,000 fans showed up to watch the Cardinals defeat the Staleys, 7–6. The lost was the only blemish in the Staleys record that season (ties were disregarded), and cost them the first American Professional Football Association title. ===Grange's debut and 0–0 games=== Shortly after finishing his college career at the University of Illinois, Red Grange made his NFL debut with the Bears on Thanksgiving against the Cardinals in 1925. Around 36,000 fans showed up at Cubs Park to see the Bears tie the Cardinals 0–0. In fact, this was one of 17 consecutive games after their first meeting which ended in a shutout for either or both teams, with four 0–0 scores. The Cardinals would win their first (and highly disputed) of two NFL championships that season. ===The Ernie Nevers Game=== The Cardinals' Ernie Nevers scored a still-standing NFL record of 40 points in a single game, doing so with six touchdowns and four extra points. Nevers scored all of the points in the Cardinals' 40–6 victory over the Bears on November 28, 1929. It was also the first game between the two teams since their inaugural game that did not end in a shutout. ===Pat Coffee's 97-yard touchdown=== The Cardinals' 42–28 loss to the Bears at Wrigley Field in 1937 was mostly remembered for Pat Coffee's then-record 97-yard touchdown pass to Gaynell Tinsley, one of ten combined touchdown passes in the game. ===1950s: The end of the local rivalry=== The Cardinals won their second and most recent NFL championship in 1947, but by the 1950s, the team was struggling on the field and at the gate. Nevertheless, in the 13 meetings between the Bears and Cardinals during the decade, the Bears only won seven of them. The Cardinals' last victory as a Chicago team over the Bears was a memorable one, as they won 53–14 at Comiskey Park in 1955 behind Ollie Matson's two touchdowns, including a 77-yard punt return. The Bears finished with a 47–19–6 all-time record against the Chicago Cardinals. ===1960–1987: Chicago vs. St. Louis=== In the 1960 season, the Cardinals moved to St. Louis, keeping the team name despite the existence of the baseball Cardinals in the city. Coincidentally, both Cardinals franchises shared the same building during the football Cardinals' 28 seasons in St. Louis: Busch Stadium I from 1960 to 1965, and Busch Memorial Stadium from 1966 to 1987. The two teams met only eleven times during the Cardinals' tenure in St. Louis, with the Cardinals amassing a 6–5 record. The Bears never played at Busch Stadium I. In the teams' first-ever meeting in St. Louis during the 1966 season, Cardinal defensive back Larry Wilson intercepted three passes, including a game-winning pick-six in St. Louis' 24–17 victory. Despite the Cardinals' success in St. Louis against the Bears, they only made four playoff appearances, and would once again be on the move after the 1987 season. The last-ever meeting between the Bears and St. Louis Cardinals came in the 1984 season, a game which saw Neil Lomax gash Buddy Ryan's 46 defense for six completions and 166 yards to Roy Green, and Ottis Anderson score two touchdowns in the Cardinals' 38–21 victory. ===1988–present: Chicago vs. Phoenix/Arizona=== The Cardinals moved further west to the Phoenix metropolitan area in 1988, becoming the Phoenix Cardinals. They then changed their name to the Arizona Cardinals in the 1994 season. As of 2021, the Bears won seven of 11 meetings with the Arizona Cardinals, but to this day, the teams have yet to face each other in the NFL playoffs. ===The Dennis Green Game=== The most memorable game of the rivalry took place on Monday Night Football during the 2006 season. The then- undefeated Bears (5–0 heading into the game) trailed the 1–4 Cardinals by 20 points at halftime, and trailed 23–10 heading into the fourth quarter. However, Bears cornerback Charles Tillman returned a fumble by Edgerrin James 40 yards for a touchdown, and returner Devin Hester sealed the Bears' comeback victory with a 83-yard punt return touchdown. The final score was 24–23 Bears. After the loss, Cardinals head coach Dennis Green made a memorable post-game rant with the media, screaming "They (the Bears) are who we thought they were, and we let them off the hook!" ==Game results== |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 7–6 | Normal Field | Cardinals 1–0 | The APFA's first season. First meeting at Normal Field. |- | style="| Staleys 10–0 | Cubs Field | Tied 1–1 | First meeting at Cubs Field. |- | | Tie 0–0 | Cubs Field | Tie 1–1–1 | First home game of the matchup for the Staleys. First matchup with the Staleys as a Chicago-based team. tied for the lowest scoring matchup in league history. Staleys win 1921 APFA Championship |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 6–0 | Comiskey Park | Cardinals 2–1–1 | The APFA renames itself as the National Football League (NFL). Cardinals' first season being called "Chicago." "Staleys" rename themselves as the "Bears." First game in Comiskey Park. Thanksgiving Day game. |- | style="| Cardinals 9–0 | Comiskey Park | Cardinals 3–1–1 | |- | | style="| Bears 3–0 | Cubs Field | Cardinals 3–2–1 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 6–0 | Cubs Park | Tie 3–3–1 | |- | style="| Bears 21–0 | Comiskey Park | Bears 4–3–1 | Thanksgiving Day game. Bears take the lead in the rivalry |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 9–0 | Comiskey Park | Tie 4–4–1 | |- | Tie 0–0 | Cubs Park | Tie 4–4–2 | Thanksgiving Day game. Cardinals win 1925 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="3"| | style="| Bears 16–0 | Cubs Park | Bears 5–4–2 | |- | style="| Bears 10–0 | Soldier Field | Bears 6–4–2 | First game at Soldier Field |- | Tie 0–0 | Cubs Park | Bears 6–4–3 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 9–0 | Normal Park | Bears 7–4–3 | |- | style="| Cardinals 3–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 7–5–3 | Cubs Field is renamed Wrigley Field. Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 15–0 | Normal Park | Bears 8–5–3 | Final game at Normal Field |- | style="| Bears 34–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 9–5–3 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | Tie 0–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 9–5–4 | |- | style="| Cardinals 34–0 | Comiskey Park | Bears 9–6–4 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 32–6 | Comiskey Park | Bears 10–6–4 | |- | style="| Bears 6–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 11–6–4 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 26–13 | Wrigley Field | Bears 12–6–4 | Cardinals' first home game at Wrigley Field |- | style="| Bears 18–7 | Wrigely Field | Bears 13–6–4 | Thanksgiving Day game. |- | rowspan="2"| | Tie 0–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 13–6–5 | |- | style="| Bears 34–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 14–6–5 | Thanksgiving Day game. Bears win 1932 NFL Championship |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 12–9 | Wrigley Field | Bears 15–6–5 | |- | style="| Bears 22–6 | Wrigley Field | Bears 16–6–5 | Final Thanksgiving Day game to date for the matchup. Bears win 1933 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 20–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 17–6–5 | |- | style="| Bears 17–6 | Wrigley Field | Bears 18–6–5 | Bears lose 1934 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | Tie 7–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 18–6–6 | Latest tied game in the matchup |- | style="| Bears 13–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 19–6–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 7–3 | Wrigley Field | Bears 20–6–6 | |- | style="| Cardinals 14–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 20–7–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 16–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 21–7–6 | |- | style="| Bears 42–28 | Wrigley Field | Bears 22–7–6 | Bears lose 1937 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 16–13 | Wrigley Field | Bears 23–7–6 | |- | style="| Bears 34–28 | Wrigley Field | Bears 24–7–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 44–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 25–7–6 | |- | style="| Bears 48–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 26–7–6 | |- |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 21–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 26–8–6 | First season back at Comiskey Park for the Cardinals, Wednesday game |- | style="| Bears 31–23 | Wrigley Field | Bears 27–8–6 | Bears win 1940 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 53–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 28–8–6 | |- | style="| Bears 34–24 | Comiskey Park | Bears 29–8–6 | Bears win 1941 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 41–14 | Wrigley Field | Bears 30–8–6 | |- | style="| Bears 21–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 31–8–6 | Bears go 11-0 in the regular season. Bears lose 1942 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 20–0 | Wrigley Field | Bears 32–8–6 | |- | style="| Bears 35–24 | Comiskey Park | Bears 33–8–6 | Bears win 1943 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 34–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 34–8–6 | Cardinals temporarily merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers for the season and was known as "Card-Pitt" |- | style="| Bears 49–7 | Forbes Field | Bears 35–8–6 | Only matchup at Forbes Field |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 16–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 35–9–6 | |- | style="| Bears 28–20 | Comiskey Park | Bears 36–9–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 34–17 | Comiskey Park | Bears 37–9–6 | |- | style="| Cardinals 35–28 | Wrigley Field | Bears 37–10–6 | Bears win 1946 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 31–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 37–11–6 | |- | style="| Cardinals 30–21 | Wrigley Field | Bears 37–12–6 | Cardinals win 1947 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 28–17 | Comiskey Park | Bears 38–12–6 | Monday night game. |- | style="| Cardinals 24–21 | Wrigley Field | Bears 38–13–6 | Cardinals lose 1948 NFL Championship. |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 17–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 39–13–6 | |- | style="| Bears 52–21 | Wrigley Field | Bears 40–13–6 | Final matchup as a Western Division rival. |- |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Bears 27–6 | Wrigley Field | Bears 41–13–6 | |- | style="| Cardinals 20–10 | Comiskey Park | Bears 41–14–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 16–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 41–15–6 | |- | style="| Cardinals 28–20 | Wrigley Field | Bears 41–16–6 | |- | rowspan="2"| | style="| Cardinals 21–10 | Comiskey Park | Bears 41–17–6 | |- | style="| Bears 10–7 | Wrigley Field | Bears 42–17–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 24–17 | Wrigley Field | Bears 42–18–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 29–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 43–18–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 53–14 | Comiskey Park | Bears 43–19–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 10–3 | Wrigley Field | Bears 44–19–6 | Bears lose 1956 NFL Championship. |- | | style="| Bears 14–6 | Comiskey Park | Bears 45–19–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 30–14 | Wrigley Field | Bears 46–19–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 31–7 | Comiskey Park | Bears 47–19–6 | Cardinals play their final game in the matchup as a Chicago-based franchise. |- |- | | style="| Bears 34–13 | Wrigley Field | Bears 48–19–6 | First matchup as a Chicago-St. Louis rivalry. |- | | style="| Cardinals 24–17 | Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium | Bears 48–20–6 | First game of the matchup in St. Louis. |- | | style="| Bears 30–3 | Wrigley Field | Bears 49–20–6 | Final game of the matchup at Wrigley Field |- | | style="| Cardinals 20–17 | Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium | Bears 49–21–6 | Final matchup before the NFL-AFL merger |- |- | | style="| Bears 27–10 | Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium | Bears 50–21–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 34–20 | Soldier Field | Bears 50–22–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 16–13 | Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium | Bears 50–23–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 17–10 | Soldier Field | Bears 51–23–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 42–6 | Soldier Field | Bears 52–23–6 | |- |- | | style="| Cardinals 10–7 | Soldier Field | Bears 52–24–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 38–21 | Busch Memorial Stadium | Bears 52–25–6 | Final matchup as a Chicago-St. Louis rivalry |- |- | | style="| Bears 31–21 | Sun Devil Stadium | Bears 53–25–6 | First time in the matchup where the Cardinals are a Phoenix-based franchise. Only matchup while known as the Phoenix Cardinals. First matchup at Sun Devil Stadium. |- | | style="| Bears 19–16 | Sun Devil Stadium | Bears 54–25–6 | First time in the matchup where they are known as the "Arizona" Cardinals. |- | | style="| Cardinals 20–7 | Sun Devil Stadium | Bears 54–26–6 | Final time in the matchup at Sun Devil Stadium. |- |- | | style="| Bears 20–13 | Soldier Field | Bears 55–26–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 28–3 | Soldier Field | Bears 56–26–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 24–23 | University of Phoenix Stadium | Bears 57–26–6 | First game in the matchup at University of Phoenix Stadium. Monday Night Football game. Bears lose Super Bowl XLI. |- | | style="| Cardinals 41–21 | Soldier Field | Bears 57–27–6 | |- |- | | style="| Bears 28–13 | University of Phoenix Stadium | Bears 58–27–6 | |- | | style="| Cardinals 48–23 | Soldier Field | Bears 58–28–6 | |- | | style="| Bears 16–14 | State Farm Stadium | Bears 59–28–6 | |- |- | | style="| Cardinals 33–22 | Soldier Field | Bears 59–29–6 | |- | | | Soldier Field | | |- |- | Regular season | style="| | Bears 31–13–5 | Bears 28–16–1 | |- | Postseason | colspan=3|No postseason meetings as of 2022 | |- | Regular and postseason | style="| | Bears 31–13–5 | Bears 28–16–1 | |- ==See also== === Other Chicago vs. Chicago rivalries === * Cubs–White Sox rivalry (MLB) === Other Chicago vs. St. Louis rivalries === * Cardinals–Cubs rivalry (MLB) * Blackhawks–Blues rivalry (NHL) ==References== ==Further reading== Category:Arizona Cardinals Category:Chicago Cardinals Category:St. Louis Cardinals (football) Category:Chicago Bears Category:National Football League rivalries Category:Sports in the Midwestern United States Category:Chicago Bears rivalries Category:Arizona Cardinals rivalries
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Allani, also known under the Akkadian name Allatu (or Allatum) was the Hurrian goddess of the underworld. She was also associated with the determination of fate. She was closely linked with Ishara, and they could be invoked or receive offerings together. She also developed connection with other underworld deities from neighboring cultures, such as Mesopotamian Ereshkigal (who eventually came to be equated with her), Anatolian Sun goddess of the Earth and Lelwani, and possibly Ugaritic Arsay. It is presumed she was chiefly worshiped in western areas inhabited by the Hurrians, though the location of her main cult center is uncertain. She is attested in texts from sites such as Tigunani, Tuttul and Ugarit. She was also incorporated into the Mesopotamian pantheon, and was venerated in Ur, Nippur and Sippar. Hittite sources mentioning her are known too. ==Name== The theonym Allani has Hurrian origin and consists of the word allai, lady, and the article -ni. It has been noted that simple epithet-like theonyms were common in Hurrian tradition, another well attested example being Šauška, "the great". In texts written in the Ugaritic alphabetic script, Allani's name was rendered as aln. The Akkadian form is Allatum. In 1980 Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that Allatum, who he understood as the same deity as Ereshkigal in origin, was the feminine counterpart, and possibly wife, of a minor Mesopotamian god associated with the underworld, Alla. However, already stated in 1989 that no convincing Akkadian etymology has been proposed for the name Allatum, and it is now agreed that it was a derivative of Allani. Alfonso Archi suggsests this form of the name originally developed in modern Syria, and from there reached Mesopotamia. In Emar, an ancient city in Syria, both forms were used. A further variant, Allantum, is attested in texts from Tigunani. It differs from the usual variant Allatum, but also represents a combination of the base Hurrian name with the Akkadian feminine suffix. ==Character== Allani was regarded as the queen of the underworld in Hurrian religion. According to Hurrian texts, she resided in a palace at the gate of the "Dark Earth" (Hurrian: timri eže), the land of the dead. As an extension of this role she was also one of the deities who took part in the determining of fates of mortals. She could be referred to with the title "the bolt of the earth", negri ešeniwe. This epithet reflected her association with the underworld, with the word "earth" functioning as an euphemism. Another title applied to her was šiduri, "young woman". She was accordingly imagined to have had a youthful appearance. As indicated by texts pertaining to the festival, she was believed to wear a blue garment, with the color presumably being associated with death. ==Association with other deities== Like two other of the most commonly worshiped Hurrian goddesses, Ishara and Shaushka, Allani was regarded as unmarried. A single text mentions a "daughter of Allatum", which according to Volkert Haas constitutes the only reference to this goddess having children. identifies the daughter in mention as Ḫepat, but according to Lluis Feliu, it is possible Shalash was considered her mother. An association between Allani and Hurrian primeval deities is also attested. This group was believed to dwell in the underworld. ===Allani and other Hurrian goddesses=== Allani was often invoked alongside Ishara, who also was associated with the underworld in Hurrian religion. The connection between these two goddesses is already present in documents from the Ur III period. In the ritual of Allaituraḫi, Allani is invoked alongside Ishara to protect a household from demonic forces. Instructions for the festival mention the clothing of statues representing Allani and Ishara, with the former receiving a blue garment and the latter an identical red one. Veneration of them as a pair was an example of a broader phenomenon frequently attested in Hurrian sources, the worship of pairs of deities with similar purposes as if they constituted an unirty, with other examples including Šauška's attendants Ninatta and Kulitta, the fate goddesses Hutena and Hutellura, Ḫepat and her son Šarruma, and the astral deities Pinikir and DINGIR.GE6, so-called Goddess of the Night. In some cases Allani and Ishara could receive a single offering jointly. Another Hurrian goddess connected to the underworld who sometimes appears in the proximity of Allani was Shuwala, though she was more commonly associated with Nabarbi. Edward Lipiński argues that Shuwala was the same deity as Allani, but they appear together as two distinct deities in texts from Ur and Hattusa. Presumably due to her own role as a deity associated with fate, Allani was associated with Hutena and Hutellura. ===Allani and Ereshkigal=== Allani's character was in part influenced by the Mesopotamian goddess Ereshkigal, who similarly was associated with the underworld. The sumerogram dEREŠ.KI.GAL could be used to represent Allani's name in Hittite sources. However, it is not clear if the two goddesses were already considered analogous in the Ur III period. Jeremiah Peterson notes that they occur apart from each other in a non-standard Old Babylonian god list from Nippur. According to , the oldest evidence for a connection between them is the Old Babylonian forerunner to the god list An = Anum, in which they appear in sequence. Another text belonging to this genre from the same period identifies Allatum both with Ereshkigal and with the term Irkalla, in this context prefaced by the so-called "divine determinative" and thus treated as a theonym rather than as a place name. This word is best attested as a name of the underworld in literary texts, and might represent an Akkadian rendering of Sumerian urugal (variant: erigal), "great city", similarly designating the land of the dead. A direct equation between Allatum and Ereshkigal is also attested in the An = Anum (tablet V, line 213). According to Nathan Wasserman, the name Allatum also designates Ereshkigal in an incantation dedicated to the medicine goddess Gula. It credits the latter with helping a child patient whose skull sutures were loosened by Allatum and had to be sealed again. The short narrative included in this text also mentions Sin, but it is not clear how the three deities involved were connected with each other. In the so-called Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince, the invocation of Allatum by the protagonist, prince Kummâ, is presumed to be a case of the name being used as a synonym of Ereshkigal as well. In a later section of the narrative Ereshkigal appears under her primary name. ===Allani and Anatolian underworld deities=== In Kizzuwatna Allani came to be identified with a local underworld deity, the so-called "Sun goddess of the Earth". The connection between them is first documented in the middle of the second millennium BCE. suggests the Anatolian goddess might have been a chthonic aspect of the Hattian sun goddess in origin. instead classifies her as a Luwian deity and notes that despite her connection to the underworld her character might have been comparable to that of the Ugaritic goddess Shapash prior to being reshaped by the development of an association with Allani under Hurrian cultural influence. Despite the development of this connection, Allani herself did not acquire the characteristics of a solar deity. In Kizzuwatna, where the two goddesses were regarded as identical, they presided over ritual purification and were believed to keep evil and impurity sealed in her kingdom. It has been suggested that the , who belonged to the entourage of the Sun goddess of the Earth, were modeled on Hutena and Hutellura, who were associated with Allani. Under her Mesopotamian name Allatum Allani came to be linked with Lelwani, originally a male god from the Hattian pantheon, who started to be viewed as a goddess due to this equation, as already attested in sources dated to the reign of Hittite king Ḫattušili III. Piotr Taracha argues that Lelwani's name was effectively reassigned to Allatum, who he assumes was venerated as a separate figure from Allani in Anatolia. Alfonso Archi notes that dALLATUM, Lelwani, and dEREŠ.KI.GAL, Allani, may occur in the same texts separately from each other, which indicates that the two were not directly regarded as the same after Lelwani was reinterpreted as a female deity. ===Allani and Arsay=== It is possible that in Ugarit Arsay, one of the daughters of the local weather god Baal, was viewed as the equivalent of Allani (Allatum), and like her she might have been a deity linked to the underworld. Volkert Haas suggested that this connection is reflected by the placement of Arsay and Ishara in sequence in one of the Ugaritic offering lists. However, Steve A. Wiggins stresses that it is important to maintain caution when attempting to define the roles of poorly attested Ugaritic deities, such as Baal's daughters, entirely based on the character of their presumed equivalents. ==Worship== According to , based on available sources it can be assumed Allani was worshiped chiefly in the western Hurrian areas. Alfonso Archi describes her as one of the primary Hurrian goddesses next to Ishara and Šauška. She appears in offering lists () focused on Ḫepat, in which she is typically placed after Ishara and before the pair Umbu-Nikkal. A similar enumeration of deities with Allani also placed after Ishara is attested in the ritual of Ammiḫatna from Kizzuwatna. It is uncertain which city was considered Allani's main cult center, as documents from the Ur III period seemingly connect her with Zimudar located in the Diyala area, but in Hittite sources she is instead associated with Ḫaššum, possibly to be identified with Ḫašuanu from the Ebla texts. She is also attested in the text corpus from Tigunani from the reign of Tunip-Teshub (Old Babylonian period, ). She occurs in an omen apodosis. Theophoric names invoking her were common chiefly in the Tur Abdin area located in the southeast of modern Turkey. A single example is also known from the text corpus from Tuttul, Arip-Allani, "Allani gave (a child)". Allani was also among the Hurrian deities worshiped in Ugarit. Hurrian offering lists from this city reflect the customs from the thirteenth century BCE and show occasional incorporation of Ugaritic deities like El and Anat into Hurrian ceremonies. In the text RS 24.261, which contains instructions for a ritual focused on Ashtart and Šauška, written in both Ugaritic and Hurrian, she is mentioned in a list of deities who received offerings during it, after Ishara and before Nikkal. In RS 24.291, a ritual taking place over the course of three days focused on Pidray, she is listed as the recipient of a sacrificial cow on the second day and two rams on the third. Offering lists in which she appears between Ishara and Hutena-Hutellura are known too. ===Mesopotamian reception=== Under the Akkadian form of her name, Allani was also worshiped in Mesopotamia. She was one of the foreign deities worshiped in Ur in the Ur III period. She might have been introduced there from the areas in the proximity of the upper section of the river Khabur. Offerings made to her are well documented in the archive of queen Shulgi-simti alongside these to goddesses such as Ishara, Belet Nagar, Belet- šuhnir and Belet-terraban. Administrative documents from Puzrish-Dagan (Drehem) detailing the amount of sacrifices made to various deities mention Allatum alongside both foreign and Mesopotamian deities. The sacrifice of a piglet to her is documented in the text YBC 16473, but unlike other livestock these animals were not distributed by the royal administration from Puzrish- Dagan. At least one temple dedicated to Allatum, most likely located in Ur, is attested. A single text mentions the staff of temples of Allatum, Annunitum and Shuwala. There is also evidence that she received offerings during rites held in honor of deceased kings in this city. In Nippur, Allatum was venerated alongside a different group of deities than in Ur: Enlil and Ninlil, Alla-gula and Ningagia. During the seventh day of the festival of Inanna which took place annually during the sixth month in the local calendar she also received offerings alongside Idlurugu, a god who represented river ordeal. She continued to be worshiped in this city in the Old Babylonian period. A single reference to a temple of Allatum has been identified in the corpus of texts from Old Babylonian Sippar. It occurs in a lawsuit dated to the reign of Sabium, and the goddess is otherwise not attested in any sources from this city, which indicates her cult had a small scope and might have not been maintained in later periods. The Old Babylonian Bird Omen Compendium, a divination manual explaining how to interpret the signs on the carcass of a sacrificial bird, identifies one possible location of an ominous red spot as a portent of Allatum. It has been noted that the section in which she appears seems to focus on deities chiefly worshiped in western areas, such as Adad and Ishara, and their respective circles. ===Hittite reception=== The Hittite king Ḫattušili I listed Allani (under the name Allatum) as one of the deities whose statues he brought to Hatti as war booty, alongside the , Lelluri, and the mountain gods Adalur and Amaruk. She came to be worshiped by the Hittites as one of the deities belonging to the state pantheon in the Middle Hittite period. During the festival, which was introduced from Kizzuwatna by queen Puduḫepa and was meant to guarantee good fortune for the royal couple Allani appears alongside "Teshub Manuzi," Lelluri, Ishara, two hypostases of Nupatik (pibitḫi - "of Pibid(a)" and zalmatḫi - "of Zalman(a)/Zalmat") and Maliya. Texts describing it mention a temple dedicated to her, in which she was venerated alongside Hutena-Hutellura, Kurra, Zimazalla and a further deity whose name is not preserved. It is designated as a location where the king was supposed to make an offering (keldi) to her. In Yazılıkaya, a sanctuary located close to Hattusa and tied to the Hurrian-influenced religious practice of the royal family, Allani (Allatum) is depicted in a procession of goddesses reflecting the order of the of Ḫepat, with the two following figures being Ishara and Nabarbi. Texts from Emar which reflect Hittite traditions also mention Allani. ==Mythology== Allani is one of the three deities playing main roles in the Song of Release, the other two being Teshub and Ishara.. The former at one point descends to the underworld and partakes in a banquet held by Allani alongside his enemies, the "former gods" whose defeat is described in the cycle of Kumarbi, but much of the rest of the narrative is missing and both its conclusion and purpose are uncertain. Volkert Haas suggests that the underworld banquet should be understood as an episode comparable to the Mesopotamian myth of Inanna's descent to the netherworld, with Teshub temporarily imprisoned in the land of the dead. This interpretation has been critically evaluated by Ewa von Dassow, who points out that Haas did not depend on the text itself, as no reference to the weather god being imprisoned in it, and in his publications instead offered indirect evidence from unrelated compositions such as the aforementioned Mesopotamian myth or Ovid's Metamorphoses. She instead suggests that the meeting is focused on discussing the destruction of Ebla, around which much of the plot of the composition revolves, as it would inevitably lead to an influx of new inhabitants into Allani's realm. proposes that Teshub's descent to the underworld was meant to ease his anger with the treatment of his human followers by the elders of Ebla, described in other fragments of the same text, though he also considers it possible that the myth reflected rituals in which a deceased person was supposed to enter the underworld and meet their ancestors in the underworld. Mary R. Bachvarova assumes that the meeting with Allani is related to the fact that the humans Teshub is concerned with in other sections of the myth are meant to care for funerary rites. Walter Burkert and Erich Neu suggested that Allani presided over reconciliation between Teshub and his enemies. ==Notes== ==References== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Hurrian deities Category:Ugaritic deities Category:Mesopotamian goddesses Category:Hittite deities Category:Underworld goddesses Category:Time and fate goddesses
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The Anatolian languages are an extinct branch of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Anatolia, part of present-day Turkey. The best known Anatolian language is Hittite, which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language. Undiscovered until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they are often believed to be the earliest branch to have split from the Indo-European family. Once discovered, the presence of laryngeal consonants ḫ and ḫḫ in Hittite and Luwian provided support for the laryngeal theory of Proto-Indo- European linguistics. While Hittite attestation ends after the Bronze Age, hieroglyphic Luwian survived until the conquest of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms by Assyria, and alphabetic inscriptions in Anatolian languages are fragmentarily attested until the early first millennium AD, eventually succumbing to the Hellenization of Anatolia as a result of Greek colonisation. == Origins == The Anatolian branch is often considered the earliest to have split from the Proto-Indo-European language, from a stage referred to either as Indo-Hittite or "Archaic PIE"; typically a date in the mid-4th millennium BC is assumed. Under the Kurgan hypothesis, there are two possibilities for how the early Anatolian speakers could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus, or from the west, via the Balkans;Models assuming an Anatolian PIE homeland of course do not assume any migration at all, and the model assuming an Armenian homeland assumes straightforward immigration from the East. the latter is considered somewhat more likely by Mallory (1989), Steiner (1990), and Anthony (2007). Statistical research by Quentin Atkinson and others using Bayesian inference and glottochronological markers favors an Indo-European origin in Anatolia, though the method's validity and accuracy are subject to debate. It has been theorized that Cernavodă culture, together with the Sredny Stog culture, was the source of Anatolian languages and introduced them to Anatolia through the Balkans after Anatolian split from the Proto-Indo- Anatolian language, which some linguists and archaeologists place in the area of the Sredny Stog culture.Краткая история освоения индоевропейцами Европы (in Russian) == Classification == Melchert (2012) has proposed the following classification: *Proto-Anatolian **Hittite ** Luwic *** Luwian *** Carian *** Milyan *** Lycian *** Sidetic *** Pisidian ** Palaic ** Lydian Kloekhorst (2022) has proposed a more detailed classification, with estimated dating for some of the reconstructed stages: * Proto-Anatolian (diverged around the 31st century BCE) ** Proto-Luwo-Lydian *** Proto-Luwo-Palaic **** Proto-Luwic (ca. 21st–20th century BCE) ***** Proto-Luwian (ca. 18th century BCE) ****** Cuneiform Luwian (16th–15th century BCE) ****** Hieroglyphic Luwian (13th–8th century BCE) ***** Proto-Lyco-Carian ****** Carian (7th–3rd century BCE) ****** Milyan (5th century BCE) ****** Lycian (5th–4th century BCE) ****** Sidetic (5th–2nd century BCE) ***** Pisidian (1st–2nd century CE), whose exact position remains uncertain (from a direct descendant or a sister-language of Proto-Lyco-Carian) ****Proto-Palaic *****Palaic (16th–15th century BCE) ***Proto-Lydian ****Lydian (8th–3rd century BCE) **Proto-Hittite (ca. 2100 BCE) *** Kanišite Hittite (ca. 1935–1710 BCE) *** Hittite (ca. 1650–1180 BCE) == Features == === Phonology === The phonology of the Anatolian languages preserves distinctions lost in its sister branches of Indo-European. Famously, the Anatolian languages retain the PIE laryngeals in words such as Hittite ḫāran- (cf. Greek ὄρνῑς, Lithuanian eręlis, Old Norse ǫrn, PIE *h₃éron-) and Lycian 𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀 χuga (cf. Latin avus, Old Prussian awis, Archaic Irish ᚐᚃᚔ (avi), PIE *h₂éwh₂s). The three dorsal consonant series of PIE also remained distinct in Proto-Anatolian and have different reflexes in the Luwic languages, e.g. Luwian where *kʷ > ku-, *k > k-, and *ḱ > z-. The three-way distinction in Proto-Indo-European stops (i.e. *p, *b, *bʰ) collapsed into a fortis-lenis distinction in Proto-Anatolian, conventionally written as /p/ vs. /b/. In Hittite and Luwian cuneiform, the lenis stops were written as single voiceless consonants while the fortis stops were written as doubled voiceless, indicating a geminated pronunciation. By the first millennium, the lenis consonants seem to have been spirantized in Lydian, Lycian, and Carian. The Proto-Anatolian laryngeal consonant *H patterned with the stops in fortition and lenition and appears as geminated -ḫḫ- or plain -ḫ- in cuneiform. Reflexes of *H in Hittite are interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives and those in Luwian as uvular fricatives based on loans in Ugaritic and Egyptian, as well as vowel-coloring effects. The laryngeals were lost in Lydian but became Lycian 𐊐 (χ) and Carian 𐊼 (k), both pronounced [k], as well as labiovelars —Lycian 𐊌 (q), Carian 𐊴 (q)—when labialized. Suggestions for their realization in Proto- Anatolian include pharyngeal fricatives, uvular fricatives, or uvular stops. === Verbs === Despite their antiquity, Anatolian morphology is considerably simpler than other early Indo-European (IE) languages. The verbal system distinguishes only two tenses (present-future and preterite), two voices (active and mediopassive), and two moods (indicative and imperative), lacking the subjunctive and optative moods found in other old IE languages like Tocharian, Sanskrit, and Ancient Greek. Anatolian verbs are also typically divided into two conjugations: the mi conjugation and ḫi conjugation, named for their first-person singular present indicative suffix in Hittite. While the mi conjugation has clear cognates outside of Anatolia, the ḫi conjugation is distinctive and appears to be derived from a reduplicated or intensive form in PIE. === Gender === The Anatolian gender system is based on two classes: animate and inanimate (also termed common and neuter). Proto-Anatolian almost certainly did not inherit a separate feminine agreement class from PIE. The two-gender system has been described as a merger of masculine and feminine genders following the phonetic merger of PIE a-stems with o-stems. However the discovery of a group of inherited nouns with suffix *-eh2 in Lycian and therefore Proto-Anatolian raised doubts about the existence of a feminine gender in PIE. The feminine gender typically marked with -ā in non-Anatolian Indo-European languages may be connected to a derivational suffix *-h2, attested for abstract nouns and collectives in Anatolian. The appurtenance suffix *-ih2 is scarce in Anatolian but fully productive as a feminine marker in Tocharian. This suggests the Anatolian gender system is the original for IE, while the feminine-masculine-neuter classification of Tocharian + Core IE languages may have arisen following a sex-based split within the class of topical nouns to provide more precise reference tracking for male and female humans. === Case === Proto-Anatolian retained the nominal case system of Proto-Indo-European, including the vocative, nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and locative cases, and innovated an additional allative case. Nouns distinguish singular and plural numbers, as well as a collective plural for inanimates in Old Hittite and remnant dual forms for natural pairs. The Anatolian branch also has a split-ergative system based on gender, with inanimate nouns being marked in the ergative case when the subject of a transitive verb. This may be an areal influence from nearby non-IE ergative languages like Hurrian. === Syntax === The basic word order in Anatolian is subject-object-verb except for Lycian, where verbs typically precede objects. Clause-initial particles are a striking feature of Anatolian syntax; in a given sentence, a connective or the first accented word usually hosts a chain of clitics in Wackernagel's position. Enclitic pronouns, discourse markers, conjunctions, and local or modal particles appear in rigidly ordered slots. Words fronted before the particle chain are topicalized. == Languages == The list below gives the Anatolian languages in a relatively flat arrangement, following a summary of the Anatolian family tree by Robert Beekes (2010). This model recognizes only one clear subgroup, the Luwic languages. Modifications and updates of the branching order continue, however. A second version opposes Hittite to Western Anatolian, and divides the latter node into Lydian, Palaic, and a Luwian group (instead of Luwic).. === Hittite === Hittite (nešili) was the language of the Hittite Empire, dated approximately 1650–1200 BC, which ruled over nearly all of Anatolia during that time. The earliest sources of Hittite are the 19th century BC Kültepe texts, the Akkadian language records of the kârum kaneš, or "port of Kanes," an Assyrian enclave of merchants within the city of kaneš (Kültepe). This collection records Hittite names and words loaned into Akkadian from Hittite. The Hittite name for the city was Neša, from which the Hittite endonym for the language, Nešili, was derived. The fact that the enclave was Assyrian, rather than Hittite, and that the city name became the language name, suggest that the Hittites were already in a position of influence, perhaps dominance, in central Anatolia. The main cache of Hittite texts is the approximately 30,000 clay tablet fragments, of which only some have been studied, from the records of the royal city of Hattuša, located on a ridge near what is now Boğazkale, Turkey (formerly named Boğazköy). The records show a gradual rise to power of the Anatolian language speakers over the native Hattians, until at last the kingship became an Anatolian privilege. From then on, little is heard of the Hattians, but the Hittites kept the name. The records include rituals, medical writings, letters, laws and other public documents, making possible an in- depth knowledge of many aspects of the civilization. Most of the records are dated to the 13th century BC (Late Bronze Age). They are written in cuneiform script borrowing heavily from the Mesopotamian system of writing. The script is a syllabary. This fact, combined with frequent use of Akkadian and Sumerian words, as well as logograms, or signs representing whole words, to represent lexical items, often introduces considerable uncertainty as to the form of the original. However, phonetic syllable signs are present also, representing syllables of the form V, CV, VC, CVC, where V is "vowel" and C is "consonant." Hittite is divided into Old, Middle, and New (or Neo-). The dates are somewhat variable. They are based on an approximate coincidence of historical periods and variants of the writing system: the Old Kingdom and the Old Script, the Middle Kingdom and the Middle Script, and the New Kingdom and the New Script. Fortson gives the dates, which come from the reigns of the relevant kings, as 1570–1450 BC, 1450–1380 BC, and 1350–1200 BC respectively. These are not glottochronologic. All cuneiform Hittite came to an end at 1200 BC with the destruction of Hattusas and the end of the empire.. === Palaic === Palaic, spoken in the north-central Anatolian region of Palā (later Paphlagonia), extinct around the 13th century BC, is known only from fragments of quoted prayers in Old Hittite texts. It was extinguished by the replacement of the culture, if not the population, as a result of an invasion by the Kaskas, which the Hittites could not prevent. === Luwic branch === The term Luwic was proposed by Craig Melchert as the node of a branch to include several languages that seem more closely related than the other Anatolian languages.. "I, followed by some others, have adopted the label 'Luvic' for this group instead of the more popular 'Luvian', in order to forestall confusion with Luvian in the narrow sense of just the language represented by Cuneiform and Hieroglyphic Luvian." This is not a neologism, as Luvic had been used in the early 20th century AD to mean the Anatolian language group as a whole, or languages identified as Luvian by the Hittite texts. The name comes from Hittite luwili. The earlier use of Luvic fell into disuse in favor of Luvian. Meanwhile, most of the languages now termed Luvian, or Luvic, were not known to be so until the latter 20th century AD. Even more fragmentary attestations might be discovered in the future. Luvian and Luvic have other meanings in English, so currently Luwian and Luwic are preferred. Before the term Luwic was proposed for Luwian and its closest relatives, scholars used the term Luwian Languages in the sense of "Luwic Languages". For example, Silvia Luraghi's Luwian branch begins with a root language she terms the "Luwian Group", which logically is in the place of Common Luwian or Proto-Luwian. Its three offsprings, according to her, are Milyan, Proto-Luwian, and Lycian, while Proto-Luwian branches into Cuneiform and Hieroglyphic Luwian.. ==== Luwian ==== thumb|upright=1|Area where the 2nd millennium BC Luwian language was spoken The Luwian language is attested in two different scripts, cuneiform and Anatolian hieroglyphs, over more than a millennium. While the earlier scholarship tended to treat these two corpora as separate linguistic entities, the current tendency is to separate genuine dialectal distinctions within Luwian from orthographic differences. Accordingly, one now frequently speaks of Kizzuwatna Luwian (attested in cuneiform transmission), Empire Luwian (cuneiform and hieroglyphic transmission), and Iron Age Luwian / Late Luwian (hieroglyphic transmission), as well as several more Luwian dialects, which are more scarcely attested.; ; ; The cuneiform corpus (Melchert's CLuwian) is recorded in glosses and short passages in Hittite texts, mainly from Boğazkale. About 200 tablet fragments of the approximately 30,000 contain CLuwian passages. Most of the tablets reflect the Middle and New Script, although some Old Script fragments have also been attested. Benjamin Fortson hypothesizes that "Luvian was employed in rituals adopted by the Hittites." A large proportion of tablets containing Luwian passages reflect rituals emanating from Kizzuwatna. On the other hand, many Luwian glosses (foreign words) in Hittite texts appear to reflect a different dialect, namely Empire Luwian. The Hittite language of the respective tablets sometimes displays interference features, which suggests that they were recorded by Luwian native speakers. The hieroglyphic corpus (Melchert's HLuwian) is recorded in Anatolian hieroglyphs, reflecting Empire Luwian and its descendant Iron Age Luwian. Some HLuwian texts were found at Boğazkale, so it was formerly thought to have been a "Hieroglyphic Hittite." The contexts in which CLuwian and HLuwian have been found are essentially distinct. Annick Payne asserts: "With the exception of digraphic seals, the two scripts were never used together.". HLuwian texts are found on clay, shell, potsherds, pottery, metal, natural rock surfaces, building stone and sculpture, mainly carved lions. The images are in relief or counter-relief that can be carved or painted. There are also seals and sealings. A sealing is a counter-relief impression of hieroglyphic signs carved or cast in relief on a seal. The resulting signature can be stamped or rolled onto a soft material, such as sealing wax. The HLuwian writing system contains about 500 signs, 225 of which are logograms, and the rest purely functional determinatives and syllabograms, representing syllables of the form V, CV, or rarely CVCV.. HLuwian texts appear as early as the 14th century BC in names and titles on seals and sealings at Hattusa. Longer texts first appear in the 13th century BC. Payne refers to the Bronze Age HLuwian as Empire Luwian. All Hittite and CLuwian came to an end at 1200 BC as part of the Late Bronze Age collapse, but the concept of a "fall" of the Hittite Empire must be tempered in regard to the south, where the civilization of a number of Syro-Hittite states went on uninterrupted, using HLuwian, which Payne calls Iron-Age Luwian and dates 1000–700 BC. Presumably these autonomous "Neo-Hittite" heads of state no longer needed to report to Hattusa. HLuwian caches come from ten city states in northern Syria and southern Anatolia: Cilicia, Charchamesh, Tell Akhmar, Maras, Malatya, Commagene, Amuq, Aleppo, Hama, and Tabal.. ==== Lycian ==== thumb|upright=1|Anatolian languages attested in the mid-1st millennium BC Lycian (called "Lycian A" when Milyan was a "Lycian B") was spoken in classical Lycia, in southwestern Anatolia. It is attested from 172 inscriptions,. mainly on stone, from about 150 funerary monuments, and 32 public documents. The writing system is the Lycian alphabet, which the Lycians modified from the Greek alphabet. In addition to the inscriptions are 200 or more coins stamped with Lycian names. Of the texts, some are bilingual in Lycian and Greek, and one, the Létôon trilingual, is in Lycian, Greek, and Aramaic. The longest text, the Xanthus stele, with about 250 lines, was originally believed to be bilingual in Greek and Lycian; however the identification of a verse in another, closely related language, a "Lycian B" identified now as Milyan, renders the stele trilingual. The earliest of the coins date before 500 BC;. however, the writing system must have required time for its development and implementation. The name of Lycia appears in Homer"Sarpedon, king of Lycia", in Iliad 5.471f. but more historically, in Hittite and in Egyptian documents among the "Sea Peoples", as the Lukka, dwelling in the Lukka lands. No Lycian text survives from Late Bronze Age times, but the names offer a basis for postulating its continued existence. Lycia was completely Hellenized by the end of the 4th century BC,. after which Lycian is not to be found. Stephen Colvin goes so far as to term this, and the other scantily attested Luwic languages, "Late Luwian", although they probably did not begin late. Analogously, Ivo Hajnal calls them – using an equivalent German term – Jungluwisch. ==== Milyan ==== Milyan was previously considered a variety of Lycian, as "Lycian B", but it is now classified as a separate language. ==== Carian ==== Carian was spoken in Caria. It is fragmentarily attested from graffiti by Carian mercenaries and other members of an ethnic enclave in Memphis, Egypt (and other places in Egypt), personal names in Greek records, twenty inscriptions from Caria (including four bilingual inscriptions), scattered inscriptions elsewhere in the Aegean world and words stated as Carian by ancient authors. Inscriptions first appeared in the 7th century BC. ==== Sidetic ==== right|thumb|350px|Inscriptions in Sidetic language, exhibits of the Museum of Side, Turkey Sidetic was spoken in the city of Side. It is known from coin legends and bilingual inscriptions that date from the 5th–2nd century BC. ==== Pisidian ==== The Pisidic language was spoken in Pisidia. Known from some thirty short inscriptions from the first to second centuries AD, it appears to be closely related to Lycian and Sidetic. === Lydian === Lydian was spoken in Lydia. Within the Anatolian group, Lydian occupies a unique and problematic position due, first, to the still very limited evidence and understanding of the language and, second, to a number of features not shared with any other Anatolian language. The Lydian language is attested in graffiti and in coin legends from the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 7th century BC down to the 3rd century BC, but well-preserved inscriptions of significant length are presently limited to the 5th–4th centuries BC, during the period of Persian domination. Extant Lydian texts now number slightly over one hundred but are mostly fragmentary. === Other possible languages === It has been proposed that other languages of the family existed that have left no records, including the pre-Greek languages of Lycaonia and Isauria unattested in the alphabetic era. In these regions, only Hittite, Hurrian, and Luwian are attested in the Bronze Age. Languages of the region such as Mysian and Phrygian are Indo-European but not Anatolian, and are thought to have entered Anatolia from the Balkan peninsula at a later date than the Anatolian languages. == Extinction == Anatolia was heavily Hellenized following the conquests of Alexander the Great, as well as the previous Greek colonisation, and the native languages of the area ceased to be spoken as a result of assimilation in the subsequent centuries, making Anatolian the first well-attested branch of Indo-European to become extinct. The only other well-known branch with no living descendants is Tocharian, whose attestation ceases in the 8th century AD. While Pisidian inscriptions date until the second century AD, the poorly-attested Isaurian language, which was probably a late Luwic dialect, appears to have been the last of the Anatolian languages to become extinct. Epigraphic evidence, including funerary inscriptions dating from as late as the 5th century, has been found by archaeologists. Personal names with Anatolian etymologies are known from the Hellenistic and Roman era and may have outlasted the languages they came from. Examples include Cilician Ταρκυνδβερρας Tarku-ndberras "assistance of Tarḫunz", Isaurian Ουαξαμοας Ouaxamoas < *Waksa-muwa "power of blessing(?)", and Lycaonian Πιγραμος Pigramos "resplendent, mighty" (cf. Carian 𐊷𐊹𐊼𐊥𐊪𐊸 Pikrmś, Luwian pīhramma/i-). Several Ancient Greek words are suggested to be Anatolian borrowings, for example: *Apóllōn (Doric: Apéllōn, Cypriot: Apeílōn), from *Apeljōn, as in Hittite Appaliunaš; * dépas 'cup; pot, vessel', Mycenaean di-pa, from Hieroglyphic Luwian ti-pa-s 'sky; bowl, cup' (cf. Hittite nēpis 'sky; cup'); * eléphās 'ivory', from Hittite laḫpa (itself from Mesopotamia; cf. Phoenician ʾlp, Egyptian Ȝbw); * kýanos 'dark blue glaze; enamel', from Hittite kuwannan- 'copper ore; azurite' (ultimately from Sumerian kù-an); * kýmbachos 'helmet', from Hittite kupaḫi 'headgear'; * kýmbalon 'cymbal', from Hittite ḫuḫupal 'wooden percussion instrument'; * mólybdos 'lead', Mycenaean mo-ri-wo-do, from *morkw-io- 'dark', as in Lydian mariwda(ś)-k 'the dark ones'; * óbryza 'vessel for refining gold', from Hittite ḫuprušḫi 'vessel'; * tolýpē 'ball of wool', from Hittite taluppa 'lump'/'clod' (or Cuneiform Luwian taluppa/i). A few words in the Armenian language have been also suggested as possible borrowings from Hittite or Luwian, such as Arm. զուռնա zuṙna (compare Luwian zurni "horn").Martirosyan, Hrach (2017). "Notes on Anatolian loanwords in Armenian." In Pavel S. Avetisyan, Yervand H. Grekyan (eds.), Bridging times and spaces: papers in ancient Near Eastern, Mediterranean and Armenian studies: Honouring Gregory E. Areshian on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday. Oxford: Archaeopress, 293–306. == See also == * Armenian hypothesis * Tree model * Urheimat * Galatian, a Celtic language spoken in Anatolia == Notes == == References == * * * * . Originally published as Le Lingue Indoeuropee. * * * * * * * * * == Further reading == * == External links == * * * * Luwian, Lycian and Lydian. * Category:Indo-European languages
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The following is a list of notable first ascents of the summits of major mountains around the world, in chronological order. The list does not include the first ascent of new routes to previously climbed mountain summits. For example, this list contains the first ascent of the summit of the Eiger in 1858, but not the more famous first ascent of the north face of the Eiger in 1938. Date An asterisk indicates that this is only the date of the first recorded ascent. There is either evidence for an earlier ascent or earlier ascents are very likely. Peak Height (m) Range Country Climbers Nationality Ref BC* Mount Pulag 2926 Cordillera Central (Luzon) Ibaloi tribes * Matajur 1642 Prealps Alboin and troops Suggested to be the "king's mountain" described in the late 8th century by Paul the Deacon in his History of the Lombards. Mount Fuji 3776 En no OzunuEn no Ozunu is a semi-legendary figure, and some accounts have him flying to the top * Mount Damavand 5610 Alborz Abu Dolaf Kazraji Canigou 2785 Pyrenees Peter III of Aragon From a contemporary chronicle by Salimbene: the story is at least partly legendary, as Peter has a meeting with a dragon on top. * Benediktenwand 1801 Prealps A Benedictine monk Rocciamelone 3538 Alps Bonifacius Rotarius of Asti * Pilatus 2128 Alps Six clerics Mont Aiguille 2085 Prealps Antoine de Ville and 8 to 10 more people. bef. 1500 Llullaillaco 6739 Andes Local Incan people * Table Mountain 1086 António de Saldanha * Popocatépetl 5426 Sierra Nevada (Mex) Diego de Ordaz and two comrades * Stockhorn 2190 Prealps Johann Müller and Peter Kunz from Bern and company Pic du Midi d'Ossau 2884 Pyrenees expedition led by :fr:François de Foix-CandaleAscent disputed Calanda 2805 Alps J. Schmid, Z. Beeli, J. Pontisella, and others Corno Grande 2912 Apennines Francesco Di Domenico, guiding , Cesare Schiafinato, Diomede dell'Aquila, and the porters Simone and Giovampietro Di Giulio The first written account of an ascent of Gran Sasso, but clearly not the first ascent, as the chamois hunter Francesco Di Domenico had been to the top already and was eager to go back there. Source: La cronaca della prima asensione sulla vetta del Gran Sasso (Italian) Serles 2717 Alps Hans Georg Ernstinger Erschliessung 2, 380, 423 Pichincha 4784 Andes Alonso de Aguilar, Juan de Galarza, Juan de Londoño, José Toribio de Ortiguera, Juan Sánchez, and Francisco de Uncibay Kežmarský štít 2558 Carpathians David Frölich Atilla Hevesi, The life and scientific work of Dávid Frölich * Mount Washington 1917 Appalachians Darby FieldPerhaps did not climb nor attempt to climb the summit. W. Karwendelspitze 2385 Alps Christian Mentzel * Säntis 2502 Alps Two priests, a naturalist and a guide Piz Beverin 2998 Alps Rudolf von Rosenroll Monte Cavallo 2251 Alps Giovanni Girolamo Zanichelli and Dimenico Pietro Stefanelli Favret Andrea, Leggende: la prima scalata al Monte Cavallo Schesaplana 2965 Alps and two companions For long considered to have been climbed by David Pappus and guides more than a century earlier, in August 1610, but this was a misconception. See Manfred Tschaikner, Das Urbar der Herrschaften Bludenz und Sonnenberg von 1620 – ein Überblick Corazón 4790 Andes Charles Marie de La Condamine, Pierre Bouguer and porters Titlis 3238 Alps Ignaz Herz, Josef Eugen Waser and 2 others Hekla 1488 Highlands of Iceland Eggert Ólafsson * Grintovec 2558 Alps Giovanni Antonio Scopoli Ankogel 3252 Alps Farmer Patschg Erschliessung 3, 247-8 Mont Buet 3096 Alps Jean-André Deluc, Guillaume-Antoine Deluc, Bernard Pomet, and party Francis Gribble, The story of Alpine Climbing, London, 1904, pp. 41-9 * Ben Nevis 1334 Grampian Range James Robertson ca. 1775 Lomnický štít 2634 Carpathians Jakub Fábry Triglav 2864 Alps Lovrenc Willomitzer, Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, and Štefan Rožič Mont Vélan 3727 Alps Laurent Joseph Murith and two hunters from Liddes Studer, Vol 2, pp. 467-8 Sulzfluh 2817 Alps J. B. Catani and L. Pool Scopi 3190 Alps Placidus a Spescha and Joh. Bagliel Dôme du Goûter 4304 Alps Jean- Marie Couttet and François Cuidet Dents du Midi 3257 Alps Jean-Maurice Clément Studer, Vol 2, pp. 53-4 Mangart 2677 Alps Franz Xaver von Wulfen Marianne Klemun, Mit Madame Sonne konferieren: die Grossglockner-Expeditionen 1799 und 1800 , Verlag des Kärntner Landesarchivs, 2000, p. 77 Mont Blanc 4808 Alps Jacques Balmat and Michel Paccard Klyuchevskaya Sopka 4750 Kamchatka Daniel Gauss and two others Rheinwaldhorn 3402 Alps Placidus a Spescha Studer, Vol 3, pp. 50-2 Oberalpstock 3328 Alps Josef Senoner and Placidus a Spescha Vignemale 3298 Pyrenees Shepherds under the order of Louis-Philippe Reinhart Junker La conquête du Vignemale at pyrenees-passion.info Klein Matterhorn 3883 Alps Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure, Jean-Marie Couttet, Jean-Baptiste Erin, and five other guides ca. 1795 Großes Wiesbachhorn 3564 Alps Three brothers named Zorner Erschliessung 3, 208-9 Kleinglockner 3770 Alps four guides from Heiligenblut (including "the Glokners", often nicknamed Martin and Sepp "Klotz") and Sigmund von Hohenwart Erschliessung 3, 168-70Klemun, pp. 153-5 Großglockner 3797 Alps the Glokners and two other locals, guiding an hour later parson Mathias Hautzendorfer Erschliessung 3, 170-2Klemun, pp. 160-7 Watzmann 2713 Alps Valentin Stanič Peter Zimmermann, Valentin Stanič – Bergsteiger, Schriftsteller, Wohltäter. Eigenverlag der Bayerisch-Slowenischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg 2000. Mount Apo 2954 Apo–Talomo Joaquin Rajal, Joseph Montano, Mateo Gisbert, and companions Montano, Dr. Joseph. "Voyage Aux Philippines et en Malaisie", p. 246. Labrairie Hechette, Paris, 1886.Maso, Miguel Saderra. "Volcanoes and Seismic Centers of the Philippines", p.27. Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904. Monte Perdido 3355 Pyrenees Grégoire Taulat dit Rondo, Laurens and a shepherd Followed by Louis Ramond de Carbonnières and others three days later * Mount Katahdin 1608 Appalachians William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel 6Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, and Charles Turner, Jr. Ortler 3905 Alps , Johann Leitner and Johann Klausner Erschliessung 2, 68-72. ca. 1808 Grande Sassière 3747 Alps Bertrand Chaudan and others from Tignes W.A.B. Coolidge, The Alps in nature and history, E.P. Dutton publishers, New York, 1908, p. 398 Jungfrau 4158 Alps Hieronymus Meyer and guided by Alois Volken and Joseph Bortis Studer, Vol 1, pp. 102-8 Breithorn 4164 Alps Henry Maynard, Jean-Marie Couttet, Jean Gras, Jean-Baptiste and Jean-Jacques Érin Studer, Vol 2, pp. 301-3 Torstein 2948 Alps Jackl Buchsteiner Erschliessung 1, 327-8 Pikes Peak 4302 Rocky Mountains Edwin James and two others Zumsteinspitze 4563 Alps Joseph and Johann Niklaus Vincent, Joseph Zumstein, Molinatti, Castel and unknown porters Studer, Vol 2, pp.67-70 * Zugspitze 2962 Alps Josef Naus, Maier and Johann Georg Tauschl Erschliessung 1,121-2. Local people had climbed Zugspitze over 50 years earlier, according to a 1770 map discovered by the Alpenverein Schrankogel 3497 Alps Tödi 3614 Alps Augustin Bisquolm and Placi Curschellas Erschliessung 2, 433 (The botanist stopped 5 m below the summit) Mount Brown 2791 Canadian Rockies David Douglas Stephen Slemon and Zac Robinson (2011) Deception in High Places , The Canadian Alpine Journal, Vol. 94, pp. 12-17. Mont Pelvoux 3946 Alps Captain Durand, Alexis Liotard and Jacques-Etienne Matheoud Kitzsteinhorn 3203 Alps Johann Entacher Erschliessung 3, 220-1 Pizzo Tambo 3279 Alps Johann Jakob Sulzberger Paul Caminada, Pioniere der Alpentopographie: die Geschichte der Schweizer Kartenkunst, AS Verlag, 2003. Page 96 Mount Elbrus (East) 5621 Caucasus Khillar Khachirov (expedition led by Heinrich Lenz and General Emmanuel) Finsteraarhorn 4272 Alps Jakob Leuthold and Johann Währen Studer, Vol 2, pp. 80-4 * Mount Ararat 5137 Friedrich Parrot and Khachatur Abovian Schalfkogel 3537 Alps Frédéric Mercey with guides from Meran and Pfelders Erschliessung 2, 352-4. Hoher Dachstein 2995 Alps Peter Gappmayr Erschliessung 1, 331-2, 335 Similaun 3606 Alps Josef Raffeiner and Theodor Kaserer Erschliessung 2, 326 Gerlachovský štít 2655 Carpathians and several hunters Piz Linard 3410 Alps Johann Madutz and Oswald HeerThe ascents of Lienhard/Chuonard in 1573, who put a golden cross on top, and of pastor Zadrell/Zodrell in 1710, who found crampons on top and was attacked by an eagle, are thought to be legends. Studer, Vol 3, pp. 382-5 Piz Palü 3898 Alps Johann Madutz, , Peter and M. Flury and Oswald Heer Studer, Vol 3, pp. 146-8 Fernerkogel 3294 Alps , Lipp Schöpf and Jackob Kofler Erschliessung 2, 447-9 * Habicht 3277 Alps and Ingenuin Krösbacher Erschliessung 2, 417-9 Aiguilles d'Arves 3513 Alps Pierre Alexis Magnin and Benoît Nicolas Magnin Benoît Nicolas Magnin, The Ascent of the Central Aiguille d'Arves, AJ, Volume 18, 1895, pp 165-8. Mount Egmont 2518 North Island volcanoes Ernst Dieffenbach and James Heberley Rysy 2503 Carpathians and * Ras Dashen 4550 Ethiopian Highlands Pierre V.A. Ferret & Joseph G. Galinier Glittertind 2465 Scandinavian Mts Harald Nicolai Storm Wergeland and Hans Sletten. Großvenediger 3666 Alps Josef Schwab, Paul Rohregger, Christian Rieß, Peter Meilinger, , , Franz Spitaler and 17 others Erschliessung 3, 134-136 Aneto 3404 Pyrenees and guided by Pierre Radonet, Bernard Arrazau, Jean Argarot and Pierre Sanio Aneto. Primer ascensión histórica. Website dedicated to first ascent of Aneto (in Spanish and French) Lauteraarhorn 4042 Alps Melchior Bannholzer and Jakob Leuthold guiding Pierre Jean Édouard Desor, Christian Girard, and Arnold Escher von der Linth Fremont Peak 4189 Rocky Mountains John C. Fremont, Charles Preuss and Johnny Janisse Großer Löffler 3376 Alps Markus Vincent Lipold and a chamois hunter from Mayrhofen Erschliessung 3, 66 Wetterhorn 3692 Alps Melchior Bannholzer and Hans Jaun Weißkugel 3739 Alps Johann Gurschler and Josef Weitthalm Hanspaul Menara, Hannsjörg Hager, Berge und Bergsteiger: Alpingeschichte Südtirols, Verlagsanstalt Athesia, 1994, pp. 55-57. Piz Kesch 3418 Alps Johann Coaz, Jakob Rascher, Christian Casper and Jon Ragut Tscharner Studer, Vol 3, pp. 355-6 Schrammacher 3410 Alps , Georg Lechner and Jakob Huber Anton Farbmacher, Ersteigung der Schramaspitze, Mittheilungen des Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpenvereins, 1901, volume 27, pp. 59-60. (Originally published in Boten von und für Tirol und Vorarlberg, 1847, p. 288-292.) Bazardüzü 4466 Caucasus A. Aleksandrov * Pico de Orizaba 5636 Sierra Nevada (Mex) F. Maynard, William F. Raynolds, Manigault, Lomax & Rodgers Possibly Olmec ascents as early as the 12th century Wildspitze 3770 Alps Leander Klotz and a farmhand Erschliessung 2, 251-7 Monte Rosa (Dunantspitze) 4632 Alps Johann Madutz and Matthias Zumtaugwald Repeated on 22 Aug 1851 by Johann Zumtaugwald, Peter Taugwalder, Peter Inderbinen and Adolf and Hermann Schlagintweit. Wolfgang Pusch, Helmut Dumler, Willi P. Burkhardt, Viertausender der Alpen, Bergverlag Rother GmbH, 2013, p. 119In 1891 W.A.B. Coolidge deduced that they had reached the 4,618 m Grenzgipfel, but he may have been in error. Studer, Vol 2, pp. 78-85 Galdhøpiggen 2469 Scandinavian Mts Steinar Sulheim, Ingebrigt N. Flotten and Lars Arnesen Piz Bernina 4049 Alps Johann Coaz guided by Jon and Lorenz Ragut Tscharner Studer, Vol 3, pp. 87-90 * Pico Duarte 3098 Hispaniola Robert H. Schomburgk * Mount St. Helens 2950 Because of its eruption in 1980, the highest point of Mt St Helens is now 400 m lower Cascade Range Thomas J. Dryer, John Wilson, ?. Smith and Edwin P. or Charles S. Drew Mount Shasta 4322 Cascade Range Elias D. Pearce and eight others Königspitze 3859 Alps Hochgall 3436 Alps Members of a survey party led by Hermann van Acken Erschliessung 3, 111-2 Mount Adams 3743 Cascade Range A. Glenn Aiken, Edward J. Allen, and Andrew J. Burge Edmond S. Meany, First Ascent of Mount Adams in The Mountaineer, December 1917, vol.X, p.26-28. Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze) 4634 Alps Ulrich Lauener, Johann and Matthias Zumtaugwald guiding James Smyth, Christopher Smyth, Charles Hudson, John Birkbeck, Edward Stephenson Studer, Vol 2, pp. 85-6 Weissmies 4017 Alps Jakob Christian Häusser and Peter Josef Zurbriggen Helmut Dumler and Willi P. Burkhardt, The High Mountains of the Alps, London: Diadem, 1994, page 62 Mount Hood 3429 Cascade Range Henry Pittock, W. Lymen Chittenden, Wilbur Cornell, T.A. Wood There is disputed claim of an ascent in August 1854 with Dryer, Olney, Haller, Lake, Travailot, Barlow, and others. See Sam Barlow for more. Some also consider an ascent by Joel Palmer in 1845 to have been the first ascent, though Palmer himself wrote that they did not summit. Mönch 4107 Alps Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann, Ulrich Kaufmann and Sigismund Porges Studer, Vol 1, pp. 144-5 Pelmo 3168 Alps John BallThe Irishman Ball was guided by an anonymous local (Venetian) chamois hunter up to the summit ridge, about 30 m below the summit. Erschliessung, 3, pp. 475-6 Eiger 3967 Alps Christian Almer and Peter Bohren guiding Charles Barrington Studer, Vol 1, pp. 196-7 Dom 4545 Alps Johann Zumtaugwald, Johann Krönig, Hieronymous Brantschen and John Llewelyn Davies Studer, Vol 2, pp. 117-9 Aletschhorn 4193 Alps , Peter Bohren, Victor Tairraz and Francis Fox Tuckett F. F. Tuckett (1862) The Ascent of the Aletschhorn in Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, pp. 33-72 Grand Combin 4314 Alps Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Daniel Balleys, Emmanuel Balleys, Gaspard Balleys and Basile Dorsaz Studer, Vol 2, pp. 220-2 Bietschhorn 3934 Alps Johann Siegen, Joseph Aebener, and Leslie Stephen Stephen misspelled his guides as "Zügler" and "Appener"; Studer, Vol 1, pp. 212-6 Grivola 3969 Alps Zachary Cachat John Ormsby (1862) Ascent of the Grivola in Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, pp. 318-38 Rimpfischhorn 4199 Alps Melchior Anderegg, Johann Zumtaugwald, Leslie Stephen and Robert Living Wolfgang Pusch, Helmut Dumler, Willi P. Burkhardt, Viertausender der Alpen, Bergverlag Rother GmbH, 2013, p. 103 Grande Casse 3855 Alps Michel Croz, Étienne Favre and William Mathews Gran Paradiso 4061 Alps and Jean Tairraz guiding John Jeremy Cowell and William Dundas J.J. Cowell, Two Ascents of the Grand Paradis, Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, Volume 2, pp 408-426, London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Robets, 1862 Monte Civetta 3220 Alps Simeone De Silvestro Schreckhorn 4078 Alps Ulrich Kaufmann, Christian Michel, Peter Michel, and Leslie Stephen Leslie Stephen, The Ascent of the Schreckhorn, Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, Volume 2, pp 3-14, London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Robets, 1862 Weisshorn 4506 Alps , Ulrich Wenger and John Tyndall Studer, Vol 2, pp. 145-6 Monte Viso 3841 Alps Michel Croz, William Mathews and William Mathews, Ascent of Monte Visto, Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, Volume 2, pp 148-177, London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Robets, 1862 Mont Pourri 3779 Alps Michel Croz * Mount Cameroon 4070 Gustav Mann, Richard Francis Burton, Atilano Calvo Iturburu, and Krumen porters Burton reported that the 1847 attempt by the Jamaican Joseph Merrick stranded after climbing 9000 feet.Gustav Mann and porters may have been the first on the summit on 18 December 1861; against Calvo's wishes, Burton and Calvo and porters climbed the highest summit from basecamp on the 25th when Mann was sick with dysentery. James L. Newman, Paths Without Glory: Richard Francis Burton in Africa, Potomac Books, Inc., 2009, pp. 162-165 Dent Blanche 4357 Alps , Johann Krönig, Thomas Stuart Kennedy, and William Wigram Studer, Vol 2, pp. 190-1 Zuckerhütl 3507 Alps Alois Tanzer and Erschliessung 2, 25 Monte Disgrazia 3678 Alps Melchior Anderegg, Leslie Stephen, E. S. Kennedy and Thomas Cox Studer, Vol 3, pp. 206-8 Piz Zupò 3996 Alps The teacher Enderlin, the pastor Otto Serardy and the hunter Badrutt Michel Caviezel, Tourist's Guide to the Upper Engadine, 1875, p. 179 Studer, Vol 3, pp. 109-10 Dent d'Hérens 4171 Alps Melchior Anderegg, Jean- Pierre Cacha, Peter Perren guiding F. Crauford Grove, William E. Hall, Reginald S. Macdonald, Montagu Woodmass Studer, Vol 2, pp. 288-93 Antelao 3264 Alps Paul Grohmann, , Alessandro Lacedelli, and Matteo Ossi Barre des Écrins 4102 Alps A. W. Moore, Horace Walker, Edward Whymper, Michel Croz, Christian Almer Sr & Jr Wannenhorn 3906 Alps Gottlieb Samuel Studer, Rudolf Lindt, Kaspar Blatter and Peter Sulzer Studer, Vol 1, pp. 224-9 Zinalrothorn 4221 Alps Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, Leslie Stephen and Florence Crauford Grove Studer, Vol 2, pp. 257-9 Adamello 3554 Alps Giovanni "Pirinello" Caturani and Julius Payer Marmolada 3343 Alps Paul Grohmann, Fulgentio Dimai, and 1860s Mount Tom 4163 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Thomas Clark guided by Native Americans Piz Roseg 3937 Alps Jakob Anderegg, A. W. Moore and Horace Walker Studer, Vol 3, pp. 130-3 Aiguille Verte 4121 Alps Christian Almer, Franz Biner and Edward Whymper Obergabelhorn 4063 Alps Jakob Anderegg, A. W. Moore and Horace Walker Studer, Vol 2, pp. 322-3 Matterhorn 4478 Alps Michel Croz and father and son Peter Taugwalder guiding Edward Whymper, Charles Hudson, Francis Douglas and Douglas Robert Hadow (see also the expedition page) Studer, Vol 2, pp. 166-73 Piz Buin 3312 Alps , Johann Jakob Weilenmann, Jakob Pfitscher and Franz Pöll Erschliessung 2, 10-12 Piz Badile 3308 Alps François Devouassoud, Henri Devouassoud, and W. A. B. Coolidge Studer, Vol 3, pp. 233-4 El Toro E 4727 Andes Pierre Bourgoin Grandes Jorasses 4208 Alps Melchior Anderegg, , Julien Grange and Horace Walker Kazbek 5047 Caucasus François Devouassoud, Douglas Freshfield, A. W. Moore, and . Douglas Freshfield, Travels in the Central Caucasus and Bashan, Longmans, Green, & Company, 1869, pp. 196-206 Mount Baker 3286 Cascade Range Edmund Thomas Coleman, Edward Eldridge, John Tennant, David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton * Longs Peak 4345 Rocky Mountains John Wesley Powell, Walter Powell, Lewis Keplinger, Samuel Garman, Williams Byers, Jack Sumner and Ned Faarrell Langkofel 3181 Alps Peter Salcher, and Paul Grohmann Große Zinne/ Cima Grande 2999 Alps , Peter Salcher and Paul Grohmann Watzespitze 3533 Alps Alois Ennemoser Erschliessung 2, 307 Ailefroide 3954 Alps Ulrich Almer, Christian Almer and W. A. B. Coolidge Mount Rainier 4392 Cascade Range Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump Mount Lyell 3999 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) John Boies Tileston Naiguatá 2765 Venezuelan Coastal Range James Mudie Spence, Anton Goering, Ramón and Nicanor Bolet Peraza and expedition Mount Ritter 4008 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) John Muir * Cotopaxi 5897 Andes Wilhelm Reiss and Ángel Escobar Mount Whitney 4421 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Charles Begole, Albert Johnson, John Lucas Mount Elbrus (West) 5642 Caucasus , Frederick Gardiner, Horace Walker, and Florence Crauford Grove Florence Craufurd Grove, 'The Frosty Caucasus:̓: An Account of a Walk Through Part of the Range and an Ascent of Elbruz in the Summer of 1874, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1875 * Blanca Peak 4372 Rocky Mountains Wheeler Survey * Mount Elbert 4404 Rocky Mountains Henry W. Stuckle Half Dome 2693 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) George Anderson Store Skagastølstind 2405 Scandinavian Mts William Cecil Slingsby Meije 3983 Alps E. Boileau de Castelnau, father and son Pierre Gaspard * Mount Kerinci 3805 Barisan Mountains Arend Ludolf van Hasselt en Daniël David Veth Aiguille du Dru 3754 Alps Alexander Burgener and Kaspar Maurer guiding Clinton Thomas Dent and James Walker Hartley Mount Ruapehu 2797 Taupo Volcanic Zone George Beetham, Joseph Prime Maxwell Petit Dru 3733 Alps , Prosper Payot and Frédéric Folliguet Chimborazo 6270 Andes Jean-Antoine Carrel, Louis Carrel, and Edward Whymper Antisana 5704 Andes Jean-Antoine Carrel, Louis Carrel, and Edward Whymper Cayambe 5790 Andes Jean-Antoine Carrel, Louis Carrel, and Edward Whymper Mount Apo 2954 Mindanao Joaquin Rajal, Joseph Montano, Mateo Gisbert, Datu Manig and others Aiguille du Grépon 3482 Alps Albert Mummery, Alexander Burgener and Benedikt Venetz Dent du Géant 4013 Alps Baptiste, Daniel & Kebnekaise 2111 Scandinavian Mts Charles Rabot, Pehr Abrahamsson and Hans Monsen Kabru E 7338 Himalayas Emil Boss, Ulrich Kaufmann and William Graham Graham, Boss and Kaufmann reported being stymied 30 feet below the icycle-like summit Pan de Azúcar 4680 Andes Wilhelm Sievers Aiguille Blanche de Peuterey 4112 Alps Émile Rey, , Aloys Anthamatten and Henry Seymour King Mount Kinabalu 4095 Crocker Range John Whitehead Dykh- Tau 5205 Caucasus Albert Mummery and Heinrich Zurfluh Shkhara 5193 Caucasus Ulrich Almer, John Garford Cockin and Christian Roth East Janga 5051 Caucasus Ulrich Almer, John Garford Cockin and Christian Roth * Mount Victoria 4038 Owen Stanley Range William MacGregor and a large party Kibo 5895 Kilimanjaro Hans Meyer and Ludwig Purtscheller * Iztaccihuatl 5230 Sierra Nevada (Mex) James de Salis Mount Sir Donald 3284 Columbia Mts Emil Huber, Carl Sulzer, Harry Cooper Devils Tower 1558 Rocky Mountains William Rogers and Willard Ripley Mount Temple 3544 Canadian Rockies Walter Wilcox, Samuel Allen and Louis Fox Frissel Aoraki / Mount Cook 3764 After the peak collapsed in 1991 and following erosion of the exposed ice cap, Aoraki is now 40 m lower Southern Alps Tom Fyfe, Jack Clarke and George Graham The summit was nearly reached on March 3, 1882 by the Swiss guide Ulrich Kaufmann guiding the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Irish reverend William Spotswood Green. Mount Tasman 3497 Southern Alps E. A. Fitzgerald, Matthias Zurbriggen and Jack Clarke Delago Tower 2790 Alps Vajolet Towers at summitpost.org * Aconcagua 6959 Andes Matthias Zurbriggen Tupungato 6570 Andes Matthias Zurbriggen and Stuart Vines Mount Saint Elias 5489 Saint Elias Mts Joseph Petigax, Antoine Maquignaz, , André Pellisier guiding Luigi Amedeo, Francesco Gonella, Vittorio Sella, Filippo de Filippi, Umberto Cagni, Erminio Botta Filippo de Filippi, The Ascent of Mount St. Elias Alaska by H.R.H. Prince Luigi Amedeo de Savoia, Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1900 Grand Teton 4197 Rocky Mountains William Owen, Franklin Spalding, Frank Peterson, and John Shive Possibly climbed as early as 1873 Illimani 6438 Andes Antoine Maquignaz, Louis Pellissier and William Martin Conway William Martin Conway, Climbs and Explorations in the Andes, 1899 Jade Mountain 3952 Karl Theodor Stöpel, Hussung and Biong Campanile Basso 2883 Alps Carl Berger and Otto Ampferer Ewald Weiss, Campanile Basso/Guglia di Brenta, 100 Jahre Alpingeschichte am "Welträtsel am Stein", 1999 Batian 5199 Mount Kenya and Joseph Brocherel guiding Halford Mackinder Mount Assiniboine 3618 Canadian Rockies Christian Bohren, Christian Hasler, James Outram Alam-Kuh 4848 Alborz and Joseph Bornmüller J.G.R. Harding, Cambridge Expedition, 1956, to the Elburz Mountains, Iran, HJ, Vol 20 Mount Columbia 3747 Canadian Rockies Christian Kaufmann guiding James Outram Mount Forbes 3612 Canadian Rockies Christian and Hans Kaufmann guiding J. Norman Collie, James Outram, Hugh E.M. Stutfield, George M. Weed and Herman Woolley, HEM Stutfield & Norman Collie, Ascent of Mount Forbes in Climbs & Explorations in the Canadian Rockies, Longmans, Green and co., 1903 Mount Bryce 3507 Canadian Rockies Christian Kaufmann guiding James Outram North Palisade 4343 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) James S. Hutchinson, Joseph N. LeConte, James K. Moffitt Ushba 4710 Caucasus , Robert Hebling, Friedrich Reichert, , Albert Weber * Karisimbi 4507 Virunga Mountains Father Barthélémy André Meyer, Exploration of the Albert National Park - Mission for volcanic studies, Brussels 1955. Page 23 Mount Humphreys 4265 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Edward C. Hutchinson and James S. Hutchinson Hozomeen Mountain 2460 Cascade Range Sledge Tatum, George E. Loudon * Mount Meru 4566 Fritz Jäger, Carl Uhlig and porters In 1901, Carl Uhlig and Lieutenant Schieritz (and porters probably) already came to within 100 m from the summit Mount Stanley 5109 Rwenzori Mts Joseph Petigax, , Joseph Brocherel, and Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi On the highest peaks of the Rwenzori at rwenzoriabruzzi.com Trisul 7120 Himalayas Tom Longstaff, , Henri Brocherel and Karbir Mount Olympus (US) 2432 Olympic Mts Lorenz A. Nelson and 10 other members of the Mountaineers Club Mount Erebus 3794 Transantarctic Mts Jameson Adams, Edgeworth David, Alistair Forbes MacKay, Eric Marshall, and Douglas Mawson Herðubreið 1682 Highlands of Iceland Sigurður Sumarliðason and Hans Reck Maroon Bells 4317 Rocky Mountains Percy Hagerman Maroon Bells may have been climbed as aryl as 1883-1885 by Land Office surveyors or in the 1890s by C. P. Wilsson from Pueblo Huascaran N. 6655 Andes Annie Smith Peck, Gabriel Zumtaugwald and Rudolf Taugwalder Lefebvre, Thierry L'invention occidentale de la haute montagne andine, M@ppemonde Vol. 19, p. 16 (2005) Mount Aspiring / Tititea 3033 Southern Alps Bernard Head, Jack Clarke and Alec Graham El Toro W 4727 Andes Alfredo Jahn Denali N 5935 Alaska Range The Sourdough expedition: Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall Stetind 1394 Scandinavian Mts Ferdinand Schjelderup, Carl Wilhelm Rubenson, and Alf Bonnevie Bryn Mucuñuque 4608 Andes Alfredo Jahn Humboldt 4940 Andes Alfredo Jahn and Luis Hedderich Mitre Peak 1692 James Robert Dennistoun Pauhunri 7128 Himalayas Alec Kellas and the Sherpas Sony and "Tuny’s brother" * Coropuna 6425 Andes Hiram Bingham, Alejandro Coello, Mariano Gamarra, and Herman L. Tucker * Wagagai 4321 Mount Elgon , Richard Storch, Rudolf Kmunke (disputed) and Ugandan guides and carriers Kmunke's expedition report, 1913 and HB Thomas and RFJ Lindesll Early Ascents of Mount Elgon, The Uganda Journal, Sept 1956 Mount Blackburn 4996 Wrangell Mts Dora Keen and George Handy Mount Sir Sandford 3519 Columbia Mts Edward Feuz Jr., Rudolph Aemmer, Howard Palmer, and William Lowell Putnam, Andrew J. Kauffman, The Guiding Spirit, Light Technology Publishing, 1986 Mawenzi (Meyer Peak) 5148 Kilimanjaro Eduard Oehler and Mawenzi climbing guide Mount Bangeta 4121 Saruwaged Range Christian Keyser and (probably) local porters Pieter van Royen The Alpine Flora of New Guinea, J. Cramer, 1980, p. 259 Puncak Trikora 4750 Maoke Mountains , and Chris Ballard, Steven Vink and Anton Ploeg, Race to the Snow; Photography and the Exploration of Dutch New Guinea, 1907-1936. Amsterdam: KIT Publishers, 2001 August Adriaan Pulle (1915) Naar het sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw Guinea Denali S 6168 Alaska Range Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum Mount Robson 3954 Canadian Rockies Conrad Kain, , and William Wasbrough Foster Mount Olympus 2918 Christos Kakkalos, Frédéric Boissonnas and Daniel Baud-Bovy Belukha 4506 Altai Mountains Boris Tronov and Mount Louis 2682 Canadian Rockies Conrad Kain and Crestone Peak 4357 Rocky Mountains Albert R. Ellingwood, Frances Rogers, Eleanor Davis Ehrman and Joe Deutschbein Bugaboo Spire 3204 Columbia Mts Conrad Kain, , Bess MacCarthy, and John Vincent Huayna Potosí 6066 Andes Rudolf Dienst and Otto Lohse Janq'u Uma 6427 Andes Rudolf Dienst and Mount Cleveland 3194 Rocky Mountains Harry R. Horn, John F. Habbe and Frank B. Wynn Lizard Head 3999 Rocky Mountains Albert R. Ellingwood and Barton Hoag Mount Moran 3842 Rocky Mountains LeGrand Hardy, Bennet McNulty and Ben C. Rich Gannett Peak 4209 Rocky Mountains Arthur C. Tate and Floyd J. Stahlnaker * Jbel Toubkal 4167 Atlas Mountains René de Segonzac, Vincent Berger, and Hubert Dolbeau Granite Peak 3904 Rocky Mountains Elers Koch, James C. Whitham and Robert T. Ferguson Mount Logan 5959 Saint Elias Mts , , William Foster, , and Allen Carpé Mount Alberta 3619 Canadian Rockies Yuko Maki, Heinrich Fuhrer, Hans Kohler, Jean Weber, Masanobu Hatano, Natagene Okabe, Seiichi Hashimoto, Tanezo Hayakawa, Yukio Mita Mount Russell 4296 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Norman Clyde Mikeno 4437 Virunga Mountains Fathers Van Hoef and Depluit, Mr and Mrs Leonard Illampu 6368 Andes , , Hugo Hortnagel, Erwin Hein Clyde Minaret 3740 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Norman Clyde Lenin Peak 7134 Pamir Mountains Karl Wien, and Jongsong Peak 7462 Himalayas and Mount Bona 5005 Saint Elias Mts Allen Carpé, Terris Moore, Mount Fairweather 4671 Saint Elias Mts Allen Carpé and Terris Moore Kamet 7756 Himalayas Frank Smythe, Eric Shipton, R.L. Holdsworth, Lewa Sherpa E. St. J. Birnie, The First Ascent of Kamet, HJ 4 (1932) Khan Tengri 7010 Tian Shan , Boris Tjurin, Mount Tahat 2918 Hoggar Edouard Wyss-Dunant Huascaran S. 6746 Andes Franz Bernard, Phillip Borchers, Erwin Hein, , and Chopicalqui 6345 Andes Phillip Borchers, Erwin Hein, , and Huandoy N. 6395 Andes Erwin Hein and Minya Konka 7556 Daxue Shan Terris Moore, Richard Burdsall Richard L. Burdsall and Arthur B. Emmons (1935) Men Against the Clouds, New York: Harper & Brothers Ismoil Somoni Peak 7495 Pamirs Yevgeniy Abalakov * Mercedario 6710 Andes and Mount Foraker 5304 Alaska Range Charles Houston, T. Graham Brown, Chychele Waterston Charles S. Houston Denali's Wife AAJ Vol. 2 p. 285 (1935) Sia Kangri 7422 Karakoram Hans Ertl and Bolívar 4978 Andes Enrique Bourgoin, Heriberto Márquez, Domingo Peña Gunnbjørn Fjeld 3694 Watkins Range Augustine Courtauld, Jack Longland, Ebbe Munck, Harold G. & Lawrence Wager Lingtren 6749 Himalayas Eric Shipton & Dan Bryant Monarch Mountain 3555 Coast Mountains Henry S. Hall Jr. and Hans Fuhrer Henry S. Hall Mts. Monarch, Silverthrone, and the Klinkaklini Glacier AAJ Vol. 3 p. 32 (1937) Mount Waddington 4019 Coast Mountains Fritz Wiessner and William P. House William P. House The Ascent of Mt. Waddington AAJ Vol. 3 p. 21 (1937) Siula Grande 6344 Andes and Nanda Devi 7816 Himalayas Bill Tilman and Noel Odell (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, Nanda Devi exploration and first ascents Siniolchu 6888 Himalayas Karl Wien and Adi Göttner Karl Wien, The Ascent of Siniolchu and Simvu North Peak 1, HJ 9 (1937) Mount Carstensz 4900 Melting of the ice cap covering the climbed summit has reduced its height by about 40 m Maoke Mountains Anton Colijn, Jean Jacques Dozy, Ojos del Salado 6893 Andes Jan Alfred Szczepański and Jomolhari 7326 Himalayas Freddie Spencer Chapman, Pasang Dawa Lama F. Spencer Chapman, The Ascent of Chomolhari, 1937, HJ 10 (1938) Mount Lucania 5240 Saint Elias Mts Bradford Washburn and Robert Hicks Bates Bradford Washburn The Ascent of Mount Lucania AAJ Vol. 3 p. 119 (1938) Devils Tower 1637 Rocky Mountains Fritz Wiessner, William P. House, Lawrence P. Coveney First free ascent, not using the ladder Mana 7272 Himalayas Frank Smythe Kinnerly Peak 3032 Rocky Mountains Norman Clyde, Ed Hall, Richard K. Hill and Braeme Gigos Mount Marcus Baker 4016 Chugach Mts Norman Bright, Peter Gabriel, Norman Dyhrenfurth, Bradford Washburn Bradford Washburn The Ascent of Mt. St. Agnes AAJ Vol. 3 p. 255 (1939) Mount Sanford 4949 Wrangell Mts Terris Moore and Bradford Washburn Terris Moore Mt. Stanford: A Alaskan Ski Climb AAJ Vol. 3 p. 265 (1939) * Mount Wilhelm 4509 Bismarck Range Leigh Vial and 2 locals Peak Pobeda 7439 Tian Shan Leonid Gutman, Evgenyi Ivanov, Alexander Sidorenko Kirill Kuzmin The most Northern Mount of more than 7000 m high Pik Talgar 4979 Tian Shan L. Kutuchtin, G. Makatrov and I. Kropotov Alexey Raspopov, Talgar. The highest mountain of Zailiysky Alatau Range La Concha 4922 Andes Franz Weiss and Albert Günther Pico Simón Bolívar 5700 Sra Nevada de Sta Marta Erwin Kraus, Guido Pichler, Enrico Praolini Pico Cristóbal Colón 5700 Sra Nevada de Sta Marta Enrico Praolini, Walter A. Wood, Anderson Bakerwell Kirat Chuli 7365 Himalayas Ernst Grob, Herbert Paidar, and Ludwig Schmaderer Dunagiri 7066 Himalayas André Roch, Fritz Steuri Jr., David Zogg André Roch, Dunagiri, Gauri Parbat, Rataban and Chaukhamba, 1939, HJ 12 (1940) Sajama 6550 Andes Josef Prem and Wilfrid Kühm Shiprock 2188 David Brower, Raffi Bedayn, Bestor Robinson and John Dyer Bestor Robinson Shiprock AAJ Vol. 4 p. 54 (1940) Bonpland 4883 Andes Albert Günther Kunturiri 5648 Andes Wilfrid Kühm Yossi Brain, Bolivia: a climbing guide, The mountaineers 1999. Mount Hayes 4216 Alaska Range Bradford Washburn, Barbara Washburn, Benjamin Ferris, Sterling Hendricks, Henry Hall, William Shand Bradford Washburn The Ascent of Mount Hayes AAJ Vol. 4 p. 323 (1942) Monte San Lorenzo 3706 Patagonia Alberto María De Agostini El León 4740 Andes Baltazar Trujillo and Hugo Matheus Devils Thumb 2767 Coast Mountains Fred Beckey, Clifford Schmidtke, Bob Craig Fred Beckey West of the Stikine AAJ Vol. 6 p. 269 (1947) Lost Arrow Spire 2112 Sierra Nevada (U.S.) John Salathé and Ax Nelson Allen Steck 1947. The Lost Arrow AAJ Vol. 44 p. 24 (2002) Nevado Santa Cruz 6241 Andes Frédéric Marmillod and Ali Szepessy-Schaurek Mount Vancouver 4812 Saint Elias Mts William Hainsworth, Alan Bruce-Robertson, Bob McCarter, Noel Odell William R. Hainsworth Vancouver Episode AAJ Vol. 7 p. 367 (1950) Annapurna 8091 Himalayas Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, Annapurna exploration and first ascents Tirich Mir 7708 Hindu Kush Arne Næss, , Henry Berg, Tony Streather Yerupajá 6617 Andes David Harrah and James Maxwell W. V. Graham Matthews and David Harrah Up Yerupajá AAJ Vol. 8 p. 22 (1951) Mount Hubbard 4557 Saint Elias Mts Nicholas Clifford, Robert Bates, Peter Wood and Walter Wood http://bivouac.com/TripPg.asp?TripId=6121 Fitz Roy 3405 Patagonia Lionel Terray & King Peak 5173 Saint Elias Mts Keith Hart and Elton Thayer Elton Thayer King Peak AAJ Vol. 8 p. 410 (1953) Mount Augusta 4289 Saint Elias Mts Peter Schoening, Victor Josendal, Bill Niendorf, Richard E. McGowen, Bob Yeasting, Gibson Reynolds, Tom Morris, Verl Rogers Peter K. Schoening, King Peak—Yukon Expedition, 1952, AAJ Vol. 8 p. 416 (1953) Huantsán 6369 Andes Lionel Terray, Cees G. Egeler and Tom de Booy D. F. O. Dangar, Alpine Notes, AJ Vol. 71, Nr 312-313 p. 145 (1966) Salcantay 6271 Andes Fred D. Ayres, David Michael, Graham Matthews, George I. Bell, Claude Kogan, Bernard Pierre John C. Oberlin and W. V. Graham Matthews The First Ascent of Mount Salcantay AAJ Vol. 8 p. 387 (1953) Monte San Valentin 4058 Patagonia Otto Meiling and members of Club Andino Bariloche Mount Everest 8848 Himalayas Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, Mount Everest exploration and first ascents Chamar 7187 Himalayas Maurice Bishop and Namgyal Sherpa Lin Ferguson, The forgotten climbers, Wanganui Chronicle ,12 June 2013 Nanga Parbat 8126 Himalayas Hermann Buhl (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, Nanga Parbat exploration and first ascents Herman Buhl, On the Summit of Nanga Parbat, HJ 18 (1954) Mount Asgard 2015 Baffin Mountains Jürg Marmet, Hans Röthlisberger, Hans Weber and Fritz Hans Schwarzenbach Kern Stefan (2013) Zum 60. Jahrestag der Erstbesteigung des Mount Asgard Ausangate 6372 Andes Fritz März, Heinrich Harrer, Heinz Steinmetz, and Jürgen Wellenkamp Nun 7135 Himalayas Pierre Vittoz, Claude Kogan Bernard Pierre, Nun-Kun, AAJ 9, p. 29 (1954) Mount Deborah 3761 Alaska Range Fred Beckey, Heinrich Harrer, Henry Meybohm Fred Beckey Mt. Deborah and Mt. Hunter: First Ascents AAJ Vol. 9 p. 39 (1955) Mount Hunter 4442 Alaska Range Fred Beckey, Heinrich Harrer, Henry Meybohm K2 8611 Karakorum Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, K2 exploration and first ascents Cho Oyu 8201 Himalayas Herbert Tichy, and Pasang Dawa Lama Günter Seyfferth, Cho Oyu exploration and first ascents Chomo Lonzo 7804 Himalayas Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy Makalu 8481 Himalayas Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy (see also the expedition page) Günter Seyfferth, Makalu exploration and first ascents Kangchenjunga 8586 Himalayas George Band and Joe Brown (see also the expedition page) Ganesh I 7422 Himalayas Raymond Lambert, Claude Kogan, Eric Gauchat Ganesh Himal, AAJ 10 p. 141 (1956) Lhotse 8516 Himalayas Fritz Luchsinger and Ernst Reiss Günter Seyfferth, Lhotse exploration and first ascents Manaslu 8156 Himalayas Toshio Imanishi and Günter Seyfferth, Manaslu exploration and first ascents Muztagh Tower 7276 Karakoram John Hartog, Joe Brown, Tom Patey and Ian McNaught-Davis Gasherbrum II 8034 Karakorum Fritz Moravec, and Günter Seyfferth, Gasherbrum II exploration and first ascents Chakrarahu 6108 Andes Lionel Terray, Maurice Davaille, Claude Gaudin, Pierre Souriac, Robert Sennelier Muztagh Ata 7546 Kunlun Mountains E. A. Beletskiy leading a large party (including Liu Lianman) 1957 Girls Mountain 1870 Chugach Mountains Austin Post and USGS Party Pirámide 5885 Andes , Berhard Huhn and Horst Wiedmann Pirámide de Garcilaso and Alpamayo in the Cordillera Blanca, and Jutunhuma and Cayungate I in the Cordillera Vilcanota, AAJ 11, p. 108 (1958) Machhapuchhare 6993 Himalayas Wilfrid Noyce and David Cox Noyce and Cox stopped 30-50 m below the summit in deference to its sacred nature. The mountain has been completely off limits since then. Broad Peak 8047 Karakoram Fritz Wintersteller, Marcus Schmuck, Kurt Diemberger and Hermann Buhl Kurt Diemberger, Broad Peak and Chogolisa, 1957, HJ 21 (1958) Günter Seyfferth, Broad Peak exploration and first ascents Skil Brum 7410 Karakoram Marcus Schmuck and Fritz Wintersteller Marcus Schmuck, Broad Peak Expedition 1957 Alpamayo 5947 Andes , Berhard Huhn, Frieder Knauss, and Horst Wiedmann Jirishanca 6094 Andes and Siegfried Jungmeir Cerro Paine Grande 2884 Patagonian Andes Jean Bich, Leonardo Carrel, Toni Gobbi, Camillo Pellissier and Pierino Pession South America, Chile, Paine Group, Patagonia AAJ Vol. 11 p. 104 (1958) Rakaposhi 7788 Karakoram Mike Banks and Tom Patey Mike Banks (1959) Rakaposhi, London: Secker and Warburg Gasherbrum I 8080 Karakorum Pete Schoening and Andy Kauffman Günter Seyfferth, Gasherbrum I (Hidden Peak) exploration and first ascents Haramosh 7397 Karakoram , , Franz Mandl Heinrich Roiss, 1958 Austrian expedition: the ascent of Haramosh., HJ 21 (1958) Chogolisa II 7654 Karakoram Masao Fujihira and Kazumasa Hirai Takeo Kuwabara, The Ascent of Chogolisa, HJ 21 (1958) Gasherbrum IV 7925 Karakoram Walter Bonatti and Carlo Mauri Günter Seyfferth, Gasherbrum IV exploration and first ascents Kanjut Sar 7760 Karakoram Camillo Pellissier Asia, Pakistan, Kanjut Sar AAJ Vol. 12 p. 161 (1960) Saraghrar 7349 Hindu Kush Franco Alletto, , Giancarlo Castelli and Betto Pinelli Fosco Maraini, A Roman flag on Saraghrar Peak, AJ, 1960 Puncak Mandala 4760 Maoke Mountains Herman Verstappen, Arthur Escher, Max Tissing, Jan de Wijn & Piet ter Laag John J. Staats en Herman Verstappen, Sterrengebergte, 2006 VPRO documentary. Dhaulagiri 8167 Himalayas Kurt Diemberger, Ernst Forrer, Albin Schelbert, , Nawang Dorje, Nima Dorje Günter Seyfferth, Dhaulagiri exploration and first ascents Annapurna II 7937 Himalayas Richard H. Grant, Chris Bonington, Günter Seyfferth, Annapurna II exploration and first ascents Himalchuli 7893 Himalayas , Masahiro Harada Günter Seyfferth, Himalchuli exploration and first ascents Distaghil Sar 7885 Karakoram Günther Stärker and Diether Marchart Günter Seyfferth, Disteghil Sar exploration and first ascents Masherbrum 7821 Karakoram George Bell and Willi Unsoeld Günter Seyfferth, Masherbrum exploration and first ascents Mount Proboscis 2610 Mackenzie Mts Bill Buckingham, Mason C. Hoadley, Stuart Krebs William J. Buckingham, The Logan Mountains, 1960, AAJ 12 p 306 (1961) Noshaq 7492 Hindu Kush Toshiaki Sakai & Goro Iwatsubo Yajiro Sakato, Ascent of Noshaq, HJ 22 (1960) Kuh-e Bandaka 6812 Hindu Kush Wolfgang von Hansemann, , Siegbert Heine, and Johannes Winkler Ama Dablam 6856 Himalayas Mike Gill, Barry Bishop, Mike Ward, Wally Romanes Michael B. Gill, Himalayan Scientific and Mountaineering Expedition, 1960-61, HJ 23 (1961) Nuptse 7861 Himalayas Tashi Sherpa and Dennis Davis Günter Seyfferth, Nuptse exploration and first ascents Castleton Tower 2029 Utah Layton Kor and Huntley Ingalls Kor-Ingalls Route (Castleton Tower) Mount Fridtjof Nansen 4070 Transantarctic Mts Vic R. McGregor, Peter M. Otway, Kevin P. Pain and Wally W. Herbert Saltoro Kangri 7742 Karakoram Yasuo Takamura, Atsuo Saito, R.A. Bashir Tsunahiko Shidei, Saltoro Kangri, AAJ 13 p. 525 (1963) Puncak Jaya 4884 Maoke Mountains Heinrich Harrer, Philip Temple, Russell Kippax and Albert Huizenga Jannu 7710 Himalayas René Desmaison, , and Gyalzen Mitchung Pierre Leroux, The Ascent of Jannu, HJ 24 (1963) Central Tower of Paine 2460 Patagonian Andes Don Whillans and Chris Bonington Ian Clough and Don Whillans Central Tower of Paine AAJ Vol. 14 p. 86 (1964) El Altar 5319 Andes Ferdinando Gaspard, Marino Tremonti, Claudio Zardini Mount Chamberlin 2749 Brooks Range George G. Barnes, Dennis Burge, Graham Stephenson George G. Barnes Mount Chamberlin, Franklin Mountains, and Ascents in the Romanzof Mountains, Brooks Range AAJ Vol. 14 p. 168 (1964) Khüiten Peak 4374 Altai Mountains Mongolian mountaineers Lautaro 3623 Patagonia Peter Skvarca and Luciano Pera Vojslav Arko and Peter Skvarca, Cerro Gorra Blanca and Volcán Lautaro, AAJ 14 p. 223 (1964) Gyachung Kang 7952 Himalayas Yukihiko Kato, Kiyoto Sakaizawa and Pasang Phutar Sherpa Günter Seyfferth, Gyachung Kang exploration and first ascents Shishapangma 8013 Himalayas Xu Jing, Wang Fuzhou, Zhāng Jùnyán, Wū Zōngyuè, Chén Sān, Soinam Dorjê, Chéng Tiānliàng, Migmar Zhaxi, Dorjê and Yún Dēng Günter Seyfferth, Shisha Pangma exploration and first ascents Mount Huntington 3731 Alaska Range Jacques Batkin and Sylvain Sarthou Lionel Terray, Mount Huntington AAJ 14 p 289 (1965) The Moose's Tooth 3150 Alaska Range Walter Welsch, Arnold Hasenkopf, Klaus Bierl, Alfons Reichegger Walter Welsch The Moose's Tooth AAJ Vol. 14 p. 299 (1965) Mount Paget 2935 South Georgia S. H. Down, T. J. Lynch and J. R. Chester H. W. Tilman, Mount Paget, South Georgia, AAJ 15 p. 215 (1966) Ball's Pyramid 562 Lord Howe Island Bryden Allen, John Davis, Jack Pettigrew and David Witham Ball's Pyramid at Bryden Allen's homepage Ball's Pyramid at Jack Pettygrew's homepage Mount Kennedy 4238 Saint Elias Mts Robert F. Kennedy, James Whittaker, Dee Molenaar, and others Bradford Washburn, First Ascent of Mount Kennedy and Second Ascent of Mount Hubbard Vol. 15 p. 93 (1966) Mount Thor 1675 Baffin Mountains Donald Morton and Lyman Spitzer Donald C. Morton Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island AAJ Vol. 15 p. 162 (1966) Mount Nirvana 2773 Mackenzie Mts Bill Buckingham and Lew Surdam William J. Buckingham Logan Mountains, 1965 AAJ Vol. 15 p. 33 (1966) Pico da Neblina 2994 Guiana Highlands Brazilian Army Team Old Man of Hoy 137 Orkney Islands Chris Bonington, Rusty Baillie and Tom Patey Mount Vinson 4897 Ellsworth Mts Barry Corbet, John Evans, Bill Long, Pete Schoening Brian S. Marts American Antarctic Mountaineering Expedition AAJ Vol. 15 p. 251 (1967) Mount Tyree 4852 Ellsworth Mts Barry Corbet and John Evans Barbeau Peak 2616 Arctic Cordillera Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith K6/Baltistan Peak 7282 Karakoram Eduard Koblmüller, Gerd Pressl, Gerhard Haberl, Christian von der Hecken Eduard Koblmüller, K6, AAJ Vol. 17 p. 450 (1971) Ngadi Chuli 7871 Himalayas Hiroshi Watanabe and Lhakpa Tsering Günter Seyfferth, Ngadi Chuli exploration and first ascents Dhaulagiri II 7751 Himalayas Adolf Huber, Sherpa Jangbu, Adi Weissensteiner, Ronald Fear Franz Huber, Dhaulagiri 2, AJ, 1972 Malubiting 7458 Karakoram Horst Schindlbacher, Kurt Pirker, , and Hanns Schell, Malubiting, Karakoram, AAJ Vol. 18 p. 193 (1972) Khunyang Chhish 7852 Karakoram Andrzej Heinrich, Jan Stryczyński, , Andrzej Zawada Günter Seyfferth, Kunyang Chhish exploration and first ascents Saser Kangri I 7672 Karakoram Dawa Norbu, Da Tenzing, Nima Tenzing, Thondup Joginder Singh, Homage to Saser Kangri, the "Yellow Mountain", 1973, HJ 33 (1975) Cerro Torre 3128 Patagonia Daniele Chiappa, Mario Conti, and Pino Negri Nilkantha 6596 Himalayas Sonam Pulzor, Kanhiya Lal, Dilip Singh, Nima Dorje Kamal K. Guha, Kedarnath, Nilkantha, Shivling, AAJ 20 p. 207 (1975) Shivling 6543 Himalayas Hukam Singh, Laxman Singh, Ang Tharkey, Pemba Tharkey, Pasang Sherpa Changabang 6864 Himalayas Tashi Chewang, Balwant Sandhu, Chris Bonington, Martin Boysen, Dougal Haston, Doug Scott Balwant Singh Sandhu, Mountain by Moonlight - The Ascent of Changabang, 1974, HJ 33 (1975) Shispare 7611 Karakoram , Leszek Cichy, Marek Grochowski, Jan Honlicki-Szulc, , and Jacek Poręba Janusz Kurczab, Shaispare climbed, AJ, 1975 K12 7428 Karakoram Shinichi Takagi, Tsutomu Ito Goro Iwatsubo, K 12, AAJ 20 p. 210 (1974) Chogolisa 7665 Karakoram Fred Pressl and Gustav Ammerer Eduard Koblmüller, Chogolisa, AAJ 20 p. 537 (1976) Gasherbrum III 7946 Karakoram Wanda Rutkiewicz, Alison Chadwick- Onyszkiewicz, Janusz Onyszkiewicz and Günter Seyfferth, Gasherbrum III exploration and first ascents Torre Egger 2685 Patagonia John Bragg, Jim Donini and Jay Wilson John Bragg (1977) Torre Egger, AAJ, Vol. 21 Batura Sar 7795 Karakoram and Günter Seyfferth, Batura I exploration and first ascents Nameless Tower 6239 Karakoram Joe Brown, Mo Anthoine, Martin Boysen, and Malcolm Howells Greg Child (2005), Trango Tower, Alpinist, Vol 11 7 August 1976 Apsarasas Kangri 7245 Karakoram Yoshio Inagaki, Katsuhisa Yabuta, and Takamasa Miyomoto The Ogre 7285 Karakoram Doug Scott and Chris Bonington Doug Scott, A Crawl Down the Ogre, HJ 35 (1979) Great Trango Tower 6286 Karakoram Galen Rowell, John Roskelley, Kim Schmitz, Jim Morrissey and Dennis Hennek Dennis Hennek Great Trango Tower AAJ Vol. 21 p. 436 (1978) Langtang Lirung 7227 Himalayas Seishi Wada and Pemba Tsering Langtang Lirung East Ridge, AAJ 22, 269 (1979) Gauri Sankar 7134 Himalayas John Roskelley and Pertemba Dorje Sherpa Al Read The Nepalese-American Gaurishankar Expedition AAJ Vol. 22 p. 417 (1980) Thalay Sagar 6904 Himalayas Roy Kligfield, John Thackray, Pete Thexton John Thackray Amnesiac in the Himalaya, Thalay Sagar, Garhwal AAJ Vol. 22 p. 457 (1980) Uli Biaho Tower 6109 Karakoram John Roskelley, Kim Schmitz, Ron Kauk and Bill Forrest John Roskelley The Obvious Line: Uli Biaho AAJ Vol. 22 p. 405 (1980) Latok 7145 Karakoram Sin'e Matsumi, , Yu Watanabe Latok I, AAJ Vol. 22 p. 647 (1980) Mitre Peak 6010 Karakoram Ivano Ghirardini Ivano Ghirardini, première ascension et première solitaire du Mitre Peak, 6010m, Pakistan, Karakorum. on his blog Chutine Peak 2910 Coast Mountains Geoffrey Faraghan, Paul Tamm, Chris Wilson, Leslie Wilson Paul Tamm Chutine Peak, Owens Peak AAJ Vol. 23 p. 196 (1981) The Spectre 2020 Transantarctic Mts Edmund Stump and Mugs Stump Edmund Stump, Ascent of the Spectre Amne Machin 6282 Kunlun Mountains Giichiro Watanabe, Yoshio Yamamoto and Katsumi Miyake Followed by the Americans Galen Rowell, Harold Knutsen, Kim Schmitz on June 9 and an Austrian/German expedition (Hans Gaschbauer, Franz Lämmerhofer, Gerhard Schmatz, Peter Vogler and Siegfried Hupfauer) on June 10. Kongur Tagh 7649 Kunlun Mountains Chris Bonington, Al Rouse, Peter Boardman, Joe Tasker Charles Clarke, Kongur, BMC 2008. Chris Bonington, Kongur: China's Elusive Summit, W.W. Norton Inc, 1983 Bogda Feng 5445 Tian Shan 11 members of a team led by Ryohei Uchida Bogda West, AAJ 24, p 295 (1982) Changtse 7543 Himalayas Johan Taks Yukshin Gardan Sar 7530 Karakoram , Walter Bergmayr, Willi Brandecker, Reinhard Streif Rudolf Wurzner, Yukshin Gardan Sar, First Ascent, AAJ 27, p 322 (1985) Mamostong Kangri 7516 Karakoram Noboru Yamada, Kenji Yoshida, Rajiv Sharma, P.M. Das, H.S. Chauhan Col. Balwant S. Sandhu (1985), First Ascent of Mamostong, HJ, vol. 41 Mount Hesperus 2996 Alaska Range Justin Lesueur, Karl Swanson, Stephen Spalding Stephen Spalding, Hesperus, AAJ Vol. 60, p. 69 (1986) Gurla Mandhata 7694 Himalayas Cirenuoji, Jiabu, Jin Junxi, Song Zhiyu, Yoshiharu Suita, Kozo Matsubayashi, Toyoji Wada and Kiichiro Suita Katsutoshi Hirabayashi (1986), Naimona'nyi (Gurla Mandhata), AAJ 28, p. 302 Kula Kangri 7538 Himalayas C. Itani, J. Sakamoto, H. Ozaki, E. Ohtani Kazumasa Hirai (1987), The ascent of Kula Kangri from Tibet, HJ 43 Gyala Peri 7294 Himalayas Yasuhiro Hashimoto, Hirotaka Imamura, Yoshio Ogata Yoshio Ogata (1993), A Secret Mountain. HAJ Gyala Peri Expedition 1986, HJ 49 Shanzidou 5596 Mount Satseto Phil Peralta- Ramos and Eric Perlman Eric S. Perlman (1988), Yulong Shan, AAJ 30, p. 265 Polar Sun Spire 1500 Baffin Mountains Peter Gobet and Xaver Bongard Peter Gobet (1987) Beluga Mountain and Rock Tower, Sam Ford Fiord, Baffin Island, 1987, AAJ 31, p. 163 Labuche Kang 7367 Himalayas Ataru Deuchi, Hidekatsu Furukawa, Keiichi Sudo, Osamu Tanabe, Diaqiog, Gyala, Lhaji, Wanjia Ataru Deuchi (1987) Labuche Kung, AAJ 30 p. 279 Mount Minto 4163 Admiralty Mts Greg Mortimer, Lyle Closs, Glenn Singleman, Chris Hilton, Lincoln Hall, and Jonathan Chester Glenn Singleman, Chris Hilton (1988) The Loneliest Mountain Rimo I 7385 Karakoram Nima Dorje Sherpa, Tsewang Smanla, Yoshio Ogata, Hideki Yoshida, SI Kanhaiya Lai and Rattan Singh Huka Singh (1989) First Ascent of Rimo I (7385 M) Indo-Japanese Joint Expedition, HJ 45 Chakragil 6760 Kunlun Mountains Misao Hirano, Minoru Hachisu, Kenji Nakayama Chagragil, AAJ, 1989, p. 293. Mount Sidley 4285 Marie Byrd Land Bill Atkinson Damien Gildea (2011), Antarctica, Marie Byrd Land, Executive Committee Range, Mt. Sidley (4,285m), AAJ 53, p. 196 Xuelian Feng 6627 Tian Shan Motochiro Fujita, Hideki Sakai, Mikio Suzuki, Etuo Nishikawa, Hiroshi Kojiri, Takuo Kato, Reiji Takahashi, Kazuo Tukushima Kazuo Tukushima, Xuelian Feng, Tien Shan, AAJ, 1991, p. 302 Mount Kirkpatrick 4528 Alexandra Range David H. Elliot, Tom H. Fleming & C. A. Miller Damien George Gildea, The Antarctic Mountaineering Chronology, 1988, p. 77 Menlungtse 7181 Himalayas Marko Prezelj and Andrej Štremfelj Jozef Nyka, China and Tibet 1992, AJ 98, p. 248. Namcha Barwa 7782 Himalayas 11 team members Tsuneo Shigehiro, Japan China Joint Expedition to Namcha Barwa 1992 The Crown 7295 Karakoram Kazuo Tokushima, Akito Yamasaki and Yasuyuki Aritomi Kazuo Tokushima (1994) , AAJ 68, p. 280 Ulvetanna Peak 2930 Queen Maud Land , and Ivar Tollefsen Ivar Erik Tollefsen, The Wolf's Fang, 11 Days on the Northwest Wall of Ulvetanna, AAJ 70, p. 56 (1994) Passu Sar 7476 Karakoram Max Wallner, Dirk Naumann, Ralf Lehmann, Volker Wurnig Max Wallner (1995) Pasu I, Ski Ascent and Descent, AAJ 69, p. 296 Mount Epperly 4512 Ellsworth Mts Erhard Loretan Erhard Loretan, Travels in Another World, AJ, 1997 Nyegyi Kansang 7047 Himalayas Rattan Singh, Rajiv Shanna, Jagmohan Singh, Nadre Sherpa and Lopsang Col. M. P. Yadav (1996) First Ascent of Nyegi Kangsang, HJ 52. Peak 4111 4111 Ellsworth Mts and Catherine Destivelle Erik Decamp, Misadventures Below Zero, AAJ 39, pp. 98–107 (1997) Mount Foster 2105 South Shetland Brice Dowrick, Greg Landreth, Dan Mannix and Roger Thompson News From Antarctica, Mount Foster's First Ascent Ultar Sar 7388 Karakoram Akito Yamazaki & Kiyoshi Matsuoka Noboru Otoe, First Ultar II Ascent and Tragedy, 1996 at the Japanese Alpine Club website Hkakabo Razi 5881 Himalayas Takashi Ozaki and Nyima Gyaltsen Stephen Brookes, First Ascent: Ozaki Summits Burma's Highest Peak, Asia Times, October 8, 1996 Rakekniven 2365 Queen Maud Land Conrad Anker, Mike Graber, Jon Krakauer, Alex Lowe, Rick Ridgeway, Gordon Wiltsie Gordon Wiltsie (2006) Scaling the Razor, in To the Ends of the Earth: Adventures of an Expedition Photographer, pp 133-153. Gangkhar Puensum N 7535 Himalayas Kiyohiko Suzuki and four others Tsuguyasu Itami (2000) Gankarpunzum & First Ascent of Liankang Kangri, at the Japanese Alpine club website Meru C (Shark's Fin) 6310 Himalayas Valery Babanov Valeri Babanov (2002) Meru Peak:The Gate to the Sky, The Himialayan Journal 58 Sepu Kangri 6956 Nyenchen Tanglha Mark Newcomb and Carlos Buhler Carlos Buhler (2002) The Ascent of Sepu Kangri, HJ 59 Num Ri 6677 Himalayas , Lydia Schubert and Carsten Schmidt Olaf Rieck, Erstbesteigung des Num Ri 2002 Tomort 4886 Tian Shan Hiroyuki Katsuki and Koichiro Takahashi Isao Fukura (2006) Tomurty, Far Eastern Tien Shan, First Ascent, AAJ 48, p. 433 Mount Rutford 4477 Ellsworth Mts Jed Brown, Camilo Rada and Pachi Ibarra Lindsay Griffin (2006) New Routing in Antarctica, Alpinist Mount Anderson 4144 Ellsworth Mts Jed Brown and Damien Gildea Lindsay Griffin (2007) Antarctic summit spree continues at Alpinist.com Changuch 6322 Himalayas Martin Moran, Rob Jarvis, Paul Guest, Luder Sain and Leon Winchester Lindsay Griffin (2009) Important British first ascent in Indian Himalaya, British Mountaineering Council website Saser Kangri II 7518 Karakoram Mark Richey, Steve Swenson and Freddie Wilkinson Emily Maynard (2011) Saser Kangri II In Alpine Style at Alpinist.com Kunyang Chhish East 7430 Karakoram Hansjörg Auer, Matthias Auer and Simon Anthamatten Hansjörg Auer, Kunyang Chhish East (7400m) – First Ascent via the Southwestface Gamlang Razi 5870 Himalayas Eric Daft, Mark Fisher, Chris Nance, Andy Tyson, Molly Loomis Tyson, and Pyae Phyo Aung Andy Tyson, Gamlang Razi. A first ascent in Myanmar's mysterious mountains., The American Alpine Journal, 56, page 45 (2014) Gasherbrum V 7147 Karakorum An Chi Young and Seong Nakjong First Ascent of G-V, Unattempt on G-IV, AltitudePakistan, September 2014 Lunag Ri 6907 Himalayas David Lama ==See also== * List of first ascents in the Alps * List of first ascents in the Himalayas * List of first ascents in the Sierra Nevada (U.S.) ==References== ===Notes and further reading=== *German and Austrian Alpine Club, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen Volumes 1, 2, and 3, Berlin, 1894. *Gottlieb Studer, Über Eis und Schnee: Die höchsten Gipfel der Schweiz und die Geschichte ihrer Besteigung, Volumes 1, 2, and 3, Schmid, Francke & Company, 1869-1899 *Frederick L. Wolfe, High Summits: 370 Famous Peak First Ascents and Other Significant Events in Mountaineering History, Hugo House Publishers, 2013, (for a guideline; the book contains many major errors) Abbreviations in the reference list: AAJ: American Alpine Journal, AJ: The Alpine Journal, HJ: The_Himalayan Journal. Category:Lists of mountains Category:Climbing and mountaineering-related lists
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Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune, and was the first Neptunian moon to be discovered, on October 11, 1846, by English astronomer William Lassell. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, an orbit in the direction opposite to its planet's rotation. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto, Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet, captured from the Kuiper belt. At in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System, the only satellite of Neptune massive enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, the second-largest planetary moon in relation to its primary (after Earth's Moon), and larger than Pluto. Triton is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to be geologically active (the others being Jupiter's Io and Europa, and Saturn's Enceladus and Titan). As a consequence, its surface is relatively young, with few obvious impact craters. Intricate cryovolcanic and tectonic terrains suggest a complex geological history. Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. The mean density is , reflecting a composition of approximately 15–35% water ice. During its 1989 flyby of Triton, Voyager 2 found surface temperatures of and also discovered active geysers erupting sublimated nitrogen gas, contributing to a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere less than the pressure of Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Voyager 2 remains the only spacecraft to have visited Triton. As the probe was only able to study about 40% of the moon's surface, future missions (dubbed "Trident") have been proposed to NASA via their Discovery Program to revisit the Neptune system with a focus on Triton. == Discovery and naming == thumb|left|upright|William Lassell, the discoverer of Triton Triton was discovered by British astronomer William Lassell on October 10, 1846, just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune. When John Herschel received news of Neptune's discovery, he wrote to Lassell suggesting he search for possible moons. Lassell discovered Triton eight days later. Lassell also claimed for a period to have discovered rings. Although Neptune was later confirmed to have rings, they are so faint and dark that it is not plausible he saw them. A brewer by trade, Lassell spotted Triton with his self-built aperture metal mirror reflecting telescope (also known as the "two-foot" reflector). This telescope was donated to the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the 1880s, but was eventually dismantled. Triton is named after the Greek sea god Triton (Τρίτων), the son of Poseidon (the Greek god corresponding to the Roman Neptune). The name was first proposed by Camille Flammarion in his 1880 book Astronomie Populaire, and was officially adopted many decades later. Until the discovery of the second moon Nereid in 1949, Triton was commonly referred to as "the satellite of Neptune". Lassell did not name his discovery; he later successfully suggested the name Hyperion, previously chosen by John Herschel, for the eighth moon of Saturn when he discovered it. == Orbit and rotation == Triton is unique among all large moons in the Solar System for its retrograde orbit around its planet (i.e. it orbits in a direction opposite to the planet's rotation). Most of the outer irregular moons of Jupiter and Saturn also have retrograde orbits, as do some of Uranus's outer moons. However, these moons are all much more distant from their primaries, and are small in comparison; the largest of them (Phoebe) has only 8% of the diameter (and 0.03% of the mass) of Triton. Triton's orbit is associated with two tilts, the obliquity of Neptune's rotation to Neptune's orbit, 30°, and the inclination of Triton's orbit to Neptune's rotation, 157° (an inclination over 90° indicates retrograde motion). Triton's orbit precesses forward relative to Neptune's rotation with a period of about 678 Earth years (4.1 Neptunian years), making its Neptune-orbit-relative inclination vary between 127° and 173°. That inclination is currently 130°; Triton's orbit is now near its maximum departure from coplanarity with Neptune's. Triton's rotation is tidally locked to be synchronous with its orbit around Neptune: it keeps one face oriented toward the planet at all times. Its equator is almost exactly aligned with its orbital plane. At present, Triton's rotational axis is about 40° from Neptune's orbital plane, and hence as Neptune orbits the Sun, Triton's polar regions take turns facing the Sun, resulting in seasonal changes as one pole, then the other moves into the sunlight. Such changes were observed in 2010. Triton's revolution around Neptune has become a nearly perfect circle with an eccentricity of almost zero. Viscoelastic damping from tides alone is not thought to be capable of circularizing Triton's orbit in the time since the origin of the system, and gas drag from a prograde debris disc is likely to have played a substantial role. Tidal interactions also cause Triton's orbit, which is already closer to Neptune than the Moon is to Earth, to gradually decay further; predictions are that 3.6 billion years from now, Triton will pass within Neptune's Roche limit. This will result in either a collision with Neptune's atmosphere or the breakup of Triton, forming a new ring system similar to that found around Saturn. == Capture == The current understanding of moons in retrograde orbits means they cannot form in the same region of the solar nebula as the planets they orbit. Therefore Triton must have been captured from elsewhere in the solar system. Astrophysicists believe it might have originated in the Kuiper belt, a ring of small icy objects extending from just inside the orbit of Neptune to about 50 AU from the Sun. Thought to be the point of origin for the majority of short-period comets observed from Earth, the belt is also home to several large, planet-like bodies including Pluto, which is now recognized as the largest in a population of Kuiper belt objects (the plutinos) locked in resonant orbits with Neptune. Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto and is nearly identical in composition, which has led to the hypothesis that the two share a common origin. The proposed capture of Triton may explain several features of the Neptunian system, including the extremely eccentric orbit of Neptune's moon Nereid and the scarcity of moons as compared to the other giant planets. Triton's initially eccentric orbit would have intersected the orbits of irregular moons and disrupted those of smaller regular moons, dispersing them through gravitational interactions. Triton's eccentric post-capture orbit would have also resulted in tidal heating of its interior, which could have kept Triton fluid for a billion years; this inference is supported by evidence of differentiation in Triton's interior. This source of internal heat disappeared following tidal locking and circularization of the orbit. Two types of mechanisms have been proposed for Triton's capture. To be gravitationally captured by a planet, a passing body must lose sufficient energy to be slowed down to a speed less than that required to escape. An early theory of how Triton may have been slowed was by collision with another object, either one that happened to be passing by Neptune (which is unlikely), or a moon or proto-moon in orbit around Neptune (which is more likely). A more recent hypothesis suggests that, before its capture, Triton was part of a binary system. When this binary encountered Neptune, it interacted in such a way that the binary dissociated, with one portion of the binary expelled, and the other, Triton, becoming bound to Neptune. This event is more likely for more massive companions. This hypothesis is supported by several lines of evidence, including binaries being very common among the large Kuiper belt objects. The event was brief but gentle, saving Triton from collisional disruption. Events like this may have been common during the formation of Neptune, or later when it migrated outward. However, simulations in 2017 showed that after Triton's capture, and before its orbital eccentricity decreased, it probably did collide with at least one other moon, and caused collisions between other moons. == Physical characteristics == Triton is the seventh-largest moon and sixteenth-largest object in the Solar System and is modestly larger than the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris. It is also the largest retrograde moon in the solar system. It comprises more than 99.5% of all the mass known to orbit Neptune, including the planet's rings and thirteen other known moons, and is also more massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself combined. Also, with a diameter 5.5% that of Neptune, it is the largest moon of a gas giant relative to its planet in terms of diameter, although Titan is bigger relative to Saturn in terms of mass (the ratio of Triton's mass to that of Neptune is approximately 1:4788). It has a radius, density (2.061 g/cm3), temperature and chemical composition similar to that of Pluto. Triton's surface is covered with a transparent layer of annealed frozen nitrogen. Only 40% of Triton's surface has been observed and studied, but it may be entirely covered in such a thin sheet of nitrogen ice. Like Pluto's, Triton's crust consists of 55% nitrogen ice with other ices mixed in. Water ice comprises 15–35% and frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) the remaining 10–20%. Trace ices include 0.1% methane and 0.05% carbon monoxide. There could also be ammonia ice on the surface, as there are indications of ammonia dihydrate in the lithosphere. Triton's mean density implies that it probably consists of about 30–45% water ice (including relatively small amounts of volatile ices), with the remainder being rocky material. Triton's surface area is 23 million km2, which is 4.5% of Earth, or 15.5% of Earth's land area. Triton has an unusually high albedo, reflecting 60–95% of the sunlight that reaches it, and it has changed only slightly since the first observations. By comparison, the Moon reflects only 11%. Triton's reddish color is thought to be the result of methane ice, which is converted to tholins under exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Because Triton's surface indicates a long history of melting, models of its interior posit that Triton is differentiated, like Earth, into a solid core, a mantle and a crust. Water, the most abundant volatile in the Solar System, comprises Triton's mantle, enveloping a core of rock and metal. There is enough rock in Triton's interior for radioactive decay to maintain a liquid subsurface ocean to this day, similar to what is thought to exist beneath the surface of Europa and several other icy outer Solar System worlds. This is not thought to be adequate to power convection in Triton's icy crust. However, the strong obliquity tides are believed to generate enough additional heat to accomplish this and produce the observed signs of recent surface geological activity. The black material ejected is suspected to contain organic compounds, and if liquid water is present on Triton, it has been speculated that this could make it habitable for some form of life. == Atmosphere == thumb|left|Artist's impression of Triton, showing its tenuous atmosphere just over the limb. Triton has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere, with trace amounts of carbon monoxide and small amounts of methane near its surface. Like Pluto's atmosphere, the atmosphere of Triton is thought to have resulted from the evaporation of nitrogen from its surface. Its surface temperature is at least because Triton's nitrogen ice is in the warmer, hexagonal crystalline state, and the phase transition between hexagonal and cubic nitrogen ice occurs at that temperature. An upper limit in the low 40s (K) can be set from vapor pressure equilibrium with nitrogen gas in Triton's atmosphere. This is colder than Pluto's average equilibrium temperature of . Triton's surface atmospheric pressure is only about . thumb|Clouds observed above Triton's limb by Voyager 2. Turbulence at Triton's surface creates a troposphere (a "weather region") rising to an altitude of 8 km. Streaks on Triton's surface left by geyser plumes suggest that the troposphere is driven by seasonal winds capable of moving material over a micrometer in size. Unlike other atmospheres, Triton's lacks a stratosphere and instead has a thermosphere from altitudes of 8 to 950 km and an exosphere above that. The temperature of Triton's upper atmosphere, at , is higher than that at its surface, due to heat absorbed from solar radiation and Neptune's magnetosphere. A haze permeates most of Triton's troposphere, thought to be composed largely of hydrocarbons and nitriles created by the action of sunlight on methane. Triton's atmosphere also has clouds of condensed nitrogen that lie between 1 and 3 km from its surface. In 1997, observations from Earth were made of Triton's limb as it passed in front of stars. These observations indicated the presence of a denser atmosphere than was deduced from Voyager 2 data. Other observations have shown an increase in temperature by 5% from 1989 to 1998. These observations indicated Triton was approaching an unusually warm southern hemisphere summer season that happens only once every few hundred years. Theories for this warming include a change of frost patterns on Triton's surface and a change in ice albedo, which would allow more heat to be absorbed. Another theory argues that temperature changes are a result of the deposition of dark, red material from geological processes. Because Triton's Bond albedo is among the highest in the Solar System, it is sensitive to small variations in spectral albedo. == Surface features == All detailed knowledge of the surface of Triton was acquired from a distance of 40,000 km by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during a single encounter in 1989. The 40% of Triton's surface imaged by Voyager 2 revealed blocky outcrops, ridges, troughs, furrows, hollows, plateaus, icy plains and a few craters. Triton is relatively flat; its observed topography never varies beyond a kilometer. The impact craters observed are concentrated almost entirely in Triton's leading hemisphere. Analysis of crater density and distribution has suggested that in geological terms, Triton's surface is extremely young, with regions varying from an estimated 50 million years old to just an estimated 6 million years old. Fifty-five percent of Triton's surface is covered with frozen nitrogen, with water ice comprising 15–35% and frozen CO2 forming the remaining 10–20%. The surface shows deposits of tholins, organic chemical compounds that may be precursors to the origin of life. === Cryovolcanism === One of the largest cryovolcanic features found on Triton is Leviathan Patera, a caldera-like feature roughly 100 km in diameter seen near the equator. Surrounding this caldera is a volcanic dome that stretches for roughly 2,000 km along its longest axis, indicating that Leviathan is the second largest volcano in the solar system by area, after Alba Mons. This feature is also connected to two enormous cryolava lakes seen northwest of the caldera. Because the cryolava on Triton is believed to be primarily water ice with some ammonia, these lakes would qualify as stable bodies of surface liquid water while they were molten. This is the first place such bodies have been found apart from Earth, and Triton is the only icy body known to feature cryolava lakes, although similar cryomagmatic extrusions can be seen on Ariel, Ganymede, Charon, and Titan. The Voyager 2 probe in 1989 observed a handful of geyser-like eruptions of nitrogen gas and entrained dust from beneath the surface of Triton in plumes up to 8 km high. Triton is thus, along with Earth, Io, Europa and Enceladus, one of the few bodies in the Solar System on which active eruptions of some sort have been observed. The best- observed examples are named Hili and Mahilani (after a Zulu water sprite and a Tongan sea spirit, respectively). All the geysers observed were located between 50° and 57°S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a translucent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid greenhouse effect". Solar radiation passes through the thin surface ice sheet, slowly heating and vaporizing subsurface nitrogen until enough gas pressure accumulates for it to erupt through the crust. A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed. Although commonly termed "cryovolcanic", this nitrogen plume activity is distinct from Triton's larger-scale cryovolcanic eruptions, as well as volcanic processes on other worlds, which are powered by internal heat. CO2 geysers on Mars are thought to erupt from its south polar cap each spring in the same way as Triton's geysers. Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, driven by the sublimation of about of nitrogen ice over this interval; dust entrained may be deposited up to 150 km downwind in visible streaks, and perhaps much farther in more diffuse deposits. Voyager 2 images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many such streaks of dark material. Between 1977 and the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989, Triton shifted from a reddish color, similar to Pluto, to a far paler hue, suggesting that lighter nitrogen frosts had covered older reddish material. The eruption of volatiles from Triton's equator and their deposition at the poles may redistribute enough mass over 10,000 years to cause polar wander. File:Leviathan Patera Volcanic Dome.gif|Close up of the volcanic province of Leviathan Patera, the caldera in the center of the image. Several pit chains extend radially from the caldera to the right of the image, while the smaller of the two cryolava lakes is seen to the upper left. Just off-screen to the lower left is a fault zone aligned radially with the caldera, indicating a close connection between the tectonics and volcanology of this geologic unit. File:Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg|Dark streaks across Triton's south polar cap surface, thought to be dust deposits left by eruptions of nitrogen geysers Triton is geologically active; its surface is young and has relatively few impact craters. Although Triton's crust is made of various ices, its subsurface processes are similar to those that produce volcanoes and rift valleys on Earth, but with water and ammonia as opposed to liquid rock. Triton's entire surface is cut by complex valleys and ridges, probably the result of tectonics and icy volcanism. The vast majority of surface features on Triton are endogenic—the result of internal geological processes rather than external processes such as impacts. Most are volcanic and extrusive in nature, rather than tectonic. File:Cryolava-lake-triton.jpg|Two large cryolava lakes on Triton, seen west of Leviathan Patera. Combined, they are nearly the size of Kraken Mare on Titan. These features are unusually crater free, indicating they are young and were recently molten. === Polar cap, plains and ridges === thumb|Triton's bright south polar cap above a region of cantaloupe terrain Triton's south polar region is covered by a highly reflective cap of frozen nitrogen and methane sprinkled by impact craters and openings of geysers. Little is known about the north pole because it was on the night side during the Voyager 2 encounter, but it is thought that Triton must also have a north polar ice cap. The high plains found on Triton's eastern hemisphere, such as Cipango Planum, cover over and blot out older features, and are therefore almost certainly the result of icy lava washing over the previous landscape. The plains are dotted with pits, such as Leviathan Patera, which are probably the vents from which this lava emerged. The composition of the lava is unknown, although a mixture of ammonia and water is suspected. Four roughly circular "walled plains" have been identified on Triton. They are the flattest regions so far discovered, with a variance in altitude of less than 200 m. They are thought to have formed from the eruption of icy lava. The plains near Triton's eastern limb are dotted with black spots, the maculae. Some maculae are simple dark spots with diffuse boundaries, and others comprise a dark central patch surrounded by a white halo with sharp boundaries. The maculae typically have diameters of about 100 km and widths of the halos of between 20 and 30 km. There are extensive ridges and valleys in complex patterns across Triton's surface, probably the result of freeze–thaw cycles. Many also appear to be tectonic and may result from an extension or strike-slip faulting. There are long double ridges of ice with central troughs bearing a strong resemblance to Europan lineae (although they have a larger scale), and which may have a similar origin, possibly shear heating from strike-slip motion along faults caused by diurnal tidal stresses experienced before Triton's orbit was fully circularized. These faults with parallel ridges expelled from the interior cross complex terrain with valleys in the equatorial region. The ridges and furrows, or sulci, such as Yasu Sulci, Ho Sulci, and Lo Sulci, are thought to be of intermediate age in Triton's geological history, and in many cases to have formed concurrently. They tend to be clustered in groups or "packets". === Cantaloupe terrain === Triton's western hemisphere consists of a strange series of fissures and depressions known as "cantaloupe terrain" because it resembles the skin of a cantaloupe melon. Although it has few craters, it is thought that this is the oldest terrain on Triton. It probably covers much of Triton's western half. Cantaloupe terrain, which is mostly dirty water ice, is only known to exist on Triton. It contains depressions in diameter. The depressions (cavi) are probably not impact craters because they are all of the similar size and have smooth curves. The leading hypothesis for their formation is diapirism, the rising of "lumps" of less dense material through a stratum of denser material. Alternative hypotheses include formation by collapses, or by flooding caused by cryovolcanism. === Impact craters === Due to constant erasure and modification by ongoing geological activity, impact craters on Triton's surface are relatively rare. A census of Triton's craters imaged by Voyager 2 found only 179 that were incontestably of impact origin, compared with 835 observed for Uranus's moon Miranda, which has only three percent of Triton's surface area. The largest crater observed on Triton thought to have been created by an impact is a feature called Mazomba. Although larger craters have been observed, they are generally thought to be volcanic. The few impact craters on Triton are almost all concentrated in the leading hemisphere—that facing the direction of the orbital motion—with the majority concentrated around the equator between 30° and 70° longitude, resulting from material swept up from orbit around Neptune. Because it orbits with one side permanently facing the planet, astronomers expect that Triton should have fewer impacts on its trailing hemisphere, due to impacts on the leading hemisphere being more frequent and more violent. Voyager 2 imaged only 40% of Triton's surface, so this remains uncertain. However, the observed cratering asymmetry exceeds what can be explained based on the impactor populations, and implies a younger surface age for the crater-free regions (≤ 6 million years old) than for the cratered regions (≤ 50 million years old). == Observation and exploration == thumb|left|NASA illustration detailing the studies of the proposed Trident mission thumb|Neptune (top) and Triton (bottom) three days after flyby of Voyager 2 The orbital properties of Triton were already determined with high accuracy in the 19th century. It was found to have a retrograde orbit, at a very high angle of inclination to the plane of Neptune's orbit. The first detailed observations of Triton were not made until 1930. Little was known about the satellite until Voyager 2 flew by in 1989. Before the flyby of Voyager 2, astronomers suspected that Triton might have liquid nitrogen seas and a nitrogen/methane atmosphere with a density as much as 30% that of Earth. Like the famous overestimates of the atmospheric density of Mars, this proved incorrect. As with Mars, a denser atmosphere is postulated for its early history. The first attempt to measure the diameter of Triton was made by Gerard Kuiper in 1954. He obtained a value of 3,800 km. Subsequent measurement attempts arrived at values ranging from 2,500 to 6,000 km, or from slightly smaller than the Moon (3,474.2 km) to nearly half the diameter of Earth. Data from the approach of Voyager 2 to Neptune on August 25, 1989, led to a more accurate estimate of Triton's diameter (2,706 km). In the 1990s, various observations from Earth were made of the limb of Triton using the occultation of nearby stars, which indicated the presence of an atmosphere and an exotic surface. Observations in late 1997 suggest that Triton is heating up and the atmosphere has become significantly denser since Voyager 2 flew past in 1989. New concepts for missions to the Neptune system to be conducted in the 2010s were proposed by NASA scientists on numerous occasions over the last decades. All of them identified Triton as being a prime target and a separate Triton lander comparable to the Huygens probe for Titan was frequently included in those plans. No efforts aimed at Neptune and Triton went beyond the proposal phase and NASA's funding for missions to the outer Solar System is currently focused on the Jupiter and Saturn systems. A proposed lander mission to Triton, called Triton Hopper, would mine nitrogen ice from the surface of Triton and process it to be used as a propellant for a small rocket, enabling it to fly or 'hop' across the surface. Another concept, involving a flyby, was formally proposed in 2019 as part of NASA's Discovery Program under the name Trident. Neptune Odyssey is a mission concept for a Neptune orbiter with a focus on Triton being studied as a possible large strategic science mission by NASA that would launch in 2033 and arrive at the Neptune system in 2049. ==Maps== == See also == * List of natural satellites * List of geological features on Triton * Neptune in fiction * Triton Hopper, a proposed lander to Triton * Triton's sky == Notes == == References == == External links == * Triton profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site * * Triton page at The Nine Planets * Triton page (including labelled Triton map) at Views of the Solar System * Triton map from Paul Schenk, Lunar and Planetary Institute * Triton images from the NASA/JPL Photojournal * Triton nomenclature from the USGS Planetary Nomenclature website Category:Irregular satellites Category:Former dwarf planets 18461010 M Category:Moons with a retrograde orbit
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In international finance, a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a currency that would be transacted internationally, with no set borders. ==History== ===First European Banknotes (17th century)=== The first European banknotes were issued in 1661 by Stockholms Banco. Founded by Johan Palmstruch, it was a predecessor of Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank. As commercial activity and trade shifted northward in 17th century Europe, deposits at and notes issued by the Bank of Amsterdam denominated in Dutch guilders became the means of payment for much trade in the western world. ===Spanish dollar (17th – 19th centuries)=== In the 17th and 18th centuries, the use of silver Spanish dollars or eight-real coins, also known as "pieces of eight" extended from the Spanish territories in the Americas westwards to Asia and eastwards to Europe. This then formed the first worldwide currency. Spain's political supremacy on the world stage, the importance of Spanish commercial routes across the Atlantic and the Pacific, and the coin's quality and purity of silver helped it become internationally accepted for about three centuries. It was legal tender in Spain's Pacific territories of Philippines, Guam and Micronesia, and later in China and other Southeast Asian countries, until the mid-19th century. In the Americas it was legal tender in all of South and Central America (except Brazil) and in the US and Canada until the 19th century. The Spanish dollar was legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. In Europe it was legal tender in the Iberian Peninsula as well as most of Italy including: Milan, the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, in the Franche-Comté (France), and in the Spanish Netherlands. It was also used in other European states including the Austrian Habsburg territories. After Mexican Independence in 1821, the Spanish dollar continued to be used in many parts of the Americas, together with the Mexican Peso from the 1860s onward. The Mexican peso, the US dollar, and the Canadian dollar all trace their origins back to the Spanish dollar. The trace also included the use of the caduceus sign ($), also known as the dollar sign. ===Sterling=== Before 1944, the world reference currency was the United Kingdom's, sterling. The transition between sterling and United States dollar and its impact for central banks was described recently."[http://cneh09.dal.ca/Schenk_CNEH.pdf The Retirement of Sterling as a Reserve Currency after 1945: Lessons for the US Dollar. ", Catherine R. Schenk, Canadian Network for Economic History conference,10/2009 ===U.S. dollar=== In the period following the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, exchange rates around the world were pegged to the United States dollar, which could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. This reinforced the dominance of the US dollar as a global currency. Since the collapse of the fixed exchange rate regime and the gold standard and the institution of floating exchange rates following the Smithsonian Agreement in 1971, most currencies around the world have no longer been pegged to the United States dollar. However, as the United States has the world's largest economy, most international transactions continue to be conducted with the United States dollar, and it has remained the de facto world currency. According to Robert Gilpin in Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order (2001): "Somewhere between 40 and 60 percent of international financial transactions are denominated in dollars. For decades the dollar has also been the world's principal reserve currency; in 1996, the dollar accounted for approximately two-thirds of the world's foreign exchange reserves", as compared to about one-quarter held in euros (see Reserve Currency). Some of the world's currencies are still pegged to the dollar. Some countries, such as Ecuador, El Salvador, and Panama, have gone even further and eliminated their own currency (see dollarization) in favor of the United States dollar. Only two serious challengers to the status of the United States dollar as a world currency have arisen. During the 1980s, the Japanese yen became increasingly used as an international currency, but that usage diminished with the Japanese recession in the 1990s. More recently, the euro has increasingly competed with the United States dollar in international finance. ===Euro=== The euro inherited its status as a major reserve currency from the German mark (DM) and its contribution to official reserves has increased as banks seek to diversify their reserves and trade in the eurozone expands. As with the dollar, some of the world's currencies are pegged against the euro. They are usually Eastern European currencies like the Bulgarian lev, plus several west African currencies like the Cape Verdean escudo and the CFA franc. Other European countries, while not being EU members, have adopted the euro due to currency unions with member states, or by unilaterally superseding their own currencies: Andorra, Monaco, Kosovo, Montenegro, San Marino, and Vatican City. , the euro surpassed the dollar in the combined value of cash in circulation. The value of euro notes in circulation has risen to more than €610 billion, equivalent to US$800 billion at the exchange rates at the time. A 2016 report by the World Trade Organisation shows that the world's energy, food and services trade are made 60% with US dollar and 40% by euro. ===Recent proposals (21st century)=== ====Governmental==== On 16 March 2009, in connection with the April 2009 G20 summit, Russia called for a supranational reserve currency as part of a reform of the global financial system. In a document containing proposals for the G20 meeting, it suggested that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (or an Ad Hoc Working Group of G20) should be instructed to carry out specific studies to review the following options: * Enlargement (diversification) of the list of currencies used as reserve ones, based on agreed measures to promote the development of major regional financial centers. In this context, we should consider possible establishment of specific regional mechanisms which would contribute to reducing volatility of exchange rates of such reserve currencies. * Introduction of a supra- national reserve currency to be issued by international financial institutions. It seems appropriate to consider the role of IMF in this process and to review the feasibility of and the need for measures to ensure the recognition of SDRs as a "supra-reserve" currency by the whole world community."Russian Proposals to the London Summit (April 2009). Kremlin website. 16 March 2009. Retrieved 25 March 2009.At G20, Kremlin to Pitch New Currency. Moscow Times. 17 March 2009. Retrieved 25 March 2009. On 23 March 2009, Zhou Xiaochuan, then-President of the People's Bank of China, called for a replacement of the US dollar with a different standard using "creative reform of the existing international monetary system towards an international reserve currency," believing it would "significantly reduce the risks of a future crisis and enhance crisis management capability."China presses G20 reform plans. BBC News, 24 March 2009. Retrieved 25 March 2009. Zhou suggested that the IMF's special drawing rights (a currency basket then comprising dollars, euros, sterling and yen) could serve as a super-sovereign reserve currency, saying that it would not be easily influenced by the policies of individual countries. Then-US President Barack Obama, however, rejected China's call for a new global currency. He stated, "As far as confidence in the US economy or the dollar, I would just point out that the dollar is extraordinarily strong right now."Obama rejects China's call for new global currency . AFP, 25 March 2009. Retrieved 25 March 2009. At the G8 summit in July 2009, Dmitry Medvedev expressed Russia's desire for a new supranational reserve currency by showing off a coin minted with the words "unity in diversity". The coin, an example of a future world currency, emphasized his call for creating a mix of regional currencies as a way to address the global financial crisis. On 30 March 2009, at the second South America-Arab League Summit in Qatar, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez proposed the creation of a petro-currency. It would be backed by the huge oil reserves of oil-producing countries. Chavez's successor, Nicolás Maduro, in 2018 announced the Petro cryptocurrency, but it does not appear to be used as a currency. ==Single world currency== An alternative definition of a world or global currency refers to a hypothetical single global currency or supercurrency, as the proposed terra or the DEY (acronym for Dollar Euro Yen), produced and supported by a central bank which is used for all transactions around the world, regardless of the nationality of the entities (individuals, corporations, governments, or other organizations) involved in the transaction. No such official currency currently exists, although non- inflationary current funds such as MXV/UDI (Mexican unidad de inversión) have been used as a model for a General Global Currency (GGC), a principal reserved current fund based on a complex relationship between national currencies. Advocates, notably Keynes, of a global currency often argue that such a currency would not suffer from inflation, which, in extreme cases, has had disastrous effects for economies. In addition, many argue that a single global currency would make conducting international business more efficient and would encourage foreign direct investment (FDI). There are many different variations of the idea, including a possibility that it would be administered by a global central bank that would define its own monetary standard or that it would be on the gold standard. Supporters often point to the euro as an example of a supranational currency successfully implemented by a union of nations with disparate languages, cultures, and economies. A limited alternative would be a world reserve currency issued by the International Monetary Fund, as an evolution of the existing special drawing rights and used as reserve assets by all national and regional central banks. On 26 March 2009, a UN panel of expert economists called for a new global currency reserve scheme to replace the current US dollar-based system. The panel's report pointed out that the "greatly expanded SDR (special drawing rights), with regular or cyclically adjusted emissions calibrated to the size of reserve accumulations, could contribute to global stability, economic strength and global equity."UN panel touts new global currency reserve system. AFP, 26 March 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2009. Another world currency was proposed to use conceptual currency to aid the transaction between countries. The basic idea is to utilize the balance of trade to cancel out the currency actually needed to trade. In addition to the idea of a single world currency, some evidence suggests the world may evolve multiple global currencies that exchange on a singular market system. The rise of digital global currencies owned by privately held companies or groups such as Ven suggest that multiple global currencies may offer wider formats for trade as they gain strength and wider acceptance. WOCU currency, based on the WOCU synthetic global currency quotation derived from a weighted basket of currencies of fiat currency pairs covering the top 20 economies of the world, is planned to be issued and distributed by Unite Global a centralised platform for global real-time payments and settlement. ==Difficulties== ===Triffin dilemma=== ===Limited additional benefit with extra cost=== Some economists argue that a single world currency is unnecessary, because the U.S. dollar is providing many of the benefits of a world currency while avoiding some of the costs However, this de facto situation gives the U.S. government additional power over other countries. If the world does not form an optimum currency area, then it would be economically inefficient for the world to share one currency. ===Economically incompatible nations=== In the present world, nations are not able to work together closely enough to be able to produce and support a common currency. There has to be a high level of trust between different countries before a true world currency could be created. A world currency might even undermine national sovereignty of smaller states. ===Wealth redistribution=== The interest rate set by the central bank indirectly determines the interest rate customers must pay on their bank loans. This interest rate affects the rate of interest among individuals, investments, and countries. Lending to the poor involves more risk than lending to the rich. As a result of the larger differences in wealth in different areas of the world, a central bank's ability to set interest rates to make the area prosper will be increasingly compromised, since it places wealthiest regions in conflict with the poorest regions in debt. ===Usury=== Usury – the accumulation of interest on loan principal – is prohibited by the texts of some major religions. In Christianity and Judaism, adherents are forbidden to charge interest to other adherents or to the poor (Leviticus 25:35–38; Deuteronomy 23:19). Islam forbids usury, known in Arabic as riba. ==See also== * Bancor * Currency substitution * Dedollarisation * Nixon shock * Digital currency * List of currencies * List of circulating currencies * Monetary hegemony * Special drawing rights (SDRs) * WOCU * World currency unit * Synthetic currency pair * Money ==References== ==External links== *Global Imbalances and Developing Countries: Remedies for a Failing International Financial System, Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman (eds.), 2007, downloadable pdf book *World Currency site . Category:Foreign exchange market Category:Economic integration Category:Economic globalization Category:International finance Category:Monetary hegemony Category:World government
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Conservatism has deep roots in Hong Kong politics and society. Today, as a political trend, it is often reflected in but not limited to the current pro- Beijing camp, one of the two major political forces in Hong Kong, as opposed to liberalism, a dominant feature of the pro-democracy camp. It has also become a political view taken by some localist political parties. Political conservatism in Hong Kong derives from the Chinese tradition of familism and Confucianism and was incorporated into the colonial government's policies by Governor Cecil Clementi in the 1920s in the wake of rising Marxism–Leninism and communism in general. The anti-communist sentiments continued after the Second World War when waves of Chinese refugees fled to the colony as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) swept across Mainland China in the renewed Chinese Civil War. At this time, Conservatives supported the Republic of China (ROC), and were pro–Kuomintang (KMT). After the de facto end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 when the ROC government fled to Taiwan and throughout the Cold War, Conservatives have also taken libertarian thoughts on economic policies. During the transition period that began during the Sino-British Joint Declaration of 1984, the business elites were joined by pro-Communist traditional leftists in a strategic "unholy alliance" to resist the rise of the demand for democratisation and liberalisation, in order to secure continued political stability and economic prosperity while maintaining a good relationship with the central government in Beijing when the handover eventually happened in 1997. It has also broadened its popular support and become the backbone of today's pro-Beijing camp, which has been the major supporting force of the SAR administration led by the indirectly elected Chief Executive. ==Early colonial period== ===Laissez-faireism=== As the British free port of Hong Kong and taking advantage as the gateway to the vast Chinese market, Hong Kong merchants, the local Chinese elites so-called compradors, had taken the leading role in investment and trading opportunities by serving as middlemen between European and indigenous population in China and Hong Kong, in the principles of laissez-faire classical liberalism, which has since dominated the discourse of the economic philosophy of Hong Kong. For that reason, Hong Kong was previously rated the world's freest economy, a title bestowed on it by the Heritage Foundation, a conservative Washington think tank, and was greatly admired by libertarian economist Milton Friedman. ===Traditional conservatism=== Hong Kong as a predominant Chinese society has its own cultural conservatism which could be found in the Confucian teachings. The conservatism of the Chinese elites was further protected under the British colonial rule in the early collaborative colonial regime between the Chinese elites and British colonialists. To facilitate its governance of the colonised, the colonial government helped consolidate the gentry's power to preserve conservative cultural values in the wake of progressive movements about Chinese nationalism such as the May Fourth Movement in 1919 and the subsequent New Culture Movement in the 1920s in China. As Marxist and anti- imperialist movements strengthened in China in the 1920s, Hong Kong Chinese elitists sought refuge in traditional Chinese values and teachings and the British colonial government came to the defence of "Chinese traditionalism". During the Canton–Hong Kong strike in 1925–26 which was directed by the Kuomintang government in Canton, Chinese elites, including Legislative Council unofficial members R. H. Kotewall and Shouson Chow, actively advised and helped coordinate counterstrike efforts. Kotewall also addressed Hong Kong Governor Cecil Clementi about the European inspectorate of the vernacular schools and emphasised the need for the colonial government to carefully monitor vernacular education, as the schools had become "breeding grounds for sedition". Clementi directly intervened in the Chinese-language curriculum, stressing Chinese traditional teachings and endorsing "the ethics of Confucianism which is, in China, probably the best antidote to the pernicious doctrines of Bolshevism, and is certainly the most powerful course..." In 1927, the University of Hong Kong established a Chinese department which helped form the Chinese curriculum to be used in Hong Kong schools. The conservative Chinese curriculum was reaffirmed in the 1950s when the colonial government appropriated Chinese traditionalism to counter Communist influences. ==Post-war period== ===Utilitarian familism=== Post-war Hong Kong saw an influx of refugees fleeing from the Chinese Communist Revolution. The resulting abundance of cheap labour contributed to Hong Kong's graduation to an advanced, high-income economy sustaining growth rates (in excess of 7 percent a year). Hong Kong industrialised rapidly from the mid-1950s to the 1990s when Hong Kong was dubbed one of the "Four Asian Tigers". To explain the "economic miracle", sociologist Lau Siu-kai deployed the concept of "utilitarian familism", which summarises the general attitudinal orientations that were manifest in the post-war Chinese immigrants whose materialism made them the ideal economic beings. For them, the utilitarian impulse was preceded by their attachment to traditional Chinese familistic values. The pre- conditional "minimally-integrated socio-political system" in the post-war colony where the polity and the society are seen as mutually secluded and the Hong Kong people were allegedly more interested in family than in politics, turning always to their familial relatives for help, instead of making demands on the government. ===Positive non-interventionism=== Fiscal conservatism is thought to have contributed to Hong Kong's 20th century economic success. In 1971, Financial Secretary John Cowperthwaite coined the term "positive non- interventionism", espousing low levels of government intervention and taxation, while at the same time providing regulatory and physical infrastructure designed to facilitate market-based decision making. The policy was continued by subsequent Financial Secretaries, including Sir Philip Haddon-Cave, who said that "positive non-interventionism involves taking the view that it is normally futile and damaging to the growth rate of an economy, particularly an open economy, for the Government to attempt to plan the allocation of resources available to the private sector and to frustrate the operation of market forces," although he stated that the description of Hong Kong as a laissez-faire society was "frequent but inadequate". Milton Friedman wrote in 1990 that the Hong Kong economy was perhaps the best example of a free market economy. Shortly before his death in 2006, The Wall Street Journal published his "Hong Kong Wrong – What would Cowperthwaite say?" which criticised then Chief Executive Donald Tsang for having abandoned "positive non-interventionism" by defining "small government" as less than 20 per cent of GDP. Fiscal conservatism has remained the dominant economic philosophy in Hong Kong throughout its history, enjoying different labels including "consensus capitalism" (Financial Secretary Hamish Macleod, 1991–95), "minimum intervention, maximum support" (Donald Tsang) and "proactive market enabler" (Antony Leung, early 2000s). The basic principle of fiscal conservatism was followed by Financial Secretary John Tsang from 2007 to 2017. ===Anti- communism=== The mainland refugees in Hong Kong also consisted a sizeable number of the right-wing Nationalist (Kuomintang) soldiers and supporters, in which most of them held a strong anti-communist sentiment. In the 1950s and 60s, the Hong Kong society was divided into the pro-Communist left-wing and pro-Nationalist right-wing rivalry. In 1956, the Hong Kong local Kuomintang supporters attacked the Communists in Hong Kong which became the Hong Kong 1956 riots. 59 people were killed and 740 had been arrested, mainly for rioting and looting. Conservative rural leaders, business elites, film production companies including the Shaw Brothers and Cathay Studios and the media, including Chinese newspapers Sing Tao Daily, Wah Kiu Yat Po and Kung Sheung Daily News and English newspaper South China Morning Post, also largely supported the British colonial government or the Kuomintang government in Taiwan until the 1980s. They joined hand in condemning the Hong Kong 1967 Leftist riots instigated by the pro-Communist elements in the colony. The New Asia College which was established in 1949 by a group of anti-communist mainland scholars including Ch'ien Mu and Tang Chun-i also attempted the promote the Confucian teachings and Chinese traditional values. The New Asia College was later incorporated into the Chinese University of Hong Kong in 1963. The Nationalist–Communist rivalry was also part of the broader picture of the Cold War. Besides funding the conservative Chinese cultural institutions such as the New Asia College and the Yale-China Association, the United States also encouraged and took advantage of the anti-Communist activities of the Kuomintang. During the 1950s, the Third Force was created by the Central Intelligence Agency as an anti-communist movement of Chinese, which posed a problem for the British authorities, who although ideologically aligned with the United States to keep Hong Kong non-Communist, had officially recognised the Chinese Communist regime in 1950 and were highly sensitive about provoking Beijing. ==Run up to 1997== ===The 1980s: Rise of conservative bloc=== As the Sino-British negotiation for the Hong Kong sovereignty after 1997 began in the early 1980s, the business elites sought the way to maintain the status quo of Hong Kong. They initially supported the British Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's efforts in insisting the validity of the Treaty of Nanking of 1842. However, Deng Xiaoping, the Chinese paramount leader insisted in restoring sovereignty in Hong Kong in 1997, but guaranteed the "capitalist system and way of life shall remain unchanged for 50 years," which was later written in the Article 5 of the Hong Kong Basic Law.Wong, Yiu- chung. [2004] (2004). One Country, Two Systems in Crisis: Hong Kong's Transformation. Lexington Books. Hong Kong. . Besides its "Old Left" Beijing loyalists in the colony which were represented by the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (HKFTU), the Communist authorities in Beijing also actively ally with the business elites, professionals and rural leaders, who were used to be seen as pro-Nationalists, as part of their "United Front" strategy. Many tycoons and professionals were appointed to various bodies such as the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee (BLDC) and Basic Law Consultative Committee (BLCC) to draft the future mini-constitution of Hong Kong. In the wake of the rise of the liberal lobby which demanded a faster democratisation, the conservative bloc formed the Business and Professional Group of the Basic Law Consultative Committee and the Group of 89 led by tycoon Vincent Lo in 1986 to counter the liberal movement. The business elites were concerned about the potential tax increases which might have been introduced by a democratic legislature to fund an expansion of the social budget, fiscal conservatism became an integral feature of the Basic Law, which writes the SAR "shall follow the principle of keeping the expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget, and strive to achieve a fiscal balance, avoid deficits and keep the budget commensurate with the growth rate of its gross domestic product" as written in Article 107, reflecting Beijing's and business bloc's interest in having a politically and economically conservative Hong Kong. The business and professional bloc favoured close limited on the franchise, the retention of an elite system of the government, the avoidance of party politics, and the maintenance of an independent judiciary. The group proposed a conservative constitution of electing the Chief Executive and Legislative Council after 1997, a legislature with no more than 25 per cent elected seats and chief executive elected by a 600-member electoral college, in contrary to the more progressive proposal of the pro-democratic members of the Consultative Committee. After the Tiananmen Square crackdown in 1989, the Group of 89 softened its stance slightly with respect to direct elections and reopened negotiations with the pro-democracy camp which led to the outcome of the "compromise model". However the compromise model divided the group between the one who favoured compromise and the ones who favoured the pro-Beijing model put forward by the New Hong Kong Alliance (NHKA). ===The 1990s=== ====Resistance to the liberal surge==== In the light of the first ever Legislative Council direct election, the conservatives in the BLDC and BLCC formed several organisations. The Business and Professionals Federation of Hong Kong (BPF) headed by Vincent Lo was formed in 1990. The Liberal Democratic Federation of Hong Kong (LDF) led by Hu Fa-kuang and Maria Tam was formed in November 1990 with the support of the grassroots organisations Progressive Hong Kong Society (PHKS) and the Hong Kong Civic Association (HKCA). The LDF actively participated in the 1991 three-tier elections but was defeated in the liberal landslide led by the United Democrats of Hong Kong (UDHK) and Meeting Point (MP) alliance. The New Hong Kong Alliance led by Lo Tak-shing was formed in 1989 by the conservative wing of the BLDC and BLCC group. To curb the rise of the liberal force in the legislature, 21 appointed and indirectly elected Legislative Council members from the functional constituencies founded the Co-operative Resources Centre (CRC) led by Senior Unofficial Member of the Executive and Legislative Councils Allen Lee, which transformed into the Liberal Party in 1993. About the same time, the traditional leftists, which were now considered to be conservative, also formed in the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) led by Tsang Yok-sing in 1992. The business elites, professionals, and rural leaders also further grouped themselves in the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance (HKPA) headed by Ambrose Lau in 1994 under the direction of the New China News Agency (NCNA). The conservatives strongly opposed the constitutional reform package by last Governor Chris Patten which would faster the pace of democratisation. The Liberal Party lobbied against the bill as orchestrated by Beijing behind the scene, which saw the Patten bill as the "triple violations" of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Sino-British agreements. The bill was at last narrowly passed with the help of the pro-democracy camp. In response to the 1995 fully elected legislature, the Beijing government set up the Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) with conservative majority. ====Consensus capitalism and caring capitalism==== Hamish Macleod, Financial Secretary of Hong Kong between 1991 and 95, coined the term "consensus capitalism", suggesting that the community had reached a consensus on the merits of Hong Kong's brand of capitalism, which was to "encourage free enterprise and competition, while promoting equity and assistance for those who need it......because the community righty expects a fair deal for everyone, and in particular that raw competition be tempered by help for those less able to compete." To Macleod, capitalism "provides the greater likelihood of maximising economic performance and defending political liberty while securing something approaching equality of opportunity." Donald Tsang, Macleod's successor as Financial Secretary also coined the term "caring capitalism" in 1996, which describe the governments's approach of giving priority to economic growth and then using the new-found wealth to develop social infrastructure and welfare services. ==Early handover period== ===Tung administration=== Since the handover of Hong Kong, the conservatives have been dominated the executive and legislature with the help of the Election Committee and the trade-based functional constituencies with limited electorates respectively. The pro-business economic liberal Liberal Party and the Chinese nationalist Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB) were the two major parties vis-a-vis the pro-democratic Democratic Party in the Legislative Council in the first decades after the handover. The Liberals and the DAB were invited to the government coalition by the first Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa as he appointed the two party chairmen, Liberal's James Tien and DAB's Tsang Yok-sing into the Executive Council in 2002 under the new Principal Officials Accountability System. The Tung administration was characterised by Confucian paternalist values and conservative governance, as well as the civil service which was conservative in its outlook. The 1997 Asian financial crisis forced the SAR government to take a more active role in the economic policies. In 2002, Financial Secretary Antony Leung redefined the overall policy as "big market, small government" and that the government should be a "proactive market enabler" who took "appropriate measures to secure projects beneficial to economy as a whole when the private sector is not ready." In 2004, Financial Secretary Henry Tang coined another new term of "market leads, government facilitates." The continuing economic recession, the SARS epidemic and the controversial Basic Law Article 23 national security legislation drew the largest anti-government protest on 1 July 2003. James Tien subsequently resigned from the Executive Council in opposition to the legislation which forced the government to shelve the bill. In the following November District Council election, the DAB suffered a great defeat which led to the resignation of Tsang Yok-sing as the party chairman. On the other hand, Liberals received a great victory by winning two geographical constituencies directly elected seats in the 2004 Legislative Council election. ===Tsang administration=== In March 2005, Tung resigned as Chief Executive for health reasons, and was succeeded by Chief Secretary for Administration Donald Tsang who was a civil servant for nearly forty years. By co-opting supporters and some pro-democracy elites into the Strategic Development Commission, Tsang portrayed himself as the master of social and political harmony. In December, the Tsang administration's constitutional reform blueprint proposed the Election Committee selecting the Chief Executive be widened from 800 to 1,600 members in 2007 and empowered directly elected and appointed District Council members to elect six of the expanded 70-member Legislative Council in 2008. The bill was ultimately defeated by the pan-democracy camp as they argued the Tsang's reform blueprint was too conservative while the conservatives accused the liberals of being obstinate. In 2006, Tsang proclaimed that "positive non-interventionism" was "past tense" for Hong Kong, which the role of the government was to "facilitate what the market does." Tsang's statement drew criticism locally and internationally, notably from economic philosopher Nobel Laureates Milton Friedman who had highly praised Hong Kong's free market economy, Edmund Phelps and a famous economist from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Friedman published the article "Hong Kong wrong" on The Wall Street Journal in October 2006 shortly before he died, criticising Tsang for abandoning positive non- interventionism. The Heritage Foundation, a conservative Washington think tank, formally removed Hong Kong's designation as a bastion of economic freedom. Tsang later vowed his government's commitment to "small government". In the 2007 Chief Executive election, Tsang faced challenged from a liberal candidate, Civic Party legislator Alan Leong. With the conservative dominance of the Election Committee, Tsang defeated Leong 649 to 123 votes. In the constitutional reform package in 2010, the Tsang government reached a breakthrough with the pro-democratic Democratic Party after the Democrats reached an agreement with the Beijing representatives to pass the modified reform package. ===Leung administration=== More than one conservative candidates ran in the 2012 Chief Executive election. Chief Secretary Henry Tang who was supported by the major business elites and Liberal Party and Convenor of the Executive Council Leung Chun-ying who was seen as the underdog and ran a more pro-grassroots agenda contested against each other. Although Leung eventually became the favourite of Beijing and won the election with the support of the Central Government Liaison Office, the election divided the conservative bloc into a Tang camp and a Leung camp. After the election, Beijing called for a reconciliation of the two camps. Leung Chun-ying administration was unable to unite the conservative bloc. The Liberal Party, which suffered a great split after the 2008 Legislative Council electoral defeat has openly criticised Leung. Liberal leader James Tien was ejected from the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) after he called on Chief Executive CY Leung to resign during the 2014 Hong Kong protests.James Tien faces CPPCC expulsion, RTHK, 28 October 2014 Economic Synergy, the breakaway group from the Liberals, formed the Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (BPA) with the Professional Forum legislators in 2012, while Regina Ip, former Secretary for Security who was in charge of the Article 23 legislation in 2003 formed in the New People's Party (NPP) in 2011. Together with DAB and FTU, the BPA and NPP formed a loose pro-government coalition. In 2014, the conservative constitutional reform proposals and National People's Congress Standing Committee's (NPCSC) restriction on the nomination process of the Chief Executive also triggered the 79-day occupy movement, as proposed by the pro-democracy group Occupy Central with Love and Peace. To counter the occupy movement, the conservative activists led by former radio host Robert Chow also formed the Alliance for Peace and Democracy to launch signature campaigns to oppose the occupy movement. By the time, many pro-government activist groups began to emerge such as Voice of Loving Hong Kong, Caring Hong Kong Power and Hong Kong Youth Care Association, often with ultra-patriotic and militant rhetorics. ===Lam administration=== After Leung surprisingly declared he would not seek for re-election, Chief Secretary Carrie Lam and Financial Secretary John Tsang became the main candidates in the 2017 Chief Executive election. Tsang who was seen as ultraconservative on his fiscal policy was challenged by Lam's call for a "new fiscal philosophy" to adopt more proactive approach in investing for Hong Kong and relieving people's burdens with the record-breaking fiscal surplus. However, Lam was seen more politically conservative and was labelled as "CY 2.0" who would follow Leung's hardline and divisive policies, as compared to Tsang who called for reconciliation with the opposition camp. The pro-democrats supported Tsang as they saw Tsang as the "lesser evil" of the two. As a result, Lam won in the election with the alleged support of the Liaison Office. ==National security law and autocratisation== Since the ascendance of Xi Jinping to the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012 and re-elected to the party leader in 2017, Hong Kong was increasingly facing Beijing's grip on its high autonomy. In 2014 in the midst of the constitutional reform debate and the Occupy Central movement, the Information Office of the State Council published a white paper titled The Practice of the 'One Country, Two Systems' Policy in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, written by Chinese conservative legal theorist Jiang Shigong formerly working at the Beijing's Liaison Office in Hong Kong, raised concerns among the Hong Kong public. The paper asserts its "comprehensive jurisdiction" over the territory. "The high degree of autonomy of the HKSAR [Hong Kong Special Administrative Region] is not full autonomy, nor a decentralised power," it says. "It is the power to run local affairs as authorised by the central leadership." It also stresses that "loving the country is the basic principle for Hong Kong's administrators," who also have a responsibility to safeguard "the country's sovereignty, security and development interests and [to ensure] the long-term prosperity and stability of Hong Kong." It also asserts the necessity "to stay alert to the attempt of outside forces to use Hong Kong to interfere China's domestic affairs, and prevent and repel the attempt made by a very small number of people who act in collusion with outside forces to interfere with the implementation of 'one country, two systems' in Hong Kong." In the following years, the kidnappings of the Causeway Bay Books staffs who published books critical of Xi Jinping and the Communist Party and the abduction of a Hong Kong-residing Chinese billionaire Xiao Jianhua raised alarm of the increasingly blur border between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2019, Chief Executive Carrie Lam push for the extradition bill which would establish a mechanism for transfers of fugitives between Hong Kong and Mainland China, which raised concerns among various sectors of Hong Kong which feared it would further erosion of Hong Kong's separate legal system and its built-in safeguards for civil liberties, as well as damage to Hong Kong's business climate. The opposition to the bill turned into an unprecedented city-wide protests throughout the latter half of 2019, in which the SAR government responded with heavy-handed crackdown. In June 2020, the National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) installed the national security law on Hong Kong unilaterally which criminalised "separatism, subversion, terrorism and foreign interference", which many interpreted as a crackdown on civil liberties, government critics, and the independence movement. Under the law, a National Security Division of the Hong Kong Police Force would be given an enormous power and Office for Safeguarding National Security would be exempt from Hong Kong jurisdiction. The law also allow some cases to be transferred to the Chinese courts. Various national governments expressed concern that the Chinese plans would undermine Hong Kong autonomy and the "One Country, Two Systems" policy and cancelled their extradition treaties with Hong Kong. In response, United States President Donald Trump declared that the administrative principle of "One country, Two systems" was no longer in effect, and terminated Hong Kong's special trade status with the United States under Executive Order 13936. Numerous Hong Kong and Mainland officials including Chief Executive Carrie Lam were sanctioned by the United States for "undermining the autonomy of Hong Kong." U.S. conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation also dropped Hong Kong from its annual "Index of Economic Freedom" in which Hong Kong had topped the list for a quarter century in 2021, explaining that it "measures economic freedom only in independent countries where governments exercise sovereign control of economic policies." Western observers attributed the shift of Beijing's policies toward Hong Kong to a new group of Chinese "statist" legal scholars who subscribed to an expansive view of state authority to ensure "stability overrides all else" which was inspired by conservative Nazi German legal theorist Carl Schmitt who served as Adolf Hitler's "crown jurist". Chen Duanhong, a law professor at Peking University, directly cited Schmitt in defense of the national security law in 2018, arguing that the state had the right to suspend constitutional norms, especially provisions for civil rights, "when the state is in dire peril." has made a similar case. Jiang Shigong also employed Schmitt's ideas extensively in his 2010 book China's Hong Kong to resolve tensions between sovereignty and the rule of law in favour of the Chinese Communist Party and provided rationale for the autocratisation in Hong Kong. ==Conservative localism== A strain of conservatism was found in the emerging localist movement in the early 2010s aiming at preserving the distinct cultural identity from Beijing's growing encroachment of Hong Kong people's way of life and civil liberties. In 2011, Chin Wan, an assistant professor in the Lingnan University's Chinese department published the book, On the Hong Kong City-State in 2011 which triggered fierce public debate and was popular among the young generation. In the book, Chin pointed out the potential threat of the influx of mainland tourists and immigrants to the established institutions and social customs of Hong Kong, which he considered likely part of a colonisation scheme by Beijing, including the increasing use of Mandarin Chinese and Simplified Chinese in daily use and in schools. As a cultural traditionalist, Chin cited British colonial governor Cecil Clementi's fostering of local traditional culture in the 1920s, arguing that, thanks to British colonialism, "Hong Kong's culture today is both more modern and more authentically Chinese — or more rooted in ancient traditions — than the culture of mainland China," where orthodox religious customs and traditional written Chinese were abandoned under the Communist regime. Chin saw Hong Kong as the true claimant of the traditional Chinese culture and saw the Hong Kong–Chinese cultural distinction as the Confucian notion of Hua–Yi distinction (civilised–uncivilised dichotomy). At the time, such tendency of culturalist localism often mixed with anti-mainland and anti-immigrant sentiments and was condemned as "xenophobic" and "nativist" by pro-Beijing activists and the government. On the basis of Chin's school of thought, he founded the Hong Kong Resurgence Order with a manifesto aiming to "restore the ancient Chinese civilisation". Some localist groups such as the Hong Kong Indigenous took up some of Chin's conversationist ideas for their movement of defending Hong Kong's cultural identity against the influx of Mainland parallel traders which largely disrupted the local neighbourhoods in Hong Kong, as well as Beijing's increasing encroachment on Hong Kong's autonomy and their ways of life. They even launched several "liberate campaigns" against the Mainland elements in the communities. Some other small political groups including the Conservative Party which favoured the return of Hong Kong to become a British Overseas Territory were also set up. ==List of conservative parties== ===New Hong Kong Alliance=== * 1989: Formation of the New Hong Kong Alliance * 1999: The party was dissolved ===Liberal Democratic Federation of Hong Kong=== * 1990: Formation of the Liberal Democratic Federation of Hong Kong * 1993: Members of the group joined the ⇒ Liberal Party * 1997: The party merged into the ⇒ Hong Kong Progressive Alliance ===Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong=== * 1990: Formation of the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong * 2005: The Hong Kong Progressive Alliance merged into the ⇒ Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong ===Breakfast Group to Professional Forum=== * 1991: Formation of the Breakfast Group * 2004: The group regroup into ⇒ the Alliance * 2008: The group regroup into ⇒ Professional Forum * 2012: The group merged into ⇒ Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong ===Liberal Party=== * 1993: Formation of the Liberal Party * 2008: Some members left and formed the ⇒ Economic Synergy ===Hong Kong Progressive Alliance=== * 1994: Formation of the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance * 1997: The Liberal Democratic Federation of Hong Kong merged into the ⇒ Hong Kong Progressive Alliance * 2005: The party merged into the ⇒ Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong ===Economic Synergy=== * 2009: Formation of the Economic Synergy * 2012: The group merged into ⇒ Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong ===New People's Party=== * 2011: Formation of the New People's Party * 2014: Civil Force entered alliance with the ⇒ New People's Party * 2017: Michael Tien left the party and formed ⇒ Roundtable ===Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong=== * 2012: Formation of the Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong ==Conservative figures and organisations== Politicians and office holders * David Akers-Jones * Selina Chow * Chung Sze-yuen * Cecil Clementi * John Cowperthwaite * Rita Fan * Alexander Grantham * Philip Haddon-Cave * Hu Fa-kuang * Regina Ip * Carrie Lam * Jeffrey Lam * Ambrose Lau * Lau Nai-keung * Lau Wong-fat * Allen Lee * Starry Lee * Andrew Leung * Antony Leung * Leung Chun-ying * Lo Tak-shing * Vincent Lo * Hamish Macleod * Shiu Sin-por * Maria Tam * Tam Yiu-chung * Henry Tang * James Tien * Donald Tsang * John Tsang * Tsang Yok-sing * Tung Chee-hwa * David Wilson Intellectuals, writers and activists * Ch'ien Mu * Chin Wan * Robert Chow * Lau Siu-kai * Tang Chun-i Think-tanks * Business and Professionals Federation of Hong Kong * Hong Kong Research Association * The Lion Rock Institute * One Country Two Systems Research Institute * Savantas Policy Institute Magazines and media * ATV * Hong Kong Economic Times * Oriental Daily * South China Morning Post * Sing Tao Daily * The Sun * TVB Media personalities, radio hosts, and bloggers * Clifton Ko * Run Run Shaw * Chip Tsao * Wong Jing Organisations * Alliance for Peace and Democracy * Caring Hong Kong Power * Chinese General Chamber of Commerce * Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong * Employers' Federation of Hong Kong * Federation of Hong Kong Industries * Heung Yee Kuk * Hong Kong Chinese Enterprises Association * Hong Kong Chinese Importers' and Exporters' Association * Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce * Hong Kong Youth Care Association * Real Estate Developers Association of Hong Kong * Silent Majority for Hong Kong * Voice of Loving Hong Kong Jurists * Andrew Chan * Henry Litton * Wally Yeung ==See also== * Asian values * Economy of Hong Kong ===Other ideologies in Hong Kong=== * Liberalism in Hong Kong * Localism in Hong Kong * Socialism in Hong Kong * United front in Hong Kong ==References== Category:Economy of Hong Kong Category:Political history of Hong Kong
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McPherson () is a city in and the county seat of McPherson County, Kansas, United States. As of the 2020 census, the population of the city was 14,082. The city is named after Union General James Birdseye McPherson, a Civil War general. It is home to McPherson College and Central Christian College. ==History== ===19th century=== For millennia, the land now known as Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. In 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state. In 1867, McPherson County was founded. McPherson was founded in 1872 by the twelve members of the McPherson Town Company. In 1887, city officials began a failed attempt to have the community named the state capital. The first post office in McPherson was established in 1873. McPherson was incorporated as a city in 1874. As early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.Marion County Kansas : Past and Present; Sondra Van Meter; MB Publishing House; LCCN 72-92041; 344 pages; 1972. In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson. In 1880 it was extended to Lyons and in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, Ellinwood. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a main line from Herington through McPherson to Pratt. In 1888, this line was extended to Liberal. Later, it was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. It foreclosed in 1891 and taken over by Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, which shut down in 1980 and reorganized as Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas Railroad, merged in 1988 with Missouri Pacific Railroad, merged in 1997 with Union Pacific Railroad. Most locals still refer to this railroad as the "Rock Island". By 1888, the community was at the junction of four railroad lines. Major industries have included a large flour mill, an insurance company headquarters, and an oil refinery. ===20th century=== thumb|left|McPherson Union Hotel, 1907 postcard The National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway and McPherson. In the 1930s, the local refinery sponsored the McPherson Globe Refiners basketball team (AAU). They were coached by Gene Johnson, former head coach of Wichita University (now Wichita State University). The Refiners were best known for their tall centers, Joe Fortenberry (6-8) and Willard Schmidt (6-9) and their fast-break style of play. Billed as "The Tallest Team in the World", the Refiners often held their opponents to low scores because of the centers' ability to deflect shots on the way to the basket in what today would be called goaltending. Coach Johnson was one of the innovators of the fast break and full-court press. The Refiners won the AAU national championship in 1936 against the Hollywood Universal team. This earned them the right to compete for the first ever USA Olympic basketball team in 1936. Hollywood Universal narrowly beat the Refiners at Madison Square Garden and the USA team was composed of both Universal and Refiners players and one college student. Coach Johnson was selected to be the assistant coach. After a long journey by boat to Europe, the team played in alternating squads at the Olympics. The Refiners' portion of the team took the court to defeat Canada 19–8 in the gold medal game on August 14, 1936 at the Summer Olympics. The Refiners' home court is now the McPherson Community Building at 121 East Marlin and can be toured by contacting the local Convention and Visitors Bureau. A mural in honor of the Refiners was completed in 2010 at the intersection of Kansas and Ash, south of their home court in preparation for the 75th anniversary celebration of their victory in 2011. ==Geography== McPherson is located at (38.371923, −97.662177). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The community is located on U.S. Route 56, just west of Interstate 135. McPherson is part of the Little Arkansas River Watershed that ultimately empties into the Arkansas River in Wichita. Dry Turkey Creek is a wet weather stream that composes several enhanced lakes within the city limits. It feeds the Lakeside Park Lagoon before crossing under East Euclid Street and Kansas Avenue, where it then forms Wall Park Lake. South and west of town are four units of the reclaimed McPherson Valley Wetlands, acquired and managed by Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Ducks Unlimited, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Prior to 1880, this natural wetlands was an important waterfowl and wildlife habitat second only to Cheyenne Bottoms in importance to migratory bird populations. These wetlands continue to see improvement and development. ===Climate=== The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, McPherson has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. ==Area events== * Scottish Festival & Highland Games were held on the fourth weekend of September of each year. They are discontinued as of 2017. ==Demographics== thumb|right|McPherson Opera House (2004) === 2020 census === As of the 2020 census, there were 14,082 people, and 6,011 households in the city. The population density was 1,891.7 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 92.7% White (11,970 people), 1.9% African American (322), 0.2% Native American (116), 1.4% Asian (182), 0.0% Pacific Islander (8), and 3.6% from two or more races (1,035).Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 6.2% (1,053) of the population. The ancestry of McPherson in 2020 was, 29.3% German, 9.2% English, 6.4% Irish, 3.2% French, 2.8% Scottish, 1.1% Italian, 0.5% Norwegian, 0.5% Polish, and 0.1% Sub Saharan African. 21.0% of the population were under 18, and 5.0% were under 5. 15.9% of the population were over 56, with 8.2% between 65 and 74, 4.4% between 75 and 84, and 3.3% being older than 85. The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% female and 51.7% male. The median household income was $59,610, families had $75,666, married couples had $83,275, and non-families had $35,127. The per capita income was $31,971. 11.9% of people were in poverty, with 8.7% of people under 18 being in poverty, 13.5% of people 18 to 64 were in poverty, and 9.9% of people over 65 were in poverty. ===2010 census=== As of the census of 2010, there were 13,155 people, 5,521 households, and 3,534 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 5,952 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.2% White, 1.5% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.8% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.8% of the population. There were 5,521 households, of which 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.5% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.0% were non-families. 30.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.94. The median age in the city was 38.5 years. 24.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.5% were from 45 to 64; and 16.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.4% male and 50.6% female. ===2000 census=== As of the census of 2000, there were 13,770 people, 5,378 households, and 3,651 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 5,658 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.11% White, 1.31% African American, 0.36% Native American, 0.41% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 1.21% from other races, and 1.50% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.92% of the population. There were 5,378 households, out of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.7% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.1% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.97. In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.6% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $40,469, and the median income for a family was $48,882. Males had a median income of $33,831 versus $20,633 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,716. About 5.1% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.8% of those under age 18 and 9.4% of those age 65 or over. ==Education== ===Higher education=== McPherson College and Central Christian College are located in McPherson. ===Primary and secondary education=== The community is served by McPherson USD 418 public school district. USD 418 has an Early Childhood center, four elementary schools (Eisenhower, Lincoln, Rosevelt, Washington), McPherson Middle School and McPherson High School. McPherson's mascot is the Bullpups.Kansas School District Boundary Map Additionally, private school options are available at St. Joseph Catholic Church & School, serving students through sixth grade.St. Joseph Catholic School McPherson, Kansas ==Transportation== McPherson was located on the National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, that was established in 1912. Bus service is provided daily towards Wichita and Salina by BeeLine Express (subcontractor of Greyhound Lines). ==Media== ===Print=== McPherson has a daily newspaper, The McPherson Sentinel. and a weekly newspaper, The McPherson Weekly News, ===Radio=== The following radio stations are licensed to McPherson: AM Frequency Callsign Format Notes 1540 KNGL Talk FM Frequency Callsign Format Notes 88.7 K204CR Christian Translator of KYFW- FM, Wichita, Kansas 96.7 KMPK Adult Contemporary 107.7 K299AR Contemporary Christian Translator of KJIL-FM, Herington, Kansas ==Notable people== * Anna Larkin, folk sculptor, lived in McPherson for many years until her death. *V. John Krehbiel, Ambassador to Finland * George Magerkurth, Major League Baseball umpire, born in McPherson. * Brad Underwood, basketball coach at University of Illinois, McPherson native. * Sue Raney, jazz singer ==See also== * List of people from McPherson County, Kansas * National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas * Santa Fe Trail * National Old Trails Road * Threshing Stone * List of oil pipelines * List of oil refineries ==References== ==Further reading== * McPherson, Kansas: Past and Present, Progress and Prosperity; Freeman Publishing Co. * McPherson at Fifty - A Kansas Community in 1920s; Raymond L. Flory; McPherson College; 1970. * Diamond Jubilee McPherson, 1872-1947: Pioneer Days in McPherson; Jessie Hill Rowland; 1947. * A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922. * Major General James B. McPherson Monument Unveiling; Alex S. Hendry; 1917. * Our Railroad; McPherson Independent; September 25, 1879. ==External links== * * McPherson - Directory of Public Officials, League of Kansas Municipalities * McPherson – Chamber of Commerce * Historic Images of McPherson, Special Photo Collections at Wichita State University Library * , from Hatteberg's People on KAKE TV news * McPherson city map, KDOT Category:Cities in Kansas Category:County seats in Kansas Category:Cities in McPherson County, Kansas Category:Micropolitan areas of Kansas Category:Populated places established in 1872 Category:1872 establishments in Kansas
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The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age Aegean civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean Islands, whose earliest beginnings date to 3500BC, with the complex urban civilization beginning around 2000BC, and then declining from 1450BC until it ended around 1100BC, during the early Greek Dark Ages, part of a wider bronze age collapse around the Mediterranean. It represents the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind a number of massive building complexes, sophisticated art, and writing systems. Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of the Mediterranean. The civilization was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. The name "Minoan" derives from the mythical King Minos and was coined by Evans, who identified the site at Knossos with the labyrinth of the Minotaur. The Minoan civilization has been described as the earliest of its kind in Europe, and historian Will Durant called the Minoans "the first link in the European chain". The Minoans built large and elaborate palaces up to four stories high, featuring elaborate plumbing systems and decorated with frescoes. The largest Minoan palace is that of Knossos, followed by that of Phaistos. The function of the palaces, like most aspects of Minoan governance and religion, remains unclear. The Minoan period saw extensive trade by Crete with Aegean and Mediterranean settlements, particularly those in the Near East. Through traders and artists, Minoan cultural influence reached beyond Crete to the Cyclades, the Old Kingdom of Egypt, copper-bearing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast and Anatolia. Some of the best Minoan art was preserved in the city of Akrotiri on the island of Santorini; Akrotiri had been effectively destroyed by the Minoan eruption. The Minoans primarily wrote in the Linear A script and also in Cretan hieroglyphs, encoding a language hypothetically labelled Minoan. The reasons for the slow decline of the Minoan civilization, beginning around 1550BC, are unclear; theories include Mycenaean invasions from mainland Greece and the major volcanic eruption of Santorini. ==Etymology== The term "Minoan" refers to the mythical King Minos of Knossos, a figure in Greek mythology associated with Theseus, the labyrinth and the Minotaur. It is purely a modern term with a 19th-century origin. It is commonly attributed to the British archaeologist Arthur Evans,John Bennet, "Minoan civilization", Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., p. 985. who established it as the accepted term in both archaeology and popular usage. But Karl Hoeck had already used the title Das Minoische Kreta in 1825 for volume two of his Kreta; this appears to be the first known use of the word "Minoan" to mean "ancient Cretan". Evans probably read Hoeck's book and continued using the term in his writings and findings: "To this early civilization of Crete as a whole I have proposed—and the suggestion has been generally adopted by the archaeologists of this and other countries—to apply the name 'Minoan'.". Evans said that he applied it, not invented it. Hoeck, with no idea that the archaeological Crete had existed, had in mind the Crete of mythology. Although Evans' 1931 claim that the term was "unminted" before he used it was called a "brazen suggestion" by Karadimas and Momigliano, he coined its archaeological meaning. ==Chronology and history== 3500–2900BCThis chronology of Minoan Crete is (with minor simplifications) the one used by Andonis Vasilakis in his book on Minoan Crete (see references), but other chronologies will vary, sometimes quite considerably (EM periods especially). Sets of different dates from other authors are set out at Minoan chronology. The adjustments made were: Source: "Early Minoan III, Middle Minoan IA 2300–1900BCE", "Middle Minoan IIB, IIIA 1750–1650BCE" – in both cases the run-together periods have been split equally. EMI Prepalatial 2900–2300BC EMII 2300–2100BC EMIII 2100–1900BC MMIA 1900–1800BC MMIB Protopalatial (Old Palace Period) 1800–1750BC MMIIA 1750–1700BC MMIIB Neopalatial (New Palace Period) 1700–1650BC MMIIIA 1650–1600BC MMIIIB 1600–1500BC LMIA 1500–1450BC LMIB Postpalatial (at Knossos; Final Palace Period) 1450–1400BC LMII 1400–1350BC LMIIIA 1350–1100BC LMIIIB Instead of dating the Minoan period, archaeologists use two systems of relative chronology. The first, created by Evans and modified by later archaeologists, is based on pottery styles and imported Egyptian artifacts (which can be correlated with the Egyptian chronology). Evans' system divides the Minoan period into three major eras: early (EM), middle (MM) and late (LM). These eras are subdivided—for example, Early Minoan I, II and III (EMI, EMII, EMIII). Another dating system, proposed by Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Platon, is based on the development of architectural complexes known as "palaces" at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Zakros. Platon divides the Minoan period into pre-, proto-, neo- and post-palatial sub-periods. The relationship between the systems in the table includes approximate calendar dates from Warren and Hankey (1989). The Minoan eruption of Thera occurred during a mature phase of the LM IA period. Efforts to establish the volcanic eruption's date have been controversial. Radiocarbon dating has indicated a date in the late 17th centuryBC; this conflicts with estimates by archaeologists, who synchronize the eruption with conventional Egyptian chronology for a date of 1525–1500BC. Tree-ring dating using the patterns of carbon-14 captured in the tree rings from Gordion and bristlecone pines in North America indicate an eruption date around 1560BC.Phys.org, Tree rings could pin down Thera volcano eruption date, March 30, 2020 ===Overview=== Although stone-tool evidence suggests that hominins may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically modern human presence dates to 10,000–12,000 YBP.Wilford, J.N., "On Crete, New Evidence of Very Ancient Mariners", The New York Times, Feb 2010Bowner, B., "Hominids Went Out of Africa on Rafts", Wired, Jan 2010 The oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete is pre-ceramic Neolithic farming-community remains which date to about 7000BC. A comparative study of DNA haplogroups of modern Cretan men showed that a male founder group, from Anatolia or the Levant, is shared with the Greeks.R.J. King, S.S. Ozcan et al., "Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic" The Neolithic population lived in open villages. Fishermen's huts were found on the shores, and the fertile Messara Plain was used for agriculture.Hermann Bengtson: Griechische Geschichte, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. 9th Edition. . pp. 8–15 ====Early Minoan==== The Bronze Age began on Crete around 3200BC. The Early Bronze Age (3500 to 2100BC) has been described as indicating a "promise of greatness" in light of later developments on the island.Hermann Kinder & Werner Hilgemann, Anchor Atlas of World History, (Anchor Press: New York, 1974) p. 33. In the late third millenniumBC, several locations on the island developed into centers of commerce and handiwork, enabling the upper classes to exercise leadership and expand their influence. It is possible that the original hierarchies of the local elites were replaced by monarchies, a precondition for the palaces.Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Die Griechische Frühzeit, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. . pp. 12–18 Pottery typical of the Korakou culture was discovered in Crete from the Early Minoan Period. ====Middle Minoan==== The Minoan palaces began to be constructed during this period of prosperity and stability, during which the Early Minoan culture turned into a "civilization". At the end of the MMII period (1700BC) there was a large disturbance on Crete—probably an earthquake, but possibly an invasion from Anatolia. The palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros were destroyed. At the beginning of the neopalatial period the population increased again,All estimates have been revised downward by Todd Whitelaw, "Estimating the Population of Neopalatial Knossos," in G. Cadogan, E. Hatzaki, and A. Vasilakis (eds.), Knossos: Palace, City, State (British School at Athens Studies 12) (London 2004); at Moschlos in eastern Crete, the population expansion was at the end of the Neoplalatial period (Jeffrey S. Soles and Davaras, Moschlos IA 2002: Preface p. xvii). the palaces were rebuilt on a larger scale and new settlements were built across the island. This period (the 17th and 16th centuriesBC, MM III-Neopalatial) was the apex of Minoan civilization. After around 1700BC, material culture on the Greek mainland reached a new high due to Minoan influence. ====Late Minoan==== Another natural catastrophe occurred around 1600BC, possibly an eruption of the Thera volcano. The Minoans rebuilt the palaces with several major differences in function.(Driesson, Jan, and MacDonald, Colin F. 2000) Around 1450BC, Minoan culture reached a turning point due to a natural disaster (possibly an earthquake). Although another eruption of the Thera volcano has been linked to this downfall, its dating and implications are disputed. Several important palaces, in locations such as Malia, Tylissos, Phaistos and Hagia Triada, and the living quarters of Knossos were destroyed. The palace in Knossos seems to have remained largely intact, resulting in its dynasty's ability to spread its influence over large parts of Crete until it was overrun by the Mycenaean Greeks. After about a century of partial recovery, most Cretan cities and palaces declined during the 13th centuryBC (LHIIIB-LMIIIB). The last Linear A archives date to LMIIIA, contemporary with LHIIIA. Knossos remained an administrative center until 1200BC. The last Minoan site was the defensive mountain site of Karfi, a refuge which had vestiges of Minoan civilization nearly into the Iron Age.BBC "The Minoan Civilisation of Crete": "The later Minoan towns are in more and more inaccessible places, the last one being at Karfi, high in the Dikti Mountains. From that time onward, there are no traces of the Minoans". ====Foreign influence==== The influence of Minoan civilization is seen in Minoan art and artifacts on the Greek mainland. The shaft tombs of Mycenae had several Cretan imports (such as a bull's-head rhyton), which suggests a prominent role for Minoan symbolism. Connections between Egypt and Crete are prominent; Minoan ceramics are found in Egyptian cities, and the Minoans imported items (particularly papyrus) and architectural and artistic ideas from Egypt. Egyptian hieroglyphs might even have been models for the Cretan hieroglyphs, from which the Linear A and Linear B writing systems developed. Archaeologist Hermann Bengtson has also found a Minoan influence in Canaanite artifacts. Minoan palace sites were occupied by the Mycenaeans around 1420–1375BC.Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times p. 77. Mycenaean Greek, a form of ancient Greek, was written in Linear B, which was an adaptation of Linear A. The Mycenaeans tended to adapt (rather than supplant) Minoan culture, religion and art,Roebuck, p. 107. continuing the Minoan economic system and bureaucracy. During LMIIIA (1400–1350BC), k-f-t-w was listed as one of the "Secret Lands of the North of Asia" at the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III. Also mentioned are Cretan cities such as Amnisos, Phaistos, Kydonia and Knossos and toponyms reconstructed as in the Cyclades or the Greek mainland. If the values of these Egyptian names are accurate, the Pharaoh did not value LMIII Knossos more than other states in the region. ==Geography== Crete is a mountainous island with natural harbors. There are signs of earthquake damage at many Minoan sites, and clear signs of land uplifting and submersion of coastal sites due to tectonic processes along its coast.For instance, the uplift as much as 9 metres in western Crete linked with the earthquake of 365 is discussed in L. Stathis, C. Stiros, "The 8.5+ magnitude, AD365 earthquake in Crete: Coastal uplift, topography changes, archaeological and Ihistorical signature," Quaternary International (23 May 2009). According to Homer, Crete had 90 cities.Homer, Odyssey xix. Judging by the palace sites, the island was probably divided into at least eight political units at the height of the Minoan period. The majority of Minoan sites are found in central and eastern Crete, with few in the western part of the island, especially to the south. There appear to have been four major palaces on the island: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Kato Zakros. At least before a unification under Knossos, north- central Crete is thought to have been governed from Knossos, the south from Phaistos, the central-eastern region from Malia, the eastern tip from Kato Zakros, the west from Kydonia. Smaller palaces have been found elsewhere on the island. ===Major settlements=== * Knossos – the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete. Knossos had an estimated population of 1,300 to 2,000 in 2500BC, 18,000 in 2000BC, 20,000 to 100,000 in 1600BC and 30,000 in 1360BC. * Phaistos – the second-largest palatial building on the island, excavated by the Italian school shortly after Knossos * Malia – the subject of French excavations, a palatial center which provides a look into the proto- palatial period * Kato Zakros – sea-side palatial site excavated by Greek archaeologists in the far east of the island, also known as "Zakro" in archaeological literature * Galatas – confirmed as a palatial site during the early 1990s *Kydonia (modern Chania), the only palatial site in West Crete * Hagia Triada – administrative center near Phaistos which has yielded the largest number of Linear A tablets. * Gournia – town site excavated in the first quarter of the 20th century * Pyrgos – early Minoan site in southern Crete * Vasiliki – early eastern Minoan site which gives its name to distinctive ceramic ware * Fournou Korfi – southern site * Pseira – island town with ritual sites * Mount Juktas – the greatest Minoan peak sanctuary, associated with the palace of KnossosDonald W. Jones (1999) Peak Sanctuaries and Sacred Caves in Minoan Crete * Arkalochori – site of the Arkalochori Axe * Karfi – refuge site, one of the last Minoan sites * Akrotiri – settlement on the island of Santorini (Thera), near the site of the Thera Eruption * Zominthos – mountainous city in the northern foothills of Mount Ida ===Beyond Crete=== The Minoans were traders, and their cultural contacts reached the Old Kingdom of Egypt, copper-containing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast and Anatolia. In late 2009 Minoan-style frescoes and other artifacts were discovered during excavations of the Canaanite palace at Tel Kabri, Israel, leading archaeologists to conclude that the Minoan influence was the on the Canaanite city-state."Remains of Minoan fresco found at Tel Kabri"; "Remains Of Minoan-Style Painting Discovered During Excavations of Canaanite Palace", ScienceDaily, 7 December 2009 Minoan techniques and ceramic styles had varying degrees of influence on Helladic Greece. Along with Santorini, Minoan settlements are found at Kastri, Kythera, an island near the Greek mainland influenced by the Minoans from the mid-third millenniumBC (EMII) to its Mycenaean occupation in the 13th century.Hägg and Marinatos 1984; Hardy (ed.) 1984; Broadbank 2004 Minoan strata replaced a mainland-derived early Bronze Age culture, the earliest Minoan settlement outside Crete.J. N. Coldstream and G. L. Huxley, Kythera: Excavations and Studies Conducted by the University of Pennsylvania Museum and the British School at Athens (London: Faber & Faber) 1972. The Cyclades were in the Minoan cultural orbit and, closer to Crete, the islands of Karpathos, Saria and Kasos also contained middle-Bronze Age (MMI- II) Minoan colonies or settlements of Minoan traders. Most were abandoned in LMI, but Karpathos recovered and continued its Minoan culture until the end of the Bronze Age.E. M. Melas, The Islands of Karpathos, Saros and Kasos in the Neolithic and Bronze Age (Studies in Mediterranean archaeology 68) (Gothenburg) 1985. Other supposed Minoan colonies, such as that hypothesized by Adolf Furtwängler on Aegina, were later dismissed by scholars.James Penrose Harland, Prehistoric Aigina: A History of the Island in the Bronze Age, ch. V. (Paris) 1925. However, there was a Minoan colony at Ialysos on Rhodes.Arne Furumark, "The settlement at Ialysos and Aegean history c. 1500–1400 B.B.", in Opuscula archaeologica 6 (Lund) 1950; T. Marketou, "New Evidence on the Topography and Site History of Prehistoric Ialysos." in Soren Dietz and Ioannis Papachristodoulou (eds.), Archaeology in the Dodecanese (1988:28–31). Minoan cultural influence indicates an orbit extending through the Cyclades to Egypt and Cyprus. Fifteenth-centuryBC paintings in Thebes, Egypt depict Minoan-appearing individuals bearing gifts. Inscriptions describing them as coming from keftiu ("islands in the middle of the sea") may refer to gift- bringing merchants or officials from Crete.Dickinson, O (1994) p. 248 Some locations on Crete indicate that the Minoans were an "outward-looking" society. The neo-palatial site of Kato Zakros is located within 100 meters of the modern shoreline in a bay. Its large number of workshops and wealth of site materials indicate a possible entrepôt for trade. Such activities are seen in artistic representations of the sea, including the Ship Procession or "Flotilla" fresco in room five of the West House at Akrotiri. ==Agriculture and cuisine== The Minoans raised cattle, sheep, pigs and goats, and grew wheat, barley, vetch and chickpeas. They also cultivated grapes, figs and olives, grew poppies for seed and perhaps opium. The Minoans also domesticated bees.Hood, Sinclair (1971) "The Minoans; the story of Bronze Age Crete" Vegetables, including lettuce, celery, asparagus and carrots, grew wild on Crete. Pear, quince, and olive trees were also native. Date palm trees and cats (for hunting) were imported from Egypt.Hood (1971), 87 The Minoans adopted pomegranates from the Near East, but not lemons and oranges. They may have practiced polyculture,However, Hamilakis raised doubts in 2007 that systematic polyculture was practiced on Crete. (Hamilakis, Y. (2007) Wiley.com and their varied, healthy diet resulted in a population increase. Polyculture theoretically maintains soil fertility and protects against losses due to crop failure. Linear B tablets indicate the importance of orchards (figs, olives and grapes) in processing crops for "secondary products".Sherratt, A. (1981) Plough and Pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution Olive oil in Cretan or Mediterranean cuisine is comparable to butter in northern European cuisine.Hood (1971), 86 The process of fermenting wine from grapes was probably a factor of the "Palace" economies; wine would have been a trade commodity and an item of domestic consumption.Hamilakis, Y (1999) Food Technologies/Technologies of the Body: The Social Context of Wine and Oil Production and Consumption in Bronze Age Crete Farmers used wooden plows, bound with leather to wooden handles and pulled by pairs of donkeys or oxen. Seafood was also important in Cretan cuisine. The prevalence of edible molluscs in site materialDickinson, O (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age p. 28) and artistic representations of marine fish and animals (including the distinctive Marine Style pottery, such as the LM IIIC "Octopus" stirrup jar), indicate appreciation and occasional use of fish by the economy. However, scholars believe that these resources were not as significant as grain, olives and animal produce. "Fishing was one of the major activities...but there is as yet no evidence for the way in which they organized their fishing." An intensification of agricultural activity is indicated by the construction of terraces and dams at Pseira in the Late Minoan period. Cretan cuisine included wild game: Cretans ate wild deer, wild boar and meat from livestock. Wild game is now extinct on Crete.Hood (1971), 83 A matter of controversy is whether Minoans made use of the indigenous Cretan megafauna, which are typically thought to have been extinct considerably earlier at 10,000BC. This is in part due to the possible presence of dwarf elephants in contemporary Egyptian art.Marco Masseti, Atlas of terrestrial mammals of the Ionian and Aegean islands, Walter de Gruyter, 30/10/2012 Not all plants and flora were purely functional, and arts depict scenes of lily-gathering in green spaces. The fresco known as the Sacred Grove at Knossos depicts women facing left, flanked by trees. Some scholars have suggested that it is a harvest festival or ceremony to honor the fertility of the soil. Artistic depictions of farming scenes also appear on the Second Palace Period "Harvester Vase" (an egg-shaped rhyton) on which 27 men led by another carry bunches of sticks to beat ripe olives from the trees.Hood (1978), 145-146; Honour and Fleming, 55-56; "The Harvester Vase", German, Senta, Khan Academy The discovery of storage areas in the palace compounds has prompted debate. At the second "palace" at Phaistos, rooms on the west side of the structure have been identified as a storage area. Jars, jugs and vessels have been recovered in the area, indicating the complex's possible role as a re-distribution center for agricultural produce. At larger sites such as Knossos, there is evidence of craft specialization (workshops). The palace at Kato Zakro indicates that workshops were integrated into palace structure. The Minoan palatial system may have developed through economic intensification, where an agricultural surplus could support a population of administrators, craftsmen and religious practitioners. The number of sleeping rooms in the palaces indicates that they could have supported a sizable population which was removed from manual labor. ===Tools=== Tools, originally made of wood or bone, were bound to handles with leather straps. During the Bronze Age, they were made of bronze with wooden handles. Due to its round hole, the tool head would spin on the handle. The Minoans developed oval-shaped holes in their tools to fit oval-shaped handles, which prevented spinning. Tools included double adzes, double- and single- bladed axes, axe-adzes, sickles and chisels. == Women == thumb|A depiction of elite Minoan women. As Linear A Minoan writing has not been deciphered yet, most information available about Minoan women is from various art forms and Linear B tablets, and scholarship about Minoan women remains limited. Minoan society was a divided society separating men from women in art illustration, clothing, and societal duties. For example, documents written in Linear B have been found documenting Minoan families, wherein spouses and children are not all listed together. In one section, fathers were listed with their sons, while mothers were listed with their daughters in a completely different section apart from the men who lived in the same household, signifying the vast gender divide present in Minoan society. Artistically, women were portrayed very differently from men. Men were often artistically represented with dark skin while women were represented with lighter skin. Minoan dress representation also clearly marks the difference between men and women. Minoan men were often depicted clad in little clothing while women's bodies, specifically later on, were more covered up. While there is evidence that the structure of women's clothing originated as a mirror to the clothing that men wore, fresco art illustrates how women's clothing evolved to be increasingly elaborate throughout the Minoan era. Throughout the evolution of women's clothing, a strong emphasis was placed on the women's sexual characteristics, particularly the breasts. Female clothing throughout the Minoan era emphasized the breasts by exposing cleavage or even the entire breast. Both Minoan women and men were portrayed with "wasp" waists, similar to the modern bodice women continue to wear today. Fresco paintings portray three class levels of women; elite women, women of the masses, and servants. A fourth, smaller class of women are also included among some paintings; women who participated in religious and sacred tasks. Elite women were depicted in paintings as having a stature twice the size of women in lower classes, as this was a way of emphasizing the important difference between the elite wealthy women and the rest of the female population within society. Childcare was a central job for women within Minoan society. Other roles outside the household that have been identified as women's duties are food gathering, food preparation, and household care-taking. Additionally, it has been found that women were represented in the artisan world as ceramic and textile craftswomen. As women got older it can be assumed that their job of taking care of children ended and they transitioned towards household management and job mentoring, teaching younger women the jobs that they themselves participated in. While women were often portrayed in paintings as caretakers of children, pregnant women were rarely shown in frescoes. Pregnant women were instead represented in the form of sculpted pots with the rounded base of the pots representing the pregnant belly. Additionally, no Minoan art forms portray women giving birth, breast feeding, or procreating. Lack of such actions leads historians to believe that these actions would have been recognized by Minoan society to be either sacred or inappropriate, and kept private within society. Childbirth was a dangerous process within Minoan society. Archeological sources have found numerous bones of pregnant women, identified by the fetus bones within their skeleton found in the abdomen area, providing strong evidence that death during pregnancy and childbirth were common features within society. Further archeological finds provide evidence for female death caused by nursing as well. Death of this population is attributed to the vast amount of nutrition and fat that women lost because of lactation which they often could not get back. ==Society and culture== thumb|300px|The Dolphin fresco from Knossos Apart from the abundant local agriculture, the Minoans were also a mercantile people who engaged significantly in overseas trade, and at their peak may well have had a dominant position in international trade over much of the Mediterranean. After 1700BC, their culture indicates a high degree of organization. Minoan- manufactured goods suggest a network of trade with mainland Greece (notably Mycenae), Cyprus, Syria, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and westward as far as the Iberian peninsula. Minoan religion apparently focused on female deities, with women officiants. While historians and archaeologists have long been skeptical of an outright matriarchy, the predominance of female figures in authoritative roles over male ones seems to indicate that Minoan society was matriarchal, and among the most well-supported examples known. The term palace economy was first used by Evans of Knossos. It is now used as a general term for ancient pre-monetary cultures where much of the economy revolved around the collection of crops and other goods by centralized government or religious institutions (the two tending to go together) for redistribution to the population. This is still accepted as an important part of the Minoan economy; all the palaces have very large amounts of space that seems to have been used for storage of agricultural produce, some remains of which have been excavated after they were buried by disasters. What role, if any, the palaces played in Minoan international trade is unknown, or how this was organized in other ways. The decipherment of Linear A would possibly shed light on this. === Government === Very little is known about the forms of Minoan government; the Minoan language has not yet been deciphered. It used to be believed that the Minoans had a monarchy supported by a bureaucracy. This might initially have been a number of monarchies, corresponding with the "palaces" around Crete, but later all taken over by Knossos,Honour and Fleming, 52 which was itself later occupied by Mycenaean overlords. But, in notable contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, "Minoan iconography contains no pictures of recognizable kings", and in recent decades it has come to be thought that before the presumed Mycenaean invasion around 1450BC, a group of elite families, presumably living in the "villas" and the palaces, controlled both government and religion.Chapin, 60-61 ===Saffron trade=== A fresco of saffron-gatherers at Santorini is well-known. The Minoan trade in saffron, the stigma of a naturally-mutated crocus which originated in the Aegean basin, has left few material remains. According to Evans, the saffron (a sizable Minoan industry) was used for dye. Other archaeologists emphasize durable trade items: ceramics, copper, tin, gold and silver. The saffron may have had a religious significance. The saffron trade, which predated Minoan civilization, was comparable in value to that of frankincense or black pepper. ===Costume=== Sheep wool was the main fibre used in textiles, and perhaps a significant export commodity. Linen from flax was probably much less common, and possibly imported from Egypt, or grown locally. There is no evidence of silk, but some use is possible.Castleden, 11 As seen in Minoan art, Minoan men wore loincloths (if poor) or robes or kilts that were often long. Women wore long dresses with short sleeves and layered, flounced skirts. With both sexes, there was a great emphasis in art in a small wasp waist, often taken to improbable extremes. Both sexes are often shown with rather thick belts or girdles at the waist. Women could also wear a strapless, fitted bodice, and clothing patterns had symmetrical, geometric designs. Men are shown as clean- shaven, and male hair was short, in styles that would be common today, except for some long thin tresses at the back, perhaps for young elite males. Female hair is typically shown with long tresses falling at the back, as in the fresco fragment known as La Parisienne. This got its name because when it was found in the early 20th century, a French art historian thought it resembled Parisian women of the day."Minoan woman or goddess from the palace of Knossos ("La Parisienne")" by Senta German, Khan Academy Children are shown in art with shaved heads (often blue in art) except for a few very long locks; the rest of the hair is allowed to grow as they approach puberty;Marinatos (1993), p. 202 this can be seen in the Akrotiri Boxer Fresco. Two famous Minoan snake goddess figurines from Knossos (one illustrated below) show bodices that circle their breasts, but do not cover them at all. These striking figures have dominated the popular image of Minoan clothing, and have been copied in some "reconstructions" of largely destroyed frescos, but few images unambiguously show this costume, and the status of the figures—goddesses, priestesses, or devotees—is not at all clear. What is clear, from pieces like the Agia Triada Sarcophagus, is that Minoan women normally covered their breasts; priestesses in religious contexts may have been an exception.Castleden, 7 This shows a funeral sacrifice, and some figures of both sexes are wearing aprons or skirts of animal hide, apparently left with the hair on."Snake Goddess" by Senta German, Khan Academy This was probably the costume worn by both sexes by those engaged in rituals.Marinatos (2010), 43-44 Minoan jewellery included many gold ornaments for women's hair and also thin gold plaques to sew onto clothing.Hood (1978), 188-190 Flowers were also often worn in the hair, as by the Poppy Goddess terracotta figurine and other figures. Frescos also show what are presumably woven or embroidered figures, human and animal, spaced out on clothing.Hood (1978), 62 ===Language and writing=== Minoan is an unclassified language, or perhaps multiple indeterminate languages written in the same script. It has been compared inconclusively to the Indo-European and Semitic language families, as well as to the proposed Tyrsenian languages or an unclassified pre-Indo-European language family. Several writing systems dating from the Minoan period have been unearthed in Crete, the majority of which are currently undeciphered. The most well-known script is Linear A, dated to between 1800BC and 1450BC. Linear A is the parent of the related Linear B script, which encodes the earliest known form of Greek. and is also found elsewhere in the Aegean. The dating of the earliest examples of Linear B from Crete is controversial, but is unlikely to be before 1425 BC; it is assumed that the start of its use reflects conquest by Mycenae. Several attempts to translate Linear A have been made, but consensus is lacking and Linear A is currently considered undeciphered. The language encoded by Linear A is tentatively dubbed "Minoan". When the values of the symbols in Linear B are used in Linear A, they produce unintelligible words, and would make Minoan unrelated to any other known language. There is a belief that the Minoans used their written language primarily as an accounting tool and that even if deciphered, may offer little insight other than detailed descriptions of quantities. Linear A is preceded by about a century by the Cretan hieroglyphs. It is unknown whether the language is Minoan, and its origin is debated. Although the hieroglyphs are often associated with the Egyptians, they also indicate a relationship to Mesopotamian writings.Hood (1971), 111 They came into use about a century before Linear A, and were used at the same time as Linear A (18th centuryBC; MM II). The hieroglyphs disappeared during the 17th centuryBC (MM III). The Phaistos Disc features a unique pictorial script. Although its origin is debated, it is now widely believed to be of Cretan origin. Because it is the only find of its kind, the script on the Phaistos disc remains undeciphered. In addition to the above, five inscriptions dated to the 7th and 6th centuriesBC have been found in Eastern Crete (and possible as late as the 3rd centuryBC) written in an archaic Greek alphabet that encode a clearly non- Greek language, dubbed "Eteocretan" (lit. "True Cretan"). Given the small number of inscriptions, the language remains little-known. Eteocretan inscriptions are separated from Linear A by about a millennium, and it is thus unknown if Eteocretan represents a descendant of the Minoan language. ===Religion=== Arthur Evans thought the Minoans worshipped, more or less exclusively, a mother goddess, which heavily influenced views for decades. Recent scholarly opinion sees a much more diverse religious landscape although the absence of texts, or even readable relevant inscriptions, leaves the picture very cloudy. We have no names of deities until after the Mycenaean conquest. Much Minoan art is given a religious significance of some sort, but this tends to be vague, not least because Minoan government is now often seen as a theocracy, so politics and religion have a considerable overlap. The Minoan pantheon featured many deities, among which a young, spear-wielding male god is also prominent. Some scholars see in the Minoan Goddess a female divine solar figure.Evidence of Minoan Astronomy and Calendrical PractisesMarinatos, Nanno. Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine (2013). It is very often difficult to distinguish between images of worshipers, priests and priestesses, rulers and deities; indeed the priestly and royal roles may have often been the same, as leading rituals is often seen as the essence of rulership. Possibly as aspects of the main, probably dominant, nature/mother goddess, archaeologists have identified a mountain goddess, worshipped at peak sanctuaries, a dove goddess, a snake goddess perhaps protectress of the household, the Potnia Theron goddess of animals, and a goddess of childbirth.Kristiansen, Kristiansen & Larsson, 84-86 Late Minoan terracotta votive figures like the poppy goddess (perhaps a worshipper) carry attributes, often birds, in their diadems. The mythical creature called the Minoan Genius is somewhat threatening but perhaps a protective figure, possibly of children; it seems to largely derive from Taweret the Egyptian hybrid crocodile and hippopotamus goddess. Men with a special role as priests or priest-kings are identifiable by diagonal bands on their long robes, and carrying over their shoulder a ritual "axe-sceptre" with a rounded blade.Kristiansen, Kristiansen & Larsson, 85 The more conventionally-shaped labrys or double-headed axe, is a very common votive offering, probably for a male god, and large examples of the Horns of Consecration symbol, probably representing bull's horns, are shown on seals decorating buildings, with a few large actual survivals. Bull-leaping, very much centred on Knossos, is agreed to have a religious significance, perhaps to do with selecting the elite. The position of the bull in it is unclear; the funeral ceremonies on the (very late) Hagia Triada sarcophagus include a bull sacrifice."Hagia Triada sarcophagus", German, Senta, Khan Academy According to Nanno Marinatos, "The hierarchy and relationship of gods within the pantheon is difficult to decode from the images alone." Marinatos disagrees with earlier descriptions of Minoan religion as primitive, saying that it "was the religion of a sophisticated and urbanized palatial culture with a complex social hierarchy. It was not dominated by fertility any more than any religion of the past or present has been, and it addressed gender identity, rites of passage, and death. It is reasonable to assume that both the organization and the rituals, even the mythology, resembled the religions of Near Eastern palatial civilizations." It even seems that the later Greek pantheon would synthesize the Minoan female deity and Hittite goddess from the Near East. Sailors, Cara. "The Function of Mythology and Religion in Ancient Greek Society." East Tennessee State University, Digital Commons, 2008, dc.etsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3471&context;=etd. ====Symbolism==== Minoan horn-topped altars, which Arthur Evans called Horns of Consecration, are represented in seal impressions and have been found as far afield as Cyprus. Minoan sacred symbols include the bull (and its horns of consecration), the labrys (double-headed axe), the pillar, the serpent, the sun-disc, the tree, and even the Ankh. Haralampos V. Harissis and Anastasios V. Harissis posit a different interpretation of these symbols, saying that they were based on apiculture rather than religion. A major festival was exemplified in bull-leaping, represented in the frescoes of KnossosIn the small courtyard of the east wing of the palace of Knossos. and inscribed in miniature seals.An ivory figure reproduced by Spyridon Marinatos and Max Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York) 1960, fig. 97, also shows the bull dance. ====Burial practices==== Similar to other Bronze Age archaeological finds, burial remains constitute much of the material and archaeological evidence for the period. By the end of the Second Palace Period, Minoan burial was dominated by two forms: circular tombs (tholoi) in southern Crete and house tombs in the north and the east. However, much Minoan mortuary practice does not conform to this pattern. Burial was more popular than cremation.Hood (1971), 140 Individual burial was the rule, except for the Chrysolakkos complex in Malia. Here, a number of buildings form a complex in the center of Mallia's burial area and may have been the focus for burial rituals or a crypt for a notable family. Evidence of possible human sacrifice by the Minoans has been found at three sites: at Anemospilia, in a MMII building near Mt. Juktas considered a temple; an EMII sanctuary complex at Fournou Korifi in south- central Crete, and in an LMIB building known as the North House in Knossos. ===Architecture=== thumb|250px|right|Restored model of a Minoan house found in Archanes Minoan cities were connected by narrow roads paved with blocks cut with bronze saws. Streets were drained, and water and sewage facilities were available to the upper class through clay pipes.Ian Douglas, Cities: An Environmental History, p. 16, I.B. Tauris: London and New York (2013) Minoan buildings often had flat, tiled roofs; plaster, wood or flagstone floors, and stood two to three stories high. Lower walls were typically constructed of stone and rubble, and the upper walls of mudbrick. Ceiling timbers held up the roofs. Construction materials for villas and palaces varied, and included sandstone, gypsum and limestone. Building techniques also varied, with some palaces using ashlar masonry and others roughly-hewn, megalithic blocks. In north-central Crete blue-greenschist was used to pave floors of streets and courtyards between 1650 and 1600BC. These rocks were likely quarried in Agia Pelagia on the north coast of central Crete. ====Palaces==== thumb|250px|alt=Three large, clay storage jars|Storage jars (pithoi, πίθοι) at Knossos thumb|250px|Sewers of the Palace of Knossos The handful of very large structures for which Evans' term of palaces (anaktora) is still used are the best-known Minoan building types excavated on Crete; at least five have now been excavated, though that at Knossos was much larger than the others, and may always have had a unique role. The others are at: Phaistos, Zakros, Malia, Gournia, and possibly Galatas and Hagia Triada. They are monumental buildings with administrative purposes, as evidenced by large archives unearthed by archaeologists. Whether they were the actual residences of elite persons remains unclear. Each palace excavated to date has unique features, but they also share aspects which set them apart from other structures. Palaces are often multi-story, with interior and exterior staircases, lightwells, massive columns, very large storage areas and courtyards. The first palaces were constructed at the end of the Early Minoan period in the third millenniumBC at Malia. Although it was formerly believed that the foundation of the first palaces was synchronous and dated to the Middle Minoan period (around 2000BC, the date of the first palace at Knossos), scholars now think that the palaces were built over a longer period in response to local developments. The main older palaces are Knossos, Malia and Phaistos. Elements of the Middle Minoan palaces (at Knossos, Phaistos and Malia, for example) have precedents in Early Minoan construction styles.D. Preziosi and L.A. Hitchcock Aegean Art and Architecture pp. 48–49, Oxford University Press (1999) These include an indented western court and special treatment of the western façade. One example is the House on the Hill at Vasiliki, dated to the Early Minoan II period. The palaces were centers of government, administrative offices, shrines, workshops and storage spaces. The Middle Minoan palaces are characteristically aligned with their surrounding topography. The MM palace of Phaistos appears to align with Mount Ida and Knossos is aligned with Mount Juktas,Preziosi, D. & Hitchcock, L.A. (1999) p. 86 both on a north–south axis. Scholars suggest that the alignment was related to the mountains' ritual significance; a number of peak sanctuaries (spaces for public ritual) have been excavated, including one at Petsofas. These sites have yielded clusters of clay figurines and evidence of animal sacrifice. Late palaces are characterized by multi-story buildings with west facades of sandstone ashlar masonry; Knossos is the best-known example. Other building conventions included storage areas, north–south orientation, a pillar room and a western court. Architecture during the First Palace Period is identified by a square- within-a-square style; Second Palace Period construction has more internal divisions and corridors.Preziosi, D. & Hitchcock, L.A. (1999) p. 121 The Palace of Knossos was the largest Minoan palace. The palace is about 150 meters across and it spreads over an area of some 20,000 square meters, with its original upper levels possibly having a thousand chambers. The palace is connected to the mythological story of The Bull of Minos, since it is in this palace where it was written that the labyrinth existed. Focusing on the architectural aspects of the Palace of Knossos, it was a combination of foundations that depended on the aspects of its walls for the dimensions of the rooms, staircases, porticos, and chambers. The palace was designed in such a fashion that the structure was laid out to surround the central court of the Minoans. Aesthetically speaking, the pillars along with the stone paved northern entrance gave the palace a look and feel that was unique to the Palace of Knossos. The space surrounding the court was covered with rooms and hallways, some of which were stacked on top of the lower levels of the palace being linked through multiple ramps and staircases. Others were built into a hill, as described by the site's excavator Arthur John Evans, "...The palace of Knossos is the most extensive and occupies several hills." On the east side of the court there was a grand staircase passing through the many levels of the palace, added for the royal residents. On the west side of the court, the throne room, a modest room with a ceiling some two meters high, can be found along with the frescoes that were decorating the walls of the hallways and storage rooms. ====Plumbing==== During the Minoan Era extensive waterways were built in order to protect the growing population. This system had two primary functions, first providing and distributing water, and secondly relocating sewage and stormwater. One of the defining aspects of the Minoan Era was the architectural feats of their waste management. The Minoans used technologies such as wells, cisterns, and aqueducts to manage their water supplies. Structural aspects of their buildings even played a part. Flat roofs and plentiful open courtyards were used for collecting water to be stored in cisterns. Significantly, the Minoans had water treatment devices. One such device seems to have been a porous clay pipe through which water was allowed to flow until clean. ====Columns==== For sustaining of the roof, some higher houses, especially the palaces, used columns made usually of Cupressus sempervirens, and sometimes of stone. One of the most notable Minoan contributions to architecture is their inverted column, wider at the top than the base (unlike most Greek columns, which are wider at the bottom to give an impression of height). The columns were made of wood (not stone) and were generally painted red. Mounted on a simple stone base, they were topped with a pillow-like, round capital.Benton and DiYanni 1998, p. 67.Bourbon 1998, p 34 ====Villas==== A number of compounds known as "villas" have been excavated on Crete, mostly near palaces, especially Knossos. These structures share features of neopalatial palaces: a conspicuous western facade, storage facilities and a three-part Minoan Hall. These features may indicate a similar role or that the structures were artistic imitations, suggesting that their occupants were familiar with palatial culture. The villas were often richly decorated, as evidenced by the frescos of Hagia Triada Villa A. A common characteristic of the Minoan villas was having flat roofs. Their rooms did not have windows to the streets, the light arriving from courtyards, a common feature of larger Mediterranean in much later periods. In the 2nd millennium BC, the villas had one or two floors, and the palaces even three. ===Art=== thumb|500px|Procession fresco from Knossos; of the 23 figures, most feet are original, but only the head at extreme right Minoan art is marked by imaginative images and exceptional workmanship. Sinclair Hood described an "essential quality of the finest Minoan art, the ability to create an atmosphere of movement and life although following a set of highly formal conventions".Hood (1978), 56 It forms part of the wider grouping of Aegean art, and in later periods came for a time to have a dominant influence over Cycladic art. Wood and textiles have decomposed, so most surviving examples of Minoan art are pottery, intricately-carved Minoan seals, palace frescos which include landscapes (but are often mostly "reconstructed"), small sculptures in various materials, jewellery, and metalwork. The relationship of Minoan art to that of other contemporary cultures and later Ancient Greek art has been much discussed. It clearly dominated Mycenaean art and Cycladic art of the same periods,Hood (1978), 17-18, 23-23 even after Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans, but only some aspects of the tradition survived the Greek Dark Ages after the collapse of Mycenaean Greece.Hood (1978), 240-241 thumb|The Spring Fresco from Akrotiri, "the earliest pure landscapes anywhere".Honour & Fleming, 53 Minoan art has a variety of subject-matter, much of it appearing across different media, although only some styles of pottery include figurative scenes. Bull-leaping appears in painting and several types of sculpture, and is thought to have had a religious significance; bull's heads are also a popular subject in terracotta and other sculptural materials. There are no figures that appear to be portraits of individuals, or are clearly royal, and the identities of religious figures is often tentative,Gates (2004), 33-34, 41 with scholars uncertain whether they are deities, clergy or devotees.e.g. Hood (1978), 53, 55, 58, 110 Equally, whether painted rooms were "shrines" or secular is far from clear; one room in Akrotiri has been argued to be a bedroom, with remains of a bed, or a shrine.Chapin, 49-51 Animals, including an unusual variety of marine fauna, are often depicted; the Marine Style is a type of painted palace pottery from MM III and LM IA that paints sea creatures including octopus spreading all over the vessel, and probably originated from similar frescoed scenes;Hood (1978), 37-38 sometimes these appear in other media. Scenes of hunting and warfare, and horses and riders, are mostly found in later periods, in works perhaps made by Cretans for a Mycenaean market, or Mycenaean overlords of Crete. While Minoan figures, whether human or animal, have a great sense of life and movement, they are often not very accurate, and the species is sometimes impossible to identify; by comparison with Ancient Egyptian art they are often more vivid, but less naturalistic.Hood (1978), 56, 233-235 In comparison with the art of other ancient cultures there is a high proportion of female figures, though the idea that Minoans had only goddesses and no gods is now discounted. Most human figures are in profile or in a version of the Egyptian convention with the head and legs in profile, and the torso seen frontally; but the Minoan figures exaggerate features such as slim male waists and large female breasts.Hood (1978), 235-236 thumb|600px|"Ship Procession" fresco, from Akrotiri What is called landscape painting is found in both frescos and on painted pots, and sometimes in other media, but most of the time this consists of plants shown fringing a scene, or dotted around within it. There is a particular visual convention where the surroundings of the main subject are laid out as though seen from above, though individual specimens are shown in profile. This accounts for the rocks being shown all round a scene, with flowers apparently growing down from the top.Hood (1978), 49-50, 235-236; Chapin, 47 and throughout The seascapes surrounding some scenes of fish and of boats, and in the Ship Procession miniature fresco from Akrotiri, land with a settlement as well, give a wider landscape than is usual.Hood (1978), 63-64 The largest and best collection of Minoan art is in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum ("AMH") near Knossos, on the northern coast of Crete. ====Pottery==== Many different styles of potted wares and techniques of production are observable throughout the history of Crete. Early Minoan ceramics were characterized by patterns of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, fish bones, and beak- spouts. However, while many of the artistic motifs are similar in the Early Minoan period, there are many differences that appear in the reproduction of these techniques throughout the island which represent a variety of shifts in taste as well as in power structures. There were also many small terracotta figurines. During the Middle Minoan period, naturalistic designs (such as fish, squid, birds and lilies) were common. In the Late Minoan period, flowers and animals were still characteristic but more variety existed. However, in contrast to later Ancient Greek vase painting, paintings of human figures are extremely rare,Hood (1978), 34, 42, 43 and those of land mammals not common until late periods. Shapes and ornament were often borrowed from metal tableware that has largely not survived, while painted decoration probably mostly derives from frescos.Hood (1978), 27 ====Jewelry==== Minoan jewellery has mostly been recovered from graves, and until the later periods much of it consists of diadems and ornaments for women's hair, though there are also the universal types of rings, bracelets, armlets and necklaces, and many thin pieces that were sewn onto clothing. In the earlier periods gold was the main material, typically hammered very thin. but later it seemed to become scarce.Hood (1978), 205-206 The Minoans created elaborate metalwork with imported gold and copper. Bead necklaces, bracelets and hair ornaments appear in the frescoes, and many labrys pins survive. The Minoans mastered granulation, as indicated by the Malia Pendant, a gold pendant featuring bees on a honeycomb. This was overlooked by the 19th-century looters of a royal burial site they called the "Gold Hole".Hood (1978), 194-195 ====Weapons==== thumb|Dagger with gold hilt and bronze blade, MM, AMH Fine decorated bronze weapons have been found in Crete, especially from LM periods, but they are far less prominent than in the remains of warrior-ruled Mycenae, where the famous shaft-grave burials contain many very richly decorated swords and daggers. In contrast spears and "slashing-knives" tend to be "severely functional".Hood (1978), 173-175, 175 quoted Many of the decorated weapons were probably made either in Crete, or by Cretans working on the mainland.Hood (1978), 175 Daggers are often the most lavishly decorated, with gold hilts that may be set with jewels, and the middle of the blade decorated with a variety of techniques.Hood (1978), 176-177 The most famous of these are a few inlaid with elaborate scenes in gold and silver set against a black (or now black) "niello" background, whose actual material and technique have been much discussed. These have long thin scenes running along the centre of the blade, which show the violence typical of the art of Mycenaean Greece, as well as a sophistication in both technique and figurative imagery that is startlingly original in a Greek context. ====Metal vessels==== Metal vessels were produced in Crete from at least as early as EM II (c. 2500BC) in the Prepalatial period through to LM IA (c. 1450BC) in the Postpalatial period and perhaps as late as LM IIIB/C (c. 1200BC), although it is likely that many of the vessels from these later periods were heirlooms from earlier periods. The earliest were probably made exclusively from precious metals, but from the Protopalatial period (MM IB – MM IIA) they were also produced in arsenical bronze and, subsequently, tin bronze. The archaeological record suggests that mostly cup- type forms were created in precious metals, but the corpus of bronze vessels was diverse, including cauldrons, pans, hydrias, bowls, pitchers, basins, cups, ladles and lamps. The Minoan metal vessel tradition influenced that of the Mycenaean culture on mainland Greece, and they are often regarded as the same tradition. Many precious metal vessels found on mainland Greece exhibit Minoan characteristics, and it is thought that these were either imported from Crete or made on the mainland by Minoan metalsmiths working for Mycenaean patrons or by Mycenaean smiths who had trained under Minoan masters. ===Warfare and the "Minoan peace"=== According to Arthur Evans, a "Minoan peace" (Pax Minoica) existed; there was little internal armed conflict in Minoan Crete until the Mycenaean period. However, it is difficult to draw hard-and-fast conclusions from the evidence and Evans' idealistic view has been questioned.Alexiou wrote of fortifications and acropolises in Minoan Crete, in Kretologia 8 (1979), pp. 41–56, and especially in C.G. Starr, "Minoan flower-lovers" in The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, eds. (Stockholm) 1994, pp. 9–12. No evidence has been found of a Minoan army or the Minoan domination of peoples beyond Crete; Evans believed that the Minoans had some kind of overlordship of at least parts of Mycenaean Greece in the Neopalatial Period, but it is now very widely agreed that the opposite was the case, with a Mycenaean conquest of Crete around 1450BC. Few signs of warfare appear in Minoan art: "Although a few archaeologists see war scenes in a few pieces of Minoan art, others interpret even these scenes as festivals, sacred dance, or sports events" (Studebaker, 2004, p. 27). Although armed warriors are depicted as stabbed in the throat with swords, the violence may be part of a ritual or blood sport. Nanno Marinatos believes that the Neopalatial Minoans had a "powerful navy" that made them a desirable ally to have in Mediterranean power politics, at least by the 14th century as "vassals of the pharaoh", leading Cretan tribute- bearers to be depicted on Egyptian tombs such as those of the top officials Rekmire and Senmut.Marinatos (2010), 4-5 On mainland Greece during the shaft- grave era at Mycenae, there is little evidence for major Mycenaean fortifications; the citadels follow the destruction of nearly all neopalatial Cretan sites. Warfare by other contemporaries of the ancient Minoans, such as the Egyptians and the Hittites, is well-documented. ====Skepticism and weaponry==== Despite finding ruined watchtowers and fortification walls,Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism Evans said that there was little evidence of ancient Minoan fortifications. According to Stylianos Alexiou (in Kretologia 8), a number of sites (especially early and middle Minoan sites such as Aghia Photia) are built on hilltops or otherwise fortified. Lucia Nixon wrote: Chester Starr said in "Minoan Flower Lovers" that since Shang China and the Maya had unfortified centers and engaged in frontier struggles, a lack of fortifications alone does not prove that the Minoans were a peaceful civilization unparalleled in history. In 1998, when Minoan archaeologists met in a Belgian conference to discuss the possibility that the Pax Minoica was outdated, evidence of Minoan war was still scanty. According to Jan Driessen, the Minoans frequently depicted "weapons" in their art in a ritual context: Stella Chryssoulaki's work on small outposts (or guardhouses) in eastern Crete indicates a possible defensive system; type A (high-quality) Minoan swords were found in the palaces of Mallia and Zarkos (see Sanders, AJA 65, 67, Hoeckmann, JRGZM 27, or Rehak and Younger, AJA 102). Keith Branigan estimated that 95 percent of Minoan "weapons" had hafting (hilts or handles) which would have prevented their use as such. However, tests of replicas indicated that the weapons could cut flesh down to the bone (and score the bone's surface) without damaging the weapons themselves. According to Paul Rehak, Minoan figure-eight shields could not have been used for fighting or hunting, since they were too cumbersome. Although Cheryl Floyd concluded that Minoan "weapons" were tools used for mundane tasks such as meat processing, Middle Minoan "rapiers nearly three feet in length" have been found.Hood (1971) Charles Gates argues that the absence of warfare in Minoan art does not prove it did not occur because there is no correlation between a society's artistic depiction of warfare and how often said society is involved in conflict.Gates, Charles. Why are there no scenes of warfare in Minoan art?, Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Égée à L'âge du Bronze, Aegaeum: annals of Aegean archaeology of the University of Liège, 1999, pp.277-283 Barry Molloy states that artwork is an unreliable guide to a society's behaviour, using the example that frescoes recovered prior to the Late Minoan period seldom depict people interacting with each other yet this should not be taken as evidence that Minoans rarely did so. Molloy further argues that the lack of fortifications could be attributed to Crete's rugged topography, which would have provided a significant natural defensive advantage; Molloy argues that the guardhouses could have been used to secure narrow roads through Crete.Molloy, Barry PC. "Martial Minoans? War as social process, practice and event in Bronze Age Crete." Annual of the British School at Athens 107 (2012): 87-142, pp.96-97, 107 About Minoan warfare, Branigan concluded: Archaeologist Olga Krzyszkowska agreed: "The stark fact is that for the prehistoric Aegean we have no direct evidence for war and warfare per se." ==Collapse== Between 1935 and 1939, Greek archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos posited the Minoan eruption theory. An eruption on the island of Thera (present-day Santorini), about from Crete, occurred during the LM IA period (1550–1500BC). One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about of material and was measured at 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The eruption devastated the nearby Minoan settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer of pumice. Although it is believed to have severely affected the Minoan culture of Crete, the extent of its effects has been debated. Early theories proposed that volcanic ash from Thera choked off plant life on the eastern half of Crete, starving the local population; however, more-thorough field examinations have determined that no more than of ash fell anywhere on Crete. Based on archaeological evidence, studies indicate that a massive tsunami generated by the Thera eruption devastated the coast of Crete and destroyed many Minoan settlements. Although the LM IIIA (late Minoan) period is characterized by affluence (wealthy tombs, burials and art) and ubiquitous Knossian ceramic styles,Dickinson, O (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age p. 22 by LM IIIB (several centuries after the eruption) Knossos' wealth and importance as a regional center declined. Significant remains have been found above the late Minoan I-era Thera ash layer, implying that the Thera eruption did not cause the immediate collapse of Minoan civilization. The Minoans were a sea power, however, and the Thera eruption probably caused significant economic hardship. Whether this was enough to trigger a Minoan downfall is debated. Many archaeologists believe that the eruption triggered a crisis, making the Minoans vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans. According to Sinclair Hood, the Minoans were most likely conquered by an invading force. Although the civilization's collapse was aided by the Thera eruption, its ultimate end came from conquest. Archaeological evidence suggests that the island was destroyed by fire, with the palace at Knossos receiving less damage than other sites on Crete. Since natural disasters are not selective, the uneven destruction was probably caused by invaders who would have seen the usefulness of preserving a palace like Knossos for their own use.Sinclair Hood (1971), 58 Several authors have noted evidence that Minoan civilization had exceeded its environmental carrying capacity, with archaeological recovery at Knossos indicating deforestation in the region near the civilization's later stages.C. Michael Hogan, "Knossos fieldnotes", Modern Antiquarian (2007) ==Genetic and anthropometric studies== A cephalometric analysis by Argyropoulos et al. (1989) published in The Angle Orthodontist showed remarkable similarity in craniofacial morphology between Minoans and modern Greeks, suggesting a close affinity, and that the Greek ethnic group remained stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4,000 years. A craniofacial morphological study by Papagrigorakis et al. (2014) published in Anthropologischer Anzeiger also indicated craniological similarities between modern Greeks and Minoans, indicating continuity. A 2013 archaeogenetics study by Hughey at al. published in Nature Communications compared skeletal mtDNA from ancient Minoan skeletons that were sealed in a cave in the Lasithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago to 135 samples from Greece, Anatolia, western and northern Europe, North Africa and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans—and especially close to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lasithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations. "We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were European," said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a human geneticist at the University of Washington. "They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to present day-Cretans." In their archaeogenetic study published in Nature, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar – but not identical – and that modern Greeks descend from these populations. The F between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy. In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the DNA of the Mycenaeans and ~70.9–76.7% of the Minoans came from Early European Farmers (EEF), while the remainder came from ancient populations related to the Caucasus Hunter- Gatherers (CHG) (Mycenaeans ~20.1–22.7%, Minoans ~17–19.4%) and the Pre- Pottery Neolithic (PPN) culture (Mycenaeans ~7–14%, Minoans ~3.9–9.5%). Unlike the Minoans, the Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to the Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG), introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Pontic–Caspian steppe (Western Steppe Herders) who are hypothesized to be the Proto-Indo-Europeans, and ~0.9–2.3% from the Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers in the Balkans. Admixture proportions (%) of ancestral components for the Mycenaeans and Minoans EEF PPN CHG EHG Iron Gates HG Mycenaeans 58.4–65.8% 7–14% 20.1–22.7% 3.3–5.5% 0.9–2.3% Minoans 70.9–76.7% 3.9–9.5% 17–19.4% 0–2.3% 0–0.7% ==See also== * Atlantis * Caucasus * Hyksos * Minoa * Sacred caves of Crete ==Footnotes== ==References== * * * Benton, Janetta Rebold and DiYanni, Robert. Arts and Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities. Volume 1. Prentice Hall. New Jersey, 1998. * Bourbon, F. Lost Civilizations. Barnes and Noble, Inc. New York, 1998. * Branigan, Keith, 1970. The Foundations of Palatial Crete. * * * Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion. J. Raffan, trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. * Cadogan, Gerald, 1992, " Ancient and Modern Crete," in Myers et al., 1992, Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete. * Callender, Gae (1999) The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age Oxford university press, Victoria 3205, Australia * * * *Chapin, Anne P., "Power, Privilege and Landscape in Minoan Art", in Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr, Hesperia (Princeton, N.J.) 33, 2004, ASCSA, , 9780876615331, google books * * * * * Dickinson, Oliver (1994; 2005 re-print) The Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge World Archaeology, Cambridge University Press. * * * * Sir Arthur Evans, 1921–35. The Palace of Minos: A Comparative Account of the Successive Stages of the Early Cretan Civilization as Illustrated by the Discoveries at Knossos, 4 vols. in 6 (reissued 1964). * * * * Gates, Charles, 1999. "Why Are There No Scenes of Warfare in Minoan Art?" pp 277–284 In Laffineur, Robert, ed., Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L'Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Université de Liège. *Gates, Charles (2004), "Pictorial Imagery in Minoan Wall Painting", in Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr, Hesperia (Princeton, N.J.) 33, 2004, ASCSA, , 9780876615331, google books * Gere, Cathy. Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism, University of Chicago Press 2009. * * * Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, many editions hardcover and softcover * Goodison, Lucy, and Morris, Christine, 1998, "Beyond the Great Mother: The Sacred World of the Minoans," in Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, eds., Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence, London: British Museum Press, pp. 113–132. * * Hägg, R. and N. Marinatos, eds. The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality (Stockholm) 1994. A summary of revived points-of-view of a Minoan thalassocracy, especially in LMI. * Haralampos V. Harissis, Anastasios V. Harissis. Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean. Minoan and Mycenaean Symbols Revisited British Archaeological Reports S1958, 2009 . * Higgins, Reynold, 1981. Minoan and Mycenaean Art, (revised edition). * Hogan, C. Michael, 2007. Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian *Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. * Hood, Sinclair, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. London. *Hood, Sinclair (1978), The Arts in Prehistoric Greece, 1978, Penguin (Penguin/Yale History of Art), * Hughes, Dennis, 1991. Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. Routledge: London. * Hutchinson, Richard W., 1962. Prehistoric Crete (reprinted 1968) * Kristiansen, Kristiansen & Larsson, Thomas B. (2005) The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations Cambridge University Press * * Lapatin, Kenneth, 2002. Mysteries of the Snake Goddess: Art, Desire, and the Forging of History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. * * * * Manning, S.W., 1995. "An approximate Minoan Bronze Age chronology" in A.B. Knapp, ed., The absolute chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: Archaeology, radiocarbon and history (Appendix 8), in series Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press) A standard current Minoan chronology. * Marinatos, Nanno, 1993. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image, and Symbol. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. * Marinatos, Nanno (2010), Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine, University of Illinois Press * Marinatos, Spyridon, 1960. Crete and Mycenae (originally published in Greek, 1959), photographs by Max Hirmer. * Marinatos, Spyridon, 1972. "Life and Art in Prehistoric Thera," in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol 57. * * Mellersh, H.E.L., 1967. Minoan Crete. New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons. * * Papadopoulos, John K., "Inventing the Minoans: Archaeology, Modernity and the Quest for European Identity", Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 18:1:87–149 (June 2005) * * * Preziosi, Donald & Hitchcock, Louise A. (1999) Aegean Art and Architecture, Oxford History of Art series, Oxford University Press. * * Quigley, Carroll, 1961. The Evolution of Civilizations: An Introduction to Historical Analysis, Indianapolis: Liberty Press. * * * * Schoep, Ilse, 2004. "Assessing the role of architecture in conspicuous consumption in the Middle Minoan I–II Periods." Oxford Journal of Archaeology vol 23/3, pp. 243–269. * * Soles, Jeffrey S., 1992, The Prepalatial Cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia and the House Tombs of Bronze Age Crete: And the House Tombs of Bronze Age Crete, Published by ASCSA, 1992. * * Warren P., Hankey V., 1989. Aegean Bronze Age Chronology (Bristol). * Watrous, L. Vance (1991), "The origin and iconography of the Late Minoan painted larnax", Hesperia, 60(3): 285–307; . * Willetts, R. F., 1976 (1995 edition). The Civilization of Ancient Crete. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. * * * Yule, Paul. Early Cretan Seals: A Study of Chronology. Marburger Studien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte 4, Mainz 1980 *Vasilakis, Andonis, Minoan Crete: From Myth to History, 2000, Adam Editions, Athens, Category:27th-century BC establishments Category:12th- century BC disestablishments Category:States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century BC Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans Category:Prehistoric Crete Category:History of Crete
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The Yugambeh ( (see alternative spellings), also known as the Minyangbal ( , or Nganduwal ( .are an Aboriginal Australian people of south-east Queensland and the Northern Rivers of New South Wales, their territory lies between the Logan and Tweed rivers. A term for an Aboriginal of the Yugambeh tribe is Mibunn (also written as Miban/Mibanj, Mibin, Mibiny, Mebbon, Meebin), which is derived from the word for the Wedge-tailed Eagle. Historically, some anthropologists have erroneously referred to them as the Chepara (also written as Chipara, Tjapera), the term for a first-degree initiate. Archaeological evidence indicates Aboriginal people have occupied the area for tens of thousands of years. By the time European colonisation began, the Yugambeh had a complex network of groups, and kinship. The Yugambeh territory is subdivided among clan groups with each occupying a designated locality, each clan having certain rights and responsibilities in relation to their respective areas. Europeans arrived within their proximity in the 1820s, before formally entering Yugambeh territory c.1842. Their arrival displaced Yugambeh groups, and conflict between both sides soon followed throughout the 1850/60s By the 20th century, they were being forced onto missions and reserves despite local resistance. Other Yugambeh people found refuge in the mountains or gained employment among the Europeans. The last of the missions/reserves in the area closed in 1948 and 1951, though people continued to occupy them. Throughout the 70s-90s, the Yugambeh founded organisations and businesses in culture/language, housing and community care, wildlife and land preservation, and tourism. It is estimated there were between 1,500 and 2,000 Aboriginal people in the watersheds of the Logan, Albert, Coomera and Nerang before the 1850s. The 2016 Australian census records 12,315 Aboriginal people in the four local government areas, a portion of these are non-Yugambeh Aboriginal peoples who have moved into the area for work, or as a result of forced removals. == Name and etymology == thumb|Watson's map of South-east Queensland tribes, circa 1944 Yugambeh is the traditional language term for the Aboriginal people that inhabit the territory between the Logan river and the Tweed river. Their ethnonym derives from the Yugambeh word for "no", namely yugam/yugam(beh), reflecting a widespread practice in Aboriginal languages to identify a tribe by the word they used for a negative, this is typical of the area, as Kabi, Wakka, Jandai, Guwar all mean "no" as well. Yugambeh refers to people descended from speakers of a range of dialects spoken in the Albert and Logan River basins of South Queensland, stretching over the area from the Gold Coast west to Beaudesert, while also including the coastal area just over the border into New South Wales along the coast down to the Tweed Valley. Tindale listed a number of alternative names and spellings for the Jukambe including: Yugambir, Yugumbir, Yoocumbah, Yoocum, Jukam, Yukum, Yögum, Yuggum, Jugambeir, Chepara, Tjapera, Tjipara, Chipara. The Yugambeh use the word Miban/Mibanj /Mibin meaning wedge-tailed eagle to denote an indigenous person of the group, and is the preferred endonym for the people; Gurgun Mibinyah (Language of Mibin [Man/Eagle]) being used to describe their dialects; Yugambeh, Nganduwal, and Ngarangwal. === Bundjalung misnomer === Yugambeh descendants state that the name Bundjalung, applied by Europeans and adjacent peoples, is a misnomer. The Aboriginal dialects spoken from Beenleigh/Beaudesert south to the Clarence River are said by linguists to be a single language or linguistic group. In traditional culture, there was no general name for this "language", this being noted as early as 1892. Smythe, writing in the 1940s in the Casino area, noted that some of his informants stated "Beigal" (Man or People) was the tribal name, others though stated there never was a shared named in use. As "Bandjalang", aside from being a specific group's name, was offered as a cover all term, Smythe did the same, calling the entire linguistic group "Bandjalang" for convenience Each speech community originally had their own distinctive names for their dialects, and adopted the term "Bundjalung" in the period after European arrival with Crowley believing that originally, Bandjalang was only the name of the dialect spoken on the South Arm of the Richmond River (that is Bungawalbin Creek), but in time, other group local groups amalgamated under the term in the face of the European invasion. Bundjalung would eventually supplanted most other local dialect names. The Aboriginal people who lived in the area that became Queensland never used the name Bundjalung, and northern groups have maintained their dialect names. While some Bundjalung people refer to the Yugambeh as (Northern) Bundjalung, local Aboriginal people emphatically prefer to use Yugambeh. === Other misnomers === There are terms used for more than one group, like "Minyangbal", – those who say minyang "what", which is used to refer to the Yugambeh, Galibal, and Wiyabal people, while also being the self-name for the Minyungbal people at Byron Bay and on the Brunswick River. Discussion about the correct names for dialects is difficult because there are who groups stopped using names altogether. This was compounded by the fact that what one group may call itself may be different from what another group calls it, which may again be different from what a third group uses. Margaret Sharpe noted that one group which said gala for "this" might refer to another as Galibal, because they pronounced the word gali. Similarly, a group which said nyang for "what" might call the "Galibal" group Minyangbal, because these "Galibal" said minyang (miñang) for "what". Such was the case for the Gidhabal people at Woodenbong who referred to the Beaudesert and Logan people as the Yugambeh or Minyangbal, because the Gidhabal people said yagam for "no" and nyang for "what", while the Yugambeh people said yugam for "no" and minyang for "what". Other terms are not tribal names, like "Chepara", used by the 19th century anthropologist Alfred William Howitt, which is actually "Gibera" – a first-degree initiate, the initial consonant being realised as a fricative. When asked who the local people were, the informant, who at the time would not have had a very effective command of English, had simply told him the group he was meeting were all first-degree initiates. == Language == The Yugambeh language (also termed the Mibin dialects) is a dialect cluster of the wider Bandjalangic branch of the Pama–Nyungan language family, which is neutrally called the Tweed-Albert Group.Yugambeh was included in the Australian Standard Classification of Languages as Yugambeh (8965) in 2016. Results from the 2021 Census indicated there were 208 Yugambeh speakers, up from the 2016 results of 18 speakers. The northern dialects represent a distinct homogenous linguistic group, one of their distinctive features being a high percentage of Yagara language words. The language varieties spoken on the Gold Coast across to the Logan River could more appropriately be termed the Mibin dialects, according to Jefferies, the difference of Mibiny and Baygal for the word for "Man/people" is due to socio-political developments and not simply dialect splits, with Bannister commenting that the Yugambeh differed from the Bandjalang proper and Gidabal, due to distinct terms for basic concepts such man and woman, while grammatical studies show that the Yugambeh dialects did differ in some degree from other Bandjalang groups both lexically and morphologically.' === Dialects === The particular number of dialects (and their degree of mutual intelligibility) are differently described depending on the source. * According to Terry Crowley, the branch has 7 dialects. ** Margaret Sharpe, drawing on Crowley, additionally includes the Geynyan dialect. ** Anthony Jefferies, also drawing on Crowley, refers to Yugam(beh), Ngarangwal/Ngarahkwal, Nganduwal, and Minyungbal of Byron, as the 'Mibin Dialects' * Shaun Davies, reperforming Crowley's original analysis, finds a single language with two mutually intelligible regional varieties and excludes Geynyan and the Byron Bay Minyungbal from the branch. * Archibald Meston, the Chief Protector of Aborigines, writing in 1923, identifies a single "dialect" spoken in the area from the Nerang to the Logan, which he identified as Yoocum/Yoocumbah. * The Yugambeh Museum say their language is spoken in the Logan, Gold Coast, Scenic Rim, and Tweed areas. The Minyungbal of Byron are regarded by Tindale as a distinct group. Davies, noting that Crowley admitted to likely errors in his analysis, reconducted the analysis and found only a single Tweed-Albert Language, which is alternatively referred to as Yugam(beh) (also spelt Yugambir,) Minjangbal/Minyangbal, or Nganduwal (as well by the various clan names, such as Manaldjali. ) Ngarangwal spoken between the Logan River and Point Danger, is said by Davies to only differ by a few words, e.g. the third-person singular female pronoun. Livingstone's Minyung, spoken at Byron Bay and on the Brunswick River and called a "sister dialect" to that spoken to the north, which he alternatively called Nghendu, is considered by Davies to be part of a separate linguistic branch. For Norman Tindale, the term Nganduwal was an alternative name of the Byron Bay Minyungbal tribe, which he regarded as a distinct group. The Logan area ran along its western edges, while its eastern limits were on the Tamborine Plateau, Canungra and just short of the Coomera River. It was first recorded in substantial form by the Jimboomba schoolteacher John Allen on the basis of a vocabulary supplied to him by the Wangerriburra clansman Bullum in 1913, and later described in more detail by Margaret Sharpe who took down detail notes from her informant Joe Culham, one of the last speakers (d.1968) of this variety of the dialect. Nils Holmer completed his Linguistic survey of south-eastern Queensland in 1983, a chapter of which included vocabulary and an analysis of grammar of the language as spoken by the Manandjali (Mununjali) living in Beaudesert and the surrounding area. == Country == left|thumb|The Logan, Albert, Coomera, Nerang and Tweed River basins. (Major towns and roads also visible) The Yugambeh territory lies between the Logan and Tweed Rivers, while Norman Tindale estimated their territorial reach as extending over roughly , along the Logan River from Rathdowney to its mouth, and running south as far as the vicinity of Southport. Their western frontier lay around Boonah and the slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Tindale places his Kalibal in the upper Nerang and western Tweed valley, and Minyungbal in the Lower Nerang and eastern Tweed valley. There are problems with Tindale's mapping, since he generally located his groups where Margaret Sharpe puts the Yugambeh people. Fison and Howitt writing in the late 19th century describe their country as "to the south of Brisbane, somewhat inland, but also along the coast" to as far as Point Danger, and "about the head of the Albert, Logan and Tweed rivers". The Yuggera are to their west and north, the Quandamooka to their north-east (North Stradbroke and Moreton Island), the Githabul to their south-west, and the Bundjalung to their south. According to Tindale, the Minyungbal held some of territory running northwards from Cape Byron as far as Southport. Their inland extension ran to Murwillumbah and Nerang Creek. == Society == Linguistically, the Yugambeh speak language varieties of the wider Yugambeh- Bundjalung language group, their language forming a discrete dialect group. Culturally researchers, like Anthony Jefferies, have noted the Yugambeh have more affinity with their northern Yagara-speaking neighbours. Anthony Jefferies, having noted the Yugambeh, as well as Gidhabal, seem to have more linguistic and cultural affinity with the Durubulic language speakers to their north than with their southern Bundjalung neighbours, observed key differences between them: * The use of separate section names / social division terms * Distinct kinship systems in place (although with shared terminology) * Differences of scarring patterns === Social divisions === thumb|Yugambeh clan map, exhibited at the Yugambeh Museum, as well national park signage at Tamborine, Tallebudgera and Springbrook R. H. Mathews visited the Yugambeh in 1906 and picked up the following information concerning their social divisions, which were fourfold. Mathews noted specific animals, plants and stars as associated with the divisions. This system of social divisions was shared with the neighboring Gidabal, and Yagara people. To the south, the Bundjalung section names were different, being Wirroong, Marroong, Woomboong, and Kurpoong respectively. Mother Father Son Daughter Baranggan Deroin Bandjur Bandjuran Bandjuran Banda Barang Baranggan Deroingan Barang Banda Bandagan Bandagan Bandjur Deroin Deroingan ==== Kinship ==== Among the Yugambeh- Bundjalung languages there were two kinship systems a Wahlubal/Inland system and a Mibiny system, with Anthony Jefferies documenting an Aluridja type system, found in south Bandjalang dialect groups while a Senior Cousin/Junior Cousin kinship system found in was found amongst the Yugambeh (Mibiny), Yagara, and Ngugi groups. The Yugambeh kinship system is classificatory, i.e. all members of the same social division are classificatory siblings, and not marriageable. Their genealogical terms are extended beyond all blood relatives to include the members of that relatives social division. I.e. a woman of the same division of your mother is her sister, and therefore one's mother as well. The Mibiny kinship system is similar to the Iroquois kinship system, your mother's sisters are called Waijang "mother", and your father's brother's are called Biyang "father", they in turn will call you "son/daughter". A distinction is made between cross-cousins called Yirabung and parallel cousins called Gujarang, parallel cousins are not considered marriageable. In the Yugambeh system, a mother's brother is called Gawang and a father's sister is called Ngaruny, they call their nephews/nieces, , and and respectively. The Ngaruny-Nyugun/Nyugunmahn relationship is of special importance as it is used to identified suitable marriageable partners, a ngaruny will find one of her sisters and make a match for her . This is distinct from the southern Wahlubal system used by the Bundjalung with Jefferies finding that whilst the Waalubal system has a single term "nephew/niece", without gender distinction, the northern systems which have the same term but differentiated for gender. === Clans === thumb|A partial map showing the Wanggeriburra and neighbouring Yugambeh clans – circa 1913|left In common with their northerly neighbours, i.e. the Yagara, Quandamooka, Kabi-Kabi, and Wakka-Wakka, the Yugambeh are divided into a number of subgroups. Each nation was divided into a number of locality groups, with each group occupying a designated area of the territory. Each locality had a unique name, derived from a feature of the group's territory, i.e. its geography, geology, flora, or fauna. Family groups did not often travel into the country of other Yugambeh family groups without reason. Clans would frequently visit and stay on each other's estates during times of ceremony, dispute resolution, resource exchange, debt settlement and scarcity of resources, but followed strict protocols governing announcing their presence and their use of other's lands. Each group also has ceremonial responsibilities in their respective countries, like those that ensure that food and medicinal plants grow and that there is a plentiful supply of fish, shellfish, crabs, and other animal food in general. The clan group boundaries tend to follow noticeable geological formations such as river basin systems and mountain ranges. There were a number of permanent camps owned by each clan, which were frequented in a set yearly planned pattern. For everyday living the clan usually broke into smaller family-based groups. They would aggregate at certain times of the year for annual celebrations, which were also a time for inter-clan trade. Co-operation of smaller groups or extended families for large-scale activities occurred when appropriate, such as kangaroo drives. The Yugambeh clans annually gathered on the coast for the mullet feast. The Anthropologist Alfred William Howitt offers a brief traditional history of how the Yugambeh, came to be subdivided into clans, stating that in consequence of internal feuds the nation became broken up into clans. After some time however, the clans became again friendly once more, and had been so ever since. Bullum, a Yugambeh man from the Wanggeriburra clan helped draw a map of his clans territory in 1913, which shows the names and general locations of 7 neighbouring clans. The exact number of clans was not noted in the earlier literature, Howitt, noting at least 7 clans in 1904 stating that not all could be remembered by his informants Recent sources mention a total of 9, or 8 clans across the Yugambeh area. Yugambeh clans Name Location Alternative names Gugingin Northerners (gugin =north). The lower Logan River, lower Albert River. Logan tribe, Guwangin, Warrilcum (waril=big river) Wanggeriburra Whiptail wallaby people. Middle Albert River basin and Coomera River headwaters. Tamborine tribe Bullongin River people Coomera River basin Balunjali Tulgigin Dry-Forest People The Northern Lower-Tweed River basin. Chabooburri Kombumerri Mudgrove-worm People. The Nerang River basin. Talgaiburra Mununjali Hard/baked black ground People. Beaudesert. Manaldjali. Murangbara Water-Vine People The Upper-Tweed River basin. Bray puts them on the north side of the northern arm of the Tweed. Moorung- Mooburra Kudjangbara Red-Ochre People The Southern Lower-Tweed River Basin. The area ten miles in from coast between the Tweed and Brunswick Rivers. Cudgenburra, Coodjinburra. Goodjinburra Migunberri Mountain Spike People Christmas Creek. Migani, Balgaburri === Confederacy === According to Anthony Jefferies, the Mibiny (Yugambeh/Ngarangwal/Nganduwal) are part of a larger extra-linguistic group he referred to as a "confederacy" or "messmate"; he called the Chepara (Djipara) this confederacy which combined the Yagara-speaking groups north of the Logan River with the Mibiny dialect groups south of the river. Jefferies, quoting Sutton, defines these large groups as sets of hundreds to few thousands people who intermarried each other regularly, shared many if not all of each other's languages, and whose countries tended to cover adjacent parts of a river drainage system,. It is within these larger groupings where one would find commonality of marriage rules, collaboration in ceremonies, military allies, and many surface similarities among languages. Besides sharing their section system, both groups share ritual scarring patterns, with a dividing line running through the Yugambeh-Bundjalung language speakers with those to the north of the line have patterns that match groups further north (Yagara-speaking groups), while those to the south have patterns which align with groups further south (Gumbaynggiric-speaking groups). The Mibiny and Yagara also share their kinship system (with each group employing their own language). == History == === Pre-European arrival (pre-1824) === Archaeological evidence indicates that Aboriginal people have lived in the Gold Coast region for tens of thousands of years. When early European settlers first arrived in the region they found a complex network of Aboriginal family groups speaking a number of dialects of the Yugambeh language. There were nine clan groups:the Gugingin, Bullongin, Kombumerri, Tul-gi-gin, Moorang-Mooburra, Cudgenburra, Wanggerriburra, Mununjali and Migunberri. These clan groups were exogamous, and men found wives from a clan other than their own. Yugambeh people camped on the banks of rivers and along the coast where plentiful resources provided a stable living. It was noted by early visitors that the local people used a variety of technology in their daily lives, including canoes. Each Yugambeh clan had their own allocated area of country, and domain over that area, it was typically where they hunted and lived. Visitations between clans was frequent for a variety of reasons. Each group also had ceremonial responsibilities in their respective countries, connected to the upkeep of resources, and the maintenance and visitation of djurebil – sacred personal or increase sites. Waterholes were an important economic resource, and would later be the subject of much conflict between Yugambeh people and the European arrivals. Each family group had a number of permanent camps established and moved from camp to camp in response to seasonal changes, their movements were not unplanned wandering but was a planned and logical response to environmental conditions. The Gugingin of the Logan area were noted as expert net makers, using fine cone-shaped nets to trap fish and larger nets 15 metres wide to trap kangaroos. When moving between camps, groups would leave their excess equipment and other belongings behind in a small shelter made like a tripod covered with bark; it was a point of honour that belongings left in this way were never stolen. The coastal clans of the area were hunters, gatherers and fishers. The Quandamooka of Stradbroke Island had dolphins aid them in the hunting and fishing processes. On sighting a shoal of mullet, they would hit the water with their spears to alert their dolphins, to whom they gave individual names, and the dolphins would then chase the shoal towards the shore, trapping them in the shallows and allowing the men to net and spear the fish. Some traditions state that this practice was shared by the Yugambeh Kombumerri clan. The dolphin is known to have played an important role in a legend of the Nerang River Yugambeh, according to which the culture hero Gowonda was transformed into one on his death. === Early European exploration and colonisation (1824–1860) === A penal colony was established by European settlers in 1824, just north of the Yugambeh clans, which was encircled by a 50-mile exclusion zone. The Brisbane area was open to free settlement in 1842. Reverend Henry Stobart wrote of the Yugambeh in 1853, remarking on the abundance of resources in the area, and noted in particular thriving stands of walking stick palms, endemic to the Numinbah Valley and in Yugambeh called midyim, a resource already being harvested for sale in England. By this time the Yugambeh were already cautious of government officials, with women and children hiding from strangers until it was determined they were not government representatives. Henry Stobart commented: > The Aborigines in this part rarely see white men, except very bad specimens > of them – sawyers chiefly, engaged in cutting timber – from whom they have > learnt little else of our language excepting oaths, and by whom, they are, I > fear, in too many cases treated very inhumanely The Yugambeh suffered from violent attacks undertaken by the Australian native police under their colonial leaders. According to the informant John Allen, over 60 years old at the time, and referring to his earliest memories sometime in the 1850s, a group of his tribe were surprised by troopers at Mount Wetheren and fired upon. > The blacks—men, women, and children—were in a dell at the base of a cliff. > Suddenly a body of troopers appeared on the top of the cliff and without > warning opened fire on the defenceless party below. Bullumm remembers the > horror of the time, of being seized by a gin and carried to cover, of > cowering under the cliff and hearing the shots ringing overhead, of the rush > through the scrub to get away from the sound of the death-dealing guns. In > this affair only two were killed, an old man and a gin. Those sheltered > under the cliff could hear the talk of the black troopers, who really did > not want to kill, but who tried to impress upon the white officer in charge > the big number they had slaughtered. In 1855 an incident caused by a local tribesman sparked off a running spree of killings as troopers sought to kill the culprit. Allen recounted the story thus: > 'About 1855. A German woman and her boy were killed at Sandy Creek, > Jimboomba, near where is now the McLean Bridge, by a blackfellow known as > "Nelson." The murderer was coming back from Brisbane on horseback and met > the woman and boy on the road walking to Brisbane. The man was caught soon > after committing the crime, but escaped from custody. He was a Coomera > black, but sometimes lived with the Albert and Nerang tribes. The black > troopers knew this, and were constantly on his tracks but never caught him. > They had no scruples in shooting any blacks in the hope that the victim > might be the escaped murderer. From 30 to 40 blacks were killed by troopers > in this way, but "Nelson" died a natural death in spite of it all, some > years after in Beenleigh.' In 1857, he recalled, again under the direction of Frederick Wheeler, a further massacre took place on the banks of the Nerang River (which may have followed theft on William Duckett White's Murry Jerry run there): > A party of " Alberts," among whom was old blind Nyajum, was there camped on > a visit to their friends and neighbours of the Nerang and Tweed. There had > been a charge of cattle-killing brought against the local tribes, and > someone had to pay. The police heard of this camp, and, under command of > Officer Wheeler, cut it off on the land side with a body of troopers. The > alarm was given. The male aboriginals plunged into the creek, swam to the > other side, and hid in the scrub. The black troopers again were bad > marksmen—probably with intent—as the only casualties were one man shot in > the leg and one boy drowned. The old blind man had been hidden under a pile > of skins in a hut, but was found by the troopers and dragged out by the > heels. The gins told the troopers he was blind from birth. The troopers > begged the officer not to order the poor fellow to be killed. The gins > crowded round Wheeler imploring mercy for the wretched victim; some hung on > to the troopers to prevent them firing. But prayers were useless; Wheeler > was adamant. The gins were dragged off or knocked off with carbines, and the > blind man was then shot by order of the white officer.' In another incident, which took place in 1860, six Yugambeh youths were kidnapped from camps in the area of the Nerang River area and forcibly transported to Rockhampton where they were to be inducted into, and trained to carry out punitive missions, by Frederick Wheeler, an officer with a notorious record for brutality. On witnessing the murder of one of the trainees, the small group planned their escape and, one night, snuck away to embark on an epic walk of some 550 kilometres back home. Fearing betrayal, they shied clear even of other Aboriginal groups of their route which followed the coast on their left. After three months trekking, one youth climbed a tree and cried out Wollumbin! Wollumbin! (Mount Warning), much in the manner of the Greeks in Xenophon's Anabasis. They had made it back home. One of the youths, Keendahn, who was ten years old at the time, was so traumatised by the experience that he would hide in the bush for decades later, whenever word of police in the vicinity reached their camps. William E. Hanlon's family of English immigrants settled there around 1863. He states that the Yugambeh were friendly from the outstart: > There were many blacks in the district, but on no occasion did they give us > any trouble. On the contrary, we were always glad to see them, for they > brought us fish, kangaroo tails, crabs, or honey, to barter for our flour, > sugar, tea, or "tumbacca." Hanlon wrote of the areas rich resources. In a single morning he and 4 friends shot down 200 bronzewing pigeons and large stands of much sought after red cedar, pine and beech were harvested by incoming woodcutters, while stands of the now highly prized tulip wood were burnt off as "useless". Returning to the area in the early 1930s after a half century absence, he wrote: > I found the rivers denuded of all their old and glorious scrubs, and their > whilom denizens were neither to be seen nor heard. The streams themselves > seemed to be sullen and sluggish, and polluted, and wore an air of being > ashamed of their now-a-days nudity. Utility and ugliness were the dominant > notes everywhere. In many places the physical features of the places were > changed or entirely obliterated; watercourse and chain of ponds of my day > were, nearly all, filled in with the accumulated debris of the past half > century or so. === Mission era (1860–1960) === Non-indigenous arrival brought a negative impact on the local people, like alcohol and disease; conflict and displacement of Yugambeh groups from traditional food sources as settlers acquired land for agricultural purposes. The struggles of the original inhabitants was recognised by government authorities, but too often efforts failed to achieve much. Pastor Johann Gottfried Haussmann founded the first mission in the newly separate colony of Queensland in 1866 at Beenleigh, this mission Bethesda was said by Haussmann to be a "heathen mission" to the local Aboriginals in the wider Albert-Logan area: > My main tasks shall be, provided the Lord permit me to live, to do Mission > work amongst the poor heathen. This was the reason I actually came to > Australia. thumb|L–R: Polly holding Molly Boyd, Jimmy Boyd, Kipper Tommy and Coomera Bob on the Nerang River circa 1910 In 1866, a large corroboree of 200 was held nearby which Haussmann attended, meeting a few men whom he had instructed at Zion Hill Mission. Since November, the Yugambeh of the Logan and Albert rivers had started gathering at Bethesda (Wherever missions were established in Australia, Aboriginal people understood very quickly that Christmas was an excellent time to visit – there would be festivities, ceremonies and an all- pervading spirit of gift giving.) Pastor Haussmann is said to have used this increase of visitors as an opportunity to negotiate a contract with the "chief" to pay him five shillings weekly, presumably work was expected in return, but he used the time also to "speak to them about the well being of their souls", gathering them every day under a tree in order to recite hymns and prayer and reading from the New Testaments, which Haussmann would then explain to them. Haussmann's reports record a number of identities at Bethesda, from October to December 1867 a man named Jack was taught by Haussmann regularly, and had learnt to read and write, a King Rohma (a chief of the tribe), and a Kingkame (or Kingkema, or Kingcame) who brought his family to attend devotions each day, he also acted as a mediator to Haussmann's industrial mission at Nerang. In 1869, the German Lutheran Church, again led by Haussmann, secured land for a mission on the western bank of the Nerang River at Advancetown, here they established the "Nerang Creek Aboriginal Industrial Mission". Similar to what Haussmann had begun at Bethesda, the mission's purpose was to Christianise and provide support to the Yugambeh people. Starting at initial , the Nerang mission grew to a reserve of , it was not successful however, with only some minor works occurring before the reserve was cancelled in 1879. Due to an inability to make their mortgage repayments on their sugar business, Haussmann's Bethesda Mission saw its demise. The discouraging progress of indigenous conversion at Bethesda hindered the Mission-work and there was a lack of financial support from the government and the wider Christian network. Falling sugar prices, rust infestations at Bethesda, the incompetency of the mission's machinery and increased competition from neighbours all combined to push the Haussmann's operation into an irreparable financial situation and Bethesda Mission closed in 1881.thumb|Bilin Bilin, sitting outside a tent at the Deebing Creek Aboriginal Mission, ca. 1900|left Deebing Creek Aboriginal Mission and Industrial School was established in 1887, it operated at South Deebing Road until 1915 when it was moved to Carmichael Road, and became known as Purga. Deebing creek saw the mixing of numerous tribes, the Chief Protector of the Aborigines – Archibald Meston, removed Aboriginal people from the Brisbane, Fassifern and Logan areas to Deebing Creek, a place where, he hoped that Aboriginals from different tribes would be able to live amicably with one another. As settlers encroached Yugambeh lands were alienated from their traditional users and by the turn of the century they were being forced to go to these reserves. Many Yugambeh remained in their traditional country and found employment with farmers, oyster producers and fishermen, timber cutters and mills constructed for the production of resources like sugar and arrowroot. Yugambeh people protested their removal from the lands of their fathers and mothers, with protests occurring from groups at Boonah, Beaudesert, Beenleigh and Southport. These arguments were not accepted by European authorities and groups were sent to centralised reserves 'for their own beneft'. The Aborigines Protection Act of 1897 saw the removal of many of the remaining Yugambeh people from their land to Aboriginal missions and reserves throughout Queensland, but Yugambeh people did resis pressure to move, like Bilin Bilin who was able to stay on his country until old age forced him to relocate to the mission at Deebing Creek. Deebing creek had a school and a number of huts and continued to operate until 1948. With many uncertainties and difficulties, some Yugambeh people found refuge in the mountains of the hinterland, while others were employed on farms, in the timber industry or as domestic servants. On the coast, others were able to be involved in the fishing, oyster and tourism industries. At the advent of both world wars, Yugambeh people attempted to enlist but, like other Aboriginal Australians, had their efforts to join the armed forces resisted due to official policy that saw them as unsuitable because of their "racial origin". In a few cases however they were successful, with 10 Yugambeh people serving in World War I, then subsequently 47 in World War II, they have fought in every major conflict from World War I to the 1991 Gulf War. After service, their contributions were rarely recognised by historians or brought to the attention of the public, and they were not paid the same as other returned soldiers. A number of Yugambeh people sort refuge on Ukerabagh Island in the mouth of the Tweed River, which provided any isolated environment to maintain their culture, and by the early 1920s a small community had grown. Australia's first indigenous member of the Australian parliament Neville Bonner was born on Ukerabagh in 1922. In 1927, the NSW Aborigines Protection Board declared the island an Aboriginal Reserve, which allowed to be serviced with government rations. Not all Aboriginal people moved to Ukerabagh by choice, some were sent there by local police to keep them away from white settlements. The island was also home to Torres Strait Islanders who had come to work on the Tweed. Its status as an Aboriginal Reserve was revoked in 1951, but families continued to live there. === Recent history (since 1960) === Through 1968 to 1983, Yugambeh people were studied by linguists, those interviewed were living in the Beaudesert and surrounding areas, Woodenbong, and the Tweed. Anthropologists mapping Aboriginal groups in Queensland also found a number of Yugambeh living at Cherbourg Mission in the 70s. In 1974, members of the Mununjali clan started the Beaudesert Aborigines and Islander Cooperative society. In the late 70s families who resided on Ukerabagh Island protested against proposed development, and in 1980 the area was gazetted as the Ukerebagh Island Nature Reserve. In the early 1980s a number of Yugambeh, sitting around a dining room table, discussed an idea that lead them to found the Kombumerri Aboriginal Corporation for Culture which grew into one of Australia's most successful Aboriginal-owned language organisations, and is a major contributor to the indigenous cultural landscape of south east Queensland. The Yugambeh, represented by the Kombumerri Aboriginal Corporation for Culture with the support and assistance from the Gold Coast City Council, erected a War Memorial on the site of the Jebribillum Bora Park Burleigh Heads at Burleigh Heads in 1991, now known as Jebribillum Bora Park. The memorial consists of a stone taken from nearby Mt Tamborine, a sacred site to the Yugambeh clans. Sources provide three transcriptions for the inscription, which means "Many Eagles (Yugambeh warriors) Protecting Our Country": * Mibun Wallal Mundindehla Ŋaliŋah/Njalinjah Dhagun * mibun wallul mundindehla nalinah dhagun * Mibunn Wallull Munjindeila Ngullina Jagun The corporation established the Yugambeh Museum, Language and Heritage Research Centre at the corner of Martens Street and Plantation Road in Beenleigh. It was opened in 1995 by Senator Neville Bonner, Australia's first Aboriginal Federal Parliamentarian. The museum is the main resource for objects and information relating to the ongoing story of the Yugambeh people, their spiritual and cultural history, and their language. The museum organises education programs, exhibitions and events, including traditional ceremonies. The Museum houses over 20 distinct exhibits composed of over 300 panels. The Yugambeh Museum also maintains records and research on Yugambeh descendants who served in the armed forces. The Gold Coast Aboriginal and Islander Housing Co-operative was founded in 1981, the result of a successful local movement of Aboriginal people on the Gold Coast lobbying for affordable housing to help those in need, this society went on to come Kalwun Development Corporation in 1994. With authorisation from the Yugambeh people, Kalwun operates the Jellurgal Aboriginal Cultural Centre which offers bus and walking tours of the Gold Coast, and is fully owned and operated by the local Aboriginal community. The same year of Kalwun's founding, the Beaudesert Aborigines and Islander society started Mununjali housing, the society continued to exist, however is solely run by Mununjali under a Memorandum of Understanding. Mununjali Housing and Development Company Ltd is the umbrella for: * Jymbi (Family) Centre – A family support service that offers counselling, court support, referrals, client support services and day/overnight programs. * Jymbilung House Home and Community Care – A housing provider and aged care facility. * The Mununjali Pace Program – The Parental and Community Engagement program (PaCE) is a service provided to parents to support their children's education and involvement in school. thumb|Yugambeh Museum In 1998 the Ngarangwal, operating Ngarang-Wal Land Council made a successful application to the Indigenous Land Corporation which purchased a of land at the bottom of Tamborine their behalf, this land was declared the Guanaba Indigenous Protected Area in November 2000. The Guanaba Indigenous Protected Area, part of Kombumerri traditional land, is located at the base of Mount Tamborine, west of the suburb of Guanaba and covers 100 hectares of dense rainforest, vine thickets, eucalypt woodlands, picturesque creeks and indigenous wildlife species. Early colonial timber harvesting and cattle grazing devastated much of the wild- and plant life of the general area, which the Yugambeh relied on for their sustenance, but plants and animals, such as the Brush-tailed rock-wallaby, the three-toed snake-tooth skink and the spotted-tail quoll in Guanaba escaped much of this early damage given the steepness of the escarpment, which made accessing its timber reserves very difficult. Feral dogs and cane toads are a major threat to the area, which remains a key habitat for the endangered Fleay's frog, and is said to be one of the last places where breeding colonies of the endangered Long-nosed potoroo still exist. The Yugambeh train young people of their community in traditional ways at Guanaba, and work with conservation experts to ensure the conservation of the area's landscape integrity. Members of the Tweed Aboriginal community run the Minjungbal Aboriginal Cultural Centre, which is a popular meeting place for Goori people and other Aboriginal peoples. Built next to a Bora Ring, which can be seen from the walking tracks. The museum exhibits informative videos, Aboriginal art, and traditional dance and song on the outdoor performance area. Aboriginal tour guides offer tours through the museum and site, telling you about its relics, plants and animals, explaining how Aboriginal life was in the area before colonisation. From early 2015, three years before the 2018 Commonwealth Games, the Yugambeh people were involved with the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation's (GOLDOC) community consultation establishing a Yugambeh Elders Advisory Group (YEAG) consisting of nine local aunts and uncles. A Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) was developed for the Commonwealth Games 2018, and endorsed by YEAG, this was the first International Sporting Event and Commonwealth Games to have a RAP. The Games Mascot was named Borobi, a word from the local Yugambeh language, meaning Koala; it was the first Australian sporting mascot to have an indigenous name, which was described as "a huge credit to our Elders and their work to revive language in everyday use", and "a powerful message to the rest of the world". Yugambeh elders Patricia O'Connor and Ted Williams, travelled to London to launch the Queen's Baton Relay- marking the first time Traditional Owners had attended the ceremony. After a 288-day journey, the Queen's Baton was passed from New Zealand to Australia in the Māori Court of the Auckland Museum, wherein a traditional farewell ceremony to farewell and handover the baton the Ngāti Whātua elders of Auckland passed the Queen's Baton to representatives of the Yugambeh people. Yugambeh performers were present to respond to the Maori farewell ceremony. Yugambeh culture was incorporated into the Queens Baton with the use of native macadamia wood, known in Yugambeh language as gumburra. A story given by Patricia O'Connor served as the inspiration for the Baton, as Macadamia nuts were often planted by groups travelling through country, to mark the way and provide sustenance to future generations – upon hearing the story, the baton's designers decided to use macadamia wood as a symbol of traditional sustainable practice. > When I was a little girl, probably seven or eight years old, I was cracking > Queensland nuts. My grandmother said "when I was a little girl I planted > those nuts as I walked with my father along the Nerang river" and she said > "you call them Queensland nuts, I call them Goomburra". She planted them > when she walked with her dad, and as an adult she saw them bearing fruit. == Economy == The native economy can be described as well-planned, with a deliberate effort to make maximum use of resources. This was achieved by a regular annual cycle in step with seasonal changes, and boosted with well- thought-out inter-clan trade. Tools and implements were produced from local material where possible. === Cuisine === thumb|Lilli Pilli (Acmena smithii) The traditional Yugambeh diet consisted of flora and fauna native to their region, almost anything that could be eaten was, though certain species were avoided for totemic reasons. The native Gulmorhan – fern-root (Telmatoblechnum indicum) was a staple and major source of starch, and its preparation required careful pounding so as not to break the internal rhizomes which could pierce the throat. Other plant roots were also eaten, like Bulrush, Native Rosella (Hibiscus heterophyllus), Club rush (Schoenoplectus litoralis), Cotton Tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus). Pink Swamp Lily (Murdannia graminea) and Fringed Lily (Thysanotus tuberosus) tubers were taken to eat as well. The native fruits of the Blue Quandong (Elaeocarpus grandis), Crab Apple (Schizomeria ovata), Blueberry Lily (Dianella caerulea), Native Cherry (Exocarpos cupressiformis), Tuckeroo (Cupaniopsis anacardioides), Lilli Pilli (Acmena smithii), Scrub Cherry (Syzygium australe), Native Tamarind (Diploglottis australis), Wombat Berry (Eustrephus latifolius) and various Ficus species were consumed, in addition to the berries of the Barbwire Vine (Smilax australis), Passionfruit (Passiflora aurantia), Raspberry (Rubus hillii), Roseleaf Bramble (Rubus rosifolius) and Pink-Flowered Raspberry (Rubus parvfolius). The seeds of certain wattles species were ground into flour and mixed with water into a paste, and Banksia flowers were swirled in water to make a honey flavoured drink. The leaves of the David's Heart (Macaranga tanarius) were used as serving plates for food. Conical fishing nets were used for catching fish, and larger nets, some 15m wide, were used for catching kangaroos. The most basic way of cooking involved ground heated by a fire which was extinguished and cleared. Food would be placed on the heated earth until cooked, this was a common way of cooking shellfish like oysters or mud whelks. A fire was kept burning while larger portions of food like meat were cooked. Alternatively, the food was sealed inside an earth oven in a pit while it cooked. This is a suitable way to cook birds, especially emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Groups would gather on the coast to fish during the annual autumn/winter run of sea mullet (Mugil cephalus). Similarly, the Yugambeh clans would travel to the biennial bunya nut (Araucaria bidwillii) feasts held at the Bunya Mountains. Other species consumed were freshwater mullet, the long-necked turtle (Chelodina longicollis) and the short-necked turtle (Emydura), and eel. The eggs of the Brush Turkey (Alectura lathamii) were highly sought. Most waterbird species were eaten; ducks were hunted using boomerangs to frighten them into carefully positioned nets. The teredo worm (Teredo navalis) was attained by the deliberate felling of Swamp Oaks (Casuarina glauca) into estuaries which attracted the worm. === Medicine === Dozens of species of plants were used for medicinal purposes, and local people continue to use them to this day. Animals byproducts were also used like the fat from the Lace Monitor (Varanus varius) which was rubbed into the body, while inorganic substances like clay was used a vermifuge. The inner bark of Acacia melanoxylon was used for skin disorders, as was the bark of Acacia falcata, while the bark from Moreton Bay Ash (Corymbia tesselaris) was infused to treat dysentery. Gum procured from the Bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera) was used to treat ringworm, while Spotted Gum (Corymbia citriodora) resin was used for toothaches. Insect bites were treated with the sap of Bungwall (Blechnum indicum) or Bracken (Pteridium esculentum); prepared bungwall may have been an antihelminthic. Milky Mangrove (Excoecaria agallocha) sap was used to treat heat ulcers. A poultice was made from the a rhizome paste of the Cunjevoi (Alocasia macrorrhizos) which was used for burns, and a lather was made from rubbing the leaves of the Soap Tree (Alphitonia excelsa) which was used to disinfect skin. The leaves of multiple plants were used in a variety of medicinal ways, an infusion of Water Chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) leaves was used a healing agent, an infusion of Native Raspberry leaves was a stomach ache treatment, and chewing the leaves of the Grey Mangrove (Avicennia marina) relieved the pain of marine stingers. Some plants were also burned for medicinal purposes like Lemon Scented Barbwire Grass (Cymbopogon refractus) whose smoke provided an anaesthetic effect. Goats-foot (Ipomea pes-caprae) leaves were burnt to relieve headaches and charred Bracket Fungi (Phellinus) was used in healing. === Technology === left|thumb|Yugambeh shield from the Tamborine area, circa 1920s Plant material, animal parts and various inorganic compounds were the raw materials of much Yugambeh technology. The inner bark of many tree trunks was used for rope production, and fine strings were made from grasses. The Cotton Tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus) was used to produce rope for all kinds of purposes, while the inner bark of the kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) was used for fishing line. Kangaroo sinew was used to fasten implements or sowing possum skins and echidna spines were used to pierce the skins. These manufactured ropes were used for net production – nets with large meshes were made from strong ropes and used for dugong and wallaby hunts, while finer rope was used in fish nets. Mat rush (Lomandra longifolia and Lomandra hystrix) was used to weave dillybags. These bags were used for a variety of purposes and were made in a number of sizes, some being quite large. The sap of the hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghami) was used as a cement, and Xanthorrhoea species were valued as well a source of glue. Shelters were made from a light frame covered in sheets of bark tied down with rope; native ginger leaves (Alpinia caerulea) were used in hut making and paperbark bark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) was used to thatch the roofs. Weapons like spears were made from various Acacia species and hardened in fire, while boomerangs and nullahs were made from the lancewood tree (Dissiliaria baloghioides'). The women's implements digging sticks are made from the hardest woods, often ironbark; their points, like those of spears, were hardened by fire. Shields, worked from large lumps of wood, were made from the spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora) and grey mangrove (Avicenia marina). Where it was impractical to use a spear or net to fish (such as small waterholes or broken creeks), various species of plants were used as fish poisons, these included peeled stalks of smartweed (Persicaria hydropiper), crushed leaves of soap tree (Alphitonia excelsa), tie bush (Wickstroemia indica), snake vine (Stephania japonica), white cedar (Melia azederach), cunjevoi (Alocasia macrorrhizos), and quinine bush (Petalostigma pubescens) and the crushed bark of Acacia falcata, Acacia melanoxylon, and Acacia tomentosus; the inner bark of the foam tree (Jagera pseudorhus), a noted fish poison, has high concentrations of saponins. These paralysed the lungs of the fish, making them float to the top of the water, and easier to catch. == Culture == === Oral culture === The seasonal pattern of plants and animals varied, appearing at particular times of the year, and were used as indicators of the season. The migratory patterns of birds was well known, and their seasonal migrations were used to determine if certain resources were available/unavailable. For the Wanggeriburra, the lorikeet indicated the forthcoming mullet season along the coast, while the Pied Currawong indicated Black Bream were available. The flowering of particular plant species was also used to indicate resource availability; Hop Bush (Dodonaea triquetra) indicated the best time for oysters, Silk Oak (Grevillea robusta) indicated turtles and eels, while Tea Tree (Melaleuca bracteata) indicated the mullet were available. Species, like Macadamia, had dual uses, such as being planted along travel routes as a food source as well as functioning as markers for travellers. Local groups used oral poems to encode this information. An example of one was recorded by J.A. Gresty, which goes: > Kambullumm wongara Woojerie bingging Woodooroo wongara Woojerie kunneeng Gresty explained this poem as encoding seasonal information relating to the Silky Oak and Tea Tree and the correlation of their flowering to the turtle and mullet seasons respectively. Knowledge of cultural practices, inter- relations, beliefs, and laws was held in stories. These stories, known as Bujeram (The Dreaming), stretch across clan groups, creating what are known as songlines and in some cases explain the creation of prominent features of the landscape or other natural phenomena. In Yugambeh tradition the people descend from one of three brothers, Yarberri or Jabreen who travelled to the north and established the sacred site of Jebbribillum, the point at which he emerged from the waters onto the land. The origin story concerns the legend of three brothers, each of whom established one of the tribes of the area. It tells of the arrival to this part of the eastern Australian coastline by 3 men/mythical culture heroes (Berruġ, Mommóm and Yaburóng)and their wives and children in a canoe. > Long ago, Berruġ together with Mommóm (and) Yabúrong came to this land. They > came with their wives and children in a great canoe, from an island across > the sea. As they came near the shore, a woman on the land made a song that > raised a storm which broke the canoe in pieces, but all the occupants, after > battling with the waves, managed to swim ashore. This is how 'the men' the > paiġål black race, came to this land.The pieces of the canoe are to be seen > to this day. If any one will throw a stone and strike a piece of the canoe, > a storm will arise, and the voices of Berrúġ and his boys will be heard > calling to one another, amidst the roaring elements. The pieces of the canoe > are certain rocks in the sea. > At Ballina, Berrúg looked around and said, nyuġ? and all the paiġål about > there say nyuġ to the present day. On the Tweed he said, ġando? (ngahndu)and > the Tweed paigål say ġando to the present day. This is how the blacks came > to have different dialects. Berrúġ and his brothers came back to the > Brunswick River, where he made a fire, and showed the paiġål how to make > fire. He taught them their laws about the kippåra, and about marriage and > food. After a time, a quarrel arose, and the brothers fought and separated, > Mommóm going south, Yaburóng west, and Berrúġ keeping along the coast. This > is how the paiġål were separated into tribes. The legend of the Three Brothers is used to explain the kinship bonds that extend through the Yugambeh-Bundjalung language groups, one Yugambeh descendant writing: > These bonds between Bundjalung and Yugambeh people are revealed through > genealogy, and are evident in our common language dialects. Our legends > unite us. Yugambeh people are the descendants of the brother Yarberri who > travelled to the north. In Yugambeh legend he is known as Jabreen. Jabreen > created his homeland by forming the mountains, the river systems and the > flora and fauna. The people grew out of this environment. Jabreen created > the site known as Jebbribillum when he came out of the water onto the land. > As he picked up his fighting waddy, the land and water formed into the shape > of a rocky outcrop (Little Burleigh). This was the site where people > gathered to learn and to share resources created by Jabreen. The ceremony > held at this site became known as the Bora and symbolised the initiation of > life. Through the ceremony, people learned to care for the land and their > role was to preserve its integrity. Another traditional story tells of battle which resulted in the creation of many landforms and rivers across the region. This battle, between the creatures of the sky, land, and sea, took place at the mouth of the Logan river; W.E. Hanlon recorded a version of this story in his reminiscences, which he titled "The Genesis of Pimpama Island": The Migunberri Yugambeh have a story of two men, Balugan and Nimbin, and their hunting dingoes, Burrajan, a male, and Ninerung, a female, whose adventures in chasing a kangaroo from Mt Widgee to the Ilbogan lagoon, mention the location of many djurebil or sacred personal or increase sites, and form the background for explaining the geological features of mountain formations along the McPherson Range. The kangaroo finally leapt into the lagoon where he changed into a warrajum or rainbow serpent, thereafter capable of metamorphosing into many shapes. As they made their way to camp on Mt.Widgee, "wild" blacks from the Beaudesert area (Mununjali clan land) netted them, and set about cooking the two. Smoke from their fire alerted their owners, Balugan and Nimbin, who had been searching for their dogs, and they came across the two half-roasted. They revenged themselves against the other blacks, and wrapped their dingoes in bark for burial back at Mt. Widgee, but, as they carried the corpses away, parts of the animals' bodies dropped off, marking such djurebil places as Mumumbar ( from mummum, forepaw). The two hunting dogs were then buried at the top of the Widgee Falls, above the creek of that name, where they were petrified here at the djurebil of Gundelboonber, with one facing east, the other west. Legend had it that they came back to life at night and would roam throughout the Tweed Valley. The Ilbogan lagoon is thought in local Aboriginal lore to be connected by a passage to another lagoon, Bungropin, ("the place of parrots") by the Mununjali, and the aquatic warrajum was believed to be capable of travelling underground between the two sites. In 1850, the Moreton Bay Courier reported that a guest at a house close to Bungropin said she had sighted there a creature, whose description she provided the paper. === Marriage === The Yugambeh believe that Yabirri (Yahbrine, Jabreen) taught them their laws of marriage. Being exogamous, prospective husbands amongst the Yugambeh clans visited and stayed in the territories of their future wives for 1–2 years as, allowing their possible future in-laws to judge their suitability in character and economic provision. This rite was known was Ngarabiny. > A man marries a woman who belongs to the same section and generation as his > mother's brother's daughter, and who is, according to the terminology, a > relative of the same kind. But she must come from another part of the > country, and must not be closely related to him. The normal procedure was > described to me as follows. A woman who is "father's sister" to a boy, > possibly his own father's sister, would look out for a wife for him. Finding > a woman who was her "sister", but not closely related to herself or her > nephew, she would induce the latter to promise her daughter in marriage to > the boy. A father's sister is known as a Ngaruny, and she reciprocally calls one Nyugun/Nyugunmahn. A rotation existed within the marriage culture, with men finding wives from one direction, while women found their husbands from the opposite. > The aborigines of the Tweed, Nerang, Coomera, and Albert Rivers were all on > very friendly terms and were united by inter-family relation-ships, so that > the so-called marriage by capture was between these tribes often a mere > formality. Older men from one tribe would pay a visit to another and convey > the information that they had a number of attractive young women of > marriageable age. "What about some of your young fellows coming over and > fighting us for them some night?" they would say. "Why, we were just > thinking we might do that one night", would be the reply; "it might be about > two nights after full moon." Back would go the visitors and tell their own > men that it was just possible the tribe from over the river might be over to > capture some of the young women, and about two nights after full moon would > seem a likely time. "When they come over, fight them, but don't fight them > so hard that they will be too badly knocked about to carry off a few > brides." === Music === Yugambeh music tradition made use of a number of instruments such as the possum skin drum (noted as a woman's instrument), the gum leaf, and the clapsticks. The woman's drumming was noted by many of the early European arrivals and along with the gum leaf were considered distinctive instruments of the area. A corroboree held at Mudgeeraba was said to feature over 600 drumming women, while in the early 20th century gum leaf bands were formed; the first record of such appearing in the Beaudesert Times in 1937. > ... last Saturday the natives of Beaudesert and district held a dance at the > Technical Hall to assist the funds of the Ambulance Brigade ... A bus load > of coloured folk from the Tweed district added to the numbers ... the > Gumleaf Band also rendered an item ... Yugambeh musicians also incorporated western instruments into their songs, such as the accordion (known in Yugambeh language as a "Ganngalmay") and guitar. Candace Kruger, a Yugambeh yarabilgingan (song woman), has been active in creating and teaching a youth choir whose main objectives are to sing (yarrabil) and learn the Yugambeh Language. The choir has performed at a number of national and international events held on Yugambeh country. Kruger, along with other Yugambeh people including her daughter Isabella and cousin, Lann Levinge, have worked with Elders to preserve the Morning Star and Evening Star Songline in a piece commissioned by the Australian Music Examinations Board]. ===Death=== left|thumb|upright=1.5|Bilin Bilin Ancestor Panel describing the burial of his wife, Nellie Yugambeh informants elude to one of more souls, one that lingers at the grave, another that upon death "climbs up to Balugan" in the land of the dead, a third associated with a person's sacred site- djurebil, and possibly the , which may have been a distinct spiritual entity haunting the grave and the place of death. Human remains were considered sacred, and burial sites were kept clear of out of respect. Great attention was paid to avoid disturbing previous burials, however if this was to occur, it was imperative to treat the remains with the appropriate respect and ceremony. Burial was a two-staged process, the first of which involved wrapping the body in paper bark and later a blanket tied with a possum-fur string, and temporary interring them within a white ant's nest for a designated time, after which the body was retrieved and a family member, typically the widow of the deceased, would travel with the body during a period of mourning after which they were permanently interred. On the Tweed River, the body was interred on a hillside in a sitting position, hunched up, probably by the breaking of bones or ligaments. The Migunburri buried their dead in caves and rock clefts. The Beaudesert Mununjali would talk to the corpse while it was being carried slung on a pole to the grave site, trying to elicit by questioning who the sorcerer might have been who caused the death. The body was said to buck violently if the culprit's name was mentioned. == Native title == As of 2019, Yugambeh native title claims on their traditional country have yet to find endorsement by the National Native Title Tribunal. A Kombumerri claim was filed in 1996 over their clan territory, but was not accepted. This was followed by a Kombumerri People #2 claim in 1998, this application was also rejected. A larger Eastern Yugambeh People claim was filed in 2001, it was also rejected. The Eastern Clans Native Title Claim in the Federal Court was filed on the 5 September 2006 under the application name Gold Coast Native Title Group (Eastern Yugambeh), and accepted by the Register on 23 September 2013. The application, naming ten Apical Ancestors, referred to territory encompassing lands and waters across the Gold Coast local government area within the state of Queensland. It was dismissed on 13 September 2014 with a Part Determination that Native Title did not exist on lands granted a prior lease. On the rejection of this claim, The Yugambeh clans filed a Native Title Claim in the Federal Court on 27 June 2017 under the application name Danggan Balun (Five Rivers) People. Their claim was accepted for registration by the Registrar on 14 September 2017. It was further amended on 28 of August 2020 naming twenty-three Apical Ancestors and encompasses lands and waters across five local government areas within the state of Queensland. == Notable people == === Arts === * Ysola Best - Author, elder * Shaun Davies – Linguist, activist, media personality * Lionel Fogarty - Poet * Rory O'Connor - Author, journalist * Stephen Page – Artistic director, dancer, choreographer, film director * David Page – Musician, composer * Hunter Page-Lochard – Actor * Ellen van Neerven – Writer * Chelsea Watego – Academic, writer === Business === * Phillipa McDermott - Businesswoman === Leaders === * Bilin Bilin – Indigenous community leader * Billy Drumley – Indigenous community leader * Lambert McBride – Activist * Patricia O'Connor – Elder, language reviver * Ted Williams - Elder === Sports === * Tony Currie - Rugby league player, Qld, Australia, Rothmans Medallist * Jamal Fogarty – Rugby league player * Gary French - Rugby League player * Lloyd McDermott – Rugby union player, Australia's first indigenous barrister * Germaine Paulson - Rugby league player * Jamie Sandy - Rugby league player * Ashley Taylor - Rugby league player ==Alternative spellings and names== * Chepara * Chipara * Coodjingburra. * Cudgingberry. (name of a Minyungbal clan at Cudgen) * Gando Minjang * Gandowal * Gendo. (exonym referring to their language) * Jugambeir * Jukam * Minjangbal (heard at Woodenbong in 1938). * Minyowa * Minyung * Ngandowul * Tjapera * Tjipara. (horde near Brisbane) * Yögum * Yoocum * Yoocumbah * Yugambir * Yuggum * Yugumbir * Yukum= Source: ==Some words== * dagay (whiteman/ghost) ==See also== * Broadbeach Aboriginal burial ground ==Notes== ===Citations=== ==Sources== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * * * * * * == External links == * Yugambeh Nation * Yugambeh Museum * Yugambeh Region Aboriginal Corporation Alliance Category:Aboriginal peoples of New South Wales Category:Aboriginal peoples of Queensland
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The Evesham branch line is a mostly disused English railway line running from via Redditch, Alcester and Evesham to . It was sometimes known as the Gloucester loop line of the Midland Railway. It opened in stages between 1859 and 1868, built by the Redditch Railway, the Midland Railway and the Evesham and Redditch Railway. All these sections were affiliated to the Midland Railway and amalgamated with it. When complete, the line formed a useful route for goods services avoiding the congested and difficult route via the Lickey Incline. It became more important when a line from Stratford on Avon to Broom was opened in 1879, bringing through goods traffic to the route. Long-distance goods services were diverted away from the line over other routes after 1960, and the line declined steeply. It was closed south of Redditch in stages in 1962 and 1963. Today the northernmost stretch between Barnt Green and Redditch is still in operation as a branch of the Cross-City Line. This has enjoyed a revival of its passenger services in recent years. At the other end, a very short length of the original line serves an MoD depot at Ashchurch. The remainder of the line is disused. ==Birmingham and Gloucester Railway== The Birmingham and Gloucester Railway opened throughout in 1840. With the Bristol and Gloucester Railway, it formed a through route between the dominant manufacturing districts of the West Midlands, and the important port of Bristol. The principal objective of the promoters of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway was to achieve a trunk route between those important centres, and in devising its route, they paid little heed to the agricultural districts of the Vale of Evesham, ("one of Britain’s richest"Rex Christiansen, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: volume 13: Thames and Severn, David & Charles Publishers, Newton Abbot, 1981, 0 7153 8004 4, page 58) and other areas of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire. == Construction == === Redditch Railway === thumb|Redditch railway stationRedditch was an important town not far from the Bristol and Gloucester Railway route, but it was not until 23 July 1858 that the Redditch Railway was incorporated. The line was to leave the Midland Railway main line at Barnt Green and run to Brock Hill Lane, Redditch, a distance of about miles. Authorised capital was £35,000 in £10 shares, with the usual addition of loans of £11,500. The line opened to passengers on 19 September 1859, and to goods traffic on 1 October of the same year. There was no other station, until Alvechurch was opened in November 1859. The line was leased and worked from the outset by the Midland Railway.Ernest F Carter, An Historical Geography of the Railways of the British Isles, Cassell, London, 1959, page 292Donald J Grant, Directory of the Railway Companies of Great Britain, Matador Publishers, Kibworth Beauchamp, 2017, , page 467 The take-up of the £35,000 share issue was disappointing: only £27,120 was taken. Worse, the actual cost of construction of the line amounted to £54,574. The deficit on capital account was £27,000, presumably partly supported by unauthorised loans. The Company went back to Parliament for authorisation for further capital, and an Act of 7 August 1862 allowed the Company to raise fresh share capital to the extent of £15,000, and to take loans of up to £5,000, and to create debenture stock in lieu of loans.John M Tolson, Birmingham and Gloucester Loop, in Railway Magazine, November 1964Leslie Oppitz, Hereford & Worcester Railways Remembered, Countryside Books, Newbury, 1990, , pages 31 to 33R J Essey, An Illustrated History of the Ashchurch to Barnt Green Line: The Evesham Route, Oxford Publishing Co, Hersham, 2002, , page 21 The company was merged with the Midland Railway in 1863; the change was ratified by the Midland Railway (Additional Powers) Act 1874. === Ashchurch–Evesham (Midland Railway) === The Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway opened its main line through Evesham in 1852. The Midland Railway saw the potential of the town, and determined to build its own line to Evesham. It obtained authorisation of a ten-mile Ashchurch and Evesham branch, by the Midland Railway (New Lines) Act of 7 June 1861. It was opened to goods trains on 1 July 1864. The first passenger trains ran on 1 October 1864. The Evesham station was immediately adjacent to the OW&WR; station. On weekdays there were four trains in each direction on weekdays and two on Sundays. After a short time there were two trains running through to Gloucester. === Evesham and Redditch Railway === Evesham had two railway lines, but interested parties there saw the advantage of a direct connection to Birmingham, and they supported a proposed Evesham and Redditch Railway. The line was to be 17 miles in length. The Evesham and Redditch Railway was incorporated by the Evesham and Redditch Railway Act of 13 July 1863; authorised capital was £189,600. The company was leased to the Midland Railway on incorporation.Carter, page 344Grant, pages 193 and 194 Part of the line, from Evesham to Alcester, a distance of nearly ten miles, opened to goods traffic on 16 June 1866. Colonel Yolland for the Board of Trade approved passenger opening, and passenger trains started running on 17 September 1866. Four trains ran daily between Alcester and Evesham, with two on Sundays, and after a short period these were combined with the Ashchurch trains, but the Gloucester through trains had been discontinued. This opening left 7 miles between Alcester and Redditch to be completed; there was a 330-yard tunnel under the southern end of the town at Redditch. The line was completed on 4 May 1868. The Redditch Railway's terminus station was closed and a through station was opened about a quarter of a mile to the south.Essery, pages 21 and 22 The new location was more convenient to the town centre. Between Redditch and Evesham the line comprised single track with passing loops; from Evesham to Ashchurch the track was double throughout. The company was vested in the Midland by the Midland Railway (Additional Powers) Act 1882. ==Working arrangements and absorption== thumb|The Evesham loop line in 1868 The Evesham branch (from Ashchurch) was part of the Midland Railway; the other two companies forming the through route, the Redditch Railway and the Evesham and Redditch Railway, were worked from their respective openings by the Midland company. The Redditch Railway was absorbed by the Midland Railway from 1 January 1865 (under powers in the Midland Railway (New Lines and Additional Powers) Act of 21 July 1863). The Evesham and Redditch Railway was vested in the Midland Railway from 1 July 1882, and the company was finally dissolved on 25 June 1886. The Midland Railway had acquired a highly competitive access to Birmingham and to all parts of the country for the Vale of Evesham's fruit and vegetable products; at the same time the OW&WR; east-to-west route (by now GWR) had become less strategically important. ==The line from Stratford on Avon== thumb|Broom Junction stationA line was built from Stratford-upon-Avon joining the Evesham Loop at Broom: the line was built by the Evesham, Redditch & Stratford-on-Avon Junction Railway. This railway was an extension of a line from Fenny Compton to Stratford-on-Avon, called the East and West Junction Railway. The E&WJR; aspired to carry Northamptonshire iron ore to South Wales via Stratford and beyond but had run out of money, and was in the hands of the receiver in 1879 when the Evesham company opened its line. The line ran from the E&WJR; at Stratford to connect with the Evesham Loop line at Broom, between Alcester and Evesham. Its authorising Act gave it running powers over the Midland Railway between Redditch and Evesham, although these were never exercised except for access to the station at Broom. The line opened on 2 June 1879, and was worked by the E&WJR.;R C Riley and Bill Simpson, A History of the Stratford-upon-Avon & Midland Junction Railway, Lamplight Publications, Banbury, 1999, , page 13Essery, page 28 The connection at Broom faced north, away from South Wales; at first the point of junction was in the middle of a Midland Railway staff section on the single line (Wixford to Salford Priors), a highly improper situation. This was rectified soon after the line opened. Broom station was an exchange station only, with no public access, until 1 November 1880. The ER&SoAJR; itself went into receivership in 1886. In 1909 those two companies merged to form the Stratford-on-Avon and Midland Junction Railway. ==Alcester Railway== The Alcester Railway company, authorised on 6 August 1872, constructed a branch line from Bearley on the Stratford on Avon Railway to Alcester. In fact it made a junction with the Midland Railway a short distance north of Alcester station; the Alcester Railway had running powers into the Midland Railway station. The branch was opened on 4 September 1876; it was worked by the Great Western Railway. The Alcester Company was finally taken over by the Great Western Railway on 1 July 1883.Essery, page 29 ==Broom south curve== The junction at Broom with the Stratford-upon-Avon and Midland Junction Railway faced north. For a time the Midland Railway used the SoA&MJR; line as a through goods link between its system in Northamptonshire and the Gloucestershire network, but the poor facilities of the route and the necessity to reverse at Broom to continue the journey over the Evesham Loop line militated against it. Nevertheless, during World War II a heavy traffic over that route developed; the track and signalling on the Stratford line was greatly improved for the purpose. The trains still had to reverse at Broom, and the delays involved in doing so with heavy trains became intolerable. To relieve the situation a south curve was built at Broom, creating a triangle. It opened on 27 September 1942.Essery, page 76Riley and Simpson, page 49 ==Evesham connection== The Midland Railway and the OW&WR; (later GWR) were alongside one another at Evesham, and for many years there was only an exchange siding connection between the two. In the 1950s a running connection was made, to enable Honeybourne – Cheltenham services to be diverted that way to Ashchurch. ==Passenger services== Passenger services between Redditch and Ashchurch showed little variation over the years, normally consisting of four or five trains in each direction on weekdays at roughly three-hourly intervals. These were a mixture of through trains and trains between Redditch, Evesham and Ashchurch connecting with other services to and from Birmingham. In the early years there were 13 trains in each direction between Birmingham and Redditch on weekdays with an extra late train on Thursdays and Saturdays. After the Second World War, services were reduced, only nine trains running, with some unhelpful gaps. An hourly diesel service was introduced between Birmingham and Redditch on 25 April 1960. Peak-hour trains and through workings to Evesham and Ashchurch continued to be steam hauled. ==Developments from 1960== A frequent regular interval passenger service was introduced between Birmingham and Redditch in April 1960. This greatly reduced the availability of paths for freight trains over the single-track section north of Redditch, and nearly all through freight traffic passing over this section was diverted to the main line via the Lickey Incline. Meanwhile, there was an increase in the Woodford Halse to South Wales traffic from Broom Junction, and in 1960 a double-track east-to-south spur was constructed at Stratford on Avon. This enabled all the Woodford Halse traffic to be diverted to the Honeybourne route, leaving only local goods services, and the Oxford-South Wales freight trains running over the Evesham–Ashchurch section. Broom station was closed on 1 October 1962, a few months after the line from Broom West to Broom East had closed on 1 July 1962. On 1 October 1962 the Alcester–Evesham section was closed temporarily to all traffic without warning, because of "the unsafe condition of the line". Next the double-track Evesham–Ashchurch section was closed on 9 September 1963, because of the considerable expenditure necessary to maintain the track for heavy freight movements. The section between Evesham and Ashchurch soon followed, closing for passengers on 17 June 1963. In 1962, British Railways announced the intention of withdrawing passenger services on the 28-mile stretch between Redditch and Ashchurch. The proposals originally entailed the complete closure of Harvington and Ashton- under-Hill stations and the retaining of facilities for full wagon loads at Hinton, with all other stations remaining for freight and parcels traffic. But further developments caused all stations on the branch south of Alcester, except Evesham, to be closed completely from 1 July 1963. These events left the Barnt Green to Redditch section as a short branch of less than . This was proposed for closure as part of the Beeching Axe, but was reprieved due to a local campaign, as well as Reddich gaining the designation of a New Town. However in the late 1960s its service was reduced to just four trains daily at peak times. This persisted until 1980, when an hourly service was extended to Redditch on the newly upgraded Cross-City Line. This was upgraded to half- hourly in 1989. In the early-1990s, British Rail electrified the branch. In 2014 a passing loop was constructed on the branch at and this allowed the service to be further upgraded to three trains per hour. ==Station list== * Barnt Green; opened 1 May 1844; still open; * Alvechurch; opened 1 November 1859; relocated 19 March 1993; still open; * Redditch; opened 19 September 1859; relocated 4 May 1868; resited 7 February 1972; still open; * Studley and Astwood Bank; opened 4 May 1868; closed 1 October 1962; * Coughton; opened 4 May 1868; closed 30 June 1952; * Alcester; opened 17 September 1866; closed 1 October 1962; * Wixford; opened 17 September 1866; original was temporary; replacement date uncertain; closed 2 January 1950; * Broom (Junction); opened 2 June 1879 unadvertised exchange station; public from 1 November 1880; closed 1 October 1962; * Salford Priors; opened 17 September 1866; closed 1 October 1962; * Harvington; opened 17 September 1866; closed 1 October 1962; * Evesham; opened 1 October 1864; closed 17 June 1963; (former OW&WR; station remains open); * Bengeworth; opened 1 October 1864; closed 8 June 1953; * Hinton; opened 1 October 1864; closed 17 June 1963; * Ashton-under-Hill; opened 1 October 1864; closed 17 June 1963; * Beckford; opened 1 October 1864; closed 17 June 1963; * Evesham Junction; * Ashchurch; opened 24 June 1840; closed 15 November 1971; reopened 2 June 1997; still open.Col M H Cobb, The Railways of Great Britain: A Historical Atlas, Ian Allan Limited, Shepperton, 2002Michael Quick, Railway Passenger Stations in England, Scotland and Wales: A Chronology, the Railway and Canal Historical Society, Richmond, Surrey, 2002 ==References== Category:Midland Railway Category:Rail transport in Gloucestershire Category:Rail transport in Worcestershire Category:Rail transport in Warwickshire
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Dennis Ross Bermudezhttp://boxing.nv.gov/2011%20Results%20Web/TUF%20SEASON%2014.pdf (born December 13, 1986) is a retired American mixed martial artist who competed in the Featherweight division of the UFC. Bermudez has been a professional MMA competitor since 2009. He has made a name for himself mainly fighting on the east coast. He was a competitor on Spike TV's The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller. ==Wrestling== Bermudez began wrestling in 2000. Coached by Scott Wickham, he held a high school record of 112 wins and 23 losses. From high school he went on to wrestle at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania where in 2007 he was ranked 22nd in the nation at the Division 1 level. Bermudez then became a college free-style All-American in Akron, Ohio. ==Mixed martial arts career== ===Early career=== Bermudez first started training mixed martial arts in Saugerties, New York, his home town, in 2009. He later went on to train at Blackman MMA in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. He trained at Blackman MMA for nearly two years as he competed as an amateur and professional. Bermudez competed in four amateur bouts before earning his professional license, finishing his amateur career with four wins and no losses. He began his pro career in 2009, opening his career with a record of 4-0, all four won via stoppage. The wins earned him a fight for Russian promotion, M-1 Global. The fight was held at the event M-1 Selection 2010 in New Jersey against Kevin Roddy. Bermudez controlled the entirety of the fight and won via unanimous decision. He was not selected to compete in the M-1 Global tournament, and never returned to fight for the promotion. Bermudez returned to Pennsylvania Fighting Championships for one fight before signing with Shine Fights. Bermudez signed onto compete in Shine Fights 2010 Lightweight Grand Prix. His first fight in the tournament was against UFC veteran Shannon Gugerty. Bermudez won the fight via unanimous decision and moved onto fight UFC, MFC, Strikeforce, and DREAM veteran, Drew Fickett. Fickett handed Bermudez his first loss, submitting him in the first round via rear naked choke. He lost his second straight fight, also via rear naked choke, to undefeated Jordan Rinaldi. After the losses, Bermudez showed interest in dropping weight classes to compete at featherweight. ===The Ultimate Fighter=== thumb|upright=1.1|left| Dennis Bermudez's last fight at UFC Fight Night 143 post fight interview in New York, United States - Jan 19, 2019 In 2011, Bermudez signed with the Ultimate Fighting Championship to compete in The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller. In the first episode, Bermudez fought reigning King of the Cage bantamweight champion, Jimmie Rivera, to gain entry into the Ultimate Fighter house. After being rocked in the first round, Bermudez defeated Rivera in the second round via TKO. Bermudez was selected to be a part of Team Mayhem as the team's first pick (second overall). In his quarterfinal bout, Bermudez fought Stephen Bass. Bermudez controlled the fight throughout round one before winning the fight in the second round via TKO. Bermudez was selected to fight Team Bisping member Akira Corassani in the semi-finals. After being knocked down twice, Bermudez took Corassani down and finished the fight in the first round via submission due to a guillotine choke. With the win, Bermudez moved into the finals set to take place at The Ultimate Fighter 14 Finale. The submission also won Bermudez an additional $25,000 for the fan voted "Submission of the Season". ===Ultimate Fighting Championship=== Bermudez officially made his UFC debut on December 3, 2011, at The Ultimate Fighter 14 Finale against Diego Brandão to determine the winner of The Ultimate Fighter 14. After a back-and-forth first round Bermudez knocked down Brandão and displayed strong ground and pound from the top position but while doing so Bermudez was caught in an armbar that ended the fight. The bout earned Fight of the Night honors, giving Bermudez an extra $40,000 in bonuses. Bermudez next faced Pablo Garza at UFC on Fox 3 on May 5, 2012. He won the fight via unanimous decision. Bermudez fought Tommy Hayden on August 11, 2012, at UFC 150. Bermudez won late into round one after clipping Hayden with a front kick to the chest, a straight right to the face then catching him in a guillotine choke, causing Hayden to submit. The performance earned Bermudez Submission of the Night honors. Bermudez next faced Matt Grice on February 23, 2013, at UFC 157. Bermudez won via split decision. The back and forth action earned both fighters Fight of the Night honors and much praise from MMA observers proclaiming it was an early front runner for "Fight of the Year". Bermudez faced Max Holloway on May 25, 2013, at UFC 160. He won the fight via split decision. Bermudez was briefly scheduled to face Nik Lentz on November 6, 2013, at UFC Fight Night 31. However, Lentz was pulled from the pairing with Bermudez in favor of a bout with Chad Mendes on December 14, 2013, at UFC on Fox 9. Bermudez instead fought Steven Siler as a replacement opponent. He won the fight via unanimous decision. Bermudez next faced Jimy Hettes on March 15, 2014, at UFC 171. He won the fight via TKO in the third round and won his first Performance of the Night bonus award. In his highest profile fight to date, Bermudez faced Clay Guida on July 26, 2014, at UFC on Fox 12. He won the bout via submission in the second round, and earned a Performance of the Night bonus award for the second time in a row. Bermudez faced Ricardo Lamas on November 15, 2014, at UFC 180. He lost the fight via submission in the first round. Bermudez faced Jeremy Stephens on July 11, 2015, at UFC 189. After a close first two rounds, he lost the fight by TKO in the third round. Bermudez was expected to face Maximo Blanco on January 17, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 81. However, Bermudez pulled out of the fight in early December citing injury and was replaced by promotional newcomer Luke Sanders. Following a quick recovery, Bermudez was rebooked and he faced Tatsuya Kawajiri on February 21, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 83. He won the fight by unanimous decision. Bermudez faced Rony Jason on August 6, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 92. He won the fight by unanimous decision. Bermudez faced returning veteran Chan Sung Jung on February 4, 2017, at UFC Fight Night 104. He lost the fight by knockout in the first round. Bermudez faced Darren Elkins on July 22, 2017, at UFC on Fox 25. He lost the back-and- forth fight via split decision. Bermudez faced Andre Fili on January 27, 2018 at UFC on Fox 27. He lost the fight via split decision. Bermudez faced Rick Glenn on July 14, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 133. He lost the fight via split decision. Bermudez faced Te Edwards in a lightweight bout on January 19, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 143. He won the fight via unanimous decision. He announced his retirement after the fight, leaving his gloves in the Octagon. ==Personal life== Bermudez has two sons, Bryson and Maddox. ==Championships and accomplishments== *Ultimate Fighting Championship **Submission of the Season (The Ultimate Fighter 14) **Fight of the Night (two times) **Submission of the Night (one time) **Performance of the Night (two times) ==Mixed martial arts record== |- |Win |align=center|17–9 |Te Edwards |Decision (unanimous) |UFC Fight Night: Cejudo vs. Dillashaw | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Brooklyn, New York, United States | |- |Loss |align=center|16–9 |Rick Glenn |Decision (split) |UFC Fight Night: dos Santos vs. Ivanov | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Boise, Idaho, United States | |- |Loss |align=center|16–8 |Andre Fili |Decision (split) |UFC on Fox: Jacaré vs. Brunson 2 | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Charlotte, North Carolina, United States | |- |Loss |align=center|16–7 |Darren Elkins |Decision (split) |UFC on Fox: Weidman vs. Gastelum | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Uniondale, New York, United States | |- |Loss |align=center|16–6 |Chan Sung Jung |KO (punch) |UFC Fight Night: Bermudez vs. The Korean Zombie | |align=center|1 |align=center|2:49 |Houston, Texas, United States | |- |Win |align=center|16–5 |Rony Jason |Decision (unanimous) |UFC Fight Night: Rodríguez vs. Caceres | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Salt Lake City, Utah, United States | |- |Win |align=center|15–5 |Tatsuya Kawajiri |Decision (unanimous) |UFC Fight Night: Cowboy vs. Cowboy | |align=center|3 |align=center|5:00 |Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Loss | align=center| 14–5 | Jeremy Stephens | TKO (flying knee and punches) | UFC 189 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 0:32 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- | Loss | align=center| 14–4 | Ricardo Lamas | Submission (guillotine choke) | UFC 180 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 3:18 | Mexico City, Mexico | |- | Win | align=center| 14–3 | Clay Guida | Submission (rear-naked choke) | UFC on Fox: Lawler vs. Brown | | align=center| 2 | align=center| 2:57 | San Jose, California, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 13–3 | Jimy Hettes | TKO (punches and knee) | UFC 171 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 2:57 | Dallas, Texas, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 12–3 | Steven Siler | Decision (unanimous) | UFC: Fight for the Troops 3 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Fort Campbell, Kentucky, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 11–3 | Max Holloway | Decision (split) | UFC 160 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 10–3 | Matt Grice | Decision (split) | UFC 157 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Anaheim, California, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 9–3 | Tommy Hayden | Submission (guillotine choke) | UFC 150 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 4:43 | Denver, Colorado, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 8–3 | Pablo Garza | Decision (unanimous) | UFC on Fox: Diaz vs. Miller | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | East Rutherford, New Jersey, United States | |- | Loss | align=center| 7–3 | Diego Brandão | Submission (straight armbar) | The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller Finale | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 4:51 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- | Loss | align=center| 7–2 | Jordan Rinaldi | Submission (rear-naked choke) | PA Fighting Championships 4 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 2:13 | Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Loss | align=center| 7–1 | Drew Fickett | Submission (rear-naked choke) | Shine Fights 3 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 2:02 | Newkirk, Oklahoma, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 7–0 | Shannon Gugerty | Decision (unanimous) | Shine Fights 3 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Newkirk, Oklahoma, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 6–0 | Joey Carroll | Decision (unanimous) | PA Fighting Championships 3 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 5–0 | Kevin Roddy | Decision (unanimous) | M-1 Selection 2010: The Americas Round 1 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 4–0 | Jeremiah Gurley | TKO (punches) | Deathroll MMA 2 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 1:55 | Monessen, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 3–0 | Marcos Maciel | TKO (punches) | PA Fighting Championships 2 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 2:57 | Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 2–0 | Jimmy Seipel | Submission (guillotine choke) | Asylum Fight League 25 | | align=center| 2 | align=center| 0:41 | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 1–0 | Chris Connor | TKO (punches) | PA Fighting Championships 1 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 4:01 | Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States | ===Mixed martial arts exhibition record=== | Win | align=center| 3–0 | Akira Corassani | Submission (guillotine choke) | The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller | (airdate) | align=center| 1 | align=center| 3:12 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 2–0 | Stephen Bass | TKO (punches) | The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller | (airdate) | align=center| 2 | align=center| 2:58 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- | Win | align=center| 1–0 | Jimmie Rivera | TKO (punches) | The Ultimate Fighter: Team Bisping vs. Team Miller | (airdate) | align=center| 2 | align=center| 1:40 | Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | ==See also== * List of current UFC fighters * List of male mixed martial artists ==References== ==External links== * * Category:1986 births Category:American male mixed martial artists Category:American sportspeople of Puerto Rican descent Category:Living people Category:Mixed martial artists from New York (state) Category:Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing Category:Mixed martial artists utilizing collegiate wrestling Category:People from Saugerties, New York Category:People from Ulster County, New York Category:Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
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Apocalypticism is the religious belief that the end of the world is imminent, even within one's own lifetime. This belief is usually accompanied by the idea that civilization will soon come to a tumultuous end due to some sort of catastrophic global event. Apocalypticism is one aspect of eschatology in certain religions—the part of theology concerned with the final events of world history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity (societal collapse, human extinction, etc.). The religious versions of these views and movements often focus on cryptic revelations about a sudden, dramatic, and cataclysmic intervention of God in history; the judgment of humanity; the salvation of the faithful elect; and the eventual rule of the elect with God in a renewed heaven and earth."Apocalypticism." In James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.) Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements. 2021 Arising initially in Zoroastrianism, apocalypticism was developed more fully in Judaic, Christian, and Islamic eschatological speculation. Apocalypticism is often conjoined with the belief that esoteric knowledge will likely be revealed in a major confrontation between good and evil forces, destined to change the course of history.Paul O. Ingram, Frederick John Streng. Buddhist- Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation. University of Hawaii Press, 1986. pp. 148–149. Apocalypses can be viewed as good, evil, ambiguous or neutral, depending on the particular religion or belief system promoting them. However, it is not exclusively a religious idea and there are end times or transitional scenarios based in modern science, technology, political discourse, and conspiracy theories. ==Abrahamic religions== ===Christianity=== Beginning with the Christian theologians Johannes Weiss and Albert Schweitzer, most scholars have believed that Jesus' apocalyptic teachings were the central message Jesus intended to impart.Bart D. Ehrman's Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet Simultaneously, these scholars tend to see Jesus' prediction as mistakenSanders, E. P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Chapter 13, The Coming of the Kingdom. although some view it from the perspective of the conditional nature of judgement prophecy.Christopher Hays. When the Son of Man Didn't Come. Fortress Press 2017.Mark Keown. "An Imminent Parousia and Christian Mission: Did the New Testament Writers Really Expect Jesus's Imminent Return?" in Christian Origins and the Establishment of the Early Jesus Movement, Brill 2017, pp. 242–263 The major focus for Jesus' apocalyptic sayings in the Gospels is the Olivet Discourse in Mark 13 where "Jesus speaks as if Peter, James, and John will personally experience the parousia."John- Christian Eurell. "The Delay of the Parousia and the Changed Function of Eschatological Language". Journal of Early Christian History 2020. In the Gospel of Matthew, the major locus for Jesus' apocalyptic sayings is in Matthew 24:36–51. In addition, many scholars point to Jesus' association with John the Baptist as confirmation for his apocalyptic intentions. In the New Testament narrative, John's preparation for the end through baptismal forgiveness of sins is comparable to the sentiments of other apocalyptic movements of the late Second Temple Period. As attested to in the synoptic gospels, Jesus is deliberate in beginning his teaching with John the Baptist, a reflection on the nature of his apocalyptic ministry. In the Pauline epistles (1 Thess. 4:13–18) Paul states he expects to be alive when the end comes, and this passage is often cited (although the interpretation is disputedJ Andrew Doole. "Did Paul Really Think He Wasn't Going to Die? Paul, the Parousia, and the First Person Plural in 1 Thess 4:13–18". Novum Testamentum 2020.). In contrast, other passages in the Pauline epistles are seen as describing the nearness of the parousia whether or not Paul himself will live to see it. However, these statements find tensions with other New Testament passages, conflicting with texts which form the basis for later Christian apocalyptic theology. This includes a passage from the apocalyptic discourse of Matthew 24, where Jesus states "only the Father" knows of the hour of the coming of the Son of Man. While later Christians favor Matthew 24 over Mark 13, modern critical scholars recognize this contradiction as evidence of shifting Christian belief. This is a shift that suggests the apocalyptic moment will occur at a later date, not in the lifetime of Jesus' followers. While the notion of an apocalyptic Jesus remains the view of most experts, it has not gone unchallenged. The Jesus Seminar has rejected the historicity of Jesus' apocalyptic expectations, arguing that the evidence for it in the Gospels is largely tied to Jesus' Son of Man sayings which they do not consider historical. They further attribute the apocalyptic expectations of the early church as emerging from their belief in the resurrection of Jesus, where resurrection was tied to eschatological expectations in Jewish theology.John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), 227–60.Marcus Borg, "A Temperate Case for a Non-eschatological Jesus," Forum, 2 (1986), pp. 81–102. Some argued earlier traditions in the Q Source and Gospel of Thomas showed that apocalyptic eschatalogy was not present in earlier layers of the Jesus tradition.Stephen J. Patterson, "The End of Apocalypse: Rethinking the Eschatological Jesus," Theology Today 52 (1995): 29–58 The approach by the Jesus Seminar is not short of many critics.Dale C. Allison, Constructing Jesus: Memory, Imagination, and History (London: SPCK, 2010), 116–136 Another well-known but different perspective has been that of R.T. France and N.T. Wright, who argue that the apocalyptic sayings in the Gospels are historical but largely amount to Jewish idiom using language of cosmic destruction to describe political upheavals, namely concerning itself with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple around 70.R. T. France, The Gospel of Mark, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 541–543N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), pp. 329–365N.T. Wright Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay. Early Christianity 2018. Oft-cited are examples in the Old Testament where language of cosmic destruction is used for political catastrophes, such as in Ezek. 32:8; Amos 8:9; Zeph. 1:15.For a critique, see Edward Adams, "The Coming of the Son of Man in Mark's Gospel". Tyndale Bulletin 2005. Various Christian eschatological systems have developed, providing different frameworks for understanding the timing and nature of apocalyptic predictions.Goldsworthy, G. "The Gospel in Revelation – Gospel and Apocalypse" , Paternoster Press, 1994, . Some like dispensational premillennialism tend more toward an apocalyptic vision, while others like postmillennialism and amillennialism, while teaching that the end of the world could come at any moment, tend to focus on the present life and contend that one should not attempt to predict when the end should come, though there have been exceptions such as postmillennialist Jonathan Edwards, who estimated that the end times would occur around the year 2000.Tattersall, L. "Letters from heaven – Bible talks from the book of Revelation" , Perspective Vol. 10 No. 3&4, 2003. ====Year 1000==== There is no current consensus among historians about widespread apocalypticism in the year 1000. Richard Landes, Johannes Fried, and others think there were widespread expectations, both hopes and fears, The notion of a widespread expectation of the year 1000 first appeared during the Renaissance. Historians denounced it as a myth around 1900. There are many recorded instances of both fascination with the advent of the year 1000, and examples of apocalyptic excitement leading up to the year 1000, the most explicit and revealing examples provided by Rodulfus Glaber. Specifically in Western Europe, during the year 1000, Christian philosophers held many debates on when Jesus was actually born and the debates continue to today. This caused confusion between the common people on whether or not the apocalypse would occur at a certain time. Because both literate and illiterate people commonly accepted this idea of the apocalypse, they could only accept what they heard from religious leaders on when the disastrous event would occur. Religious leader, Abbo of Fleury believed that Jesus was born 21 years after year 1 which was commonly accepted by close circles of his followers. Abbot Heriger of Lobbes, argued that the birth of Jesus occurred not during the year 1 but rather during the 42nd year of the common era. Eventually many scholars came to accept that the apocalypse would occur sometime between 979–1042. Under the influence of the Sibylline Oracles and figures such as Otto III and Abbot Adso of Montier-en-Der many felt that the apocalypse would soon occur. Some historians, such as Richard Landes, think there were extensive apocalyptic expectations at the approach the year 1000 and again at the approach of 1000 anno passionis (1033). Alessandro Barbero, on the other hand, claims that the fear of the 1000 is a myth and there was no widespread apocalyptic sentiment. As evidence, he cites that on 31 December 999 Pope Sylvester II granted certain privileges and guarantees to the Abbey of Fulda, without any indication that neither the pope nor the abbot believed that the world was soon to end. Similarly, Barbero points out a document from 3 October 999 in which Otto III grants future concessions to Farfa Abbey. Another document in 999 shows two brothers taking a 29-year loan on lands of the abbey of San Marciano in Tortona, suggesting that even common people did not believe the world was ending. On the other hand, the fact that Otto III visited the tomb of Charlemagne, the emperor of the year 6000 (Annus Mundi) on Pentecost of the year 1000 suggests that even the man who appointed Sylvester pope, had his own views on the matter. ====Fifth Monarchy Men==== The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were an extreme Puritan sect active from 1649 to 1660 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. Fifth Monarchy Men: Study in Seventeenth Century English Millenarianism by Bernard Capp They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede the kingdom of Christ. They also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time. ====Isaac Newton and the end of the world in 2060==== In late February and early March 2003, a large amount of media attention circulated around the globe regarding largely unknown and unpublished documents, evidently written by Isaac Newton, indicating that he believed the world would end no earlier than 2060. The story garnered vast amounts of public interest and found its way onto the front page of several widely distributed newspapers, including the UK's The Daily Telegraph, Canada's National Post, Israel's Maariv and Yediot Aharonot, and was also featured in an article in the scientific journal Canadian Journal of History. The two documents detailing this prediction are currently housed within the Jewish National and University Library in Jerusalem. Both were believed to be written toward the end of Newton's life, circa 1705, a time frame most notably established by the use of the full title of Sir Isaac Newton within portions of the documents. These documents do not appear to have been written with the intention of publication and Newton expressed a strong personal dislike for individuals who provided specific dates for the Apocalypse purely for sensational value. Furthermore, he at no time provides a specific date for the end of the world in either of these documents. See Isaac Newton's religious views for more details. The first document, part of the Yahuda collection,Yahuda MS 7.3o, f. 8r is a small letter slip, on the back of which is written haphazardly in Newton's hand: The second reference to the 2060 prediction can be found in a folio,Yahuda MS 7.3g, f. 13v in which Newton writes: Newton may not have been referring to the post 2060 event as a destructive act resulting in the annihilation of the globe and its inhabitants, but rather one in which he believed the world, as he saw it, was to be replaced with a new one based upon a transition to an era of divinely inspired peace. In Christian and Islamic theology this concept is often referred to as The Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the establishment of The Kingdom of God on Earth. In a separate manuscript, Isaac Newton paraphrases Revelation 21 and 22 and relates the post 2060 events by writing: ====Millerism and The Great Disappointment==== The Great Disappointment in the Millerite movement was the reaction that followed Baptist preacher William Miller's proclamations that Jesus Christ would return to the Earth by 1844, what he called the Advent. His study of the Daniel 8 prophecy during the Second Great Awakening led him to the conclusion that Daniel's "cleansing of the sanctuary" was cleansing of the world from sin when Christ would come, and he and many others prepared, but October 22, 1844 came and they were disappointed. These events paved the way for the Adventists who formed the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They contended that what had happened on October 22 was not Jesus' return, as Miller had thought, but the start of Jesus' final work of atonement, the cleansing in the heavenly sanctuary, leading up to the Second Coming of Christ. ====Seventh-day Adventism==== The ideological descendants of the Millerites are the Seventh-day Adventists. They are a Protestant Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday,More precisely, Friday sunset to Saturday sunset; see When Does Sabbath Begin? on the Adventist website. the seventh day of the week in both the Jewish calendar, and calendars in use in the Christian world (such as the Gregorian calendar), as the Sabbath, and its emphasis on the imminent Second Coming (advent) of Jesus Christ. The denomination grew out of the Millerite movement in the United States during the mid-19th century and it was formally established in 1863. Among its founders was Ellen G. White, whose extensive writings are still held in high regard by the adherents of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.Ronald L. Numbers, Prophetess of health: a study of Ellen G. White (3rd ed. 2008) pp. xxiii–xxiv ====Mormonism==== Like many 19th-century American Restorationist Christian denominations, the Mormon tradition teaches that adherents are living shortly before the Second Coming of Christ. The term "latter days" is used in the official names of several Mormon churches, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. LDS president Wilford Woodruff preached multiple times that many then-living adherents "would not taste death" before witnessing the return of Christ. According to LDS Church teachings, the true gospel will be taught in all parts of the world prior to the Second Coming.Matthew 24:14 KJV Church members believe that there will be increasingly severe wars, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other man-made and natural disasters prior to the Second Coming. ====Jehovah's Witnesses==== The eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses is central to their faith and religious beliefs. They believe that Jesus Christ has been ruling in heaven as king since 1914 (a date they believe was prophesied in Scripture), and that after that time a period of cleansing occurred, resulting in God's selection of the Bible Students associated with Charles Taze Russell to be his people in 1919. They also believe the destruction of those who reject their message and thus willfully refuse to obey GodYou Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, p. 155.Revelation – Its Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, p. 6. will shortly take place at Armageddon, ensuring that the beginning of the new earthly society will be composed of willing subjects of that kingdom. The group's doctrines surrounding 1914 are the legacy of a series of emphatic claims regarding the years 1799,The Watchtower, March 1, 1922, p. 73, "The indisputable facts, therefore, show that the 'time of the end' began in 1799; that the Lord's second presence began in 1874." 1874, 1878, 1914,The Watchtower, July 15, 1894, p. 1677 : "We see no reason for changing the figures—nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God's dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble." 1918September 1, 1916 The Watchtower, pp. 264–265 and 1925Millions Now Living Will Never Die, 1920, p. 97, "Based upon the argument heretofore set forth, then, that the old order of things, the old world, is ending and is therefore passing away, and that the new order is coming in, and that 1925 shall mark the resurrection of the faithful worthies of old and the beginning of reconstruction, it is reasonable to conclude that millions of people now on the earth will be still on the earth in 1925. Then, based upon the promises set forth in the divine Word, we must reach the positive and indisputable conclusion that millions now living will never die." made in the Watch Tower Society's publications between 1879 and 1924. Claims about the significance of those years, including the presence of Jesus Christ, the beginning of the "last days", the destruction of worldly governments and the earthly resurrection of Jewish patriarchs, were successively abandoned. In 1922 the society's principal journal, Watch Tower, described its chronology as "no stronger than its weakest link", but also claimed the chronological relationships to be "of divine origin and divinely corroborated...in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct""The Strong Cable of Chronology", Watch Tower, July 15, 1922, p. 217, "The chronology of present truth is, to begin with, a string of dates... Thus far it is a chain, and no stronger than its weakest link. There exist, however, well established relationships among the dates of present-truth chronology. These internal connections of the dates impart a much greater strength than can be found in other [secular, archeological] chronologies. Some of them are of so remarkable a character as clearly to indicate that this chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct." and "indisputable facts", while repudiation of Russell's teachings was described as "equivalent to a repudiation of the Lord".The Watchtower, May 1, 1922, p. 132, "To abandon or repudiate the Lord's chosen instrument means to abandon or repudiate the Lord himself, upon the principle that he who rejects the servant sent by the Master thereby rejects the Master. ... Brother Russell was the Lord's servant. Then to repudiate him and his work is equivalent to a repudiation of the Lord, upon the principle heretofore announced." The Watch Tower Society has stated that its early leaders promoted "incomplete, even inaccurate concepts".Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (Watch Tower Society, 1993), chapter 10. The Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses says that, unlike Old Testament prophets, its interpretations of the Bible are not inspired or infallible.Revelation – It's Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, p. 9. Witness publications say that Bible prophecies can be fully understood only after their fulfillment, citing examples of biblical figures who did not understand the meaning of prophecies they received. Watch Tower publications often cite Proverbs 4:18, "The path of the righteous ones is like the bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until the day is firmly established" (NWT) to support their view that there would be an increase in knowledge during "the time of the end", as mentioned in Daniel 12:4. Jehovah's Witnesses state that this increase in knowledge needs adjustments. Watch Tower publications also say that unfulfilled expectations are partly due to eagerness for God's Kingdom and that they do not call their core beliefs into question.Why have there been changes over the years in the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses?,"Jehovah's Witnesses", Reasoning From the Scriptures, 1989, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, p. 205"Allow No Place for the Devil!", The Watchtower, March 15, 1986, p. 19"Keep in Step With Jehovah's Organization", Watchtower, January 15, 2001, p. 18. ====Christadelphians==== For Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the "great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together "into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon", and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God."The Christadelphian: Vol. 107, 1970, pp. 555–556. After this Christadelphians believe that Jesus will return to the earth in person to set up the Kingdom of God in fulfilment of the promises made to Abraham and David. This includes the belief that the coming Kingdom will be the restoration of God's first Kingdom of Israel, which was under David and Solomon. For Christadelphians, this is the focal point of the gospel taught by Jesus and the apostles. ====Realized eschatology==== Realized eschatology is a Christian eschatological theory popularized by J.A.T. Robinson, Joachim Jeremias, Ethelbert Stauffer (1902–1979), and C. H. Dodd (1884–1973), that holds that the eschatological passages in the New Testament do not refer to the future, but instead refer to the ministry of Jesus and his lasting legacy. Eschatology is therefore not the end of the world but its rebirth instituted by Jesus and continued by his disciples, a historical (rather than transhistorical) phenomenon. Those holding this view generally dismiss end times theories, believing them to be irrelevant; they hold that what Jesus said and did, and told his disciples to do likewise, are of greater significance than any messianic expectations. ====Harold Camping==== American Christian radio host Harold Camping stated that the Rapture and Judgment Day would take place on May 21, 2011, and that the end of the world would take place five months later on October 21, 2011, based on adding the 153 fish of John 20 to May 21. The Rapture, as indicated in 1 Thessalonians 4:17 (harpagēsometha = we shall be raptured / taken up, "rapture" derivable from the Latin translation rapiemur) is the taking up of believers to a meeting in the air with the Lord Jesus, but for Camping the rapture was also associated with the End of the World. Camping, who was then president of the Family Radio Christian network, claimed the Bible as his source and said May 21 would be the date of the Rapture and the day of judgment "beyond the shadow of a doubt". Camping suggested that it would occur at 6 pm local time, with the Rapture sweeping the globe time zone by time zone, while some of his supporters claimed that around 200 million people (approximately 3% of the world's population) would be 'raptured'. Camping had previously claimed that the Rapture would occur in September 1994. The vast majority of Christian groups, including most Protestant and Catholic believers, did not accept Camping's predictions; some explicitly rejected them, citing Bible passages including the words of Jesus stating "about that day or hour no one knows" (Matthew 24:36). An interview with a group of church leaders noted that all of them had scheduled church services as usual for Sunday, May 22.Church Leaders Across Denominations Reflect on Camping's Prediction NBC29, May 17, 2011. Retrieved May 18, 2011. Following the failure of the prediction, media attention shifted to the response from Camping and his followers. On May 23, Camping stated that May 21 had been a "spiritual" day of judgment, and that the physical Rapture would occur on October 21, 2011, simultaneously with the destruction of the universe by God.Radio host says Rapture actually coming in October – Globe and Mail. May 23, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011. However, on October 16, Camping admitted to an interviewer that he did not know when the end would come. In March 2012, Camping "humbly acknowledged" in a letter to Family Radio listeners that he had been mistaken, that the attempt to predict a date was "sinful", and that critics had been right in pointing to the scriptural text "of that day and hour knoweth no man". He added that he was searching the Bible "even more fervently [...] not to find dates, but to be more faithful in our understanding."Letter from Harold Camping to the "Family Radio Family" , reproduced at Charisma News, March 7, 2012 ====David Meade==== David Meade is the pen name of an American end-times conspiracy theorist and book author who has yet to disclose his real name. Meade, who describes himself as a "Christian numerologist", claims to have attended the University of Louisville, where he "studied astronomy, among other subjects", but, because his real name is unknown, The Washington Post reported that the university could not confirm whether he had ever been a student there. He is also a writer, researcher and investigator who has written and self-published at least 13 books. He made appearances and interviews on Coast to Coast AM, The Washington Post, Glenn Beck Program, YouTube with pastor Paul Begley, and the Daily Express. He is best known for making numerous predictions, which have passed, regarding the end times, including that a hidden planet named Nibiru (sometimes known as Planet X) would destroy the Earth. Meade predicted that planet Nibiru would collide with Earth on September 23, 2017, destroying it. After his prediction failed, he revised the apocalypse to October, where he stated that the seven-year tribulation would possibly start followed by a millennium of peace. In 2018, Meade again made several predictions for that year, for instance, that North Korea becoming a superpower in March 2018 and that Nibiru would destroy the Earth in spring. Meade announced that the apocalypse would begin in March 2018, but he did not predict the exact date. After March 2018 passed, he moved the apocalypse to April 23, 2018, in which he also predicted the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, and Virgo will signal the rapture, and that Nibiru would destroy the Earth that day. However, before that date he said that reports that he predicted the end on 23 April were "fake news", but that the rapture—but not the end of the world—would take place on an unspecified date between May and December 2018. ====Branch Davidians==== The Branch Davidians (also known as The Branch) are a religious group that originated in 1955 from a schism among the Shepherd's Rod/Davidians. The Branch group was initially led by Benjamin Roden. Branch Davidians are most associated with the Waco siege of 1993, which involved David Koresh. There is documented evidence (FBI negotiation transcripts between Kathryn Shroeder and Steve Schneider with interjections from Koresh himself) that David Koresh and his followers did not call themselves Branch Davidians. In addition, David Koresh, through forgery, stole the identity of the Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists for the purpose of obtaining the Mount Carmel Center property. The doctrinal beliefs of the Branch Davidians differ on teachings such as the Holy Spirit and his nature, and the feast days and their requirements. Both groups have disputed the relevance of the other's spiritual authority based on the proceedings following Victor Houteff's death. From its inception in 1930, the Davidians/Shepherd's Rod group believed themselves to be living in a time when Biblical prophecies of a final divine judgment were coming to pass as a prelude to Christ's Second Coming. In the late 1980s, Koresh and his followers abandoned many Branch Davidian teachings. Koresh became the group's self- proclaimed final prophet. "Koreshians" were the majority resulting from the schism among the Branch Davidians, but some of the Branch Davidians did not join Koresh's group and instead gathered around George Roden or became independent. Following a series of violent shootouts between Roden's and Koresh's group, the Mount Carmel compound was eventually taken over by the "Koreshians". In 1993, the ATF and Texas Army National Guard raided one of the properties belonging to a new religious movement centered around David Koresh that evolved from the Branch Davidians for suspected weapons violations. It is unknown who shot first, but the ATF surrounded and tried to invade the home of the Branch Davidians. This raid resulted in a two-hour firefight in which four ATF agents were killed; this was followed by a standoff with government agents that lasted for 51 days. The siege ended in a fire that engulfed the Mount Carmel compound which led to the deaths of 76 Branch Davidians inside.Dick J. Reavis, The Ashes of Waco: An Investigation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), p. 13 . ===Islam=== Islamic eschatology is the aspect of Islamic theology concerning ideas of life after death, matters of the soul, and the "Day of Judgement," known as Yawm al-Qiyāmah (, , "the Day of Resurrection") or Yawm ad-Dīn (, , "the Day of Judgment"). The Day of Judgement is characterized by the annihilation of all life, which will then be followed by the resurrection of the dead and judgment by God. It is not specified when al- Qiyamah will happen, but according to prophecy elaborated by hadith- literature, there are major and minor signs that will foretell its coming. Multiple verses in the Qur'an mention the Last Judgment. The main subject of Surat al-Qiyama is the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is described in the hadith and commentaries of the ulama, including al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Last Day, and the Hour (al-sā'ah). Unlike the Quran, the hadith contains several events, happening before the Day of Judgment, which are described as several minor signs and twelve major signs. During this period, terrible corruption and chaos would rule the earth, caused by the Masih ad-Dajjal (the Antichrist in Islam), then Jesus will appear, defeating the Dajjal and establish a period of peace, liberating the world from cruelty. These events will be followed by a time of serenity when people live according to religious values. Similarly to other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches that there will be a resurrection of the dead that will be followed by a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (The Great Massacre) or ghaybah in Shī'a Islam. The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Paradise), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell). ===Judaism=== Moses of Crete, a rabbi in the 5th century, claimed to be the Jewish Messiah and promised to lead the people, like the ancient Moses, through a parted sea back to Palestine. His followers left their possessions and waited for the promised day, when, at his command, many cast themselves into the sea, some finding death, others being rescued by sailors.Donna Kossy, Kooks ==Ancient Norse religion== Ragnarök is an important eschatological event in the Ancient Norse religion and its mythology, and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history of Germanic studies and is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources and the Prose Edda, composed in the 13th century by the Icelandic scholar, lawspeaker, and historian Snorri Sturluson. In the Prose Edda and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda, the event is referred to as or , respectively), a usage popularised by 19th-century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas, Götterdämmerung (1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German. There are various theories and interpretations of Ragnarök. ===Cyclic time and Hoddmímis holt=== Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end of Ragnarök is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny, understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology". Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after the Ragnarök as well". Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar-Oddr, "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)". ===Muspille, Heliand, and Christianity=== Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment, where the word Muspille appears, and the 9th century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ, where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire. Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök, where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved. ===Proto-Indo-European basis=== Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Proto-Indo-European peoples. Subsequently, theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto-Indo-European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter, the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima. Víðarr's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf. Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills. ===Volcanic eruptions=== Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions on Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá, especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783. Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions, and that he was a volcano demon. Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them the lava tube Surtshellir, a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland. ===Bergbúa þáttr=== Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while traveling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10. John Lindow says that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as in Ragnarök" but that "many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland." ===Modern influences=== In late 2013 and early 2014, English-language media outlets widely reported that Ragnarök was foretold to occur on 22 February 2014. Apparently patterned after the 2012 phenomenon, the claim was at times attributed to a "Viking Calendar". No such calendar is known to have existed, and the source was a "prediction" made to media outlets by the Jorvik Viking Centre in York, England, intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date. The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for misleading the public to promote the event. In a 2014 article on the claims, philologist Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics. ==Far-right accelerationism== In spite of its original philosophical and theoretical interests, since the late 2010s international networks of neo-fascists, neo-Nazis, White nationalists, and White supremacists have increasingly appropriated the term "accelerationism" to refer to right-wing extremist goals and reactionary ideals, and have been known to refer to an "acceleration" of racial conflict through violent means such as assassinations, murders, terrorist attacks, and societal collapse, in order to achieve the building of a White ethnostate. Far-right accelerationism has been widely considered as detrimental to public safety. The inspiration for this distinct variation of "accelerationism" is occasionally cited as American Nazi Party and National Socialist Liberation Front member James Mason's newsletter Siege, where he argued for sabotage, mass killings, and assassinations of high-profile targets to destabilize and destroy the current society, seen as a system upholding a Jewish and multicultural New World Order. His works were republished and popularized by the Iron March forum and Atomwaffen Division, right-wing extremist organizations strongly connected to various terrorist attacks, murders, and assaults. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), which tracks hate groups and files class action lawsuits against discriminatory organizations and entities, "on the case of white supremacists, the accelerationist set sees modern society as irredeemable and believe it should be pushed to collapse so a fascist society built on ethnonationalism can take its place. What defines white supremacist accelerationists is their belief that violence is the only way to pursue their political goals." Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings that killed 51 people and injured 49 others, had embraced right-wing accelerationism in a section of his manifesto titled "Destabilization and Accelerationism: tactics". It also influenced John Timothy Earnest, the man accused of causing the Escondido mosque fire at Dar-ul-Arqam Mosque in Escondido, California; and committing the Poway synagogue shooting which resulted in one dead and three injured, and influenced Patrick Crusius, the man accused of committing the El Paso Walmart shooting that killed 23 people and injured 23 others. Although these right-wing extremist variants and their connected strings of terrorist attacks and murders are regarded as certainly uninformed by critical theory, which was a prime source of inspiration for Land's original ideas that led to accelerationism, Land became interested in the Atomwaffen-affiliated theistic Satanist organization Order of Nine Angles (ONA), that adheres to the ideology of neo-Nazi terrorist accelerationism, describing the ONA's works as "highly-recommended" in a blog post. Since the 2010s, the political ideology and religious worldview of the Order of Nine Angles, founded by the British neo-Nazi leader David Myatt in 1974, have increasingly influenced militant neo-fascist and neo-Nazi insurgent groups associated with right-wing extremist and White supremacist international networks, most notably the Iron March forum. ==Mayan calendar and the year 2012== The 2012 phenomenon was a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012.Sources: * * * This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December 2012 in the countries that were part of the Maya civilization (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador), with main events at Chichén Itzá in Mexico, and Tikal in Guatemala. Various astronomical alignments and numerological formulae were proposed as pertaining to this date. A New Age interpretation held that the date marked the start of a period during which Earth and its inhabitants would undergo a positive physical or spiritual transformation, and that 21 December 2012 would mark the beginning of a new era. Others suggested that the date marked the end of the world or a similar catastrophe. Scenarios suggested for the end of the world included the arrival of the next solar maximum, an interaction between Earth and the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, or Earth's collision with a mythical planet called Nibiru. Scholars from various disciplines quickly dismissed predictions of concomitant cataclysmic events as they arose. Professional Mayanist scholars stated that no extant classic Maya accounts forecast impending doom, and that the idea that the Long Count calendar ends in 2012 misrepresented Maya history and culture,Milbrath 1999, p. 4David Stuart, The Order of Days: The Maya World and the Truth about 2012, Harmony Books, 2011 while astronomers rejected the various proposed doomsday scenarios as pseudoscience, easily refuted by elementary astronomical observations. ==UFO religions== UFO religions sometimes feature an anticipated end-time scenario in which extraterrestrial beings will bring about a radical change on Earth and/or "lift" the religious believers to a higher plane of existence. One such religious group's failed expectations of such an event, the Seekers, served as the basis for the classic social psychology research on cognitive dissonance conducted by the American psychologists Leon Festinger, Henry Riecken, and Stanley Schachter and published in their book When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group That Predicted the Destruction of the World (1956). Some adherents of UFO religions believe that the arrival or rediscovery of alien civilizations, technologies, and spirituality will enable human beings to overcome current ecological, spiritual, political, and social problems. Issues such as hatred, war, bigotry, poverty, and so on are said to be resolvable through the use of superior alien technology and spiritual abilities. Such belief systems are also described as millenarian in their outlook.When We Enter Into My Father's Spacecraft. Andreas Grünschloß. Marburg Journal of Religion, Vol. 3, No. 2 (December 1998),pp. 1–24 ==Zoroastrianism== The Zoroastrian eschatological ideas are only alluded to in the surviving texts of the Avesta, and are known of in detail only from the texts of Zoroastrian tradition, in particular in the ca. 9th century Bundahishn. The accompanying story, as it appears in the Bundahishn (GBd 30.1ff), runs as follows:. At the end of the "third time" (the first being the age of creation, the second of mixture, and the third of separation), there will be a great battle between the forces of good (the yazatas) and those of evil (the daevas) in which the good will triumph. On earth, the Saoshyant will bring about a resurrection of the dead in the bodies they had before they died. This is followed by a last judgment through ordeal. The yazatas Airyaman and Atar will melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and the molten metal will then flow across the earth like a river. All mankind—both the living and the resurrected dead—will be required to wade through that river, but for the righteous (ashavan) it will seem to be a river of warm milk, while the wicked will be burned. The river will then flow down to hell, where it will annihilate Angra Mainyu and the last vestiges of wickedness in the universe.. The narrative continues with a projection of Ahura Mazda and the six Amesha Spentas solemnizing a final act of worship (yasna), and the preparation of parahaoma from "white haoma". The righteous will partake of the parahaoma, which will confer immortality upon them. Thereafter, humankind will become like the Amesha Spentas, living without food, without hunger or thirst, and without weapons (or possibility of bodily injury). The material substance of the bodies will be so light as to cast no shadow. All humanity will speak a single language and belong to a single nation without borders. All will share a single purpose and goal, joining with the divine for a perpetual exaltation of God's glory. Although frashokereti is a restoration of the time of creation, there is no return to the uniqueness of the primordial plant, animal and human; while in the beginning there was one plant, one animal and one human, the variety that had since issued would remain forever. Similarly, the host of divinities brought into existence by Mazda continue to have distinct existences, "and there is no prophecy of their re-absorption into the Godhead." ==See also== * 1975 in Prophecy! * Antichrist * Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius * Apocalyptic literature * Center for Millennial Studies * Disaster risk reduction * Dispensationalism * Doomsday cult * Essenes * Global catastrophic risk * List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events * Tim LaHaye * Hal Lindsey * Millenarianism * Millennialism * Order of the Solar Temple * Peoples Temple * Premillennialism * James Redfield * Singularitarianism * Chuck Smith (pastor) * The Brethren (Jim Roberts group) * Ultimate fate of the Universe * Unfulfilled Christian religious predictions * Jack Van Impe * When Prophecy Fails == References == == Further reading == * Allison, Dale C. (1999) Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Augsburg Fortress) * Aukerman, Dale. (1993). Reckoning with Apocalypse. New York: Crossroad. * Boyer, Paul S. (1992). When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap/Harvard University Press. * Brasher, Brenda E. (2000). "From Revelation to The X-Files: An Autopsy of Millennialism in American Popular Culture", Semeia 82:281–295. * CenSAMM. (2021). "Apocalypticism." In James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.) Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements. * Cohn, Norman (1993). Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith. New Haven: Yale University Press. * Fuller, Robert C. (1995). Naming the Antichrist: The History of an American Obsession. New York: Oxford University Press. * Hall, John R. (2009). Apocalypse: From Antiquity to the Empire of Modernity, Cambridge, UK: Polity. ( [pb] and ) * Heard, Alex and Klebnikov, Peter, December 27, 1998, "Apocalypse Now. No, Really. Now!", The New York Times Magazine * * Landes, Richard. (2011). Heaven on Earth: The Varieties of the Millennial Experience. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. (hard cover) * Mason, Carol. (2002). Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-life Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. (hard cover) (paperback) * O'Leary, Stephen. (1994). Arguing the Apocalypse: A Theory of Millennial Rhetoric. New York: Oxford University Press. * Palmer, James T. (2014) "The Apocalypse in the Early Middle Ages" Cambridge, Cambridge University press * * Quinby, Lee. (1994). Anti-Apocalypse: Exercises in Genealogical Criticism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (hard bound) (paperback) * Robbins, Thomas, and Susan J. Palmer, eds. 1997. Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements. New York: Routledge. (hard bound) (paperback) * Staker, Susan, ed. (1993). Waiting for World's End: The Diaries of Wilford Woodruff. Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books. * Stewart, Kathleen and Susan Harding. 1999. "Bad Endings: American Apocalypsis." Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, pp. 285–310. * Stone, Jon R., ed. (2000). Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy. New York: Routledge. (paperback) * Strozier, Charles B. (1994). Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America. Boston: Beacon Press. * Strozier, Charles B, and Michael Flynn, eds. (1997). The Year 2000: Essays on the End. New York: New York University Press. (hard bound) (paperback) * Thompson, Damian. (1996). The End of Time: Faith and Fear in the Shadow of the Millennium. London: Sinclair-Stevenson. * Thompson, Damian. (1997). The End of Time: Faith and Fear in the Shadow of the Millennium. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England. * Underwood, Grant. (1999) [1993]. The Millenarian World of Early Mormonism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. * Wessinger, Catherine, ed.. (2000). Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases. Religion and Politics Series, Michael Barkun, (ed.). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. (hard bound) (paperback) * * Zuquete, Jose Pedro. "Apocalyptic Movements. "Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 31 Dec. 2012 Category:Eschatology Category:Religious terminology
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A colorant is any substance that changes the spectral transmittance or reflectance of a material. Synthetic colorants are those created in a laboratory or industrial setting. The production and improvement of colorants was a driver of the early synthetic chemical industry, in fact many of today's largest chemical producers started as dye-works in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, including Bayer AG(1863). Synthetics are extremely attractive for industrial and aesthetic purposes as they have they often achieve higher intensity and color fastness than comparable natural pigments and dyes used since ancient times. Market viable large scale production of dyes occurred nearly simultaneously in the early major producing countries Britain (1857), France (1858), Germany (1858), and Switzerland (1859), and expansion of associated chemical industries followed. The mid-nineteenth century through WWII saw an incredible expansion of the variety and scale of manufacture of synthetic colorants. Synthetic colorants quickly became ubiquitous in everyday life, from clothing to food. This stems from the invention of industrial research and development laboratories in the 1870s, and the new awareness of empirical chemical formulas as targets for synthesis by academic chemists. The dye industry became one of the first instances where directed scientific research lead to new products, and the first where this occurred regularly. == Dyes versus pigments == Colorants can be divided into pigments and dyes. Broadly, dyes are soluble and become fixed to a substrate via impregnation, while pigments are insoluble and require a binding agent to adhere to a substrate. Dyes, therefore, must have an affinity for the substance they are intended to color. Chemically speaking, pigments can be organic or inorganic, while dyes are only organic. Furthermore, organic white pigments do not exist, despite the fact that the majority of purified crystalline organic products are white in appearance. This story is complicated somewhat by lake pigments, or lakes, which are dyes modified with a chemical process to form an insoluble pigment. Typically this involves precipitating the natural extracts as salts in alkaline conditions. The historical importance of both pigments and dyes is closely related, as the markets for both, as well as the types and variety available, have always been closely tied. == History == Early colorants date to prehistoric times. Human beings were already relying on natural substances, primarily from vegetables, but also from animals, to color their homes and artifacts. Cave drawings like those in Altamira or Lascaux were made in the Ice Age 15,000 to 30,000 years ago. Using pigments for coloration is among the oldest cultural activities of mankind. The important substrates of pre- industrial societies were generally naturally occurring (cotton, silk, wool, leather, paper) and therefore share similarities, since they are primarily saccharide or peptide polymers. The nineteenth and twentieth century in particular saw an expansion in colorant use and production, yielding many pigments and dyes in use today. The availability of strong acidic or alkaline environments like sulphuric acid and synthetic sodium carbonate was crucial in this process. These conditions became possible due to price drops in reagents due to new industrial preparations like the LeBlanc process, where potassium carbonate formerly obtained from ashes was replaced by sodium carbonate. However, many early colorants are no longer produced due to economics, or high toxicity, for example Schweinfurt green (cupric acetate arsenite), Scheele's green (copper(II) arsenite), and Naples yellow (lead antimonate). The late 1850s saw the introduction of the first modern synthetic dyes, which brought more color and variety of color to Europe. In addition to being multi-varied and extraordinarily intense, these new dyes were notoriously unstable, rapidly fading and turning when exposed to sunlight, washing, and other chemical or physical agents. This led to new systems of categorization and study of colorants, which in turn lead to the synthesis of more color-fast modern colorants. Synthetic colors found themselves in not only dyes and paints but also inks and foodstuffs, permeating consumer culture. === Natural products === In ancient cave paintings natural manganese oxide and charcoal were used for black shades and iron oxides for yellow, orange, and red color tones. Examples of similar earth pigments that persisted to more modern times are the red pigment vermilion (mercury sulphide), the yellow orpiment (arsenic trisulphide), the green malachite (basic copper carbonate) and the blue lapis lazuli (natural ultramarine). Natural sources of white pigments include chalk and kaolin, while black pigments are often obtained as charcoal and as soot. === Early production and syntheses === thumb|Example of the Virgin Mary painted wearing a blue robe In ancient times, through the Industrial Revolution, various inorganic pigments like Egyptian Blue were synthesized, many with toxic chemicals like arsenic and antimony. These toxic pigments were used for cosmetics and painting. In ancient Egypt, blue was considered the color of the divine. As a result, the early synthetic compound Egyptian Blue, became an incredibly important pigment. It was used for the depiction of eyes, hair and decoration in the graphic representation of pharaohs. Blue, particularly ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli remained significant for depictions of the divine through the Renaissance. Pre- industrial revolution painters in Europe used ultramarine almost exclusively for the robes of Mary because of the pigment's great expense, until the work of Jean-Baptiste Guimet and Christian Gmelin made it commercially available in larger, cheaper quantities. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the first products of the fledgling color industry were Prussian blue and Naples yellow. The first synthetically produced white pigment was white lead (lead carbonate). It was known in Roman times. Around 1800, more inorganic white pigments were developed including zinc white (zinc oxide) was developed, followed by antimony white (antimony oxide) and zinc sulfide. The printers and dyers at that time had access to lead acetate, alum, copper acetate, nitric acid, ammonia and ammonium chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium tartrate, gallic acid, gums, bleaching lyes, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, carbonates, sulfates, and acetates. Small scale workshops evolved into ever larger and larger manufactories. Other inorganic pigments developed in the nineteenth century were cobalt blue, Scheele's green, and chrome yellow. The availability of sulphuric and sulfurous acids facilitated further experiments, leading to the isolation of alizarin and purpurin in 1826. Madder based pigments such as Brown Madder (obtained in 1840) were developed due to research by British and German chemists into Turkey red, also known as Rouge d’Andrinopole. === First "scientific" syntheses: aniline dyes 1858 – 1870 === In the mid nineteenth century, the coal tar industry, particularly in England, produced the precursors needed for a large amount of organic syntheses, in large quantities. For the first eight years after the first marketable synthetic dye, Mauveine, until the middle of the 1860s, British and French firms were the major dye producers. The second half of the 1860s saw German dye works surpassing their competition in both capacity and market share. During 1870, German firms were responsible for roughly half of the world's production of dyes and pigments. Aniline dyes were produced at scale, in part because of many advances in the synthesis of their precursors. Antione Bechamp described a process for reducing nitrobenzene to aniline in 1854, known as the Bechamp Process, making the production of aniline easy. Widespread isolation of phenol from coal tar, made its nitration more economical, generally the path of the synthesis flowed: coal tar → nitrobenzene → aniline → dyes. According to Henry Perkin himself "This industry holds an unique position in the history of chemical industries, as it was entirely the outcome of scientific research." ==== First scientific synthetic dye: picric acid ==== The first synthetic dye was picric acid. It was prepared in a laboratory in 1771, and commercially produced by M. Guinon in Lyon in 1845. It dyed silk fabric yellow; however the color fastness properties were not good, thus it had very limited commercial success. It was, however, purchased in limited amounts by French dyers. thumb|A letter with a sample of mauveine dyed silk ==== William Henry Perkin’s mauveine ==== In 1856, 18 year old William Perkin accidentally discovered a dye he called mauve while trying to make quinine from the oxidation of allyl toluene in his home lab for his academic advisor and boss August Wilhelm von Hoffman. Hoffman reportedly referred to aniline, a major step in the synthesis, as his "first love," and was excited to have Perkin working with it. Perkin communicated with the textile industry, including Pullars of Perth, and John Hyde Christie, the chemist and general manager of John Orr Ewing and Co. about how to best market and produce his dye. He started production of aniline purple near London at the end of 1857 and remained the only producer for at least a few months. Perkin began making the intermediates for his dyes in-house, for example, nitro-benzene, expanding the scale of operations. By the summer of 1859, according to a satirical magazine Punch, London had fallen ill with 'the mauve measles'. thumb|An illustration of an aniline dye-works in a journal of the period ==== Rapid expansion ==== By the end of 1858 there were already eight firms producing aniline dyes. By 1861 there were twenty-nine British patents on coloring matters from aniline. By 1864 68 firms were producing dyes. This was driven by the textile industry, which employed new designs requiring the colorful aniline dyes. Even Hofmann, who had at first criticized his student for leaving his academic research of quinine, later synthesized his own aniline dye, rosaniline. In 1858 the German chemist Johann Peter Griess obtained a yellow dye by reacting nitrous acid with aniline. It didn't last commercially, but it created even more interest in aniline as precursor for colorful compounds. French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin reacted aniline with stannic chloride to yield fuchsine, a rose colored dye, the first of the triphenylmethane dyes. Further work by Hoffman along with the discovery of benzene’s structure (1858) and carbon’s tetravalency(1865), this science built the groundwork for modern organic chemistry. In the late 1860s many companies began offering a full spectrum of colors, and were already outcompeting many natural dyes for market share. Prices continually fell, and new colors and products regularly entered the market. On January 1, 1868, there were 52 producers of aniline dyes. Members of enlightened scientific societies from all over Europe competed for expertise and authority with dyers and printers in factories and workshops. Many soluble salts of acid dyes synthesized for textile-related purposes were transformed into insoluble salts or lake pigments by reaction with water-soluble salts of calcium, barium or lead, whereas basic dyes were treated with tannins or antimony potassium tartrate to yield pigments. thumb|Synthetic coal tar alizarin dye samples, 1908. They are described systematically with their properties, such as fastness to light === Synthetic alizarin 1868 – 1873 === The development of synthetic alizarin opened up a huge market that was formerly served by natural dye makers. Alizarin was the first dye whose structure chemist determined, and they quickly set it as a target of synthesis, succeeding by 1868. Other chemical components of natural madder were identified and applied by the mid-nineteenth century, including purpurin, which produced a delicate lilac colour, and green alizarin, which was patented in Britain and famously displayed at the 1867 Paris International Exhibition. Similar to aniline dyes, the precursors for Synthetic Alizarin were easily obtainable from coal tar. Germany dominated the synthetic alizarin market, however foreign competition was not non-extant, for example the British Alizarine Company Ltd. === Azo-dyes from coupling reactions 1878 – 1885 === In 1858 Peter Griess passed ‘nitrous fumes’ (N2O3) into a solution of 2-amino-4,6-dinitrophenol (picramic acid) and isolated a product belonging to a new class of compounds: Azo dyes. Later, a new class of azo dyes that were based on "coupling" reactions entered the market. The new azo dyes were easy to make and assumed a vast variety of incredibly intense colors based on the chosen precursors. The chemists Z. Roussin, H. Caro, O. Witt, and P. Griess all put azo dyes on the market, and attempted to keep the syntheses as industrial secrets, Hoffman, however, determined the structure of their dyes and published his findings. thumb|200px|4-hydroxyphenylazobenzene, a representative yellow azo dye compound This caused another rapid expansion, particularly in Germany. Between 1877 and 1887, 130 German patents for azo dyes were filed and 105 new dyes made it to market. It also lead to a difference in how chemical companies interacted with consumers. German dye firms developed in-house marketing and distribution capabilities coordinated directly with their research and development departments. Paul Schützenberger, in response to what he had seen at the 1878 Universal Exposition commented, "The abundance, the variety of combinations is such that we do not know whether to be more amazed by their multiplicity or by the imagination required to name them. Indeed, it is by the thousands that dyers create, every season, new colors for their sample cards." Professional societies based on the synthetic dye industries began to form. By the First World War, the largest number of dyes sold in the market fell into the class of azo dyes. 1885, an azo-naphthol, Para-red, became the first water-insoluble organic pigment not containing acidic or basic groups. === New dyes and larger markets 1900 – 1913 === thumb|Historical BASF chemical products, including dyes The twentieth century was again characterized by increases in scope and scale of chemical production. Pigments like cadmium selenide, manganese blue, molybdenum red, and bismuth vanadate were synthesized. High purity titanium dioxide and zinc oxide were produced for the first time on an industrial scale and introduced synthetic white pigments. The first insoluble organic pigments, the red naphthols, containing neither acid nor basic groups, were produced and sold. Furthermore, the quality of the new dyes increased. Chemist Rene Bohn developed a brilliant blue vat dye, indanthrone, with excellent color fastness in 1901. BASF(Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik), the largest manufacturer of vat dyes, sold it as Indanthren Blue RS, along with the synthetic indigo they placed on the market in 1897. Allegedly James Morton, a leader in England's textile industry, was out walking when he saw some tapestries he produced using aniline dyes had already faded, despite only recently being put on display. He was so dismayed that he began to have dye samples exposed to the sun to check for light-fastness. He then employed a Scottish chemist named John Christie to synthesize dyes based on the chemical structures that were more stable to sunlight, and began to market the dyes in his products as fast dyes, or sundour, which can translate to "hard to move" in Scots. Synthetic dyes were now produced in Britain, Germany, France, the US, Switzerland, Russia, the Austrian Empire, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Italy. At the end of this period, this grew to include Rumania (one firm), Greece (one firm), and Canada (two firms). The scale of the chemical plants also grew, for instance the Bayer company in 1907 had a reactor to make azo dye with a capacity of 20,000 liters. From 1900 to the first World War German firms controlled around 75% of the dye market. The concentration of chemical producers in Germany was perturbed by WW1, however, and the chemical industry of the United States of America in particular expanded rapidly, although Germany always remained a major player. === WWI and the American dye industry 1913 – 1930 === Through 1914, the US dye market was dominated by German imports, there were only a few small companies and German subsidiaries. With WW1, however, German dye factories now had to switch to making explosives and German shipping was cut off by British blockades. Prices quickly went up and U. S. companies built plants to meet demand. American pharmaceutical giants, even at that time, like Dow, DuPont, and others began to produce dyes and were extremely successful with simple sulphur and vat dyes. Dow Chemical developed a synthetic process for indigo in 1915, and American industry and universities worked together to reverse engineer German chemical production secrets. After the war some American munitions factories converted to dye-works, intuiting that if the reverse was possible for the German chemical industry during the war, then it ought to be feasible. thumb|1881 Renoir painting featuring prominent use of bright red pigments === Artistic use === Synthetic colorants gained popularity as quickly with artists as with industry. The painters of the impressionist school in particular were famous early adopters. Critical reviews of Impressionists’ blues made comparisons to laundresses’ tubs, in particular the practice of laundry bluing, and to chemical waste dumped into the Seine by dye factories. One critic accused Edgar Degas, known for experiments in aquatint, pastel and oil painting as having an obsession with "chemistry," evoking a laboratory in description of his studio. Interestingly, Degas was known to be in correspondence with chemist Marcellin Berthelot, considered the father of organic synthetic chemistry in France. Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s later paintings relied heavily on alizarin crimson. He also employed cobalt blue or a mixture of ultramarine and cobalt blue, a synthetic pigment. New pigments and dyes were not limited to the artists of Europe, even Japanese printmakers were using dyes like rosaniline as early as 1863. == Colorants == thumb|Prussian Blue pigment applied to canvas with oil paint === Prussian Blue === Prussian Blue, also known as Berlin Blue, Paris Blue, or Turnbull's Blue, is an inorganic pigment, produced in large quantities for both artistic purposes and textiles. It has the chemical formula FeIII 4[FeII (CN) 6] 3. With a history dating back to the early eighteenth century, Prussian blue remains a popular artistic pigment. Studies of Prussian Blue lead to discoveries about hydrogen cyanide. It is an antidote for heavy metal poisoning, and is famed for being used to color the uniforms of the Prussian army in the eighteenth century. === Mauveine === Mauveine was discovered when Henry Perkin was trying to convert an artificial base into the natural alkaloid quinine. He tried adding aniline – a different base with a simpler construction. This created a black product. After purification, drying and washing with alcohol, Perkin had a mauve dye. Perkin filed his patent in August 1856 and a new dye industry was born. He at first called his discovery Tyrian Purple evoking the value of the ancient, highly expensive, pigment. Other names include aniline purple and Perkin's mauve. Rather than one homogenous molecule, the original mauvine was primarily a mix of four major compounds, mauveine A, mauveine B, mauveine C, and mauveine B2, although there were other mauvine and pseudo mauveines in the dye product. thumb|The structure of alizarin === Synthetic alizarin === Natural Alizarin was the first colorant to have its structure determined, making it one of the first targets for synthesis. The first synthesis of alizarin was patented by Carl Graebe and Carl Liebermann in 1868. It entailed the dibromination of anthraquinone, followed by fusion with sodium hydroxide. The second, much cheaper, synthetic path was developed in 1869 by Graebe, Liebermann and Heinrich Caro. It entailed the treatment of anthraquinone with fuming sulphuric acid, followed by a treatment with sodium hydroxide and potassium chlorate. Perkin submitted his own patent for a nearly identical process just a day later, and was awarded the patent in England. == Science == Colorants function through selective electromagnetic absorbance in the visible spectrum. A given pigment or dye molecule absorbs different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation according to its atomic structure, and local chemical environment. The quantum behavior of a chemical typically results in distinct resonant frequencies of chemical bonds, which can be excited best by discrete wavelengths—meaning broad spectrum radiation has its spectra changed via absorption upon interaction. The physical shape, size, organization and concentration of dyes and pigments can also drastically affect observed color. Pigments are particularly susceptible to altered appearances based on physical properties. Most modern synthetic dye molecules contain two components. The first part is an aromatic benzene ring or system of benzene rings, often substituted. The second is a chromophore, a conjugated double bond system with unsaturated groups. When exposed to visible light, this is the part that absorbs or reflects color. Other components of colorant molecules can tune intensity, color, solubility and substrate affinity. Dyes and pigments can be categorized according to their synthetic or chemical properties. British chemist Edward Chambers Nicholson showed that pure aniline produced no dye. Hofmann showed that toluidine must be present to produce these dyes. Aniline dyes, including mauve, are prepared from aniline containing amounts of toluidine. One can also classify dyes based on chemical formulas, azo-dyes from coupling, or diazonation—reactions that all have a characteristic azo group. == References == == Further reading == * *https://colourlex.com/ *Venkataraman, K. (1971). The chemistry of synthetic dyes (Vol. 1, 5). New York: Academic Press. Category:Dyes
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Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) is a stress-related mental disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas, i.e. commonly prolonged or repetitive exposures to a series of traumatic events, within which individuals perceive few or no chance to escape. In the ICD-11 classification, CPTSD is a category of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with three additional clusters of significant symptoms: emotional dysregulations, negative self-beliefs (e.g. feelings of shame, guilt, failure for wrong reasons), and interpersonal difficulties.World Health Organization (2022). " Complex post traumatic stress disorder". International Classification of Diseases, eleventh revision – ICD-11. Genova – icd.who.int. Examples of CPTSD's symptoms are prolonged feelings of terror, worthlessness, helplessness, distortions in identity or sense of self, and hypervigilance. CPTSD's symptoms share some similarities with the observed symptoms in borderline personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder and somatization disorder. There exist strong relationships between CPTSD and repetitive adverse childhood experiences, especially among survivors of harmful foster care. In fact, the trauma model of mental disorders associates CPTSD with chronic or repetitive: sexual, psychological, physical abuse or neglect, intimate partner violences, bullying, kidnapping and hostage situations, indentured servants, slavery or other human trafficking, sweatshop workers, prisoners of war, concentration camp survivors, solitary confinement, defectors from authoritarian religions. The undergone situations generally last during long periods of time. Besides, any situations involving captivity or entrapment (i.e. perceived situations lacking of easy and viable escape routes) can lead to CPTSD. == History == Judith Lewis Herman was the first psychiatrist and scholar to propose Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) as a (new) mental disorder in 1992, within her book Trauma & Recovery and an accompanying article. == Classifications == The World Health Organization (WHO)'s International Statistical Classification of Diseases has included CPTSD since its eleventh revision that was published in 2018 and came into effect in 2022 (ICD-11). The previous edition (ICD-10) proposed a diagnosis of Enduring Personality Change after Catastrophic Event (EPCACE), which was an ancestor of CPTSD. Besides the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Healthdirect Australia (HDA) and the British National Health Service (NHS), have also acknowledged CPTSD as mental disorder. However, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) has not included CPTSD yet in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It has nonetheless proposed: Disorders of Extreme Stress - not otherwise specified (DESNOS) since the DSM-IV, which is a mental disorder close to CPTSD. == Symptoms == === Children and adolescents === The diagnosis of PTSD was originally developed for adults who had suffered from a single-event trauma, such as a traumatic experience during a war, or rape. However, the situation for many children is quite different. Children can suffer chronic trauma such as maltreatment, family violence, dysfunction, or a disruption in attachment to their primary caregiver. In many cases, it is the child's caregiver who causes the trauma. The diagnosis of PTSD does not take into account how the developmental stages of children may affect their symptoms and how trauma can affect a child's development. The term developmental trauma disorder (DTD) has been proposed as the childhood equivalent of CPTSD. This developmental form of trauma places children at risk for developing psychiatric and medical disorders. Bessel van der Kolk explains DTD as numerous encounters with interpersonal trauma such as physical assault, sexual assault, violence or death. It can also be brought on by subjective events such as abandonment, betrayal, defeat or shame. Repeated traumatization during childhood leads to symptoms that differ from those described for PTSD. Cook and others describe symptoms and behavioral characteristics in seven domains: * Attachment – "problems with relationship boundaries, lack of trust, social isolation, difficulty perceiving and responding to others' emotional states" * Biomedical symptoms – sensory-motor developmental dysfunction, sensory-integration difficulties; increased medical problems or even somatization * Affect or emotional regulation – "poor affect regulation, difficulty identifying and expressing emotions and internal states, and difficulties communicating needs, wants, and wishes" * Elements of dissociation – "amnesia, depersonalization, discrete states of consciousness with discrete memories, affect, and functioning, and impaired memory for state-based events" * Behavioral control – "problems with impulse control, aggression, pathological self-soothing, and sleep problems" * Cognition – "difficulty regulating attention; problems with a variety of 'executive functions' such as planning, judgement, initiation, use of materials, and self-monitoring; difficulty processing new information; difficulty focusing and completing tasks; poor object constancy; problems with 'cause-effect' thinking; and language developmental problems such as a gap between receptive and expressive communication abilities." * Self-concept – "fragmented and disconnected autobiographical narrative, disturbed body image, low self-esteem, excessive shame, and negative internal working models of self". === Adults === Adults with CPTSD have sometimes experienced prolonged interpersonal traumatization beginning in childhood, rather than, or as well as, in adulthood. These early injuries interrupt the development of a robust sense of self and of others. Because physical and emotional pain or neglect was often inflicted by attachment figures such as caregivers or older siblings, these individuals may develop a sense that they are fundamentally flawed and that others cannot be relied upon. This can become a pervasive way of relating to others in adult life, described as insecure attachment. This symptom is neither included in the diagnosis of dissociative disorder nor in that of PTSD in the current DSM-5 (2013). Individuals with Complex PTSD also demonstrate lasting personality disturbances with a significant risk of revictimization. Six clusters of symptoms have been suggested for diagnosis of CPTSD: * Alterations in regulation of affect and impulses * Alterations in attention or consciousness * Alterations in self-perception * Alterations in relations with others * Somatization * Alterations in systems of meaning Experiences in these areas may include: * Changes in emotional regulation, including experiences such as persistent dysphoria, chronic suicidal preoccupation, self-injury, explosive or extremely inhibited anger (may alternate), and compulsive or extremely inhibited sexuality (may alternate). * Variations in consciousness, such as amnesia or improved recall for traumatic events, episodes of dissociation, depersonalization/derealization, and reliving experiences (either in the form of intrusive PTSD symptoms or in ruminative preoccupation). * Changes in self-perception, such as a sense of helplessness or paralysis of initiative, shame, guilt and self-blame, a sense of defilement or stigma, and a sense of being completely different from other human beings (may include a sense of specialness, utter aloneness, a belief that no other person can understand, or a feeling of nonhuman identity). * Varied changes in perception of the perpetrators, such as a preoccupation with the relationship with a perpetrator (including a preoccupation with revenge), an unrealistic attribution of total power to a perpetrator (though the individual's assessment may be more realistic than the clinician's), idealization or paradoxical gratitude, a sense of a special or supernatural relationship with a perpetrator, and acceptance of a perpetrator's belief system or rationalizations. * Alterations in relations with others, such as isolation and withdrawal, disruption in intimate relationships, a repeated search for a rescuer (may alternate with isolation and withdrawal), persistent distrust, and repeated failures of self-protection. * Changes in systems of meaning, such as a loss of sustaining faith and a sense of hopelessness and despair. == Diagnosis == CPTSD was considered for inclusion in the DSM-IV, but it was finally excluded of the published version in 1994. It was also excluded from the DSM-5, which still lists post-traumatic stress disorder. However the ICD-11 has included CPTSD since its initial publication in 2018 and there exists an official psychometrics for assessing the ICD-11 CPTSD, which is the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ). === Differential diagnosis === ==== Post-traumatic stress disorder ==== Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was included in the DSM-III (1980), mainly due to the relatively large numbers of American combat veterans of the Vietnam War who were seeking treatment for the lingering effects of combat stress. In the 1980s, various researchers and clinicians suggested that PTSD might also accurately describe the sequelae of such traumas as child sexual abuse and domestic abuse. However, it was soon suggested that PTSD failed to account for the cluster of symptoms that were often observed in cases of prolonged abuse, particularly that which was perpetrated against children by caregivers during multiple childhood and adolescent developmental stages. Such patients were often extremely difficult to treat with established methods. PTSD descriptions fail to capture some of the core characteristics of CPTSD. These elements include captivity, psychological fragmentation, the loss of a sense of safety, trust, and self- worth, as well as the tendency to be revictimized. Most importantly, there is a loss of a coherent sense of self: this loss, and the ensuing symptom profile, most pointedly differentiates CPTSD from PTSD. CPTSD is also characterized by attachment disorder, particularly the pervasive insecure, or disorganized-type attachment. DSM-IV (1994) dissociative disorders and PTSD do not include insecure attachment in their criteria. As a consequence of this aspect of CPTSD, when some adults with CPTSD become parents and confront their own children's attachment needs, they may have particular difficulty in responding sensitively especially to their infants' and young children's routine distress – such as during routine separations, despite these parents' best intentions and efforts. Although the great majority of survivors do not abuse others, this difficulty in parenting may have adverse repercussions for their children's social and emotional development if parents with this condition and their children do not receive appropriate treatment. Thus, a differentiation between the diagnostic category of CPTSD and that of PTSD has been suggested. CPTSD better describes the pervasive negative impact of chronic repetitive trauma than does PTSD alone. PTSD can exist alongside CPTSD; however a sole diagnosis of PTSD often does not sufficiently encapsulate the breadth of symptoms experienced by those who have experienced prolonged traumatic experience, and therefore CPTSD extends beyond the PTSD parameters. Continuous traumatic stress disorder (CTSD), which was introduced into the trauma literature by Gill Straker in 1987, differs from CPTSD. It was originally used by South African clinicians to describe the effects of exposure to frequent, high levels of violence usually associated with civil conflict and political repression. The term is applicable to the effects of exposure to contexts in which gang violence and crime are endemic as well as to the effects of ongoing exposure to life threats in high-risk occupations such as police, fire and emergency services. It has also been used to describe ongoing relationship trauma frequently experienced by people leaving relationships which involved intimate partner violence. ==== Traumatic grief ==== Traumatic grief or complicated mourning are conditions where both trauma and grief coincide. There are conceptual links between trauma and bereavement since loss of a loved one is inherently traumatic. If a traumatic event was life-threatening, but did not result in a death, then it is more likely that the survivor will experience post-traumatic stress symptoms. If a person dies, and the survivor was close to the person who died, then it is more likely that symptoms of grief will also develop. When the death is of a loved one, and was sudden or violent, then both symptoms often coincide. This is likely in children exposed to community violence. For CPTSD to manifest traumatic grief, the violence would occur under conditions of captivity, loss of control and disempowerment, coinciding with the death of a friend or loved one in life- threatening circumstances. This again is most likely for children and stepchildren who experience prolonged domestic or chronic community violence that ultimately results in the death of friends and loved ones. The phenomenon of the increased risk of violence and death of stepchildren is referred to as the Cinderella effect. ====Borderline personality disorder==== CPTSD may share some symptoms with both PTSD and borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, there is enough evidence to also differentiate CPTSD from borderline personality disorder. It may help to understand the intersection of attachment theory with CPTSD and BPD if one reads the following opinion of Bessel A. van der Kolk together with an understanding drawn from a description of BPD: However, CPTSD and BPD have been found by some researchers to be distinctive disorders with different features. Those with CPTSD do not fear abandonment or have unstable patterns of relations; rather, they withdraw. There are distinct and notably large differences between BPD and CPTSD and while there are some similarities – predominantly in terms of issues with attachment (though this plays out in different ways) and trouble regulating strong emotional affects – the disorders are different in nature. In addition, 25% of those diagnosed with BPD have no known history of childhood neglect or abuse and individuals are six times as likely to develop BPD if they have a relative who was diagnosed so compared to those who do not. One conclusion is that there is a genetic predisposition to BPD unrelated to trauma. Researchers conducting a longitudinal investigation of identical twins found that "genetic factors play a major role in individual differences of borderline personality disorder features in Western society." A 2014 study published in European Journal of Psychotraumatology was able to compare and contrast CPTSD, PTSD, Borderline Personality Disorder and found that it could distinguish between individual cases of each and when it was co-morbid, arguing for a case of separate diagnoses for each. BPD may be confused with CPTSD by some without proper knowledge of the two conditions because those with BPD also tend to have PTSD or to have some history of trauma. In Trauma and Recovery, Herman expresses the additional concern that patients with CPTSD frequently risk being misunderstood as inherently 'dependent', 'masochistic', or 'self-defeating', comparing this attitude to the historical misdiagnosis of female hysteria. However, those who develop CPTSD do so as a result of the intensity of the traumatic bond – in which someone becomes tightly biochemically bound to someone who abuses them and the responses they learned to survive, navigate and deal with the abuse they suffered then become automatic responses, imbedded in their personality over the years of trauma – a normal reaction to an abnormal situation. == Treatment == While standard evidence-based treatments may be effective for treating post traumatic stress disorder, treating complex PTSD often involves addressing interpersonal relational difficulties and a different set of symptoms which make it more challenging to treat. According to the United States Department of Veteran Affairs: ===Children=== The utility of PTSD-derived psychotherapies for assisting children with CPTSD is uncertain. This area of diagnosis and treatment calls for caution in use of the category CPTSD. Julian Ford and Bessel van der Kolk have suggested that CPTSD may not be as useful a category for diagnosis and treatment of children as a proposed category of developmental trauma disorder (DTD). According to Courtois and Ford, for DTD to be diagnosed it requires a Since CPTSD or DTD in children is often caused by chronic maltreatment, neglect or abuse in a care-giving relationship the first element of the biopsychosocial system to address is that relationship. This invariably involves some sort of child protection agency. This both widens the range of support that can be given to the child but also the complexity of the situation, since the agency's statutory legal obligations may then need to be enforced. A number of practical, therapeutic and ethical principles for assessment and intervention have been developed and explored in the field: * Identifying and addressing threats to the child's or family's safety and stability are the first priority. * A relational bridge must be developed to engage, retain and maximize the benefit for the child and caregiver. * Diagnosis, treatment planning and outcome monitoring are always relational (and) strengths based. * All phases of treatment should aim to enhance self- regulation competencies. * Determining with whom, when and how to address traumatic memories. * Preventing and managing relational discontinuities and psychosocial crises. === Adults === ====Trauma recovery model==== Judith Lewis Herman, in her book, Trauma and Recovery, proposed a complex trauma recovery model that occurs in three stages: # Establishing safety # Remembrance and mourning for what was lost # Reconnecting with community and more broadly, society Herman believes recovery can only occur within a healing relationship and only if the survivor is empowered by that relationship. This healing relationship need not be romantic or sexual in the colloquial sense of "relationship", however, and can also include relationships with friends, co- workers, one's relatives or children, and the therapeutic relationship. However, the first stage of establishing safety must always include a thorough evaluation of the surroundings, which might include abusive relationships. This stage might involve the need for major life changes for some patients. > Securing a safe environment requires strategic attention to the patient's > economic and social ecosystem. The patient must become aware of her own > resources for practical and emotional support as well as the realistic > dangers and vulnerabilities in her social situation. Many patients are > unable to move forward in their recovery because of their present > involvement in unsafe or oppressive relationships. In order to gain their > autonomy and their peace of mind, survivors may have to make difficult and > painful life choices. Battered women may lose their homes, their friends, > and their livelihood. Survivors of childhood abuse may lose their families. > Political refugees may lose their homes and their homeland. The social > obstacles to recovery are not generally recognized, but they must be > identified and adequately addressed in order for recovery to proceed. Complex trauma means complex reactions and this leads to complex treatments. Hence, treatment for CPTSD requires a multi-modal approach. It has been suggested that treatment for complex PTSD should differ from treatment for PTSD by focusing on problems that cause more functional impairment than the PTSD symptoms. These problems include emotional dysregulation, dissociation, and interpersonal problems. Six suggested core components of complex trauma treatment include: * Safety * Self-regulation * Self-reflective information processing * Traumatic experiences integration * Relational engagement * Positive affect enhancement The above components can be conceptualized as a model with three phases. Every case will not be the same, but one can expect the first phase to consist of teaching adequate coping strategies and addressing safety concerns. The next phase would focus on decreasing avoidance of traumatic stimuli and applying coping skills learned in phase one. The care provider may also begin challenging assumptions about the trauma and introducing alternative narratives about the trauma. The final phase would consist of solidifying what has previously been learned and transferring these strategies to future stressful events. ==== Neuroscientific and trauma informed interventions ==== In practice, the forms of treatment and intervention varies from individual to individual since there is a wide spectrum of childhood experiences of developmental trauma and symptomatology and not all survivors respond positively, uniformly, to the same treatment. Therefore, treatment is generally tailored to the individual.| Recent neuroscientific research has shed some light on the impact that severe childhood abuse and neglect (trauma) has on a child's developing brain, specifically as it relates to the development in brain structures, function and connectivity among children from infancy to adulthood. This understanding of the neurophysiological underpinning of complex trauma phenomena is what currently is referred to in the field of traumatology as 'trauma informed' which has become the rationale which has influenced the development of new treatments specifically targeting those with childhood developmental trauma. Martin Teicher, a Harvard psychiatrist and researcher, has suggested that the development of specific complex trauma related symptomatology (and in fact the development of many adult onset psychopathologies) may be connected to gender differences and at what stage of childhood development trauma, abuse or neglect occurred. For example, it is well established that the development of dissociative identity disorder among women is often associated with early childhood sexual abuse. ==== Use of evidence-based treatment and its limitations ==== One of the current challenges faced by many survivors of complex trauma (or developmental trauma disorder) is support for treatment since many of the current therapies are relatively expensive and not all forms of therapy or intervention are reimbursed by insurance companies who use evidence-based practice as a criterion for reimbursement. Cognitive behavioral therapy, prolonged exposure therapy and dialectical behavioral therapy are well established forms of evidence-based intervention. These treatments are approved and endorsed by the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association and the Veteran's Administration. While standard evidence-based treatments may be effective for treating standard post- traumatic stress disorder, treating complex PTSD often involves addressing interpersonal relational difficulties and a different set of symptoms which make it more challenging to treat. The United States Department of Veterans Affairs acknowledges, For example, "Limited evidence suggests that predominantly [Cognitive behavioral therapy] treatments are effective, but do not suffice to achieve satisfactory end states, especially in Complex PTSD populations." ==== Treatment challenges ==== It is widely acknowledged by those who work in the trauma field that there is no one single, standard, 'one size fits all' treatment for complex PTSD. There is also no clear consensus regarding the best treatment among the greater mental health professional community which included clinical psychologists, social workers, licensed therapists (MFTs) and psychiatrists. Although most trauma neuroscientifically informed practitioners understand the importance of utilizing a combination of both 'top down' and 'bottom up' interventions as well as including somatic interventions (sensorimotor psychotherapy or somatic experiencing or yoga) for the purposes of processing and integrating trauma memories. Survivors with complex trauma often struggle to find a mental health professional who is properly trained in trauma informed practices. They can also be challenging to receive adequate treatment and services to treat a mental health condition which is not universally recognized or well understood by general practitioners. Allistair and Hull echo the sentiment of many other trauma neuroscience researchers (including Bessel van der Kolk and Bruce D. Perry) who argue: Complex post trauma stress disorder is a long term mental health condition which is often difficult and relatively expensive to treat and often requires several years of psychotherapy, modes of intervention and treatment by highly skilled, mental health professionals who specialize in trauma informed modalities designed to process and integrate childhood trauma memories for the purposes of mitigating symptoms and improving the survivor's quality of life. Delaying therapy for people with complex PTSD, whether intentionally or not, can exacerbate the condition. ==== Recommended treatment modalities and interventions ==== There is no one treatment which has been designed specifically for use with the adult complex PTSD population (with the exception of component based psychotherapy) there are many therapeutic interventions used by mental health professionals to treat PTSD. , the American Psychological Association PTSD Guideline Development Panel (GDP) strongly recommends the following for the treatment of PTSD: # Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and trauma focused CBT # Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) # Cognitive therapy (CT) # Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) The American Psychological Association also conditionally recommends # Brief eclectic psychotherapy (BEP) # Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) # Narrative exposure therapy (NET) While these treatments have been recommended, there is still a lack of research on the best and most efficacious treatments for complex PTSD. Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy, eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy are effective in treating CPTSD symptoms like PTSD, depression and anxiety. They are especially effective for complex trauma related to domestic violence and less effective when the condition is related to experiences of war or childhood sexual abuse. For CPTSD due to war or childhood sexual abuse mixing elements of different therapies seems to work better. Mindfulness and relaxation is effective for PTSD symptoms, emotion regulation and interpersonal problems for people whose complex trauma is related to sexual abuse. Antipsychotic medicine can help reducing PTSD symptoms for veterans. Many commonly used treatments are considered complementary or alternative since there still is a lack of research to classify these approaches as evidence based. Some of these additional interventions and modalities include: * biofeedback * dyadic resourcing (used with EMDR) * emotionally focused therapy * emotional freedom technique (EFT) or tapping * equine-assisted therapy * expressive arts therapy * internal family systems therapy * dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) * family systems therapy * group therapy * neurofeedback * psychodynamic therapy * sensorimotor psychotherapy * somatic experiencing * yoga, specifically trauma-sensitive yoga === Arguments against diagnosis === Though acceptance of the idea of complex PTSD has increased with mental health professionals, the fundamental research required for the proper validation of a new disorder is insufficient as of 2013. The disorder was proposed under the name DES-NOS (Disorder of Extreme Stress Not Otherwise Specified) for inclusion in the DSM- IV but was rejected by members of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) committee of the American Psychiatric Association for lack of sufficient diagnostic validity research. Chief among the stated limitations was a study which showed that 95% of individuals who could be diagnosed with the proposed DES-NOS were also diagnosable with PTSD, raising questions about the added usefulness of an additional disorder. Following the failure of DES-NOS to gain formal recognition in the DSM-IV, the concept was re-packaged for children and adolescents and given a new name, developmental trauma disorder. Supporters of DTD appealed to the developers of the DSM-5 to recognize DTD as a new disorder. Just as the developers of DSM-IV refused to included DES-NOS, the developers of DSM-5 refused to include DTD due to a perceived lack of sufficient research. One of the main justifications offered for this proposed disorder has been that the current system of diagnosing PTSD plus comorbid disorders does not capture the wide array of symptoms in one diagnosis. Because individuals who suffered repeated and prolonged traumas often show PTSD plus other concurrent psychiatric disorders, some researchers have argued that a single broad disorder such as CPTSD provides a better and more parsimonious diagnosis than the current system of PTSD plus concurrent disorders. Conversely, an article published in BioMed Central has posited there is no evidence that being labeled with a single disorder leads to better treatment than being labeled with PTSD plus concurrent disorders. Complex PTSD embraces a wider range of symptoms relative to PTSD, specifically emphasizing problems of emotional regulation, negative self-concept, and interpersonal problems. Diagnosing complex PTSD can imply that this wider range of symptoms is caused by traumatic experiences, rather than acknowledging any pre-existing experiences of trauma which could lead to a higher risk of experiencing future traumas. It also asserts that this wider range of symptoms and higher risk of traumatization are related by hidden confounder variables and there is no causal relationship between symptoms and trauma experiences. In the diagnosis of PTSD, the definition of the stressor event is narrowly limited to life- threatening events, with the implication that these are typically sudden and unexpected events. Complex PTSD vastly widened the definition of potential stressor events by calling them adverse events, and deliberating dropping reference to life-threatening, so that experiences can be included such as neglect, emotional abuse, or living in a war zone without having specifically experienced life-threatening events. By broadening the stressor criterion, an article published by the Child and Youth Care Forum claims this has led to confusing differences between competing definitions of complex PTSD, undercutting the clear operationalization of symptoms seen as one of the successes of the DSM. There are no known case reports with prospective repeated assessments to clearly demonstrate that the alleged symptoms followed the adverse events. Instead, supporters of complex PTSD have pushed for recognition of a disorder before conducting any of the prospective repeated assessments that are needed. == See also == * * * * * == References == == Further reading == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * * APA practice parameters for assessment and treatment for PTSD (Updated 2017) Category:Anxiety disorders Category:Post-traumatic stress disorder Category:Traumatology Category:Stress-related disorders
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Fanatics, Inc. is an American manufacturer and online retailer of licensed sportswear, sports collectibles, NFTs, trading cards, and sports merchandise, as well as sports betting and iGaming. The company began as an American online retailer of licensed sportswear and merchandise, which operates the e-commerce businesses of major professional sports leagues and media brands, as well as hundreds of collegiate and professional team properties. == History == Michael G. Rubin is the CEO of Fanatics. In 1998, Rubin created an apparel and logistics company, Global Sports Incorporated, which would later turn into GSI Commerce, a multibillion-dollar e-commerce company. In 2011, Rubin acquired Fanatics from its founders, brothers Alan and Mitchell Trager; the Florida- based sports retailer had an e-commerce presence across college and professional teams, and the new assets merged into GSI. Rubin sold GSI to eBay later that year for $2.4 billion and bought back the sports e-commerce business, which included online stores for all North American sports leagues along with hundreds of teams and colleges, keeping the name Fanatics, Inc for the new company moving forward. == Post-merger == In April 2012, Fanatics raised $150 million from Insight Venture Partners and Andreessen Horowitz and acquired its Florida-based rival Dreams, Inc. for $158 million in cash and $25 million in debt. This move added the brands Fans Edge and Mounted Memories, which was rebranded as Fanatics Authentic division. Rubin’s vision was to differentiate Fanatics by serving the real-time expectations of global sports fans and partners. In 2014, Doug Mack was appointed CEO and Fanatics opened a Bay Area office to tap into the Silicon Valley tech talent pool. Mack helped Fanatics move from a domestic e-commerce business to a mobile-first, direct- to-consumer brand with its own manufacturing capabilities. Priorities such as real-time manufacturing, data, and technology, would guide the company’s innovative vertical commerce (v-commerce) model. In 2015, Fanatics raised $300 million from Silver Lake Partners and in early 2016 the company acquired UK- based internet retailer Kitbag to accelerate focus around international expansion and global soccer. In April 2017, Fanatics bought sportswear and merchandise manufacturer and MLB uniform provider Majestic Athletic from VF Corporation in an effort to add to the company’s growing vertical manufacturing capabilities. Nike would eventually take over as MLB’s official on-field uniform partner, with Fanatics using the existing facilities acquired during the Majestic acquisition to now make Nike MLB uniforms. In September 2017, Fanatics closed a $1 billion round of fundraising led by Softbank, with participation from the NFL, MLB, NHL, MLS and NFLPA. As of that year, Fanatics was expected to produce $2.2 billion in annual revenue. The next month, Fanatics acquired Fermata Partners to transform the college licensed sports business and a new Fanatics College division was formed. In the following two years, Fanatics announced 10-year deals with Nike, the National Football League and Major League Baseball that granted Fanatics the rights to design, manufacture and distribute all Nike fan gear sold at retail for both leagues. At the onset of the pandemic in early 2020, Fanatics and MLB halted production of MLB jerseys to manufacture masks and gowns for emergency personnel battling COVID-19. Using the exact same material that was previously used to make Yankees, Red Sox, Phillies and all other MLB jerseys, that fabric was instead used to make more than one million masks and gowns that were eventually shipped to more than a dozen states. In April 2020, Michael Rubin—with the help of Fanatics employees around the world—launched the ALL IN Challenge, one of the largest digital fundraisers in history. The celebrity and athlete driven ALL IN Challenge exploded on social media and raised $60 million dollars to provide nearly 300 million meals for Feeding America, Meals on Wheels, No Kid Hungry, and World Central Kitchen. Also in 2020, Fanatics established the All-In Challenge Foundation, which will continue to serve as the philanthropic arm of the company. In August 2020, the company secured $350 million Series E funding raising Fanatics’ valuation to $6.2 billion. Using the new funds, Fanatics purchased assets from Vetta Brands, including leading collegiate headwear producer Top of the World. This acquisition saved more than 200 jobs and added significant headwear scale and capabilities. In December 2020, Fanatics acquired WinCraft, the preeminent licensed hardgoods and promotional products company, which increased the company’s presence with non-apparel merchandise. == Global Digital Sports Platform (2021–present) == In March 2021, Fanatics secured a $320 million funding round, followed by another $325 million in August 2021 that brought the company's valuation to $18 billion as of September 2021. During the latter funding round, Fanatics also announced plans to evolve into a global digital sports platform through expansion into new verticals, including NFTs, trading cards, gambling and gaming, ticketing, media and more. With the move, Rubin assumed the new role of CEO of the larger Fanatics company, with Doug Mack remaining CEO of Fanatics Commerce and serving as Vice Chairman of the broader business. In May 2021, Rubin co-founded the digital collectibles company Candy Digital with Mike Novogratz and Gary Vaynerchuk. Candy Digital secured an exclusive, long- term agreement with MLB as its first content partner. Later that year, Candy Digital received $100 million financing round, valuing the company at $1.5 billion. The round was led by Insight Partners and SoftBank Vision Fund2, and included NFL Hall of Famer Peyton Manning, Connect Ventures and Will Ventures. In January 2022 it was reported that Fanatics was divesting its 60% stake in Candy Digital. In August 2021, Fanatics secured long-term Trading Cards manufacturing and distribution rights from MLB, MLBPA, NBA, NBPA and NFLPA, starting 2026. A month later, Fanatics Collectibles, Fanatics’ new trading cards and collectibles business, secured a $350 million Series A round at $10.4 billion valuation. Fanatics acquired Topps, the preeminent licensed trading card brand that has serviced collectors, fans and retailers for more than 70 years, in early 2022. As part of the deal, approximately 350 global Topps sports and entertainment employees joined Fanatics and the brand will continue to operate under Fanatics Collectibles. In February 2022, Fanatics, along with some names in sports, entertainment and culture, acquired lifestyle and streetwear brand Mitchell & Ness from Juggernaut Capital Partners. Mitchell & Ness will continue to operate as a separate, distinct brand within the Fanatics Commerce division. In April 2022, Fanatics announced a $1.5 billion fundraising round which brought the company’s most recent valuation to $27 billion. More than half of the money raised came from strategic partners, including sports leagues, players’ associations, and team owners, with the single biggest investor being the NFL. In May 2023, Fanatics agreed Gambling Industry News a deal to buy PointsBet’s US business in an acquisition worth $150 million and marking the sports giant’s first major leap into U.S. sports betting. In June 2023, it increased the offer to $225 million in an effort to outbid DraftKings after that company made a competing bid of $195 million. ==Sports leagues== === NBA === In 2015, the NBA announced a multi-year partnership with Fanatics to operate its 25,000 sq ft flagship store in New York City. Since Fanatics also operates the online NBAStore.com, customers of the New York City store are able to browse and purchase from the entire online inventory through in-store handheld devices. === NFL === In March 2016, the NFL and Fanatics agreed to a new long-term extension to operate NFLShop.com. The NFLPA also granted Fanatics the rights for player merchandise. Fanatics will replace Nike as the largest maker and seller of player merchandise starting in March 2017. === NASCAR === In 2015, Fanatics obtained a licence from NASCAR to sell the merchandise trackside at all 36 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races and select NASCAR Xfinity Series races. This contract eliminated car owner and sponsor-owned merchandising haulers, which had previously sold mixed merchandise and limited edition items in favor of a singular "superstore" shopping area with one checkout zone for all merchandise, generally located outside one track entrance. It was initiated in August 2015 at the Pocono Raceway. By 2017 however, the plan was considered a failure due to limited merchandise and poor foot traffic, and it led to a decline in overall at-track merchandise sales. Larger tracks such as Daytona International Speedway utilized the first turn for merchandising, however, the majority of fans did not enter through this area as well as the many fans camping infield. Sponsors were unable to find places for drivers to initiate fan contact as they had previously in merchandise haulers for events such as autograph signings. Fanatics currently employs a "hybrid" system with a blend of haulers and smaller Fanatics tents (size/space varies per track). This allows Fanatics to reach more fans, especially once inside the gates and has reopened the door for NASCAR and driver sponsor interaction. Fanatics President Ross Tannenbaum indicated, "We've got all this money and all this product invested [in the tent] and it's sitting outside the gates where there is nobody coming [while the race is happening]. All those people are inside and at some point walking around or doing something and there's a very poor product offering. To have the best shopping experience, our goal would be to have a really strong offering of product out front like we have today but do a better job of having destination shopping inside the track." On November 2, 2018, Fanatics announced they would no longer provide the trailers for the series, though Fanatics would continue with online sales until 2024. === NHL === In 2017, the National Hockey League partnered with Adidas and unveiled a new hockey jersey with Fanatics making the jerseys themselves as the new standard jersey for fans while Adidas manufactures the on-ice jerseys, though Adidas will discontinue providing on-ice jerseys following the 2023-24 season. Fanatics and Adidas also partnered up to make NHL hats in 2017, ending the 20 year New Era contract. In March 2023, Fanatics announced that they would be replacing Adidas as the on-ice uniform and authentic jersey supplier. The deal is set to start for the 2024-2025 season and will last for 10 years. Upon completion of the deal between Fanatics and the NHL, negative feedback has been expressed by many fans over perceived quality issues with Fanatics products. === MLB === In December 2015, MLB announced a merchandise deal that split the rights between Fanatics and Nike. In August 2021, it was announced that Fanatics would take over the MLB baseball cards license from Topps after 2026. With the subsequent purchase of Topps by Fanatics in January 2022, the license began immediately. ===MLS=== MLS and Fanatics began their partnership in 2017. === Formula 1 === In 2020, Fanatics announced a partnership with Formula One for merchandise production and sales. The deal was extended in July 2021 after a surge in e-commerce sales. === NPB === In 2018, Fanatics announced a ten year partnership with the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks of Nippon Professional Baseball for merchandise production and sales through their Majestic Athletic brand, becoming the first team in all of Asia to partner with Fanatics. This also included becoming the official uniform partner of the Hawks through 2029. As of 2023, Fanatics is under partnership with the Chiba Lotte Marines, Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles, Saitama Seibu Lions, Tokyo Yakult Swallows, and Yomiuri Giants. === Other ventures === In January 2015, Fanatics began selling a collection of casual womenswear designed by Ricki Noel Lander called Let Loose By RNL. In October 2019, Fanatics teamed up with sports broadcaster Erin Andrews on a line of clothing. In 2017, Fanatics signed a manufacturing, design and e-commerce partnership with English association football club Aston Villa, a first for an English club. In 2022, this partnership was extended, after Aston Villa reported they had seen a 450% increase in e-commerce sales under this agreement. In July & August 2021, Fanatics struck a similar deal with Manchester United, Chelsea, Derby County and Everton. In June 2020, Fanatics announced a ten-year licensing, manufacturing and e-commerce partnership with French soccer club Paris Saint- Germain. There are also partnerships with German clubs Schalke and Bayern Munich, as well as Spanish club Atlético Madrid. Fanatics have licensing partnerships with the England national football team, the Canada men's national soccer team and the England national rugby union team. In February 2023, the company announced a move into livestreamed shopping centered around trading cards and collectibles. As part of its efforts, it hired Nick Bell, then of Snap, to lead this new effort. The new business would be called Fanatics Live, and Bell would serve as CEO, with an estimated launch in the second half of the year. There would be a standalone app as well as a website. So-called Fanatics would receive a percentage of each transaction. This move came as livestreamed shopping was growing in popularity in the US, with more established brands like Nordstrom, Petco, and Walmart as well as TikTok and EBay already involved in the space but with more potential to growth, with the vast majority of US adults not having heard of it at the time of the announcement. For Fanatics, it came after the acquisition of Topps trading cards in January 2022. ==References== ==External links== * Category:Companies based in Jacksonville, Florida Category:Retail companies established in 1995 Category:Sporting goods retailers of the United States Category:Silver Lake (investment firm) companies Category:Online retailers of the United States Category:1995 establishments in Florida Category:Multinational companies based in Jacksonville
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Charles Christian Porter (born 11 July 1970) is an Australian former politician and lawyer who served as the 37th Attorney-General of Australia from 2017 to 2021 in the Turnbull government and the subsequent Morrison government. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) for the Division of Pearce from 2013 to 2022 and a member of the Liberal Party of Australia. Porter also served as Leader of the House and Minister for Industrial Relations from 2019 to 2021, and Minister for Industry, Science and Technology in 2021 following his resignation as attorney-general. From Perth, Porter attended Hale School, the University of Western Australia and later the London School of Economics, and practised law at Clayton Utz and taught law at the University of Western Australia before his election to parliament. He is the son of the 1956 Olympic silver medallist, Charles "Chilla" Porter and the grandson of Queensland Liberal politician, Charles Porter, who was a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly from 1966 to 1980. Before his election to the federal House of Representatives, Porter had served in the Parliament of Western Australia. He first entered the Legislative Assembly after winning the seat of Murdoch in a 2008 by-election following the death of the sitting member, Trevor Sprigg, and he was subsequently elected to the new seat of Bateman at the 2008 general election. After the Liberals formed government, Porter was appointed Attorney-General in the Barnett Ministry. In December 2010, he was also appointed Treasurer and held both portfolios until June 2012, when he resigned from the ministry to contest the 2013 federal election. Before assuming his current position, Porter was Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister in the Abbott government from December 2014 to September 2015, and then Minister for Social Services in the Turnbull government from September 2015 to December 2017. In March 2021 a historical rape allegation against Porter became public in the midst of the 2021 Australian Parliament House sexual misconduct allegations. Porter denied the claim and launched a defamation case against the ABC. The case was later dropped, with the ABC agreeing to pay all of Porter's mediation costs and appending an editor's note to the original article. Porter resigned from the front bench in September 2021, after media reports revealed that he was a beneficiary of a blind trust relating to his legal action against the ABC. Following much controversy and media scrutiny, in December of that year, Porter announced his retirement from politics. == Background and early career == Porter's father was Charles "Chilla" Porter, who won the men's high jump silver medal at the 1956 Summer Olympics and was director of Western Australia's Liberal Party during the 1970s and 1980s. Chilla's father, Charles Robert Porter, was a Queensland Liberal state MP between 1966 and 1980 and served in the ministry of Joh Bjelke-Petersen. Porter was educated at Hale School, and was selected for Australia's national schools debating team. From 1988 he attended the University of Western Australia where he graduated Bachelor of Economics and Bachelor of Arts with first-class honours in politics, before completing a Bachelor of Laws degree. Porter later studied at the London School of Economics for a Master of Science in political theory, from which he graduated with distinction at the top of his class. Prior to entering Parliament, Porter worked predominantly as a lawyer, starting as a commercial litigator at Clayton Utz before moving to public practice. He spent a year as an advisor to the Federal Minister for Justice and then began working for the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions as a senior state prosecutor. Before his election in 2008, Porter was working as a lecturer at Curtin University and the University of Western Australia as well as retaining, part-time, his position as senior prosecutor at the DPP. ==State politics== Porter was first elected to the Parliament of Western Australia in the now defunct seat of Murdoch in the February 2008 by-election following the death of the standing member Trevor Sprigg. At the September 2008 election, Porter contested and won the newly created seat of Bateman following the abolition of the seat of Murdoch in the 2007 redistribution. He was appointed Attorney-General and Minister for Corrective Services after the election, having held the equivalent shadow portfolios prior to the election. In 2009, Porter proposed Western Australia follow the other states by introducing legislation that would prevent members of outlaw motorcycle gangs associating with each other. On 14 December 2010, Porter was sworn in as Treasurer of Western Australia. He retained the portfolio of Attorney-General, while the Corrective Services portfolio was transferred to Terry Redman. In 2011, Porter fought against a court decision to award a sexual assault victim compensation of 40,000 as she was smoking amphetamines with her attacker when the offences occurred. Following a decision by a district court judge, Porter took the matter to the Supreme Court where the judge granted his application to go the Court of Appeal. The court agreed with Porter and quashed the payout in 2012. Porter oversaw the planned introduction of the harshest organised crime laws in Australia in 2011 which would see stronger penalties for organised crime gang members, particularly outlaw motorcycle gangs, for all manner of crimes including associating with one another. The bill that Porter planned to introduce, the Criminal Organisation Control Bill 2011, would see outlaw motorcycle gangs defined as Declared Criminal Organisations. The Australian Lawyers Alliance described the proposal as "a desperate attempt at popularity" by the state government. The laws were first read in the Legislative Assembly in November 2011 and debated multiple times until March 2012 when it passed onto the Legislative Council. The bill was then passed in November 2012. On 12 June 2012, he announced he was stepping down from his ministerial portfolios to contest the seat of Pearce at the 2013 Australian federal election. ==Federal politics== At the 2013 election, Porter was elected to federal parliament with an 8% margin. He became parliamentary secretary to the Prime Minister on 23 December 2014 and held that position until 21 September 2015. He was a part of the speaker's panel from 18 November 2013 to 9 February 2015. Porter is a member of the National Right faction of the Liberal Party. Prior to 2021, Porter had been considered a potential future prime minister; in 2017 bookmakers installed Porter as a $5 chance to become the next Prime Minister from Western Australia (third-favourite behind Julie Bishop and Tim Hammond).Tim Hammond – the first-term MP tipped to be Prime Minister ===Minister for Social Services (2015–2017)=== On 20 September 2015, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull announced that Porter would replace Scott Morrison as Social Services Minister as part of a Cabinet overhaul. In 2016, Centrelink, operating under Porter's senior oversight as Social Services Minister, became involved in the Robodebt recovery controversy. Despite heightened media interest and complaints, after meeting with the Department of Human Services, Porter stated that the program was working "incredibly well". The program was later subject to two Senate committee inquiries, and several calls for a Royal Commission into the program, to understand its failures, and deliver justice to its victims. In May 2020, Porter (now in the position of Attorney-General rather than Social Services Minister) conceded that the Robodebt recovery scheme had "no legal basis" and was "unlawful" but refused to apologise for it. One of Porter's roles was to manage the Cashless Welfare Card, and increased its use in various communities. He spoke of his pride in the outcomes of the policy. However, the card has been linked to increased hardship for many of its users and its efficacy has been heavily disputed. Thee trial was extended into Ceduna and the East Kimberley region of Western Australia in 2017 following an independent evaluation conducted by ORIMA Research who concluded that the trial had been successful "in reducing alcohol consumption, illegal drug use and gambling" and it had established a "a clear ‘proof-of-concept’”. During his time in this ministry, Porter was instrumental in the formation of the Coalition policy of performing drug tests on welfare recipients, which was criticised by experts, since there was no evidence anywhere in the world of a similar project working. ABC fact checkers called the policy "wishful thinking" that it would help people get off welfare. This section of the legislation was eventually dropped to allow the passage of the remaining elements of the bill, which contained large budget cuts to the welfare system. Porter was criticised for skipping the final sittings of the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in order to attend a cricket match with John Howard. ===Attorney-General (2017–2021)=== In a December 2017 reshuffle of the Turnbull ministry, Porter became Attorney- General in place of George Brandis. He relinquished the social services portfolio to Dan Tehan. After the reshuffle, some of the national security powers and responsibilities previously held by the Attorney-General were transferred to the new position of Minister for Home Affairs, which was given to Peter Dutton. This was seen as a positive by many in the legal community who said that the role of Attorney-General had become too focused on security and that the role should be realigned to its old purpose of defending the rule of law. It was also suggested that many areas of the law were in crisis because of the security focus, such as family law and incarceration levels of Indigenous Australians. At the commencement of his role as Attorney-General, Porter called on religious institutions to implement the recommendations of the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse. Following the raids on the journalists of the ABC and Newscorp, Porter would not rule out prosecuting journalists for publishing public interest stories, although he said he would be "seriously disinclined" to go ahead with a prosecution. In the case of Newscorp journalist Annika Smethurst, Porter asked the court not to destroy the evidence collected from the raid on her house, so that it could be used in a future court case. Porter and the Federal Police said the restrictive privacy when it comes to security matters, "may justify very large incursions on the freedom" of individuals. In November 2019, Porter as Attorney-General extended the religious freedom bill from faith-based schools and organisations to religious hospitals and aged-care providers. The bill states that the aforementioned institutions would have legal protection to employ staff according to their religious beliefs. Other actions he has taken in his role have included calling on social media platforms to be seen as publishers, attempts to block environmental groups from calling on boycotts of companies connected to the coal industry, repealing the medevac laws, restricting union activity, and attempting to have GetUp! registered as an arm of the Labor party. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Porter worked with Sally McManus of the ACTU to develop amendments to the Fair Work Act. Porter hailed the negotiations as a success, with McManus stating that; "We had been concerned that several employer groups had been advocating for a widespread removal of workers' rights akin to WorkChoices". In December 2020, Porter introduced a bill to merge the Family Court of Australia with the Federal Circuit Court of Australia, citing administrative efficiencies. === Minister for Industry, Science and Technology (March – September 2021) === In March 2021, following the allegations against Porter, the cabinet was shuffled and he was moved to the position of Minister for Industry, Science and Technology. Scott Morrison said this was a compromise due to advice from the solicitor- general regarding whether Porter could remain Attorney General while taking legal action against the ABC. Porter resigned from cabinet on 19 September 2021 after concerns that he had accepted anonymous donations via a blind trust to cover his legal expenses. === Retirement === Porter denied his imminent retirement in November 2021, but then announced in a press release on 1 December 2021 that he would not contest the 2022 federal election and would instead retire from politics, opting to spend more time with his family. ==Post-political career== In February 2022, Porter announced that he would be returning to the legal profession and hinted that he will be writing a book after he left Parliament. He also set up a trust to operate two companies he has formed. The companies, Henley Stirling Lawyers Pty Ltd and Henley Stirling Consultants Pty Ltd, have Porter listed as the sole director. In July 2022 Porter was acting for underworld figure Mick Gatto in a defamation case against the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. In the same month Porter lost his own appeal in the Federal Court where the court decided that Sue Chrysanthou would not be able to act for Porter in his own defamation case against the ABC. Porter was ordered to pay 430,000 in costs. On 28 March 2023, Porter was engaged by Zeph Investments, Clive Palmer's Singapore-based company, to represent them in a lawsuit against the Commonwealth of Australia for AUD$296 billion over the alleged loss of contractual entitlement, “moral damages” and “sovereign risk”, in relation to an iron ore project for which Palmer's company, Mineralogy, had already lost a lawsuit. ==Personal life== Porter was listed as a contender for Cleo magazine's eligible bachelor of the year in 1999. He has described himself as "not particularly religious". In the mid 2000s, Porter married Lucy Gunn, but they divorced. In 2008, Porter married Jennifer Negus, a former colleague and a granddaughter of former independent senator Syd Negus. He took paternity leave after his wife gave birth to their first child the day after being sworn in as the social services minister. They later had a second child, but announced their separation in January 2020. Porter got engaged to lawyer Karen Espiner in 2022. Porter and Espineer married over the 2022-2023 summer at Byron Bay. In November 2020, it was alleged on Four Corners that, although married, Porter had kissed and cuddled a colleague's political staffer in a public setting. Porter denied the allegation and said that the staffer in question had also denied to Four Corners that the event occurred, but that the denial was not mentioned in the report. He again denied the allegation on the Perth radio station 6PR. In the program, former prime minister Malcolm Turnbull stated that Porter's alleged behaviour had caused concern in the party room, although that was disputed by Porter. Not long after he said he had raised the alleged incident with Porter, Turnbull promoted Porter to the position of attorney-general. Porter attributed the criticisms made by Turnbull to a falling-out between the two men during the 2018 Liberal Party of Australia leadership spills, the event which ended Turnbull's prime ministership. ===Rape allegation=== In late February 2021, Australian media reported an alleged rape of a 16-year-old girl in 1988. It was alleged that the male offender was now (as of 2021) a federal cabinet minister. She had written a long statement for her solicitor in 2019, and had contacted several politicians and police. She died by suicide in 2020 and her statement was sent anonymously in February 2021 to the prime minister and several other members of parliament. On 2 March 2021, the police announced there was "insufficient admissible evidence" to secure a prosecution. Porter announced on 3 March 2021 that he was the person named in the allegations. He confirmed he met the woman in Sydney when he was 17, but denied the accusation and any sexual contact with her. He also announced he would take immediate leave to look after his mental health following the accusations.Read the full press conference transcript, Christian Porter denies historical rape allegation, ABC News, 3 March 2021 On 15 March 2021, Porter launched a defamation claim against the ABC and reporter Louise Milligan, for publishing the allegation. His claim argued that although the original allegation did not name him, he was "readily identifiable" and that the article was intended to harm him.Attorney-General Christian Porter launches defamation action against ABC, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 15 March 2021 Porter withdrew the defamation claim on 31 May 2021, with the ABC paying the costs of mediation and appending an editor's note to the original article stating that "The ABC did not contend that the serious accusations could be substantiated to the applicable legal standard". No findings were made and no damages were awarded to Porter. On 10 June 2021, a friend of the alleged victim, film producer Jo Dyer, was awarded costs, estimated to be , after she brought separate litigation to prevent one of Porter's defamation lawyers from representing him owing to having conflicting interests and access to confidential information about the victim and Porter. On 24 June 2021, the original dossier detailing the rape allegation against Porter was made publicly available by the Federal Court of Australia. In September 2021, Porter revealed to Federal Parliament in an interest declaration that the defamation case was funded in part by an anonymous donor, though he did not indicate the value of the donation nor his overall legal fees. A donation was made through a blind trust called the Legal Services Trust and Porter claimed "as a potential beneficiary I have no access to information about the conduct and funding of the trust". Porter's receipt of this donation was criticised by the opposition saying that he should not have accepted an anonymous donation and that it is in the public interest to know who made this donation. Porter also received criticism from Malcolm Turnbull, who described the situation as if Porter had said "my legal fees were paid by a guy in a mask who dropped off a chaff bag full of cash". The declaration also stated that his barrister, Sue Chrysanthou, discounted her typical fees to represent him in the case. Porter tendered his resignation from the frontbench on 19 September 2021. On 20 October 2021, the Coalition government blocked a bid from the Australian Labor Party opposition to have Porter investigated by the House privileges committee over whether he had breached parliamentary rules over his financial disclosures, despite Speaker Tony Smith having ruled that there was a prima facie case for further scrutiny. The move from the government attracted significant criticism in the media. In November 2021, a parliamentary committee announced they would ask Porter to declare the ultimate source of funds. == References == == External links == * * |- |- |- |- |- Category:1970 births Category:Abbott government Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics Category:Attorneys-General of Western Australia Category:20th-century Australian lawyers Category:Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia Category:Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Western Australia Category:Living people Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Pearce Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia Category:Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly Category:Politicians from Perth, Western Australia Category:Treasurers of Western Australia Category:Turnbull government Category:University of Western Australia alumni Category:21st- century Australian politicians Category:Attorneys-General of Australia Category:Morrison government Category:21st-century Australian lawyers
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Islam arrived in Kerala, the Malayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi. The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period. Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former Malabar District) of different origins. Native Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002) Unlike the common misconception, the caste system does exist among the Muslims of Kerala. Muslims in Kerala share a common language (Malayalam) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988 Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to Hinduism.Panikkar, K. N., Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921 The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" The Hindu August 26, 2015 Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī School of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as Salafism) that developed within Sunni Islam.Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56. ==History== Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices. The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries. They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar. There had been considerable trade relations between Middle East and Malabar Coast even before the time of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570 – 632 AD).P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast. Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977. Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the Hindu King that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam.Minu Ittyipe; Solomon to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012 Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.Pg 58, Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978 According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott. A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district. The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of Kollam. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the Malabar Coast. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 AD), Muhammad al- Idrisi (1100–1165 AD), Abulfeda (1273–1331 AD), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia. Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call Malabar Coast as Malabar. Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills. According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Malayalam word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent). The Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style. The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE. The monopoly of overseas spice trade from Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts. Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala. A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala. Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims.K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938. The port commissioner, the Shah Bandar, represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut as well as Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, based at Kannur, ruled the Lakshadweep Islands. Arabs had the monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast and Indian Ocean until the Portuguese Age of Discovery. The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The arrival of the Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well- established and wealthy Muslim community's progress. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288 The Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.AG Noorani It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.A. Sreedhara Menon. Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books (2011)A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books Roland E. Miller. Mappila Muslim Culture SUNY Press, 2015 Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history of Mappila Muslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition of Malabar Coast in the 16th century CE. With the end of Portuguese era, Arabs lost their monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast.A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007) As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight. The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala. Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce. By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat". The community tried to reverse the trend during the Mysore invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century). The victory of the English East India Company and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection. The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the Mappila Uprising (1921–22).Pg 179–183, Kerala district gazetteers: Volume 4 Kerala (India), A. Sreedhara Menon, Superintendent of Govt. Presses https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF0bAAAAIAAJ The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931. A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the Persian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change. The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles. University of Calicut, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968. Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988. An Indian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996. == Demography == The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the 2011 Census of India, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below: District Total Pop Muslims % of Pop % of Muslims 300px Kerala 33,406,061 8,873,472 26.56% 100.0% Kasargod 1,307,375 486,913 37.24% 5.49% Kannur 2,523,003 742,483 29.43% 8.37% Wayanad 817,420 234,185 28.65% 2.64% Kozhikode 3,086,293 1,211,131 39.24% 13.65% Malappuram 4,112,920 2,888,849 70.24% 32.56% Palakkad 2,809,934 812,936 28.93% 9.16% Thrissur 3,121,200 532,839 17.07% 6.00% Ernakulam 3,282,388 514,397 15.67% 5.80% Idukki 1,108,974 82,206 7.41% 0.93% Kottayam 1,974,551 126,499 6.41% 1.43% Alappuzha 2,127,789 224,545 10.55% 2.53% Pathanamthitta 1,197,412 55,074 4.60% 0.62% Kollam 2,635,375 508,500 19.30% 5.73% Thiruvananthapuram 3,301,427 452,915 13.72% 5.10% == Theological orientations/denominations == Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within Sunni Islam. The latter section consists of majority Salafists (the Mujahids) and the minority Islamists. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.Shajahan Madampat, "Malappuram Isn't Mini Kashmir" Outlook 21 August 2017 * Sunnī IslamIslamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India Modern Asian Studies **Shāfi'ī—mainly two groups (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafiis). **Ḥanafī *Salafists (the Mujahids)—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism). Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala. *Islamists (the Jama'at-i-Islami India)—representing political Islam in Kerala. * Shīiah Islam *Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters of Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos, G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut). Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. == Communities == * Mappilas: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala. As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas. A Mappila is either, # A descendant of any native convert) to Islam (or) # A descendant of a marriage alliance between a Middle Eastern individual and a native low caste woman The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law". * Pusalans: Mostly converts from the Mukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala. The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar. In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy. * Ossans: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala. * Thangals (the Sayyids): Claiming descent from the family of Muhammed. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected Thangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District. * Rowthers: The Muslim community originated in Tamilakam. Mainly they settled in Trivandrum, Alapuzha, Kochi, kottayam, kollam, Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Pandalam, Palakkad regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. * Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering Karnataka. * * Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in Parappanangadi, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to Persian ship owners. * Marakkars: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "Kunjali Marakkars", or the naval captains of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars and Marakkars considered themselves superior to Labbais. * Keyis: community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in Kannur, Thalassery and Parappanangadi with Iranian origin. * Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of Omani origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins. * Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around Manjeri in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar. * Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in Cochin, Mattanchery, Fort Kochi and Kodungallur. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin. * Dakhnis or Pathans: "Dakhni" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the Khaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen. *Kutchi Memons: They are a Kutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the Kutch region. They are descended from the Lohana community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders. *Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called Beary language. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant). * Bohras (Daudi Bohras): Western (Mustaalis) Ismaili Shiah community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi and Alappuzha. Bohras migrated from Gujarat to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala. ==Culture== === Literature === Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous folklore tradition emerged in c. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script. Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs. As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field. Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age. Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community. === Kerala Muslim folk arts === * Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps. * Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the Dandiya dance of Gujarat in Western India. * Duff Muttu (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or daf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff. * Arabana muttu was an art form named after the aravana, a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger. * Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu". * Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle. ===Mappila Cuisine=== The Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese and Arab food culture. This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes. Kallummakkaya (mussels) curry, irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat), parottas (soft flatbread), Pathiri (a type of rice pancake) and ghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper, cardamom and clove are used profusely. The Malabar version of biryani, popularly known as kuzhi mandi in Malayalam is another popular item, which has an influence from Yemen. Various varieties of biriyanis like Thalassery biriyani, Kannur biriyani, Kozhikode biriyani and Ponnani biriyani are prepared by the Mappila community. The snacks include unnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew, raisins and sugar), pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled with coconut grating, molasses or sugar), muttamala made of eggs, chatti pathiri, a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layered chapati with rich filling, arikkadukka, and more. == See also == *Arabi Malayalam *Arabi Malayalam script *Beary Muslims *Beary language *Tamil Muslim *Sri Lankan Moors *Nasrani Mappila == Bibliography == * P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, DOI: 10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907 == References == ==Further reading== * (The English translation of the historic book Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written about the society of Kerala by Zainuddin Makhdoom II during sixteenth century CE) * Muhsin, S. M. . (2021). Three Fatwas on Marriage in South India (Tiga Fatwa Perkahwinan di India Selatan). Journal of Islam in Asia (E-ISSN 2289-8077), 18(1), 251–282. https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v18i1.1045 Kerala
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thumb|right|350px|If the sum of the interior angles α and β is less than 180°, the two straight lines, produced indefinitely, meet on that side. In geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid's fifth postulate because it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, is a distinctive axiom in Euclidean geometry. It states that, in two-dimensional geometry: > If a line segment intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles > on the same side that are less than two right angles, then the two lines, if > extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles sum to less > than two right angles. This postulate does not specifically talk about parallel lines;non-Euclidean geometries, by Dr. Katrina Piatek-Jimenez it is only a postulate related to parallelism. Euclid gave the definition of parallel lines in Book I, Definition 23 just before the five postulates. Euclidean geometry is the study of geometry that satisfies all of Euclid's axioms, including the parallel postulate. The postulate was long considered to be obvious or inevitable, but proofs were elusive. Eventually, it was discovered that inverting the postulate gave valid, albeit different geometries. A geometry where the parallel postulate does not hold is known as a non-Euclidean geometry. Geometry that is independent of Euclid's fifth postulate (i.e., only assumes the modern equivalent of the first four postulates) is known as absolute geometry (or sometimes "neutral geometry"). ==Equivalent properties== Probably the best-known equivalent of Euclid's parallel postulate, contingent on his other postulates, is Playfair's axiom, named after the Scottish mathematician John Playfair, which states: > In a plane, given a line and a point not on it, at most one line parallel to > the given line can be drawn through the point. This axiom by itself is not logically equivalent to the Euclidean parallel postulate since there are geometries in which one is true and the other is not. However, in the presence of the remaining axioms which give Euclidean geometry, each of these can be used to prove the other, so they are equivalent in the context of absolute geometry. Many other statements equivalent to the parallel postulate have been suggested, some of them appearing at first to be unrelated to parallelism, and some seeming so self-evident that they were unconsciously assumed by people who claimed to have proven the parallel postulate from Euclid's other postulates. These equivalent statements include: # There is at most one line that can be drawn parallel to another given one through an external point. (Playfair's axiom) # The sum of the angles in every triangle is 180° (triangle postulate). # There exists a triangle whose angles add up to 180°. # The sum of the angles is the same for every triangle. # There exists a pair of similar, but not congruent, triangles. # Every triangle can be circumscribed. # If three angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then the fourth angle is also a right angle. # There exists a quadrilateral in which all angles are right angles, that is, a rectangle. # There exists a pair of straight lines that are at constant distance from each other. # Two lines that are parallel to the same line are also parallel to each other. # In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides (Pythagoras' theorem). # The law of cosines, a generalization of Pythagoras' theorem. # There is no upper limit to the area of a triangle. (Wallis axiom) # The summit angles of the Saccheri quadrilateral are 90°. # If a line intersects one of two parallel lines, both of which are coplanar with the original line, then it also intersects the other. (Proclus' axiom) However, the alternatives which employ the word "parallel" cease appearing so simple when one is obliged to explain which of the four common definitions of "parallel" is meant – constant separation, never meeting, same angles where crossed by some third line, or same angles where crossed by any third line – since the equivalence of these four is itself one of the unconsciously obvious assumptions equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate. In the list above, it is always taken to refer to non- intersecting lines. For example, if the word "parallel" in Playfair's axiom is taken to mean 'constant separation' or 'same angles where crossed by any third line', then it is no longer equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate, and is provable from the first four (the axiom says 'There is at most one line...', which is consistent with there being no such lines). However, if the definition is taken so that parallel lines are lines that do not intersect, or that have some line intersecting them in the same angles, Playfair's axiom is contextually equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate and is thus logically independent of the first four postulates. Note that the latter two definitions are not equivalent, because in hyperbolic geometry the second definition holds only for ultraparallel lines. ==History== From the beginning, the postulate came under attack as being provable, and therefore not a postulate, and for more than two thousand years, many attempts were made to prove (derive) the parallel postulate using Euclid's first four postulates. The main reason that such a proof was so highly sought after was that, unlike the first four postulates, the parallel postulate is not self-evident. If the order in which the postulates were listed in the Elements is significant, it indicates that Euclid included this postulate only when he realised he could not prove it or proceed without it. Many attempts were made to prove the fifth postulate from the other four, many of them being accepted as proofs for long periods until the mistake was found. Invariably the mistake was assuming some 'obvious' property which turned out to be equivalent to the fifth postulate (Playfair's axiom). Although known from the time of Proclus, this became known as Playfair's Axiom after John Playfair wrote a famous commentary on Euclid in 1795 in which he proposed replacing Euclid's fifth postulate by his own axiom. Today, over two thousand two hundred years later, Euclid's fifth postulate remains a postulate. Proclus (410–485) wrote a commentary on The Elements where he comments on attempted proofs to deduce the fifth postulate from the other four; in particular, he notes that Ptolemy had produced a false 'proof'. Proclus then goes on to give a false proof of his own. However, he did give a postulate which is equivalent to the fifth postulate. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1039), an Arab mathematician, made an attempt at proving the parallel postulate using a proof by contradiction, in the course of which he introduced the concept of motion and transformation into geometry.: He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al- Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral", and his attempted proof contains elements similar to those found in Lambert quadrilaterals and Playfair's axiom. The Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet Omar Khayyám (1050–1123), attempted to prove the fifth postulate from another explicitly given postulate (based on the fourth of the five principles due to the Philosopher (Aristotle), namely, "Two convergent straight lines intersect and it is impossible for two convergent straight lines to diverge in the direction in which they converge."Boris A Rosenfeld and Adolf P Youschkevitch (1996), Geometry, p. 467 in Roshdi Rashed, Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, Routledge, . He derived some of the earlier results belonging to elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry, though his postulate excluded the latter possibility.Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 2, pp. 447–494 [469], Routledge, London and New York: The Saccheri quadrilateral was also first considered by Omar Khayyám in the late 11th century in Book I of Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid. Unlike many commentators on Euclid before and after him (including Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri), Khayyám was not trying to prove the parallel postulate as such but to derive it from his equivalent postulate. He recognized that three possibilities arose from omitting Euclid's fifth postulate; if two perpendiculars to one line cross another line, judicious choice of the last can make the internal angles where it meets the two perpendiculars equal (it is then parallel to the first line). If those equal internal angles are right angles, we get Euclid's fifth postulate, otherwise, they must be either acute or obtuse. He showed that the acute and obtuse cases led to contradictions using his postulate, but his postulate is now known to be equivalent to the fifth postulate. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274), in his Al-risala al-shafiya'an al-shakk fi'l-khutut al-mutawaziya (Discussion Which Removes Doubt about Parallel Lines) (1250), wrote detailed critiques of the parallel postulate and on Khayyám's attempted proof a century earlier. Nasir al-Din attempted to derive a proof by contradiction of the parallel postulate. He also considered the cases of what are now known as elliptical and hyperbolic geometry, though he ruled out both of them. thumb|right|350px|Euclidean, elliptical and hyperbolic geometry. The Parallel Postulate is satisfied only for models of Euclidean geometry. Nasir al-Din's son, Sadr al-Din (sometimes known as "Pseudo-Tusi"), wrote a book on the subject in 1298, based on his father's later thoughts, which presented one of the earliest arguments for a non-Euclidean hypothesis equivalent to the parallel postulate. "He essentially revised both the Euclidean system of axioms and postulates and the proofs of many propositions from the Elements."Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 2, pp. 447–494 [469], Routledge, London and New York: His work was published in Rome in 1594 and was studied by European geometers. This work marked the starting point for Saccheri's work on the subject: which opened with a criticism of Sadr al-Din's work and the work of Wallis. Giordano Vitale (1633–1711), in his book Euclide restituo (1680, 1686), used the Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral to prove that if three points are equidistant on the base AB and the summit CD, then AB and CD are everywhere equidistant. Girolamo Saccheri (1667–1733) pursued the same line of reasoning more thoroughly, correctly obtaining absurdity from the obtuse case (proceeding, like Euclid, from the implicit assumption that lines can be extended indefinitely and have infinite length), but failing to refute the acute case (although he managed to wrongly persuade himself that he had). In 1766 Johann Lambert wrote, but did not publish, Theorie der Parallellinien in which he attempted, as Saccheri did, to prove the fifth postulate. He worked with a figure that today we call a Lambert quadrilateral, a quadrilateral with three right angles (can be considered half of a Saccheri quadrilateral). He quickly eliminated the possibility that the fourth angle is obtuse, as had Saccheri and Khayyám, and then proceeded to prove many theorems under the assumption of an acute angle. Unlike Saccheri, he never felt that he had reached a contradiction with this assumption. He had proved the non-Euclidean result that the sum of the angles in a triangle increases as the area of the triangle decreases, and this led him to speculate on the possibility of a model of the acute case on a sphere of imaginary radius. He did not carry this idea any further. Where Khayyám and Saccheri had attempted to prove Euclid's fifth by disproving the only possible alternatives, the nineteenth century finally saw mathematicians exploring those alternatives and discovering the logically consistent geometries that result. In 1829, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published an account of acute geometry in an obscure Russian journal (later re-published in 1840 in German). In 1831, János Bolyai included, in a book by his father, an appendix describing acute geometry, which, doubtlessly, he had developed independently of Lobachevsky. Carl Friedrich Gauss had also studied the problem, but he did not publish any of his results. Upon hearing of Bolyai's results in a letter from Bolyai's father, Farkas Bolyai, Gauss stated: > "If I commenced by saying that I am unable to praise this work, you would > certainly be surprised for a moment. But I cannot say otherwise. To praise > it would be to praise myself. Indeed the whole contents of the work, the > path taken by your son, the results to which he is led, coincide almost > entirely with my meditations, which have occupied my mind partly for the > last thirty or thirty-five years." The resulting geometries were later developed by Lobachevsky, Riemann and Poincaré into hyperbolic geometry (the acute case) and elliptic geometry (the obtuse case). The independence of the parallel postulate from Euclid's other axioms was finally demonstrated by Eugenio Beltrami in 1868. ==Converse of Euclid's parallel postulate== thumb|right|350px|The converse of the parallel postulate: If the sum of the two interior angles equals 180°, then the lines are parallel and will never intersect. Euclid did not postulate the converse of his fifth postulate, which is one way to distinguish Euclidean geometry from elliptic geometry. The Elements contains the proof of an equivalent statement (Book I, Proposition 27): If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the alternate angles equal to one another, the straight lines will be parallel to one another. As De MorganHeath, T.L., The thirteen books of Euclid's Elements, vol. 1, Dover, 1956, p. 309. pointed out, this is logically equivalent to (Book I, Proposition 16). These results do not depend upon the fifth postulate, but they do require the second postulateCoxeter, H.S.M., Non- Euclidean Geometry, 6th Ed., MAA 1998, p. 3 which is violated in elliptic geometry. ==Criticism== Attempts to logically prove the parallel postulate, rather than the eighth axiom,Schopenhauer is referring to Euclid's Common Notion 4: Figures coinciding with one another are equal to one another. were criticized by Arthur Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Idea. However, the argument used by Schopenhauer was that the postulate is evident by perception, not that it was not a logical consequence of the other axioms. ==Decomposition of the parallel postulate== The parallel postulate is equivalent, as shown in, to the conjunction of the Lotschnittaxiom and of Aristotle's axiom. The former states that the perpendiculars to the sides of a right angle intersect, while the latter states that there is no upper bound for the lengths of the distances from the leg of an angle to the other leg. As shown in, the parallel postulate is equivalent to the conjunction of the following incidence- geometric forms of the Lotschnittaxiom and of Aristotle's axiom: Given three parallel lines, there is a line that intersects all three of them. Given a line a and two distinct intersecting lines m and n, each different from a, there exists a line g which intersects a and m, but not n. As shown in, the splitting of the parallel postulate into the conjunction of these incidence- geometric axioms is possible only in the presence of absolute geometry. ==See also== * Line at infinity * Non-Euclidean geometry ==Notes== ==References== * Carroll, Lewis, Euclid and His Modern Rivals, Dover, * * * * * * * * ==External links== * On Gauss' Mountains Category:Elementary geometry Category:Foundations of geometry Category:Non-Euclidean geometry Category:History of geometry tr:Paralel#Paralel aksiyomu
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In mathematics, especially in algebraic geometry and the theory of complex manifolds, coherent sheaf cohomology is a technique for producing functions with specified properties. Many geometric questions can be formulated as questions about the existence of sections of line bundles or of more general coherent sheaves; such sections can be viewed as generalized functions. Cohomology provides computable tools for producing sections, or explaining why they do not exist. It also provides invariants to distinguish one algebraic variety from another. Much of algebraic geometry and complex analytic geometry is formulated in terms of coherent sheaves and their cohomology. ==Coherent sheaves== Coherent sheaves can be seen as a generalization of vector bundles. There is a notion of a coherent analytic sheaf on a complex analytic space, and an analogous notion of a coherent algebraic sheaf on a scheme. In both cases, the given space X comes with a sheaf of rings \mathcal O_X, the sheaf of holomorphic functions or regular functions, and coherent sheaves are defined as a full subcategory of the category of \mathcal O_X-modules (that is, sheaves of \mathcal O_X-modules). Vector bundles such as the tangent bundle play a fundamental role in geometry. More generally, for a closed subvariety Y of X with inclusion i: Y \to X, a vector bundle E on Y determines a coherent sheaf on X, the direct image sheaf i_* E, which is zero outside Y. In this way, many questions about subvarieties of X can be expressed in terms of coherent sheaves on X. Unlike vector bundles, coherent sheaves (in the analytic or algebraic case) form an abelian category, and so they are closed under operations such as taking kernels, images, and cokernels. On a scheme, the quasi-coherent sheaves are a generalization of coherent sheaves, including the locally free sheaves of infinite rank. ==Sheaf cohomology== For a sheaf \mathcal F of abelian groups on a topological space X, the sheaf cohomology groups H^i(X, \mathcal F) for integers i are defined as the right derived functors of the functor of global sections, \mathcal F \mapsto \mathcal F(X). As a result, H^i(X, \mathcal F) is zero for i < 0, and H^0(X, \mathcal F) can be identified with \mathcal F(X). For any short exact sequence of sheaves 0\to \mathcal A \to \mathcal B \to \mathcal C\to 0, there is a long exact sequence of cohomology groups: : 0\to H^0(X,\mathcal A) \to H^0(X,\mathcal B) \to H^0(X,\mathcal C) \to H^1(X,\mathcal A) \to \cdots. If \mathcal F is a sheaf of \mathcal O_X-modules on a scheme X, then the cohomology groups H^i(X, \mathcal F) (defined using the underlying topological space of X) are modules over the ring \mathcal O(X) of regular functions. For example, if X is a scheme over a field k, then the cohomology groups H^i(X, \mathcal F) are k-vector spaces. The theory becomes powerful when \mathcal F is a coherent or quasi-coherent sheaf, because of the following sequence of results. ==Vanishing theorems in the affine case== Complex analysis was revolutionized by Cartan's theorems A and B in 1953. These results say that if \mathcal F is a coherent analytic sheaf on a Stein space X, then \mathcal F is spanned by its global sections, and H^i(X, \mathcal F) = 0 for all i > 0. (A complex space X is Stein if and only if it is isomorphic to a closed analytic subspace of \Complex^n for some n.) These results generalize a large body of older work about the construction of complex analytic functions with given singularities or other properties. In 1955, Serre introduced coherent sheaves into algebraic geometry (at first over an algebraically closed field, but that restriction was removed by Grothendieck). The analogs of Cartan's theorems hold in great generality: if \mathcal F is a quasi-coherent sheaf on an affine scheme X, then \mathcal F is spanned by its global sections, and H^i(X, \mathcal F) = 0 for i>0.. This is related to the fact that the category of quasi-coherent sheaves on an affine scheme X is equivalent to the category of \mathcal O(X)-modules, with the equivalence taking a sheaf \mathcal F to the \mathcal O(X)-module H^0(X, \mathcal F). In fact, affine schemes are characterized among all quasi-compact schemes by the vanishing of higher cohomology for quasi-coherent sheaves.. ==Čech cohomology and the cohomology of projective space== As a consequence of the vanishing of cohomology for affine schemes: for a separated scheme X, an affine open covering \\{U_i\\} of X, and a quasi- coherent sheaf \mathcal F on X, the cohomology groups H^*(X,\mathcal F) are isomorphic to the Čech cohomology groups with respect to the open covering \\{U_i\\}. In other words, knowing the sections of \mathcal F on all finite intersections of the affine open subschemes U_i determines the cohomology of X with coefficients in \mathcal F. Using Čech cohomology, one can compute the cohomology of projective space with coefficients in any line bundle. Namely, for a field k, a positive integer n, and any integer j, the cohomology of projective space \mathbb{P}^n over k with coefficients in the line bundle \mathcal O(j) is given by: : H^i(\mathbb{P}^n,\mathcal O(j)) \cong \begin{cases} \bigoplus_{a_0,\ldots,a_n\geq 0,\; a_0+\cdots+a_n=j}\; k\cdot x_0^{a_0}\cdots x_n^{a_n} & i=0\\\\[6pt] 0 & i eq 0, n\\\\[6pt] \bigoplus_{a_0, \ldots,a_n<0,\; a_0+\cdots+a_n=j}\; k\cdot x_0^{a_0}\cdots x_n^{a_n} & i=n \end{cases} In particular, this calculation shows that the cohomology of projective space over k with coefficients in any line bundle has finite dimension as a k-vector space. The vanishing of these cohomology groups above dimension n is a very special case of Grothendieck's vanishing theorem: for any sheaf of abelian groups \mathcal F on a Noetherian topological space X of dimension n<\infty, H^i(X,\mathcal F) = 0 for all i>n. This is especially useful for X a Noetherian scheme (for example, a variety over a field) and \mathcal F a quasi-coherent sheaf. ==Sheaf cohomology of plane-curves== Given a smooth projective plane curve C of degree d, the sheaf cohomology H^*(C,\mathcal{O}_C) can be readily computed using a long exact sequence in cohomology. First note that for the embedding i:C \to \mathbb{P}^2 there is the isomorphism of cohomology groups :H^*(\mathbb{P}^2, i_*\mathcal{O}_C) \cong H^*(C, \mathcal{O}_C) since i_* is exact. This means that the short exact sequence of coherent sheaves :0 \to \mathcal{O}(-d) \to \mathcal{O} \to i_*\mathcal{O}_C \to 0 on \mathbb{P}^2, called the ideal sequence, can be used to compute cohomology via the long exact sequence in cohomology. The sequence reads as :\begin{align} 0&\to H^0(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}(-d)) \to H^0(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}) \to H^0(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}_C)\\\ &\to H^1(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}(-d)) \to H^1(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}) \to H^1(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}_C)\\\ &\to H^2(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}(-d)) \to H^2(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}) \to H^2(\mathbb{P}^2, \mathcal{O}_C) \end{align} which can be simplified using the previous computations on projective space. For simplicity, assume the base ring is \C (or any algebraically closed field). Then there are the isomorphisms :\begin{align} H^0(C,\mathcal{O}_C) &\cong H^0(\mathbb{P}^2,\mathcal{O}) \\\ H^1(C,\mathcal{O}_C) &\cong H^2(\mathbb{P}^2,\mathcal{O}(-d)) \end{align} which shows that H^1 of the curve is a finite dimensional vector space of rank :{d-1 \choose d-3 } = \frac{(d-1)(d-2)}{2}. ==Kunneth Theorem== There is an analogue of the Kunneth formula in coherent sheaf cohomology for products of varieties. Given quasi-compact schemes X,Y with affine-diagonals over a field k, (e.g. separated schemes), and let \mathcal{F} \in \text{Coh}(X) and \mathcal{G} \in \text{Coh}(Y), then there is an isomorphism > H^k(X\times_{\text{Spec}(k)}Y, > \pi_1^*\mathcal{F}\otimes_{\mathcal{O}_{X\times_{\text{Spec}(k)} > Y}}\pi_2^*\mathcal{G}) \cong \bigoplus_{i+j = k} H^i(X,\mathcal{F})\otimes_k > H^j(Y,\mathcal{G}) where \pi_1,\pi_2 are the canonical projections of X\times_{\text{Spec}(k)} Y to X,Y. === Computing sheaf cohomology of curves === In X = \mathbb{P}^1 \times \mathbb{P}^1, a generic section of \mathcal{O}_X(a,b) = \pi_1^*\mathcal{O}_{\mathbb{P}^1}(a) \otimes_{\mathcal{O}_X} \pi_2^*\mathcal{O}_{\mathbb{P}^1}(b) defines a curve C, giving the ideal sequence > 0 \to \mathcal{O}_X(-a,-b) \to \mathcal{O}_X \to \mathcal{O}_C \to 0 Then, the long exact sequence reads as > \begin{align} 0&\to H^0(X, \mathcal{O}(-a,-b)) \to H^0(X, \mathcal{O}) \to > H^0(X, \mathcal{O}_C)\\\ &\to H^1(X, \mathcal{O}(-a,-b)) \to H^1(X, > \mathcal{O}) \to H^1(X, \mathcal{O}_C)\\\ &\to H^2(X, \mathcal{O}(-a,-b)) > \to H^2(X, \mathcal{O}) \to H^2(X, \mathcal{O}_C) \end{align} giving > \begin{align} H^0(C,\mathcal{O}_C) &\cong H^0(X,\mathcal{O}) \\\ > H^1(C,\mathcal{O}_C) &\cong H^2(X,\mathcal{O}(-a,-b)) \end{align} Since H^1is the genus of the curve, we can use the Kunneth formula to compute its Betti numbers. This is > H^2(X, \mathcal{O}_X(-a,-b)) \cong > H^1(\mathbb{P}^1,\mathcal{O}(-a))\otimes_kH^1(\mathbb{P}^1,\mathcal{O}(-b)) which is of rank > \binom{a-1}{a-2}\binom{b-1}{b-2} = (a-1)(b-1) = ab - a - b +1 for -a,-b \leq -2. In particular, if C is defined by the vanishing locus of a generic section of \mathcal{O}(2,k), it is of genus > 2k-2-k+1 = k-1 hence a curve of any genus can be found inside of \mathbb{P}^1\times\mathbb{P}^1. ==Finite-dimensionality== For a proper scheme X over a field k and any coherent sheaf \mathcal F on X, the cohomology groups H^i(X,\mathcal F) have finite dimension as k-vector spaces.. In the special case where X is projective over k, this is proved by reducing to the case of line bundles on projective space, discussed above. In the general case of a proper scheme over a field, Grothendieck proved the finiteness of cohomology by reducing to the projective case, using Chow's lemma. The finite- dimensionality of cohomology also holds in the analogous situation of coherent analytic sheaves on any compact complex space, by a very different argument. Cartan and Serre proved finite-dimensionality in this analytic situation using a theorem of Schwartz on compact operators in Fréchet spaces. Relative versions of this result for a proper morphism were proved by Grothendieck (for locally Noetherian schemes) and by Grauert (for complex analytic spaces). Namely, for a proper morphism f: X\to Y (in the algebraic or analytic setting) and a coherent sheaf \mathcal F on X, the higher direct image sheaves R^i f_*\mathcal F are coherent., When Y is a point, this theorem gives the finite-dimensionality of cohomology. The finite-dimensionality of cohomology leads to many numerical invariants for projective varieties. For example, if X is a smooth projective curve over an algebraically closed field k, the genus of X is defined to be the dimension of the k-vector space H^1(X,\mathcal O_X). When k is the field of complex numbers, this agrees with the genus of the space X(\Complex) of complex points in its classical (Euclidean) topology. (In that case, X(\Complex) = X^{an} is a closed oriented surface.) Among many possible higher-dimensional generalizations, the geometric genus of a smooth projective variety X of dimension n is the dimension of H^n(X, \mathcal O_X), and the arithmetic genus (according to one convention) is the alternating sum ::\chi(X, \mathcal{O}_X)=\sum_j (-1)^j\dim_k(H^j(X, \mathcal O_X)). ==Serre duality== Serre duality is an analog of Poincaré duality for coherent sheaf cohomology. In this analogy, the canonical bundle K_X plays the role of the orientation sheaf. Namely, for a smooth proper scheme X of dimension n over a field k, there is a natural trace map H^n(X, K_X)\to k, which is an isomorphism if X is geometrically connected, meaning that the base change of X to an algebraic closure of k is connected. Serre duality for a vector bundle E on X says that the product ::H^i(X,E)\times H^{n-i}(X,K_X\otimes E^*)\to H^n(X,K_X)\to k is a perfect pairing for every integer i. In particular, the k-vector spaces H^i(X, E) and H^{n-i}(X, K_X\otimes E^*) have the same (finite) dimension. (Serre also proved Serre duality for holomorphic vector bundles on any compact complex manifold.) Grothendieck duality theory includes generalizations to any coherent sheaf and any proper morphism of schemes, although the statements become less elementary. For example, for a smooth projective curve X over an algebraically closed field k, Serre duality implies that the dimension of the space H^0(X, \Omega^1) = H^0(X, K_X) of 1-forms on X is equal to the genus of X (the dimension of H^1(X,\mathcal O_X)). ==GAGA theorems== GAGA theorems relate algebraic varieties over the complex numbers to the corresponding analytic spaces. For a scheme X of finite type over C, there is a functor from coherent algebraic sheaves on X to coherent analytic sheaves on the associated analytic space Xan. The key GAGA theorem (by Grothendieck, generalizing Serre's theorem on the projective case) is that if X is proper over C, then this functor is an equivalence of categories. Moreover, for every coherent algebraic sheaf E on a proper scheme X over C, the natural map ::H^i(X,E)\to H^i(X^{\text{an}},E^{\text{an}}) of (finite- dimensional) complex vector spaces is an isomorphism for all i. (The first group here is defined using the Zariski topology, and the second using the classical (Euclidean) topology.) For example, the equivalence between algebraic and analytic coherent sheaves on projective space implies Chow's theorem that every closed analytic subspace of CPn is algebraic. ==Vanishing theorems== Serre's vanishing theorem says that for any ample line bundle L on a proper scheme X over a Noetherian ring, and any coherent sheaf \mathcal F on X, there is an integer m_0 such that for all m\geq m_0, the sheaf \mathcal F\otimes L^{\otimes m} is spanned by its global sections and has no cohomology in positive degrees. Although Serre's vanishing theorem is useful, the inexplicitness of the number m_0 can be a problem. The Kodaira vanishing theorem is an important explicit result. Namely, if X is a smooth projective variety over a field of characteristic zero, L is an ample line bundle on X, and K_X a canonical bundle, then ::H^j(X,K_X\otimes L)=0 for all j>0. Note that Serre's theorem guarantees the same vanishing for large powers of L. Kodaira vanishing and its generalizations are fundamental to the classification of algebraic varieties and the minimal model program. Kodaira vanishing fails over fields of positive characteristic.Michel Raynaud. Contre- exemple au vanishing theorem en caractéristique p > 0. In C. P. Ramanujam - a tribute, Tata Inst. Fund. Res. Studies in Math. 8, Berlin, New York: Springer- Verlag, (1978), pp. 273-278. ==Hodge theory== The Hodge theorem relates coherent sheaf cohomology to singular cohomology (or de Rham cohomology). Namely, if X is a smooth complex projective variety, then there is a canonical direct-sum decomposition of complex vector spaces: :: H^a(X,\mathbf{C})\cong \bigoplus_{b=0}^a H^{a-b}(X,\Omega^b), for every a. The group on the left means the singular cohomology of X(\mathbf C) in its classical (Euclidean) topology, whereas the groups on the right are cohomology groups of coherent sheaves, which (by GAGA) can be taken either in the Zariski or in the classical topology. The same conclusion holds for any smooth proper scheme X over \mathbf C, or for any compact Kähler manifold. For example, the Hodge theorem implies that the definition of the genus of a smooth projective curve X as the dimension of H^1(X, \mathcal O), which makes sense over any field k, agrees with the topological definition (as half the first Betti number) when k is the complex numbers. Hodge theory has inspired a large body of work on the topological properties of complex algebraic varieties. ==Riemann–Roch theorems== For a proper scheme X over a field k, the Euler characteristic of a coherent sheaf E on X is the integer ::\chi(X,E)=\sum_j (-1)^j\dim_k(H^j(X,E)). The Euler characteristic of a coherent sheaf E can be computed from the Chern classes of E, according to the Riemann–Roch theorem and its generalizations, the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem and the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem. For example, if L is a line bundle on a smooth proper geometrically connected curve X over a field k, then ::\chi(X,L)=\text{deg}(L)-\text{genus}(X)+1, where deg(L) denotes the degree of L. When combined with a vanishing theorem, the Riemann–Roch theorem can often be used to determine the dimension of the vector space of sections of a line bundle. Knowing that a line bundle on X has enough sections, in turn, can be used to define a map from X to projective space, perhaps a closed immersion. This approach is essential for classifying algebraic varieties. The Riemann–Roch theorem also holds for holomorphic vector bundles on a compact complex manifold, by the Atiyah–Singer index theorem. ==Growth== Dimensions of cohomology groups on a scheme of dimension n can grow up at most like a polynomial of degree n. Let X be a projective scheme of dimension n and D a divisor on X. If \mathcal F is any coherent sheaf on X then h^i(X,\mathcal F(mD))=O(m^n) for every i. For a higher cohomology of nef divisor D on X; h^i(X,\mathcal O_X(mD))=O(m^{n-1}) ==Applications== Given a scheme X over a field k, deformation theory studies the deformations of X to infinitesimal neighborhoods. The simplest case, concerning deformations over the ring R := k[\epsilon]/\epsilon^2 of dual numbers, examines whether there is a scheme XR over Spec R such that the special fiber :X_R \times_{\operatorname{Spec } R} \operatorname{Spec} k is isomorphic to the given X. Coherent sheaf cohomology with coefficients in the tangent sheaf T_X controls this class of deformations of X, provided X is smooth. Namely, * isomorphism classes of deformations of the above type are parametrized by the first coherent cohomology H^1(X, T_X), * there is an element (called the obstruction class) in H^2(X, T_X) which vanishes if and only if a deformation of X over Spec R as above exists. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Category:Algebraic geometry Category:Cohomology theories Category:Sheaf theory Category:Vector bundles Category:Topological methods of algebraic geometry Category:Complex manifolds
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Louisiana State University (officially Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, commonly referred to as LSU) is a public land-grant research university in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The university was founded in 1860 near Pineville, Louisiana, under the name Louisiana State Seminary of Learning & Military Academy. The current LSU main campus was dedicated in 1926, consists of more than 250 buildings constructed in the style of Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio, and the main campus historic district occupies a plateau on the banks of the Mississippi River. LSU is the flagship school of the state of Louisiana, as well as the flagship institution of the Louisiana State University System, and is the most comprehensive university in Louisiana. In 2021, the university enrolled over 28,000 undergraduate and more than 4,500 graduate students in 14 schools and colleges. Several of LSU's graduate schools, such as the E. J. Ourso College of Business and the Paul M. Hebert Law Center, have received national recognition in their respective fields of study. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". LSU is also noted for its extensive research facilities, operating some 800 sponsored research projects funded by agencies such as the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. LSU is one of eight universities in the United States with dental, law, veterinary, medical, and Master of Business Administration programs. LSU's athletics department fields teams in 21 varsity sports (nine men's, 12 women's), and is a member of the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) and the SEC (Southeastern Conference). The university is represented by its mascot, Mike the Tiger. ==History== ===19th century=== Louisiana State University Agricultural & Mechanical College had its origin in several land grants made by the United States government in 1806, 1811, and 1827 for use as a seminary of learning. It was founded as a military academy and is still today steeped in military tradition, giving rise to the school's nickname "The Ole War Skule". In 1853, the Louisiana General Assembly established the Seminary of Learning of the State of Louisiana near Pineville in Rapides Parish in Central Louisiana. Modeled initially after Virginia Military Institute, the institution opened with five professors and nineteen cadets on January 2, 1860, with Major, later Colonel, William Tecumseh Sherman as superintendent. The original location of the Old LSU Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On January 26, 1861, when Louisiana became the sixth state to secede from the Union, Sherman resigned his position after only a year at the helm to return north and eventually resume his service in the Union Army. The school closed on June 30, 1861, after the start of the American Civil War. thumb|right|200px|Downtown Baton Rouge Campus (1886–1925) Historical Marker During the war, the university reopened briefly in April 1863 but was closed once again during the Union Army's Red River Campaign. The losses sustained by the institution during the Union occupation were heavy, and after 1863 the seminary remained closed for the remainder of the Civil War. Following the surrender of the Confederates at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, General Sherman donated two cannons to the institution. These cannons had been captured from Confederate forces after the close of the war and had been used during the initial firing upon Fort Sumter in April 1861. The cannons are still displayed in front of LSU's Military Science/Aerospace Studies Building. The seminary officially reopened its doors on October 2, 1865, only to be burned October 15, 1869. On November 1, 1869, the institution resumed its exercises in Baton Rouge, where it has since remained. In 1870, the name of the institution was officially changed to Louisiana State University. Louisiana State University Agricultural & Mechanical College was established by an act of the legislature, approved April 7, 1874, to carry out the United States Morrill Act of 1862, granting lands for this purpose. It temporarily opened in New Orleans, June 1, 1874, where it remained until it merged with Louisiana State University in 1877. This prompted the final name change for the university to the Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College. ===20th century=== thumb|right|400px|A panorama of the LSU campus in 1909 In 1905, LSU admitted its first female student, R. O. Davis. She was admitted into a program to pursue a master's degree. The following year, 1906, LSU admitted sixteen female students to its freshman class as part of an experimental program. Before this, LSU's student body was all-male. In 1907, LSU's first female graduate, Martha McC. Read, was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree. After this two year experimental program, the university fully opened its doors to female applicants in 1908, and thus coeducation was born at LSU.https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/mwg- internal/de5fs23hu73ds/progress?id=pClHVJaqvH95POPytmxnoKtOYFiPBXWuGL-32Rw2sO8,&dl; Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College, "Gumbo Yearbook, Class of 1909" (1909). Gumbo Yearbook. 11. p. 140 On April 30, 1926, the present LSU campus was formally dedicated, following the school's history at the federal garrison grounds (now the site of the state capitol) where it had been since 1886. Before this, LSU used the quarters of the Institute for the Deaf, Mute, and Blind. Land for the present campus was purchased in 1918, construction started in 1922, and the move began in 1925; however, the move was not completed until 1932. The campus was originally designed for 3000 students but was cut back due to budget problems. After years of enrollment fluctuation, student numbers began a steady increase, new programs were added, curricula and faculty expanded, and a true state university emerged. In 1928, LSU was a small-time country school that generated little interest or attention in the state. Labeled a "third-rate" institution by the Association of State Universities, the school had only 1800 students, 168 faculty members, and an annual operating budget of $800,000. In 1930, Huey Pierce Long Jr., the governor, began a massive building program to expand the physical plant and add departments. By 1936, LSU had the finest facilities in the South, a top- notch faculty of 394 professors, a new medical school, more than 6,000 students, and a winning football team. In only eight years, it had risen in size from 88th in the nation to 20th, and it was the 11th largest state university in the nation. Long financed these improvements by arranging for the state to purchase acreage from the old LSU campus, which adjoined the grounds of the new State Capitol building in downtown Baton Rouge. To the consternation of his critics, Long essentially diverted $9 million for LSU's expansion and increased the annual operating budget to $2.8 million. LSU was hit by scandal in 1939 when James Monroe Smith, appointed by Huey Long as president of LSU, was charged with embezzling a half-million dollars. In the ensuing investigation, at least twenty state officials were indicted. Two committed suicide as the scandal enveloped Governor Richard W. Leche, who received a 10-year federal prison sentence as a result of a kickback scheme. Paul M. Hebert, Dean of LSU's law school at the time, then assumed interim presidency in Smith's place. During World War II, LSU was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. Although some African-Americans students tried to enroll in LSU in 1946, the university did not admit African-Americans until the 1950s. In 1953 A. P. Tureaud Jr. enrolled under court order, but his enrollment was canceled when a higher court overturned the ruling. His case was ultimately decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. Tureaud returned to LSU in 1956. A classroom building on the LSU campus is named for his father, the late A. P. Tureaud Sr., a noted Civil Rights leader. The federal courts mandated full integration for LSU in 1964. The first African-American graduate of the LSU Law School was New Orleans's first African-American mayor, the late Ernest N. "Dutch" Morial. In 1969, mandatory ROTC for freshmen and sophomores was abolished; however, LSU continues to maintain Air Force and Army ROTC. In 1978, LSU was named a sea- grant college, the 13th university in the nation to be so designated. In 1992, the LSU Board of Supervisors approved the creation of the LSU Honors College. ===21st century=== In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, LSU accepted an additional 2,300 displaced students from schools in the greater New Orleans area such as Tulane University, Loyola University New Orleans, Xavier University of Louisiana, and the University of New Orleans. In addition to accepting displaced students, university officials also took on the challenge of housing and managing many hurricane victims, converting the Pete Maravich Assembly Center into a fully functional field hospital. Around 3,000 LSU students volunteered during the months after Katrina, assisting with the administration of medical treatment to some 5,000 evacuees and screening another 45,000 for various diseases. In 2013, F. King Alexander was named President of Louisiana State University. In fall 2020, LSU broke its record for the most diverse and largest freshman class in history. Of the record 6,690 freshmen, more than 30% identified as students of color, African- Americans made up the most at 16.8%. Additionally, LSU reached its all-time highest enrollment at 34,290 undergraduate and graduate students. A November 2020 investigative report in USA Today accused LSU of mishandling sexual misconduct claims against the football players. LSU hired Husch Blackwell LLP to review policies in response to the report. Husch Blackwell released a 262-page report in March 2021 confirming the USA Today story, adding that the problems within LSU went far beyond the allegations detailed in the investigation, with many of the problems being widespread across the university. In the fallout of the report, former LSU Tigers football coach Les Miles and former LSU president F. King Alexander were forced to resign from their jobs at University of Kansas and Oregon State University, respectively. In April 2021, seven women filed a federal class-action lawsuit against LSU and its leadership based on their inability to report their incidents to the university's Title IX office. The seven women are six former students (three of which were a part of the women's tennis team at LSU and two who were student employees in the football recruiting office) and one current student. In June 2021, football coach Ed Orgeron was added as a defendant to the Title IX lawsuit, making the claim that Orgeron was aware of and failed to report the rape allegation of former running back Derrius Guice. In April 2021, LSU's Assistant Athletic Director of Football Recruiting and Alumni Relations, Sharon Lewis, filed a $50 million federal lawsuit against the university for years of harassment for her attempts to report sexual misconduct allegations against players, coaches, and athletic officials. In January 2022, Lewis' legal team announced the university had violated Louisiana's whistleblower law, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission guidelines, and Title IX as Lewis was fired in retaliation for her lawsuit. In July 2022, it was announced that trial date for Lewis' lawsuit was scheduled for May 22, 2023, while the joint lawsuit filed by the LSU students had a trial date scheduled for June 26, 2023. Dr. William F. Tate IV was named the new president of the school on May 6, 2021, effective in July. He is the first African-American president in LSU's history. ==Campus== ===History=== The LSU campus sits on 1,000 acres (8.1 km2) just south of downtown Baton Rouge. Most of the university's 250 buildings, most of which were built between 1925 and 1940, occupy a 650-acre (2.6 km2) plateau on the banks of the Mississippi River. The Olmsted Brothers of Brookline, Massachusetts, designed the current campus around 1921 when LSU was planning to move its campus from downtown Baton Rouge. The firm originally designed the campus for up to 3,000 students, but state officials asked the firm to scale the plan back due to budgetary constraints; subsequently, the new plan presented to the state by the Olmsted Brothers centered the campus around a cruciform quadrangle similar to the one on campus today. For unknown reasons, the Olmsted Brothers firm was dropped from the project, and an architect named Theodore Link, who was well known for designing Union Station in St. Louis, Missouri, took over the campus master plan. Link collaborated with Wilbur Tyson Trueblood on the project but remained faithful to the campus the Olmsted firm had designed. Unfortunately, Link died in 1923 before the plan was completed. New Orleans architects Wogan and Bernard completed Link's work and the campus was dedicated on April 30, 1926. The first building constructed on the present campus was the Swine Palace, the former livestock barn that is now the Reilly Theater. Most of the buildings that occupy the university's Quad were completed between 1922 and 1925. Under Huey Long, the governor from 1928 to 1932, LSU "more than doubled its enrollment despite the Great Depression; its standing had risen to Grade A; dormitories and buildings for departments of music, dramatic arts, and physical education had been completed; other buildings were soon to start, and costs of attendance had been lowered within the reach of many."Huey Pierce Long, Jr., Every Man a King: The Autobiography of Huey P. Long (New Orleans: National Book Club, Inc., 1933), p. 281. Because the original campus was designed to accommodate 1,500 students, space is now at a premium at LSU. During the 1990s, LSU officials created a set of design guidelines that call for all newly- constructed buildings to have an Italian Renaissance flavor. ===Architecture and landscape=== Although the Olmsted firm had originally envisioned a Spanish or Mexican style design for the university, Link designed the campus with tan stucco walls, red-tiled rooftops, and extensive porticoes in an attempt to emulate the architecture of Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio. The design of Hill Memorial Library was loosely based on the Boston Public Library, which was the first public library in the U.S. The flanking academic buildings that formed the rest of the Quad represented the major disciplines at the university, and their placement was modeled after buildings on the University of Virginia's campus, which was designed by Thomas Jefferson. Nine LSU buildings, including the library and the academic buildings for dairying and physics, were constructed by George A. Caldwell, a native of Abbeville. Caldwell designed twenty-six public buildings in Louisiana. The campus is known for the 1,200 live oak trees that shade the ground of the university. During the 1930s, landscape artist Steele Burden planted many live oaks and magnolia trees, which are now valued at over $50 million. Many of the azaleas, crepe myrtles, ligustrum, and camellias planted in the quadrangle were added to the campus in the 1970s. Through the LSU Foundation's "Endow an Oak" program, individuals and groups can endow live oaks across the university's campus. ====Historic District==== Fifty-seven resources on the LSU campus were listed in the Louisiana State University Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places on September 15, 1988. Forty-six of the enlisted resources were considered contributing buildings and structures. with four photos and two maps With The campus is protected by the State Capital Historic District Legislation. The LSU Campus Mounds, which are part of a larger mound group spread throughout the state, are near the northwestern corner of the campus and were built an estimated 5,000 years ago. They were individually enlisted in the National Register of Historic Places on March 1, 1999. with two photos With ====Contributing Properties==== The 46 contributing properties of the historic district are: *Memorial Tower, , built 1924. *David Boyd Pavilion, , built 1924. *David Boyd Hall, , built 1924. *Himes Hall, , built 1938. *Coates Hall, , built 1924. *Nicholson Hall, , built 1937. *Geology Building, , built c.1930 and 1938. *Engineering Shops Building, , built 1924. *Francioni Hall, , built 1936. *Radioisotope Laboratory, , built 1938. Now part of Francioni Hall. *Dalrymple Building, , built c.1930. *Nuclear Science Center, , built 1925. *Design Center, , built 1924. *Atkinson Hall, , built 1924. *Agriculture Administration Building, , built 1935. *Audubon Hall, , built 1924. *Dodson Auditorium, , built 1924. *Stubbs Hall, , built 1924. *Prescott Hall, , built 1924. *Allen Hall, , built 1932. *Hill Memorial, , built 1924. *Peabody Hall, , built 1926. *Murphy J. Foster Hall, , built 1923. *Thomas Boyd Hall, , built 1924. *Thomas Boyd Pavilion, , built 1924. *King Hall, , built 1936. *Annie Boyd Hall, , built 1936. *Evangeline Hall, , built 1936. *Highland Hall, , built 1935. *Garig Hall, , built 1936. *Bus Stop, , built c.1935. *Old President's House, , built 1923. *Faculty Club, , built 1938. *Law School, , built 1938. *Pleasant Hall, , built 1929. *Infirmary, , built 1938. *Dean of Men's Residence, , built 1926. *Music and Dramatic Arts Building, , built 1932. *Greek Theatre, , built c.1930. *Pentagon Building A, , built 1923. Now known as Jackson Hall. *Pentagon Building B, , built 1923. Now known as Taylor Hall. *Pentagon Building C, , built 1923. Now known as Beauregard Hall. *Pentagon Building D, , built 1923. Now known as Lejeune Hall. *Huey P. Long Fieldhouse, , built 1932. *Gym-Armory, , built c.1930. *Journalism Building, , built in 1930s. ===Campus housing=== On-campus housing options include on-campus apartments (East Campus Apartments, West Campus Apartments, Edward Gay and Nicholson Gateway Apartments), Annie Boyd Hall, Evangeline Hall, the Agricultural Residence College, the Engineering Residential College, the Business Residential College, Broussard, Acadian, Beauregard, Blake, Cypress, Herget, Highland, Jackson, LeJeune, McVoy, Miller, Taylor, East Laville, and West Laville. ===Other campuses=== Other Louisiana State University campuses include the LSU Agricultural Center, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, LSU of Alexandria, LSU Shreveport, LSU Eunice, LSU Health Sciences Center New Orleans and LSU Health Sciences Center Shreveport. The University of New Orleans was a member of Louisiana State University from 1958 until 1963 as LSUNO and under its own name from 1974 until 2011, when it was transferred to the University of Louisiana System by the Louisiana Legislature. In addition, LSU owns and operates the J. Bennett Johnston Sr. Center for Advanced Microstructures and Devices (CAMD), which is a 1.3 GeV synchrotron radiation facility. ==Academics== === Admissions === ==== Undergraduate ==== The 2022 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes LSU-Baton Rouge as "more selective". For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), LSU received 36,561 applications and accepted 25,907 (70.9%). Of those accepted, 7,045 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 27.2%. LSU's freshman retention rate is 82.9%, with 69% going on to graduate within six years. The enrolled first-year class of 2025 had the following standardized test scores: the middle 50% range (25th percentile-75th percentile) of SAT scores was 1130-1300, while the middle 50% range of ACT scores was 23-29. Fall First-Time Freshman Statistics 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 Applicants 36,561 28,960 24,501 24,280 17,907 18,122 Admits 25,907 21,252 18,272 18,024 13,236 13,843 Admit rate 70.9 73.4 74.6 74.2 73.9 76.4 Enrolled 7,045 6,701 6,132 5,812 4,917 5,475 Yield rate 27.2 31.5 33.6 32.2 37.1 39.6 ACT composite* (out of 36) 23-29 23-28 23-29 23-29 23-28 23-28 SAT composite* (out of 1600) 1130-1300 1080-1280 1090-1280 1070-1290 1060-1290 * middle 50% range ===Colleges and schools=== * College of Agriculture * College of Art & Design * College of Humanities & Social Sciences * College of Science * E. J. Ourso College of Business * College of Music & Dramatic Arts * College of Human Sciences & Education * College of Engineering * Paul M. Hebert Law Center * University College * Roger Hadfield Ogden Honors College * Graduate School * Manship School of Mass Communication *School of Information Studies * School of Veterinary Medicine * College of the Coast & Environment * School of Social Work * Continuing Education ===Rankings=== thumb|The LSU Faculty Club in March 2018 Louisiana State University is ranked 176th in the national universities category and 87th among public universities by the 2022 U.S. News & World Report ranking of U.S. colleges. LSU is also ranked as the 192nd best overall university in the nation by Forbes magazine in 2019. Additionally, in 2009, U.S. News & World Report ranked LSU as the 16th most popular university in the nation among high school students. Programs that have received recognition within LSU include the following: *The university's Robert S. Reich School of Landscape Architecture has been consistently ranked among the best undergraduate and graduate programs by DesignIntelligence for "America's Best Architecture & Design Schools". The journal has ranked the school in the top five since 2004. *The E. J. Ourso College of Business has two professional programs ranked by U.S. News & World Report: in 2015, the Public Administration Institute ranked 73rd nationally according to the magazine, and the Flores MBA program was ranked 65th nationally. Additionally, ** LSU students have won the International Student High Achievement Award, an accolade given to students who score the highest possible score on the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) exam, seventeen times during the last twenty- one years. ** In 2007, the Flores MBA Program was ranked seventh in the nation "for attracting corporate MBA recruiters who recruit regionally" by The Wall Street Journal.Forever LSU * The LSU College of Engineering undergraduate program was ranked 91st by U.S. News & World Report, while the graduate program was ranked 94th. * The Paul M. Hebert Law Center is ranked as the 75th best law school in the nation by the 2010 U.S. News Rankings of Best Law Schools. LSU law graduates have the highest first-time bar passage rate in Louisiana. * In 2009, Entrepreneur magazine ranked LSU among the top 12 Entrepreneurial Colleges and Universities in the nation. * * The LSU College of Education graduate program was ranked 86th in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. * The LSU French program, comprising the Department of French Studies and the Center for French and Francophone Studies, is recognized by the Cultural Services office of the French Ambassador to the United States as a centre d'excellence, an honor given to only 15 university French programs in the United States, and is ranked as one of the top 20 undergraduate French programs in the nation. * The LSU graduate program in fine arts is ranked 62nd in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. * The LSU graduate program in library and information studies is ranked 27th in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. * The LSU School of Social Work is ranked 79th in the nation by the 2015 U.S. News & World Report. *The LSU College of Science is the top producer of African American Ph.D. graduates and women graduates in chemistry in the United States. ==Libraries== LSU's main library collection, numbering almost three million volumes, is housed in the Library on the main quadrangle of the university. It is both a general use library and a U.S. Regional Depository Library, housing publications from the federal government, United Nations, and United States Patent and Trademark Office. The LSU Libraries belong to the Association of Research Libraries, which includes the top 113 academic libraries in the U.S. and Canada; the Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL); LYRASIS, which is a merger of the Southeastern Library Network SOLINET with PALINET; and the Louisiana Academic Library Information Network Consortium (LALINC). LSU was among the founding members of the Louisiana Online University Information System (LOUIS) network which provides access to most academic library catalogs in the state. The LSU Libraries' subject strengths include Louisiana materials, sugar culture and technology, Southern history, agriculture, petroleum engineering, plant pathology, natural history, and various aspects of aquaculture including crawfish, wetlands research, and marine biology. LSU Libraries' U.S. Regional Depository Library and the U.S. Patent Depository Library collections are housed in Middleton Library. The Library has been a depository for federal government publications since 1907 and has a substantial number of U.S. documents issued before and after that time. The Library became a Regional Depository Library in 1964. The Library was designated as an official depository for U.S. Patents in 1981. The patent collection includes all patents issued from 1871 to the present. The LSU Libraries Special Collections in Hill Memorial Library provides a center for research in the humanities, social sciences, and fine arts. The primary strength of Special Collections resides in the Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, an outstanding integrated collection of materials that document the region's history and culture. It provides rare and early imprints about the exploration and colonization of the region; books on Louisiana subjects; books by Louisiana authors; Louisiana state documents; extensive manuscript collections, which include the personal papers of important individuals in the region's history, including the Long family; records of business, professions, and organizations; and extensive photographic collections. Its collections of rare books, dating back to the fifteenth century, number more than 80,000 volumes and include the E. A. McIlhenny Natural History Collection, which contains many important works in the history of ornithological and botanical illustration, including John James Audubon's Birds of America, Margaret Stones's Flora of Louisiana, and books by Edward Lear, John Gould, Mark Catesby, and Sir Joseph Banks.Hill Memorial Library website. Retrieved September 15, 2013. Mrs. Ella V. Aldrich Schwing was librarian at LSU, a member of the faculty of the LSU Library School, and a member of the LSU Board of Supervisors.Aldrich, Ella V. (Ella Virginia), 1902-1982. Papers. LSU Libraries, Special Collections. She donated funds for an annual lecture titled, The LSU Libraries Schwing Lecture Series, which began in 1965.Perrault, Anna. Library Lectures: The LSU Libraries Schwing Lecture Series. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge: 1993. Lecturers included Martha Boaz, Ching-chih Chen, John Y. Cole, Richard M. Dougherty, Edward G. Holley, Judith Krug, Clifford Lynch, James G. Neal, Carl Howard Pforzheimer Jr, Benjamin E. Powell and Robert Wedgeworth. In June 2020, the LSU Board of Supervisors adopted a resolution to remove Troy H. Middleton's name from the university's main library. The decision came amid student protests concerning the racist past of former LSU President Troy H. Middleton, after whom the Library was named. Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards supported the decision, stating that "[Black] LSU students shouldn't be asked to study in a library bearing the name of someone who didn't want them to be LSU students." ==Museums== The LSU campus houses eight museums that feature original works by students as well as traveling exhibits by local, national, and international artisans. In addition to the campus museums, LSU runs four museums in the greater Baton Rouge area: The LSU Museum of Art, The LSU Museum of Natural History, The LSU Museum of Natural Science, and the LSU Rural Life Museum. ===LSU Museum of Art=== The LSU Museum of Art (LSU MOA), in the Shaw Center for the Arts in downtown Baton Rouge, opened in March 2005. The museum manifests a decade-long vision to offer LSU and the Baton Rouge community greater access to its diverse art collection, changing exhibitions, education programs, and special events. The LSU MOA shares the Shaw Center for the Arts with many cultural partners including the LSU School of Art Gallery, LSU's Laboratory for Creative Arts and Technology, the Manship Theatre, and the Community School for the Arts of the Arts Council of Greater Baton Rouge. LSU MOA first opened in 1962 under the name of The Anglo-American Art Museum in the Memorial Tower on LSU's Baton Rouge campus. The museum and its collection were established through a donation to LSU in 1959 from an anonymous supporter, to research British and continental influences on early American art and culture in the South. The museum's significant collection of American and British portraiture, furniture, and decorative arts grew from this foundation. ===LSU Museum of Natural Science=== The LSU Museum of Natural Science was founded in 1936, when its first director, George H. Lowery Jr., assembled a few study specimens of birds in a classroom in Audubon Hall. Since its move to Murphy J. Foster Hall in 1950, the museum has continued to expand and is currently one of the nation's largest natural history museums, with holdings of over 2.5 million specimens. As the only comprehensive research museum in the south-central United States, the LSU Museum of Natural Science fulfills a variety of scientific and educational roles at the university, including the generation of new knowledge in the fields of zoology, archaeology, and paleontology through scholarly research based primarily on natural history collections; collection and preservation of research specimens as a resource for study of the Earth's natural history; education of graduate and undergraduate students in academic areas that are most effectively taught in the museum setting; education of the public using exhibits and lecture programs; and assistance to local citizens, wildlife officials, and forensic specialists through identification and consultation services. ===LSU Rural Life Museum=== The LSU Rural Life Museum has been listed as one of the top outdoor museums in the country. The variety of people who settled in Louisiana made significant and lasting contributions to the state's unique culture and heritage. It is one of the few museums that celebrate the day-to-day lives of early Americans, including Native Americans, French and Spanish settlers, Anglo-Americans, Germans, Africans, and Acadians. The Rural Life Museum features several displays and exhibits on the pre-industrial residents of Louisiana. The permanent collection includes tools, utensils, furniture, and farming equipment. The recreated "working plantation" consists of a complex of buildings authentically furnished to reconstruct all the major activities of life on a typical 19th-century plantation. The museum also serves as a research facility for LSU students engaged in heritage conservation studies. ===Louisiana Museum of Natural History=== In 1999, the sixteen natural history collections at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge were designated by the state legislature as the Louisiana Museum of Natural History. Together, these collections hold more than 2.8 million specimens, objects, and artifacts that document Louisiana's rich natural history. These collections are dispersed among six independently administered units on campus, and include the Vascular Plant Herbarium, the Mycological Herbarium, the Lichen Herbarium, the Louisiana State Arthropod Museum, the Palynology Collection, the Mineralogy and Petrology Collections, the Textile and Costume Museum, the Louisiana Geological Survey Log Library and Core Repository, and, within the LSU Museum of Natural Science, the Collection of Amphibians and Reptiles, the Collection of Birds, the Collection of Fishes, the Collection of Genetic Resources, the Collection of Mammals, the Vertebrate Paleontology Collection, the Collection of Microfossils and Invertebrates, and the Anthropological and Ethnological Collections. ==Student life== Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicity Total White Black Hispanic Asian Other Foreign national Native American Economic diversity Low-income Affluent ===Organizations=== thumb|right|250px|The LSU Student Union There are over 350 student organizations currently active at LSU, including a student government and a total of 36 fraternities and sororities. LSU Student Government, sometimes referred to as LSU SG, is the official student government association of Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. It is the voice of the LSU student body on matters ranging from university administration to parking and transportation. In addition to the roles of advising and advocating, SG controls approximately $5.5 million of student and state funding each year to support student initiatives such as the LSU Student Technology Fee, student organization support through PSIF, ORF, and other funding programs, the Coca-Cola fund for new initiatives, and the SG Newspaper Initiative that provides free copies of The Advocate, Wall Street Journal, and The New York Times. LSU also has an active Society of American Archivists student chapter. Much like the United States Government, the LSU Student Government is divided into three major branches; Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. LSU SG is headed by the student body president and the student body vice president, elected to office during the spring semester of each academic year. A College Council system is also established to designate members of SG to the duties of representing specific academic colleges. Additionally, a Student Union Board representative is elected each spring to represent student interests and oversee programs, events, and regulations of the LSU Student Union. ===Media=== The Daily Reveille, the university's student newspaper, has operated since 1887. It publishes five days a week during the fall and spring semesters and twice a week during the summer semester. The paper has a circulation of 11,000 or more. The Daily Reveille, which is funded by advertising and student fees, employs more than 80 students each semester in jobs ranging from writing and editing to design and illustration. The Daily Reveille was recognized for its outstanding coverage in the 2002–2003 school year with a Pacemaker Award from the Associated Collegiate Press and the Newspaper Association of America Foundation, the highest award granted to student publications in the United States. Princeton Review named The Daily Reveille as the 12th best college newspaper in the nation in its 2008 edition of The Best 361 Colleges. The Daily Reveille won the Editor & Publisher award, or EPpy, in 2008 for best college newspaper Web site. The Society of Professional Journalists named The Reveille "Best All-Around Daily Student Newspaper" in its 2012 Mark of Excellence awards. KLSU is an FCC-licensed non-commercial educational (NCE) college radio station, public broadcasting with 5,000 watts of power at 91.1 on the FM dial. Radio on the LSU campus began in 1915 when Dr. David Guthrie, a physics professor, patched together a radio transmitter from spare parts. Call letters KFGC were assigned in the early 1920s. In 1924 the station covered the first football game played in Tiger Stadium and thus provided the first broadcast of a football game in the South. In the 1950s, it switched to FM and became the first educational station in the country to broadcast a college opera. And in the 1990s, it was the first college station to stream audio on the Net. The station is on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with a format of college alternative music and specialty programming. All programming and operations are managed by the student staff. Broadcasting on campus cable channel 75, Tiger TV shares its production equipment and facilities with the Manship School of Mass Communication and is one of the most modern student television stations in the country. ===Greek life=== The Greek community at Louisiana State University is composed of 37 organizations, governed by three councils. These groups work together with University, local, and national affiliates to help achieve the goals and ideals their organizations were founded upon. In the 2006–2007 academic year, Greek organizations at LSU contributed over 50,000 hours and $250,000 to community and philanthropic efforts. Students in the LSU Greek community are also active in many areas on campus, outside of their fraternity or sorority. Greek students are active in over 80 student organizations, including Student Government and various honor societies. In celebration of Greek Week during 2008, the LSU Greek community raised over $117,000 and built two houses for Habitat for Humanity. In 2019, 16% of undergraduate men and 27% of undergraduate women were active in LSU's Greek system.https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/louisiana-state-university-baton- rouge-2010/student-life Fraternities Fraternities Fraternities National Pan- Hellenic Council Panhellenic Council Panhellenic Council * Acacia * Alpha Gamma Rho * Alpha Tau Omega * Beta Theta Pi * Delta Chi * Kappa Alpha Order * Kappa Sigma *Phi Gamma Delta *Phi Kappa Psi * Pi Kappa Alpha * Pi Kappa Phi *Sigma Alpha Epsilon *Sigma Alpha Mu *Sigma Chi * Sigma Nu * Sigma Phi Epsilon * Tau Kappa Epsilon * Theta Chi * Theta Xi *Alpha Kappa Alpha *Alpha Phi Alpha *Phi Beta Sigma *Zeta Phi Beta * Alpha Delta Pi * Alpha Phi * Chi Omega * Delta Delta Delta * Delta Gamma * Delta Zeta * Kappa Alpha Theta * Kappa Delta * Kappa Kappa Gamma * Phi Mu * Pi Beta Phi *Sigma Alpha * Sigma Lambda Gamma *Zeta Tau Alpha ==Publications== * LSU Press is a nonprofit book publisher dedicated to the publication of scholarly, general interest, and regional books. It publishes approximately 80 titles per year and continues to garner national and international accolades, including four Pulitzer Prizes. John Kennedy Toole's A Confederacy of Dunces is among its best-known publications. * Southern Review is a literary journal published by LSU. It was co-founded in 1935 by three-time Pulitzer Prize-winning writer Robert Penn Warren, who served as U.S. Poet Laureate and wrote the classic novel All the King's Men, and renowned literary critic of the New Criticism school, Cleanth Brooks. It publishes fiction, poetry, and essays, with an emphasis on southern culture and history. * Legacy is a student-run magazine that publishes a variety of feature-length stories. In both 2001 and 2005, it was named the best student magazine in the nation by the Society of Professional Journalists. * LSU RESEARCH magazine informs readers about university research programs. * Apollo's Lyre is a poetry and fiction magazine published each semester by the Honors College. * LSU Alumni Magazine is a quarterly which focuses on Alumni success and current University news sent out to alumni everywhere. * Gumbo is the university's yearbook, which may be purchased. * LSU Today magazine keeps faculty and staff updated with university news. * New Delta Review is a literary quarterly funded by LSU that publishes a wide range of fiction, poetry, and interviews from new, up-and-coming, and established writers. ==Athletics== LSU fields teams in 21 varsity sports (9 men's, 12 women's), and is a member of the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) and the Southeastern Conference. The 9 men's teams compete in baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, swimming and diving, tennis, indoor track and field, and outdoor track and field. The 12 women's teams compete in basketball, beach volleyball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, and volleyball. The athletics department official nickname is Fighting Tigers, Tigers, or Lady Tigers. ===National championships=== LSU has won 52 team national championships, 45 of which were bestowed by the NCAA, tying for sixth all-time in total NCAA team national championships.NCAA.org Schools with the most NCAA championships The five football titles were not conferred by the NCAA, as it does not award college football national championships at the Division I-FBS level. * Baseball – (7): 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2023 * Women's Basketball - (1): 2023 * Men's Basketball – (1): 1935 (pre-NCAA; defeated Pittsburgh in an arranged game) * Boxing – (1): 1949 * Football – (5): 1908, 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019 * Men's golf – (5): 1940, 1942, 1947, 1955, 2015 * Men's indoor track and field – (2): 2001, 2004 * Women's indoor track and field – (11): 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004 * Men's outdoor track and field – (5): 1933, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2021 * Women's outdoor track and field – (14): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012 (vacated) ===Facilities=== LSU's stadiums, arenas and courses include Tiger Stadium ("Death Valley") (football), Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field (baseball), Bernie Moore Track Stadium (outdoor track), Carl Maddox Field House (indoor track), Highland Road Park (cross country), LSU Natatorium (swimming and diving), LSU Soccer Stadium (soccer), LSU Tennis Complex (tennis), Pete Maravich Assembly Center (PMAC) (basketball, gymnastics, volleyball), Tiger Park (softball) and University Club of Baton Rouge (golf). LSU's academic center and practice facilities include the LSU Academic Center for Student-Athletes, Charles McClendon Practice Facility (football), LSU Football Operations Center (football), LSU Indoor Practice Facility (football), LSU Basketball Practice Facility (basketball) and LSU Gymnastics Training Facility (gymnastics). Tiger Stadium Although originally nicknamed "Deaf Valley" for its excruciating levels of sound, the nickname "Death Valley" caught on instead. It is legendary for the crowd noise generated by fans. It is the sixth-largest college football stadium in the nation and third-largest stadium in the SEC, holding 102,321 fans after its latest expansion in 2014. The Tiger Stadium atmosphere is generally considered one of the loudest and most electrifying college football experiences in the country. During a nationally televised game against Auburn in 2003, ESPN recorded a noise level of 117 decibels at certain points in the game. In 2007 when the No. 1 ranked Tigers played the No. 9 ranked Florida Gators, the noise level registered at 122 decibels when the Tigers made a come-from-behind win in the final minutes of the game. A similar sound level resulted in the legendary "Earthquake Game" against Auburn in 1988. LSU won 7–6 when quarterback Tommy Hodson completed a game-winning touchdown pass to running back Eddie Fuller in the waning seconds of the game. The crowd's roar registered on a seismograph, shaking the ground as much as a small earthquake. This reached a magnitude of 4.7. ===Rivals=== Rivals include the traditional intra-SEC West rivals the Alabama Crimson Tide, Arkansas Razorbacks, Auburn Tigers, Mississippi State Bulldogs, Ole Miss Rebels,and the SEC East rival Florida Gators (designated under the SEC's inter-division "designated rival" format). LSU and Arkansas play annually in football, alternating sites between Baton Rouge and Fayetteville (Little Rock from 1994 through 2010). The winner of the game is awarded the "Golden Boot", a gold-plated trophy formed in the shape of the two states. The game was played the Friday after Thanksgiving in 1992, and every year between 1996 and 2013, except 2009, but starting in 2014, the SEC separated LSU and Arkansas on the final weekend of the regular season. The Tigers now play Texas A&M; on the final weekend of the regular season, while Arkansas plays Missouri. LSU and in-state rival Tulane Green Wave battle for the "Tiger Rag", a flag divided evenly between the colors of the two schools. This rivalry was recently suspended after a payout from LSU. The LSU-Ole Miss game, known as the Magnolia Bowl (a name selected by the student bodies of both schools) has become more formalized over the years, with a large trophy and a large traveling fanbase for both teams present each year. The LSU- Florida rivalry also has major importance as the two schools won three football national championships between 2006 and 2008 (Florida in 2006 and 2008; LSU in 2007). The LSU-Alabama rivalry has become very important in recent years due to the Nick Saban becoming the Coach of Alabama and the two teams' dominance of the SEC's West Division and their matchup in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game (the only time the standalone game featured two teams from the same conference). ==Traditions== ===Mascot=== LSU Athletics is represented by its mascot, a live Bengal tiger named Mike the Tiger. LSU is only one of two institutions of higher education in the United States to have a live tiger as their mascot; the other is the University of Memphis. The tiger was named after Mike Chambers, LSU's athletic trainer in 1936, and was bought for $750 from the Little Rock Arkansas Zoo. Mike V reigned from 1990 to 2007 and remained housed in his on-campus habitat until his death due to kidney failure on May 18, 2007, at age 17. Mike VI was an 11-year-old, tiger acquired from an Indiana big cat sanctuary. Previously known as Roscoe, "Mike VI" is a Bengal-Siberian mix and was officially named Mike on September 8, 2007. He was introduced to fans at the home game against Florida on October 6, 2007. In 2017, LSU officially introduced Mike VII, formerly named "Harvey". In 2005, a new $3 million Mike the Tiger Habitat was created for Mike between Tiger Stadium and the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. Its amenities include lush plantings, a waterfall, a flowing stream that empties into a wading pond, and rocky plateaus. The habitat has, as a backdrop, an Italianate tower – a campanile – that creates a visual link to the Italianate architectural vernacular of LSU's campus. ===Alma mater=== The "LSU Alma Mater" was written in 1929 by Lloyd Funchess and Harris Downey, two students who developed the original song and music because LSU's first alma mater was sung to the tune of "Far Above Cayuga's Waters" and was used by Cornell University. The band plays the "Alma Mater" during pregame and at the end of each home football game. ===Fight song=== "Fight for LSU" is LSU's official fight song. During LSU football games, it is played when the team runs onto the field, after the field goal or extra point is attempted/scored and at the end of each half (though at the end of the first half a recording is played since the band is already on the sidelines and unable to perform it live). Contrary to popular belief, the song "Hey Fightin' Tigers" is not LSU's fight song, however, it is a staple at pep rallies and is often sung by fans before games and after wins. ==Louisiana State University Lab School== The university operates the Louisiana State University Laboratory School, a Kindergarten through 12 public school. The school was established by the College of Education of Louisiana State University and has operated under its auspices for over eighty years. This coeducational school exists as an independent system to provide training opportunities for pre- and in-service teachers and to serve as a demonstration and educational research center. Since the school is part of LSU, students are required to pay tuition. The school is on the main campus of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. LSU Laboratory School was the first International Baccalaureate Diploma Program school in the state of Louisiana and is adopting the complete K-12 program. ==Farm== thumb|alt=|Hill Farm Community Garden Hill Farm established in 1927 by the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station in order to carry out research horticultural crops as part of Louisiana State University's mission as a land-grant university. During the 1960s a large part of the Farm's land was reallocated for the construction of sorority houses, as a result, many of the fruit breeding programs had to be moved to other parts of the state. In the 1990s a new student recreation center and playing fields were created on the site of most of the remaining land, the remaining research programs were moved to the Burden Research Plantation. Today five acres of the original Hill Farm remain and used primarily as an agriculture teaching facility and community garden. Individual garden plots are nine by five feet (9' X 5') and may be rented by students, faculty, and the community at large. The price per lot has been deliberately kept low to support the Farm's mission to "provide access to gardening space, education, and resources necessary for the community to grow food in environmentally sustainable ways as a means of creating a food system where locally produced, affordable and nutritious food is available to all, and where the community can come together to share, play, and inspire one another." Although the gardeners are not required to plant certified organic seeds and plants, the Farm requires gardeners to use organic farming methods. ==Notable alumni== LSU athletes have gone on to achieve prominence in their respective sports. "Pistol" Pete Maravich played basketball for LSU and was a three-time consensus first-team All-American and 1970 National 'Player of the Year'. Shaquille O'Neal ("Shaq") also played basketball for LSU and received many honors, including being named twice as a first-team Men's Basketball All-American and twice as the SEC Player Of The Year. Billy Cannon played Halfback for LSU and was the first LSU player to win the Heisman Trophy (in 1959), the second being Joe Burrow (in 2019). Cannon was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2009. JaMarcus Russell, Oakland Raiders quarterback number 1 draft pick of 2007. Professional golfer Johnny Pott, five-time winner on the PGA Tour, was a member of the 1955 NCAA winning golf team. Teammates Alex Bregman and Aaron Nola were both 2018 Major League Baseball All-Stars. LSU alumni have also been active on both the national and international stage in the fields of politics, academia, and the arts. Such notables include James Carville, who was the senior political adviser to Bill Clinton, and Donna Brazile, the campaign manager of the 2000 presidential campaign of Vice-president Al Gore. Hubert Humphrey, the 38th vice president of the United States, earned a master's degree in political science before becoming the junior United States senator from Minnesota. Linda Thomas-Greenfield, a United States ambassador to the United Nations appointed by President Joe Biden in 2021, earned a BA in 1974. Randy Moffett, president of the University of Louisiana System (ULS) and former president of Southeastern Louisiana University received his Ed.D. from Louisiana State University in 1980. Academy Award-winning actress Joanne Woodward majored in drama during her enrollment at LSU. Author and screenwriter Nic Pizzolatto, creator of True Detective, graduated from LSU with a BA English & Philosophy. Another writer that graduated from LSU was Marcelo Ramos Motta, a noted author on the subject of Thelema. The rock band Better Than Ezra also are LSU graduates. America's early Space Program benefited from the services of two LSU Graduates. NASA Engineer Maxime Faget was a Naval Reserve Officer and the NASA Engineer responsible for the design of the Mercury Capsule, Apollo Command Module, Capsule Escape Tower System, Mach Meter, and the STS Space Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle and System (STS=Space Transportation System). NASA Pioneer/Founder Walter C. Williams established what is now known as NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, previously known as Muroc Army Station. Dr. Williams was directly involved with the Bell X-1 program, "Glamorous Glennis", research flights that led to the first crewed flight exceeding the speed of sound in level flight. Dr. Williams was on the Aeronautical Board of NACA and was responsible for hiring many of the "pioneers" of what has now become America's Space Program, NASA. Michael I. Jordan, Professor of Computer Science at UC Berkeley is also an LSU alumnus. File:Alex Bregman during his at-bat, March 2, 2019 (cropped 2).jpg| File:James Carville 1.jpg| File:ClaireChennault.jpeg| File:Edwin Edwards.jpg| File:JohnBelEdwards (1).jpg| File:Maxime Faget.jpg| File:Hubert Humphrey crop.jpg| File:Lipofsky Shaquille O'Neal.jpg| File:Steve Scalise official portrait (cropped).jpg| File:Linda-Thomas-Greenfield-v1-8x10-1.jpg| ==See also== * American Student Dental Association * Grok (Knowledge Base) * Highland Road Park Observatory * Hill Farm Community Garden * List of forestry universities and colleges * Louisiana Business Technology Center * LSU Hilltop Arboretum * LSU Tiger Trails * Stephenson Disaster Management Institute * National Register of Historic Places listings in East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana ==Notes== == References == ==Further reading== * ==External links== * * LSU Athletics website * * Category:Louisiana State University System Category:Flagship universities in the United States Category:Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Category:Land- grant universities and colleges Category:Educational institutions established in 1860 Category:Tourist attractions in Baton Rouge, Louisiana University Category:Public universities and colleges in Louisiana
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Tomago House is a heritage-listed former residence and now house museum and function centre at Tomago Road, Tomago, New South Wales, Australia. It was built from 1838 to 1840. The design has been attributed to Mortimer Lewis. The property is owned by the National Trust of Australia (NSW). It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. == History == Richard Windeyer (1806–1847), journalist, barrister, agriculturist and politician, was born on 10 August 1806 in London, the eldest child of parliamentary reporter for "The Times", Charles Windeyer and his wife Ann Mary, née Rudd.Jose & Carter, 1926, 62 He remained in England when in 1828 his parents with the rest of their family migrated to New South Wales. He was admitted as a student in the Middle Temple, London in March 1829 and called to the Bar on 23 May 1834. In the meantime, as a journalist and parliamentary reporter like his father, he was connected with The Times, The Morning Chronicle, The Sun and The Mirror, and in 1834 was London correspondent for The Australian, using the initials "W.R.". He assisted Dodd in compiling the Parliamentary Pocket Companion, and was associated with Colonel Thomas Perronet Thompson in the early anti-Corn Law movement.Jose & Carter, 1926, 672 On 26 April 1832 he married Maria, daughter of William Camfield of Groombridge Place and Burswood, Kent. Their only child, William Charles, was born on 29 September 1834. Although he always intended to follow his parents and their family to Sydney, Windeyer's departure from England was hastened by a letter from his father, saying that 'Dr Robert Wardell's death and Wentworth's expected departure and the division of the Bar makes the moment particularly favourable for your debut'. He set out with his wife and infant son arriving at Sydney on 28 November 1835. Windeyer soon gained a considerable legal practice and became a leader of the bar. Even Rev. John Dunmore Lang described him as "a barrister of superior abilities" In July 1846 Windeyer and Robert Lowe appeared for the defendant in Attorney-General v. Brown, concerning the right of the Crown to grant the Australian Agricultural Company (the AA Co.) the sole right to mine coal near Newcastle. The arguments for the defendants failed, but enabled Windeyer to array much legal and historical learning in support of the political view that the lands of the colony should be in the control of the colonists, not in the grant of the Crown. Windeyer's legal work was a small part of his activities in the colony. In February 1838 he bought his first land at Tomago in the Hunter Valley, not far from his father's farm at Tillegrah on the Williams River. By 1842 he held about . Vast sums of money were spent, especially on draining extensive swamp lands in the vicinity of Graham's Town, building a homestead at Tomago and on other improvements, but with little return. He planted of vines, imported a German vine-dresser from Adelaide, made his first wine in 1845 and received permission to import seven vine-dressers and one wine-cooper from Europe.Windeyer, 1967, edited, Stuart Read, 28 December 2008 The vineyard was established with plantings from James King of Irrawang, who was known to be producing good wines by 1840. Windeyer was one of the first successful vignerons on the Hunter. Windeyer commenced building Tomago house in 1840. Its design is attributed to New South Wales Colonial Architect, Mortimer Lewis.Broadbent, 1997, 221–6 Lewis' private commissions show a dependence on published sources, identified in recent years by architectural historian James Broadbent. "Fernhill" and "Tomago" boast separate entrance and garden fronts at right angles to each other, the garden fronts marked by bay windows. Their plants are probably adapted from the British architect William Wilkins' design for "Oxberton House", Nottinghamshire, as published by George Richardson in the "New Vitruvius Britannicus" (1802–08). The financial crisis of 1842 affected Windeyer severely. In 1842 Windeyer was present at the meeting at Sydney College at which petitions for representative government in the colony were adopted. In 1843 at the first elections for the New South Wales Legislative Council he stood for Durham County successfully. Windeyer at once took a prominent part in the affairs of the council. In 1843 he introduced his monetary confidence bill. Believing that the current depression was aggravated by a decrease of currency in circulation, and a lack of confidence and credit, he proposed a solution based on the Prussian Pfandbrief scheme as outlined by Thomas Holt before a select committee: the government was to give credit in the form of pledge certificates, or Pfandbriefe, on the security of land. The bill passed the council, but Governor Gipps withheld his assent. Windeyer's main interest in economic matters was directed at effective supervision and control by the council of revenue and expenditure. He worked so persistently for retrenchment that Lang described him as "the Joseph Hume of the Council". As a believer in free trade and the representative of an agricultural county, Windeyer worked to open the Van Diemen's Land market to tobacco from New South Wales and the United Kingdom market to the colony's wheat. In the debate on the tariff bill of 1843, however, he voted for an import duty of 1s. a bushel on foreign wheat but explained that he considered it a revenue not a protective duty. Always interested in education, Windeyer set up a school on his estate, was on the committees of the Sydney Mechanics' School of Arts and the Australian School Society, and prominent in the education debates. He was a member of the Aborigines Protection Society. His attention had been attracted to their legal disadvantages in the trial of an Aboriginal, Murrell, and the trials arising out of the Myall Creek massacre in which he had appeared. As the law stood, Aboriginals were not allowed to give evidence in the courts because they could not understand the nature of an oath. Windeyer supported proposals, later adopted, that they should be allowed to make unsworn statements. On his motion a select committee was appointed in 1845 to consider Aboriginal welfare, but it ceased work with his death. In his political activities Windeyer was no friend of Governor Gipps. In the disputes arising from Gipps's squatting regulations of 1844 he took a middle line between squatters and the executive. He condemned the squatters as "cormorants" and "robbers", but he also opposed the regulations, as he objected to the executive powers on which they were supposedly based. He, with Lang, Lowe and William Bland, led a "constitutional" party who sought to secure control of the land revenue for the colonial legislature. It was not as an advocate of squatting interests, but rather because of his insistence on what he asserted was correct constitutional doctrine, that he became a member of the committee of the Pastoral Association. In the Legislative Council he worked hard for what he believed were the interests of the colony and after each session he made a point of touring his electorate to give an account of his stewardship. Windeyer at Tomago ran cattle, horses and pigs, tried growing sugar-cane and wheat, and in 1846 with Reynolds, president of the local agricultural society, he imported the colony's first reaping machine from South Australia. Despite all his expensive improvements and mechanized farming the one prize he won was for pumpkins. However, after his death wine from Tomago won a certificate of merit at Paris in 1855. Progress on Tomago House was slow, hampered by the 1840s depression. It seems likely that the house was fit for habitation by 1847.National Trust, 2000, 1 The house formed the nucleus of what was, in the mid-19th century, a vast agricultural estate and the country residence of one of the nation's leading politico-legal figures. The house comprises two distinct buildings to which some modern structures have been added. The first phase was between 1842 and 1847, construction of the main stone house. Clear evidence exists to confirm that the house was originally constructed with a slate roof.National Trust, 1993 Little is known of the early form of the gardens at Tomago, though a sundial pedestal is mentioned in 1848.National Trust, 1987, 17 When in 1843 Windeyer added to his farm management and his immense legal practice the cares of a legislator in the Legislative Council, his health broke down and he was compelled to retire. Ill from overwork, financial worries and some internal disease, Windeyer died on a holiday near Launceston, 2 December 1847, when his role was far from completed. But his private affairs had suffered. His optimism and enterprise had led him to entertain projects that he could not afford and to incur large debts. From this cause and the economic depression of the 1840s, he died impoverished. His widow, a woman of remarkable character and determination, was enabled by money received from her family to retain a part of Tomago, where she lived, devoting herself to the prudent management of the property, the welfare of her infant son and local affairs. Although most of the holding passed out of family ownership his widow Maria was able to retain the house and . The estate included a range of outbuildings comprising a gatehouse, stables and dairy. Maria was left to complete the property, refinance it and maintain viability. This she did, adding to it with a Chapel built in 1860–1861. Maria Windeyer was determined not to return to Sydney as she had grown to love Tomago.Armstrong, 2008, 81 Her interest in the property is thought to have continued after her death, with inexplicable sightings of an elderly woman rocking in her chair on the verandah, and keeping a watchful eye in the cellars. Little is known of the early form of the gardens at Tomago, though a sundial pedestal is mentioned in 1848. Windeyer's untimely death and his wife's, initially, straitened circumstances have led to the assumption that the house had little or no gardens. Photographic and documentary evidence, and the bones of earlier planting strongly suggest that by the early 20th century there was a well developed landscape at Tomago. This included tree-lined drives, a pleasure garden located in the adjoining wetlands which were drained by a series of canals, a stone weir, an orchard and a kitchen garden. According to the 1846 memoirs of Margaret Traill Bartlett the gardens and orchards were "extensive and lovely, there was a lovers" walk, great magnolia trees at the side of the house, orchards made up of date palms, love apples, lemon and other citrus trees, mulberries and other fruit. The flower gardens were on one side terraced down to the river.'. The garden retains some venerable trees and other plants, such as stone pines (Pinus pinea), evergreen or Southern magnolia/bull bay (Magnolia grandiflora), giant bamboo (Bambusa balcooa) etc. Between 1850 and 1880 a second stage of construction occurred – of a brick caretaker's cottage. This was originally a two storeyed building. It was reduced to a single storey cottage around 1950 when its brickwork was considered unsafe. Tomago House is noted for its fine verandahs looking over pastoral land; underground cellars were completed in time for the 1868 harvest; remnants of the 19th-century pleasure gardens; interiors which reflect the lives and times of a family of status and a social history which spans three generations of one of Australia's most distinguished families. In 1944 Tomago House was purchased by the British textile firm of Courtaulds. The house was renovated for use as a manager's residence. The modern structures on site date from the 1940s or 1950s and include the enclosure of the south-east verandah, a brick garage and laundry on the west corner of the caretaker's cottage and a timber garage on the north-east side of the caretaker's cottage. In 1970 it was acquired by a Mrs James as her residence and she installed a swimming pool (since filled in).National Trust, 2002, 26 In the 1980s the estate was held by two owners. When the Tomago aluminium smelter was established, the firm acquired Tomago House as part of the buffer zone established around the facility. In 1988 Tomago Aluminium gave with the house to the National Trust of Australia (NSW).Armstrong, 2008, 81–2 Le Seuer cites the date of this gift as 1986.Le Seuer, 2015, 7 The site of Tomago Aluminium smelter is rich in industrial history. A coal mine was established here in the early 19th century. Later the Courtaulds Textile Factory was here until 1976. In 1981 Tomago Aluminium began construction, In September 1983 aluminium production started. At that time Tomago Aluminium was the first large scale AP18 plant to be built in the world. Annual production capacity was 250,000 tonnes a year. It has since expanded to produce 525,000 tonnes per year – the largest aluminium smelter in Australia. In 1986 to celebrate it bicentenary Tomago Aluminium donated five hectares of land which included the house to the national trust. In 1998 the National Trust reconstructed the picket fence of the chapel (on a different boundary line to the original and to a different design) and replanted the avenue linking the chapel and the house but with a different tree species. The National Trust currently uses the property as a function centre. The Friends of Tomago House have managed the estate since 1997. An October 2013 bushfire came within 20m of the house but it was secured thanks to volunteers and the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, with no damage. The annual Camellia Festival and All Italian Day have become signature events.Silink & Hayes, 2014 In April 2015 severe storms led to extensive damage to a number of mature trees at Tomago House, involving many collapsing, damaging other trees, structures and in part the house. This devastation closed the property down for about 6 months, while it could be made safe for caretaker and visitor access and use again. Hunter Horticultural Services has assessed the damage and in two stages removed the worst-affected trees that could not be saved, and other damaged trees beyond repair and likely to fail in the future. In addition a condition audit was done on all remaining trees on the site. The National Trust is commissioning a landscape plan for the property including proposed future plantings in accordance with the site's conservation management plan. == Description == === Estate and grounds === The present estate is of parkland. Once it was , and the house was accessed primarily from the Hunter River, walking up to the house which stands on a small knoll with expansive views to and from it. The house was oriented for vistas to Mt. Sugarloaf although these are today blocked by trees. The vineyard was established, with plantings from James King of Irrawang, who was known to be producing good wines by 1840. Tomago House retains the core of a once larger rural estate, with its sweeping entrance carriage drives off Tomago Road approaching the house from the north-west, and another drive towards the chapel to the west. The drive is lined with jacarandas (Jacaranda mimosifolia), an evergreen magnolia / bull bay (M.grandiflora) and lemon- scented gums (Corymbia citriodora). The grounds are fairly thickly planted with mature coniferous trees reflecting the fashion for pineta or conifer collections in the 19th century – these comprise predominantly exotic pine species including Mediterranean stone pine (Pinus pinea), Monterey pine (California: Pinus radiata), Bunya pine (Queensland: Araucaria bidwillii), Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla) and hoop pine trees (Northern NSW/ Queensland: Araucaria cunninghamii).Stuart Read, pers.comm., 23 January 2015 Other major trees include a number of large old Moreton Bay figs (Ficus macrophylla), locally-native turpentines (Syncarpia glomulifera), 20th-century plantings of jacarandas (Jacaranda mimosifolia), Qld. lemon-scented gums (Corymbia citriodora) on both carriage loops and a large 19th-century mature bull bay / evergreen or Southern magnolia (M.grandiflora) south of the house towards the river terrace. Another unusual tree here is the South African Cape chestnut (Cupania capensis), north of the house. Large clumps of Mauritius hemp (Furcraea selloa) remain underneath the trees north of the house. Two large clumps of giant bamboo (Bambusa balcooa) are on the terrace south of the house and in the ephemeral lagoon area to the south, in the vicinity of the (lost) pleasure garden there. A solitary date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is north-west of the house on the grass terrace and several tall old specimens of locally-native cabbage palms (Livistona australis) remain in the lagoon area south of the house, probably predating it. A number of Qld. silky oaks (Grevillea robusta), Northern-NSW/Qld. brush box (Lophostemon confertus), locally-native red ash (Alphitonia excelsa), American sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) trees are also in the grounds. Near the front door of the house on the northern side a large orchid tree (Bauhinia variegata cv.) is covered with staghorn ferns. Other native species include smooth-barked apple/Sydney red gum (Angophora costata), native peach (Breynia oblongifolia), Qld. lacebark (Brachychiton discolor), Qld. black bean/native chestnut (Castanospermum australe); tuckeroo (Cupaniopsis anacardioides); corkwood (Endiandra sieberi); bangalay (Eucalyptus botryoides); W.A. yellow bloodwood (Corymbia eximia); flooded gum (E.grandis); tallowood (E.microcorys); blackbutt (E.pilularis); white mahogany (E. spp. (?E.acmenioides)); cheese tree (Glochidion ferdinandi); broad-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia); white cedar (Melia azedarach); tree broom/heath (Monotoca elliptica); Qld./N.NSW firewheel tree (Stenocarpus sinuatus); magenta lily pilly (Syzygium paniculatum); red cedar (Toona ciliata) and woody pear (Xylomelum pyriforme); Darling or river lily (Crinum sp.); she oak (Casuarina sp.).Doran, 1999 Other exotic species include Cape chestnut (Calodendrum capense); Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica); camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora); Monterey cypress (Hesperocyparis macrocarpa); cockspur coral tree (Erythrina crista-galli); crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica cv.); Hupeh crab apple (Malus hupehensis); oleander (Nerium oleander cv.); avocado (Persea americana cv.); Mexican weeping pine (Pinus patula); Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), Lombardy poplar (P.nigra 'Italica'); plum (Prunus domestica cv.); peach (P.persica cv.); pear (Pyrus communis cv.); cherry guava (Psidium cattleyanum); tree gardenia (Rothmannia globosa); pepper tree (Schinus molle); Camellia japonica cv. shrubs; autumn camellias (Camellia sasanqua cv.s); oranges (Citrus sinensis cv.); Hibiscus spp.; French lavender (Lavandula dentata); Cocos Island palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana); star jasmine (Trachelospermum jasminoides); laurustinus (Viburnum tinus); London or hybrid plane (Platanus x acerifolia); and Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis). === Other structures === The estate included a range of outbuildings comprising a gatehouse, stables and dairy. A Chapel was added in 1860–1861 west of the house in paddock surroundings.S. Read, pers.comm., visit of 7/2006 A caretaker's cottage was added between 1850s–1880s – originally two storeys, in brick. This was reduced to a single storey cottage in the 1950s. === House === Built by barrister Richard Windeyer, Tomago House formed the nucleus of what was, in the mid-19th century, a vast agricultural estate and the country residence of one of the nation's leading politico-legal figures. Work on the house started in the early 1840s. The house comprises two distinct buildings to which some modern structures have been added. The first phase was between 1842 and 1847, construction of the main stone house. Clear evidence exists to confirm that the house was originally constructed with a slate roof. Tomago House is noted for its fine verandas looking over pastoral land; underground cellars completed in time for the 1868 harvest, remnants of the 19th-century pleasure grounds; interiors which reflected the lives and times of a family of status and a social history which spans three generations. Between 1850 and 1880 a second stage of construction occurred – of a brick caretaker's cottage. This was originally a two storeyed building. It was reduced to a single storey cottage around 1950 when its brickwork was considered unsafe. The modern structures date from the 1940s or 1950s and include the enclosure of the south-east verandah, a brick garage and laundry on the west corner of the caretaker's cottage and a timber garage on the north-east side of the caretaker's cottage. === Condition === The building in its present form represents an 1840s building much altered during its history. Apart from the polished cedar joinery and plaster ceilings its present decoration is the result of the 1950s occupation by Courtaulds. The Monterey pines (Pinus radiata) are ailing which could be due to age (this species generally lives to around 100 years although it can survive to 140 years in NSW) or possibly be due to aluminium smelter development nearby and high fluoride issues. Cows in nearby paddocks show fluoride levels are excessive – in their teeth. Needle rot (Cyclaneusma and Sphaeropsis fungi spread by windborne spores in spring and warm, humid summers are also a cause of problems. Their decline could also possibly be due to salinity as the site is only between 5 and 2.5 m above sea level.Hunter Heritage Network meeting, 28 July 2006 === Modifications and dates === * : reduced to estate * : mention of a sundial pedestal in the garden * 1861 chapel added. * : cellars in use. * 1850–1880: a second stage of construction occurred – of a brick caretaker's cottage. This was originally a two storeyed building. * 1879+: Justice W. C. Windeyer added the corrugated iron and cast iron columned verandah and barrel roofed clerestory, changing the form of the roof. The main feature – the semi-circular bays – was changed to 7 sided pillar hipped roofs. ALso the re-cladding altered the eaves. * 1890s: original slate roof was by now a metal roof (unpainted) with the clerestory roof painted in alternating stripes (photographic evidence). * 1944: sold to Courtaulds (British textile firm) for use as manager's house * : caretaker's 2 storey building reduced to a single storey cottage * 1952: alterations by Courtaulds to upgrade the house. Kitchen established in its present location and the dining room moved to the main hall. The former dining room became a billiard room, the former study became a bedroom with ensuite, and a second bathroom was added in the east verandah, plaster ceilings throughout were strengthened with timber battens and new fireplace surrounds introduced. The former kitchen building was converted into a self-contained cottage. * : sold to Mrs James who added a swimming pool (since filled in) * 1986: donated to National Trust of Australia (NSW) who have since used it as a function centre. * 1998: reconstructed picket fence of the chapel on a different boundary line and to a different design; replanted the avenue from the house to the chapel with a different species. * February 2008: very large Stone Pine at the entrance rolled out of the ground – storm damaged in 2007 * 2015: severe April storms led to the necessity to remove a number of fallen, damaged, dead or dangerous trees to make the site safe to access and use, including opening it back to the public. Stage one tree removals were four trees along the northern boundary fence and 11 chiefly south of the southernmost drive. These were mainly stone pines (Pinus pinea), as well as tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys), jacaranda (J.mimosifolia). Stage two tree removals were more generally arrayed to the north, west and south-west of the house. These were largely Monterey pines (Pinus radiata) and lemon-scented gums (Corymbia citriodora). Other trees removed were stone pines, brush box (Lophostemon confertus), blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), tallowwood, bangalay (E.botryoides), Sydney red gum/smooth-barked apple (Angophora costata), an Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica), jacaranda, camphor laurel (Cinnamommum camphora), silky oak (Grevillea robusta), turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera), cottonwood (Populus deltoides),.Hunter Horticultural Services, 2015 == Heritage listing == The principal heritage significance of Tomago House relates to its association with the Windeyer family. The house was the family home for 150 years of one of the most eminent legal families in New South Wales. It was built in a style and to a standard which befitted the social status of the Windeyers in the early years of expansion and development in the colony. It is one of the most important houses of the 1840s to survive largely unaltered in a geographical context which is also intact. Built by Sydney barrister and politician Richard Windeyer, Tomago House formed the nucleus of what was, in the mid-19th century, a vast agricultural estate and the country residence of one of the nation's leading politico-legal figures. Work on the house started in the early 1840s. The vineyard was established, with plantings from James King of Irrawang, who was known to be producing good wines by 1840. Windeyer died in 1847, leaving his widow Maria to complete the property, refinance it and maintain viability. This she did, adding to it with a Chapel built in 1860–1861. Tomago House is noted for its fine verandahs looking over pastoral land; interiors which reflected the lives and times of a family of status and a social history which spans three generations. Tomago today retains its original form, with its trees, farmland and wetlands. Planting is historically and botanically significant, including species contemporary with the early to late European development of the site from the 1830s to the 1890s, and remnant indigenous species.National Trust, 2001, 16 Tomago House and Chapel was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. == See also == * * *Australian residential architectural styles == References == === Bibliography === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Attribution === Category:New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Event venues in New South Wales Category:Farms in New South Wales Category:Historic house museums in New South Wales Category:Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:1840 establishments in Australia Category:Houses completed in 1840
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Dockworkers in New Orleans at the turn of the 20th century often coordinated their unionization efforts across racial lines. The nature of that coordination has led some scholars to conclude that the seeming interracial union activity was in fact biracial: a well-organized plan of parallel concerted activity with coordination and support between the groups, but with a clear divide along racial lines. Under this framework, cooperation was seen less a matter of ideological interracial solidarity among the working class and more a matter of pragmatism so that the working conditions of each distinct group would improve.Eric Arnesen, "Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers, ed. Calvin Winslow, University of Illinois Press, Chicago (1998) (p. 23). As discussed below, several factors may have allowed biracial union efforts to succeed at the port of New Orleans, including (a) the independent strength of the blackFor the sake of consistency throughout, this Article uses the racial descriptors "black" and "white." Other possible descriptors for those groups include Black, African-American, White, and Caucasian. No implication or inference should be drawn as a result of the terms chosen in this Article. unions that compelled whites to enter into collaborative agreements with them; (b) the prior history of racial division or segmentation of labor; (c) the relative power of employers to control jobs; and (d) overall employment relations."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 47). Because dock work was generally unskilled (with the notable exception of screwmen) and of a short-term contractual nature, an employer could readily replace workers who refused to bend to the employer's terms. Black laborers were both numerous and available for work. In this type of competitive market, blacks and whites were pitted against each other by ship owners in an effort to keep wages down: if whites would not work for a lower wage, owners would look to blacks who would."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 26). Following this reasoning, "[o]nly control of the labor supply and solidarity across trade and racial lines could reduce this possibility. That meant that alliances between unions and, most importantly, between black and white unions, were essential to reducing competition between different groups for jobs.""Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 26). Alliances between the groups allowed both to exercise more control over the terms and conditions of their work, including wage rates and production expectations. Union leaders of both races recognized the difference that an alliance made in those terms and conditions, prompting a pragmatic continuation of the biracial system. ==50-50 or Half-and-Half== New Orleans dockworkers maintained a long-standing tradition known as "50-50" or "half-and-half." Under this arrangement, both black and white workers insisted that any work crew hired by ship owners be 50% black and 50% white. Workers would labor side by side, performing the same work for the same pay. This was generally seen as a way to prevent employers from undermining one group by playing to the other: both black and white union leaders recognizes that when blacks and whites were hired in alternating groups as they were in the mid-1890s, unions weakened and race riots or other tensions could – and did – flare up.Rosenberg, Daniel, New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 SUNY Press, Albany (1988) (pp. 69, 71); Arnesen, Eric, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics Oxford University Press, New York (1991) (pp. 143-44). In October 1901 the separate black and white unions created a Dock and Cotton Council that overarched unions of black and white screwmen, longshoremen, teamsters, loaders, and other work classifications at the waterfront. Leadership positions on the Council were generally divided according to the 50-50 system, with the presidency and financial secretary position held by white workers and the vice-presidency and corresponding secretary position held by black workers. Committee positions were similarly assigned.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p.73). By 1903, the Council oversaw eight separate unions of black and white dockworkers with a total of approximately 10,000 members and helped ensure that all unions adhered to the 50-50 rule.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 74). Over time, it also assisted the member unions in negotiations with employers and were kept informed of the unions' organizational and racial relationships. As the overarching union body, the Council was also empowered to call for a general port strike.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 74). ==Limits On Racial Cooperation== Both black and white unions insisted that they had no interracial equality or ideological leanings."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 23). Black workers announced that they wanted a stable waterfront, not social equality with white men, and did not want to be used by employers to drive a wedge between the races."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 30). The structure and operation of the Dock and Cotton Council has also been seen as racially stratified by some scholars. Although black and whites were elected equally to officer positions and conference committees, and work operated under the 50-50 system, white workers consistently held the presidency and were the only ones allowed to hold foreman positions. Black workers vehemently protested their exclusion from foreman jobs, but faced resistance from white waterfront laborers who did not want to take orders from a black man. In order to preserve the overall alliance, black unions retreated from the foreman controversy."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 31). ==Screwmen== New Orleans screwmen were responsible for tightly compressing and packing cotton bales into the holds of ships. This critical task put them at the top of the labor force on the docks and allowed them to insist on the highest wages; their work was highly skilled, required immense strength, and was indispensable to the smooth operation of the waterfront. However, in contrast to other waterfront laborers, white screwmen had resisted cooperation with their black counterparts. In the 1880s, the white screwmen refused the 50-50 arrangements and voted for a quota system that allowed only 20 black screwmen crews per day."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 27). Another account put the limit at 100 black screwmen at any one time.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 82). The locals had separate contracts with different terms, and there was no way to support workers in labor disputes. In addition, rumors began to spread that shipping agents were trying to find ways to remove the 75-bale per day limit instituted by white screwmen by using black screwmen who would work for lower wages with no limit on bales stowed.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 125-26). A black shipping company also emerged.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 125). Such types of racial divisions led to riots in the mid-1890s as black screwmen attacked their white counterparts, whites responded with equal violence, and numerous deaths resulted."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 27); Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (pp. 127-29). By the turn of the twentieth century, however, screwmen of both races faced new pressures and demands from employers with the advent of new shipping technologies, larger ship size, and the shippers' search for non-union labor.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 122). Now, "speed, not skill, was central to profitability.""Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 28). In part as a response to the high wages that screwmen commanded (regardless of how many bales were stowed) and the results of cooperation between black and white workers overall on the waterfront, employers introduced a new system of loading known as 'shoot-the-chute.' This system required crews of 4 to 5 men to throw down between 400 and 700 bales or more of cotton per day into the holds of the ships where other workers waited to pack them.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 163). Moreover, in contrast to earlier years, no limit was placed on the number of bales required to constitute a day's work – men would work until told to stop, not until they reached a set number of bales. There was also concern that the faster pace would mean that there would be less work left for subsequent days, leaving workers idle (and unpaid).New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 83). The definition of a fair day's work was central to the dispute, and in April 1902 the employers' Steamship Conference declared that (1) the employer had the right to direct where employees work; (2) that the employer's orders must be obeyed, even if the employer's agent was not a union member; (3) only Conference members could determine the "character of the stowage of the cotton"; and (4) the employer had the right to expect as much work as could reasonably be done.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 166). Both black and white screwmen fiercely resisted shoot-the-chute and the lower working conditions it represented for them, as well as the Conference's view of a day's work. In order to effectively stand against their employers, the two screwmen unions agreed to a uniform wage scale in April 1902."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 28). This contract also provided for equal work distribution among black and white screwmen, but forbade them from engaging in sympathy strikes or striking for higher wages.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 82-83). As scholar Eric Arnesen analyzed the situation, "white workers reasoned accurately that success lay in reducing all possible divisions between black and white workers and preventing a revival of a split labor market on the docks.""Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 28). Black screwmen found a somewhat different reason for joining with their white counterparts, namely, a sense that they were being unfairly used by owners as a way to attack the white workers and starve them out of work – and being paid lower wages in the process."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 28). In the fall of 1902, the black and white screwmen unions agreed that they would present all demands to employers jointly, renew the 50-50 work-sharing agreement from the spring, and maintain mixed-race work crews. Embracing 50-50 even further, they insisted that they would not recognize a foreman who was not a member of either the black or white screwmen's union."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 29). Moreover, 100 to 120 bales of cotton would be a day's work – not the 400 and 700 demanded under shoot-the-chute.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 83); Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 164). The screwmen's alliance was deemed generally successful and firmly adhered to by both black and white unions. From 1902 through 1903, they launched a series of strikes (and responding lockouts from employers) that ended in the realization of their production rate and 50-50 demands. Notably, the screwmen enjoyed the backing of other waterfront unions – both black and white – and the newly formed Dock and Cotton Council."Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers (p. 29); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 83-84). The first strike began on November 3, 1902 when screwmen struck all employers who did not adhere to the new joint contract demands. Despite the fact that employers accused black unions of breaking the terms in their earlier separate contract and threatened them, the strike remained united and ended in early December 1902; by December 25, screwmen were packing on average 110 bales per day.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 85). In response to the screwmen's success, employers instituted two lockouts in 1903, again centering on the shoot-the-chute system and the required number of bales that screwmen would have to stow. In April, employers demanded no limits on the number of bales stowed, the end of 50-50, restoration of shoot-the-chute, and a restoration of the power to give work assignments.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 85); Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 166). When both black and white workers refused and described the demand as "so objectionable and so inimical" that they could not accept,Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 167). they were locked out for approximately three weeks. Negotiations continued through the spring and summer, with employers agreeing on 50-50 but insisting on the higher pace and threatening to move work elsewhere. Although rumors of a split between the black and white unions surfaced, no break actually occurred.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 87-88). With no contract by September and no definition of a fair day's work, workers worked at their own pace and, again, the black and white unions affirmed their cooperation.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 167). The screwmen were again locked out on October 1, 1903, this time supported by black and white longshoremen. Shippers filed several lawsuits and restraining orders against the screwmen, and city leaders (including Mayor Paul Capdevielle) unsuccessfully attempted to mediate.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 168). Scholar Daniel Rosenberg noted that even imported strikebreakers sometimes quit when they learned of the lockout and both protests and violence rapidly broke out.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 88-89). Ultimately, the two-week lockout ended when employers proposed terms requiring screwmen to produce 160 hand-stowed bales per day. After intense debate in a joint meeting of the black and white screwmen, the proposal was accepted and the shipping lines admitted defeat.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 168). Shippers experienced more than $400,000 in losses while screwmen lost $50,000 in wages and prevented any bales of cotton from leaving the port of New Orleans between October 1 and October 10, 1903.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 90). ==The 1907 General Levee Strike== In the autumn of 1907, both black and white longshore workers launched an extended general strike against their shipping company employers.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 196); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 115). As in 1902-03, screwmen were the focus of the initial conflict, which one scholar identifies as resentment on the part of shippers and steamship agents that the screwmen (and other dockworkers) had nearly seized complete control over their terms of work and won the 160-per-day bale limit.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 196). When the 1903 contract expired on September 1, 1907, employers employed a 'parity' argument, demanding that New Orleans screwmen stow as much cotton as their counterparts in Galveston, Texas – a rate which employers initially claimed to be 200 bales per day but quickly escalated to what scholars peg at 240, or even 300 bales per day.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 196); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 119-20). On October 4, all of the shipping lines locked out the screwmen, black and white alike. Pursuant to a call from the Dock and Cotton Council, 9,000 dockworkers, black and white, struck the New Orleans port that evening in a show of solidarity with the screwmen.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 121-22). Freight handlers from the Southern Pacific line also struck, ending any work on the port.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 122). Individual black and white waterfront unions reinforced the Council's message, asking their members to stay away from the ports, insisting that they would hold firm across racial lines, and noting that if the employers played one racial group against the other, they would all face starvation wages.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 123). Employers responded by immediately bringing in thousands of black and white strikebreakers. During the first week of the strike, the breakers unloaded freight trains and stowed cotton. Although some crews worked at a 200 bale per day rate, they could not keep up that rate and were considered by some to be less efficient than expected.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 125). Some of the replacements quit when they learned they were being used as strikebreakers, and others quit in response to the protests of the New Orleans waterfront workers.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 125-127). The families of dockworkers also confronted strikebreakers, as did some members of the strikebreakers' own families who felt solidarity with the dockworkers.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 131-33). Yet the New Orleans strikers remained generally peaceful.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 126). During the second week of the strike, employers launched strong attempts to create a racial break among the black and white strikers. Some employers began calling for an end to the screwman trade altogether (to be replaced by general dock labor); a combination of events that led some observers to conclude that the employers' goal was not to reach settlement but rather to destroy the screwmen's union.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (pp. 197-98); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 122-23). They also appealed to the non-screwmen, noting that they were losing wages over a battle that was not their own. Shippers also revived the White League, a group designed to intimidate black strikers. Despite the attempts, strikers remained united.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 127-28). On October 11, black and white screwmen proposed a return to work at the rate of 160 bales per day, pending an investigation into port charges and conditions. The New Orleans mayor endorsed this proposal, but employers refused and insisted on the 200 bale per day rate. In turn, the screwmen rejected the employers' demand and held to the 160 bale rate.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 128-29). During this process, rumors began to spread claiming that the black and white screwmen had begun to splinter, as had the unity between the screwmen and the other waterfront job classification; however, no split materialized.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 128). Instead, the union agreed that it would accept the mayor's proposal of 180 bales per day on the condition that this rate stand as a final settlement, pending no further action or investigation. This was rejected by management, and prompted claims in the newspapers that the workers were inflexible.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 129-30). The general strike ended on October 24, 1907 with a compromise plan endorsed and urged by the city's mayor, who was under pressure due to ongoing financial losses resulting from the disruption of work.New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 133-34). Under the proposal, screwmen would agree to return to work at the rate of 180 bales per day pending binding arbitration of their conflict; shipping agents reluctantly agreed as well.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (pp. 198-99). In response to union demands, the agreement also included provisions for an investigation into the port's viability and conditions based on workers' allegations that they were unfairly being blamed for general economic and trade problems.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 199). Racial divisions quickly formed as the screwmen appointed their representatives to the investigatory committee along the 50-50 principle – and white ship owners refused to work with the black representatives.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 199-200); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (pp. 135-38). After no resolution could be reached, the mayor and Louisiana governor Newton C. Blanchard instructed the state assembly to form a five-person committee to investigate all charges and regulations affecting the New Orleans port, including labor and related elements.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 200); New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 (p. 140-41). This committee began work in January 1908 and continued through mid-May of the same year. A particular focus was the nature of cross-racial action; they viewed the screwmen's 50-50 rule as undesirable, particularly as it risked fostering what they considered inappropriate social equality. White supremacy rhetoric also existed, but although the commission called for an end to cross-racial cooperation, the workers ignored the instructions and the commission could not enforce their position.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (pp. 200-202). Ultimately, the commissioners concluded that labor was not overpaid and worked under the same conditions as their counterparts in other locations. On the question of bale- rate, it ruled that 187 bales of loose cotton per work crew would constitute a day's work.Waterfront Workers of New Orleans (p. 202). ==See also== *1892 New Orleans general strike *Labor history of the United States *Labour movement and racial equality *Colored National Labor Union == Citations/References == ==Sources== *Eric Arnesen, "Biracial Waterfront Unionism" in Waterfront Workers, ed. Calvin Winslow, (University of Illinois Press: 1998). *Bernard Cook, "The Use of Race to Control the Labor Market in Louisiana" in Racism and the Labour Market: Historical Studies, eds. Marcel van der Linden and Jan Lucassen, (Peter Lang: 1995). *Eric Arnesen, "It Ain't Like They Do in New Orleans: Race Relations, Labour Markets, and Waterfront Labor Movements in the American South, 1880-1923" in Racism and the Labour Market: Historical Studies, eds. Marcel van der Linden and Jan Lucassen, (Peter Lang: 1995). *Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth Century South: The Emerging Revision" in Race and Class in the American South since 1890, eds. Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (Berg: 1994). *Eric Arnesen (1987) "To rule or ruin: New Orleans dock workers' struggle for control 1902–1903," Labor History, 28:2, 139-166. *Arnesen, Eric, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics Oxford University Press, New York (1991). *Rosenberg, Daniel, New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism 1892-1923 SUNY Press, Albany (1988). Category:General strikes in the United States Category:Economy of New Orleans Category:Race and law in the United States Category:Race in the United States Category:Labor disputes in Louisiana Category:Maritime labor disputes in the United States Category:African- American trade unions Category:History of New Orleans
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thumb|Synclavier I (1977), with HOP box The Synclavier is an early digital synthesizer, polyphonic digital sampling system, and music workstation manufactured by New England Digital Corporation of Norwich, Vermont. It was produced in various forms from the late 1970s into the early 1990s. The instrument has been used by prominent musicians. == History == thumb|Synclavier II and floppy disc drive The original design and development of the Synclavier prototype occurred at Dartmouth College with the collaboration of Jon Appleton, Professor of Digital Electronics, Sydney A. Alonso, and Cameron Jones, a software programmer and student at Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering. === Synclavier I === First released in 1977–78, Note: This magazine article itself lacks sources, and as a result, lacks verifiability. it proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds. The early Synclavier I used FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha, and was sold mostly to universities. The initial models had only a computer and synthesis modules; later models added a musical keyboard and control panel. === Synclavier II === The system evolved in its next generation of product, the Synclavier II, which was released in early 1980 with the strong influence of music producer Denny Jaeger of Oakland, California. It was originally Jaeger's suggestion that the FM synthesis concept be extended to allow four simultaneous channels or voices of synthesis to be triggered with one key depression to allow the final synthesized sound to have much more harmonic series activity. This change greatly improved the overall sound design of the system and was very noticeable. 16-bit user sampling (originally in mono only) was added as an option in 1982. This model was succeeded by the ABLE Model C computer-based PSMT in 1984 and then the Mac-based 3200, 6400 and 9600 models, all of which used the VPK keyboard. === Keyboard controller === thumb|Display and control wheel on VPK (1984) Synclavier II models used an on/off type keyboard (called the "ORK") while later models, labeled simply "Synclavier", used a weighted velocity- and pressure-sensitive keyboard (called the "VPK") that was licensed from Sequential Circuits and used in their Prophet-T8 synthesizer. === Digital sampling === thumb|STD: Sample-To- Disk interface (c.1982) The company evolved the system continuously through the early 1980s to integrate the first 16-bit digital sampling system to magnetic disk, and eventually a 16-bit polyphonic sampling system to memory, as well. The company's product was the only digital sampling system that allowed sample rates to go as high as 100 kHz. === Tapeless studio concept === Ultimately, the system was referred to as the Synclavier Digital Recording "Tapeless Studio" system among many professionals. It was a pioneer system in revolutionizing movie and television sound effects and Foley effects methods of design and production starting at Glen Glenn Sound. Although pricing made it inaccessible for most musicians (a Synclavier could cost anywhere from $25,000 to $200,000), it found widespread use among producers and professional recording studios, competing at times in this market with high-end production systems such as the Fairlight CMI. === Technological achievements === When the company launched and evolved its technology, there were no off-the-shelf computing systems, integrated software, nor sound cards. Consequently, all of the hardware from the company's main real-time CPU, all input and output cards, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog cards and its memory cards were developed internally, as well as all of the software. The hardware and software of the company's real-time capability was used in other fields completely remote to music, such as the main Dartmouth College campus computing node computers for one of the USA's first campus-wide computing networks, and in medical data acquisition research projects. === End of manufacture === New England Digital ceased operations in 1993. According to Jones, "The intellectual property was bought up by a bank—then it was owned by a Canadian company called Airworks—and I bought the intellectual property and the trademark back from a second bank which had foreclosed on it from Airworks." === Reincarnations === In 2019, Jones released an iOS version of the Synclavier dubbed Synclavier Go! using much of the original code base. Jones has also worked with Arturia to bring the Synclavier V software version of the instrument to their V Collection plugin suite. In 2022, Synclavier Digital released and started production on the Regen, a desktop FM synthesizer. == Models and options == === Prototype === * Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (1973) === Processor === * ABLE computer (1975): an early product of New England Digital, was a 16-bit mini-computer on two cards, using a transport-triggered architecture. It used a variant of XPL called Scientific XPL for programming. Early applications of the ABLE were for laboratory automation, data collection, and device control. The commercial version of the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, the Synclavier, was built on this processor. === Digital synthesis cards === * The FM/Additive synthesis waveforms are produced by the Synclavier Synthesizer cards (named SS1 through SS5). Each set of these five cards produced 8 mono FM voices (later variants supported stereo). The processor handles sending start-stop-setPitch-setParameter commands to the SS card set(s), as well as handling scanning of the keyboard and control panel. There is little public documentation available on these cards, as their design was the unique asset of the Synclavier. However, their structure was similar to other digital synthesizers of the mid-late 1970s realized in Medium Scale Integration (MSI) hardware, such as the Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer. === Black panel models === thumb|Synclavier I On 1970s-late 1980s: * Synclavier I (1977) ** Hand Operated Processor (HOP box): a troubleshooting tool for the Synclavier system, connected to ABLE computer via "D01 Front Panel Interface Card". File:NED HOP box & D01 FPI card.jpg|HOP box and D01 card (for interface) File:Adm3aimage.jpg|Terminal: ADM-3A (1975) thumb|Synclavier II * Synclavier II (1980): 8-bit FM/additive synthesis, 32-track memory recorder, and ORK keyboard. Earlier models were entirely controlled via ORK keyboard with buttons and wheel; a VT100 terminal was subsequently introduced for editing performances. Later models had a VT640 graphic terminal for graphical audio analysis (described below). ** Original Keyboard (ORK, c.1979): original musical keyboard controller in a wooden chassis, with buttons and silver control wheel on the panel. ** Sample-to-Disk (STD, c.1982): a first commercial hard disk streaming sampler, with 16-bit sampling at up to 50 kHz. ** Sample-to-Memory (STM): later option to sample sounds and edit them in computer memory. ** Direct-to-Disk (DTD, c.1984): an early commercial hard disk recording system. ** Signal File Manager: a software program operated via VT640 graphic terminal, enabling 'Additive Resynthesis' and complex audio analysis. ** Digital Guitar Interface ** SMPTE timecode tracking ** MIDI interface File:NED Synclavier II rear.jpg|Rear panel of Synclavier II File:Synclavier II ORK EG panel.jpg|ORK: Original Keyboard (c.1980) File:Terminal-dec-vt100.jpg|Terminal: DEC VT100 (1978) / VT640 thumb|Synclavier PSMT rack (1984) * Synclavier PSMT (1984): a faster ABLE Model C processor-based system, with a new 'Multi-Channel-Distribution' real- time digitally controlled analog signal routing technology, and 16-bit RAM- based stereo sampling subsystem. The monaural FM voice card was doubled up and enabling software panning for stereo output was introduced. ** Velocity/Pressure Keyboard (VPK, c.1984): a weighted velocity/after-pressure sensitive musical keyboard controller, was introduced. This had a black piano lacquer finished chassis, a larger display, additional buttons and a silver control wheel. File:NED Synclavier PSMT rack, MIM PHX (transformed).jpg|Synclavier PSMT rack File:NED Synclavier VPK 2 of 6.jpg|VPK panel (2 of 6) File:NED Synclavier VPK (Velocity Pressure Keyboard) 1.jpg|VPK: Velocity Pressure Keyboard (1984) === Ivory panel models === In late 1980s-1993; operated via Macintosh II as terminal. * Synclavier 3200 * Synclavier 6400 * Synclavier 9600 * Synclavier TS (Tapeless Studio): consists of Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk * Synclavier Post Pro: consists of Direct-to- Disk * Synclavier Post Pro SD (Sound Design): consists of small Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk == Notable users == * Laurie Anderson is credited with using the Synclavier on her albums Mister Heartbreak (1984), United States Live (1984) and the 1986 soundtrack album Home of the Brave. * Wally Badarou: used the Synclavier II on Level 42 and solo studio albums, as well as on the 1985 Kiss of the Spider Woman movie additional soundtrack. * Tony Banks of Genesis used a Synclavier II (ORK version) on the albums Genesis (1983) and Invisible Touch (1986) and their respective tours, along with solo albums and soundtracks of that period, notably on "Mama" and "Home by the Sea". * Christopher Boyes, supervising sound editor/sound designer for the 2009 film Avatar, used the Synclavier for blending or layering different sound effects and matching pitches. * Joel Chadabe: composer/founder of Electronic Music Foundation. In September 1977 he bought the first Synclavier without musical keyboard (ORK) and wrote custom software to control the Synclavier via various devices. * Suzanne Ciani used a Synclavier to design sounds for the Bally Xenon pinball game released in 1980. * The Church used it on "Under the Milky Way" (1988). The way it is arranged gives a sound similar to bagpipes. * Chick Corea used the Synclavier on various Elektric Band albums from 1986 to 1991 as well as various Elektric Band tours. * Crimson Glory used acoustic drums blended with Synclavier-sampled drums on their 1988 album Transcendence. * Paul Davis: singer/songwriter, producer at Monarch Sound in Atlanta. * Depeche Mode had access to producer Daniel Miller's Synclavier, which was responsible for the character of the sound of the albums Construction Time Again (1983), Some Great Reward (1984) and Black Celebration (1986). * Vince DiCola: used the Synclavier extensively in creating studio albums; also for soundtracks Rocky IV (1985) and The Transformers: The Movie (1986). * Duran Duran used a Synclavier on the 1984 single "The Reflex". * Patrick Gleeson: film score composer. Used the Synclavier to score Apocalypse Now (1979) and The Plague Dogs (1982). * Lourett Russell Grant used a Synclavier on the 1979 disco hit "Hot to Trot". * Paul Hardcastle: composer and musician. * Robert Henke: composer, musician and software engineer. Often recording under the moniker Monolake, Henke renovated a Synclavier II and used sampled FM from it on various releases. * Michael Hoenig: film scoring work on the Synclavier, including the 1986 action-fantasy film, The Wraith. * Trevor Horn: used the Synclavier to produce records by Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Yes, and Grace Jones' 1985 album Slave to the Rhythm, among others. * Marlon Jackson * Michael Jackson: particularly on his 1982 album Thriller, programming by Steve Porcaro, Brian Banks, and Anthony Marinelli. The gong sound at the beginning of "Beat It" comes courtesy of the Synclavier. The Synclavier was extensively used on Jackson's 1987 album Bad and on its accompanying tour, programmed and played by Christopher Currell. The Synclavier was also used by Andrew Scheps to slice and edit Jackson's beatboxing on his 1995 album HIStory. * Eddie Jobson: the 1985 album Theme of Secrets was completely made with a Synclavier. * Shane Keister: used in the 1987 American comedy film Ernest Goes to Camp. * Mark Knopfler: Used on the scores for the films The Princess Bride (1987) and Last Exit to Brooklyn (1989), in which all sounds except guitar (and in the latter case, violins) were produced by the Synclavier. The Synclavier is also heard on the Dire Straits albums Love over Gold (1982, played by Alan Clark), Brothers in Arms (1985, played by Guy Fletcher), and On Every Street (1991). * Kraftwerk acquired one in the early to mid 1980s and initially used it to re work the material later released as Electric Cafe / Techno Pop, and also on live performances in the 1990s. * Dave Lawson * Mannheim Steamroller: used on most of their albums to present. * John McLaughlin used it on the albums Mahavishnu (1984) and Adventures in Radioland (1987). * Men Without Hats used on the 1984 album Folk of the 80s (Part III). * Pat Metheny: American jazz guitarist. * Walter "Junie" Morrison: used a Synclavier on his 1984 album, Evacuate Your Seats. * Mr. Mister: used Synclavier on albums I Wear the Face (1984), Welcome to the Real World (1985), and Go On... (1987). * Puscifer: the group used Synclavier on their 2020 album Existential Reckoning. * Danny Quatrochi used Synclavier on Sting's album The Dream of the Blue Turtles (1985). * Kashif Saleem, American post-disco and contemporary R&B; record producer, multi-instrumentalist, also a creative consultant with the New England Digital Corporation: Bass synthesizer music pioneer and an early Synclavier II avid user who used Synclavier in production, for instance, of his Grammy-nominated instrumental piece "The Mood" (1983). His innovating vocalist-related sampling methods (created using Synclavier) are still in use. * Howard Shore, film score composer: pictured with a Synclavier on the cover of Berklee Today, Fall 1997. * Alan Silvestri: in producing the scores for the 1980s films The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986) and Flight of the Navigator (1986). * Paul Simon: on Simon's 1983 album Hearts and Bones, Tom Coppola is credited for Synclavier for "When Numbers Get Serious", "Think Too Much (b)", "Song About the Moon", and "Think Too Much (a)"; and Wells Christie is credited with Synclavier on "Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War". On his 1986 album Graceland, Simon is credited under "Synclavier" for "I Know What I Know" and "Gumboots". * Mark Snow: film and television score composer; Synclavier used on The X-Files (1993–2002). * James Stroud: producer who used a Synclavier II on many hit albums he produced. * Benny Andersson: his personal studio room is still centered around a Synclavier system — he has four systems. He’s been using it since Chess in 1985. * Tangerine Dream: used a Synclavier on several of their studio albums including Exit in 1981.Electronics & Music Maker, Jan 1982, p. 52 * Mike Thorne: producer, one of the first musicians to buy a Synclavier; used it on records by Siouxsie and the Banshees, Soft Cell ("Tainted Love", 1981), Marc Almond, and Bronski Beat, among others. * Pete Townshend: started using the Synclavier on the recording of All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes (1982). * Triumph: Rik Emmett used a Synclavier 9600 around the period of Thunder Seven (1984) to Surveillance (1987). * Whodini: Synclavier II was used on albums Escape (1984) and Back in Black (1986). * Stevie Wonder: used a Synclavier to sample the voices of Clair Huxtable and children in an episode of The Cosby Show. * Neil Young, who used an early Synclavier II on his 1981 album Re·ac·tor, and more extensively on his uncharacteristically electronic Trans (1982). * Frank Zappa: in 1982 one of the first Synclavier owners; 1984's Thing-Fish (underscoring), Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger (1984, underscoring) and Francesco Zappa (1984, solely Synclavier); 1985's Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention (sampled sounds); 1986's Grammy-winning album Jazz from Hell ("St. Etienne" excepted, solely Synclavier); 1994's Civilization Phaze III completed in 1993 shortly before his death, released posthumously, musical portions composed and recorded exclusively using the Synclavier. Zappa also used the instrument to create the music posthumously released in 2011 on Feeding the Monkies at Ma Maison. == See also == * Fostex Foundation 2000 * WaveFrame AudioFrame == Notes == == References == ==Further reading== * == External links == * "What Makes The Synclavier So Special And Different?" Steve Hills, Synclavier European Services * "Synclavier Digital's About Page" * Synclavier Musical Collection Category:Products introduced in 1977 Category:1977 establishments in the United States Category:American inventions Category:Music workstations Category:Samplers (musical instrument) Category:Digital synthesizers Category:Polyphonic synthesizers Category:Music sequencers
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The history of the Romanian language started in Roman provinces north of the Jireček Line in Classical antiquity. Between 6th and 8th century AD, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from the vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from the Thraco-Dacian substratum, and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian. This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian, and Daco-Romanian. Because of limited attestation between 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are reconstructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits.Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, pages 3 and 4 ==Background== thumb |right |200px | Theoretical example of Eastern Romance languages development between 6th century to the 16th century ADAtlasul istorico-geografic al Academiei Române, Bucharest 1995, ISBN 973-27-0500-0 A number of Romance languages were once spoken in Southeastern Europe for centuries, but the Dalmatian branch of this Eastern Romance disappeared centuries ago. Although the surviving Eastern group of Balkan Romance has in the meantime split into four major languages, their common features show that all of them originated from the same proto-language. Romanian, the largest among these languages, is spoken by more than 20 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova. Aromanian has about 350,000 speakers who mainly live in the mountainous zones of Albania, Greece, and Macedonia. Some thousand people from the wider region of Thessaloniki speak the third language which is known as Megleno-Romanian. The smallest Eastern Romance language, Istro-Romanian is used by fewer than 1,500 speakers in Istria. ==External history== === Substratum === thumb|190px| Malul Rosu from Luncile Buzau - the word mal is of subtratum cf. Albanian mall - mountain Little is known of the substratum language but it is generally assumed to be an Indo- European language related to Albanian. Most linguist like Kim Schulte and Grigore Brâncuș use the phrase "Thraco-Dacian" substratum, while Herbert J. Izzo and Vékony argue that the Eastern Romance languages developed on an Illyrian substrate. However, the small number of known Dacian, Illyrian or Thracian words excludes the systematic comparison of these idioms either with each other or with other languages. Dacian is represented by about a hundred plant names, 43 names of towns in Dacia as recorded by Ptolemy and around 1150 Dacian anthroponyms and 900 toponyms that have been preserved in ancient sources. The number of known Thracian or Illyrian wordsmainly glosses, place names and personal namesis even smaller. Estimates of the number of Romanian words of substratum origin range between about 90 and 140. At least 70 of these wordsFor instance, Romanian abur and Albanian avull ("steam, vapor") , (Orel 1998, p. 12.), Romanian grumaz ("neck") and Albanian gurmaz ("gullet") (Orel 1998, pp. 127-128.), Romanian ceafă and Albanian qafë ("neck") (Orel 1998, p. 353.), and Romanian vatră and Albanian vatër or votër ("hearth, fireplace") (Orel 1998, pp. 495-496.). have Albanian cognates, which may indicate a common Albanian–Romanian substratum. However, borrowings from Albanian to Romanian cannot be excluded either. The linguists Gottfried Schramm, and István Schütz even propose that they were borrowed in several phases. The largest semantic field (46 out the 89 considered certain to be of substratum) is formed by words describing nature: terrain, flora and fauna, and about 30% of these words with Albanian cognateIncluding, Romanian bască and Albanian bashkë ("fleece") (Orel 1998, p. 19.), Romanian țap and Albanian cjap ("he-goat") (Orel 1998, p. 47.), Romanian daș and Albanian dash ("ram") (Orel 1998, p. 57.), Romanian zară and Albanian dhallë or dhalltë ("buttermilk") (Orel 1998, p. 80.), Romanian gălbează and Albanian gëlbazë ("fasciolosis") (Orel 1998, pp. 112-113.), and Romanian țark and Albanian thark ("enclosure for milking") (Orel 1998, p. 472.). are connected to pastoral life. The proportion of words with Albanian cognates are found in the semantic fields of the physical worldIncluding, Romanian mal ("bank, shore") and Albanian mal ("mountain") (Orel 1998, p. 243.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.), and Romanian pârâu and Albanian përrua or përrue ("brook, river-bed") (Orel 1998, p. 323.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.). (4.8%), kinshipFor instance, Romanian copil ("child") and Albanian kopil ("lad, chap, bastard") (Orel 1998, p. 190.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.), and Romanian moș ("grandfather, old man") and Albanian moshë ("age") (Orel 1998, p. 274.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.). (3.2%), agriculture and vegetationFor instance, Romanian brad and Albanian bredh ("fir tree") (Orel 1998, p. 34.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.). (2.8%), and animalsIncluding, Romanian căpușă and Albanian këpushë ("tick") (Orel 1998, p. 179.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.), and Romanian mânz and Albanian mëz or mâz ("foal") (Orel 1998, p. 265.; Schulte 2009, p. 252.). (2.7%). Some linguists like Schramm propose that they did not stem from a pre-Latin substratum, but are loanwords borrowed from a pastoralist population by the Romans' ancestors who adopted their neighbors' mobile lifestyle when they took refuge in the mountains following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 6th or 7th centuries. Schütz argues that a number of Romanian words which are traditionally supposed to have been derived from hypothetical Vulgar Latin termsFor instance, Schütz suggests that the Romanian word a spăla ("to rinse") was borrowed from Albanian shpëlaj ("to rinse") instead of originating from a hypotethical Vulgar Latin *expellavare (<*ex+per+lavare) (Schütz 2002, pp. 16-17.). are in fact Albanian loanwords. Even Romanian words of LatinFor instance, Romanian sat ("village") < Albanian fshat("village") < Latin fossātum ("ditch") (Schramm 1997, p. 312; Orel 1998, p. 104.). or SlavicFor instance, Romanian gata ("ready") < Albanian gatuaj or gatuej ("make ready") < Common Slavic *gotovati or *gotoviti ("make ready") (Schramm 1997, p. 320; Orel 1998, p. 111.). origin seem to have been borrowed through Albanian mediation. Parallel changes in the meaning of a number of Latin words in the Albanian and the Romanian languagesFor instance, Romanian pădure and Albanian pyll ("forest") < Vulgar Latin *padūlem("forest") < Latin palūdem ("swamp") (Schramm 1997, p. 312; Orel 1998, p. 353.; Schütz 2002, p. 13.); Romanian drac and Albanian dreq ("devil") < dracō ("dragon") (Schramm 1997, p. 312; Orel 1998, p. 353.); Romanian femeie ("women, wife") and Albanian fëmijë ("child, family, spouse") < Latin famīlia ("family") (Orel 1998, p. 95.; Schütz 2002, pp. 12-13.). can also be illustrated. Recent studies however show that they are in fact substratum words in Romanian from Thraco-Dacian as evident in the rhotacism of intervocalic -l- in the pair Alb. vjedhullë - Rom. viezure for example, or the evolution of "dz" in words like bardzu typical of Latin to Romanian development. In general the argument that these are loanwords, based on the reason they are derivative forms in Albanian and only show as isolates in Romanian, is disproved by similarity of the Romanian word to Proto-Albanian, the language spoken before the 6th or 7th century. For example the Albanian word sorrë (crow) shows the change from ⟨t͡ʃ⟩ to s in Late Proto-Albanian, while Romanian has retained the old form cioară pronounced /ˈt͡ʃo̯a.rə/. A number of Albanian–Romanian calquesFor instance, both the Albanian and Romanian terms for "first" derived from words with a meaning "before": Albanian parë from Albanian para,(Orel 1998, p. 311.) and Romanian întii from Latin āntāneus (Schramm 1997, p. 313.). exist. The common morphological and syntactic features of Romanian with Albanian, Bulgarian, and other languages spoken in Southeastern EuropeFor instance, the merger of dative and genitive cases, and the use of auxiliary verbs with a meaning "will, want" to form the future tense are listed among the features shared by these languages (Mišeska Tomić 2006, pp. 26-27.). can be attributed to a common substratum. However, this hypothesis cannot be proven, because of modern scholars' limited knowledge of the native idioms spoken in the region. Accordingly, it is also possible that these common features are to be attributed to parallel developments in all languages. According to the linguist Rebecca Posner, it is not impossible that the existence of the close central unrounded vowel of Romanianwhich is marked by the letters "î" or "â"can also be traced back to the pre-Latin substratum, but she adds that "there is little evidence to support this hypothesis". === Romanization and Vulgar Latin=== thumb|250px| Roman Gothic Walls Romania Plain The integration of Southeastern European territories into the Roman Empire began with the establishment of the province of Illyricum on the Adriatic coast around 60 BC. The Dalmatian language which occupied an intermediary position between Romanian and Italian started to develop in these coastal regions. The Roman expansion towards the Danube continued in the 1st century AD. New provinces were established, including Pannonia in 9 AD, Moesia under Emperor Claudius (r. 41–54), and Roman Dacia in 106. The presence of legions and auxiliary troops ensured the Romans' control over the natives. The establishment of colonies also contributed to the consolidation of Roman rule. Accordingly, a relatively peaceful period which lasted till the end of the 2nd century followed everywhere the conquest. This Pax Romana was instrumental in the "standardization of language, customs, architecture, housing and technology". Even so, St Jerome and later authors evidence that Illyrian and other native tongues survived at least up until the late 4th century. Latin's literary register and its spoken vernacular, now known as "Classical Latin" and "Vulgar Latin" respectively, started to diverge by the time of the Roman conquest of Southeastern Europe. Accordingly, the Roman colonists introduced these popular forms when they settled in the newly conquered provinces. Inscriptions from the Roman period evidence that the Latin tongue of Southeastern Europe developed in line with the evolution of the language in the empire's other parts at least until the end of the 3rd century. Likewise, a number of inherited Romanian words testify to the fact that the Latin variety from which they emerged underwent the changes affecting the phonemes, lexicon, and other features of the Latin in the same period. For instance, the merger of the close e and open i vowels into a close "e" can be demonstratedFor instance, Romanian măiestru < Vulgar Latin maester < Classical Latin magister 'master' (Vékony 2000, p. 180.) through inherited Romanian words, and many items of Romanian vocabulary had its origin in popular termsFor instance, the Romanian word for horse, cal, stems from caballus 'nag' instead of the Classical Latin equus 'horse' (Alkire & Rosen 2010, pp=287-288.). instead of literary forms. Trajan's Dacia to the north of the Lower Danube was abandoned in the early 270s. Those who left these territories were settled to the south of the river where a new province bearing the same name, Aurelian's Dacia was carved out of Moesia. However, written sources refer to the use of Latin in the territories to the north of the Lower Danube up until the 6th century. Priscus of Panium's report of his visit in the court of Attila the Hun in 448 evidence that all "subjects of the Huns" who had "commercial dealings with" the Western Roman Empire spoke Latin, "but none of them easily" spoke Greek. He also met Rusticius from Moesia who acted as interpreter, Constantiolus, "a man from the Pannonian territory", and "Zerkon, the Moorish dwarf" whose words "were a confused jumble of Latin, Hunnic, and Gothic". A century later Procopius of Caesarea wrote of a prisoner of war who "was by birth of the Antae",Procopius: History of the Wars (7.14.18.), pp. 267-268. but who "spoke in the Latin tongue"Procopius: History of the Wars (7.14.33.), p. 275. The Goths and other neighboring tribes made frequent raids against the Roman territories in the decades following the Romans' withdrawal from Trajan's Dacia, but the Emperors Diocletian (r. 284–305) and Constantine the Great (r. 324–337) consolidated the empire's frontiers. The empire was officially divided into two parts in 395, but Latin remained one of the two official languages of the Eastern Roman Empire up to the early 7th century. For instance, when Leo II was proclaimed emperor in Constantinople in 474, his armies hailed him in Latin. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) who was born in Dardania even stated that Latin was his native language (paternus sermo). Eastern Roman rule in the Balkan Peninsula collapsed under Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641). Inscriptions and literary sources evidence that Latin remained the predominant language of communication in the provinces along the Danube throughout the 4th and 6th centuries. For the same reason, Justinian's Novels were published in Latin for these provinces. The last Latin inscriptions in the region are dated to the 610s. Gábor Vékony argues that some place names recorded in The Buildings of Justinian by Procopius of Caesarea show vowel shifts which characterize the development of Romanian. For instance, the featuring shift from "o" to "u" seems to be reflected in the name of Scumbroa fortress in the region of Remesiana (now Bela Palanka, Serbia)which cannot be independent of the ancient Scombrus mons name of the Vitosha Mountains. The major hydronymy North of the Danube is inherited from Thraco-Dacian, but with one exception, the Romanian name of these rivers is not in line with the phonetical evolution of Romanian from Latin. Theophylact Simocatta and Theophanes the Confessor recorded the first wordstorna, torna fratre ("turn, turn brother")The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (258.10-21.), p. 381. or torna, torna ("turn, turn")The History of Theophylact Simocatta (ii.15.9), p. 65. which may be attributed to the Romanian language. These words were shouted by a soldier from the region between the Haemus Mountains and the Upper Thracian Plain "in his native tongue" during an Eastern Roman campaign of 587. upright=1.36|thumb|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio- functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian. The Latin variety from which Romanian developed shows the traits of many changes of the Latin which occurred in the 4th and 6th centuries. However, these changes cannot always be detected in all Romance languages which suggests that the Latin language underwent a process of regional differentiation in this period. Ovid Densusianu wrote, already in 1901, of a Vulgar Latin which "lost its unity, breaking into languages that developed into today's Romance languages. For instance, the sonorization of the voiceless consonants between vowelsFor instance, Romanian freca, Dalmatian frekur from Latin fricare, in contrast to French frayer, Spanish and Portuguese fregar, and Italian fregare (Mihăescu 1993, p. 156.). which can be demonstrated during the formation of the Western Romance languages cannot be detected in the evolution of the Eastern Romance and Dalmatian languages. In many cases, Romanian share common features with Italian,Including the change of "s" at the end of words into "i" in Italian and Romanian words: Italian and Romanian trei from Latin tres, and Italian and Romanian noi from Latin nos (Nandriș 1951, p. 21.). Romansh and DalmatianFor instance, the development of the consonant clusters "ct", "cs" and "gn" into "pt", "ps" and "mn": Romanian opt and Dalmatian guapto from Latin octo, Romanian coapsă and Vegliot kopsa from Latin coxa, and Romanian cumnat and Ragusan comnut from Latin cognatus (Nandriș 1951, p. 21.). languages. Nandriș argues that these common features suggest that "for some time the development of Carpatho-Balkan Latin" (that is of old Romanian) "moved along the same lines as the Latin of the Adriatic coast and that of the Alps and of South- Eastern Italy." On the other hand, he argues that the similar features of the Romanian and Sardinian languagesFor instance, the development of the "gua" cluster into "ba" in both languages as it is demonstrated by Romanian limbă and Sardinian limba which developed from Latin lingua (Nandriș 1951, p. 21.). "are explained by the principle of peripheral areas in dialectal development". ===Proto-Romanian=== Romanian linguist Ovid Densusianu coined the term "Thraco-Roman" in 1901Ovide Densusianu, Histoire de la langue roumaine, I, Paris, 1901. DLR 1983. to describe the "oldest epoch of the creation of the Romanian language", when the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans between the 4th and 6th centuries, having its own peculiarities, had evolved into what is known as Proto-Romanian. Estimates of the ratio of Romanian words directly inherited from Latin is around 20% The proportion of words of Latin origin is especially high in the semantic fields of sense perceptionFor instance, Romanian vedea, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian ved, Istro-Romanian vedę < Latin videre 'to see'; Romanian asculta, Aromanian ascultu, Megleno-Romanian scult, Istro-Romanian scutå < Latin ascultare 'to listen'; Romanian dulce, Aromanian dulțe, Megleno-Romanian dulți, Istro-Romanian dul'če < Latin dulcis 'sweet' (Mihăescu 1993, pp. 227-228.). (86.1%), quantityIncluding, Romanian and Megleno-Romanian mult, Aromanian multu, Istro-Romanian munt, mund < Latin multus 'much or many'; Romanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian singur < Latin singulus 'single, only';(Mihăescu 1993, p. 184.) and Romanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian patru < Latin quattour 'four' (Mišeska Tomić 2006, p. 663; Mallinson 1998, p. 404). (82.3%), kinshipFor instance, Romanian and Aromanian frate, Megleno-Romanian frati and Istro-Romanian fråte from Latin frater 'brother', Romanian, Aromanian, and Megleno-Romanian soră or sor, and Istro- Romanian sora from Latin soror 'sister', and Romanian unchi from Latin avunculus 'uncle' (Mihăescu 1993, pp. 272-273.). (76.9%), and timeIncluding Romanian and Megleno-Romanian timp < Latin tempus 'time', Romanian primăvară, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian primăveară, Istro-Romanian primavera < Latin primavera; Romanian and Istro-Romanian zi, Aromanian dzî or dzuuă, and Megleno-Romanian zuuă < Latin dies 'day'; Romanian, Megleno-Romanian nou, Aromanian nou, nău, Istro-Romanian now, nou < Latin novus 'new' (Mihăescu 1993, pp. 183-184.). (74.7%). More than 90% of the function words, 80% of the adverbs and 68% of the adjectives in the Romanian language were directly inherited from Latin. thumb|190px|Reconstructed mouldboard plough, used in late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages Some Latin terms connected to an urbanized society survived by being adapted to rural environment, for example pământ from pavimentum, and the vocabulary for navigation, higher religious organization, and education was considerably reduced. Inherited Romanian words for "road" also reveal that the life of the Romanians' ancestors became more rural after the collapse of Roman civilization. For instance, the Latin word for bridge pons developed into Romanian punte which refers to a tree trunk placed over a ditch or a ravine, while the Romanian word for road cale developed from Latin callis 'a narrow footpath, a track'. Grigore Nandriș emphasizes that Romanian "terms for «to move from one place to another»For instance, the Latin term for "to fold" plicare developed into Romanian a pleca 'to go; wander', and Romanian a se duce 'to go', but a duce 'to lead' comes from Latin ducere 'to lead'(Nandriș 1951, p. 12.). seem to be particularly numerous". Likewise, Romanian verbs referring to "going"For instance, Romanian a lua ("to take the road") from Latin levare ("to lift") lua, Romanian a urla 'to howl, to go down in the valley' from Latin ululare 'to howl' urla, and Romanian a merge 'to go' from Latin mergere 'to dive' merge (Nandriș 1951, pp. 12-13.). developed from Latin verbs with a different meaning. Based on a study of inherited Latin words and loanwords in the Romanian language, Nandriș, Schramm, Vékony and other scholars conclude that the Romanians stemmed from a population who inhabited the mountainous zones of Southeastern Europe and were primarily engaged in animal husbandry. For instance, Schramm emphasizes that "the Romanians inherited the word for «to plow» from Latin, but borrowed both the names of the parts of the plough [...] and the terminology of the intricacies of plowing techniques from Slavic" which suggests that their ancestors only preserved some very basic knowledge of cultivation of plants. However, as linguist Marius Sala says, the Slavic terms entered Romanian language by designating improved tools compared to the ones used by the Daco- Roman population, replacing the old words inherited from Latin. The old word for plough has been inherited in Aromanian as "arat" from the Latin "arātrum" while the improved tool took the Slavic name. Other scholars, including historian Victor Spinei, state that the great number of names of cropsFor instance, Romanian grâu, Aromanian grănu, and Megleno-Romanian gron 'wheat' < Latin granum 'grain, seed'; Romanian secară, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian sicară, Istro-Romanian secåre < Vulgar Latin secale 'rye'; Romanian and Istro- Romanian orz, Aromanian ordzu, Megleno-Romanian uarz < Latin hordeum 'barley'; and Romanian mei, Aromanian mel'u, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian mel' < Latin milium 'millet' (Mihăescu 1993, pp. 256-257.; Spinei 2009, p. 224). and agricultural techniquesFor instance, Romanian ara, Aromanian and Megleno- Romanian arare and Istro-Romanian arå < Latin arare 'to plow' (Mihăescu 1993, p. 261.; Spinei 2009, p. 224). directly inherited from Latin indicates "a very long continuity of agricultural practices". Grigore Brâncuș adds to this list that the majority of pomiculture, numerous apicultural, and all the swineherding terms complete a view of a mixed farming society involved in both the growing of crops and the raising of livestock. Like only a few other Romance languages, Romanian has preserved the Romanus endonym. Its rumân variantwhich referred to serfs was first recorded in the 1500s, while its român variant is documented as early as the 17th century. However, other peoples referred to the Romanians as Vlach throughout the Middle Ages. This exonym and its variantsIncluding Byzantine Greek βλάχοϛ, Hungarian oláh, and Polish wołoch (Mihăescu 1993, p. 155.). stemmed from a reconstructed Germanic word *walhaz, by which the ancient Germans initially referred specifically to the Celts, then to the Romanized Celts, and finally to all Romance-speakers. It was adopted by the Slavs and from them the Greeks. Historians have not reached a consensus on the date of the first historical event which can, without doubt, connect to Romanians. The Romanian historian Ioan-Aurel Pop makes mention of "written records" which refer to Romanians existing in the 8th and 9th centuries but does not name any of them. Vlad Georgescu cites a "ninth-century Armenian geography" which refers to an "unknown country called Balak", but Victor Spinei emphasizes that it is an interpolation "probably from the first centuries of the second millennium". Spinei himself suggests that the first recorded events of the Romanians' history are connected to their fights against the Hungarians in territories to the north of the Danube around 895. In this respect, he cites the Russian Primary Chronicle from the 1120s and the late 13th-century Gesta Hungarorum. However, the idea that the Primary Chronicle refers to Romanians has not been universally accepted. Likewise, specialists have often questioned the reliability of the Gesta Hungarorum. All the same, it is without doubt that especially Vlachs of the Balkan Peninsula are mentioned by Byzantine sources in connection with events of the late 10th century. Spinei and Georgescu propose that the Blakumen of a Varangian runestone from around 1050 are the first Romanians whose presence in the lands east of the Carpathians was recorded. The western regions of the Pontic steppes were dominated from around 837 by the Hungarians, between around 895 and 1046 by the Pechenegs, from around 1046 by the Ouzes, and between around 1064 and 1241 by the Cumans. The Hungarians who settled in the lowlands of the Carpathian Basin around 895 established a state around 1000 which gradually integrated Banat, Transylvania and other regions of present- day Romania. ===Slavic adstratum=== Huge territories to the north of the Lower Danube were dominated by Goths and Gepids for at least 300 years from the 270s, but no Romanian words of East Germanic origin have so far been detected. On the other hand, Slavic influence on Romanian was much stronger than Germanic influence on French, Italian, Spanish and other Western Romance languages. Although "a number of Slavic loanwords have fallen victim to a strong re-latinisation process since the 19th century",For instance, the (Schulte 2009, p. 244.). the proportion of Slavic loanwords is still around 15%. The ratio of Slavic loanwords is especially high in the semantic fields of houseIncluding, perie ("brush"), colibă ("hut"), ogradă ("yard, court"), stâlp ("doorpost", "post", "pole"), zâvor ("latch, doorbolt"), prag ("door, gate"), and cămin ("fireplace") (Schulte 2009, pp. 252-254.). (26,5%), religion and beliefFor instance, a propovădui ("to preach"), a posti ("to fast"), iad ("hell"), and duh ("ghost") (Schulte 2009, pp. 252-254.). (25%), basic actions and technologyFor instance, a clădi and a zidi ("to build"), a tăvăli ("to turn"), a stropi ("to splash"), daltă ("chisel"), and ciocan ("hammer") (Schulte 2009, pp. 252-254.). (22,6%), social and political relationsIncluding, a opri ("to forbid"), a porunci ("to command"), stăpân ("master"), rob ("slave"), prieten ("friend") (Schulte 2009, pp. 252-253.). (22,5%), and agriculture and vegetationFor instance, ovăz ("oats"), hârleț ("spade"), lopată ("shovel"), a sădi ("to sow"), a cosi ("to mow"), and brazdă ("furrow") (Schulte 2009, pp. 252-253.). (22,5%). About 20% of the Romanian adverbs, nearly 17% of the nouns, and around 14% of the verbs are of Slavic origin. Slavic loanwords often coexist with a synonym inherited from Latin which sometimes give rise to semantic differentiation. For instance, both inherited "timp" and the Slavic loanword "vreme" may refer to either time or weather, but nowadays "vreme" is preferred in meteorological context. Loanwords borrowed from Slavic often have an emotionalIncluding, dragă ("dear"), slab ("weak"), boală ("sickness") (Hall 1974, pp. 91-92.). context, and they represent a positiveFor instance, the Slavic loanword a iubi ("to love") and inherited a urî("to hate"),or the inherited nu ("not") and the borrowed da ("yes") (Schulte 2009, p. 244.). connotation in many cases. Many linguistsincluding Günther Reichenkron and Robert A. Hallargue that these features of the Slavic loanwords point at the one-time existence of bilingual communities with many Slavic speakers adopting Romanian, but their view have not been universally accepted. The earliest stratum of Slavic loanwordswhich is now represented by around 80 termswas adopted in the Common Slavic period which ended around 850. However, the majority of Romanian words of Slavic origin was only adopted after the metathesis of the Common Slavic *tort- formulawhich was "a specific type of syllable whereby t stands for any consonant, o for either e or o, and r for both r and l"had been completed. Old Church Slavonic terms also enriched the Romanians' religious vocabulary in this period. Proto-Romanian even adopted words of LatinFor instance, oțet 'vinegar', oțel 'steel', colinde 'Christmas carols' (Mihăescu 1993, p. 479.). or GreekIncluding, chilie 'cell', psaltire 'psalter', and călugăr 'monk' (Mallinson 1998, p. 414.). origin through Slavic mediation in this period. The bulk of the Old Church Slavonic loanwords has been preserved by all Eastern Romance languages which implies that their split into separate languages did not start before ca. 900. Each Eastern Romance language and its dialects adopted loanwords from the neighboring Slavic peoples thereafter. For instance, Ukrainian and Russian influenced the northern Romanian dialects, while Croatian influenced Istro-Romanian. In addition to vocabulary, Slavic languages also had effects on Eastern Romance phonology and morphology, although their extent is debated by specialists. The iotation of e in word- initial position in some basic wordsFor instance, eu 'I' is pronounced as [yew] and ești 'you are' as [yest] (Petrucci 1999, p. 50.).that is the appearance of a semi vowel j before e in these terms is one of the Romanian phonological features with a debated origin. Peter R. Petrucci argues that it was the consequence of a language shift from Common Slavic to Eastern Romance, while Grigore Nandriș emphasizes that "Latin e was diphthongised at an early period not only in" Romanian "but also in most Romance languages". The formation of numerals between eleven and nineteen clearly follow Slavic patternfor instance, unsprezece "one-on-ten", doisprezece "two-on-ten", and nouăsprezece "nine-on-ten"which also indicates that a significant number of originally Slavic-speaking people once adopted Romanian. ===Pre-literary Romanian=== The Romanians' presence in the Kingdom of Hungary is proven by nearly contemporary sources from the beginning of the 13th century. The Pechenegs and the Cumans spoke Turkic languages, but the distinction of words borrowed from them and loanwords of Crimean Tatar or Ottoman Turkish origin is almost impossible. For instance, Lazăr Șăineanu proposes that the Romanian word for mace (buzdugan) stemmed from the Cumans or Pechenegs, but no maces dated to the period before around 1300 have been unearthed in the Pontic steppes. According to István Schütz, ciobana Romanian word for shepherd which also exists in Albanian, Bulgarian and many other Slavic languagescan be of Pecheneg or Cuman origin. The cohabition of Romanians and Hungarians caused that the former adopted a number of Hungarian words. The proportion of Hungarian loanwords is now about 1,6%. Their ratio is relatively high in the semantic fields of social and political relationsFor instance, gazdă ("host") , neam ("people") (Schulte 2009, p. 255.). (6,5%), clothing and groomingFor instance, cismă ("boot") , and bumb ("button") (Schulte 2009, p. 255.). (4,5%), speech and languageFor instance, a făgădui ("to promise") , and a tăgădui ("to deny") (Schulte 2009, p. 255.). (4,5%), and the houseFor instance, a locui ("to live") , and lacăt ("lock, padlock") (Schulte 2009, p. 255.). (4,3%). Although most Hungarian loanwords have spread in all Romanian dialects, many of them are only used in Transylvania. While some Eastern Romance languages and dialects adopted a number of loanwords in the course of their development, others remained more conservative. In this respect, the Wallachian dialect of Romanian is the most innovative of all Romanian dialects. Many linguists and historiansincluding Grigore Nandriș and Alexandru Madgearueven propose that the preservation of inherited Latin words by the dialects spoken in Roman Dacia which were replaced by loanwords in other regionsFor instance, the Latin word for snow nivem was preserved in Western Transylvania as nea, but was repladed by Slavic loanwords (omăt and zăpada) in other regions (Nandriș 1951, p. 18.). proves that these territories served as centres of "linguistic expansion". Likewise, the Maramureș dialectFor instance, the Latin word for sand arena was preserved in Western Transylvania and Maramureș as arină, but was repladed by the Slavic loanword (nisip) in most other regions (Nandriș 1951, p. 18.). has also preserved words of Latin origin which disappeared from most other dialecs. On the other hand, Aromanian, although it is now spoken in regions where its development could not start still uses a number of inherited Latin terms instead of the loanwordsFor instance, similar to the Western Transylvanian dialect of Romanian, (Nandriș 1951, p. 18.) Aromanian preserves neao for snow and arină for sand (Mišeska Tomić 2006 p. 665.). Furthermore, for instance, the Aromanian word for plow arat was directly inherited from Latin aratru in contrast with Romanian plug which is a Slavic loanword (Mihăescu 1993, p. 177.). which were adopted by other Eastern Romance languages. ===Old Romanian=== What is traditionally called "Old Romanian language" period begins in 16th and ends in 18th century.Virginia Hill, Gabriela Alboiu, Verb Movement and Clause Structure in Old Romanian; Oxford University Press, 2016; , Preface. The Polish chronicler Jan Długosz remarked in 1476 that Moldavians and Wallachians "share a language and customs".The Annals of Jan Długosz , p. 593 The oldest surviving writing in Romanian that can be reliably dated is a letter sent by Lupu Neacșu from the then Dlăgopole, now Câmpulung, Wallachia, to Johannes Benkner of Brașov, Transylvania. From the events and people mentioned in the letter it can be inferred that it was written around the 29th or 30 June 1521. Other documents do exist from the same period, but could not be dated accurately. Francesco della Valle writes in 1532 that "they name themselves Romei in their own language" ("si dimandano in lingua loro Romei") and, he also cites the expression "Do you know Romanian?" ("se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano?")."...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano?..." in: Claudiu Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 Tranquillo Andronico, in 1534, remarks that ""Vlachs now name themselves Romanians (Valachi nunc se Romanos vocant).Tranquillo Andronico in Endre Veress', Fontes rerum transylvanicarum: Erdélyi történelmi források, Történettudományi Intézet, Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, Budapest, 1914, S. 204 In 1542, the Transylvanian Szekler Johann Lebel wrote that "the Vlachs name each other Romuini"."Ex Vlachi Valachi, Romanenses Italiani,/Quorum reliquae Romanensi lingua utuntur.../Solo Romanos nomine, sine re, repraesentantes./Ideirco vulgariter Romuini sunt appelanti", Ioannes Lebelius, De opido Thalmus, Carmen Istoricum, Cibinii, 1779, p. 11 – 12 The Polish chronicler Stanislaw Orzechowski mentions in 1554 that "in their language, the Vlachs name themselves Romini"."qui eorum lingua Romini ab Romanis, nostra Walachi, ab Italis appellantur" St. Orichovius, Annales polonici ab excessu Sigismundi, in I. Dlugossus, Historiae polonicae libri XII, col 1555 In 1570, the Croatian Ante Verančić specifies that "the Vlachs from Transylvania, Moldova and Transalpina name themselves Romans".„...Valacchi, qui se Romanos nominant...„ “Gens quae ear terras (Transsylvaniam, Moldaviam et Transalpinam) nostra aetate incolit, Valacchi sunt, eaque a Romania ducit originem, tametsi nomine longe alieno...“ De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transaplinae, in Monumenta Hungariae Historica, Scriptores; II, Pesta, 1857, p. 120 Pierre Lescalopier writes, in 1574 that "those that live in Moldova, Wallachia and most of Transylvania consider themselves as being descendants of Romans and name their language Romanian"."Tout ce pays: la Wallachie, la Moldavie et la plus part de la Transylvanie, a esté peuplé des colonies romaines du temps de Trajan l’empereur… Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à-dire romain … " în Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier l’an 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, în: Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii și materiale de istorie medievală, IV, 1960, p. 444 Ferrante Capecci, after travelling in 1575 through Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldova, mentions that the dwellers of these lands are named "Romanesci".“Anzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...” în: Maria Holban, Călători străini despre Țările Române, București, Editura Stiințifică, 1970, vol. II, p.158 – 161 The Palia de la Orăștie of 1580 is the oldest translation of the Pentateuch that is written in the Romanian language.Palia de la Orǎștie (1581 – 1582), Bucharest, 1968 thumb|left|200px|A page of his "Letopiseț" manuscript Grigore Ureche, in his The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia (Romanian Letopisețul Țării Moldovei) (1640s), talks about the language spoken by the Moldavians and considers it to be an amalgam of numerous languages (Latin, French, Greek, Polish, Turkish, Serbian, etc.) and is mixed with the neighbouring languages.Grigore Ureche, Ch. For our Moldavian language, in Chronicles of the land of Moldavia, available at Wikisource The author however assumes the preponderance of Latin influence, and claims that, at a closer look, all Latin words could be understood by Moldavians. Miron Costin, in his De neamul moldovenilor (1687) while noting that Moldavians, Wallachians, and the Romanians living in the Hungarian Country have the same origin, says that although people of Moldavia call themselves "Moldavians", they name their language "Romanian" (românește) instead of Moldavian (moldovenește).Constantiniu, Florin. "O istorie sinceră a poporului român" (An honest history of the Romanian people), Univers Enciclopedic, București, 1997, , p. 175 Also, in his Polish language Chronicle of Wallachia and Moldavia, Miron Costin assumes that both Wallachians and Moldavians once called themselves "Romans". Dimitrie Cantemir, in his Descriptio Moldaviae (Berlin, 1714), points out that the inhabitants of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania spoke the same language. He notes, however, that there are some differences in accent and vocabulary.From Descriptio Moldaviae: "Valachiae et Transylvaniae incolis eadem est cum Moldavis lingua, pronunciatio tamen rudior, ut dziur, Vlachus proferet zur, jur, per z polonicum sive j gallicum; Dumnedzeu, Deus, val. Dumnezeu: akmu, nunc, val. akuma, aczela hic, val: ahela." He says: :"Wallachians and Transylvanians have the same speech as the Moldavians, but their pronunciation is slightly harsher, such as giur, which a Wallachian will pronounce jur, using a Polish ż or a French j. [...] They also have words that the Moldavians don't understand, but they don't use them in writing." Cantemir's work is one of the earliest histories of the language, in which he notes, like Ureche before him, the evolution from Latin and notices the Greek, Turkish and Polish borrowings. Additionally, he introduces the idea that some words must have had Dacian roots. Cantemir also notes that while the idea of a Latin origin of the language was prevalent in his time, other scholars considered it to have derived from Italian. In old sources, such as the works of chroniclers Grigore Ureche (1590–1647), Miron Costin (1633–1691), or those of the Prince and scholar Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), the term Moldavian (moldovenească) can be found. According to Cantemir's Descriptio Moldaviae, the inhabitants of Wallachia and Transylvania spoke the same language as Moldavians, but they had a different pronunciation and used some words not understood by Moldovans. Costin and, in an unfinished book,Florentina Nicolae, Consideratii privind stilul indirect în latina cantemiriană, in Annales Universitatis Apulensis, 6, Tom 3, 2005. Cantemir attest the usage of the term Romanian among the inhabitants of the Principality of Moldavia to refer to their own language. === Romanian in Imperial Russia === Following annexation of Bessarabia by Russia (after 1812), the language of Moldavians was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia, used along with Russian,Charter for the organization of the Bessarabian Oblast, April 29, 1818, in "Печатается по изданию: Полное собрание законов Российской империи. Собрание первое.", Vol 35. 1818, Sankt Petersburg, 1830, pg. 222-227. Available online at hrono.info as the overwhelming majority of the population was Romanian. The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820.King, Charles, The Moldovans, Hoover Press, 2000, , pg. 21-22 thumb|right|150px|Map of the border between Moldavia/Romania and Russia, 1856-1878 Gradually, the Russian language gained importance. The new code adopted in 1829 abolished the autonomous statute of Bessarabia, and halted the obligatory use of Moldavian in public pronouncements. In 1854, Russian was declared the only official language of the region, Moldavian being eliminated from schools in the second part of the centuryKing, Charles, The Moldovans, Hoover Press, 2000, , p. 22 According to the dates provided by the administration of Bessarabia, since 1828, official documents were published in Russian only, and around 1835 a 7-year term was established during which state institutions would accept acts in the Romanian language, after which the used language would be exclusively Russian. Romanian was accepted as the language of instruction until 1842, afterwards being taught as a separate subject. Thus, at the seminary of Chișinău, the Romanian language was a compulsory subject, with 10 hours weekly, until 1863, when the Department of Romanian was closed. At the High School No.1 in Chișinău, students had the right to choose among Romanian, German, and Greek until 9 February 1866, when the State Counselor of the Russian Empire forbade teaching of the Romanian language, with the following justification: "the pupils know this language in the practical mode, and its teaching follows other goals". Around 1871, the tsar published an ukase "On the suspension of teaching the Romanian language in the schools of Bessarabia," because "local speech is not taught in the Russian Empire". Bessarabia became a regular guberniya and the Russification policy became a priority for the administration. The linguistic situation in Bessarabia from 1812 to 1918 was the gradual development of bilingualism. Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. The evolution of this linguistic situation can be divided into five phases.Colesnic-Codreanca, Lidia. Limba Română în Basarabia. Studiu sociolingvistic pe baza materialelor de arhivă (1812–1918) ("The Romanian language in Bessarabia. A sociolinguistic study based on archival materials (1812-1918)"). Chișinău: Editorial Museum, 2003. The period from 1812 to 1828 was one of neutral or functional bilingualism. Whereas Russian had official dominance, Romanian was not without influence, especially in the spheres of public administration, education (particularly religious education) and culture. In the years immediately following the annexation, loyalty to Romanian language and customs became important. The Theological Seminary (Seminarul Teologic) and Lancaster Schools were opened in 1813 and 1824 respectively, Romanian grammar books were published, and the printing press at Chișinău began producing religious books. The period from 1828 to 1843 was one of partial diglossic bilingualism. During this time, use of Romanian was forbidden in the sphere of administration. This was carried out through negative means: Romanian was excluded from the civil code. Romanian continued to be used in education, but only as a separate subject. Bilingual manuals, such as the Russian-Romanian Bucoavne grammar of Iacob Ghinculov, were published to meet the new need for bilingualism. Religious books and Sunday sermons remained the only monolingual public outlet for Romanian. By 1843, the removal of Romanian from public administration was complete. The period from 1843 to 1871 was one of assimilation. Romanian continued to be a school subject at the Liceul Regional (high school) until 1866, at the Theological Seminary until 1867, and at regional schools until 1871, when all teaching of the language was forbidden by law. The period from 1871 to 1905 was one of official monolingualism in Russian. All public use of Romanian was phased out, and substituted with Russian. Romanian continued to be used as the colloquial language of home and family. This was the era of the highest level of assimilation in the Russian Empire. In 1872, the priest Pavel Lebedev ordered that all church documents be written in Russian, and, in 1882, the press at Chișinău was closed by order of the Holy Synod. The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict, with the re-awakening of Romanian national consciousness. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstva asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and the "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, the first Romanian language newspapers and journals began to appear: Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Besserabia use the Romanian language". The term "Moldovan language" (limbă moldovenească) was newly employed to create a state-sponsored Ausbausprache to distinguish it from 'Romanian' Romanian. Thus, șt. Margeală, in 1827, stated that the aim of his book was to "offer the 800,000 Romanians who live in Bessarabia,... as well as to the millions of Romanians from the other part of Prut, the possibility of knowing the Russian language, and also for the Russians who want to study the Romanian language". In 1865 Ioan Doncev, editing his Romanian primer and grammar, affirmed that Moldovan is valaho- româno, or Romanian. However, after this date, the label "Romanian language" appears only sporadically in the correspondence of the educational authorities. Gradually, Moldovan became the sole label for the language: a situation that proved useful to those who wished for a cultural separation of Bessarabia from Romania. Although referring to another historical period, Kl. Heitmann stated that the "theory of two languages — Romanian and Moldovan — was served both in Moscow as well as in Chișinău to combat the nationalistic veleities of the Republic of Moldova, being, in fact, an action against Romanian nationalism". (Heitmann, 1965). The objective of the Russian language policies in Bessarabia was the dialectization of the Romanian language. A. Arțimovici, official of the Education Department based in Odessa, wrote a letter, dated 11 February 1863, to the Minister of Public Instructions stating: "I have the opinion that it will be hard to stop the Romanian population of Bessarabia using the language of the neighbouring principalities, where the concentrated Romanian population may develop the language based on its Latin elements, not good for Slavic language. The government's directions pertaining to this case aim to make a new dialect in Bessarabia, more closely based on Slavic language, will be, as it will be seen, of no use: we cannot direct the teachers to teach a language that will soon be dead in Moldova and Wallachia... parents will not want their children to learn a different language to the one they currently speak". Although some clerks, like Arțimovici, realised that the creation of a dialect apart from the Romanian spoken in the United Principalities could never be truly effective, most of them "with the aim of fulfilling governmental policy, tendentiously called the majority language Moldovan, even in the context where Romanian had always been used previously". ===Modern Romanian=== The period starting from 1780, from the publishing of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae, is categorised as Modern Romanian, characterised by the translation, publishing and printing of books using both Cyrillic and Latin orthography, until the full implementation of the current Romanian alphabet in 1881, and by the influence of Latino-romance languages, in particular French, on the Romanian lexis. This influence, together with the adoption of the Latin script and the work of two schools of thought (Transylvanian School's Latin oriented approach and I.H. Rădulescu's Italian oriented) is the context in which the terms Re-Latinisation, Re-Romanization or Westernization are discussed. The Latin model was applied to French loanwords such as objection to "objecție", or doublets of Latin inherited words are popularised as in dens/des, both from Latin densus - dens being a loanword from French, while des, with similar meaning, is inherited from Latin. ==Internal history== This section presents the sound changes that happened from Latin to Romanian. The order in which the sound changes are listed here is not necessarily chronological. ===Up to Proto-Romanian=== ====Vowels==== thumb|320x320px|Vowel changes from Latin to Proto-Romanian. ====In the Vulgar Latin period==== Classical Latin had ten pure vowels (monophthongs), along with three diphthongs. By the 1st century AD, if not earlier, Latin diphthong became , with the quality of short but longer; and soon afterwards became , merging with long . This left . An early trend in the urban Latin of Rome, already during Cicero's time ( 50 BC), merged it with , and a few common words reflect this in Romanian, e.g. coadă "tail" < < Classical ; similarly ureche "ear" < < Classical . But in general, the territories outside of Rome were unaffected by this change; remained everywhere for centuries afterward, and continues to this day in Romanian. Long and short differed in both quality and quantity, with the shorter versions lower and laxer (e.g. vs. ). Long and short differed only in quantity. At a certain point, quantity ceased being phonemic, with all vowels long in stressed open syllables and short elsewhere. This automatically caused long and short to merge, but the remaining vowels took two different paths: *In the Sardinian scheme, long and short pairs of vowels simply merge, with the quality difference erased. *In the Western Romance scheme, the quality difference remains, but original short are lowered and merge with original long . Subsequent to this, unstressed low-mid vowels are raised to become high-mid. Romanian and other Eastern Romance languages follow a mixed scheme, with the back vowels following the Sardinian scheme but the front vowels following the Western Romance scheme. This produces a six-vowel system (contrast the Sardinian five-vowel system and Western Romance seven-vowel system). Short and long back vowels merged, for example: * Lat. mare > Rom. mare ('sea') * Lat. pālum > *paru > Rom. par ('pole') * Lat. focum > *focu > Rom. foc ('fire') * Lat. pōmum > *pomu > Rom. pom ('fruit-bearing tree') * Lat. multum > *multu > Rom. mult ('much') * Lat. tū > Rom. tu ('you') Latin short seems to have been lowered to o when stressed and before m or b in some words: * Lat. autumna (from autumnus) > *tomna > Rom. toamnă ('autumn') * Lat. rubeum > *robi̯u > Rom. roib Also, Latin long was changed to u in a few words: * Lat. cohortem > *cōrtem > Rom. curte Front vowels changed as follows: * / and became . * became . * / became: ** in stressed syllables ** in unstressed syllables * Subsequent to this, stressed diphthongized to . Examples: : Lat. pellem > * > Rom. piele ('skin') : Lat. signum > *semnu > Rom. semn ('sign') : Lat. vīnum > *vinu > Rom. vin ('wine') ====Breaking of stressed open e==== In Romanian, as in a number of other Romance languages, stressed (including from original ) broke (diphthongized) to . This happened in all syllables, whether open or closed, similarly to Spanish, but unlike Italian or French, where this breaking only happened in open syllables (those followed by only a single consonant). * Lat. pellem > * > Rom. piele 'skin' Frequently, the was later absorbed by a preceding consonant, by the operation of second palatalization. * Lat. decem > * > *di̯ece > *dzece > Rom. zece 'ten' The was later affected by other changes in certain circumstances, e.g. breaking to or lowering to : * Lat. equa > * > *i̯epa > Rom. iapă 'mare' * Lat. terra > * > *ti̯era > *țera > archaic țeară > Rom. țară 'land' * Lat. testa > * > *ti̯esta > *țesta > Rom. țeastă 'skull' ====Breaking of e and o==== The vowel o was broken (diphthongized) to oa before a non-high vowel: * Lat. flōrem > Rom. floare 'flower' * Lat. hōram > Rom. oară 'time' as in "a treia oară" 'the third time' The vowel e was broken to ea in similar circumstances. The e was often absorbed by a preceding palatal sound: * Lat. equa > * > *i̯epa > *i̯eapa > Rom. iapă 'mare' * Lat. terra > * > *ti̯era > *țera > archaic țeară > Rom. țară 'land' * Lat. testa > * > *ti̯esta > *țesta > Rom. țeastă 'skull' As a result, these diphthongs still alternate with the original monophthongs by occurring regularly before a, ă and e in the next syllable (with the exception that ea has reverted to e before another e, e.g. mensae > mease > mese 'tables', as explained in the next section).Alkire & Rosen 2010, p.256 ====Backing of e==== The vowel e was changed to ă – and the diphthong ea was reduced to a – when preceded by a labial consonant and followed by a back vowel in the next syllable. In other words, it stayed e, when the following vowel was i or e. Furthermore, in front of these vowels, the diphthong ea changed back to e. * Lat. pilus > peru > Rom. păr 'hair', but * Lat. pilī > Rom. peri 'hairs' * Lat. pira > peară > Rom. pară 'pear', but * Lat. pirae > peare > Rom. pere 'pears' * Lat. mēnsam > *mesa > measă > Rom. masă 'table', but * Lat. mēnsae > mease > Rom. mese 'tables' * Lat. vēndō > *vendu > *văndu > *vându > Rom. vând 'I sell', but * Lat. vēndis > *vendī > *vendzi > vindzi > Rom. vinzi 'you sell' This phonetic change is characteristic for standard Romanian, but it did not affect the dialect spoken in Țara Hațegului. The consonant r also causes backing of e to ă: Lat. rēus > Rom. rău ‘bad’. Another source of ă is that a raises to ă in front of /i/ in the next syllable, e.g. mare ‘sea’, but mări ‘seas’.Alkire & Rosen 2010, p. 258 ====Vowel reduction==== Unstressed a became ă (except when at the beginning of the word) and unstressed o was reduced to u. Then ă became e after palatal consonants. Unstressed o was kept in some words due to analogy. * Lat. capra > Rom. capră ‘goat’ * Lat. vīnea > *vinja > *viɲă (cf. Megleno-Romanian) > *viɲe (cf. Aromanian)Alexandru Ciorănescu, Dicţionarul etimologic al limbii române (Bucharest: Saeculum I. O., 2002), 834. > Rom. vie ‘vineyard’ * Lat. formōsus > *frumosu > Rom. frumos ‘beautiful’ ====Phonemicisation of ă, pre-nasal raising and emergence of ==== As the definite article -a emerged, it created new word forms with unstressed -/a/: casă ‘house’ ~ casa ‘the house.’ Furthermore, instances of stressed ă arose from original a before a /n/ or a consonant cluster beginning with /m/. Subsequently, ă under the same conditions (from original a as well as from e after it first evolved into i) developed into the vowel (currently spelt as î at word edges and â elsewhere), e.g. Lat. campus > Rom. câmp ‘field’, Lat. ventus > vintu (Aromanian) > Rom. vânt ‘wind’. This was part of a general process of pre-nasal raising, which also affected the other vowels: Lat. bene > Rom. bine ‘well’, Lat. nomen > Rom. nume ‘name’. Latin i also sometimes produces before nasals: Lat. sinus > sân ‘breast’. Subsequently, deletion of /n/ in some words produces instances of phonemic : Lat. quantum > Rom. cât ‘how much’. The same vowel also arises from i, e and ă in front of a cluster of /r/ and a following cosonant: Lat. virtutem > Rom. vârtute ‘virtue’, Lat. pergola > Rom. pârghie ‘lever’, Lat. tardivus > Rom. târziu ‘late’. The vowel also arises from i after /r/: Lat. ridet > Rom. râde ‘laughs’. Further instances of arose with the introduction of Slavic and, later, Turkish loanwords.Renwick, M. E. L. 2012. VOWELS OF ROMANIAN: HISTORICAL, PHONOLOGICAL AND PHONETIC STUDIES. P.28-61. https://conf.ling.cornell.edu/peggy/Renwick_2012_Vowels-of-Romanian.pdf ====Consonants==== ====Labiovelars==== In the Vulgar Latin period, the labiovelars were reduced to simple velars before front vowels. These were subsequently palatalized to by the second palatalization (see below): *Lat. quaerere "to seek" > *kɛrere > Rom. cere 'ask' *Lat. sanguis "blood" > *sange > Rom. sânge The labiovelars originally remained before a, but were subsequently changed to labials , although in question words beginning with qu-, this was never changed to p- (presumably through analogy with words beginning que-, qui-, quo- in Latin): * Lat. quattuor > *quattro > Rom. patru 'four' * Lat. equa > * > *i̯epa > Rom. iapă 'mare' * Lat. lingua > Rom. limbă 'tongue' *But Lat. quandō > *kando > kăndu (Aromanian) > Rom. când 'when' ====Labialization of velars==== Another important change is the labialization of velars before dentals, which includes the changes ct > pt, gn > mn, and x > ps. Later, ps assimilated to ss, then to s ~ ș in most words. * Lat. factum > *faptu > Rom. fapt 'fact; deed' * Lat. signum > *semnu > Rom. semn 'sign' * Lat. coxa > *copsa > Rom. coapsă 'thigh', but: * Lat. fraxinus > frapsinu (Aromanian) > Rom. frasin 'ash tree' (vs. Banat frapsăn, frapsine) * Lat. laxō > *lapso > *lassu > Rom. las 'I let' ====Final consonants==== In both Romanian and Italian, virtually all final consonants were lost. As a consequence, there was a period in the history of Romanian in which all words ended with vowels. In addition, after a long vowel final -s produced a new final -i, as in Lat. nōs > Rom. noi 'we', Lat. trēs > Rom. trei 'three', and Lat. stās > Rom. stai 'you stand'. ====Palatalization==== In Vulgar Latin, short and followed by another vowel were changed to a glide . Later, palatalized preceding and consonants, changing its quality. For dentals, the outcome depended on whether word stress precedes or follows: *dentals: ** after stress *** Lat. puteus > *púti̯u > *putsu > Rom. puț 'well, pit', *** Lat. hordeum > *órdi̯u > ordzu > Rom. orz 'barley', ** before stress *** Lat. rōgātiōnem > *rogati̯óne > *rogačone > Rom. rugăciune 'prayer' *** VLat. deosum > *di̯ósu > *djosu > Rom. jos 'down' * other consonants: ** Lat. socium > *sóki̯u > *sotsu > Rom. soț 'companion; husband' ** Lat. cāseus > *kasi̯u > Rom. caș 'fresh, unripened cheese' ** Lat. vīnea > *vini̯a > * > standard Rom. vie ** Lat. mulierem > *muli̯ere > * > Rom. muiere 'woman' Notice that the twofold outcome for dentals is still productive in modern Romanian: *credínță 'faith' — credinciós 'faithful' *(From oglíndă 'mirror':) oglínzi 'mirrors' — oglinjoáră 'small mirror'. The above palatalizations occurred in all of the Romance languages, although with slightly differing outcomes in different languages. Labial consonants, however, were unaffected by the above palatalizations. Instead, at a later time, the underwent metathesis: * Lat. rubeum > *robi̯u > Rom. roib ====Palatalization of cl and gl clusters==== The Latin cluster cl was palatalized to , which later simplified to . The same process affected latin gl: * Vulgar Latin oricla > *urecʎa > *urecʎe (Aromanian ureaclje) > Rom. ureche 'ear' * Vulgar Latin glacia > *gʎatsa > Rom. gheață 'ice' ====l-rhotacism==== At some point, Latin intervocalic l developed into r. From the evolution of certain words, it is clear that this happened after the above-mentioned palatalization, but before the simplification of double consonants (as ll did not rhotacize) and also before i-palatalization. Some examples: * Lat. gelu > Rom. ger 'frost' * Lat. salīre > Rom. a sări (sărire) 'to jump' ====Second palatalization==== The dental consonants t, d, s, l were palatalized again by a following i or i̯ (from the combination i̯e/i̯a < < stressed e): * Lat. testa > * > *ti̯esta > *țesta > Rom. țeastă 'skull' * Lat. decem > * > *di̯ece > *dzece > Rom. zece 'ten' * Lat. servum > * > *si̯erbu > Rom. șerb 'serf' * Lat. sex > * > *si̯asse > Rom. șase 'six' * Lat. leporem > * > *li̯ɛpure > * (= Arom. ljepure) > Rom. iepure 'hare' * Lat. dīcō > *dziku > Rom. zic 'I say' * Lat. līnum > * (= Arom. ljinu) > * > Rom. in 'flax' * Lat. gallīna > * > * (= Arom. gãljinã) > Rom. găină 'hen' The velar consonants (from Latin labiovelars qu gu) were palatalized to before front vowels: * Lat. quid > *ki > Rom. ce 'what' * Lat. quīnque > Vulgar Latin *cīnque (Italian cinque) > Rom. cinci "five" * Lat. quaerere "to seek" > *kɛrere > Rom. cere 'ask' * Lat. *sanguem > *sange > Rom. sânge 'blood' ===Modern changes=== These are changes that did not happen in all Eastern Romance languages. Some occur in standard Romanian; some do not. ====Spirantization==== In southern dialects, and in the standard language, dz is lost as a phoneme, becoming z in all environments: * dzic > zic ('I say') * lucredzi > lucrezi ('you work') The affricate became j only when hard (i.e. followed by a back vowel): * gioc > joc ('game'), but: * deget ('finger') did not change. ====Lenition of resonants==== Former palatal resonants were both lenited (weakened) to , which was subsequently lost next to : * Lat. leporem > * > *li̯epure > * > Rom. iepure 'hare' * Lat. līnum > * > * > Rom. in 'flax' * Lat. gallīna > * > * > * > Rom. găină 'hen' * Lat. pellem, pellīs > * > * > * > Rom. piele, piei 'skin, skins' * Lat. vīnea > *vinja > *viɲă > *viɲe > Rom. vie 'vineyard' Former intervocalic from Latin was lost entirely before by first vocalizing to : * Lat stēlla > *stela > archaic steală > colloquial steauă > standard Rom. stea 'star' * Lat sella > *sɛlla > *si̯ela > *șela > *șeuă > Muntenian șea > standard Rom. șa 'saddle' Former intervocalic from Latin was preserved before other vowels: * Lat caballum > *cavallu > *caalu > Rom. cal 'horse' * Lat callem > Rom. cale 'way' Former intervocalic (from Latin ) was lost, perhaps first weakened to : * Lat būbalus > *buvalu > *buwaru > archaic buar, boar > standard Rom. bour 'aurochs' * Lat vīvere > *vivere > *viwe > Muntenian vie > standard Rom. a via 'to live' ====n-epenthesis==== Relatively recently, stressed u preceded by n lengthens and nasalizes, producing a following n (epenthesis). * Lat genuculus > *genuclus > western genuchi > Rom. genunchi 'knee' * Lat manuplus > *manuclus > western mănuchi > Rom. mănunchi 'bouquet' * Lat minutus > minut (Aromanian) > (Banat, Moldavia) mănunt > Rom. mărunt 'minute, small' * the reverse process: ** Lat ranunculus 'tadpole; crowfoot, buttercup' > *ranunclus > archaic rănunchi > Rom. rărunchi 'kidney; (dial.) buttercup' > dialectal răruchi ====j-epenthesis==== In some words, the semivowel was inserted between â and soft n: * pâne > pâine ('bread') * câne > câine ('dog') It also explains the plural mână - mâini ('hand, hands'). This is also specific to southern dialects and the standard language; in other regions one may hear câne etc. It may be compensatory lengthening followed by dissimilation: pâne > pââne > pâine. It has spread from the Oltenian dialect to literary Romanian. It has alternatively been explained as palatalization followed by metathesis: câne > *câni̯e > câine. Oltenian has câine; all other dialects have câni̯e. ====Hardening==== Backing of vowels after ș, ț and dz is specific to northern dialects. Because those consonants can be followed only by back vowels, any front vowel is changed to a back one: * și > șî 'and' * ține > țâni̯e 'holds' * zic > dzâc 'I say' It is similar to vowel backing after hard consonants in Russian (see ). == See also == * Legacy of the Roman Empire * Romance languages * Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship ==Notes== == References == == Sources == === Primary sources === *Procopius: History of the Wars (Books VI.16-VII.35.) (With an English Translation by H. B. Dewing) (2006). Harvard University Press. . *The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813 (Translated with Introduction and Commentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott with the assistance of Geoffrey Greatrex) (2006). Oxford University Press. . *The History of Theophylact Simocatta (An English Translation with Introduction and Notes: Michael and Mary Whitby) (1986). Clarendon Press. . === Secondary sources === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *Niculescu, Alexandru. Outline History of the Romanian Language. * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * The History of the Romanian Language Category:Indo-European linguistics
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The International Harvester strike of 1979–1980 was a strike by the United Auto Workers (UAW) against the International Harvester (IH) company over work rules. The strike began on November 1, 1979,Flamholtz and Randle, Changing the Game: Organizational Transformations of the First, Second, and Third Kinds, 1998. and ended after 172 days on April 20, 1980.Ring, "McCardell's Reign as IH Boss Wasn't Dull," Quad Cities Dispatch, July 16, 2008. As of May 2008, it was the fourth-longest strike of national importance ever held by the UAW.Morath, "Axle Strike Mirrors Pain of 1970 Walkout at GM," Detroit News, May 3, 2008. ==Background== ===Previous bargaining history=== thumb|right|The International Harvester logo. The UAW first negotiated a master contract with International Harvester in 1950. At the time, there was no mandatory overtime and both management and the union believed that the company could not request mandatory overtime.Loomis, "The Strike That Rained on Archie McCardell's Parade," Fortune, May 19, 1980. The 1950 master contract also codified an existing practice whereby a worker could transfer to any other job in the company provided he or she was the most senior applicant for the position. During the 1958 contract renewal talks, International attempted to restrict job transfer rights. The union struck for nine weeks, and IH dropped the demand in exchange for other concessions. Between 1961 and 1976, four of the six three-year contracts were signed only after the union struck—although each of the strikes was short, lasting from two hours to two-and-a-half weeks. There were also a large number (more than 100) wildcat strikes during this period. After a 15-day strike in 1973, the union agreed to include a side letter into the contract in which the union agreed to encourage employees to voluntarily agree to work overtime (with advance notice, and only up to seven Saturdays a year)—although few employees ever volunteered. By the late 1970s, International Harvester had come to believe that unlimited transfer rights were being abused and creating productivity problems. The company also instituted a new disciplinary program to crack down on wildcat strikes, and outlasted one UAW local when it engaged in a five-week-long wildcat strike in 1978 in an attempt to have the program withdrawn. ===McCardell takes over=== In 1979, International Harvester was the fourth-largest company in the United States.Zimmerman, The Turnaround Experience: Real-World Lessons in Revitalizing Corporations, 1991. Archie McCardell was appointed president and chief operating officer of International Harvester in August 1977, named chief executive officer in January 1978, and chairman of the board in June 1979.Martin, "Archie McCardell, Harvester Chief Who Clashed With Union, Dies at 81," New York Times, July 16, 2008. He was charged with shaking up the family-run company to increase profitability."Hard Times at Harvester," Time, May 25, 1981. He received a then-exorbitant salary of $460,000 (making him one of the highest-paid CEOs in the country), a $1.5 million signing bonus and a $1.8 million loan at 6 percent interest.The loan was to be used to buy Harvester stock. The company promised to forgive the loan if McCardell increased International Harvester's financial performance beyond the average of its six main competitors. "Hard Times at Harvester," Time, May 25, 1981. He instituted an aggressive cost-cutting program which immediately cut spending by $640 million and a modernization program which poured $879 million over three years into the company's plants. His actions boosted market share, and led to record sales of $8.4 billion and record profits of $370 million (up from $203 million). Despite McCardell's actions, IH's profit margins were still only half those of competitors like Caterpillar Inc. and Deere & Company."International Harvester: The Strike Hurts," The Economist, March 8, 1980. Among the many changes McCardell made was to fire 11,000 of the company's 15,000 mid- and upper-level managers, whom McCardell felt were too close to UAW shop stewards.Friedman, "The Culture of Mediation: Private Understandings in the Context of Public Conflict," in Hidden Conflict in Organizations: Uncovering Behind-the-Scenes Disputes, 1991. McCardell took personal control of IH's labor relations, and appointed a new vice president of human resources, W. Grant Chandler (who was to assist McCardell in all union negotiations). McCardell's actions stripped the company of nearly all its experienced labor negotiators, and those who remained were mostly ignored during the upcoming round of negotiations. McCardell and Chandler had little labor relations experience, however, and none in heavy manufacturing or in negotiating with the UAW. ===Early negotiations=== Negotiations opened on August 9, 1979, in Chicago, Illinois."Farm Machinery Firms And UAW Open Talks On Master Contracts," Wall Street Journal, August 10, 1979. UAW International Vice President Pat Greathouse and two veteran IH negotiators—Art Shy, and Cletus Williams—led a union bargaining team composed of 20 representatives from 51 IH local unions.Slater, "Tentative Agreement Believed Near In International Harvester Strike," Associated Press, March 19, 1980. Among the proposed changes to the contract that the union proposed was that the union contract be automatically extended to any new plants opened by International Harvester—essentially allowing the union to organize new workers without holding an election. Instead of a similar long list of demands (which the company had traditionally countered with in the past), Chandler gave the union only seven demands and advised it that these proposals must be dealt with, strike or no strike. The proposals were aimed at largely ending job transfers and seniority, adding five shifts a week, and instituting a mandatory overtime scheme; the company claimed it had lost $1.3 billion over the previous three years over these issues. Many companies in turnaround seek to improve product design and production processes, and managerial expertise before seeking labor concessions. But McCardell concluded that the fastest way to achieve cost savings was to persuade workers to accept work rules changes which would have cost employees $100 million. Surprisingly, however, IH agreed to match the pay increase pattern set earlier in the year by automobile manufacturers in Detroit.Slater, "Council Orders More Talks in 140-Day Strike," Associated Press, March 20, 1980."In Midst of Joblessness, A Strike Over Too Much Work," U.S. News & World Report, April 21, 1980. Despite the concession, these early negotiations did not go well. McCardell and Chandler were inexperienced negotiatiors, not picking up on the private signals the union sent and did not understand the importance of the signals when they did become aware of them. Even company-side negotiators complained about the inexperience of McCardell and Chandler, arguing that this inexperience lessened the company's ability to divine the union's real bargaining positions. When McCardell and Chandler were not at the bargaining table, negotiators who were present had no real authority to bargain on behalf of the company. Combined, these two factors significantly hindered IH's bargaining abilities. As one scholar pointed out: "There was no sense that the company negotiators had the capacity to understand the industry, the union's positions, or the politics that these leaders faced; neither were these negotiators truly free to develop that understanding."Friedman, "The Culture of Mediation: Private Understandings in the Context of Public Conflict," in Hidden Conflict in Organizations: Uncovering Behind-the-Scenes Disputes, 1991, p. 156. Other company actions unintentionally hardened negotiating positions and decreased trust between the two parties. The company moved the negotiations out of a neutral local hotel and into management conference rooms, limited informal side conversations (which had been used in the past to explore compromises), refused to build social ties with the union bargainers, refused to informally signal their true intentions, and ignored symbolic issues (one IH negotiator wore a silk suit to negotiations, which offended the blue-collar negotiators). International Harvester also unintentionally disempowered the union negotiators, making it harder for them to agree to company demands. For example, the company repeatedly went public with its bargaining proposals, which made it harder for company negotiators to back down later and reach compromises. The company's "match the pay pattern" announcement also had the effect of depriving union leaders of the ability to claim a "win" in negotiations by claiming they had achieved a pay raise—making it harder for union negotiators to "sell" more hard-to-swallow compromises later, and forcing the union to entrench itself to achieve gains in other areas. The talks recessed after just one day."Strikes, Settlements, Employees: Int'l. Harvester," Toronto Globe and Mail, August 22, 1979. Less than a week later, International Harvester reported on August 15, 1979, record sales and earnings for the first nine months of fiscal 1979."International Harvester," Associated Press, August 16, 1979. Year-to- year net earnings for the third quarter rose $1.12 per share to $2.19, and the year-to-year third quarter dividend raised 5 cents to 62.5 cents. Net income for the quarter rose to $67.91 million, an 89 percent increase over the same period last year, and net income for the first three quarters of the year was $221.9 million, a 95 percent increase over the previous year. The company said prospects for the final quarter also looked strong."Stock Prices Post Declines in Hectic New York Trading," "Toronto Globe and Mail," August 17, 1979. Bargaining resumed on August 21, 1979. International Harvester's behavior at and away from the bargaining table, coupled with the company's exceedingly positive economic news, hardened the UAW's bargaining position. On September 14, 1979, the UAW said it would strike all heavy-equipment manufacturers it was negotiating with if new collective bargaining agreements were not reached."Domestic News," Associated Press, September 15, 1979; "U.A.W. Strike Threat Affects Big 3 Makers of Farm Implements," United Press International, September 16, 1979. The UAW's contract at International Harvester expired on October 1, 1979. But despite the union's more rigid stands, a council of all 51 IH local unions agreed to extend the contract on a day-to-day basis as negotiations continued."Domestic News," Associated Press, September 28, 1979.—a decision opposed by the international union. In late October, IH received mixed signals about the Auto Workers' intentions and capabilities. On October 18, the union reached a new three-year agreement with Deere & Co. after an 18-day strike by 31,000 employees, while at the same time 23,000 of Caterpillar's 40,000 workers engaged in a wildcat strike to protest the slow pace of negotiations at that company."Domestic News," Associated Press, October 19, 1979. Six days later, the union made it clear it would strike IH if no agreement was reached, but IH officials merely reiterated that their seven demands must be met."Domestic News," Associated Press, October 25, 1979. Another 17,000 Caterpillar workers struck on October 28, and IH officials suggested that the UAW would be too financially exhausted and organizationally stretched too thin to engage in a third strike."Domestic News," Associated Press, October 29, 1979. International Harvester refused to budge on its demand for mandatory overtime."Domestic News," Associated Press, October 31, 1979. ==Strike== The union did strike, however. On November 1, 1979, 35,000 UAW workers (36 percent of International Harvester's workforce)"International Harvester: When Cost-Cutting Threatens the Future," Business Week, February 11, 1980. at 21 plants in eight states—Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas—struck International Harvester at noon rather than accept the new work rules and mandatory overtime provisions."Domestic News," Associated Press, November 1, 1979; "Background of 9-State Walkout," Chicago Tribune, February 3, 1980. But McCardell was not alarmed, seeing the strike as a way to challenge the union's power in the workplace and as an opportunity to improve efficiency by regaining concessions the company had made in the past. For nearly a month, no talks were held. The two sides met briefly on Monday, November 26, for roughly an hour, but no progress was made."Business News," Associated Press, November 27, 1979. Thereafter, the union stepped up its pressure on the company."Union Shifts Contract Drive to International Harvester," Associated Press, December 13, 1979. Bargaining reopened on December 13."Contract Talks Resume." Associated Press. December 14, 1979. As the talks resumed, the UAW settled the strike at Caterpillar, ending what was then the longest strike in history against that heavy-equipment manufacturer."Agreement at Caterpillar," Associated Press, December 16, 1979; "Caterpillar Workers Back at Work," Associated Press, December 20, 1979. Nonetheless, talks broke off December 15, the same day the Caterpillar strike ended.Jelinek, "Strike Could Lead to Loss, Company Says," Associated Press, January 11, 1980. Days later, International Harvester announced a year-to-year increase of 98 percent in its profits for the entire fiscal year. Yearly earnings reached a record $369.9 million, and sales rose a 25.9 percent to reach a record $8.4 billion."International Harvester Posts 98% Profit Gains." Washington Post. December 21, 1979. Net income nearly doubled to $12.01 a share (up from $6.14 a share). But on January 10, 1980, the company said that losses in the first quarter of the year (November 1979 to January 1980) could be as high as $225 million (or 10 percent of the company's shareholders' equity) if the strike continued."Harvester Expects $225 Million Loss in Quarter," Chicago Tribune, January 12, 1980. To help weather the strike, International Harvester's top 25 officers took 20 percent salary cuts, travel expenses were curtailed, meetings were cancelled or moved to company offices, the budget for the annual stockholders' meeting scaled back, advertising spending curtailed, capital spending slashed by $100 million (to $400 million), and a new line of credit established to provide access to emergency funds (if needed)."Harvester Hangs Tough," Business Week, January 28, 1980. McCardell, however, vowed to continue to seek agreement on the company's seven demands. In mid-December 1979, the Fort Wayne Journal Gazette quoted an internal International Harvester memorandum (written in January 1979) in which the company appeared to advocate manufacturing plant decentralization as part of a plan to break the union. The memo specifically mentioned a new IH plant to be built in Wagoner, Oklahoma (a right-to-work state) which would eliminate unionized jobs at the company's Fort Wayne plant. The memo said the Wagoner plant was only the first step in a scheme to slowly dismantle the Fort Wayne plant. The memo outraged the union, which felt the company had intended to bargain in bad faith over its contract extension proposal. The company's tendency to go public with negotiating positions led to further entrenchment on both sides, and no talks were scheduled for most of January. While International Harvester was forced to cut costs, the United Auto Workers improved its financial position. On January 30, 1980, the union gave striking workers a $15-a-week across-the-board increase in strike benefits, raising the benefit to $55 a week for a single worker and $65 a week for married workers with dependents."Union Raises Strike Benefits," Associated Press, January 31, 1980. The company and union resumed talks on February 4, 1980, but the discussions ended after just one day."Harvester-UAW Talks Stall Again," Associated Press, February 5, 1980. IH modified its overtime proposal to require worker consent, and asked the union to create a group of part-time employees who would be mandated to work overtime when not enough regulartime employees could be found to work. The union rejected the proposal without explanation and walked out of the talks."International Harvester Official Says Next Move Up to Union," Associated Press, February 11, 1980. The strike, by now the longest in International Harvester's history as well as the longest in UAW history (surpassing the old record of 117 days), resumed and the union threatened to stay on the picket line until March if necessary. Industry analysts worried that IH would begin to lose market share as its inventories dropped. As the annual company shareholders' meeting approached, the union accused International Harvester of attempting to prevent union members' attendance. The United Auto Workers, which owned six shares of Harvester stock, accused the company of deliberately selecting a meeting hall which was too small to accommodate the number of union members who would be voting those shares and issuing too-few tickets to permit admission for the union members."UAW Wants Seats at International Harvester Annual Meeting," Associated Press, February 19, 1980. The union filed an injunction in United States district court to force International Harvester to admit its members. Days before the shareholder meeting, International Harvester reported a first- quarter loss of $222.2 million."Harvester Posts Loss," New York Times, February 21, 1980. The company also admitted that unfilled orders of $4.2 billion, up from $2.8 billion a year earlier, and attributed the loss and backlog to the effects of the strike. Despite the loss, the company still paid a dividend of 62.5 cents a share for the quarter.Robbins, "Labor Rift Marks Harvester Meeting," New York Times, February 22, 1980."Harvester to Pay Dividend Despite Loss," Associated Press, February 22, 1980. The annual shareholders' meeting, held at the First Chicago Center in Chicago on February 21, was described by the press as "turbulent." On February 20, the union obtained a court order requiring International Harvester to set up closed- circuit television facilities so members of the UAW and other shareholders could observe the meeting. The overflow room was at a hotel several blocks away. But when the meeting opened with about 200 seats still empty, McCardell delayed proceedings for an hour as 175 UAW members were brought from the hotel to the First Chicago Center. The UAW bitterly attacked McCardell throughout the proceedings. Cletus Williams, chairman of the UAW's negotiating committee, accused McCardell of manipulating the shareholders' meeting so that many UAW members didn't know they could attend until it was too late. Despite the rancorous shareholders' meeting, bargainers resumed talks that same day."UAW and Harvester In Strike Talks After Two-Month Lull," Associated Press, February 22, 1980. IH once more altered its overtime proposal, suggesting that employees be required to work up to 14 Saturdays a year and establishing a voluntary pool of part-time workers to fill in shifts when not enough full- time workers volunteered to work a particular Saturday shift.Slater, "UAW vs. International Harvester," Associated Press, March 6, 1980. But the company withdrew its proposal when the union declared its opposition. IH's financial situation worsened on March 6, 1980, when Moody's Investors Services downgraded the company's short-term bond credit rating from Prime 1 to Prime 2."Harvester Credit Unit's Commercial Paper Given a Lower Rating," Wall Street Journal, March 7, 1980."Market Perspective: Int'l. Harvester," Toronto Globe and Mail, March 8, 1980. The company estimated the downgrade would cost it $4 million in profits by the end of the fiscal year. In yet another cost-cutting move, 8,000 of the company's 10,000 salaried and management employees were forced to take a week's vacation due to low workloads."International Harvester Negotiations Turn to National Issues," Associated Press, March 7, 1980. Rumors of yet another management pay cut came amid signs that the company was planning to sell its construction equipment business to raise money. But talks did not break off after resuming during the annual shareholder's meeting. Mounting losses and the arrival of farm implement sales season kept the company at the bargaining table and led to agreements on a short-term layoff provision and the job-transfer issue.Weiner, "Settling Harvester Strike Gains Urgency As Losses Mount, Big Sales Season Nears," Wall Street Journal, March 12, 1980. Negotiators agreed to negotiate over local matters affecting each plant and settle these before returning to the more contentious national issues. Six local unions quickly settled their local issues. On March 18, 1980, negotiators for both sides announced they had reached a tentative agreement on the mandatory overtime issue. According to the Associated Press, full-time workers and retirees could volunteer to become part of a special overtime pool which could be drawn from to fill vacant weekend work shifts. Seniority, holiday pay and the ability of piece workers to go home after fulfilling their quotas were still outstanding.There is disagreement over whether a tentative agreement on job transfers was reached in mid-March. One source says that an agreement was negotiated (see "International Harvester Negotiations Turn to National Issues," Associated Press, March 7, 1980). However, another quoted a union official as saying that the job transfer issue was still outstanding as of March 18 (see Slater, "Tentative Agreement Believed Near In International Harvester Strike," Associated Press, March 19, 1980). Forty-two locals had also settled their local issues contracts during the previous week, leaving only six large locals with outstanding agreements. Amid calls to submit the unfinished tentative agreements to the membership for ratification and halt the strike, the 300 members of the International Harvester council of 51 local unions overwhelmingly rejected any such proposals."International Harvester and Strikers Halt Talks," New York Times, March 20, 1980. Because the job transfer, new plant contract extension, and the piece worker issues were all still outstanding,"Six Locals Said to Hold Key to Strike," Associated Press, March 21, 1980. the council felt it could not recommend ratification. With six of IH's largest local unions still negotiating, International vice president Pat Greathouse announced that the UAW was breaking off talks at the national level in order to focus on these local contracts. The company agreed, feeling the six large locals—located in East Moline and Rock Island, Illinois; Fort Wayne, Indiana; Springfield, Ohio; and Louisville, Kentucky—were "the key" to ending the strike. The council's decision not to recommend ratification lead to a break in the UAW's hierarchy. The day after the decision, Cletus Williams, chairman of the UAW bargaining council, announced that his union—Local 1357 in Canton, Illinois—would take a non-binding vote on the unfinished contract by the end of the weekend."At Least Two Locals Considering Non-Binding Vote," Associated Press, March 21, 1980. But on Sunday, March 22, 1980, members of Local 1357 rejected Williams' plan to conduct a non-binding vote."Harvester Local Rejects Ballot," Associated Press, March 23, 1980. Although the East Moline and Rock Island locals settled their local contracts in the next week, local issue bargaining collapsed after three days."Talks Break Off Again," Associated Press, April 4, 1980. The job transfer issue prevented resolution of the remaining four local contracts. The company believed that if these four local contracts could be settled, the strike would end. Company and union negotiators recommitted themselves to the bargaining process, and an agreement was reached at three more plants the following week"UAW Leader Predicts Harvester Strike Settlement Soon," Associated Press, April 14, 1980."Three UAW Locals Still At Odds With International Harvester," Associated Press, April 11, 1980. The final plant settled its local contact on April 14."International Harvester Strike Close to Settlement," Associated Press, April 15, 1980. National contract talks resumed the following day."Harvester Contract Talks Resume on Master Agreement," Associated Press, April 16, 1980. ==End of the strike== After two days of bargaining, International Harvester and the United Auto Workers reached a tentative agreement on the national master contract on April 16, 1980."Harvester, UAW Reach Tentative Agreement," Associated Press, April 17, 1980; "Harvester, UAW Reach Agreement," Chicago Tribune, April 18, 1980; "UAW and Farm Machinery Maker Reach Tentative Pact," Associated Press, April 18, 1980. The UAW ratified the three-year contract by a vote of 15,494 in favor and 3,877 against on April 19, 1980."Harvester Readies Start-up After Strike" Associated Press, April 20, 1980. Local 1309 in Rock Island, Ill., and Local 1077 in Shadyside, Ohio, rejected the master agreement apparently because they disagreed with the plan to gradually resume work; those locals remained independently on strike."Workers End Six-Month Walkout," Associated Press, April 21, 1980. The agreement on mandatory overtime provided for little more than the 1973 side letter had already gained for the company. The contentious issue of limitations on the number and type of job transfers was dropped from the master contract and addressed to varying degrees in plant-level agreements. Limitations varied widely. In one plant, employees could make no more than five transfer requests at one time (files would be purged every six months), there were no restrictions on transfers to higher-paying jobs, and lateral and downward transfer requests were limited to six a year. At other plants, a few stricter limitations were set, such as limiting transfers to one every 90 days. But industry analysts agreed that these were marginal gains. IH also agreed to extend the union contract to only one new plant. The pact only covered the proposed facility in Wagoner, Okla. While union members would be given preference for jobs at Wagoner, they would lose their seniority and would have to accept the Wagoner plant's pay and fringe benefits (which remained to be negotiated). UAW chief negotiator Pat Greathouse called the contract an "overwhelming victory" for UAW members."UAW Bargainer Hails Pact With Harvester," Associated Press, April 18, 1980. Nearly all independent commentators saw the agreement as a losing proposition for International Harvester. The company had incurred deep financial costs, lost market share, and achieved none of its key demands despite McCardell's assertions that the proposals were critical to the company's success."Harvester Falls Flat On Its Bargaining Goals," Business Week, April 7, 1980."A Long Strike Yields Little for Harvester," Business Week, May 5, 1980. "[T]here is no question the company is the big loser in this one," one Wall Street analyst said. The strike lasted 172 days, at the time making it (at the time) the longest in UAW history and the longest strike in International Harvester history. International Harvester made key errors—including using inexperienced negotiators, going public with bargaining demands, and attacking key union issues such as seniority and the lack of mandatory overtime without giving itself room to negotiate—which greatly prolonged the strike.Williams, "Long Strike Is Called Key McCardell Error," New York Times, May 4, 1982. The seeming arrogance of top company officials is considered by many to be a serious strategic error. Company officials seemed surprised that the union could hold out for any length of time, and McCardell appeared to assume that the international union staff (not rank and file members) were pushing for a strike. ==Aftermath== International Harvester incurred significant delays in resuming operations. Plants in Rock Island and East Moline took several weeks to resume work."Harvester Resumes Output in Louisville As Pacts Are Cleared," Wall Street Journal, May 6, 1980. Several small UAW-represented craft unions which were not part of the master contract talks continued to strike at IH's Louisville plant. The large blue-collar locals refused to cross the picket line (which was their right under the contract), keeping the plant shut. The strike severely impacted the company's financial status. International Harvester lost $257.2 million in the second quarter, for a total of $479.4 million in the first half of the year, while sales slid 47.3 percent."International Harvester Reports $257 Million Loss," Associated Press, May 15, 1980. The company confirmed earlier rumors and put its Scout utility vehicle division up for sale to help cover the losses, and by the end of April 1980 was forced to take out loans which increased its short-term debt from $442 million to a staggering $1 billion."Harvester and A Unit Arrange $420 Million In Bank Credit Lines," Wall Street Journal, April 28, 1980. International Harvester never recovered from the strike. In November 1981, IH asked the UAW for $100 million in wage and benefit concessions. Rising interest rates, demand weakened by the early 1980s recession, and high manufacturing costs pushed the company's total debt to a whopping $4.5 billion. On December 23, 1981, the company reached an agreement with 200 of its lenders to refinance $4.15 billion of its debt in a bid to avoid bankruptcy. On January 20, 1982, the UAW rejected Harvester's request for concessions because McCardell had just given $6 million in bonuses to salaried employees. But with the firm's financial condition rapidly worsening, the UAW opened negotiations in March 1982. Negotiators reached a tentative agreement nearly two years to the day after the 1979-1980 strike ended, giving Harvester $200 million in wage, benefit, pension, and other savings over three years. On May 3, 1982, one day after the UAW ratified the concessionary contract, Archie McCardell was fired by International Harvester. Although McCardell asserted he had resigned, industry and press observers said that he was fired. Time reported that the company's 16-member board of directors met in a two-hour meeting over the weekend."Goodbye, Archie," Time, May 17, 1982. Pushed by the company's debtor banks, the board finally agreed to fire McCardell. "The real wonder was that McCardell had not been ousted much earlier," Time said. The company's downward financial spiral continued. For fiscal year 1980, 1981, and 1982, International Harvester incurred a combined three-year loss of $2.4 billion—the largest such three-year loss for any American company in history at the time.Gilson, Creating Value Through Corporate Restructuring: Case Studies in Bankruptcies, Buyouts, and Breakups, 2001. International Harvester sold its farm equipment division to Tenneco in 1985, and changed its name in 1986 to Navistar International. Pat Greathouse retired from the UAW in May 1980.Darst, "UAW Selects A New Generation of Leadership," Associated Press, May 31, 1980. ==Notes== ==References== *"A Long Strike Yields Little for Harvester." Business Week. May 5, 1980. *"Agreement at Caterpillar." Associated Press. December 16, 1979. *"At Least Two Locals Considering Non- Binding Vote." Associated Press. March 21, 1980. *"Background of 9-State Walkout." Chicago Tribune. February 3, 1980. *"Business News." Associated Press. November 27, 1979. *"Caterpillar Workers Back at Work." Associated Press. December 20, 1979. *"Contract Talks Resume." Associated Press. December 14, 1979. *Darst, Guy. "UAW Selects A New Generation of Leadership." Associated Press. May 31, 1980. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. September 15, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. September 28, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. October 19, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. October 25, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. October 29, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. October 31, 1979. *"Domestic News." Associated Press. November 1, 1979. *"Farm Machinery Firms and UAW Open Talks On Master Contracts." Wall Street Journal. August 10, 1979. *Flamholtz, Eric and Randle, Yvonne. Changing the Game: Organizational Transformations of the First, Second, and Third Kinds. Cambridge, Mass.: Oxford University Press, 1998. *Friedman, Raymond A. "The Culture of Mediation: Private Understandings in the Context of Public Conflict." In Hidden Conflict in Organizations: Uncovering Behind-the-Scenes Disputes. Deborah Kolb and Jean M. Bartunek, eds. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1991. *Friedman, Raymond A. "Interaction Norms as Carriers of Organizational Culture: A Study of Labor Negotiations at International Harvester." Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 18:1 (April 1989). *Gilson, Stuart C. Creating Value Through Corporate Restructuring: Case Studies in Bankruptcies, Buyouts, and Breakups. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 2001. *"Goodbye, Archie." Time. May 17, 1982. *"Hard Times at Harvester." Time. May 25, 1981. *"Harvester and A Unit Arrange $420 Million In Bank Credit Lines." Wall Street Journal. April 28, 1980. *"Harvester Contract Talks Resume on Master Agreement." Associated Press. April 16, 1980. *"Harvester Credit Unit's Commercial Paper Given a Lower Rating." Wall Street Journal. March 7, 1980. *"Harvester Expects $225 Million Loss in Quarter." Chicago Tribune. January 12, 1980. *"Harvester Falls Flat On Its Bargaining Goals." Business Week. April 7, 1980. *"Harvester Hangs Tough." Business Week. January 28, 1980. *"Harvester Local Rejects Ballot." Associated Press. March 23, 1980. *"Harvester Posts Loss." New York Times. February 21, 1980. *"Harvester Readies Start-up After Strike." Associated Press. April 20, 1980. *"Harvester Resumes Output in Louisville As Pacts Are Cleared." Wall Street Journal. May 6, 1980. *"Harvester to Pay Dividend Despite Loss." Associated Press. February 22, 1980. *"Harvester, UAW Reach Agreement." Chicago Tribune. April 18, 1980. *"Harvester, UAW Reach Tentative Agreement." Associated Press. April 17, 1980. *"Harvester-UAW Talks Stall Again." Associated Press. February 5, 1980. *"In Midst of Joblessness, A Strike Over Too Much Work." U.S. News & World Report. April 21, 1980. *"International Harvester." Associated Press. August 16, 1979. *"International Harvester and Strikers Halt Talks." New York Times. March 20, 1980. *"International Harvester Negotiations Turn to National Issues." Associated Press. March 7, 1980. *"International Harvester Official Says Next Move Up to Union." Associated Press. February 11, 1980. *"International Harvester Posts 98% Profit Gains." Washington Post. December 21, 1979. *"International Harvester Reports $257 Million Loss." Associated Press. May 15, 1980. *"International Harvester Strike Close to Settlement." Associated Press. April 15, 1980. *"International Harvester: The Strike Hurts." The Economist. March 8, 1980. *"International Harvester: When Cost-Cutting Threatens the Future." Business Week. February 11, 1980. *Jelinek, Pauline. "Strike Could Lead to Loss, Company Says." Associated Press. January 11, 1980. *Loomis, Carol J. "The Strike That Rained on Archie McCardell's Parade." Fortune. May 19, 1980. *"Market Perspective: Int'l. Harvester." Toronto Globe and Mail. March 8, 1980. *Martin, Douglas. "Archie McCardell, Harvester Chief Who Clashed With Union, Dies at 81." New York Times. July 16, 2008. *Morath, Eric. "Axle Strike Mirrors Pain of 1970 Walkout at GM." Detroit News. May 3, 2008. *Ring, Trudy. "McCardell's Reign as IH Boss Wasn't Dull." Quad Cities Dispatch. July 16, 2008. *Robbins, William. "Labor Rift Marks Harvester Meeting." New York Times. February 22, 1980. *"Six Locals Said to Hold Key To Strike." Associated Press. March 21, 1980. *Slater, Wayne. "Council Orders More Talks in 140-Day Strike." Associated Press. March 20, 1980. *Slater, Wayne. "Tentative Agreement Believed Near In International Harvester Strike." Associated Press. March 19, 1980. *Slater, Wayne. "UAW vs. International Harvester." Associated Press. March 6, 1980. *"Stock Prices Post Declines in Hectic New York Trading." "Toronto Globe and Mail." August 17, 1979. *"Strikes, Settlements, Employees: Int'l. Harvester." Toronto Globe and Mail. August 22, 1979. *"Talks Break Off Again." Associated Press. April 4, 1980. *"Three UAW Locals Still At Odds With International Harvester." Associated Press. April 11, 1980. *"UAW and Farm Machinery Maker Reach Tentative Pact." Associated Press. April 18, 1980. *"UAW and Harvester In Strike Talks After Two-Month Lull." Associated Press. February 22, 1980. *"UAW Bargainer Hails Pact With Harvester." Associated Press. April 18, 1980. *"UAW Leader Predicts Harvester Strike Settlement Soon." Associated Press. April 14, 1980. *"U.A.W. Strike Threat Affects Big 3 Makers of Farm Implements." United Press International. September 16, 1979. *"UAW Wants Seats at International Harvester Annual Meeting." Associated Press. February 19, 1980. *"Union Raises Strike Benefits." Associated Press. January 31, 1980. *"Union Shifts Contract Drive to International Harvester." Associated Press. December 13, 1979. *Weiner, Steve. "Settling Harvester Strike Gains Urgency As Losses Mount, Big Sales Season Nears." Wall Street Journal. March 12, 1980. *Williams, Winston. "Long Strike Is Called Key McCardell Error." New York Times. May 4, 1982. *"Workers End Six-Month Walkout." Associated Press. April 21, 1980. *Zimmerman, Frederick M. The Turnaround Experience: Real-World Lessons in Revitalizing Corporations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991. == External links == *Navistar International Web site *United Auto Workers Web site *The International Harvester Strike of 1979–1980 Category:Labor disputes in the United States Category:1970s strikes in the United States Category:1980s strikes in the United States Category:1979 labor disputes and strikes Category:1980 labor disputes and strikes Category:1979 in the United States Category:1980 in the United States Category:Labor disputes led by the United Auto Workers International Harvester Category:Manufacturing industry labor disputes in the United States
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Gaudavaho ("Slaying of the Gauda king"), also known as Gauḍavaha, is an 8th- century Prakrit-language epic poem by Vākpatirāja. It narrates the exploits of the poet's patron, king Yashovarman, who ruled in northern India. The poem deifies the king as an incarnation of the god Vishnu, and credits him with several military achievements, including slaying of the Gauda king. A little over 1200 verses of the text are known from several manuscripts. According to some scholars such as Georg Bühler, the surviving text is only a prelude to the larger poem that Vakpati intended to write, but possibly never finished. == Authorship == Gaudavaho was composed by Vakpati-raja (Prakrit: "Bappai- rāa"), a court poet of king Yashovarman. He wrote in the first half of the 8th century. He states that he was known as Kavi-raja (Prakrit: "Kairāa", "king of poets"), an epithet possibly awarded to him by his patron Yashovarman. Kalhana's Rajatarangini suggests that both Vakpati and Bhavabhuti were court poets of Lalitaditya. Vakpati's reference to Bhavabhuti in Gaudavaho suggests that Bhavabhuti was not alive when Gaudavaho was composed. He appears to have been younger than Bhavabhuti, and probably a pupil or admirer of Bhavabhuti. Vakpati was well-versed with the works of earlier poets such as Bhasa, Kalidasa, and Subandhu. He highly praised the Prakrit language, and composed two poems in it: Mahumaha-viyayo (Madhumatha-vijaya) and Gaudavaho. The first poem, which was composed earlier, is a lost work: Vakpati describes it as far superior to Gaudavaho. Vallabhadeva's Subhashitavali suggests that his father's name was Harsha-deva; a verse is attributed to Harsha-deva in Subhashita Ratna Bhandagara. Soddhala's Udaya-sundari-katha states that Vakpati was born in a royal family. A verse in Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work also suggests that Vakpati was a prince as well as a poet. However, a note on Halayudha's verse in Dasharupavaloka states that the Vakpati referred to here is to the 10th century Paramara king Vakpati Munja. A verse in Yashas-tilaka states that Vakpati-raja was imprisoned by Yashovarman, and composed his poem in the prison. Bappabhatti-Suri-Charita, a biography of the Jain leader Bappabhatti, claims that Vakpati was born in the Paramara royal family, and was imprisoned by king "Yashodharma". Vakpati wrote Gaudavaho in prison, and impressed by his poetic merit, Yashodharma freed him. Vakpati was a good friend of Bappabhatti, and converted from Brahmanism to Shvetambara sect of Jainism. A similar story is narrated in other Jain works, including Rajashekhara Suri's Prabandha Kosha and Prabhachandra Suri's Prabhavaka-charita. However, these works wrongly state that Mahumaha-vijayo was composed after Gaudavaho. Also, these stories do not allude to any association between Vakpati and Yashovarman: instead, they state that Vakpati was patronized by Āma, who is described as a son of Yashovarman. These Jain accounts can be dismissed as unreliable: they are mostly fabrications, aimed at showing how Bappabhatti was able to convert notable people including Vakpati to Jainism. == Organization == Gaudavaho is organized in form of verses (gathas) grouped into kulikas or kulakas (group of verses with one theme, idea, or topic). But, it is not divided into cantos or chapters: this form was later adopted by Kutuhala for Lilavati. Pandit's critical edition contains 1209 verses, plus another 26 verses in the appnedix. The language of Gaudavaho can be described as Maharashtri Prakrit. Vakpati's poetic style appears to be a mixture of "Gaudi" and "Vidarbhi", more of "Gaudi". The poem uses Arya and Gatha metres, except in verses 60 and 61, which use the Samagalitaka metre. == Critical editions == In the 1870s, German Indologist Georg Bühler came across a manuscript of Gaudavaho at the Jaina Bhandara, Jaisalmer. He requested Indian scholar Shankar Pandurang Pandit to work on a critical edition of the text. Pandit consulted three more manuscripts from the Jaina collections of western India, as well as Haripala's Sanskrit language commentary on Gaudavaho. His critical edition - Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series #34 - was published in 1887. In 1927, N. B. Utgikar released a reprint of Pandit's edition, with notes from Bühler and Jacobi. In 1975, Narhari Govind Suru came up with an updated critical edition with an English translation. This edition incorporated 26 additional gathas into the main text without translation; Pandit's edition included these gathas in the appendix. == Completeness of the surviving text == The poem's title suggests that the slaying of the Gauda king would be its major theme. However, the surviving text mentions the incident only once. Out of more than 1200 verses, only 3 or 4 verses describe the conflict with the Gauda king. Moreover, the last gatha states that the life of the king "will now be narrated", asking the audience to listen. Scholars such as Johannes Hertel and N. B. Utgikar regard the surviving text as a complete work, and believe that Vakpati had no intention of writing more. According to Utgikar, the last part of the poem refers to the composition of the preceding verses. The prominence of "Gauda" in the title of the poem can be attributed to the staunch rivalry between Yashovarman and the king of Gauda. Other scholars, such as Pandit and Bühler, theorize that the surviving text of Gaudavaho is only a prelude to the larger work that Vakpati planned to write, but possibly could not complete. The colophon of three manuscripts describes the surviving text of Gaudavaho as katha-pitham (Prakrit: kahāvīḍhaṃ in two manuscripts, gāhāvīḍhaṃ in another). Bühler notes that katha-pitham is the title of the introductory parts of Somadeva's Katha- sarit-sagara and Kshemendra's Brhat-katha-manjari, both of which are Sanskrit- language adaptations of Brihatkatha. Hermann Jacobi opposes this theory, stating that the surviving text is too large to have formed only a prelude of a larger work, and the poet would not have included the best part of his work (such as descriptions of natural scenery) in a prelude. Jacobi theorizes that the surviving text is an abridgement of Vakpati's complete text: the later redactors seem to discarded the parts that were not of interest to poets. This may also explain why the number of verses differs between manuscripts: the largest manuscript has 133 more verses than the shortest one. Jacobi notes that Haripala's commentary on Gaudavaho is titled Haripala-Virachita- Gaudavadha-Sara-Tika ("Commentary on the epitome of Gaudavaho, written by Haripala"). This suggests that the manuscript available to Haripala contained only an abridged version (sāra or epitome) of Gaudavaho. Moriz Winternitz also regards the surviving text as a summary of a longer poem. N. G. Suru disagrees with Jacobi, stating that several post-Kalidasa poets enjoyed voluminous writing, focusing on quantity over quality. Therefore, it is possible that Vakpati planned to write a very large poem, although he may have not been able to finish it. He may have included the description of natural scenery in the prelude, because he intended to focus on the main theme (the killing of the Gauda king) in the subsequent parts of the poem. Suru states that the different number of verses in various manuscripts may result from preferences of the copyists. Suru further argues that Haripala wrote a commentary on the manuscript with the least number of verses, and he himself admits that he is commenting on an earlier part of Gaudavaho. The last verse in two manuscripts of Gaudavaho, written in the upajati metre, suggests that the work is finished. Suru regards this verse as an addition by the copyists, noting that it refers to the completion of the katha-pitham (prelude). If it referred to the completion of Gaudavaho, it would be in contradiction with the preceding verse, which states that the story of the king will now be told. According to the Kashmiri poet Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Yashovarman was defeated by and became a vassal of the Kashmiri king Lalitaditya. Yashovarman's defeat may have prevented Vakpati from completing his work. Indologist A.K. Warder theorizes that the Gaudavaho may have been composed after Yashovarman's defeat against Lalitaditya, as the poem features an "atmosphere of nostalgia" with "bitter verses on good and evil, on the vanity of the present age when success is reserved for mediocrity and jealously withheld from excellence." == Plot == === Prelude === Vakpati invokes several gods in the first 61 verses. He starts with Brahma, and then refers to Vishnu and his incarnations including Narasimha, Varaha, Vamana, Kurma, Mohini, and Krishna. Next, the poet invokes Shiva and his aspects such as Ardhanarishvara. He then refers to Shiva's son Kartikeya, and Shiva's consort Parvati, naming her various aspects including Mahishasura Mardini, Kali, and Chamunda. He further invokes Saraswati, Surya, Shesha, Ganapati, Lakshmi, and Kama, and Ganga. In the next 36 verses, Vakpati talks about poets, their impact, their challenges, the language used by them (Sanskri or Prakrit), their aspirations, and their disappointments. Vakpati then glorifies his patron Yashovarman, calling him the Lord of the Earth, deifying him as an incarnation of Vishnu. He states that the king of gods - Indra - invites Yashovarman to share his throne. The poet then describes a mythological episode of how Indra cut the wings of the flying mountains. Next, Vakpati talks about Yashovarman's courtesans playing water-sports in the bathing tanks of defeated enemies. He then describes pralaya, the periodic dissolution of the world, stating that its sole survivor - Vishnu - had incarnated as Yashovarman. The next 10 verses describe the pitiful condition of the widows of the enemy kings. === Expeditions === Vakpati then states that after Yashovarman's coronation ceremony, as soon as the rainy season ended, the king launched a campaign for world conquest. The gods, the celestial nymphs, and the bards celebrated this event. Yashovarman's army comprised four units: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants: Vakpati describes the horses and elephants in more detail. The poet then describes the winter season, stating that Yashovarman marched to the Shona river and then to the Vindhya mountains. There, the Shabara tribals directed him to the temple of the goddess Vindhyavasini. The king worshipped the goddess, and Vakpati describes these ceremonies and the goddess in great detail. He uses various names for the goddess, including Madhavi, Bhairavi, Chandi, Narayani, Shankari, Kali, Shabari, Gauri, and Tapasi. Vakpati then narrates the king's thoughts upon seeing a dead body in the temple precinct. Vakpati continues with poetic descriptions of the summer season, followed by that of the rainy season. Next, he describes the killing of the Gauda king. The allies of the Gauda king initially deserted him and fled away, but later, they re-grouped and joined him on the battlefield. Yashovarman defeated them in a fierce fight, seized the fleeing Gauda king, and killed him. Yashovarman then marched along the coast, and defeated the Vanga king. He proceeded to the South, where the southern king cordially submitted before him. His army crossed the Malaya Mountains, and reached the sea shore, where Vali and Ravana once roamed about. Yashovarman then defeated the Parasikas in a fierce battle as part of his world-conquest, just like Raghu had done in the past (a reference to Kalidasa's Raghuvaṃśa). He marched to the western mountain ranges, and collected tribute from the local rulers. Vakpati narrates how the ancient king Pṛthu had leveled the mountains, which had now grown in size. Vakpati states that Yashovarman then arrived on the banks of the river Narmada, and encamped there. The poet personalizes the river, and describes her love for the royal sage Kartavirya. Next, the king visited the sea shore, and stayed at the site of the churning of the ocean. His army then marched across the desert region of Maru-desha (Marwar). Vakpati then describes Yashovarman's arrival in the suburbs of the Shrikantha (Thanesar) city, where the ancient king Janamejaya had performed a snake sacrifice ceremony to avenge his father's death. The poet provides a graphic description of the ceremony. The king then moved to Kurukshetra, where he enjoyed water-sports with his lovers in a famous lake, which was the site of the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana. Vakpati alludes to episodes from the Mahabharata, including the fight between Karna and Arjuna. According to the poet, Yashovarman then visited Ayodhya and built a "palatial temple" there in one day. Vakpati narrates how the gods transported the city of Ayodhya to heaven as requested by the ancient king Harishchandra. After Ayodhya, the king proceeded to the slopes of the Mandara mountain, where the local rich people offered him gifts. His army then proceeded northwards, and visited the Himalayan region, including the vicinity of the Kailasa mountain. Vakpati describes the natural scenery, as seen by the king's army, in detail. He then describes the pitiful state of the kings subjugated by Yashovarman. === After the end of expeditions === Vakpati then describes erotic scenes involving the army soldiers and their wives after the end of the expedition. He then narrates how panegyrists glorified the king using poetic exaggerations and described how the king's lovers undressed before they got into bed with him. Vakpati mentions that now the king focused solely on love- making. The wives of the king of Magadha (or Gauda) were made to wave fly- whisks over the king, like the slave girls, and cried at their plight. The poet then describes the king's love scenes and playful activities with his lovers. Next, he narrates the grooming and make-up activities of these ladies after bath. === Autobiography === The poet then provides an autobiographical note, stating that he held the title "Kavi-raja" (king of poets), and that poet Kamalayudha highly respected him. He describes his work as "spray particles of poetic nectar churned out from the ocean of Bhavabhuti's works". He enjoyed reading the works of poets such as Bhasa, Jvalanamitra, Kuntideva, Kalidasa, Subandhu, and Harichandra. He also enjoyed reading scritpures, works on grammar and mimamsa, prosody, Bharata's Natya Shastra, Gautama's Nyaya Sutras, lgendary texts (such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), and the works of other excellent poets. Vakpati then praises himself, calling his poetic speech "full of sentiment, full of substance, brilliant and solid in thought". === Story behind composition === Vakpati then describes what led him to compose Gaudavaho. He states that one day, in the assembly, the audience requested him to tell them about king Yashovarman, especially the slaying of the Gauda king. Vakpati praises the king, calling him a manifestation of the god Vishnu. Vakpati then devotes 150 verses to describe the "dry and insipid worldly life" of his period, venting out his frustrations about sycophancy of courtiers, nepotism, fraud, poverty, stinginess of rich people, lack of respect for the non-wealthy, and general wickedness in the society. The poet then states that in this sordid world, it would be rewarding to hear about king Yashovarman's virtues. He then glorifies the king, narrating how god Shiva tested him by appearing as a lion before him, calling him as an incarnation of Vishnu multiple times, and describing him as a member of the lunar dynasty. Vakpati states that now "Gaudavaho, a big enterprise" will be narrated. The assembly then disperses to meet the next morning. The poet describes the sunset and the moon-rise. He states that he decided to sleep, finding himself unable to continue narrating the king's exploits because doing so incorrectly would weaken the king's glory. However, he did not get sleep, and used the night to compose 42 verses describing love scenes involving young women applying make-up, couples flirting and drinking wine together, hugging and kissing, enjoyment of sex, and sleep afterwards. He then describes the end of the night and the sunrise. After waking up and finishing his morning routine, Vakpati prepares to narrate the king's life, describing it as similar to the life of Chanakya. A great assembly of gods, nymphs, men, women, and birds gathers in an open auditorium (as had happened in Bhavabhuti's play Uttararamacarita). As Vakpati starts his narration, there is perfect silence. He states that he is now going to talk about the king's life, and asks the audience to listen. == Historicity == Gaudavaho is prashasti-kavya, aimed at glorifying Vakpati's patron, king Yashovarman. The surviving text of the poem does not contain much historical narrative: it focuses more on mythological episodes, and on other topics found commonly in mahakavyas, such as natural scenery and march of armies. Historian V. V. Mirashi calls Gaudavaho "mostly a fictionalised piece" that does not name any of the defeated kings, and appears to be modeled on Kalidasa's Raghuvaṃśa and Harishena's panegyric on Samudragupta. That said, Yashovarman's subjugation of the eastern king of Gauda or Magadha appears to be a true event. According to commentator Haripala, as well as several later scholars, the text uses the terms "Magadha king" and "Gauda king" to refer to the same person. According to this theory, during Yashovarman's time, Magadha was a part of Gauda, or vice versa. According to Mirashi, the defeated king was probably Jivitagupta II, the last known ruler of the Later Gupta dynasty. An inscription found at Nalanda in Magadha describes Yashovarman as a famous king who destroyed all his enemies with his sword. Shyam Manohar Mishra, relying on Jain texts, believes that the kings of Gauda and Magadha were two different persons, and the Gauda king was named Dharma. Amita Bhattacharya notes that in the poem, learned people request Vakpati to narrate the killing of "the lord of the Magadhas" and Vakpati's reply refers to "the king of the Gaudas". This suggests that the poet identified the king of Gauda with the king of Magadha. Bhattacharya identifies the defeated king as Vishnugupta, the father of Jivitagupta II, and states that the Gauda region may have been a part of the Later Gupta kingdom at the time. == References == === Bibliography === * * * * * Category:Prakrit literature Category:8th-century poems Category:8th-century Indian books
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thumb|right|Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist In the philosophy of religion, Reformed epistemology is a school of philosophical thought concerning the nature of knowledge (epistemology) as it applies to religious beliefs. The central proposition of Reformed epistemology is that beliefs can be justified by more than evidence alone, contrary to the positions of evidentialism, which argues that while non-evidential belief may be beneficial, it violates some epistemic duty. Central to Reformed epistemology is the proposition that belief in God may be "properly basic" and not need to be inferred from other truths to be rationally warranted. William Lane Craig describes Reformed epistemology as "One of the most significant developments in contemporary religious epistemology ... which directly assaults the evidentialist construal of rationality." Reformed epistemology was so named because it represents a continuation of the 16th-century Reformed theology of John Calvin, who postulated a sensus divinitatis, an innate divine awareness of God's presence.See Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion Bk. I, Chap. III. More recent influences on Reformed epistemology are found in philosopher Nicholas Wolterstorff's Reason within the Bounds of Religion, published in 1976, and Alvin Plantinga's "Reason and Belief in God", published in 1983. Although Plantinga's Reformed epistemology developed over three decades, it was not fully articulated until 1993 with the publication of two books in an eventual trilogy: Warrant: The Current Debate, and Warrant and Proper Function. The third in the series was Warranted Christian Belief, published in 2000. Other prominent defenders of Reformed epistemology include William Lane Craig, William Alston, Michael C. Rea, and Michael Bergmann. The argument from a proper basis is an ontological argument for the existence of God related to fideism. Alvin Plantinga argued that belief in God is a properly basic belief, and so no basis for belief in God is necessary.Origins.org ==Concepts, definitions, and background== Alvin Plantinga is the best-known defender of reformed epistemology. Reformed epistemology includes two arguments against classical foundationalism. The first grew out of his earlier argument in God and Other Minds (1967). In that work Plantinga argued that if our belief in other minds is rational without propositional or physical evidence, then belief in God is also rational. In his 1993 works, Plantinga argued that according to classical foundationalism most of us are irrational for having many beliefs we cannot justify, but which foundationalism does not accept as properly basic. Plantinga's second argument against classical foundationalism is that it is self-referentially incoherent. It fails the test of its own rules, which require that it be either self- evident, incorrigible, or evident to the senses. In Plantinga's view, warrant is defined as the property of beliefs that makes them knowledge. Plantinga argues that a properly basic belief in God is warranted when produced by a sound mind, in an environment supportive of proper thought in accord with a design plan successfully aimed at truth.Warrant and Proper Function, New York: Oxford UP, 1993, viii Because there is an epistemically possible model according to which theistic belief is properly basic and designed to form true belief in God, belief in God is probably warranted if theism is true. Plantinga does not argue that this model is true, but only that if it is true, theistic belief is also likely true, because then theistic belief would result from our belief-forming faculties functioning as they were designed. This connection between the truth value of theism and its positive epistemic status suggests to some that the goal of showing theistic belief to be externally warranted requires reasons for supposing that theism is true (Sudduth, 2000). This point is answered by many theistic arguments which purport to provide sufficient propositional and physical evidence to warrant that belief, apart from reformed epistemology. ===Plantinga's Reformed epistemology=== According to Reformed epistemology, belief in God can be rational and justified even without arguments or evidence for the existence of God. More specifically, Plantinga argues that belief in God is properly basic, and due to a religious externalist epistemology, he claims belief in God could be justified independently of evidence. His externalist epistemology, called "Proper functionalism", is a form of epistemological reliabilism. Compare "L'epistemologia riformata (Plantinga)", article on Philosophia Reformata. Accessed 3 May 2016 Plantinga discusses his view of Reformed epistemology and proper functionalism in a three-volume series. In the first book of the trilogy, Warrant: The Current Debate, Plantinga introduces, analyzes, and criticizes 20th-century developments in analytic epistemology, particularly the works of Roderick Chisholm, Laurence BonJour, William Alston, and Alvin Goldman.Alvin Plantinga, Warrant: The Current Debate, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Plantinga argues that the theories of what he calls "warrant"—what many others have called justification (Plantinga draws out a difference: justification is a matter of fulfilling one's epistemic duties, whereas warrant is what transforms true belief into knowledge)—put forth by these epistemologists have failed to capture in full what is required for knowledge.Plantinga, Warrant: The Current Debate, 1993. 3. In the second book, Warrant and Proper Function, he introduces the notion of warrant as an alternative to justification and discusses topics like self-knowledge, memories, perception, and probability. Alvin Plantinga, Warrant and Proper Function, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Plantinga's "proper function" account argues that as a necessary condition of having warrant, one's "belief-forming and belief-maintaining apparatus of powers" are functioning properly—"working the way it ought to work".WPF, p. 4 Plantinga explains his argument for proper function with reference to a "design plan", as well as an environment in which one's cognitive equipment is optimal for use. Plantinga asserts that the design plan does not require a designer: "it is perhaps possible that evolution (undirected by God or anyone else) has somehow furnished us with our design plans",WPF, p. 21 but the paradigm case of a design plan is like a technological product designed by a human being (like a radio or a wheel). Ultimately, Plantinga argues that epistemological naturalism- i.e. epistemology that holds that warrant is dependent on natural faculties – is best supported by supernaturalist metaphysics – in this case the belief in a creator God or in some designer who has laid out a design plan that includes cognitive faculties conducive to attaining knowledge.WPF, 237. According to Plantinga, a belief, B, is warranted if: > (1) the cognitive faculties involved in the production of B are functioning > properly…; (2) your cognitive environment is sufficiently similar to the one > for which your cognitive faculties are designed; (3) … the design plan > governing the production of the belief in question involves, as purpose or > function, the production of true beliefs…; and (4) the design plan is a good > one: that is, there is a high statistical or objective probability that a > belief produced in accordance with the relevant segment of the design plan > in that sort of environment is true.Plantinga, Warrant and Proper Function, > 1993. 194. Plantinga seeks to defend this view of proper function against alternative views of proper function proposed by other philosophers which he groups together as "naturalistic", including the "functional generalization" view of John Pollock, the evolutionary/etiological account provided by Ruth Millikan, and a dispositional view held by John Bigelow and Robert Pargetter.WPF, p. 199-211. Plantinga also discusses his evolutionary argument against naturalism in the later chapters of Warrant and Proper Function. In 2000 Plantinga's third volume, Warranted Christian Belief, was published. In this volume, Plantinga's warrant theory is the basis for his theological end: providing a philosophical basis for Christian belief, an argument for why Christian theistic belief can enjoy warrant. In the book, he develops two models for such beliefs, the "A/C" (Aquinas/Calvin) model, and the "Extended A/C" model. The former attempts to show that a belief in God can be justified, warranted and rational, while the Extended model tries to show that core Christian theological beliefs, including the Trinity, the Incarnation, the resurrection of Christ, the atonement, salvation, etc. can be warranted. Under this model, Christians are warranted in their beliefs because of the work of the Holy Spirit in bringing those beliefs about in the believer. James Beilby has argued that the purpose of Plantinga's Warrant trilogy, and specifically of his Warranted Christian Belief, is firstly to make a form of argument against religion impossible—namely, the argument that whether or not Christianity is true, it is irrational—so "the skeptic would have to shoulder the formidable task of demonstrating the falsity of Christian belief" rather than simply dismiss it as irrational. In addition, Plantinga is attempting to provide a philosophical explanation of how Christians should think about their own Christian belief. In 2016, Plantinga published Knowledge and Christian Belief, which is intended as a shortened version of Warranted Christian Belief. However, Plantinga does add brief sections on the latest developments in epistemology and how they relate to his work. He is especially critical of New Atheism owing to their reliance on de jure objections to the Christian faith. ==Criticisms== Although Reformed epistemology has been defended by several theistic philosophers, it has both Christian and non-Christian critics. ===Great Pumpkin objection=== A common objection, known as "The Great Pumpkin objection", which Alvin Plantinga in Warrant (1983) describes as follows: > It is tempting to raise the following sort of question. If belief in God can > be properly basic, why cannot just any belief be properly basic? Could we > not say the same for any bizarre aberration we can think of? What about > voodoo or astrology? What about the belief that the Great Pumpkin returns > every Halloween? Could I properly take that as basic? Suppose I believe that > if I flap my arms with sufficient vigor, I can take off and fly about the > room; could I defend myself against the charge of irrationality by claiming > this belief is basic? If we say that belief in God is properly basic, will > we not be committed to holding that just anything, or nearly anything, can > properly be taken as basic, thus throwing wide the gates to irrationalism > and superstition? (p. 74) ====Rebuttal==== Plantinga's answer to this line of thinking is that the objection simply assumes that the criteria for "proper basicality" propounded by classical foundationalism (self-evidence, incorrigibility, and sense- perception) are the only possible criteria for properly basic beliefs. It is as if the Great Pumpkin objector feels that if properly basic beliefs cannot be arrived at by way of one of these criteria, then it follows that just 'any' belief could then be properly basic, precisely because there are no other criteria. But Plantinga says it simply doesn't follow from the rejection of classical foundationalist criteria that all possibility for criteria has been exhausted and this is exactly what the Great Pumpkin objection assumes. Plantinga takes his counter-argument further, asking how the Great Pumpkin objector "knows" that such criteria are the only criteria. The objector certainly seems to hold it as 'basic' that the classical foundationalist criteria are all that is available. Yet, such a claim is neither self-evident, incorrigible, nor evident to the senses. This rebuts the Great Pumpkin objection by demonstrating the classical foundationalist position to be internally incoherent, propounding an epistemic position which it itself does not follow. ===Other objections=== Other common criticisms of Plantinga's Reformed epistemology are that belief in God – like other sorts of widely debated and high-stakes beliefs – is "evidence-essential" rather than properly basic;Wykstra, Stephen. "Toward a Sensible Evidentialism: on the Notion of ‘Needing Evidence’." In Philosophy of Religion, 2d ed., edited by William Rowe and William Wainwright. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich (1989): 426-437. that plausible naturalistic explanations can be given for humans' supposedly "natural" knowledge of God;Barrett, Justin L., 2004, Why Would Anyone Believe in God?, Lanham: AltaMira. and that it is arbitrary and arrogant for Christians to claim that their faith-beliefs are warranted and true (because vouched for by the Holy Spirit) while denying the validity of non-Christians' religious experiences.Feldman, Richard. “Plantinga on Exclusivism”. In Faith and Philosophy 20 (2003): 85-90. ==See also== * Presuppositionalism * Neo- orthodoxy * Christian existentialism * Fideism * Calvinism ==References== ==Bibliography== * Alston, William P. (1991). Perceiving God: The Epistemology of Religious Experience. Cornell University Press. * Alston, William P. (1996). "Belief, Acceptance, and Religious Faith". In Faith, Freedom, and Rationality: Philosophy of Religion Today, Jordan & Howard-Snyder (eds.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. * Clark, Kelly James. (1990) Return to Reason. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. * Plantinga, A. & Wolterstorff, N., eds. (1983). Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. * Plantinga, Alvin. (1967). God and Other Minds: A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God. Cornell University Press. * Plantinga, Alvin. (1983). "Reason and Belief in God". In Plantinga & Wolterstorff (1983), pp. 16–93. * Plantinga, Alvin. (1993a). Warrant: the Current Debate. Oxford University Press. * Plantinga, Alvin. (1993b). Warrant and Proper Function. Oxford University Press. * Plantinga, Alvin. (2000a). Warranted Christian Belief. Oxford University Press. * Plantinga, Alvin. (2000b). "Arguments for the Existence of God". In the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Routledge. * Plantinga, Alvin. (2000c). "Religion and Epistemology". In the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Routledge. * Plantinga, Alvin (2015). Knowledge and Christian Belief. Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, MI. * Sudduth, Michael. (2000). "Reformed Epistemology and Christian Apologetics". . * Wolterstorff, Nicholas. "How Calvin Fathered a Renaissance in Christian Philosophy". Lecture at Calvin College. * Wolterstorff, Nicholas. (1976). Reason within the Bounds of Religion. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. * Wolterstorff, Nicholas. (2001). Thomas Reid and the Story of Epistemology. New York: Cambridge University Press. ==External links== * Religious Epistemology by Kelly James Clark in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP). * Reformed Epistemology by Anthony Bolos and Kyle Scott Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP). * The Epistemology of Religion: Reformed Epistemology - by Peter Forrest, Jul 10, 2006. * Reformed Epistemology and Christian Apologetics by Michael Sudduth. Saint Michael's College. April 2000 * Voodoo Epistemology by Keith DeRose. (A critical assessment of Plantinga's response to the "Great Pumpkin Objection.") * Why Alston's Mystical Doxastic Practice Is Subjective by Richard Gale, originally published in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. LIV, No. 4, December 1994. * Reformed Epistemology Bibliography & time line compiled and categorized by Michael Sudduth. * Reforming Reformed Epistemology (PDF) Duncan Pritchard. University of Stirling, Scotland. * Are Christian Beliefs Properly Basic? by Keith DeRose. (A critical examination of Alvin Plantinga's provocative claim that Christian beliefs can be justified even without any evidence for them.) * Articles on Christian Epistemology - from solagratia.org. * VIDEO: Esther Meek, "Knowing, Knowing, Knowing God: Contours of Covenant Epistemology." Henry Center lecture (2008). * Category:Arguments for the existence of God Category:Christian philosophy Category:Epistemological theories Category:Epistemology of religion
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Traditional balsamic vinegar (or aceto balsamico tradizionale) is a type of balsamic vinegar produced in Modena and the wider Emilia Romagna region of Italy. Unlike inexpensive "Balsamic Vinegar of Modena" (BVM), Traditional Balsamic Vinegar (TBV) is produced from cooked grape must, aged at least 12 years, and protected under the European Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) system, fetching higher prices.EC Council Regulation No. 813/2000 (BVM has lesser protection under the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) system.EC Council Regulation No. 583/2009) Although the names are similar, TBV and the inexpensive imitation BVM are very different.Giudici, P.; M. Gullo; L. Solieri; P. M. Falcone (2009). Technological and Microbiological Aspects of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar and their influence on Quality and Sensorial Properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, vol. 58. thumb|right| == History == A comprehensive study of the original production procedures, the aging conditions, and the sensory profile is not available. This and the few and often-confusing documents make the reconstruction of the true history of TBV a challenge. The term balsamico derives from the Latin word “balsamum” and from the Greek word “βάλσαμον”, in the sense of "restorative" or "curative". The art of cooking the must of grapes dates back to the ancient Romans: it was used both as a medicine and in the kitchen as a sweetener and condiment.History of Balsamic Vinegar http://www.italiaregina.it/balsamic- vinegar The first generally accepted document referring to a precious vinegar produced in the area of Modena and Reggio Emilia is the poem written in the 12th century by the monk Donizo of Canossa,Donizo, Acta Comitissae Mathildis (Retrieved from: Donizone, 2008. Vita di Matilde di Canossa. (Golinelli, P. Ed.). Jaca Book although the word "balsamic" is never mentioned. The first testimonies clearly speaking about "balsamic vinegar", as well as of recipes and making procedure, appear from the 19th century even if little is known about the original recipes and related production practices.Benedetti, B. (2004). Fatti in casa l’aceto balsamico. Manuale illustrato per la formazione conduzione di una acetaia. Il Fiorino, Modena (Italy) The adjective "balsamic" has been used to designate any kind of generically aromatic vinegar and products not just obtained from the fermentation of grape must alone.Saccani, F. and Ferrari Amorotti, V. (1999). II balsamico della tradizione secolare. Artestampa, Modena As far as the aging method is concerned, it is very similar to the Solera system used in Spain after the Napoleonic Wars which spread abroad after the second half of the 19th century.Simpson, J. (2003). Spanish Agriculture: The Long Siesta. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1765–1965 The oldest and most detailed description of the method and techniques for the production of balsamic vinegar is reported in a letter written in 1862 by Francesco Aggazzotti to his friend Pio Fabriani, in which he describes the secrets of his family's "acetaia" (the vinegar-cellar where balsamic vinegar is made). thumb|The two Italian traditional balsamic vinegars (from Reggio Emilia on the left and Modena on the right) with Protected Denomination of Origin, in their legally approved shaped bottles == Legal aspects == TBV is produced in two different geographical areas of the Emilia Romagna Region so that two different designations were granted by the European Council, i.e. Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena (TBVM) and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia (TBVRE). The two special vinegars are very similar products as the overall making procedure is the same; but, from a legal point of view, they are obtained according to specific and official production regulationsDisciplinare di produzione, Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena, MiPAF, May 15, 2000 (G.U. Repubblica Italiana), No.124, May 30, 2000Disciplinare di produzione, Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia, MiPAF, May 15, 2000 (G.U. Repubblica Italiana), No.124, May 30, 2000 defining (1) the basis of the vineyards ampelographic; (2) geographical area of production; (3) characteristics of starting materials; (4) making procedure; (5) the chemical, physical and sensorial requirements for sale; (6) bottling, labelling and presentation. The sensory profile of TBV is evaluated by hedonic judgment expressed through a numeric score. The sensory score achieved is used to rank TBV in different commercial classes. The specific regulations allow adding "Extra Vecchio" to the official designation when the product is aged for 25 years at least. However, under existing regulations, neither the definition of "aging" nor the methods for its objective evaluation are specified; it is evaluated only through panel-tasting tests, whose effectiveness for this purpose is clearly inadequate.Giudici, P.; Falcone, P. (2009) Sensory Analysis of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar, Industrie delle Bevande, 38: 27-42 TBV results as a blend of vinegars of different composition and age due to the traditional making procedure. Actually, an easy-to-use mathematical method for evaluating the actual residence time of TBV within each cask of the barrel set has been recently published.Giudici, P. and Rinaldi, G. (2007). A theoretical model to predict the age of traditional balsamic vinegar. J. Food Eng. 82, 121–127 This method is an adequate tool helping aging certification. An easy-to-use spreadsheet of the theoretical model is available for download. At present, however, independent agencies that officially state TBV authenticity of both the TBVM and TBVRE haven't adopted it or any analogous procedure as an evaluation system. == Basic technology == Making process of the TBV starts from freshly squeezed grape juice and finishes with sensory evaluation of the aged vinegar. From a technological perspective, basic steps are required, including cooking of the grape must, alcoholic fermentation by yeasts, acetic oxidation by acetic acid bacteria, and slow aging within a barrel set. ===Cooking of the grape must=== Cooking of the grape juice is carried out in open vessels directly heated by fire for 12 – 24 hours reducing the grape juice by about 50%. The production regulations require starting from a grape must with 15°Bx at least to reach at the end of cooking 30°Bx for TBVRE; for TBVM, the lower limit is not specified. It is possible to find cooked musts with sugar concentration beyond 50°Bx........ The operation allows profound chemical and physical modifications affecting the end quality of TBV. Cooking stops all enzymatic browning reactions that rapidly occur inside fresh grape musts by polyphenol oxidase and progressively promotes grape must discoloration due to the heat- induced deactivation of proteins including browning enzymes. In addition, cooking promotes nonenzymatic browning chemical reactions involving sugar conversion, formation of high molecular weight melanoidinsFalcone, P.M. and Giudici, P. (2008) Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution impacting Traditional Balsamic Vinegar ageing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry; 56(16); 7057-7066 and furanic compounds such as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF).Antonelli, A.; Chinnici, F.; Masino, F. (2004) Heat-induced chemical modification of grape must as related to its concentration during the production of traditional balsamic vinegar: a preliminary approach Food Chemistry, 88(1):63-68 Water vaporization induces the concentration of sugars, organic acids, and polyphenols, resulting in the increase of density, viscosity, and refractive index (Brix degree), and, conversely, the lowering of water activity and pH value. ===Alcoholic fermentation=== Sugar fermentation and ethanol oxidation occur as a two-step biological transformation of the cooked must. The first requires anaerobic conditions and the second aerobic conditions. The two biological conversions occur inside a dedicated vessel, called the badessa. The alcoholic fermentation is carried out by yeasts belonging to a plethora of species and genera. In the past, the idea of a commensalistic interaction between yeasts and acetic acid bacteria existed, but recently the scalar fermentation has been suggested. The alcoholic fermentation is widely accepted to affect the end quality of TBV due to the several yeasts' metabolisms involved. ===Acetic bioxidation=== In TBV, the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid in fermented cooked must is carried out by indigenous acetic acid bacteria naturally occurred in the environment. However, the application of selected acetic acid bacteria strains in TBV production has been recently proposed, and a procedure has been developed for the scale-up of the fermentation process at the vinegar factory scale.Gullo, M., De Vero, L., and Giudici, P. (2009) Succession of Selected Strains of Acetobacter pasteurianus and other acetic acid bacteria in traditional balsamic vinegar. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75, 2585–2589 Bacteria involved in alcoholic dehydrogenation produce a wide range of compounds other than acetic acid, such as sugar acids and many volatile compounds. So, the chemical composition of TBV, relating to the AAB oxidation products, is highly variable and depends on several factors such as the type of grape must, cooking modality, oxidation temperature, and others. The acetification process and the growth of relevant bacteria are mainly affected by the alcohol, sugar, and acetic acid content.Gullo, M. and Giudici, P. (2006). Isolation and selection of acetic acid bacteria strains for traditional balsamic vinegar. Industrie delle Bevande 35, 345–350 ===Aging=== The aging is related to two basic concepts.Giudici, P.; Gullo, M.; Solieri, L.; Falcone, P.M. (2009). Technological and Microbiological Aspects of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar and their influence on Quality and Sensorial Properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, vol. 58 The first concerns the time that vinegar spends inside the barrel set (age or residence time); the second accounts for all time-dependent changes in chemical, physical and sensorial properties (physical ripening time). ====The barrel set==== The barrel set is a series of at least five wooden casks arranged according to a decreasing size scale, where the product undergoes profound changes over time. Casks may be of different wood types (e.g. oak, mulberry, ash, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and acacia), and the smallest cask volume ranges from 15 to 25 liters. Each cask has a hole on the top, the so-called cocchiume, facilitating the usual inspection and maintenance activities. The barrel set behaves essentially as a device for vinegar concentration due to water loss through the staves. As widely known for the wine production, it is reasonable to suppose that the wood acts as a semipermeable filter for the transfer of small molecules towards the ambient while it retains important volatile compounds such as the acetic acid. However, when the opening is not hermetically closed, the volatile compounds are lost preferentially through the cocchiume itself.Giudici, P.; Solieri, L.; De Vero, L.; Landi, S.; Pulvirenti, A.; Rainieri, S. (2006). Le fermentazioni dell'aceto balsamico tradizionale. Ed. Diabasis, Reggio Emilia (Italy) thumb|700px|center|A possible configuration of the barrel set ====Refilling procedure==== thumb|250px|right|Refilling and vectorial concentration model in Traditional Balsamic Vinegar production The making procedure of TBV is a semicontinuous process requiring the annual refilling activity, consisting of withdrawing only a part of the vinegar from the smallest cask and topping it with the vinegar coming from the next cask along with the barrel set, and so on. The biggest cask receives new cooked and acetified must. This refilling procedure resembles the Solera method used for making sherry wine. The purpose of refilling in the TBV making is to keep the vinegar volume constant inside every cask in the barrel set, and compensate for the volume drop caused by these three factors: TBV withdrawn for bottling, water evaporation, and possible vinegar leakages from the staves. Refilling involves the product flux-splitting from the biggest to the smallest cask, leading to the solute dislocation along the barrel set. ====Age and yield==== thumb|250px|right|Refilling and vectorial concentration model in Traditional Balsamic Vinegar production Each cask of a barrel set contains a blend of vinegars with different compositions and ages due to the refilling procedure. As a consequence, the mean age of vinegar can be calculated as the weighted residence time of the different aliquots of vinegars introduced through the years. A theoretical model has been recently developed to estimate the mean age of TBV requiring refilling, withdrawn, and casks volumes as input data. The refilling procedure imposes an upper limit for the residence time of the vinegar inside the barrel set. The yield of a barrel set used for TBV production is easy to calculate by the ratio between the amount of TBV withdrawn (mTBV) and the amount of cooked must (mREFILLING) used to refill the biggest cask: thumb|250px|left|Configuration and capacity of the barrel set used in the modelthumb|250px|left|Residence Time limits obtained for the barrel sample as a function of evaporation and withdrawing \textit{Yield}=\frac{\textit{mTBV}}{\textit{mREFILLING}} Yield indicates the ability of a barrel set to concentrate cooked must at given operating conditions being dependent on the rate of water loss by evaporation. Low yields are due both to relatively low withdrawn and high water evaporation rates. The latter is the major factor lowering the TBV yield. The bigger is the evaporation rate, the higher is the flux of material through the barrel set and the lower is the residence time.Lemmetti F., Giudici, P. Gestione della batteria e qualità dell'aceto balsamico tradizionale. Industrie delle Bevande, 39, agosto, p. 7-16 (2010).Lemmetti F., Giudici P. L'età conta. VQ, vite vino e qualità, 8, 30-36 (2010). As a consequence, when the yield is low, the vinegar age might be relatively low as a function of the amount of cooked must used to refill.Lemmetti F., Giudici, P. Bilancio di massa ed età dell'aceto balsamico tradizionale. Industrie delle Bevande, 39, dicembre, p.18-28 (2010). Applying the spreadsheet of the theoretical model to a barrel set as in figure, the residence time obtained as a function of withdrawn quantity and evaporation rate is plotted in the concerning graph. ==Chemical composition== TBV composition Major compounds Mean (g/Kg) SD Soluble solids 739 (73.9°Bx) ±10.5 Glucose 230.60 ±30.45 Fructose 210.14 ±30.37 Tartaric acid 7.8 ±2.5 Succinic acid 5.0 ±7.0 Acetic acid 18.8 ±4.5 Malic acid 10.4 ±3.2 Gluconic acid 18.7 ±12.7 Lactic acid 1.2 ±0.7 Volatile compounds Median (mg/kg) SD Alcohols 18.4 - Aldehydes 1.94 - Acids 15.4 - Acetates 2.61 - Esters 0.71 - Enolic derivatives 1.36 - Furanic compounds 1773 - Ketones 0.77 - Lactones 4.5 - Phenols 105 - Terpenes 10.01 - Antioxidant molecules Mean (mg/kg) SD Phenolic acids 606.0 7.9 Flavanols 304.2 13.0 Flavonols 241.4 14.9 Tannins 349.0 19.5 Major compound data from Volatile compounds data fromFabio Chinnici, Enrique Durn Guerrero, Francesca Sonni, Nadia Natali, Ramn Natera Marn and Claudio Riponi. Gas Chromatography−Mass Spectrometry (GC−MS) Characterization of Volatile Compounds in Quality Vinegars with Protected European Geographical Indication. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2009, 57 (11), pp 4784–4792 The composition of TBV is very complex and not yet fully described. The classes of the major components are the sugarsDetermination of the monosaccharide and alcohol content of balsamic and other vinegars by enzymatic methods Agric. Biol. Chem. Volume 52, 1988. Pages: 25 (mainly glucose and fructose) and organic acidsCocchi, M., Durante, C., Grandi, M., Lambertini, P., Manzini, D., and Marchetti, A. (2006). Simultaneous determination of sugars and organic acids in aged vinegars and chemometric data analysis. Talanta 69, 1166–1175 (mainly acetic, gluconic, malic, tartaric, succinic acids). The classes of the minor compounds refer to volatile compoundsDuran Guerrero, E.; Chinnici, F.; Natali, N.; Natera Marin, R.; Riponi, C. "Development of a solid-phase extraction method applied to the determination of volatile compounds in traditional balsamic vinegar" J. Sep. Sci., 31:3030-3036 (2008) and antioxidant moleculesVerzelloni et al., 2007 E. Verzelloni, D. Tagliazucchi and A. Conte, Relationship between the antioxidant properties and the phenolic and flavonoid content in traditional balsamic vinegar, Food Chemistry 105 (2007), pp. 564–571 mainly polyphenols.Plessi, M., Bertelli, D., and Miglietta, F. (2006). Extraction and identification by GC-Ms of phenolic acids in Traditional balsamic vinegar from Modena. J. FoodCompost.Anal. 19, 49–54 An important class of minor compounds, recently investigated, is that known as melanoidins, an heterogeneous mixture of polymers arising from sugar degradation reactions activated during cooking of the grape must. These polymers contribute to many physical properties of TBV including colligative ones, the refractive index, density, specific heat capacity melt, and rheological properties.Falcone, P.M.; P. Giudici. (2008). Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution impacting Traditional Balsamic Vinegar ageing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry; 56(16); 7057-7066 ==Physical properties== The most relevant physical properties of the TBV are: * pH is usually lower than 3; it is a measure of the extent of carboxylic acids dissociation. * Density is usually intended as mass density at 20 °C, it cannot be lower than 1.24 g/ml (TBVM) and 1.20 g/ml (TBVRE); it is a measure of the extent of the solute concentration, as well as of water evaporation. * Refractive index is usually expressed with Brix scale and reaches on average 73°Bx. * Color ranges from yellow/brown to brown/black during aging because of the accumulation of compounds, mainly melanoidins, from nonenzymatic reactions such as acid-catalyzed sugar degradation and Maillard reactions. * Viscosity is a macroscopic measure of the degree of intermolecular interaction inside the vinegar bulk and is easily determined as the resistance to flow under controlled experimental conditions. The viscosity of TBV is on average around 0.56Pa⋅sFalcone, P. M., Verzelloni, E., Tagliazucchi, D., and Giudici, P. (2008). A rheological approach to the quantitative assessment of traditional balsamic vinegar quality. J. Food Eng. 86, 433–443 and determines the TBV fluency as visually assessed according to procedures in use to assign sensory judgements. * Flow index indicates the deviation of the flowing properties from the linearity (Newtonian behavior). ==TBV compared to BVM and other balsamic products== From a legal point of view, TBV is categorized as 'food condiment', while BVM is a 'wine vinegar'. BVM can be produced without an aging period, whereas TBV gains its particular features during a long aging period fixed by law at no less than 12 years. TBV is the only condiment in the world produced starting from cooked grape musts without the adding of other substances,Vinegars of the World. L. Solieri and P. Giudici P. Eds. Springer-Verlag Italia S.r.l. (Milan, Italy) whereas BVM is a blend of concentrated grape musts, wine vinegars, and caramel (optional). Traditional Balsamic Vinegar Balsamic Vinegar of Modena Other balsamic condiments Production Starting materials Cooked must from grapes harvested in Modena or Reggio Emilia provinces of permitted vine cultivars Concentrated and sulphitated grape musts, wine vinegar and optional caramel (max 2% w/w) - the basis of vineyards ampelographic is imposed by law, but the permitted vines can grow outside the Modena province Depending on recipes, they may contain concentrated must, but thickeners such as modified or native starch, glucose/fructose syrup, pectins, guar gum, xanthan, carob seed, etc. are always added) Making procedure Alcoholic fermentation of sugars, acetic oxidation, aging period inside a set of wooden casks, refilling procedure throughout the years, annual withdrawal and bottling. The overall procedure is carried out on a small scale. Mix of the starting materials, facultative maturation in a single barrel and bottling. The overall procedure is carried out on an industrial scale. Mix of the starting materials and packaging. The procedure is carried out at industrial scale. Legal aging The residence time of the product inside the set of barrels is determined by the refilling and withdrawing procedure. The minimum aging time is no less than 12 years. The minimum aging time is no less than 60 days. No minimum limit for aging. Distribution Bottling The product is sealed inside the patented 100-ml glass bottle The product is sealed inside various kind of bottles (minimum 250 ml of capacity) or single-dose plastic packages (maximum 25 mLml) The product is sealed inside various kinds of packages of different capacity Pricinghttp://www.twenga.it - April, 2010 Ranging between 40 and 250 euros Ranging between 2 and 40 euros Ranging between 2 and 350 euros Characteristics Minimum density TBVM 1.24g/ml - TBVRE 1.20g/ml The relatively high density is the result of the water evaporation during the long aging period. 1.06g/ml Higher density values depend on the degree of grape must concentration. Not required: Higher density values are possible as a function of recipes. Minimum of total acidity TBVM 4.5g/100g - TBVRE 5g/100g of acetic acid equivalent, the acetic acid is biologically produced in the early stages of making procedure, then it concentrates during aging. 6g/100g of acetic acid equivalent. The acetic acid comes from the starting ingredients. Not required Colour Dark brown, limpid and bright, color is determined by nonenzymatic browning reaction of sugars starting on grape must cooking stage and progressing during aging. Dark brown, limpid and bright, brown colour can be enhanced by added caramel (E150d) Dark brown, limpid and bright, brown colour can be enhanced by added caramel (E150d) Viscosity The viscosity of TBV is mainly affected by the amount of the high molecular weight melanoidin, a heterogeneous class of biopolymers that form and accumulate during the ageing process. Viscosity is lower than TBV ones, although it can be enhanced by adding caramel. The flow properties are very similar to the TBV ones, but they originate from the adding of thickeners. Sensory evaluation It is a prerequisite for their commercialization. Sensory panels are long-time, trained judges, but sensory procedures are not standardized, often leading to irreproducible scores.Giudici, P.; Falcone, P.M.; Scacco, A.; Lanza, M.C. (2009). Analisi Sensoriale dell’Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale. Industrie delle Bevande, 38:27-42 Not required Not required == References == == External links == *PDO Certification Production Rules *Vinegar Research Team of the Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences - University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) * Vinegars and Acetic Acid Bacteria 2005 International Symposium * The Making of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena - Aceto Balsamico - Part 1 * The Making of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena - Aceto Balsamico - Part 2 Category:Italian cuisine Category:Salad dressings Category:Reggio Emilia Category:Modena Category:Vinegar Category:Italian products with protected designation of origin
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Charles Heath Townsend (born January 25, 1967 in Kansas City, Kansas) is an "Old School/Mid School" former professional Bicycle Motocross (BMX) racer whose prime competitive years were from 1985 to 1996. He has 2 kids. Nicknames: Various and many dating back to his days as a young amateur. Many railroad related: "Steam Engine Charlie", "Speeding Locomotive Charlie", "Choo-Choo Charlie", "Amtrak".American BMXer September 1990 Vol.12 No.8 pg.10 Also "Black Magic" (which he had stenciled on the back of his racing pants in 1985BMX Action June 1985 Vol.10 No.6 pg.54 sidebar), "Big Chuck", "The Fleein' Korean",BMX Plus! September 1987 Vol.10 No.9 pg.29 "Chasemainian Devil".BMX Plus! June 1988 Vol.11 No.6 pg.43 ==Racing career== Note: Professional first are on the national level unless otherwise indicated. Milestone Event Details Started Racing: 1979/80 age 12 or 13. Townsend himself is rather vague on this pointBMX Plus! September 1987 Vol.10 No.9 pg.29 & pg.30 "Fast Facts" Sanctioning Body: First race bike: First race result: Third place in Beginner class in Hellyer Park in San Jose, California. First win (local): First sponsor: Woodside Bicycle Shop. First national win: In 17 & Over Open at the 1985 American Bicycle Association (ABA) Supernational in Pico Rivera, California on January 27, 1985.Super BMX & Freestyle May 1985 Vol.12 No.5 pg.41 Turned Professional: December 28, 1986 at the National Bicycle League (NBL) Christmas National at age 19. First Professional race result: First in "B" Pro on December 28, 1986 in Columbus, Ohio at the National Bicycle League (NBL)'s Christmas National. He won US$600, the equivalent of US$1,126.09 in 2007 (Cost of Living Calculator) He also took a sixth in Pro Award but he finished out of the money.BMX Plus! May 1987 Vol.10 No.5 pg.23 (picture caption) & 26 (race results) First Professional win: See above. First Junior Men/Pro* race result: See above. First Junior Men/Pro win: See above. First Senior Pro** race result: First in "AA" Pro at the American Bicycle Association (ABA) Gilley's Nationals in Pasadena, Texas on March 7, 1987. He won US$535,BMX Plus! July 1987 Vol. No.7 pg.24 the equivalent to US$1,004.10 2007. After the ABA Scottsdale National, Charles Townsend called the ABA and moved himself up to "AA" pro.Super BMX/Freestyle July 1987 Vol.17 No.7 pg.14 This was reminiscent of Brian Patterson asking permission from then ABA Vice President Gene Roden to move up to "AA" after one race in "A" pro in early 1982.Super BMX March 1983 Vol.10 No.3 pg.55 First Senior Pro win: See above. Height and weight at height of his career: Ht:6'2" Wt:~195 lbs. Retired: 2002. He raced in the Veteran Pro class of the ABA and the NBL's Master class until 2004. *In the NBL it is B" Pro/Superclass/"A" Pro depending on the era; in the ABA it is "A" Pro. **In the NBL it is "A" Pro (Elite Men); in the ABA it is "AA" Pro. ===Career factory and major bicycle shop sponsors=== Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous ever changing co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by BMX press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. ====Amateur/Junior Men==== *U.S. Boss Racing Products: January 1985 – March 31, 1985 *Free Agent: March 31, 1985 – December 27, 1985 *Hutch Hi-Performance BMX: December 28, 1985 – December 31, 1986. He would turn pro with this sponsor. ====Professional/Elite Men==== *Hutch Hi-Performance BMX: December 28, 1985 – December 31, 1986. *Cyclecraft: January 1, 1987 – March 21, 1987. *CW (Custom Works) Racing: March 21, 1987 – November 27, 1987. "CW" never stood for "Coast Wheels" as it is widely thought. Coast Wheels was a bike shop that Roger Worsham owned. Custom Works was a completely different and independent company. This is in contrast with JMC (Jim Melton Cyclery) which did start out as a bicycle shop and then began manufacturing its own BMX components including entire bicycles. *Revcore: November 28, 1987 – November 26, 1988. Revcore was owned and operated by Roger Worsham who also owned CW Racing, It was a separate product line much like Shadow Racing was in 1983. Townsend's last race for them was the Friday night November 27 Honda Super Cup, one day prior to the start of the 1987 ABA Grand National, where Townsend switch over to Revcore and captured ABA No.1 pro for that year. By 1989 Roger Worsham would divest himself of both Custom Works and Revcore. *Diamond Back (Centurion): November 27, 1988 – December 31, 1989. At the end of the 1989 season Diamond Back decided to let the entire team go except for Matt Hadan, a pro. Harry Leary decided to retire. Charles Townsend was sponsorless for three months until April 1990. *Powerlite Industries*: Mid April 1990 – November 1991. *Robinson Racing Products: November 1991 – December 1998. After seven years Robinson dropped Townsend after the 1998 racing season. *Troy Lee Designs/Jones Soda: April 1999 – March 2000. Charles didn't have a primary sponsor for approximately 15 months between Robinson Racing and Airborne Direct. Troy Lee Designs and Jones Soda were many co-sponsors that helped support him on the national race circuit while he searched for a main, primary sponsor.Snap BMX Magazine May 2000 Vol.7 Iss.5 No.43 pg.38 *Airborne Direct: March 28, 2000 – December 2000 *Kona/Rocket Cash.Com: December 20, 2000– *Phantom Bikes: January 2003 – December 2003 *Advent: January 2004– *By this time Gary Turner (GT) Racing had brought Powerlite. ===Career bicycle motocross titles=== Note: Listed are District, State/Provincial/Department, Regional, National, and International titles in italics. "Defunct" refers to the fact of that sanctioning body in question no longer existing at the start of the racer's career or at that stage of his/her career. Depending on point totals of individual racers, winners of Grand Nationals do not necessarily win National titles. Series and one off Championships are also listed in block. ====Amateur/Junior Men==== National Bicycle Association (NBA) National Bicycle League (NBL) *1985 18 & Over Expert Grandnational Champion *1986 18 & Over Expert National No.1 American Bicycle Association (ABA) *None International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) *1986 17 & Over Expert and 18–24 Cruiser World Champion Fédération Internationale Amateur de Cyclisme (FIAC) *None Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) ====Professional/Elite Men==== National Bicycle Association (NBA) *None National Bicycle League (NBL) American Bicycle Association (ABA) *1987 Honda Supercup Champion. He also won a Honda XR-250R motorcycle as a prize. *1987 National No.1 Pro. He won a Honda pickup truck as a prize. *1990 Pro U.S. Open East Champion *1990 National No.3 Pro United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA) *None International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)* *1989 Pro World Champion Fédération Internationale Amateur de Cyclisme (FIAC)* *None Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI)* *Note: Beginning in 1991 the IBMXF and FIAC, the amateur cycling arm of the UCI, had been holding joint World Championship events as a transitional phase in merging which began in earnest in 1993. Beginning with the 1996 season the IBMXF and FIAC completed the merger and both ceased to exist as independent entities being integrated into the UCI. Beginning with the 1996 World Championships held in Brighton, England the UCI would officially hold and sanction BMX World Championships and with it inherited all precedents, records, streaks, etc. from both the IBMXF and FIAC. Pro Series Championships ===Notable accolades=== *Named one of the new BMX Action's "Terrible Ten" top amateurs and future professionals for 1986.BMX Action May 1986 Vol.11 No.5 pg.72 *Named BMX Action's Pro Rookie of the Year for 1987.BMX Action August 1987 Vol.12 No.8 pg.60 (photo caption) *Named BMX Plus! 1988 "Racer of the Year" with 20.74% (1,930) of the vote out of 9,305 cast. He won a Suzuki RM125 motocross motorcycle. ===Significant injuries=== *Cracked Tibia and dislocated knee at ABA Lone Star National in Fort Worth, Texas on July 2, 1988 on the back straightaway in the third and last pro main.American BMXer August 1988 Vol.10 No.7 pg.22 Laid up for about five weeksBMX Action November 1988 Vol.13 No.11 pg.15BMX Plus! October 1988 Vol.11 No.10 pg.8 until the International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) World Championships in Santiago, Chile on August 14. This was his very first BMX related injury.American BMXer September 1988 Vol.10 No.8 pg.17 What precipitated the accident was his front wheel coming off in mid race at a jump.Super BMX/Freestyle December 1988 Vol.15 No.12 pg.41 He did along with Pete Loncarevich who was nursing broken ribs, roll off the gate at the NBL Waterford Oaks, Michigan race in a pro forma act to achieve the prerequisite number of NBL races participated in a season to be eligible to race in the NBL Grand Nationals and become national number one pro pending the results of the Grand Nationals.Super BMX/Freestyle October 1988 Vol.15 No.10 pg.72 *Broke ankle at NBL Grand National in September 1988.BMX Action April 1989 Vol.14 No.4 pg.18 *Separated shoulder at the 1992 ABA National in Topeka, Kansas on May 10. The rumored prognosis was an eight- to ten-week lay off but he was racing two weeks later at the ABA Summer Nationals in Sunol, California on May 23. Racing in pain, he did not make the mains on Saturday but did get a third on Sunday in "AA" pro.BMX Plus! October 1992 Vol.15 No.10 pg.28 *Broke thumb in early 1996.Snap BMX Magazine May/June 1996 Vol.3 Iss.3 No.10 pg.14 *Broke hand in mid January 2004 during practice.transworld.net January 27, 2004 article. ===Racing habits and traits=== ===Post BMX career=== ===Miscellaneous and Trivia=== *Named number five on the list of the "Dirtiest Riders in BMX" in the June 1992 issue of BMX Plus!BMX Plus! June 1992 Vol.15 No.6 pg.64 ==BMX magazine covers== Bicycle Motocross News: * None Minicycle/BMX Action & Super BMX: *September 1988 Vol.15 No.9 with Gary Ellis and Greg Hill (SBMXF) In insert freestyler Matt Hoffman. Bicycle Motocross Action & Go: *August 1987 Vol.12 No.8 with Billy Griggs and Eddy King. (BMXA) *October 1991 Vol.2 Iss.12 In insert freestyler Jay Miron (Go). BMX Plus!: *August 1987 Vol.10 No.8 in bottom insert (CW) behind Gary Ellis (6) and Greg Hill (3) and tied with unidentified (23). Top insert freestyler John Ludvigson; Main image: freestyler Matt Hoffman. *March 1988 Vol.11 No.3 in bottom insert (15) ahead of Travis Chipres (8) and unidentified. In top insert freestyler Woody Itson, BMX Plus! tester Todd Britton, Harry Leary and Kevin Hull. In circular insert Steve Broderson; main image freestyler Josh White. *April 1988 Vol.11 No.4 In bottom half of cover (1). In top half freestyler Ron Wilkerson. *May 1989 Vol.12 No.5 *May 1992 Vol.15 No.5 *December 1992 Vol.15 No.12 (3) in top insert in a dead tie with Gary Ellis (2) in center and Pete Loncarevich (1) in foreground. In right center insert Tim Judge circa 1984; in bottom left insert unidentified BMXer and MXer. Main image freestylers Brian Blyther & Ron Wilkerson in 1986. *July 1993 Vol.16 No.7 in top insert behind John Purse (20). In bottom left insert Todd Corbitt. In lower right insert freestyle frames and forks. *February 1997 Vol.20 No.2 (10) in center insert in fourth place behind Randy Stumpfhauser (100) leading; Brian Foster (3) in second; Unidentified (16) in third. In bottom right insert Kiyomi Waller (403); in top insert dirt jumper Matt Beringer. in bottom left insert various helmets. Bicycles and Dirt: *None Snap BMX Magazine & Transworld BMX: *None Moto Mag: *None NBA World & NBmx World (The official NBA/NBmxA membership publication): Bicycles Today & BMX Today (The official NBL membership publication under one name change. ABA Action, American BMXer, BMXer (The official ABA membership publication under two name changes): *American BMXer March 1987 Vol.9 No.2 (15) behind Gary Ellis (3) in first, ahead of obscured unidentified in third and Todd Slavik (4) in fourth place. *American BMXer September 1988 Vol.10 No.8 *American BMXer September 1990 Vol.12 No.8 ahead of Travis Chipres. USBA Racer (The official USBA membership publication): ==BMX and general press magazine interviews and articles== *"Sharpshootin'--Charles Townsend" BMX Action June 1985 Vol.10 No.6 pg.54 sidebar *"Charlie & Billy" BMX Action August 1987 Vol.12 No.8 pg.58 Joint interview with Billy Griggs. *"Charles Townsend" BMX Plus! September 1987 Vol.10 No.9 pg.29 *"A Few Minutes With Charles Townsend" Super BMX & Freestyle October 1987 Vol. No.10 pg.48 *"The Champs: Charles Townsend" BMX Plus! April 1988 Vol.11 No.4 pg.38 One of six mini articles of the six ABA National No.1 winners of 1987. *"Charles Townsend: National #1 Pro" American BMXer September 1988 Vol.10 No.8 pg.16 *"A Lengthy Conversation with Charles Townsend: Nothing's Impossible" BMX Action April 1989 Vol.14 No.4 pg.16 *"Inventory: Charles Townsend's Powerlite" Go September 1990 Vol.1 Issue 11 pg.37 Charles Townsend describes his new sponsor's racing bicycle. *"Directions: Psyche" Go September 1990 Vol.1 Issue 11 pg.68 Short Blurb on how to deal with the mental pressures of a big race. *"Uncovered" Go October 1991 Vol.2 Issue 12 pg.13 *"The Soul Train" BMX Plus! May 1992 Vol.15 No.5 pg.50 ==References== ==External links== * * The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website. * The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website. Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:Sportspeople from Kansas City, Kansas Category:American male cyclists Category:BMX riders
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