text
stringlengths 7.93k
1.29M
|
|---|
Prakash Raj is an Indian actor, film director, producer and television presenter who mainly works in the South Indian film industry. He acted in back-to-back stage shows for 300 a month in the initial stages of his career when he joined Kalakshetra, Bengaluru, and he has 2,000 street theatre performances to his credit. After working in the Kannada television industry and Kannada cinema for a few years, he made his debut in Tamil cinema through Duet (1994) by K. Balachander and has since been a commercially successful film star in Tamil. In remembrance, he named his production company Duet Movies.'I cannot allow love to rule my thoughts' Metro Plus, 8 June 2004 The HinduCatching them young!, Malathi Rangarajan, 19 August 2010 The Hindu Prakash Raj's work in various languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi, Malayalam, Marathi, and English has placed him among the most sought after actors in Indian cinema. He has played a variety of roles, most notably as the antagonist and, of late, as a character actor. Prakash, as an actor has won a National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1998 for Mani Ratnam's Iruvar and a National Film Award for Best Actor in 2009 for his role in Kanchivaram, a Tamil film directed by Priyadarshan, and as a producer has won a National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada for Puttakkana Highway directed by his long-time theatre friend B. Suresh in 2011. Prakash was also the host of Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi during the shows second season. He has appeared in 398 films. == Film == ===As actor=== ==== 1980–1989 ==== Year Title Role Language Notes 1988 Mithileya Seetheyaru Kannada ==== 1990–1999 ==== Year Title Role Language Notes 1990 Muthina Haara Jaisingh Kannada Ramachaari Anukoolakkobba Ganda 1991 Keralida Kesari Mari Veerappan 1992 Chamatkara Inspector Rao Cameo Mallige Hoove 1993 Harakeya Kuri Badri Tropical Heat Police officer English 1994 Duet Actor Sirpy Tamil Nishkarsha Suresh Kannada Lockup Death Giri Nila Ramesh Tamil 1995 Thalaivanin Arulullam Dev Saravanan Tamil ✓ Bombay Kumar Sankalpam Gaddapalugu Chenchu Ramaiah Telugu Pullakuttikaran Prakash Rao Tamil Aasai Major Madhavan Seethanam Rajasekhar 1996 Kalki Prakash Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain The Prince Surya Das Malayalam Priyam Dharma Tamil Subash Arumugasamy Sahanam K.N.Rao Telugu Gunshot Ali Zaffar Khan 25th Film Vinodam Prakash Janani Kannada Indraprastham Mohan George Malayalam Pavithra Bandham Suriya Telugu Vishwanath Michael Tamil Poomani Thangamani Alexander Ashok 1997 Suswagatham Vasudeva Rao Telugu Hitler Prakash Raj Iruvar Tamilzhchelvan Tamil National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor Minsara Kanavu Jaipal Mommaga Kannada Aravindhan Krishnan Kumar Tamil Oru Yathramozhi Satya Malayalam Raasi Melapatty Ramasamy's son Tamil Dhinamum Ennai Gavani Rolex V.I.P. Santhosh's brother Guest appearance Nandhini Prakash Nagamandala Appanna Kannada Nerrukku Ner Kandaswamy Tamil Pellichesukundam Telugu Paththini Eeswar Tamil Vidukathai Neelakandan ✓ 1998 Anthapuram Narasimha Telugu National Film Award for Best Actor (Special Jury) Santhosham Nadesan Tamil 50th Film Kavalai Padathe Sagodhara ✓ Swarnamukhi Akash Choodalani Vundi Mahendra Telugu Yaare Neenu Cheluve Jeetu Kannada Sandhippoma Vishwa's father Tamil Senthooram Muthu Manikkam Sollamale Dr. Surya Prakash Gurupaarvai Gurumurthy Kanasalu Neene Manasalu Neene Lankesh Kannada Shanti Shanti Shanti Ganga Prasad Preethsod Thappa Chandana's father Manasichi Choodu Politician Telugu 1999 Sneham Kosam Peddabbayi En Swaasa Kaatrae Guru Tamil Padayappa IG Subramaniam Cameo Veedu Samanyudu Kaadu Telugu Rajakumarudu Dhanunjay Anthapuram Narashima Tamil P Venkata Narayana Telugu Rajasthan Terrorist Tamil Preminchedi Endukamma Jagan Telugu Samudram Nooka Raju Z Prakash Kannada Aavide Syamala Telugu ==== 2000–2009 ==== Year Title Role Language Notes 2000 Sammakka Sarakka Bose Telugu 75th Film Kshemamga Velli Labhamga Randi Master Sanchalanam Appu Maharani Tamil Badri Nanda Telugu Manoharam Srinivasa Murthy Real Story Veeraiya Sardukupodaam Randi Problem Paramkusam Adavi Chukka Chamundi Kannada Moodu Mukkalaata Paramahamsa Telugu Chinna Chinna Kannile Sabesan Tamil Azad Salim Telugu Vaanavil Prakash Tamil Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain Thank You GK Telugu Bachi Tatineni Koteswara Rao Chiru Navvutho Pratap Tirumala Tirupati Venkatesa Cameo 2001 Mrugaraju Valmiki Dora Vanchinathan Chidambaram Tamil Maa Aavida Meeda Ottu Mee Aavida Chala Manchidi GV Telugu Murari Zamindar Cameo Usire Rudre Gowda Kannada Rishi Inspector Shakthivel Tamil Little John Kaala Bhairavan / Kala Bhairava Tamil / Hindi / English Dosth ACP Neelakanda Bhramachari Tamil 100th Film Ammai Kosam Anjali's father Telugu Premakke Sai Kannada Bhalevadivi Basu Benerjee Telugu Nuvvu Naaku Nachav Murthy Alli Thandha Vaanam Prakash Tamil 2002 Premaku Swagatam Mahendra Telugu Kannathil Muthamittal Dr. Herold Vikramesinghe Tamil ITFA Best Supporting Actor Award Ekangi Kannada Dhaya Dhaya Tamil✓ National Film Award for Best Actor (Special Jury) Hai Priya's father Telugu Adrustam Police Officer Indra Chenna Kesava Reddy Idiot Vipra Narayana Shakti – The Power Sharpshooter Hindi Atithi Ali Abdul Khan Kannada Album Jamun fruit seller Tamil Cameo Nuvve Nuvve Vishwanath Telugu Filmfare Award for Best Telugu Supporting Actor Bobby Yadagiri Kadhal Azhivathillai Fingerprint Expert Tamil Khadgam Amjad Khan Telugu Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actor I Love You Da Siddharth Tamil Rifles Narasimha Varma Telugu 2003 Chokka Thangam Sundaram Tamil Nominated, Filmfare Best Tamil Supporting Actor Award Okkadu Obul Reddy Telugu Santosham Best Villain Award Juniors Principal Fools 125th Film Gangotri Neelakantha Naidu Nandi Award for Best Villain Dil Gowri Shankar Kadhal Sadugudu Chidambaram Tamil Sanchalanam Telugu Sify review Amma Nanna O Tamila Ammayi Raghuveer Nandi Award for Best Character Actor Nijam A.C.P Raja Narendra Simhachalam Dora Swamy Raju Charminar Surendra Babu Tagore Suryam Filmfare Award for Best Telugu Supporting Actor Naam Irfan Pathan Khan Tamil ✓ Preethi Prema Pranaya Dr. Ashok Kannada Sivamani Dattu Telugu 2004 Varsham Ranga Rao Lakshmi Narasimha Dharma Bhiksham Athade Oka Sainyam Prakash Rao Khakee ACP Shrikant Naidu Hindi Thekkekkara Superfast Jonnykutty Malayalam Seenu Vasanthi Lakshmi Appala Naidu Telugu Ghilli Muthu Pandi Tamil Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Villain Samba Pasupathi Telugu Koduku Narayanan Yagnam Inspector Pratap Reddy Sri Anjaneyam Anji's father Bimba Raj Kannada 150th Film Shart: The Challenge Nandu Hindi Naa Autograph Prakash Kumar Telugu Intlo Srimathi Veedhilo Kumari Sundara Murthy Vasool Raja MBBS Vishwanathan Tamil Azhagiya Theeye Aravind Arjun Bala Telugu Giri Suryaprakash Tamil M. Kumaran Son Of Mahalakshmi Easwar Konchem Touchlo Vunte Cheputanu JK Telugu Vidyarthi Mass Durga Prasad 2005 Ayya Karuppusamy Tamil Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana Prakash Telugu Dhana 51 Sankranthi Govardhan Choudary Chakram Chakram's father Bunny Somaraju Subhash Chandra Bose Venkatratnam Athanokkade Ram's father Bhadra Surendra Amudhae Victor Tamil ✓ Arinthum Ariyamalum Aadhi Narayanan Andarivaadu Veerendra (Eeru Babu) Telugu Anniyan DCP Prabhakar Tamil Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain Athadu CBI Officer Anjaneya Prasad Telugu 175th Film Ponniyin Selvan Guru Tamil Pandipada Pandidurai Malayalam Political Rowdy Pandu Telugu Aadum Koothu Zamindar Tamil direct-to-television Bhageeratha Venkata Ratnam Telugu Sivakasi Udayappa Tamil Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Villain 2006 Paramasivan Nandhakumar Aathi Aadhi's father Saravana Soundarapandi Idhaya Thirudan Mayilravanan Suyetchai MLA Ilampirai Ajay Vijay Kannada Illalu Priyurala Veer Singh Telugu Pokiri Ali Bhai Veerabhadra Pothuraju Thalainagaram ACP Gopinath Tamil Parijatham Santhosh Vikramarkudu DGP Telugu Cameo Ashok Ashok's father Bommarillu Aravind Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actor Aran Colonel Tamil Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu Arokiyaraj Perarasu Elakkyam Stalin Muddu Krishnayya Telugu Vathiyar Easwara Pandian Tamil 200th Film Sainikudu Mondi Naani Telugu Khatarnak Commissioner Thiruvilaiyaadal Aarambam Guru Tamil Rakhi Judge Telugu Cameo Poi Vidhi Tamil 2007 Pokkiri Ali Bhai Nominated, Vijay Award for Best Villain Lee Puthiran Mozhi Vijayakumar Vijay Award for Best Supporting Actor Viyabari Kasi Viswanathan Cameo Aadivaram Adavallaku Selavu Telugu Cameo Jagadam Police Commissioner Cameo Munna Kakha Veerappu Vedhukannu Tamil Aarya Kasi Chirutha Karthikeya Telugu Kanna Raghunath Tamil ✓ 2008 Bheemaa Chinna Velli Thirai Kannaiya Jalsa Indu & Bhagyamati's father Telugu Santosh Subramaniam Subramaniam Tamil Arai En 305-il Kadavul Kadavul ✓ Kantri Pothu Raju alias PR Telugu Parugu Neelakanta Saroja Vishwanath Tamil Rainbow Doctor Telugu 225th Film Alibhabha Subramaniam Tamil Pandhayam Masanam Kotha Bangaru Lokam Balu's father Telugu Nominated, Filmfare Award for Best Telugu Supporting Actor Kanchivaram Vengadam Tamil National Film Award for Best Actor Filmfare Best Tamil Actor Award (2009) Vijay Award for Best Actor Abhiyum Naanum Raghuram Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Character Artiste (Male) Nominated, Filmfare Best Tamil Supporting Actor Award Panchamirtham Raavana 2009 Villu J. D. Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain Konchem Ishtam Konchem Kashtam Prakash Telugu Thoranai Thamizharasu Tamil Pistha Suryaprakash Telugu Malai Malai Essaki Tamil Anjaneyulu Jai Prakash Telugu Cameo Josh Principal Wanted Gani Bhai Hindi Solla Solla Inikkum Bhadri Narayanan Tamil ✓ Mathiya Chennai Cameo Katha Viren Telugu ==== 2010–2019 ==== Year Title Role Language Notes 2010 Naanu Nanna Kanasu Raj Uthappa Kannada Also director Singam Mayil Vaaganam Tamil Theeradha Vilaiyattu Pillai Jyoti's brother Hoo Michael Kannada Kadhalagi Ananthakrishnan (AK) Tamil ✓ Golimaar DGP Telugu Brindaavanam Bhanu Prasad Khaleja GK Anwar Stalin Manimaran Malayalam/Tamil 250th Film Elektra Abraham and Isaac Malayalam Dual role Collector Gari Bharya Gautham Telugu Magizhchi Moses Tamil Cameo Orange Abhishek Verma Telugu Chutti Chathan The Cruel Magician Tamil 2011 Mirapakaay Kittu Telugu Payanam Vishwanathan Tamil Gaganam Vishwanath Telugu ✓ Vastadu Naa Raju Narasimha Wanted Basava Reddy Dongala Mutha Munna Bhai Ponnar Shankar Manthiappan Tamil Ko Yogeswaran Mr. Perfect Dubey Telugu Vaanam Rahimuddin Qureshi Tamil Dhool Nanda Kannada Engeyum Kaadhal Himself Tamil Cameo Puttakkana Highway Shani Krishna Kannada Rajadhani Ajay Kannada Badrinaadh Bheeshmanarayana Telugu Pillaiyar Theru Kadaisi Veedu Doctor Tamil Cameo Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap Kabir Bhai Hindi Venghai Rajalingam Tamil Singham Jaikanth Shikre Hindi Rowthiram Shiva's grandfather Tamil Cameo Mr. Rascal Telugu 275 th Film Dookudu Shankar Narayana SIIMA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role Oosaravelli Ajju Bhai Solo Raghupathi Naidu 2012 Prarthane Sahukar Thimmappa Kannada Businessman Jaidev Telugu Bodyguard Varadarajula Naidu Telugu Dhoni Subramaniam Also director Saguni R. K. Boopathi Tamil Devudu Chesina Manushulu Prakash Raj Telugu Julayi Voiceover Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu Rana Prathap Naidu Telugu Dhamarukam Lord Shiva / Sambayya Dabangg 2 Thakur Bachcha Singh Hindi 2013 Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu Relangi Mavayya Telugu Mumbai Mirror Shetty Hindi Ongole Githa Adikeshavulu Telugu Chennaiyil Oru Naal Gautham Krishna Tamil Gouravam Pasupathi Telugu Thillu Mullu Siva Gurunathan Tamil Balupu Nanaji / Mohan Rao Telugu Thulli Vilayadu Singamuthu Tamil Policegiri Nagori Subramaniam Hindi Bhaag Milkha Bhaag Veerapandian Zanjeer Teja Thoofan Telugu 300th Film Rajjo Handa Bhau Hindi Singh Saab the Great Bhoodev Singh 2014 Heart Attack Cameo Telugu Crazy Star Kannada Race Gurram Bheem Prakash Telugu Heropanti Surat Singh Chaudhary Hindi Un Samayal Arayil Kalidas Tamil Also director ✓ Ulavacharu Biriyani Telugu Oggarane Kalidasa Kannada Alludu Seenu Bhai & Narasimha Telugu Pilla Nuvvu Leni Jeevitham Prabhakar Entertainment Karan Hindi Kathai Thiraikathai Vasanam Iyakkam Tamil Cameo Govindudu Andarivadele Balaraju Telugu Power A. K. Mishra Mukunda Jaya Prakash 2015 Temper Waltair Vasu S/O Satyamurthy Satyamurthy Pulan Visaranai 2 Advocate Tamil JK Enum Nanbanin Vaazhkai Rudhratchagan O Kadhal Kanmani Ganapathy Lion CM Bharadwaja Telugu Ranna Sharat Chandra Kannada Vinavayya Ramayya Telugu Rudhramadevi Shiva Devaiah Mr. Airavata Prathap Khale Kannada Thoonga Vanam Vittal Rao Tamil 325th Film Cheekati Rajyam Telugu Inji Iduppazhagi Satyanand Tamil Size Zero Telugu Boologam Deepak Tamil 2016 Bangalore Naatkal Francis Priyanka ACP Satya Nadig Kannada Speedunnodu Veerabhadrappa Telugu Devara Nadalli Kanitkar Kannada CandyFlip Jojo English / Hindi Shourya Krishna Telugu Oopiri Prasad Rao Thozha Prasad Tamil Attack Guru Raj Telugu Manithan Adisheshan Tamil Ko 2 Yogeeswaran Rajadhi Raja Rudhraksha Telugu Srirastu Subhamastu Krishna Mohan Kotigobba 2 Sathya's father Kannada Mudinja Ivana Pudi Sathyam's father Tamil Idolle Ramayana Bhujangaiah Kannada Mana Oori Ramayanam Telugu Kadavul Irukaan Kumaru Manimaran Tamil ✓ Naanu Mattu Varalakshmi Trainer Kannada 2017 Shatamanam Bhavati Raghavaraju Telugu Dwarka Chief Minister Yaakkai Sagayam Tamil Raajakumara Jagannath Kannada 350th Film Achayans Commissioner Karthik Kathiresan Malayalam Aaradugula Bullet Nithyanand Telugu Vanamagan Rajashekar Tamil Nakshatram Parasuramaiah IPS Telugu Ungarala Rambabu Ranga Nayar Golmaal Again Vasu Reddy Hindi Raja The Great SP Prakash Telugu Gowdru Hotel Rishi's grandfather Kannada Richie Father A.K. Sagayam Tamil Velaikkaran Kasi Kalavadiya Pozhudugal Soundarrajan 2018 Jai Simha Master Telugu Prema Baraha Army man's father Kannada Sollividava Tamil Rangasthalam MLA Dakshina Murthy Telugu Seizer Bhupathi Kannada Nominted – Filmibeat Award for Best Villain – Kannada Mohanlal Himself Malayalam Bharat Ane Nenu Varadarajulu Telugu Mahanati Aluri Chakrapani Sometimes Krishnamoorthy Tamil direct-to-video Traffic Ramasamy Police Officer ✓ Goodachari Satya Telugu Srinivasa Kalyanam R.K. 60 Vayadu Maaniram Govindarajan Tamil Chekka Chivantha Vaanam Senapathi Hello Guru Prema Kosame Viswanath Telugu Sei ACP Suryanarayana Tamil 375th Film Odiyan Ravunni Malayalam 2019 N. T. R. Nagi Reddy Telugu F2: Fun and Frustration Dora Swamy Naidu 9 Dr. Iniyath Khan Malayalam Dev Ramalingam Tamil Athiran Doctor Malayalam Maharshi K. Satyanarayana Telugu 1st Rank Raju CEO Parthasarathy Asuran Venugopal Seshadri Tamil Azhiyatha Kolangal 2 Gowri Shankar Venky Mama Brigadier Vijay Prakash Telugu Ruler Veerandranath Tagore ==== 2020–present ==== List of Prakash Raj film credits from 2020 to present Year Title Role Language Notes 2020 Sarileru Neekevvaru MLA Yeddula Nagendra Telugu Mayabazar 2016 ACP Ashok Kannada 2021 Alludu Adhurs Jaypal Reddy Telugu Yuvarathnaa Guru Dev Deshmukh Kannada Vakeel Saab Nanda Gopal Telugu Jai Bhim IG Perumalsamy Tamil Released on Amazon Prime Video Annaatthe Nattadurai Enemy Paarirajan 2022 Clap Kathir's / Vishnu's father Tamil Telugu Released on SonyLIV ✓ Pada Chief Secretary N. Rajasekharan Malayalam Attack V K Subramaniam Hindi K.G.F: Chapter 2 Vijayendra Ingalagi Kannada 400th Film Shekar Advocate Telugu Cameo Major Sandeep Unnikrishnan's father Telugu Hindi Rashtra Kavach Om Murthy Hindi Bimbisara Vishwanandan Varma Telugu Sita Ramam Brigadier Y. K. Joshi Telugu Poikkal Kuthirai Kathiravan's father Tamil Viruman Muniyandi Tamil Thiruchitrambalam Inspector Neelakandan Tamil Ponniyin Selvan: I Sundara Chola Tamil Salaam Venky Judge Hindi Varaal Kerala CM Achuthan Nair Malayalam 2023 Varisu Jayaprakash Tamil Waltair Veerayya Michael Caesar Telugu Rangamarthanda Raghava Rao Shaakuntalam Sarangi Ponniyin Selvan: II Sundara Chola Tamil Malayalam Post-production Telugu Filming 2024 Telugu Filming ===Web series=== Year Title Role Language Notes 2020 Paava Kadhaigal Janakiraman Tamil Anthology film on Netflix 2020 Shootout at Alair DSP Suryanarayana Telugu ZEE5 2021 Navarasa Sivaraman Tamil Anthology film on Netflix 2022 Anantham Venkatesan ZEE5 2022 Mukhbir - The Story of a Spy S. K. S. Moorthy Hindi Zee5 Series ===As voice actor=== Year Title Role Actor Notes 1998 Uyire Arun Kashyap CBI officer Piyush Mishra ===As producer and director=== Year Title Language Producer Director Notes 2002 Dhaya Tamil 2003 Naam 2004 Azhagiya Theeye 2005 Kanda Naal Mudhal 2006 Poi 2007 Mozhi 2008 Velli Thirai Abhiyum Naanum 2010 Inidhu Inidhu Naanu Nanna Kanasu Kannada Directorial Debut 2011 Payanam Tamil / Telugu Puttakkana Highway Kannada National Award for Best Regional Film of the year Bengaluru International Film Festival Award 2012 Mayilu Tamil Dhoni Tamil / Telugu 2013 Gouravam 2014 2016 Manavoori Ramayanam / Idolle Ramayana Telugu / Kannada 2020 Arishadvarga Kannada 2022 Tadka Hindi == Television == Year Title Role Language Channel Notes 1995 Guddada Bhootha Kannada DD Chandana 1995 Kaialavu Manasu Gururangan Tamil Sun TV 1995 Chinna Chinna Aasaigal - Judgement Acted in the story "Judgement" 2003 Sahana Jaya TV 2013 Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi Host Star Vijay ==References== Category:Indian filmographies Category:Male actor filmographies Category:Director filmographies
|
thumb|150px|Party logo used briefly between 2021 and 2022 The Liberal Democratic Party, shortened as LDP, Liberal Democrats, or Lib Dems, is an Australian political party founded in Canberra in 2001. The party espouses smaller government and supports policies that are based on classical liberal, libertarian principles, such as lower taxes, opposing restrictions on civil liberties, decentralisation, utilising nuclear energy, and the relaxation of smoking laws. The LDP is a registered party in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia and was formerly registered for federal elections with the Australian Electoral Commission. As of March 2023, it only has one representative in the Victorian Legislative Council, David Limbrick, and elected representatives in some local governments. The most recent federal representation of the party was in April 2022, when independent senator Sam McMahon joined the Liberal Democrats, giving the party representation in the Australian Senate. However, she lost her seat in the May 2022 federal election and the party was deregistered at the federal level on 19 July 2022. ==History== === Formation === The Liberal Democratic Party was founded in 2001 as a political party registered in the Australian Capital Territory. It first contested elections in the 2001 ACT election, receiving 1 percent of the vote. The party also contested the 2004 ACT election, receiving 1.3 percent of the vote. In 2006, changes to the Electoral Act by the Howard government forced all parties without parliamentary representation to deregister and re-register under stricter naming rules. Advised by the Australian Electoral Commission that federal registration under the original name was uncertain given opposition by the Liberal Party of Australia, the party chose to register federally as the Liberty and Democracy Party in 2007. The Liberty and Democracy Party contested 2007 federal election, winning 17,048 votes (0.14 percent) in the lower house and 16,942 votes (0.13 percent) in the upper house. In 2008, the party successfully applied to the Australian Electoral Commission to change its federally registered name to Liberal Democratic Party. During this period, the party remained registered under its original name in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). === Initial electoral contests === In 2010, the party contested the 2010 federal election, receiving 1.8 percent of the national senate vote and an average of 1.3 percent across the 21 lower house seats it contested, with a best of 5.52 percent in Gippsland. In 2012, the Liberal Democratic Party had its first successful election win. Jeff Pettett was elected as a Councillor to the Ku-ring-gai Council in northern metropolitan Sydney at the New South Wales local government elections, gaining 24 per cent of vote in the absence of Liberal Party candidates. Clinton Mead was elected as a Councillor to the Campbelltown Council in southern metropolitan Sydney at the New South Wales local government elections Prior to the 2012 Ramsay and Port Adelaide state by-elections in South Australia, the polls in The Advertiser newspaper gave the LDP 23 percent and 14 percent of the vote respectively in the absence of Liberal Party candidates. The LDP ended up with votes of 13.3 percent and 7.3 percent respectively. The paper described the LDP as "a hardline liberal party that demands abolition of government welfare as well as the minimum wage, seatbelts and bike helmets. It backs legalisation of marijuana and increased freedom to access pornography". At the 2013 federal election, LDP candidate David Leyonhjelm was elected to the Senate after polling the third highest vote in the state of New South Wales after the Liberal Party of Australia and the Australian Labor Party. According to Leyonhjelm, a portion of their vote probably came from their 'first position' on the long senate ballot paper and voters potentially being confused with his party and other contesting parties such as the Liberals, the Australian Democrats and the Christian Democratic Party. However, Leyonhjelm points to the fact that the Liberal Democrats' vote in South Australia, where they were fifth on the ballot, rose 3 percentage points. He also points to the fact that the donkey vote generally only produces swings of +1 or 2 percentage points to the party listed first on the ballot. Leyonhjelm organised preferences for several different, but closely entwined, political parties seeking election to the Senate, including the Outdoor Recreation Party, Smokers' Rights Party and the Republican Party of Australia. Australian Sex Party candidate Fiona Patten alleged Leyonhjelm intentionally failed to lodge ticket voting preferences forms, reneging on a preference deal, but Leyonhjelm claimed that there was a mistake entering the AEC fax number. The Liberal Democrats were not involved in Glenn Druery's Minor Party Alliance during the election which assisted in negotiating preference flows between minor parties.Dylan Welch (1 April 2014). "Senate voting inquiry prompted by Glenn Druery's election tactics could put end to preference trading" – ABC.net.au. Retrieved 11 April 2014. On 1 July 2014, David Leyonhjelm became the Liberal Democratic Party's first senator. Shortly after David Leyonhjelm's Senate victory, Liberal Democrats councillor Clinton Mead was elected Mayor of the City of Campbelltown in New South Wales. In 2015, the Liberal Democrats registered with the Victorian Electoral Commission (VEC), and announced it would field upper-house candidates in the upcoming Victorian state election on 29 November 2014. In 2016, the Liberal Party sought to challenge the name of the party with the electoral commission, but ultimately abandoned the action. David Leyonhjelm was re-elected with a 3.1 percent (−6.4) primary vote, or 139,000 votes, at the 2016 double dissolution federal election. Gabriel Buckley, the LDP's lead candidate in Queensland, marginally misses out on a seat. WA elections were held 11 March 2017 where the states first LDP member, Aaron Stonehouse was elected. In May 2017, former Leader of the Opposition and political commentator Mark Latham left the Australian Labor Party and joined the LDP. In 2018 candidates Tim Quilty and David Limbrick were elected to the Victorian Legislative Council (state upper house). In the same year, Mark Latham left the party to become the leader of One Nation NSW division."Mark Latham joins One Nation as NSW leader". In 2019, David Leyonhjelm announced that he will be quitting federal parliament in order to contest the New South Wales state election. This resulted in Duncan Spender being sworn in to fill Leyonhjelm's former seat until the next Federal election. David Leyonhjelm did not get elected in the 2019 New South Wales election securing only 0.46 of a seat quota. Duncan Spender also lost their Senate seat in the 2019 election. In the Victorian Local Government election of 2020 the party fielded 11 candidates state-wide. Two endorsed candidates were elected, Olga Quilty in Wodonga with a 5.83% first preference vote against 18 other candidates and Paul Barker in Torquay with a 11.67% first preference vote against 9 other candidates. === Recent developments === On 18 May 2017, the Liberal Democratic Party formed a 'conservative bloc' with One Nation and the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party in the Western Australia Legislative Council. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Victorian MPs Quilty and Limbrick became outspoken critics of the Victorian Parliament, the Federal Parliament, and Australia's COVID response in whole. On August 17, 2021, while the Victorian Parliament was closed due to restrictions, the two protested park closures on the steps of Parliament in the presence of armed police. They refused to comply with a vaccine mandate for MP's, with Limbrick publicly destroying his vaccination status card. In May 2021 the party founder Dr John Humphreys was re-elected to the position of National President. In July 2021, Campbell Newman, the former Premier of Queensland and Leader of the Liberal National Party of Queensland, resigned from the LNP, stating the LNP candidate in the 2021 Stretton state by-election was "let down by a party and leadership that never stands up for anything". In August 2021, he announced he had joined the LDP to run as the party's lead Senate candidate in Queensland at the 2022 Australian federal election. On 16 October 2021, Quilty, Limbrick, and other opposition MPs were ejected from Victorian Parliament for refusing to disclose their vaccination status. After two weeks of exclusion, the MP's submitted their vaccination status on October 28, 2021, in order to return to parliament to oppose the legislative agenda of the government. On 23 November 2021, the LDP announced a preference deal with the United Australia Party in the upcoming Australian elections where each party would encourage its members to choose the other as their second preference. On 24 November 2021 Krystle Mitchell, an acting Senior Sergeant of the Victorian Police who resigned after speaking publicly against enforcing health orders, announced she would be running for Federal Senate with the Liberal Democrats as their second in Victoria. According to The Age, between November 2018 and November 2021, the Liberal Democratic Party's Legislative Council members voted with the Andrews Government's position 22.1% of the time, which was less than the opposition Coalition (28.9%). Due to changes in the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 and a subsequent objection to the party's name by the Liberal Party, the Liberal Democratic Party applied to the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) to change its name to the Liberty and Democracy Party in February 2022 in order to remain registered. The party then withdrew the name change application on 22 March 2022. On 1 April 2022, the AEC gave notice to the party that it would consider deregistering the latter, giving one month for the party to appeal the notice. However, as the writs for the May federal election were issued the following week on 11 April, the party register then would be "frozen" and this meant the party was allowed to contest the election with its current name. On 8 April 2022, Senator Sam McMahon joined the party after defecting from the Country Liberal Party in January. This gave the federal parliamentary representation to the Liberal Democratic Party. McMahon would also be the lead Senate candidate for the party at the May federal election. She was unsuccessful in her election and the party lost parliamentary representation. AEC's consideration to deregister the party continued after the writs for the election were returned in June, and the party was deregistered at the federal level on 19 July 2022. == Policies and views == The LDP states that it adheres to classical liberal, small government and laissez-faire principles coupled with what the party considers as a high regard for individual freedom and individual responsibility. LDP supported policies include: === National Policy === * Opposes government imposed restrictions and mandates curtailing personal freedoms * Support of citizen-initiated referendums, fixed parliamentary terms, recall elections and voluntary voting * Federal budgets which are neither in surplus, nor deficit, but balanced * Support of a 20% flat rate income tax with a $40,000 tax free threshold * Supports voluntary superannuation * Supports freezing and decentralising the minimum wage * Supports utilisation of nuclear energy * Supports decentralising education * Supports free speech and opposes censorship * Opposes mass surveillance and digital identities === Current and past policies and views === * Ending the war on drugs - by legalisation of all drugs that are less harmful than both alcohol and tobacco (for example cannabis) and decriminalisation of all other drugs * Supporting the implementation of pill testing * Legalisation of assisted suicide * Abolition of coercive psychiatry * Ending political correctness and nanny state control (e.g. the now-lifted Sydney lockout laws) * Support of competitive federalism and political decentralisation * Support of extensive privatisation and deregulation: end government ownership of business enterprises including the ABC, SBS, Australia Post, government owned public schools, government owned public hospitals, electricity generation and public transport services * Extensive reduction of taxes and fines, industrial relations regulations and government spending including welfare, health and the military, replacing most with a compulsory superannuation payment to fund social services and compulsory insurance cover for those whose balance does not meet a mandated minimum * Support for commercial off-the-shelf and military off-the-shelf defense acquisitions where possible * Deregulate industry to the greatest extent possible to build its international competitiveness * Support of extensive free markets and free trade * Support of the most efficient and effective electricity generation, with no options off the table * Support of market over government responses to climate change * Opposition to industry subsidies including corporate welfare * Support the relaxation of foreign investment requirements and removal of restrictions against foreign ownership * Call for reform to the anti-dumping legislation * Opening up and removing the locking up of our state forests and national parks and proper management and conservation to prevent bushfires * Support for increasing barriers for immigrants to acquire Australian citizenship * Maximisation of freedom of travel administered by a general immigration tariff on all non-humanitarian immigrants from other nations to replace the existing quota system * Support of free migration agreements with more nations such as the current Australia/New Zealand agreement * Unauthorised arrivals temporarily detained for health and security checks, transparent process for determining refugee status, community release under bail-like conditions while status is determined * Removal of sin taxes (including for alcohol and tobacco) * Equality before the law, including opposition to affirmative action * Support of property owners' rights * Support of motocross, cycling, fishing, bushwalking, hunting, logging, 4WD and shooting rights * Opposition to government-mandated food labelling for religious purposes * Decriminalise means to self-defence (including pepper spray, tasers and firearms under some circumstances) * Restore to the States the power to impose income taxes and other taxes currently reserved to the Commonwealth * Cease all Commonwealth involvement in health and education * Marriage privatisation or getting the government out of the marriage business"Lifestyle Choices". * Some support for Pacific Solution of regional processing of asylum seekers in Nauru and Papua New Guinea"David Leyonhjelm voted moderately for regional processing of asylum seekers". * Exemption for Sikh Australians from mandatory helmet laws * Opposition to the introduction of laws for individual groups, such as Sharia law or Aboriginal law * Opposition to government-funded foreign aid, other than short-term humanitarian relief, in favour of private charity == Election results == === Federal parliament === Senate Election year No. of overall votes % of overall vote No. of overall seats won No. of overall seats +/– 2007 16,942 0.13 — 2010 230,191 1.81 0 2013 523,831 3.91 1 2016 298,915 2.16 0 2019 169,735 1.16 1 2022 340,132 2.26 1 === State parliament === ==== New South Wales ==== Legislative Council Election year No. of overall votes % of overall vote No. of overall seats +/– 2019 96,999 2.18 — 2023 162,755 3.3 1 ==== South Australia ==== Legislative Council Election year No. of overall votes % of overall vote No. of overall seats +/– 2014 6,091 0.6% — 2018 25,956 2.47 — 2022 36,445 3.35 — ==== Victoria ==== Legislative Council Election year No. of overall votes % of overall vote No. of overall seats +/– 2014 104,516 3.06 2018 89,428 2.50 2 2022 99,054 2.64 1 ==== Western Australia ==== Legislative Council Election year No. of overall votes % of overall vote No. of overall seats +/– 2017 23,848 1.77 1 2021 9,218 0.64 1 ==Elected representatives== ===Current=== ====Victorian Legislative Council==== *David Limbrick (2018–2022; 2022–present) ====New South Wales Legislative Council==== * John Ruddick (2023–present) ====Surf Coast Shire Council==== * Paul Barker (2020–present) ====Wodonga City Council==== * Olga Quilty (2020–present) ===Former=== ====Senate==== * David Leyonhjelm (2014–2019) * Duncan Spender (2019) * Sam McMahon (2022) ====Victorian Legislative Council==== * Tim Quilty (2018–2022) ====Western Australia Legislative Council==== *Aaron Stonehouse (2017–2021) ====Campbelltown City Council==== * Clinton Mead (2012–2016) ====East Gippsland Shire Council==== * Ben Buckley (2012–2020) ====North Sydney Council==== * Samuel Gunning (2017–2021) ====Ku-ring-gai Council==== * Jeff Pettett (2012–2017) ====Wodonga City Council==== * Tim Quilty (2016–2018) == Donors == The Australia Institute's 2019 report found that the Liberal Democratic Party had received political donations of $37,311 from pro-gun groups between July 2011 and March 2019. The report contextualises their donations as similar in value to the Nationals, Labor and Country Alliance, whilst being less than those to Katter's Australia Party, the Shooters Party, and the Liberal Party. == See also == * List of political parties in Australia == References == ==External links== *Official website Category:2001 establishments in Australia Category:Classical liberal parties Australia Category:Liberal parties in Australia Category:Libertarian parties Category:Libertarianism in Australia Category:Non-interventionist parties Category:Political parties established in 2001 Category:Political parties in Victoria (state)
|
This is a list of singer-songwriters who write, compose, and perform their own musical material. The list is divided into two sections to differentiate between artists categorized as singer-songwriters and others who do not fall under the definition associated with the genre: * Traditional singer- songwriters * Others who both write songs and sing ==Traditional singer- songwriters== This list enumerates people who record and perform in the traditional singer-songwriter approach. These performers write their own material, accompany themselves on guitar or keyboards, usually perform solo or with limited and understated accompaniment, and are known as much for their songwriting skills as for their performance abilities. This list includes both living and deceased singer-songwriters. ===Argentina=== * Lisandro Abadie * Miguel Abuelo * Carlos Acuña * King África * Oscar Alemán * Marcelo Álvarez * Benjamin Amadeo * Mike Amigorena * Lisandro Aristimuño * Federico Aubele * Axel * Pedro Aznar * Bahiano * Juan Carlos Baglietto * Abel Balbo * Adrián Barilari * Dimi Bass * Daniela Anahi Bessia * Claudio Basso * Alfredo Belusi * Patricio Borghetti * Germán Burgos * Manuel Buzón * Facundo Cabral * Jorge Cafrune * Andrés Calamaro * Carlos Casella * Gustavo Cerati * Tito Climent * Alberto Cortez * Sandro de América * Carlos De Antonis * Jimena Fama * Dora Gález * Charly García * Carlos Gardel * León Gieco * Gilda * Horacio Guarany * Gloria Guzmán * Víctor Heredia * Alejandro Lerner * Luisana Lopilato * Valeria Lynch * Juanita Martínez * :es:Lucas Masciano * Emilia Mernes * Sandra Mihanovich * Amelia Mirel * Ricardo Mollo * Lely Morel * Marcela Morelo * Adrián Otero * Fito Páez * Soledad Pastorutti * Luciano Pereyra * Abel Pintos * Luciana Salazar * Noel Schajris * Patricia Sosa * Luis Alberto Spinetta * Martina Stoessel * Tanguito * Diego Torres * Bren Vaneske * María Elena Walsh * Atahualpa Yupanqui * Miguel Zavaleta ===Australia=== * Peter Allen * Tina Arena * Jimmy Barnes * Sarah Blasko * Eric Bogle * Daryl Braithwaite * Rose Bygrave * Kev Carmody * Cletis Carr * Nick Cave * Ned Collette * Ricki-Lee Coulter * Paul Dempsey * Johnny Diesel * Joe Dolce * Slim Dusty * Bernard Fanning * John Farnham * Bobby Flynn * Robert Forster * Tim Freedman * Corinne Gibbons * Delta Goodrem * Darren Hayes * Missy Higgins * Jarryd James * Paul Kelly * Ben Lee * Dean Lewis * Lior * Alex Lloyd * Robyn Loau * Jessica Mauboy * David McComb * Hugh McDonald * Andrea McEwan * Grant McLennan * Lisa Miller * Kate Miller-Heidke * Tim Minchin * Lisa Mitchell * Benjamin Grant Mitchell * Pete Murray * Olivia Newton-John * Kevin Parker * Paulini * Josh Pyke * James Reyne * Tim Rogers * Xavier Rudd * Saritah * Guy Sebastian * Mark Seymour * Sia * Troye Sivan * Rob Swire * Billy Thorpe * Holly Throsby * Megan Washington * Darlene Zschech ===Austria=== * Wolfgang Ambros * Peter Cornelius * Georg Danzer * Rainhard Fendrich * Sissy Handler * André Heller * Michael Heltau * Udo Jürgens * Anja Plaschg * Willi Resetarits ===Barbados=== *Alison Hinds *Rupee *Shontelle ===Belgium=== * Sam Bettens * Jacques Brel * Ozark Henry * Lara Fabian *Flip Kowlier * Milow * Selah Sue * Stromae ===Bosnia and Hercegovina=== * Kemal Monteno ===Brazil=== * Almir Sater * Jorge Ben Jor * Maria Bethânia * Fernanda Brum * Chico Buarque * Alice Caymmi * Roberto Carlos * Fagner * Ludmila Ferber * Paula Fernandes * Gilberto Gil * João Gilberto * Antônio Carlos Jobim * Tom Jobim * Vinicius de Moraes * Ana Nóbrega * Zé Ramalho * Gabriela Rocha * Angela Ro Ro * Israel Salazar * Sandra de Sá * Sandy * Luan Santana * Nívea Soares * Juliano Son * Ana Paula Valadão * André Valadão * Mariana Valadão * Caetano Veloso * Xuxa * Anitta * Daniela Mercury ===Cambodia=== *Pan Ron *Ros Serey Sothea *Sinn Sisamouth ===Canada=== ====A–J==== *Bryan Adams *Susan Aglukark *Paul Anka *Jann Arden *Tenille Arts *Tal Bachman *Jugpreet Singh Bajwa *Victoria Banks *Jill Barber *Daniel Bélanger *Willie P. Bennett *Moe Berg *Art Bergmann *Justin Bieber *Bif Naked *David Bradstreet *Dean Brody *Jon Brooks *Jim Bryson *Michael Bublé *Basia Bulat *Meryn Cadell *Alessia Cara *Craig Cardiff *Andrew Cash *Alanna Clarke *Tom Cochrane *Bruce Cockburn *Leonard Cohen *Holly Cole *Jason Collett *Stompin' Tom Connors *J.P. Cormier *Rose Cousins *Allison Crowe *Lori Cullen *Amelia Curran *Rick Danko *Mac Demarco *Melanie Doane *Bonnie Dobson *Fefe Dobson *Julie Doiron *Luke Doucet *Alan Doyle *Damhnait Doyle *Drake *Fred Eaglesmith *Kathleen Edwards *Lara Fabian *Stephen Fearing *Feist *Christine Fellows *Ferron *Jeremy Fisher *David Francey *Nelly Furtado *Garou *Joel Gibb *Ariana Gillis *Christian Kit Goguen *Matthew Good *Sebastien Grainger *Jenn Grant *Dallas Green *Jack Grunsky *Emm Gryner *Emily Haines *Sarah Harmer *Hayden *Rob Heath *Dan Hill *Veda Hille *Terry Jacks *Colin James *Carly Rae Jepsen *Steve Jocz *Brad Johner *Alexz Johnson *Sass Jordan ====L–Z==== * Connie Kaldor * James Keelaghan * Chantal Kreviazuk * k.d. lang * Plume Latraverse * Lisa Lavie * Avril Lavigne * Daniel Lavoie * Félix Leclerc * Jean Leloup * Gordon Lightfoot * Lights * Corb Lund * Tara MacLean * Catherine MacLellan * Dan Mangan * Richard Manuel * Amanda Marshall * Melissa McClelland * Eileen McGann * Kate & Anna McGarrigle * Loreena McKennitt * Sarah McLachlan * Holly McNarland * Shawn Mendes * Lynn Miles * Amy Millan * Joni Mitchell * Ruth Moody * Alanis Morissette * Jess Moskaluke * Emilie Mover * Sierra Noble * Mary Margaret O'Hara * Old Man Luedecke * Maren Ord * Blair Packham * Chris Patrick * Carole Pope * Powfu * Jan Randall * Jimmy Rankin * Michel Rivard * Sam Roberts * Garnet Rogers * Stan Rogers * Louis Royer * Buffy Sainte-Marie * John K. Samson * Drew Seeley * Lorraine Segato * Jay Semko * Ron Sexsmith * Jane Siberry * R. Dean Taylor * Tegan and Sara * Tenille Townes * Shania Twain * Ian Tyson * Sylvia Tyson * Martha Wainwright * Rufus Wainwright * Patrick Watson * The Weeknd * David Wiffen * Hawksley Workman * Neil Young * Brigitte Zarie * Joel Zifkin ===Chile=== * Beto Cuevas * Daniel Puente Encina * Gepe * Víctor Jara * Javiera Mena * Ángel Parra * Javiera Parra * Violeta Parra ===Colombia=== * Alci Acosta * Albalucía Ángel * Lucas Arnau * J Balvin * Blessd * Naty Botero * Cabas * Alex Campos * Jorge Celedón * Andrés Cepeda * ChocQuibTown * Silvestre Dangond * Margarita Rosa de Francisco * Diomedes Díaz * Alejo Durán * Andrea Echeverri * Juan Carlos Echeverry * Estéfano * Fonseca * Darío Gómez * Marta Gómez * Leonor Gonzalez Mina * Ivonne Guzmán * Illona * Juanes * Totó la Momposina * Carolina la O * Fanny Lú * Maía * Maluma * Marbelle * Marce * Andrés Mercado * Ericson Alexander Molano * Jorge Oñate * Elkin Ramírez * Valentina Rendón * Reykon * Jery Sandoval * Shakira * Soraya * Ali Stone * Andrés Useche * Jorge Villamizar * Iván Villazón * Carlos Vives * Charlie Zaa * Emiliano Zuleta ===Croatia=== *Arsen Dedić *Oliver Dragojević ===Cuba=== *Albita *Giselle Bellas *Camila Cabello *Osmani García *Pablo Milanés *Silvio Rodríguez ===Czech Republic=== * Jaroslav Hutka * Tomáš Klus * Karel Kryl * Vladimír Merta * Jaromír Nohavica * Karel Plíhal * Vlastimil Třešňák * Xindl X * Markéta Irglová ===Denmark=== * Steffen Brandt * Tina Dico * Michael Falch * Claus Hempler * Christian Hjelm * Søren Huss * C. V. Jørgensen * Juncker * Marie Key * Poul Krebs * Nanna Lüders Jensen * Mads Langer * Kim Larsen * Lars Lilholt * Anne Linnet * Johnny Madsen * Anne Dorte Michelsen * Rasmus Nøhr * Allan Olsen * Naja Rosa * Soluna Samay * Sebastian * Rasmus Seebach * Tommy Seebach * Niels Skousen * Peter Sommer ===Dominican Republic=== *Anaís *Charytín *Juan Luis Guerra *Sandra Zaiter *Santaye ===Egypt=== * Moustafa Amar * Angham * Amr Diab * Mohammad Fouad * Mohamed Hamaki * Tamer Hosny * Amal Maher * Hani Shaker * Sherine * Carmen Suleiman ===El Salvador=== * Álvaro Torres ===Faroe Islands=== * Eivør * Guðrið Hansdóttir * Teitur Lassen ===Finland=== * Ismo Alanko * Chisu * Jippu * J. Karjalainen * Anssi Kela * Mikko Kuustonen * Juice Leskinen * Jarkko Martikainen * Jonna Tervomaa * Maija Vilkkumaa ===France=== * Dominique A * Charles Aznavour * Barbara * Georges Brassens * Carla Bruni * Francis Cabrel * Camille * Louis Chedid * Yves Duteil * Mylène Farmer * Jean Ferrat * Léo Ferré * Nino Ferrer * Thomas Fersen * Serge Gainsbourg * Jean-Jacques Goldman * Jacques Higelin * Alexis HK * Juliette * Bernard Lavilliers * Robert Lelièvre * Nolwenn Leroy * Albert Marcœur * Nina Morato * Georges Moustaki * Claude Nougaro * Pierre Perret * Michel Polnareff * Renaud * Véronique Sanson * Mano Solo * Alain Souchon * Hubert-Félix Thiéfaine * Boris Vian * Laurent Voulzy * Indila * Willy William ===Georgia=== *Katie Melua ===Germany=== * Ayọ * Wolf Biermann * Clemens Bittlinger * Clueso * Funny van Dannen * Franz Josef Degenhardt *Kurt Demmler * Dota * Siegfried Fietz * Rob Georg * Herbert Grönemeyer * Klaus Hoffmann * Hanns Dieter Hüsch * Gisbert zu Knyphausen * Udo Lindenberg * Peter Maffay * Reinhard Mey * Marius Müller-Westernhagen * Astrid North * Markus Rill * Martin Gotthard Schneider * Olli Schulz * Manfred Siebald * Hannes Wader * Konstantin Wecker * Johanna Zeul * Joana Zimmer ===Greece=== * Haris Alexiou * Andriana Babali * George Dalaras * Michalis Hatzigiannis * Lavrentis Machairitsas * Vasilis Papakonstantinou * Demis Roussos ===Guatemala=== * Ricardo Arjona * Gaby Moreno * Shery ===Iceland=== * Ólöf Arnalds * Ásgeir Trausti * Björk * Jónsi * Lay Low * Megas * Emilíana Torrini * Svavar Knútur * Jófríður Ákadóttir ===India=== * AP Dhillon * Gurinder Gill * Kaka (Punjabi singer) * Amrit Maan * Talat Aziz * Badshah * Jugpreet Singh Bajwa * S. P. Balasubrahmanyam * Rekha Bhardwaj * Vishal Bhardwaj * Dilpreet Bhatia * Asha Bhonsle * Sunidhi Chauhan * Alisha Chinai * Vishal Dadlani * Manna Dey * Zubeen Garg * Gur Sidhu * Jassa Dhillon * Shreya Ghoshal * Gippy Grewal * Hariharan * Ilaiyaraaja * Mahalaxmi Iyer * Neha Kakkar * Suman Kalyanpur * Hard Kaur * Harshdeep Kaur * Kishor Kumar * Babbu Maan * Shankar Mahadevan * Armaan Malik * Anushka Manchanda * Lata Mangeshkar * Talat Mehmood * Salim Merchant * Palak Muchhal * Mukesh * Udit Narayan * Sonu Nigam * Damodar Raao * Mohammad Rafi * A. R. Rahman * Tochi Raina * Guru Randhawa * Anirudh Ravichander * Himesh Reshammiya * Anupam Roy * Kumar Sanu * Shaan * Arijit Singh * Honey Singh * Jagjit Singh * Sukhwinder Singh * Kavita Subramaniam * Pankaj Udhas * Usha Uthup * Suresh Wadkar * Alka Yagnik * K. J. Yesudas * Sidhu Moose Wala * Jass Manak ===Indonesia=== * Ebiet G Ade * Maudy Ayunda * Iwan Fals * Fariz RM * Melly Goeslaw * Gombloh * Rhoma Irama * Harry Roesli * Sandhy Sondoro * Yockie Suryoprayogo ===Iran=== * Shadmehr Aghili * Faramarz Aslani * Mohammad Esfahani * Shahyar Ghanbari * Hichkas * Shahram Nazeri * Mohammad Reza Shajarian * Siavash Ghomayshi * Reza Yazdani * Mohsen Yeganeh ===Ireland=== * Luka Bloom * Bono * Paul Brady * Paddy Casey * Mic Christopher * Andrea Corr * Sharon Corr * Damien Dempsey * Janet Devlin * EDEN * Mick Flannery * Dave Flynn * Mark Geary * Lisa Hannigan * Glen Hansard * Frank Harte * Gemma Hayes * Margaret Healy * Christie Hennessy * David Hopkins * Niall Horan * Hozier * Andy Irvine * Katie Kim * Vyvienne Long * Phil Lynott * Shane MacGowan * James Vincent McMorrow * Christy Moore * Van Morrison * Johnny Moynihan * Mundy *Maura O'Connell * Sinéad O'Connor * Ted O'Neill * Declan O'Rourke * Fionn Regan * Damien Rice * Ann Scott * Chris Singleton * Andy White ===Israel=== * Chava Alberstein * Meir Ariel * Shlomo Artzi * Izhar Ashdot * Ehud Banai * David Broza * Matti Caspi * Ilan Chester * Arik Einstein * Aviv Geffen * Shlomo Gronich * Shalom Hanoch * Achinoam Nini * Idan Raichel * Naomi Shemer * Ariel Zilber ===Italy=== * Alice * Biagio Antonacci * Claudio Baglioni * Franco Battiato * Lucio Battisti * Edoardo Bennato * Samuele Bersani * Andrea Bocelli * Angelo Branduardi * Marianna Cataldi * Adriano Celentano * Chiara Civello * Riccardo Cocciante * Carmen Consoli * Cesare Cremonini * Lucio Dalla * Pino Daniele * Fabrizio De André * Francesco De Gregori * Dolcenera * Elisa * Sergio Endrigo * Gabriella Ferri * Tiziano Ferro * Zucchero Fornaciari * Ivano Fossati * Giorgio Gaber * Francesco Guccini * Jovanotti * Luciano Ligabue * Nada * Gianna Nannini * Mia Martini * Domenico Modugno * Gianni Morandi * Gino Paoli * Laura Pausini * Rita Pavone * Eros Ramazzotti * Stefano Righi * Vasco Rossi * Luigi Tenco * Roberto Vecchioni * Antonello Venditti ===Jamaica=== * Alaine * Buju Banton * Pato Banton * Burning Spear * Jimmy Cliff * Beres Hammond * Toots Hibbert * Barrington Levy * Bob Marley * Damian Marley * Rita Marley * Skip Marley * Stephen Marley * Ziggy Marley * Sizzla ===Lebanon=== * Joseph Attieh * David M. Bailey * Lydia Canaan * IJK === Lithuania === * Vytautas Kernagis === Malaysia === * Sudirman Arshad * Zee Avi * Vince Chong * M. Nasir * P. Ramlee * Shanon Shah * Pete Teo * Yuna * Azmyl Yunor * Meor Aziddin Yusof * Alyah ===Malta=== * Walter Micallef ===Mexico=== * Roberto Cantoral * Óscar Chávez * Lolita de la Colina * Fernando Delgadillo * Emmanuel * Rubén Fuentes * Ana Gabriel * Juan Gabriel * María Grever * Saúl Hernández * José Alfredo Jiménez * Agustín Lara * Armando Manzanero * Carla Morrison * Sofía Reyes * Cuco Sánchez * Joan Sebastian * Marco Antonio Solís * Aleks Syntek * Lynda Thomas * Consuelo Velázquez * Julieta Venegas ===Moldova=== * Dan Balan * Pavel Stratan ===Netherlands=== * Stevie Ann * Frank Boeijen * Anneke van Giersbergen * Marike Jager * Laura Jansen * Loona * Lucky Fonz III * Nielson * Ntjam Rosie * Ede Staal * Jack Jersey * Guus Meeuwis * Anouk Teeuwe * Herman van Veen * Robert Westerholt ===New Zealand=== *Aaradhna *Megan Alatini *Daniel Bedingfield *Carly Binding *Jackie Clarke *Ashely Cooper *Joe Cotton *Annie Crummer *Martin Curtis *Lynette Diaz *Dave Dobbyn *Liam Finn *Neil Finn *Tim Finn *Brooke Fraser *Che Fu *Rob Guest *Luke Hurley *Greg Johnson *Phil Judd *David Kilgour *Nathan King *Ladyhawke *Shona Laing *Lorde *Ben Lummis *Jamie McDell *Fiona McDonald *Anika Moa *Howard Morrison *Tex Morton *John Rowles *Bic Runga *Boh Runga *Hollie Smith *Frankie Stevens *Tiki Taane *Marcus Turner *Keith Urban *Rosita Vai *Hayley Westenra *Annie Whittle ===Nigeria=== * Asake * Jahdiel * Malcolm Guite * Muma Gee * Nneka * Onyeka Onwenu * Omawumi * Tiwa Savage ===Norway=== * Aurora Aksnes * Julie Bergan * Kari Bremnes * Ane Brun * Thomas Dybdahl * Torgunn Flaten * Magne Furuholmen * Christine Guldbrandsen * Morten Harket * Monica Heldal * Thom Hell * William Hut * Alexandra Joner * Sissel Kyrkjebø * Marit Larsen * Sondre Lerche * Espen Lind * Magnet (born Even Johansen) * Marcus & Martinus (American singers) * Lene Marlin * Maria Mena * Moddi * Silje Nergaard * Lillebjørn Nilsen * Siri Nilsen * Janove Ottesen * Robert Post * Marion Ravn * Kari Rueslåtten * Astrid S * Iselin Solheim * Susanne Sundfør * Paul Waaktaar-Savoy * Vegard Ylvisåker * Bertine Zetlitz ===Panama=== * Joey Montana ===Peru=== * Chabuca Granda * Gian Marco * Pedro Suarez Vertiz === Philippines=== * Nilo Alcala * Ogie Alcasid * Jose Mari Chan * Sharon Cuneta * Glaiza de Castro * Rodel Naval * Robin Nievera * Nityalila * Rico J. Puno * Max Surban * Rey Valera * Yoyoy Villame ===Poland=== * Edyta Bartosiewicz *Edyta Górniak * Katy Carr * Jacek Kaczmarski *Kasia Moś ===Portugal=== * Zeca Afonso * Leonor Andrade * Tiago Bettencourt * David Carreira * Mickael Carreira * Fernando Daniel * Carolina Deslandes * Sérgio Godinho * David Fonseca * Rita Guerra * Mariza * Ana Moura * Adriano Correia de Oliveira * Jorge Palma * Diogo Piçarra * Mia Rose * José Carlos Ary dos Santos * Paulo Sousa * JP Simões * Raquel Tavares * Fernando Tordo * Vitorino * António Zambujo ===Puerto Rico=== * Zayra Alvarez * Tito Auger * Puchi Balseiro * Obie Bermúdez * Americo Boschetti * Lou Briel * Roy Brown * Antonio Cabán Vale * Nano Cabrera * Bobby Capó * Vicente Carattini * Santos Colón * Elvis Crespo * Tony Croatto * Bobby Cruz * Tite Curet Alonso * Johnathan Dwayne * Rafi Escudero * Noel Estrada * Farruko * José Feliciano * Luis Fonsi * Kany García * Gustavo Laureano * Héctor Lavoe * Ricky Martin * Yolandita Monge * Glenn Monroig * Ednita Nazario * Noelia * José Nogueras * Don Omar * Angel "Cuco" Peña * Ignacio Peña * Carlos Ponce * Sylvia Rexach * Julito Rodríguez * Dräco Rosa * Zoraida Santiago * Myrta Silva * Olga Tañón * Tommy Torres * Juan Vélez * Wilkins Vélez * Yaire * Daddy Yankee * Zeny & Zory ===Romania=== * Akcent * Andreea Banica * Alexandra Stan * Antonia Iacobescu * Inna * 3 Sud Est * DJ Project * Deepcentral * Delia Matache * Morandi * Marius Moga * Edward Maya * Lora ===Russia=== * Veronika Dolina * Yanka Dyagileva * Alexander Gorodnitsky * Lena Katina * Eduard Khil * Andrei Makarevich * Sergey Nikitin * Bulat Okudzhava * Viktor Tsoi * Yuri Vizbor * Vladimir Vysotsky ===Slovakia=== * Celeste Buckingham * Marika Gombitová * Vašo Patejdl * Dara Rolins * Dežo Ursiny ===South Africa=== * Koos du Plessis * Jennifer Ferguson * Anton Goosen * Sonja Herholdt * Lira * Steve Kekana * Jim Neversink * Karen Zoid ===Spain=== * Manuel Alejandro * Pablo Alborán * Luis Eduardo Aute * María del Mar Bonet * Miguel Bosé * Nino Bravo * Diego El Cigala * Els Setze Jutges * Manolo Garcia * Paco Ibañez * Enrique Iglesias * Julio Iglesias * Lluís Llach * Victor Manuel * Roger Mas * Antonio Orozco * Tomeu Penya * José Luis Perales * Porta * Raimon * Joaquín Sabina * Joan Manuel Serrat * Camilo Sesto * Jaume Sisa * Álex Ubago ===Sri Lanka=== * Desmond Kelly * Nimal Mendis * Clarence Wijewardena ===Sweden=== * PewDiePie * Joel Berghult * Basshunter * Tommy Blom * Mikael Åkerfeldt * Fred Åkerström * Ulla Andersson * Tomas Andersson Wij * AronChupa * Kristofer Åström * Thomas Di Leva * Nicolai Dunger * Marie Fredriksson * Per Gessle * José González * Nanne Grönvall * Håkan Hellström * Tommy Karevik * Christian Kjellvander * Laleh * Jens Lekman * Göran Lagerberg * Danne Larsson * Zara Larsson * Lykke Li * Lisa Miskovsky * Linn Berggren * Stina Nordenstam * Povel Ramel * Robyn * Ilya Salmanzadeh * Stefan Sundström * Evert Taube * Isa Tengblad * Anna Ternheim * Joakim Thåström * Cornelis Vreeswijk * Lars Winnerbäck * Sophie Zelmani ===Switzerland=== * Bastian Baker * David Buzzi * Simone Drexel * Mélanie René ===United Kingdom=== ====A–L==== *Adele *Lily Allen *Ian Anderson *Harvey Andrews *Gabrielle Aplin *Lauren Aquilina *Joan Armatrading *Rick Astley *Kevin Ayers *Gary Barlow *Syd Barrett *Rich Batsford *James Bay *Peter Bellamy *Belouis Some *Matt Bigland *James Blunt *David Bowie *Robbie Boyd *Mike Batt *Billy Bragg *Sarah Brightman *Andy Brown *Melanie Brown *Kate Bush *Euros Childs *Melanie C *Eric Clapton *Dodie Clark *Gary Clark *Lloyd Cole *JP Cooper *Jessica Cornish *Elvis Costello *Barns Courtney *Beverley Craven *Charlotte Gordon Cumming *Stanley J. Damerell *Paul Stuart Davies *Ray Davies *Alex Day *Sandy Denny *Chris de Burgh *Lynsey de Paul *Marina Diamandis *Dido *Siobhán Donaghy *Donovan *Josh Doyle *Nick Drake *Duffy *Ian Dury *Perrie Edwards *Emmy the Great *Ella Eyre *George Ezra *Marianne Faithfull *Newton Faulkner *Lena Fiagbe *Kat Flint *Ryan Fletcher *Andi Fraggs *Barry Gibb *Maurice Gibb *David Gilmour *David Gray *Alistair Griffin *Malcolm Guite *Noel Gallagher *Mick Greenwood *Albert Hammond *Ed Harcourt *Nick Harper *Roy Harper *George Harrison *PJ Harvey *Justin Hayward *Imogen Heap *Paul Heaton *Ella Henderson *Ant Henson *Boo Hewerdine *Robyn Hitchcock *Trevor Horn *Ben Howard *HRVY *Jamelia *Bert Jansch *Sadie Jemmett *Elton John *Tom Jones *Wizz Jones *Martyn Joseph *Nik Kershaw *Wilson T. King *Beverley Knight *Steve Knightley *Charlie Landsborough *John Lennon *Adam Leonard *Al Lewis *Leona Lewis *Cher Lloyd *John Lodge *Jez Lowe *Nick Lowe ====M–Z==== *Ewan MacColl *Kirsty MacColl *Amy Macdonald *Emily Maguire *Zayn Malik *Laura Marling *Johnny Marr *Michael Marra *Steve Marriott *John Martyn *Brian May *Conor Maynard *Paul McCartney *Shelagh McDonald *Charlie McDonnell *Rory McLeod *Tom McRae *Ralph McTell *Mika *Gary Moore *James Morrison *Morrissey *Alexi Murdoch *Graham Nash *Nina Nesbitt *Anthony Newley *John Newman *Sheila Nicholls *Heather Nova *Ivor Novello *Gilbert O'Sullivan *Tom Odell *Beth Orton *Ozzy Osbourne *Mark Owen *Nerina Pallot *Alex Parks *Passenger *Liam Payne *Mike Pinder *Leigh-Anne Pinnock *Karen Poole *Shelly Poole *Mal Pope *Paul Poulton *Brian Protheroe *Camille Purcell *Gerry Rafferty *Ricky Ross *Kate Rusby *Emeli Sandé *Polly Scattergood *Jay Sean *Ed Sheeran *Labi Siffre *Lucie Silvas *Robert Smith *Sam Smith *David Sneddon *Yusuf Islam (formerly Cat Stevens) *Al Stewart *Joe Strummer *Harry Styles *Dave Swarbrick *Roger Taylor *Jade Thirlwall *Sandi Thom *Ray Thomas *Raye *Richard Thompson *Teddy Thompson *Tanita Tikaram *Steve Tilston *Louis Tomlinson *KT Tunstall *Frank Turner *Bonnie Tyler *Bailey Tzuke *Judie Tzuke *Karl Wallinger *Clifford T. Ward *Shayne Ward *Roger Waters *Helen Watson *Robbie Williams *Robin Williamson *Amy Winehouse *Robert Wyatt *Pete Wylie *Sami Yusuf ===United States=== ====A–B==== *David Ackles *Ryan Adams *Trace Adkins *Julien Aklei *Steve Albini *Jason Aldean *Deborah Allen *Terry Allen *GG Allin *Mose Allison *Gregg Allman *Peter Alsop *Tori Amos *Anastacia *Eric Anders *Eric Andersen *Keith Anderson *Laurie Anderson *Theresa Andersson *Jill Andrews *Brooke Annibale *Fiona Apple *Joseph Arthur *Ashanti *Ashe *Rodney Atkins *Patti Austin *Gene Autry *Hoyt Axton *Aubrey Ayala *Dan Avidan *Steve Azar *Erykah Badu *Joan Baez *David M. Bailey *Julien Baker *Devendra Banhart *Sara Bareilles *Geoff Bartley *Steve Baxter *David Bazan *Beck *Drake Bell *Rita Bell *Vince Bell *Giselle Bellas *Alec Benjamin *Samm Bennett *Dierks Bentley *Matraca Berg *Dan Bern *Beyoncé *Jim Bianco *Eric Bibb *Diane Birch *Andrew Bird *Tony Bird *Alyse Black *Clint Black *Frank Black *Terry Blade *Janet Blair *Norman Blake *David Blue *Hugh Blumenfeld *Suzy Bogguss *Gordon Bok *Michael Bowers *Crystal Bowersox *Ralston Bowles *Soulja Boy *Michelle Branch *Jesse Brand *Chuck Brodsky *David Bromberg *Holly Brook *Jonatha Brooke *Garth Brooks *Chris Brown *Greg Brown *Jackson Browne *Peabo Bryson *Jeff Buckley *Tim Buckley *T-Bone Burnett *Jonathan Byrd ====C–D==== *Colbie Caillat *J.J. Cale *Andrew Calhoun *Terry Callier *Glen Campbell *Kate Campbell *Laura Cantrell *Mariah Carey *Brandi Carlile *Hayes Carll *Vanessa Carlton *Craig Carothers *Mary Chapin Carpenter *Adam Carroll *Dee Carstensen *Dave Carter *June Carter *Neko Case *Peter Case *Johnny Cash *Rosanne Cash *Harry Chapin *Beth Nielsen Chapman *Tracy Chapman *Vic Chesnutt *Frank Christian *Lou Christie *Eric Church *Ciara *Annie Clark *Gene Clark *Kelly Clarkson *Guy Clark *Slaid Cleaves *Anita Cochran *Marc Cohn *Paula Cole *Judy Collins *Lui Collins *Shawn Colvin *Harry Connick Jr. *Connie Converse *David Cook *Sam Cooke *Alice Cooper *Chris Cornell *Matt Costa *Elizabeth Cotten *Ingrid Croce *Jim Croce *Dash Crofts *David Crosby *Christopher Cross *Mike Cross *Sheryl Crow *Rodney Crowell *Bobbie Cryner *Catie Curtis *Chelsea Cutler *Billy Ray Cyrus *Miley Cyrus *Noah Cyrus *Vernon Dalhart *Sean Danielsen *Glenn Danzig *Gail Davies *Kimya Dawson *Grey DeLisle *Kris Delmhorst *Lana Del Rey *Rebekah Del Rio *Iris DeMent *Jason Derulo *John Denver *Neil Diamond *Ani DiFranco *Maria D'Luz *Mike Doughty *Gregory Douglass *Connie Dover *The-Dream *Marshall Drew *DW (Dave) Drouillard *Bob Dylan *Jakob Dylan ====E–G==== *Kate Earl *Stacey Earle *Justin Townes Earle *Steve Earle *Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds *Jonathan Edwards *Billie Eilish *Mark Erelli *Alejandro Escovedo *Carmen Espinoza-Rodriquez *Melissa Etheridge *Richard Fariña *Melissa Ferrick *Roberta Flack *Dan Fogelberg *John Fogerty *Ben Folds *Keith Follesé *Steve Forbert *Jon Foreman *Ruthie Foster *Jeffrey Foucault *Michael Fracasso *Black Francis *Jackson C. Frank *Bob Franke *Carole Fredericks *Glenn Frey *Dean Friedman *Lefty Frizzell *Lady Gaga *Noel Gallagher *Annie Gallup *Timothy Garon *Mary Gauthier *Marvin Gaye *Teddy Geiger *Natalie Gelman *Daughn Gibson *Vance Gilbert *Vince Gill *Dominique Gizelle *Lotti Golden *Gabrielle Goodman *Steve Goodman *Lesley Gore *John Gorka *Nick Granato *Jackie Greene *Patty Griffin *Nanci Griffith *Jenn Grinels *Arlo Guthrie *Sarah Lee Guthrie *Woody Guthrie *Gwendolyn ====H–J==== *Merle Haggard *Tom T. Hall *Halsey *Kristy Hanson *Tim Hardin *Jack Hardy *Ben Harper *Ciara Harris *Emmylou Harris *Jesse Harris *Debbie Harry *Beth Hart *John Hartford *Juliana Hatfield *Richie Havens *Ted Hawkins *Hunter Hayes *Jimi Hendrix *Arin Hanson *Terri Hendrix *Don Henley *Caroline Herring *Ari Hest *James Hetfield *John Hiatt *Sara Hickman *Lauryn Hill *Chris Hillman *Anne Hills *Keri Hilson *Tyler Hilton *Tish Hinojosa *Will Hoge *Malcolm Holcombe *J. Holiday *Cisco Houston *Bob Howard *Grayson Hugh *Tim Hughes *Sierra Hull *Meg Hutchinson *Walter Hyatt *Janis Ian *India.Arie *James Ingram *David Ippolito *Allison Iraheta *Iron & Wine *Chris Isaak *Gregory Alan Isakov *Bon Iver *Carl Jackson *Janet Jackson *Jermaine Jackson *Michael Jackson *Avi Jacob *Nicky Jam *Brendan James *Sarah Jarosz *Jaymay *Nikki Jean *Stephan Jenkins *Mason Jennings *Waylon Jennings *Molly Jenson *Justin Jesso *Jewel *Eilen Jewell *Kari Jobe *Billy Joel *Jack Johnson *Jamey Johnson *Freedy Johnston *Joshua Scott Jones *Norah Jones *Sharon Jones *Montell Jordan *Simon Joyner *Gary Jules *Tyler Joseph ====K–L==== *Si Kahn *Kieran Kane *Lucy Kaplansky *Kashif *Mat Kearney *Robert Earl Keen *Marianne Keith *Toby Keith *Kelis *Malcolm David Kelley *Ruston Kelly *R. Kelly *Tori Kelly *Alicia Keys *Monica Kim *Carole King *Charles E. King *Claude King *Elle King *Terry Kirkman *Sonya Kitchell *Charles Michael Kittridge *Hayley Kiyoko *"Spider" John Koerner *Matthew Koma *Nikhil Korula *Mark Kozelek *Alison Krauss *Kris Kristofferson *Lenny Kravitz *Ben Kweller *Jimmy LaFave *Miranda Lambert *Ray LaMontagne *Justin Lanning *Patty Larkin *Jim Lauderdale *Lauv *Christine Lavin *Scott Law *Lead Belly *Amos Lee *Amy Lee *Tom Lehrer *Bethany Joy Lenz *David Levin *Blake Lewis *Bob Lind *Lisa Loeb *Kenny Loggins *Demi Lovato *Laura Love *Karen Lovely *Lyle Lovett *Lera Lynn *Lazer Lloyd ====M–N==== *Rod MacDonald *Dougie MacLean *Bill Madden *Martie Maguire *Taj Mahal *Sananda Maitreya *David Mallett *Michelle Malone *Melissa Manchester *Barry Mann *AmberRose Marie *Teena Marie *Bruno Mars *Bob Martin *Melanie Martinez *Richard Marx *Dana Mase *Michael Masser *Kathy Mattea *Nanette Maxine *Heather Maxwell *John Mayer *Curtis Mayfield *Parker McCollum *Jennette McCurdy *Country Joe McDonald *Reba McEntire *Tim McGraw *Roger McGuinn *Nellie McKay *Bonnie McKee *Lori McKenna *Erin McKeown *Rod McKuen *Don McLean *James McMurtry *Melanie *Bridgit Mendler *Idina Menzel *Michael J. Merenda, Jr. *Tift Merritt *Pia Mia *Julia Michaels *Ingrid Michaelson *Bea Miller *Julie Miller *Lin-Manuel Miranda *Jim Messina *Anaïs Mitchell *Keb' Mo' *Moby *Janelle Monáe *Ben Moody *Mandy Moore *Allison Moorer *Gurf Morlix *Bill Morrissey *Jason Mraz *Shawn Mullins *Peter Mulvey *Jimmy Murphy *Michael Martin Murphey *Kacey Musgraves *Anna Nalick *Graham Nash *Leigh Nash *Nina Nastasia *Matt Nathanson *Holly Near *Fred Neil *Willie Nelson * Ricky Nelson *Jennifer Nettles *Mickey Newbury *Carrie Newcomer *Randy Newman *Joanna Newsom *Stevie Nicks *Britt Nicole *Willie Nile *Harry Nilsson *Keri Noble *Noname *The Notorious B.I.G. *Bradley Nowell *Laura Nyro ====O–R==== *Conor Oberst *Olivia O'Brien *Tim O'Brien *Phil Ochs *Finneas O'Connell *Aoife O'Donovan *Will Oldham *Tony Oller *David Olney *Johnny Otis *Faith Page *Jim Page *Brad Paisley *Dolly Parton *Ellis Paul *Tom Paxton *Johnny Paycheck *Herb Pedersen *Sarah Pedinotti *Yolanda Pérez *Katy Perry *Pierce Pettis *Madeleine Peyroux *Liz Phair *Kelly Joe Phelps *Grant-Lee Phillips *Sam Phillips *Shawn Phillips *Utah Phillips *Rod Picott *Pitbull *Gene Pitney *Doc Pomus *Cassadee Pope *Catherine Porter *Willy Porter *Mike Posner *Grace Potter *Elvis Presley *Tristan Prettyman *Dory Previn *Toni Price *Prince *John Prine *Chuck Prophet *Charlie Puth *Top Quality *Joshua Radin *Bonnie Raitt *Tony Ramey *Larry Ramos *Willis Alan Ramsey *Carmino Ravosa *Otis Redding *Ann Reed *Lou Reed *Bebe Rexha *Trent Reznor *Kim Richey *Jonathan Richman *Amy Rigby *Rihanna *Josh Ritter *JT Roach *Carson Robison *Zack de la Rocha *Jimmie Rodgers *Olivia Rodrigo *Sixto Rodriguez *Henry Rollins *Dräco Rosa *Raina Rose *Emmy Rossum *Josh Rouse *David Rovics *Peter Rowan *Darius Rucker *Todd Rundgren *Tom Rush *Tom Russell ====S–T==== *Rachael Sage *Doug Sahm *Richie Sambora *Martha Scanlan *Marc Scibilia *Darrell Scott *Dan Seals *Jim Seals *John Sebastian *Pebe Sebert *Neil Sedaka *Pete Seeger *Martin Sexton *Tupac Shakur *Maia Sharp *Billy Joe Shaver *Jules Shear *Duncan Sheik *Blake Shelton *Vonda Shepard *Richard Shindell *Michelle Shocked *Paul Siebel *Paul Simon *Judee Sill *Nina Simone *Matt Simons *Sisqó *Ricky Skaggs *Patrick Sky *Megan Slankard *P. F. Sloan *Sasha Alex Sloan *Darden Smith *Elliott Smith *Michael Smith *Patti Smith *Willow Smith *Chris Smither *Todd Snider *Phoebe Snow *Jill Sobule *Ben Sollee *Trey Songz *Jo-El Sonnier *Soraya *Regina Spektor *Aaron Sprinkle *Bill Staines *Chris Stapleton *David Steinhart *Colin Stetson *Sufjan Stevens *John Stewart *Wynn Stewart *Stephen Stills *Maria Straub *Billy Strings *Marty Stuart *Patrick Stump *Alison Sudol *Gene Summers *Patrick Swayze *Taylor Swift *Raven-Symoné *SZA *Corey Taylor *Eric Taylor *James Taylor *Livingston Taylor *Louise Taylor *Ryan Tedder *Jack Tempchin *Chloe Temtchine *Vienna Teng *Chris Thile *Robin Thicke *Bryson Tiller *Justin Timberlake *Rob Thomas *Chris Tomlin *Meghan Trainor *Alex Turner *Shania Twain *Steven Tyler ====U–Z==== *Usher *Grace VanderWaal *Guy Van Duser *Dave Van Ronk *Townes Van Zandt *Phil Vassar *Vassy *Stoll Vaughan *Suzanne Vega *Laura Veirs *Justin Vernon *John Vesely *Jack Vidgen *Rhonda Vincent *Eric Von Schmidt *Rocky Votolato *Loudon Wainwright III *Sloan Wainwright *Tom Waits *Butch Walker *Jerry Jeff Walker *Summer Walker *M. Ward *Linda Waterfall *Doc Watson *Lil Wayne *Gillian Welch *Kevin Welch *Susan Werner *Matt Wertz *Tierra Whack *Cheryl Wheeler *Erica Wheeler *Brooke White *Jack White *Josh White *Maurice White *Chris Whitley *David Wilcox *Brooks Williams *Dar Williams *Don Williams *Geoffrey Williams *Hank Williams *Hank Williams Jr. *Keller Williams *Lucinda Williams *Pharrell Williams *Victoria Williams *Cris Williamson *Gretchen Wilson *Jesse Winchester *Cody Wise *Bill Withers *Denison Witmer *Jim Wolf *Kate Wolf *Bobby Womack *Bill Wurtz *Juliet Wyers *Rachael Yamagata *Jim Yester *Dwight Yoakam *Jesse Colin Young *Neil Young *Steve Young *Frank Zappa *Mirah Yom Tov Zeitlyn *Steven Zelin *Warren Zevon *Jeremy Zucker *Natalia Zukerman ===Venezuela=== *Mirla Castellanos *Ilan Chester *Guillermo Dávila *Ricardo Montaner *Jose Luis Rodriguez *Aldemaro Romero *Franco De Vita ==Others who both write songs and sing== Following are performers who are not singer-songwriters in the traditional sense, but who both write and perform songs in other genres. This includes artists known more prominently as members of bands and not primarily as soloists. ===Australia=== *Tina Arena *Sia *Iggy Azalea *John Butler *Kasey Chambers *Michael Hutchence *Daniel Johns *Jessica Mauboy *Anne McCue *Kylie Minogue *Bon Scott *Guy Sebastian *Cody Simpson *Rob Swire *Angus and Julia Stone ===Bosnia And Herzegovina=== *Dino Merlin ===Canada=== *Bryan Adams *Melissa Auf der Maur *Justin Bieber *Matthew Good *Alexz Johnson *Daniel Lanois *James LaBrie *Geddy Lee *Gordon Lightfoot *Shawn Mendes *Alanis Morissette *Alannah Myles *Carl Newman *Aldo Nova *Robbie Robertson *Buffy Sainte-Marie *Skye Sweetnam *David Usher *Neil Young *Alessia Cara ===Chile=== *Tom Araya ===Croatia=== *Darko Rundek *Zlatan Stipišić Gibonni *Branimir Štulić ===China=== *Zhang Yixing ===Denmark=== * Alberte * Sys Bjerre * Maggie Björklund * Burhan G * Erika de Casier * Tim Christensen * Coco O. * Anna David * Dicte * Aura Dione * Fallulah * Lukas Forchhammer * Emmelie de Forest * Troels Gustavsen * Hugo Helmig * Thomas Helmig * Caroline Henderson * Hjalmar * Thomas Holm * Lars H.U.G. * Karen Jønsson * King Diamond * Jeppe Laursen * Sebastian Lind * Kwamie Liv * Simon Kvamm * Medina * Joey Moe * Myrkur * MØ * Oh Land * Agnes Obel * Jascha Richter * Pernille Rosendahl * Natasja Saad * Søren Sko * Kira Skov * Mike Tramp * Sune Rose Wagner * Rasmus Walter * Tue West * Karl William * Xander ===Finland=== * Jouni Hynynen * Jyrki 69 * Andy McCoy * Timo Rautiainen * Gösta Sundqvist * Timo Tolkki * Ville Valo * Toni Wirtanen * Lauri Ylonen ===France=== * Bernard Bonvoisin * Étienne Daho * Zazie ===Germany=== *Udo Dirkschneider *Max Koffler *Klaus Meine ===Hong Kong=== *George Lam ===Iceland=== *Bjork ===India=== *Babbu Maan *A. R. Rahman ===Ireland=== *Bono *Enya *Órla Fallon *Lynn Hilary *Niall Horan === Italy === * Stefano Righi * Zucchero ===Japan=== *Aimer *Mao Abe *Aiko *Angela Aki *Yūko Andō *Chara *Cocco *CooRie *Joe Inoue *Kurumi Enomoto *Masaharu Fukuyama *Gackt *Ayumi Hamasaki *Motohiro Hata *Megumi Hinata *Ken Hirai *Mayumi Horikawa *Hyde *Leo Ieiri *Mari Iijima *Koshi Inaba *Yōsui Inoue *Shigeru Izumiya *Ai Kawashima *Hiroshi Kitadani *Kokia *Kotringo *Koda Kumi *Mai Kuraki *Keisuke Kuwata *Masato Hayakawa *Olivia Lufkin *Noriyuki Makihara *Yumi Matsutoya *Miwa *Yui Mizuno *Showtaro Morikubo *Miyuki Nakajima *Yuto Nakajima *Uri Nakayama *Haru Nemuri *Sakurako Ohara *Tamio Okuda *Chihiro Onitsuka *Ai Otsuka *Yuki Saito *Maaya Sakamoto *Jun Shibata *Ringo Shiina *Akiko Shikata *SoulJa *Shikao Suga *Yuya Takaki *Yukihide Takekawa *Mariya Takeuchi *Hikaru Utada *Hitomi Yaida *Etsuko Yakushimaru *Maria Yamamoto *Tatsuro Yamashita *Takuro Yoshida *Yui ===Malaysia=== *Yuna ===New Zealand=== *Liam Finn *Neil Finn *Tim Finn *Lorde *Jamie McDell *Bic Runga *Hollie Smith *Stan Walker *Hayley Westenra ===Nigeria=== *Muma Gee *Niyola *Waje ===Pakistan=== *Ali Baba Khan *Bilal Saeed *Salman Ahmad *Ali Azmat *Zeek Afridi *Humaira Arshad *Nadia Ali *Atif Aslam *Iqbal Bano *Sara Haider *Komal Rizvi *Haroon *Mehdi Hassan *Ahmed Jahanzeb *Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan *Ali Zafar ===Philippines=== *Dong Abay *Freddie Aguilar *Ogie Alcasid *Cynthia Alexander *Barbie Almalbis *Joey Ayala *Christian Bautista *Rico Blanco *Ely Buendia *Jose Mari Chan *Charice (Jake Zyrus) *Yeng Constantino *Billy Joe Crawford *Sharon Cuneta *Jay Durias *Eraserheads *Pops Fernandez *Sarah Geronimo *Janno Gibbs *Rachelle Ann Go *Kyla *Bamboo Mañalac *Maine Mendoza *Chito Miranda *Morissette *Kitchie Nadal *Martin Nievera *Nina *Kylie Padilla *Gary Valenciano *Princess Velasco *Regine Velasquez *Yael Yuzon ===Romania=== * Alexandra Stan ===Serbia=== *Momčilo Bajagić *Đorđe Balašević *Zvonko Bogdan *Dejan Cukić *Nikola Čuturilo *Vlada Divljan *Bebi Dol *Bora Đorđević *Zvonimir Đukić Đule *Bane Krstić *Kiki Lesendrić *Srđan Marjanović *Slađana Milošević *Milan Mladenović *Ljuba Ninković *Madame Piano *Ana Popović *Toma Zdravković *Predrag Živković Tozovac ===Singapore=== * Tanya Chua * JJ Lin * Stefanie Sun ===South Africa=== * Cristina Boshoff * Don Clarke * Johnny Clegg * Anton Goosen * David Kramer * Shekhinah (singer) * Tellaman * Karen Zoid ===South Korea=== * Ailee * Bang Yongguk * BoA * Cho Yong-pil * Im Chang-jung * Jun Jinyoung * Jung Yonghwa * Kang Seungyoon * Bang Chan * Kangta * Kim C * Kim Dong-ryool * Moon Hee-jun * Kim Jong-seo * Kim Kwang-Seok * Kim Jaejoong * Kim Junsu * Kim Sa-rang * Lee Jonghyun * Lee Juck * MC Sniper * The One * Park Hyo-shin * Rain * Seo Taiji * Shin Hae Chul * Shin Seung Hun * Tablo * Wheesung * Park Yeeun * Yoon Jong-shin * Yoo Hee-Yeol *RM (rapper) *Jin *Suga *J-Hope *Jimin *V *Jungkook *G-Dragon *T.O.P *Young K *Jae Park *JB (South Korean Singer) *B.I (rapper) *Bobby (rapper) *Zico (rapper) *Jeon So-yeon *Hui (singer) *Bumzu *Kang Seung-yoon *Mino (rapper) *Park Kyung *LE (rapper) *Chaeyoung *Elkie Chong *Lee Tae-yong *Mark Lee (singer) *Na Jaemin *Onew *Kim Jong-hyun (singer) *Key (entertainer) *Choi Min-ho *Lee Tae-min *Joohoney *Wonho (singer) *Solar (singer) *Moonbyul *Wheein *Hwasa *Chungha *Park Jin- young *Jessi (musician) *PSY *IU (singer) *Eric Nam *Chanyeol *Suho *Baekhyun *Chen (singer) *Sehun (singer) *Taecyeon *Jun.K *Wooyoung *Nichkhun *Lee Jun- ho (singer) *Chansung *Amber Liu (singer) *Dami Im *Hyuna *Henry Lau (singer) ===Sweden=== *Agnetha Fältskog *Caroline Hjelt *Aino Jawo *Tove Lo ===Taiwan=== * Chang Yu-sheng * Chang Chen-yue * Lala Hsu * Eve Ai * Enno Cheng * Cheer Chen * David Tao * Evan Yo * A-Lin * Jay Chou * Kenji Wu * Deserts Chang * Chih Siou * Ella Chen * Hebe Tien * Selina Jen * Leehom Wang * Jolin Tsai * Crowd Lu * Tank * Will Pan * Wu Tsing-fong * MC HotDog * Yoga Lin * Vivian Hsu * Sun Sheng Xi * Lo Ta-yu * Phil Chang * Ashin * OSN * Gary Chaw * ØZI * Nick Chou * Eric Chou ===Turkey=== * Sezen Aksu * Mazhar Alanson * Kenan Doğulu * Orhan Gencebay * İlhan İrem * Kayahan * Barış Manço * Bülent Ortaçgil * Nazan Öncel * Münir Nurettin Selçuk * Tarkan * Yıldız Tilbe ===Ukraine=== * Natalie Gioia ===United Kingdom=== ====A–L==== * Sade Adu * Damon Albarn * Marc Almond * Ian Anderson * Jon Anderson * Badly Drawn Boy (Damon Gough) * Gary Barlow * Syd Barrett * Julian Barry * Blaze Bayley * Natasha Bedingfield * Nick Beggs * Adrian Belew * Amelle Berrabah * James Blunt * Betty Boo * David Bowie * Sarah Brightman * Keisha Buchanan * Mutya Buena * Jake Bugg * Kate Bush * Biff Byford * Katy Carr * Eric Clapton * Phil Collins * Tulisa Contostavlos * Elvis Costello * David Coverdale * Charli XCX * Charlotte Gordon Cumming * Dappy * Ray Davies * Cathy Dennis * Marina Lambrini Diamandis * Paul Di'Anno * Bruce Dickinson * Pete Doherty * Donovan * Stephen Duffy * Joe Elliott * Marianne Faithfull * Peter Gabriel * Liam Gallagher * Noel Gallagher * Barry Gibb * Maurice Gibb * Robin Gibb * Ian Gillan * David Gilmour * Gary Glitter * Ellie Goulding * David Gray * Gregory Gray * Matt Hales * Rob Halford * Pete Ham * Peter Hammill * Calvin Harris * George Harrison * Justin Hawkins * Justin Hayward * Imogen Heap * Mick Hucknall * Ian Hunter * Jessie J * Joe Jackson * Mick Jagger * Jem * Elton John * Brian Johnson * Matt Johnson * Mick Jones * Nik Kershaw * Jim King * David Knopfler * Mark Knopfler * Greg Lake * Simon Le Bon * Lemmy * John Lennon * Leona Lewis * Gary Lightbody * Limahl * Dua Lipa * Cher Lloyd * Nick Lowe * Jeff Lynne ====M–Z==== * Paddy McAloon * Paul McCartney * Christine McVie * Shirley Manson * Zayn Malik * Steve Marriott * Brian May * Freddie Mercury * George Michael * Morrissey * Kate Nash * Simon Neil * John Newman * Jim Noir * Richard O'Brien * Rita Ora * John Otway * Bill Owen * Mark Owen * Ozzy Osbourne * John Payne * Liam Payne * Robert Plant * Plunkett * Heidi Range * Keith Relf * Tim Rice * Keith Richards * Gavin Rossdale * Graham Russell * Emeli Sandé * Sam Smith * Ringo Starr * Al Stewart * Rod Stewart * Sting * Joss Stone * Joe Strummer * Harry Styles * Jeremy Taylor * Roger Taylor * David Tibet * Louis Tomlinson * Alex Turner * Tom Vek * Roger Waters * Florence Welch * Paul Weller * John Wetton * Kim Wilde * Roy Wood * Richard Wright * Thom Yorke * Will Young ===United States=== ====A–E==== *50 Cent *Ryan Adams *Christina Aguilera *Priscilla Ahn *Ray Alder *Nadia Ali *Gregg Allman *Dave Alvin *Trey Anastasio *Ken Andrews *Michael Andrews *John Arch *David Archuleta *Billie Joe Armstrong *Louis Armstrong *Dan Auerbach *Gene Autry *Francesca Battistelli *Beck *Walter Becker *Joey Belladonna *Chuck Berry *Dickey Betts *Beyoncé *Larry Blackmon *Karl Blau *Michael Bolton *Jon Bon Jovi *Olivia Bonilla *Ralston Bowles *Brandon Boyd *Garth Brooks *Jackson Browne *Peabo Bryson *Lindsey Buckingham *Benjamin Burnley *Glen Burtnik *John Bush *Paul Butterfield *Sarah Buxton *David Byrne *Ryan Cabrera *Jerry Cantrell *Mariah Carey *Eric Carmen *Chris Carrabba *Peter Cetera *Bill Champlin *Tracy Chapman *Cher *Gary Cherone *Peter Cincotti *Guy Clark *Kelly Clarkson *Roger Clyne *Kurt Cobain *Fred Cole *Lisa Coleman *Billy Corgan *Chris Cornell *Jonathan Coulton *Dash Crofts *Robert Cray *Peter Criss *Kevin Cronin *David Crosby *Sheryl Crow *Rivers Cuomo *John Curulewski *Miley Cyrus *Terence Trent D'Arby *Jonathan Davis *Howie Day *Tom DeLonge *John Denver *Dennis DeYoung *Neil Diamond *Bo Diddley *Ronnie James Dio *Dion DiMucci *Willie Dixon *Don Dokken *David Draiman *Haylie Duff *Hilary Duff *Sean Duffy *Fred Durst *Bob Dylan *Jakob Dylan *Danny Elfman *Eminem *Ace Enders *Gloria Estefan ====F–K==== *Donald Fagen *Don Felder *Fergie *William Fitzsimmons *John Flansburgh *Brandon Flowers *John Fogerty *Dan Fogleberg *Ben Folds *Ace Frehley *Glenn Frey *John Frusciante *Vic Fuentes *Becky G *Lady Gaga *David Gates *Gloria Gaynor *Barry Gibb *Maurice Gibb *Robin Gibb *Benjamin Gibbard *Billy Gibbons *Eliza Gilkyson *Selena Gomez *Ariana Grande *Hank Green *Jeremy Gregory *Christina Grimmie *Dave Grohl *Buddy Guy *Sammy Hagar *Daryl Hall *Jessica Harp *Ben Harper *Mary Harris *Deborah Harry *Dan Hartman *Sophie B. Hawkins *Angel Haze *Mark Heard *Levon Helm *Logan Henderson *Jimi Hendrix *Don Henley *James Hetfield *Buddy Holly *Mark Hoppus *Robert Hunter *James Ingram *Alan Jackson *Janet Jackson *Michael Jackson *Jay-Z *Stephan Jenkins *Robert Johnson *JoJo *Joe Jonas *Kevin Jonas *Nick Jonas *Rickie Lee Jones *Janis Joplin *Tyler Joseph *Maynard James Keenan *R. Kelly *Mean Gene Kelton *Eddie Kendricks *Kenna *Doug Kershaw *Kesha *Alicia Keys *Thurane Aung Khin *Anthony Kiedis *Bobby Kimball *B.B. King *Terry Kirkman ====L–N==== * Adam Lambert * Ray LaMontagne * Mark Lanegan * Cyndi Lauper * Bernie Leadon * Bethany Joy Lenz * Jared Leto * Adam Levine * Aaron Lewis * Philip Lindholm * John Linnell * Lisa Loeb * Kenny Loggins * Lindsay Lohan * Joe Lopez * Demi Lovato * Courtney Love * Lyle Lovett * Ross Lynch * Loretta Lynn * Benji Madden * Joel Madden * Madonna * Kaitlyn Maher * Jeff Mangum * Barry Manilow * Aimee Mann * Marilyn Manson * Marce * Anthony Marinelli * Chan Marshall * Richard Marx * James Maslow * Dave Matthews * John Mayer * Edwin McCain * Jesse McCartney * Michael McDonald * Jon McLaughlin * Katharine McPhee * Travis Meeks * Randy Meisner * John Mellencamp * Wendy Melvoin * Natalie Merchant * Stephin Merritt * AJ Michalka * Aly Michalka * Rhett Miller * Roger Miller * Steve Miller * Nicki Minaj * Freddy Moore * Jim Morrison * Chuck Mosley * Elliott Murphy * Dave Mustaine * Frank J. Myers * Faheem Najm * Nelly * Dan Nelson * Michael Nesmith * Mike Ness * Randy Newman * Ne-Yo * Stevie Nicks * Keri Noble * The Notorious B.I.G. * Justin Nozuka * Ted Nugent ====O–Z==== *John Oates *Ric Ocasek *Roy Orbison *Joan Osborne *Buck Owens *David Paich *Mike Patton *Carlos Pena, Jr. *CeCe Peniston *Christina Perri *Katy Perry *Linda Perry *Steve Perry *Tom Petty *Glen Phillips *Pink *Dave Pirner *Rachel Platten *Jimmy Pop *John Popper *Poppy *Grace Potter *Prince *John Prine *Chuck Prophet *Eddie Rabbitt *Rakim *Twiggy Ramirez *Larry Ramos *Redfoo *Haley Reinhart *Bebe Rexha *Trent Reznor *Lionel Richie *Johnny Rivers *Smokey Robinson *Zack de la Rocha *Sixto Rodriguez *Kenny Rogers *Ed Roland *Axl Rose *David Lee Roth *Todd Rundgren *Leon Russell *John Rzeznik *Kendall Schmidt *Timothy B. Schmit *Big Sean *Drew Seeley *Bob Seger *Selena *Adam Selzer *Tommy Shaw *Adam Shearer *Duncan Sheik *Shwayze *Gene Simmons *Paul Simon *Ashlee Simpson *Helen Slater *Kathy Sledge *Michael W. Smith *Dee Snider *J.D. Souther *Britney Spears *Bruce Springsteen *Layne Staley *James Lee Stanley *Paul Stanley *Scott Stapp *Jeffree Star *Gwen Stefani *Stephen Stills *Barbra Streisand *Bruce Sudano *Rebecca Sugar *Donna Summer *Gene Summers *Matthew Sweet *Michael Sweet *Taylor Swift *James Taylor *Courtney Taylor-Taylor *Rob Thomas *Justin Timberlake *Ashley Tisdale *Mark Tornillo *Meghan Trainor *Roger Troutman *Joe Lynn Turner *Jeff Tweedy *Conway Twitty *Steven Tyler *Carrie Underwood *Dave Van Ronk *Eddie Vedder *Kate Voegele *Tom Waits *Joe Walsh *Crystal Waters *Kanye West *Paul Westerberg *Brooke White *Jack White *Maurice White *will.i.am *Hayley Williams *Joseph Williams *Paul Williams *Ann Wilson *Brian Wilson *Nancy Wilson *Kip Winger *Stevie Wonder *"Weird Al" Yankovic *Jim Yester *Doug Yoel *James Young *Steven Van Zandt *Donnie Van Zant *Johnny Van Zant *Ronnie Van Zant *Frank Zappa *Zendaya *Rob Zombie ===Uruguay=== *Pablo Sciuto ===Venezuela=== *Ilan Chester *Guillermo Dávila *Aldemaro Romero *Franco De Vita ===Vietnam=== *Sơn Tùng M-TP * === Wales === * Michael Jones * Matthew Tuck ==See also== * Lists of musicians *Singer-songwriters *List of singer-songwriters
|
"A Common Word between Us and You" is an open letter, from October 13, 2007, from Muslim to Christian leaders. It calls for peace between Muslims and Christians and tries to work for common ground and understanding between both religions, in line with the Qur'anic command: "Say: 'O People of the Scripture! come to a common word as between us and you: that we worship none but God" and the Biblical commandment to love God, and one's neighbour. In 2008, the initiative was awarded the Eugen Biser Award, and the Building Bridges Award from the UK's Association of Muslim Social Scientists. ==Background== "A Common Word between Us and You" is a follow up to a shorter letter, sent in 2006, in response to Pope Benedict XVI's lecture at the University of Regensburg on 12 September 2006. This lecture, on the subject of faith and reason, had focused mainly on Christianity and what Pope Benedict called the tendency in the modern world to "exclude the question of God" from reason. Islam features in a part of the lecture. The Pope quoted a Byzantine Emperor's strong criticism of Muhammad's teachings. Pope Benedict clarified that this was not his own personal opinion, describing the quotation as being of a "startling brusqueness, a brusqueness which leaves us astounded." Throughout the world, however, many people thought the Pope's use of the quote insensitive. A very strong sense of injustice was expressed by many Muslims in response to the speech. One month later, 38 Islamic scholars, representing all branches of Islam, replied to Pope Benedict in "An Open Letter to the Pope", dated 13 October 2006. One year later, 138 Islamic personalities co-signed an open letter entitled "A Common Word between Us and You." The letter aimed to promote interfaith dialogue. ==Authorship== According to the letter's website, its author was Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal, of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The letter is signed by 138 prominent Muslim personalities from a large number of countries from several continents. These include academics, politicians, writers and muftis. Nearly half of the signatories are university academics or scholars. Professor David Ford, director of the Cambridge Inter- Faith Programme, helped to launch the letter. The following month, Ford was also one of the signatories on a Christian response seeking Muslim forgiveness. ==Addressees== "A Common Word between Us and You" is addressed to Pope Benedict XVI, the Patriarchs of the Orthodox Churches, the leaders of the larger Christian denominations, and to leaders of Christians everywhere. A list is as follows: * Bartholomew, Patriarch of Constantinople * Theodoros II, Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa * Ignatius IV, Patriarch of Antioch and All the East * Theophilos III, Patriarch of the holy City of Jerusalem * Alexy II, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia * Pavle, Patriarch of Serbian Orthodox Church * Daniel, Patriarch of Romania, * Maxim, Patriarch of Bulgaria, * Ilia II, Archbishop of Mtskheta – Tbilisi, Catholico-Patriarch of All Georgia * Chrisostomos, Archbishop of Cyprus * Christodoulos, Archbishop of Athens and All Greece * Sawa, Metropolitan of Warsaw and All Poland * Anastasios, Archbishop of Tirana, Duerres and All Albania * Christoforos, Metropolitan of the Czech lands and Slovakia * Pope Shenouda III, Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Apostolic Throne of St Mark * Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians * Ignatius Zakka I, Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, Supreme Head of the Universal Syriac Orthodox Church * Mar Thoma Didymos I, Catholicos of the East on the Apostolic Throne of St Thomas and the Malankara Metropolitan * Abune Paulos, Fifth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Tekle Haymanot, Archbishop of Axum * Mar Dinkha IV, Patriarch of the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East * The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams * Mark S Hanson, presiding bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, and President of the Lutheran World Federation * George H Freeman, General Secretary, World Methodist Council * David Coffey, President of the Baptist World Alliance * Setri Nyomi, General Secretary of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches * Samuel Kobia, General Secretary, World Council of Churches ===Signatories=== Since the letter was originally sent on 18 October 2007, there have been a number of new signatories with the result that there are now over 300 Muslim signatories. Great effort was made to ensure signatories represented as broad a range of viewpoints from the Muslim world as possible. Notable signatories included: * Sa'adu Abubakar * Taha Abd Al-Rahman * Feisal Abdul Rauf * Akbar Ahmed * Bola Ajibola * Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar * Nihad Awad * Abdallah Bin Bayyah * Mustafa Çağrıcı * Mustafa Cerić * Caner DagliCaner Dagli prodile at Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs * Seyyed Mostafa Mohaghegh Damad * Ravil Gainutdin * Hamza Yusuf Hanson * Hasan Hanafi * Murad Hofmann * Anwar Ibrahim * Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu * Abbas Jrari * Habib Ali Zain Al-Abidin Al-Jifri * al-Habib Umar bin Hafiz * Nuh Ha Mim Keller * Mohammad Hashim Kamali * Amr Khaled * M. Ali Lakhani * Ingrid Mattson * Yousef Meri * Jean-Louis Michon * Zaghloul El-Naggar * Seyyed Hossein Nasr * Aref Ali Nayed * Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad * H A Hellyer * Noah Qudah * Zaid Shakir * Tariq Sweidan * Timothy Winter ==Support== *Response by David F. Ford, director of the Cambridge Inter–Faith Programme, 13 October 2007: "This historic agreement gives the right keynote for relations between Muslims and Christians in the 21st century...there are three main reasons why this is so important. First, it is unprecedented in bringing together so many of the leading religious authorities and scholars of Islam and uniting them in a positive, substantial affirmation. This is an astonishing achievement of solidarity, one that can be built on in the future. Second, it is addressed to Christians in the form of a friendly word, it engages respectfully and carefully with the Christian scriptures, and it finds common ground in what Jesus Himself said is central: love of God and love of neighbour....third it opens a way forward that is more helpful for the world than most others at present in the public sphere....it challenges Muslims and Christians to live up to their own teachings and seek political and educational as well as personal ways to do this for the sake of the common good." *Response by former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair on 13 October 2007: "This is the only way, in the modern world, to make sense of different history and culture, so that, instead of defining ourselves by reference to difference, we learn to recognise the values we share and define a shared future." *Response by Yale Divinity School's Centre for Faith and Culture 13 October 2009: "What is so extraordinary about A Common Word between Us and You" is not that its signatories recognise the critical character of the present moment in relations between Christians and Muslims. It is rather the deep insight and courage with which they have identified the common ground between the Muslim and Christian communities. What is common between us lies not in something marginal, nor in something merely important to each. It lies, rather, in something absolutely central to both: love of God and love of neighbour...that so much common ground exists – common ground in some of the fundamentals of faith – gives hope that undeniable differences and even the very real external pressures that bear down upon us can not overshadow the common ground upon which we stand together. That this common ground consists in love of God and of neighbour gives hope that deep cooperation between us can be a hallmark of the relations between our two communities." *Response by Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury: "We are deeply appreciative of the initiative you have taken and welcome "A Common Word between Us and You" as a significant development in relations between Christians and Muslims...to your invitation to enter more deeply into dialogue and collaboration as part of our faithful response to the revelation of God's purpose for humankind, we say: Yes! Amen." *During a visit to the Middle East by Pope Benedict XVI on 9 May 2009, he made a speech to an assembly of religious leaders at the King Hussein State Mosque, Jordan, and said about "A Common Word": "Such initiatives clearly lead to a greater reciprocal knowledge, and they foster a growing respect for what we hold in common and for what we understand differently. Thus, they should prompt Christians and Muslims to probe even more deeply the essential relationship between God and His world so that together we may strive to ensure that society resonates in harmony with the divine order. In this regard, the co operation found here in Jordan sets an encouraging and persuasive example for the region, and indeed the world, of the positive, creative contribution which religion can and must make to civic society." ==Criticism== Some commentators such as the leading Jewish American political columnist Mona Charen,Charen, Mona (2007) 'About that Muslim letter to the Pope' Jewish World Review, 19 October 2007 have criticized the open letter. Robert Spencer, an American conservative commentator, writes: "The persecution of Christians is the primary indication of the letter’s inadequacy as the basis for any real dialogue between Muslims and Christians. Genuine dialogue must focus, or at least be cognizant of, the reality of what separates the two parties. Nothing can be resolved, no genuine peace or harmony attained, except on the basis of confronting those differences."Robert Spencer, 'The Muslim Letter to the Pope' In Jihad Watch, Human Events website, 22 October 2007 On 28 November 2007, Patrick Sookhdeo of the Barnabas Fund, interdenominational Christian aid agency, published an analysis of the letter. In it, he pointed out some significant issues which he feels are not addressed. His analysis claimed that, while the letter implies that there is a global war on Islam by Christianity, it gives no indication of sorrow for current or historical wrongs inflicted on Christians by Islam; nor does the letter acknowledge that Muslim actions may have contributed in any alienation between Christians and Muslims. Sookhdeo's analysis also claimed that the letter has no acknowledgement that in many areas - such as parts of Iraq, Sudan, Nigeria, Indonesia and Pakistan - rather than Christianity fighting a war to destroy or displace Muslims, the reverse is the case.Barnabas Fund, "Response to Open Letter and Call from Muslim Religious Leaders to Christian Leaders" Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran, a Vatican official, welcomed dialogue but commented that real dialogue with Muslims is difficult. He pointed out imbalances, such as opposition or limitations to the building of churches in some Muslim countries, whilst in Christian countries, Muslims are free to build mosques. He also said, "Muslims do not accept that one can discuss the Koran in depth, because they say it was written by dictation from God.... With such an absolute interpretation, it is difficult to discuss the contents of faith."Tom Heneghan, "Cardinal Signals Firm Vatican Stance With Muslims", Reuters 19 October 2007 However, Cardinal Tauran is quoted as saying that his remarks were not exclusivist and that Muslims and Christians are to engage in a substantive dialogue concerning theological and spiritual foundations.Dialogue without taboos. Even on religious freedom The Common Word website Frequently Asked Questions section addresses the criticism of the letter's perceived lack of inclusiveness: "This document is a first step, but one that strives to lay a solid foundation for the construction of many worthy edifices. The document can not be expected to do everything at once. Moreover, many of these issues were already addressed in the Amman Message. The website further acknowledges concerning the letter being a form of "propaganda": "If you mean by that witnessing and proclaiming one's faith with compassion and gentleness, then yes. If you mean forcing one's views on others, then no."A Common Word FAQ ==Publications== A number of academic books and journals have emerged in the past 12 months dedicated to "A Common Word:" * Following five years of cooperation inspired by "A Common Word", Mads Christoffersen, Stine Hoxbroe, and Niels Valdemar Vinding edited the book "From A Common Word to Committed Partnership" about the experiences of Danish-Arab Interfaith Dialogue. * The Washington DC based academic journal Sophia, and the Beirut Theological Seminary dedicated issues to "A Common Word." * The Royal Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought issued a booklet summarising issues related to "A Common Word." * Islamica Magazine dedicated a dossier to the document, issue 21, released February 2009. ==See also== * Outline of Islam * Glossary of Islam * Index of Islam-related articles *Letter to Baghdadi *To the Youth in Europe and North America, a 2015 open letter from Ayatollah Ali Khamenei on the subject of Islam *Interfaith dialogue * Hindu–Muslim unity ==References== == Further reading == *'Muslim scholars reach out to Pope', BBC news article *'In Open Letter, Muslims Seek Cooperation With Christians as a Step Toward Peace', New York Times article ==External links== *Official website *A Common Word Between Us and You Category:Christian and Islamic interfaith dialogue Category:Open letters Category:2007 documents Category:2007 in Islam Category:2007 in Christianity Category:Religious proclamations
|
The architecture of Aylesbury, the county town of Buckinghamshire, reflects that which can be found in many small towns in England. The architecture contained in many of the country's great cities is well recorded and documented, as is that of the numerous great country houses. Frequently, the work is by one of England's more notable architects – Christopher Wren, John Vanbrugh, Robert Adam, William Kent or even Quinlan Terry. What is less well known is the local architecture in the market towns, often inspired by the work of the great master architects or architectural styles popular at the time. English merchants would often return from a visit to one of the nearby cities, or having seen a glimpse of one of the great country houses then require a replica of what they had seen. A local architect would then be employed to recreate it, within limited financial restraints. Sometimes the patron would merely draw an image of what he required and a builder would then interpret the requirements to the best of his often limited ability. This recreation and interpretation of a certain style was not confined to private houses, but to civic architecture too: an illustrious architect added to civic pride; and when an architect was too expensive for the civic coffers, for a fraction of the price he would judge a competition between local architects, for the privilege of designing a town hall or church. This is exactly what happened in Aylesbury. John Vanbrugh judged two sets of plans for the County Hall (now Aylesbury Crown Court). It is this provincial architecture by nationally unknown architects which continues to give many English market towns a unique atmosphere and character. The architecture of Aylesbury demonstrates this admirably from the 11th century to the 21st century; a 1000 years of provincial architecture in one town little known outside of Britain. == Saxon to Medieval period == ===Aylesbury Castle=== Aylesbury's one-time castle is today only remembered by the name of Castle Street. Little is known of it: it is thought it was situated within Anglo-Saxon fortifications later known as Castle Fee. It is likely that it was a Norman structure consisting of just a motte and bailey. Built immediately after the conquest it was probably demolished after outliving its requirement following the quelling if the civil insurrections of the early 12th century. Archaeological excavations in the 1960s uncovered part of the castle wall and it is from these excavations that we get most of what we know about the castle today. ===The Parish Church of St. Mary=== thumb|left|St Mary's Church, AylesburyThe parish church, dedicated to St Mary is the oldest building in Aylesbury. Cruciform in design, it follows a common layout of English churches, the tower in the centre, the nave with aisles in the west, leading to the chancel in the east, and chapels in the north and south transepts. The eastern chapel, known as the Lady chapel has beneath it a crypt containing Saxon brickwork, possibly dating from circa 571 when Aylesbury was a Saxon settlement known as Aeglesburge. It is thought a Norman church, of which only the font remains, then stood on the site. The present church was built during the first half of the 13th century, and has later perpendicular battlements. The tower is crowned by a small spire dating from the reign of Charles II. Between 1850 and 1869 the church was restored under the direction of Sir George Gilbert Scott. Pevsner describes this restoration as "so reckless both exterior and interior look mostly Victorian".Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of Buckinghamshire Scott certainly removed some interesting features such as the completely enclosed and intricately carved manorial pew, the "three decker" pulpit and replaced some perpendicular windows with the more Gothic triple lancet windows beloved of the Victorians (the original east window can now be found in the gardens of Green End House in Rickford's Hill). However, in fairness to Scott the church was in a dilapidated state, the roof was perilous, and innumerable internal burials had undermined the foundations, in addition to this much of the church was left to local organizations, the local fire service kept three fire engines in one of the chapels, and the local regiment and militia stored their stock of gunpowder in part of the church. Many fine architectural details did survive the neglect and following restoration – the large west window, the perpendicular roofs to the transepts, the late 12th century font and the four misericords besides some well carved stone monuments and memorial tablets. In the 1970s the church was again considered perilously unstable, and at one time appeared to be facing demolition. It was eventually saved by a further, more tactful, restoration, and is today still the town's principal Church of England place of worship. === The Friarage === thumb|The old friarage buildingThis building, the former friarage at 14, Bourbon Street is the oldest building in Aylesbury that was used as a residential dwelling. Constructed circa 1386 as a Franciscan priory the substructure remains intact although the exterior is more modern. Part of the original foundation of the building can still be seen at the side in Friarage Passage. It is possible that the building was re-fronted shortly after the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII in the 16th century. Re-fronting was a common practice in British building techniques and involves stripping away the external shell of the older building, sometimes just the front, and then adding a new shell. This building in particular is discernible as a much older building than it looks because of the uneven windows at the front. One will notice that no two windows are on the same level or of the same size: this indicates a more organic growth of the building over many years rather than one that has been specifically designed to look a particular way – this is a common feature of buildings of this age. There is a high likelihood that the building was re- fronted for a second time or had extra features added to it in the 18th century: the front door, for instance, is of a much later design than 16th century. However records suggest that the size of the doorway, and the position of the windows are original features from the 14th century structure. Today the building is the main office for a firm of solicitors,Parrott & Coales Solicitors who have been based in this building since the firm was founded: it had been the private residence of one of the firm's first partners. == 15th century to 18th century == Aylesbury is and always has been quintessentially a market town, with the Market Square being the heart of the town. The Market Square is still at the centre of the town and is still fairly well used with four markets a week being held regularly and other events on special occasions. However, it is the siting of the medieval market stalls both semi-permanent and temporary which has given the Market Square an unusual architectural phenomena. As the stalls, or allocated lots, of the traders in the square became less transient so the stalls began to become permanent buildings with the confines of the square itself, thus many of the square's oldest buildings such as the King's Head Inn are hidden in what appear to be back alleys on the periphery of the square. This encroachment continued into the 16th century until the western area of the square (where the Dark Lantern public house is today) was a complex of alleys and lanes. This curious maze- like complex existed until the 1960s redevelopment of the town, and the King's Head still appears to be partially hidden by buildings in front of it. ===Parsons Fee=== Parsons Fee has its name steeped in history. Aylesbury remained a feudal manor until the 13th century when new smaller landholdings were formed. These new small manors created by royal grant were often known as fees: Aylesbury had several fees circa the reign of Henry II. These included the Castle Fee held by the principal lord of the manor of Aylesbury, who also held the Lord's fee; Otterers fee which was granted to Roger Foll, the King's otter hunter in 1179 and Church Fee endowed to the church, which eventually in Aylesbury was allowed a small degree of autonomy as a prebend of the Diocese of Lincoln. Hence church fee was controlled by the "parson" or priest of Aylesbury, and thus Church Fee came to be known as Parson's Fee. left|thumb|Houses in Parson's FeeThis row of cottages adjacent to the parish church are some of the oldest dwellings in Aylesbury. These timber framed dwellings which date from the 17th century have oversailing upper stories, a common feature of the period, which had the advantage of increasing the space of a small land site. The brick-built cottages to the left of the picture (just visible) are almshouses belonging to the Thomas Hickman charity. Thomas Hickman was a resident of Aylesbury in the 17th century who left money in his will to provide money for dwellings for the old and infirm. These dwellings were built in the 19th century to look like their neighbours. == 18th century architecture == While the church cannot be called architecturally outstanding, it does form an integral part of a townscape seemingly unchanged from the 18th century. Sited upon a hill, it is surrounded by narrow streets, and squares of substantial 18th century town houses, which were not included in the large replanning and development of the town in the late 1960s. This area compromising Castle Street, Church Street, Temple Square (named after the Temple family of Stowe House), and Church Square including Parson's Fee give a clear indication of how Aylesbury must have appeared in the 18th century, and has an architectural ambiance quite different to the remainder of the town. ===County Hall (County Court)=== Aylesbury has many public buildings which reflect its position as the county town of Buckinghamshire, a position it has held since the 16th century, when King Henry VIII transferred the status from Buckingham. Legend states it was a move to impress Anne Boleyn's father, who held the manor at the time, but this is probably apocryphal. A county town is the seat of Buckinghamshire County Council, a body responsible for the minor day-to-day running of an English county. It was also the home of the local assizes today known as the Crown Court. Thus the town has always had a structure known as County Hall: today the building known by that name houses merely the offices of the County Council. In previous centuries it housed not only the administrative offices of the county, but also the county court chamber, where crimes such as murder, treason and those felonies too serious for a small town magistrate's court were tried. In addition the County Hall often had an assembly room where entertainments and balls would take place for the more worthy members of the county and their families. Thus in the 18th century County Hall was a reflection of county prestige. In the early 18th century the elders of Aylesbury decided to build a grand and magnificent new County Hall. Plans were submitted by two architects a Mr. Brandon and a Thomas Harris. The successful plan was to be selected by no lesser architect than John Vanbrugh. Thus for a fraction of the price of employing him, Aylesbury had the great man forever associated with the design of its County Hall. In truth if the provincial architect Harris intended to flatter Vanbrugh he failed miserably, the plan Vanbrugh selected was more in the style of his predecessor and rival Sir Christopher Wren. But no matter to the Elders of Aylesbury, they had a fine building associated with a national figure, that the building was by the time of its completion over 50 years out of date was probably not even recognised by its patrons. The building was finally completed in 1740, despite its lack of illustrious architect it is a handsome red brick building of seven bays and two stories. The windows are round topped on the lower floor and pedimented on the upper. The three central bays are unified under a pediment. The whole style is of the building is Palladian with some baroque influences. One feature on the principal facade shows the buildings provincial pedigree, Vanbrugh or Wren would have left the facade undecorated, or the windows interspersed by pilasters, here in rural Aylesbury the architect chose to place a humble drainpipe symmetrically between the windows, in London plumbing was discrete or hidden. The interior contained a panelled court room, and a council chamber. Almost from the moment of the building's completion, the 18th century County Hall was not large enough. As local government became more complex and bureaucratic more office space was required and so Judges's lodgings were constructed in 1849–50 on the back of County Hall. Following the Local Government Act of 1888 the newly established Buckinghamshire County Council based itself here, thus further council rooms, including a Mayor's parlour, were added too. ===Ceely House=== thumb|right|Ceely House Ceely House is one of Aylesbury's larger houses. Of medieval origin it was the brotherhood house of the Fraternity of the Virgin Mary.Buckinghamshire County Museum History In the mid 18th century it was converted to a private house and given a new classical front, by the Aylesbury lawyer Hugh Barker Bell. Constructed of red brick, its main facade is five bays. The centre bay projects slightly to accentuate the main entrance, which is protected by a porch in a loose palladian style of two unfluted Corinthean columns supporting a pediment. The pitched roof is hidden by an unusual parapet masquerading as an undecorated entablature, showing the unknown architect had an interest in a purer form of classicism than he was permitted to design in Aylesbury. By this date architectural engravings of works by the master architects in Rome and elsewhere were widely available, and it is likely that this is the source of the inspiration behind some of the more interesting features of Ceely House, including its porch which is a miniature portico. As in the case of the Friarage however Ceely House is another example of a much older building with a new front: medieval wall paintings may be found in the upper storeys of the house, which is now part of the Buckinghamshire County Museum. ===Ardenham House=== Ardenham House is one of Aylesbury's most important late Georgian houses by virtue of it being one of the few buildings in the town accredited to a notable designer albeit a sculptor rather than an architect. Joseph Nollekens is said to have designed this large neoclassical house for his sister-in-law a "Miss Welch". The daughter of Justice Saunders Welch, (a friend of both Samuel Johnson and William Hogarth) Nollekens had married her younger sister Mary in 1772. This means the house can be no earlier than this date. Miss Welch is reported to have been a great intellectual, using Ardenham house as a literary salon. The large square red bricked edifice is of a simple design – a three bayed front of three floors. The severity of the facade is only alleviated by a porch with tuscan columns, with a tripartite window above, and above that a tripartite lunette window. The roofline is hidden by a broken parapet. The design of this facade is typical of the more simple neoclassical approach to architecture of the late 18th century. == 19th century == It has been said "It is a well-known fact that the nineteenth century had no art style of its own". While to an extent this may be true, during this period there was also a far stretching philosophy determining the reasoning behind the variation in styles used. This included not just international politics and religion, but also a huge increase in patrons outside of the church and upper classes (the sectors traditionally the principal patrons of architecture). This was a direct result of the new wealth created by the industrial revolution. This was certainly the case in Aylesbury where the 19th century proved to be a period of huge expansion, with the creation of a large amount of new buildings both private and public in a variety of revival styles. The 19th century saw a period of unprecedented expansion to the town brought about by improved methods of transport allowing increased industry: in 1814 the Grand Union Canal reached the town which then had a population of 3,450. When the London and Birmingham Railway arrived in 1839, the population was 5,000. The second railway, the Great Western in 1863, served a population of 6,170. By this time, the town had the first of its large national employers the printers Hazel, Watson and Viney. By the end of the century, Aylesbury had a population of 10,000, all of whom had to be housed, many in the solid 19th century houses which grew up on the roads approaching the town – Tring Road, Bierton Road and Wendover Road. Many of these large Gothic villas still stand today. Two of Aylesbury's earliest notable 19th century buildings were at the time of their erection built for social reasons in open countryside, opposite each other, on the road to Bierton immediately adjacent to the town. These were the Union Workhouse in 1844, and the County Gaol in 1845. ===The Union Workhouse=== Workhouses were a necessity of 19th century life in that they provided refuge for paupers. In exchange for work the destitute of all ages received board and lodging. In reality husbands and wives and their children were often strictly separated into different parts of the workhouse according to age and sex. In defence of the workhouse system it can be said that it was an ordered and regulated improvement on the scant almost non existent systems which existed before. Pevsner dismisses Aylesbury Workhouse as "Red brick, gabled, dull".Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of Buckinghamshire Workhouses were frequently designed to be as austere and forbidding as possible in order to deter the undeserving. In fact Aylesbury's workhouse built of a mellow redbrick, with large bay windows and tall decorative chimneys was obviously designed by the architects Strethill Oakes Foden and Henry W. ParkerAylesbury Town Council – Workhouses in AylesburyCanterbury Workhouse to resemble an inviting Tudor manor house. The large gatehouse (to the right in the illustration) reminiscent of those of an Elizabethan or Jacobean Manor in fact was designed to provide, the barest legal, accommodation for passing vagrants on whom the town did not wish to spend its money. These unfortunates were allowed one night's refuge before being sent outside of the town's confines. While it is debatable if the architect truly achieved his goal, the Workhouse was certainly an architectural and aesthetic improvement on many of its contemporaries. The building still stands, and houses the Tindal Centre, a hospital for people experiencing mental illness. Thus 160 years after its completion still serves the community of Aylesbury. ===The County Gaol=== thumb|right|The County Gaol, Aylesbury, 1900If the Workhouse was designed to be inviting and warm, the County Gaol most definitely was not. Designed by a Major J Jebb in 1845 the layout of the original design was to serve one of the Victorian eras most controversial methods of penal reform. Prisoners were kept in complete solitary confinement, and silence, for the duration of their sentences. 250 men were kept in individual cells in which they ate, slept and washed alone and in silence. They left their cells only to worship. The prison chapel (described by Pevsner as "elegantly built"Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of Buckinghamshire had 247 seats designed that while the convicts could see the priest, they could not see each other. The architecture externally of the Gaol could be described as typical 19th century prison architecture, the principal facade facing onto the Bierton Road, the only part of the prison visible to the public has classical pretensions. Built of red brick with dressed stone quoining the focal point is the large central bay containing the arched entrance. The bay has an entablature but no pediments. The frieze bears the date 1845 in Roman numerals. The central bay is flanked by two short wings containing administrative offices leading to two large cubed blocks which were the residences of the governor and his deputy. An unexplainable architectural mystery here is that the short flanking wings are dwarfed by massive chimneys containing far more chimney pots than the rooms within could possibly require. Behind this severe public face of the prison, all attempts at attractive architecture ceased. Tall red brick cell blocks several stories high under a slate roof surrounded the central courtyard. The architecture was utilitarian in the extreme. The prison still stands, the main facade largely unchanged. It remains a prison. See Aylesbury Prison. ===The Old Bank=== thumb|right|Lloyds BankThe Old Aylesbury Bank was founded in 1795 by a local entrepreneur William Rickford and was for many years the only banking establishment in the town. The quality of the bank's architecture is a good barometer of the wealth that came from being the sole financial depository within a large rural area. The building dates from 1853. It seems that the highly fashionable Gothic revival had not yet reached Aylesbury, as the owners of the bank selected an Italianate classical style. The ground floor is rusticated but the blocks of ashlar are imitation, as is the quoining on the floors above. The upper floor, which would have been the banks administrative offices, suggests a piano nobile, with tall sash windows crowned by segmental pediments. The Bank standing on the junction of Market Square and Kingsbury Square has a canted facade in order to suit the triangular junction cause by the meeting of the two squares and a common street. The building in style is very reminiscent of those buildings of Thomas Cubitt and Edward Blore in London at this period. The possibility of a notable architect is likely as in nearby Leighton Buzzard the great Gothic revival architect Alfred Waterhouse was commissioned to design an equally small provincial bank (the Basset Bank) in the town's High Street and there was great rivalry between the small rural banks. The appearance of the Bank itself was seen not only as a sign of prestige, but also financial security, both evaluated by small local businessmen and farmers when entrusting their money. === The Corn Exchange === From the beginning of the 19th century, most towns in England had a building known as the corn exchange. Here farmers and grain merchants bartered for, and fixed the price of grain. In a rural community, where the greatest percentage of the community was directly involved with agriculture, this was a very important building, as here was decided the economy of the district. Often other agricultural commodities such as wool, were traded here. The corn exchange was often a grand imposing building which doubled as a venue for public entertainments, such as concerts and plays. The corn exchange in Aylesbury is less grand than some of its contemporaries: at nearby Leighton Buzzard the corn exchange was an Italianate palace. The building was erected by a consortium of local business men known as the Aylesbury Market Company, with capita of £18,000. They purchased and demolished the White Hart InnPhotograph of the White Hart circa 1863 The White Hart, at one time the town's chief coaching inn was Palladian style building said to have been refaced in 1816 with the stone from the demolished Eythrope House. It was demolished in 1864. replacing it with a new cattle market and the Corn Exchange. The site adjoined the County Hall which conveniently reflected its intended importance in the community. Designed by D Brandon in 1865, the Corn Exchange takes the form of a red brick tripartite triumphal arch leading to further council offices. Above the arches the reception rooms have large mullioned and transomed windows. This Jacobethan building sits incongruously in the corner of the Market Square next to the classical county hall and opposite a bow fronted regency public house with an ornate entablature. However, this siting of opposing styles of architecture, and constant change is the essence of character of an English market town. The agricultural depression which occurred from the 1870s resulted in a steep decline in the value of grain, the corn exchange never realised the profits its builders intendedHanley, Hugh & Hunt Julian. Aylesbury a Pictorial History. 1993. Phillimore & Co. Ltd. and in 1901 it was eventually sold to the Urban District Council as the new Aylesbury Town Hall. The Corn Exchange today houses council conference rooms and a youth coffee bar. ===The Clocktower=== thumb|right|150px|Aylesbury Clocktower (1876) Market Square is the historic trading centre of the town, and indeed markets are still held here weekly today. The site at the centre of the square was formerly occupied by the market housePhotograph of the Market House which served on the ground level as an open covered market. Stall holders would pay extra to have their market stall here, above it would have been a town meeting room, where the stallholders' fees were collected and kept. Often these upper chambers also served as a form of town hall, a similar market house is at the nearby town of Amersham. The Market House was demolished in 1866: by this time markets while still a popular occurrence had been replaced in importance by regular and permanent shops. Ten years later on the site was built the clocktower, constructed of local stone, in the Gothic revival style, designed by the local architect D Brandon, also responsible for the Corn Exchange and many other public buildings in the town. The clocktower complete with spire sits on a slightly raised dais from the rest of the square and has been used as a platform from which important speeches have been made in the past. The horse troughs that had been placed adjacent to the clocktower when it was constructed have since been removed. ===Aylesbury's smaller churches=== Other places of worship in the town include the remainder of the Congregational Church in the High Street designed by Rowland Plumbe in 1874. It originally had a simple asymmetrical facade though now only the tower remains and is used as offices. In Buckingham Street is the Methodist Church of 1893 designed by James Weir, and described damningly by Pevsner as of a "terrible Italianate style".Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of Buckinghamshire This description is a little harsh, as the church also displays not only Italianate features but also some Byzantine and Romanesque features too. In the high street is the Roman Catholic Church dedicated to St Joseph built in the 20th century and in Walton is the Holy Trinity ChapelPicture of the Holy Trinity Church in Walton Street built in 1845. == 20th century and modernist period == ===County Offices=== thumb|right|County Offices later known as County HallCirca 1929 it was realised that County Hall, and the office complex behind the Corn exchange was too small for the increasing bureaucracy of Buckinghamshire County Council. The county architect C. Riley was commissioned to design a large office block in keeping with the perceived architecture of the town. The resultant County Offices was a three-storey building of 17 bays in an almost Second Empire design. The flat facade is given interest by slight projection of the terminating bays, and a low stone portico at the centre. On the first floor the centre window, and the windows at the centre of the terminating bays were given pediments. Otherwise the facade beneath a mansard roof is unadorned. This unremarkable building, completed in 1939, is indistinguishable from the street architecture found in any English city of that era, and adds little to the market town architecture of Aylesbury. In time the County Offices came themselves to be regarded as the County Hall, as the machinery of the County Court gradually took over the older County Hall in its entirety. If the architecture of the 1930s County Hall was considered out of keeping with the town, 30 years later came an even more, albeit of greater architectural interest, controversial building – Aylesbury's most recent and present County Hall. === (New) County Hall=== In the mid-1960s a decision was taken to redevelop and replan a large central part of the town, providing a new shopping centre, bus station, and County Hall. Following Aylesbury's long history of using the "in house" county architect rather than employing a more eminent one, Frederick B. Pooley came to design his most monumental and controversial work. Pooley was experienced in the design of schools having drawn the plans for three educational establishments in the town Quarrendon County Secondary School in 1959, The Grange Secondary Modern School in 1954, and Oak Green Primary School in 1950. Pooley's choice of architecture was Brutalist, an architectural style sometimes referred to as "the celebration of concrete" – its chief building component, the first example of this style in the town. Many old shops and historic buildings were demolished to clear the site. The new town centre was tiered, an underground bus station, had above a three floored department store; while on the same level as the bus station was what was commonly referred to as an underground market – a large hall containing an assortment of small market time stalls and boutiques. Above this was an open pedestrian square around which were larger shops and a cafeteria. The cafeteria in itself was an amazing feat of architectural engineering, as it was built high in stilts, the better to view the 1960s architecture. While this form of town planning is often scorned today, at the time it provided exactly what was required by its consumers, greater shopping choices with easy access and convenient public transport all in a modern environment contrasting with the war time building restrictions which had lingered, in Britain, until the previous decade. While at the time the people of Aylesbury and the surrounding district were mostly happy with their new shopping centre, more controversial was the new County Hall, the foundation stone of which was laid on 22 October 1964 by Sir Henry Floyd, Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire. This building entirely of concrete and glass stands 200 ft. high and consists of 15 floors. Not particularly remarkable compared to the Sears Tower, but dominating a predominantly 18th century town of low brick houses, it proved to be a conversational piece of architecture. The new County Hall sits above a complex containing the County Reference Library, Aylesbury Register Office, and the County Record Office. Inside it bought together for the first time all the departments and machinations of Buckinghamshire County Council. The building is visible from many villages and towns several miles distant, thus residents of Buckinghamshire are constantly aware of the location of their seat of local Government. Often referred to locally as "Pooley's Folly" (after the architect) the building took just two years to build and was completed in 1966 at a cost of £956,000. Analytically, if not architecturally, the new County Hall is in keeping with the town's architecture, its design history is as provincial as its more classical predecessors. While its design is a bold conception freely using works by such architects as Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier and De Stijil and it has similarities to Paul Rudolph's School of Art and Architecture at Yale completed in 1963. However, as early as 1904 Auguste Perret designed a block of flats in the Rue Franklin, Paris which has similar angles, bayed windows and canted recesses to County Hall in Aylesbury,Image of Perret's flats in Paris and these flats too were constructed of concrete. With its Brutalist roots in the 1940s, and earlier, Aylesbury's County Hall was, like its classical predecessor, already dated by the time of its 1966 completion: by then architecture was moving on to the cleaner and straighter lines and sheets of plate glass advocated by such architects as Mies van der Rohe. County Hall though does possess identity and boldness of design, and an architectural abrasiveness accentuated by the heavy contrasts of glass and dominating concrete. Today its architectural merit is recognised, and the building is listed for preservation as Grade II. Though never at the cutting thrust and pioneering end of modern architecture, as its patrons required, the new County Hall is now as much a part of the landscape, in its way it is as much part of the provincial architecture as any of its older neighbours. It prevents the town appearing as a time capsule, and represents the reality of a busy, functioning industrial town as opposed to a museum piece which some other historic town centres have become. === Jarvis Building === thumb|upright|Former department storeThe Jarvis building was originally intended to be one wing of a large department store, extending from the High Street to the Market Square. This tower in the High Street, was to have been joined to the original shop with its own 1960s tower (now demolished) in Cambridge Street. This tower (pictured right) was constructed in the 1980s and was given a slightly retrospective 1960s design in order to blend with the now demolished part of the building. Hence can be seen a blending of two modernist styles separated by twenty years. The wooden painted panels beneath the many windows of the 1960s block are here accentuated, almost caricatured, to become the most dominant features of the facade and the windows become of negligible value. == Late 20th and 21st century architecture == During the late 20th century, Aylesbury began to expand industrially at a rapid pace and for the first time established international businesses from outside the immediate vicinity began to relocate to Aylesbury. Besides bringing with them the obvious increased prosperity and employment to the town, for the first time they bought completely contemporary architecture to the town. Aylesbury's architecture now ceased to be provincial. ===Hampden House=== thumb|right|Hampden HouseHampden House at the junction between the High Street and Vale Park Way is one of the town's most interesting modern buildings. It is in a style seldom seen elsewhere. Conceived as an office block for an international company, its curved facades hint at a revival of the Streamline Moderne: this is further enhanced by the upper floors themselves appearing as bands of brickwork and glass. The large store on the ground floor is recessed into a faux arcade of a lighter stonework than the upper floors, providing a mixture of light and shade in an almost Baroque effect of chiaroscuro to the more solid floors above. === Equitable Life Building === This large office building in Walton Street constructed in 1982, designed by GMW Partnership.Geograph.org.uk === Exchange Street Offices === thumb|right|Office block in Aylesbury, now demolished Today this building known as Aylesbury Vale District Council's Exchange Street Offices is part of the administration centre of the local government. Completed in 1931 This building's original use was industrial – the home of the electricity board. The ground floor being showrooms, with offices above, while at the rear of the building was the power station supplying the town with electricity. The architecture of the building is a subtle form of the classical united with the Baroque. The sophisticated proportions and design of the building are unusual for a mundane utility building of the early 1930s – a period of general depression when cost and economy of design took precedence over the aesthetics of architecture. The ground floor suggests the open loggias of town architecture of the Renaissance, where open arcades provided covered space for market stalls and vendors, while above was living accommodation. However, here, to suit both the 2oth century and more northern climate, the arcade is closed. The windows above are slim and elongated redolent of those used by such architects as Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor during the English Baroque period of the early 18th century. The facade is given an importance and a focal point by a low pediment very much in the English Queen Anne style which immediately followed the short lived English Baroque period. The building was demolished in November 2007 by Aylesbury Vale District Council in order to make way for the new Waterside development.The Bucks Herald online == Notable buildings that have been demolished == Other buildings in Aylesbury have been demolished over the years such as the Church of St John in Cambridge StreetImage of the Church of St John and the former Wesleyan Chapel, in Friarage Passage.Image of the former Wesleyan Chapel Other notable buildings that have disappeared that have not already been mentioned elsewhere in the article include the Railway Hotel (described by Pevsner affectionately as: "an engaging little horror built in 1898"Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of Buckinghamshire) in Great Western Street,Image of the Railway Hotel the Baptist Chapel in Walton Street,Image of the Baptist Chapel in Walton Street the public baths in Bourbon StreetImage of the public baths in Bourbon Street and the Union of London & Smith Bank in High Street.The Union of London and Smith Bank on the right of the image ==References== * ==External links== *Buckinghamshire photographs ==Gallery of images== Image:PrebendalHouseAylesbury.jpg|Side view of Prebendal House, former residence of John Wilkes now used as offices Image:WaltonLodgeAylesbury.jpg|Walton Lodge, Walton – a Grade II listed building Image:ExchangeStOfficesAylesbury.jpg|AVDC's Exchange Street Offices. This building's original use was industrial – it was where the electricity board was based with its showrooms (main building) and out the back was the power station. Construction was completed in 1931. Image:ArdenhamHouseAylesbury.jpg|Ardenham House – original use residential, now offices Image:AylesburyMasonicLodge.jpg|The Masonic Hall in Ripon Street Image:AylesburyOldGrammarSchool.jpg|The Old Grammar School in the church square – now part of the Bucks County Museum complex Image:HickmansHouseAylesbury.jpg|Thomas Hickman's house in Temple Square Image:HorwoodandJamesAylesbury.jpg|James James's house in Temple Square, he was the founder of the Horwood and James firm that still occupies the building Image:HouseinTempleSquareAylesbury.jpg|Another house in Temple Square Image:HSBCAylesbury.jpg|The HSBC bank in Market Square Image:RoyalBucksEntrance.jpg|Part of the Royal Bucks Hospital Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail6.jpg|One of the statues on the south door of St Mary's Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail5.jpg|The other statue Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail3.jpg|The west window Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail4.jpg|The west door Image:StMarysAylesburySpire.jpg|Detail of the tower and spire Category:Aylesbury Category:Buildings and structures in Buckinghamshire Aylesbury
|
"MoneyBart" (stylized as "MoneyBART") is the third episode of the twenty- second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 10, 2010. In this episode, Lisa coaches Bart's Little League baseball team to a record winning streak by using her book smarts in statistics and probability. However, when Bart questions Lisa’s coaching tactics and accuses her of taking the fun out of baseball, Lisa benches him from the championship game. The episode was written by Tim Long. This was the last episode that Nancy Kruse directed for the series. It features an opening sequence and couch gag written by British graffiti artist and political activist Banksy, who stated he had been "inspired by reports that Simpsons characters are animated in Seoul, South Korea". The episode was watched in a total of 6.74 million households. Critical reception was generally favorable, with praises towards the story and jokes but criticism towards the episode's use of baseball-themed celebrity cameos. ==Plot== A visit by Dahlia Brinkley, the only Springfield Elementary graduate ever to enter an Ivy League college, gives Lisa a severe inferiority complex because she is involved in very few extracurricular activities. When Ned Flanders resigns as coach of Bart's Little League team, the Springfield Isotots, Lisa seizes the chance to extend her résumé and takes the position. Since she knows nothing about baseball, she seeks advice from the patrons of Moe's Tavern, who direct her to Professor Frink and his scientific colleagues. She learns about sabermetrics from them and uses this science to organize the Isotots' strategy; as a result, their record quickly improves, and they rise in the league standings. However, Bart eventually rebels against her management, saying that she has taken all the fun out of the game, and hits a home run despite her orders to let the pitcher walk him. The Isotots win the game, but Lisa throws Bart off the team for his insubordination. The dismissal raises tension at the Simpson household, with Homer and Marge siding with Lisa and Bart, respectively. Homer believes that Lisa needs to do what is good for the team, while Marge thinks she should put her relationship with Bart first. Under Lisa's leadership, the team advances to the championship against Capital City. On the day of the game, Marge takes Bart to an amusement park; while they ride the roller coaster, Lisa calls Bart to beg for his help, but he brushes her off. Mike Scioscia, manager of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (and a former ringer for Mr. Burns' softball team), pops up in the seats behind Marge and Bart and tells him that the best players listen to their managers, pointing out his three World Series wins - two as player, one as manager. Marge takes Bart to the game, which is now in its last inning, with the Isotots down 11-10. Bart puts aside his differences with Lisa and offers to pinch-run from first base, then ignores her signs and steals both second and third. As he begins to steal home, Lisa realizes the odds are vastly against him, then decides to ignore the numbers and cheer him on anyway. He is tagged out at the plate, costing the Isotots their championship bid, but Lisa thanks him for helping her learn to love baseball as a game, and the team cheers them for resolving their differences. ==Production== The episode was written by Tim Long, his second writing credit of the season after "Elementary School Musical", and was directed by Nancy Kruse, her first directing credit of the season, and her last of the series. This marks the second appearance of Mike Scioscia on The Simpsons. His first appearance on the show was in the season 3 episode Homer at the Bat in 1992, which is referenced in the episode. Baseball sabermetrician Bill James also makes a guest appearance in a talking picture on a wiki, being used as a reference when Professor Frink points out to Lisa that "baseball is a game played by the dextrous but only understood by the poindextrous." ===Opening sequence=== Approximately the first half-minute of the opening sequence remains the same, with a few oddities: the word "Banksy" is sprayed onto a number of walls and other public spaces; Krusty's billboard advertises that he now performs at funerals (first seen on "Take My Life, Please", but this had "Banksy" on it). The chalkboard gag ("I must not write all over the walls") is written all over the classroom walls, clock, door, and floor. After the Simpsons arrive at home, the camera cuts to a shot of them on the couch, then zooms out to show this as a picture hanging on the wall of a fictional overseas Asian animation and merchandise sweatshop. The animation color quickly becomes drab and gray, and the music turns dramatic à la Schindler's List. A large group of tired and sickly artists draw animation cels for The Simpsons among piles of human bones and toxic waste, and a female artist hands a barefoot child employee an animation cel, which he washes in a vat of biohazardous fluid. The camera tracks down to a lower floor of the building, where small kittens are thrown into a woodchipper-type machine to provide the filling for Bart Simpson plush dolls. The toys are then placed into a cart pulled by a sad panda which is driven by a man with a whip. A man shipping boxes with The Simpsons logo on the side uses the tongue from a severed dolphin head to fasten shut the packages. Another employee uses the horn of a sickly unicorn to smash the holes in the center of The Simpsons DVDs. The shot zooms out to reveal that the sweatshop is contained within a grim version of the 20th Century Fox logo, surrounded by barbed wire, searchlights, and a watchtower. ====Creation==== British graffiti artist and political activist Banksy is credited with creating the opening titles and couch gag for this episode, in what amounted to the first time that an artist has been invited to storyboard the show. Executive producer Al Jean first took note of Banksy after seeing his 2010 film Exit Through the Gift Shop. According to Jean, "The concept in my mind was, 'What if this graffiti artist came in and tagged our main titles?'" Simpsons casting director Bonnie Pietila was able to contact the artist through the film's producers, and asked if he would be interested in writing a main title for the show. Jean said Banksy "sent back boards for pretty much what you saw." Series creator Matt Groening gave the idea his blessing, and helped try to make the sequence as close to Banksy's original storyboards as possible. Fox's standards and practices department demanded some changes, and Jean agreed to them "for taste"; Jean said that "95 percent of it is just the way he [Banksy] wanted," but declined to say what was in the censored 5%, only saying that the original version was "even a little sadder." In January 2011, Banksy published the original storyboard on his website.Original Storyboard from Banksy's website (archived at https://web.archive.org) It appears that a poster of Rupert Murdoch could be the 5% that was left out of the final cut. The Simpsons is storyboarded at Film Roman, a company based in California. The storyboards, voice tracks and coloring instructions are then sent to AKOM, a company in Seoul, South Korea. According to Nelson Shin, the founder of AKOM, they received the storyboard for the sequence in August 2010. Believing the sequence to be "excessive and offending" he pushed for some of the darker jokes to be removed. He was successful, though "not nearly as much as he had pushed for." For example, in the storyboards, the workers were wearing conical Asian hats, but these were removed. Banksy told The Guardian that his opening sequence was influenced by The Simpsons long-running use of animation studios in Seoul, South Korea. The newspaper also reported that the creation of the sequence "is said to have been one of the most closely guarded secrets in US television – comparable to the concealment of Banksy's own identity." BBC News reported that "According to [Banksy], his storyboard led to delays, disputes over broadcast standards and a threatened walk out by the animation department." However, Al Jean disputed this, saying "[The animation department] didn't walk out. Obviously they didn't. We've depicted the conditions in a fanciful light before." Commenting on hiring Banksy to create the titles, Jean joked, "This is what you get when you outsource." Although conceding to the fact that The Simpsons is largely animated in South Korea, Jean went on to state that the scenes shown in titles are "very fanciful, far-fetched. None of the things he depicts are true. That statement should be self-evident, but I will emphatically state it." ==Cultural references== The title is a play on the Michael M. Lewis book Moneyball, which examines the 2002 Oakland Athletics' use of sabermetrics to build a competitive baseball team; the book would be made into an Oscar nominated film in 2011, the year after this episode aired. Moe laments his decision to advertise his drink specials in Scientific American magazine, which led to Frink and company coming in. Homer references the 1969 Mets outfielder Ron Swoboda, as well as the collision between Pete Rose and Ray Fosse in the 1970 All-Star Game. When Flanders tells Bart that he is resigning from the little league team, he says to "call him Walter Matthau, but I'm a bad news bearer." This is a reference to the baseball themed film, The Bad News Bears (which Matthau starred in). When Maggie defeats Lisa in fencing, she carves a letter M into Lisa's chest pad, a reference to Zorro. ==Reception== In its original American broadcast on October 10, 2010, "MoneyBart" was viewed by an estimated 6.74 million viewers, according to the Nielsen Media Research, receiving a 3.0 rating/8 share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, beating The Cleveland Show and American Dad! in the demographic and total viewers and ranking third in its time slot. The episode received a 29% drop in the demographic from the previous episode, "Loan-a Lisa". The episode received favorable reviews. Brad Trechak of the TV Squad said of the episode: "In the end, the episode was really good at the beginning and the ending, but the middle kind of dragged." Eric Hochburger of TV Fanatic criticized the Mike Scioscia cameo, although he said that "[w]hile this week's installment will never replace our favorite Simpsons baseball episode, "Homer at the Bat," there [was] certainly plenty of great jokes and a strong enough story with heart to keep us entertained." Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club compared the episode favorably to "Lisa on Ice" although she also criticized the Scioscia cameo, calling it "awkward". In conclusion she gave the episode an A−, the best grade of the night. The opening sequence received a generally mixed response. Nelson Shin, the founder of AKOM, the Korean company that animates The Simpsons, said that he and his staff did protest being asked to animate the sequence. Shin said that the sequence suggests that animators work in sweatshops, but they actually work in "high-tech workshops". He added, "Most of the content was about degrading people from Korea, China, Mexico and Vietnam. If Banksy wants to criticize these things ... I suggest that he learn more about it first." Colby Hall of Mediaite called the sequence "a jaw- dropping critique of global corporate licensing, worker exploitation and over- the-top dreariness of how western media companies (in this case, 20th Century Fox) takes advantage of outsourced labor in developing countries." Melissa Bell of The Washington Post felt Banksy's titles had helped revive The Simpsons' "edge", but after "the jarring opening, the show went back to its regular routine of guest cameos, self-referential jokes and tangential story lines." Marlow Riley of MTV wrote, "as satire, [the opening is] a bit over- the-top. What is shocking is that Fox ran Banksy's ballsy critique of outsourcing, The Simpsons, and the standards and human rights conditions that people in first world nations accept. It's uncomfortable and dark, and not what's expected from the modern Simpsons, which mainly consists of 'Homer hurts himself' jokes." ==See also== * List of works by Banksy ==References== ==External links== * *"MoneyBart" at theSimpsons.com * YouTube - Banksy - Simpsons Opening Sequence last access 20 September 2011 Category:The Simpsons (season 22) episodes Category:2010 American television episodes Category:Baseball animation Category:Works by Banksy
|
"Chant No. 1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)" is a song by the English new wave band Spandau Ballet, released on 10 July 1981 as the first single from their upcoming second album, Diamond. The band's guitarist/songwriter, Gary Kemp, wanted to pay homage to the latest London hotspot, Le Beat Route, by emulating the funk music that was popular there and even using the club as the location for the music video, all in order to show that the band was still part of the trendy Soho scene. Except for the remix of the song from the album's box set, "Chant No. 1" received good reviews, and the 7-inch single became their third top ten hit in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 3 on the UK Singles Chart. ==Background== While Spandau Ballet was completing their first album, Journeys to Glory, their guitarist/songwriter Gary Kemp was noticing a renewed interest in funk around Soho, which led him to come up with "Glow", the double A-side companion to "Muscle Bound", the third song released from their debut. He described "Glow" as their first attempt at "American style funk – but still with white lyrics". While promoting the double A-side with performances of "Muscle Bound" in the spring of 1981, the band met up with the British jazz-funk group Beggar and Co, and Kemp noticed the rapport between the two bands and had the idea to ask them to perform as the horn section on an upcoming record. In his autobiography I Know This Much: From Soho to Spandau, he explained, "The conjoining of soul and rock had very little precedent then, and we knew that it would irritate the hell out of the rock press, as well as give us some extended credibility." The use of horns on "Glow" helped to inspire their next single, "Chant No. 1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)", which paid tribute to the latest Blitz Kids hangout, Le Beat Route.: There’s a claustrophobia that emanates from ‘Chant No. 1' that had everything to do with the club that’s eulogised in it. Le Beat Route was a small and unfrequented dive that had sad Coconut Grove decor, a long central bar and a small stage at the far end in front of a square dance floor. Ollie… started a night in this tired Greek Street dive that automatically attracted the ex-Blitz crowd and more. The club focused on funk music, with one of its most popular songs being "Wheel Me Out" by Was (Not Was), which Kemp felt driven to imitate in his own composing as a means of proving that Spandau Ballet was still in the thick of Soho nightlife.: Inside it was hot funk, served up by our former electrician and saviour of our HMS Belfast gig — Steve Lewis…. He centred it around the intelligent funk of Was (Not Was) and in particular their menacing 'Wheel Me Out'. It became the anthem of the hottest club in Britain and had me banging my guitar and looking for the song that would, once again, place Spandau Ballet at the heart of London club culture. The finished product, "Chant No. 1", even provided some scanty directions to Le Beat Route in the form of a rap that would give Kemp a rare solo vocal. He also credited Robert Elms, who came up with the name of the band, as an inspiration for the song. ==Recording== "Chant No. 1" was recorded at Utopia Studios in Primrose Hill with Richard James Burgess producing. Burgess had just developed the Simmons SDS-V electronic drum kit, which Spandau Ballet drummer John Keeble used on "Chant No. 1", making it one of the first recordings to use the new alternative to acoustic drums. Kemp described the recording of the music as "fast and easy", but Burgess had trouble getting lead singer Tony Hadley to convey the darker side of the material with a softer tone of voice than usual and eventually succeeded by having him lie down to do so. ==Critical reception== All three versions of the song received reviews. Red Starr of Smash Hits magazine had some reservations but an overall positive response to the 7-inch single: "Actually this is easily their best effort to date, despite the Pearl and Dean cinema ad beginning and Tony Hadley's pompous foghorn vocals." Starr concluded, "Good dance record and hopefully a sign of better things to come." Record Mirror's Robin Smith wrote, "Even I have to admit that it's a rare classic of its genre." In reviewing the 12-inch single of the song, which was paired with the instrumental version ("Feel the Chant"), Billboard magazine enthused, "What a record!", and proclaimed that the songs were "overwhelming in their inventive use of dance rock rhythms, jazz horns and a total sense of what urban nightlife is all about." When "Chant No. 1" was released as part of the Diamond album in 1982 with a separate box set of additional remixes, however, Richard Cook of the New Musical Express was very critical of the album, especially with regard to the way the songs were remixed: "And 'Chant No. 1', the one Spandau tune to pay tithes direct to disco convention, has the most incisions: a grotesquely doctored trombone on the intro, the sticking groove trick Burgess seems to love, and the beat dissected around the chant much as 'Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel' confounded any rational dance step." In retrospective reviews on AllMusic, Dan LeRoy opined that it was the best song on the Diamond album, and Dave Thompson included it on a list of Spandau Ballet songs that were "utterly convincing white boy Funk". When the band re-recorded the song for their 2009 album Once More, Paul Lester called the original "a revolutionary white-funk record" in his review of the album for BBC Online and described the new version as "supper club vamp". In 2009 Dylan Jones put the song in the context of the political climate in England at the time of its release, writing, "'Chant No.1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)' was, in its own way, as important to the summer of 1981 as 'Ghost Town' by the Specials - a canny mix of contemporary funk and bottom-heavy agitprop, the perfect encapsulation of the new decade's obsession with fiddling while Brixton and Toxteth burned." He also assigned some credit for the success of the record to their drive to stay on top of the trends in dance music: "It is one of the most important records of the early Eighties, and this is not an opinion solely justified by hindsight. Having come fully-formed from the new romantic Billy's/Blitz club scene, Spandau completely understood the currency of the dancefloor, building prime equity in nightclubs from Canvey Island to New Jersey, from Soho to SoHo. And back again." In 2016 the editors of the NME ranked the song at number 38 on their list of the best tracks of 1981. ==Release and commercial performance== "Chant No. 1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)" was released on 10 July 1981, and Kemp recalled taking the 12-inch single to Le Beat Route as soon as they had a copy so that the DJ could start playing it. There they encountered former Blitz regular and up- and-coming Culture Club vocalist Boy George, who "sat in his catty booth [and] admitted to liking it, although he drew the line at dancing." The song debuted at number 18 on the UK Singles Chart dated 18 July and jumped to number 4 during its second of 11 weeks there. Because copies of the record were selling so quickly, the band thought it was going to be their first number one single and got drunk at the offices of their label, Chrysalis Records, while waiting for the announcement of the singles chart positions for its third week charting, 1 August, which had it peaking at number 3. The British Phonographic Industry awarded the single Silver certification on 1 August for shipment of 250,000 units. The song also reached number 30 in Australia, number 9 in Ireland, number 31 in the Netherlands, number 36 in New Zealand and number 27 in Spain. In the US, the remix included on the 12-inch single of "Chant No. 1" got as high as number 17 on Billboard magazine's Disco Top 100. ==Music video== Spandau Ballet continued to work with "Muscle Bound" director Russell Mulcahy on "Chant No. 1", and the video was filmed at Le Beat Route with the band performing the song on the dance floor instead of the stage. Kemp described Hadley's character as "a strung-out lounge lizard" who drives through Soho to the club and is greeted by the owner before entering to take the mike.: Tony, playing a strung-out lounge lizard, arrives at Le Beat Route and the camera takes his point of view as it passes a welcoming Ollie and descends the stairs to a dancing throng. During the bridge, shots of the club's television set showed a Muhammad Ali fight, and flashes of a picture of Lenin were intercut with its owner, DJ Steve Lewis, which Kemp suggested because he wanted Lewis to lip sync his rap solo and thought the photo would convey the DJ's political leanings.: I wanted Steve Lewis to mime to my rap … I also suggested that Lewis have his picture of Lenin in the shot. A communist DJ couldn't pass without notice. ==Aftermath== The video for "Chant No. 1" was included on a tape from the music video subscription service RockAmerica, and Frankie Crocker, a disc jockey for WBLS in New York City, saw it on a video screen at The Ritz and started playing the song on his show. A couple of other urban contemporary stations in the US also added it their playlists, which gave the band hope that Chrysalis would release it as a single there.: Frankie led the charge, and within a week or so KTU and KISS, both black stations, started to play the record. Dagger and I flew to New York to meet with the record company and talk about releasing it. On our first trip they said they wouldn’t release anything unless it was on the radio. An executive for the label told them, "The thing is, guys, it’s black radio. It won’t cross over into pop," and Kemp thought, "What he wanted to say was it wasn't proper radio and wouldn't be heard by white kids with cash." One consolation for this disappointment the band received came in the form of a message from the Clash, who contacted their office to let them know that "they thought the record was amazing." The song's success put pressure on Kemp to come up with more hits for what would be their sophomore effort, Diamond. He wrote, "Unlike second marriages, second albums are notoriously difficult. Journeys had been developed over some time and played live before we went into the recording studio, with some songs being discarded at the last minute. It was a mission statement, cohesive and tight, with none of the indulgence that often plagues follow-ups." He initially thought "Chant No. 1" would inspire more music, but as it climbed the singles chart, he described the effect it had on him as "a fear and a darkness clouding my direction." Spandau Ballet's next single, "Paint Me Down", only got as high as number 30 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2001, Billboard magazine credited the band with giving London-based DJ/producer/remixer Rui Da Silva the honor of becoming the first Portuguese to reach number one on the UK Singles Chart. His song "Touch Me" originally had a section inspired by "Chant No. 1", but the band had too many demands to be met to allow him to include what Kemp had written and caused a delay in its release. The planned release would have put the song in direct competition with the children's television theme song "Can We Fix It?" by Bob the Builder, which was the biggest-selling single of the year in the UK and spent three weeks at number one, but the delay caused by the failed negotiations instead resulted in the Da Silva hit's movement up the chart coinciding with the theme song's waning popularity. ==Formats and track listings== *7-inch single # "Chant No. 1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)" — 3:58 # "Feel the Chant" — 3:57 *12-inch single # "Chant No. 1 (I Don't Need This Pressure On)" — 6:01 # "Feel the Chant" — 6:01 ==Personnel== Credits adapted from the liner notes for Diamond, except as noted: Spandau Ballet * Tony Hadley – lead vocals and backing vocals * Gary Kemp – synthesizers, electric guitars, guzheng, backing vocals, horn arrangements * Martin Kemp – bass, backing vocals * Steve Norman – bongos, congas, timbales, tablas and backing vocals * John Keeble – electronic drums Additional musicians * David "Baps" Baptiste – saxophones and flute * Nat Augustin – trombone * Canute "Kenny" Wellington – trumpet * Beggar & Co – horn arrangements Production * Richard James Burgess – producer; horn arrangements *Graham Smith – sleeve design == Charts == Chart (1981) Peak position Australia (Kent Music Report) 30 Spain (AFYVE) 27 ==Certifications== ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * Category:1981 songs Category:1981 singles Category:Spandau Ballet songs Category:Chrysalis Records singles Category:British funk songs Category:Song recordings produced by Richard James Burgess Category:Songs written by Gary Kemp
|
Charles Chan (18 December 1914 – 26 February 2008) and Lee-lee Chan (1916 – 28 February 2002) were the parents of actor/director/singer Jackie Chan and the grandparents of actor/singer/composer Jaycee Chan. Due to being the father of Jackie Chan, Charles made cameos in some of Chan's films such as Police Story 2 and also starred in his own film once made by a company trying to advertise it as a Jackie Chan film. Their story was made into a 2013 feature film A Tale of Three Cities directed by Mabel Cheung. ==Charles's biography== ===Nationalist guard=== According to Charles' father, he still needed discipline when Charles returned to Nanjing at the age of 20. His grandfather was a good friend of Chinese National Revolutionary Army General Ku Chu-tung (Gu Zhutong, Chinese: 顧祝同) and after displaying his martial arts skills, Charles became General Gu's orderly which was similar to being a personal guard according to Charles. General Gu later became Chief of Staff to General Chiang Kai-shek. General Gu had many armed guards and Charles was also given a rifle of his own. He lost his job as an orderly when he accidentally pulled the trigger of his automatic rifle which startled him causing him to drop it. The rifle continued to fire rounds as it spun on the ground. Charles returned home and eventually found employment on a Mitsubishi cargo ship in Wuhan. ===Mitsubishi=== Of the seven general maintenance workers in his group, he became the leader. This group of seven also openly traded merchandise without official permits. Linen was especially very expensive in Nanjing, so they bought the linen in Wuhu and shipped it to Nanjing. Once the linen was in Nanjing, it was traded for salt. According to Charles, when Japanese workers arrived in Nanjing to seek employment, they felt they were not given any benefits and accused Charles and his group of smuggling and they were arrested by Japanese authorities. Upon the fourth day of their imprisonment, he and his group had their hands tied behind their backs and were taken to witness an execution. What they saw caused them to literally faint, lose their appetites and experience restless sleep. One week later, they were taken again to witness another execution. Charles, while recalling this horrific experience in the film documentary, Traces of a Dragon: Jackie Chan and his Lost Family, said that he and the other six workers in his group, upon witnessing another execution, became like zombies. ===Second Sino-Japanese War=== The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937. Soon, under the pretext of creating a "Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere", the Japanese Imperial Army launched an all-out invasion of South-East Asia, but their primary target was always China. Through political connections, a relative of Charles pleaded with the Japanese authorities to release him from prison. Of the seven workers, only five came out alive, among them was Charles. Deciding to quit his job on the cargo ship, Charles returned to General Gu, who was Dai Li's boss, to ask for help. This time, General Gu got Charles a job in the Intelligence Bureau of the Administration Office as a Secret Agent of the First War Zone. According to Charles, the Nationalist Government was corrupt and currency became less and less usable as even the price of a stick of fried bread (Youtiao) skyrocketed into extremely unreasonable prices. Charles then led his entire unit of 38 men to the headquarters in Shanghai where they all intended to formally hand in their resignations. However, being the leader of this unit made him the target of two assassination attempts, one of which occurred on the way to the headquarters in Shanghai. While descending down some stairs, someone shouted that he had too much power and shot him. The bullet went through the upper calf of his leg. Later, someone shot Charles from behind and this time the bullet took off a piece of his scalp near the crown of his head. Charles expressed that he believes it was Communists who tried to kill him as he was a Nationalist. In the meantime, the Japanese Army were taking the coastal cities of China with overwhelming force causing the Chinese population to continually move further and further inland. Charles fled to Anhui, but it was too devastated from the Japanese air raids for him to stay. Both of his parents and his sister were killed in these air raids. He then fled to Chongqing (Chungking), but returned three or four months later. Living alone among the ruins in Anhui, he met his first wife and they had two sons, Fang Shide (房仕德) and Fang Shisheng (房仕勝). Eventually, they moved to Wuhu. When the older son, Shide, was seven, and the younger son, Shisheng, was two, Charles' wife was diagnosed with cervical cancer and was bed-ridden for three years while in constant pain. Opium, when it could be smuggled undetected by authorities, was often used as a pain-killer, but Charles did not know how to prepare it and hired someone for this task. This caused him to eventually go bankrupt. His first wife died of her illness in 1947. As the Communists and Nationalists clashed, the Chinese Civil War broke out and the Communists eventually won. In the meantime, due to Charles having been a former Secret Agent for the Nationalists, his life was in danger and he felt he had no other choice but to leave his two young sons behind and flee Wuhu. Charles left without telling them good-bye or where he was going. He ended up in Shanghai at the age of 29. According to his two sons, when they woke up the next morning, their father was simply gone. Without parents, a policeman found them and the two sons were taken care of secretly by Charles' friends. These friends feared that if they were discovered to be helping the sons of a former Nationalist Secret Agent, they could be arrested by the Communists. Charles expressed that from that day until the day he met them again in 1985, he worried about his sons and wondered if they were still alive. In one of Jackie Chan's interviews he said that "his father was a spy" ===Death=== Charles Chan died at the age of 93 on 26 February 2008 in Hong Kong. Family members, including his grandson Jaycee Chan were at his bedside. His son Jackie was unable to be there due to filming commitments, but he was with his father during the Chinese New Year period and said on his website that he knew that might be the last time he saw his father. Charles Chan was interred next to his wife in the Gungahlin Cemetery in Canberra on 8 March 2008. Jackie Chan, the US ambassador Robert McCallum and former ACT chief ministers Kate Carnell and Gary Humphries were in attendance. ==Lee-lee's biography== ===Early life=== Lee-lee Chan (陳莉莉; born as 陳月榮 (Chén Yuèróng)), also known as Lily Chan, was born circa 1916. Lee-lee's parents owned a grocery store and her first husband worked as a shoe-maker, then later worked at a railroad station. Her first husband was killed from bombs from air raids in Wuhan and at the age of 28, she was left to single-handedly raise her two daughters, Yulan (who was 12 years old when her father died) and Guilan (four at the time). Lee-lee left Wuhan for lack of money, went to Shanghai at the age of 29 and at the train station, she told her daughters that she would be back. According to Guilan, she told this lie so that they would not feel sad. Yulan, at 12 years old, had to work in a child labour factory to help her grandmother to care for herself and her sister. ===Shanghai=== While in Shanghai, Lee-lee heard that trafficking opium was lucrative, so she took a risk and bought some opium. That day, the port was under inspection and the officer in charge of inspecting every passenger was Charles who found the opium Lee-lee was concealing. He confiscated it and was about to arrest her however, he took pity on her when he noticed the blue flower in her hair. According to the autobiography, I Am Jackie Chan; My Life in Action, during the war in China, a white flower in one's hair signified that one had lost their parents, a blue flower meant that they lost their children and/or husband. Charles asked Lee- lee about her situation and on hearing it, he let her go, returning the opium back to her. Lee-lee turned to gambling, successfully. She won so many times, that all over Shanghai, she was known as "Big Sister" and was treated with utmost respect. However, her luck eventually changed and she resorted to pawning all of her jewellery and clothes. Meanwhile, she and Charles had become great friends, and when he found out about her pawning her belongings, he got them all back for her. He also belonged to a street gang called the "Shandong Gang". Lee-lee never gambled again, but her friendship with Charles grew stronger. By studying English, Lee-Lee found employment as a maid in a foreigner's home and worked extremely hard. ===Death=== Lee-lee Chan died on 28 February 2002, in Canberra, Australia aged around 85 and was buried in the Gungahlin Cemetery. ==Flight from China== The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949 by Mao Zedong. Many Nationalists fled to Taiwan or Hong Kong. Charles, to further hide from the Communists, changed his name from Fang Daolong to Chan Zhiping, the surname Chan was much more common and was also Lee-lee's surname, and he joined the exodus to Hong Kong. Lee-lee arrived in Hong Kong a couple of years later in 1951. A friend of Charles found him employment at the French Consulate in Hong Kong. Charles did not know how to cook at that time, and became an odd job man; doing things from cleaning to gardening. After a while of physical labour with little pay, he asked to be taught how to cook. Charles became a chef at the French Embassy which earned him a higher salary. Charles and Lee Lee had since found each other in Hong Kong and on 7 April 1954, they had a son named, Kong-sang Chan (which means, "born in Hong Kong" Chan), better known as Jackie Chan. The family of three lived in the servants quarters of the French Embassy. Lee-lee had found employment there as a maid. According to countless sources, Jackie was a mischievous child who did not like school. At the age of 7, he was enrolled for the maximum 10 years at the China Drama Academy under the cruel Dickensian head teacher, Master Yu Jim-Yuen where he learned the skills of Chinese Opera such as martial arts, acrobatics, singing and dancing with very little emphasis on academics. The 1960s were still financially challenging in Hong Kong and when Charles had the opportunity to leave there with Charles Greene, the Marshall of the French Embassy, to become a chef at the US Embassy in Australia, he did not hesitate to take the new position. After he had earned enough money for an airline ticket for Lee-lee, he sent for her which meant that after she joined him Australia and also found employment at the US Embassy as a maid, Jackie was left in the care of Master Yu Jim-Yuen. After Jackie graduated from the China Drama Academy, Charles bought him an apartment in Hong Kong. According to Charles, it cost him and Lee-lee all of their savings plus tips. When Jackie learned of this, his resentment towards his parents for leaving him behind in Hong Kong disappeared as he realised they were working so hard for their son and his future. In 1985, through the help of a friend who worked at the Chinese Embassy in Australia, who was also from Shandong, China, Charles found his two sons in China. They were living in Wuhan in Hubei province. Their reunion took place in Guangzhou, China and the sons cried upon seeing their father again and they said that they had suffered a lot. The older son, Shide, is a postman, and the younger son, Shisheng, works on a pig farm. Charles visited his two sons and their families in Anhui as often as he was able to (at 89 years old in 2005) and he re-established his position as the patriarch of the Fang family and provided money to renovate the ancestral hall there. He also updated the genealogy by adding Jackie's real name into the records as 房仕龍 (Fáng Shìlóng or Fong Si Lung). The entire Fang clan has been re-connected. Jackie, at the time Traces of a Dragon: Jackie Chan and his Lost Family was made, had still not met his half brothers, his father's sons, but he has met his half sisters, Lee-lee's daughters as they would often visit their mother in Australia as did Jackie when his parents used to live there. ==References== ;Bibliography * Traces of a Dragon: Jackie Chan and his Lost Family – 2003 documentary, directed by Mabel Cheung, with English narration by Ti Lung (who played Wong Fei Hung's (Jackie Chan's) father in the film, Drunken Master II aka The Legend of Drunken Master). * * ==External links== * Category:Chinese wushu practitioners Category:Married couples Category:People from Ma'anshan Category:People from Wuhan Category:Jackie Chan Category:Chinese Civil War refugees Category:Military personnel of the Republic of China in the Second Sino-Japanese War
|
thumb|Lorenzo Ferrero Lorenzo Ferrero (; born 1951) is an Italian composer, librettist, author, and book editor. He started composing at an early age and has written over a hundred compositions thus far, including twelve operas, three ballets, and numerous orchestral, chamber music, solo instrumental, and vocal works. His musical idiom is characterized by eclecticism, stylistic versatility, and a neo-tonal language. ==Biography== Born in Turin, he studied composition from 1969 to 1973 with Massimo Bruni and Enore Zaffiri at Turin Music Conservatory, and philosophy with Gianni Vattimo and Massimo Mila at the University of Turin, earning a degree in aesthetics with a thesis on John Cage in 1974. His early interest in the psychology of perception and psychoacoustics led him to IMEB, the International Electroacoustic Music Institute of Bourges, where he did research on electronic music between 1972 and 1973, IRCAM in Paris, and to the Musik/Dia/Licht/Film Galerie in Munich in 1974. Lorenzo Ferrero has received commissions from numerous festivals and institutions, his works being constantly performed throughout Europe and North America, particularly in Italy, Germany, France, Great Britain, Spain, Finland, Russia, the Czech Republic, and the United States. His most popular compositions include the operas Marilyn, La figlia del mago, Salvatore Giuliano, Charlotte Corday, La Conquista, and Risorgimento!, the first Piano Concerto, the Concerto for Violin, Cello, Piano and Orchestra, the set of six symphonic poems La Nueva España, the song cycle Canzoni d'amore, the Capriccio for Piano and String Orchestra, Parodia, Ostinato, Glamorama Spies, Tempi di quartetto for string quartet, and the ballet Franca Florio, regina di Palermo. In 1986 he participated in the Prix Italia with his work La fuga di Foscolo. His music is published by Casa Ricordi, Milan. As an active manager of art events, he has served as artistic director of the Festival Puccini in Torre del Lago (1980–84),Vitelli, Un bel dì vedremo: Il festival di Giacomo Puccini, 2016, pp. 155–66. "Unione Musicale" in Turin (1983–87), Arena di Verona Festival (1991–94), and the "Musica 2000" fair. In 1999 he co-founded and coordinated the "Festa della Musica", a showcase of classical, jazz and world music held in Milan, and four years later he managed the Ravello Festival. thumb|145px In 2007 Lorenzo Ferrero was appointed to the board of directors and elected vice-president of SIAE, the Italian Authors and Publishers Association. That same year he published the Manuale di scrittura musicale, a manual which describes the basic rules of correct and elegant music writing from the orthographic as well as the graphic point of view, which is addressed to all composers, musicologists, teachers, students and copy-editors in need of practical advice. In 2008 he translated, edited and published Lo studio dell'orchestrazione, the Italian edition of Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration, a landmark orchestration manual. Lorenzo Ferrero has been professor of composition at Milan Conservatory from 1980 to 2016. His teaching appointments also include positions at St. Mary's College of Maryland and LUISS Business School, a division of LUISS Guido Carli University of Rome. Moreover, as member of the Italian National Union of Composers, Librettists and Authors he co-founded ECSA, the European Composer and Songwriter Alliance, and between 2011 and 2017 he was president of CIAM, the International Council of Music Authors. In 2017, he was appointed honorary president of CIAM. Lorenzo Ferrero was described in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera as "the most successful opera composer of his generation in Italy"The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, 1997, Vol. 2, p. 166. and in The New Penguin Opera Guide as "a principal exponent of the neo-tonal tendencies common to a number of Italian composers of his generation, who has championed a brand of narrative music-theatre that aims to capture a wider audience than that achieved by the heirs of the modernist tradition."The New Penguin Opera Guide, 2001, p. 273. ==Works== In addition to the original works listed below, Lorenzo Ferrero completed the orchestration of the third version of the opera La rondine by Giacomo Puccini, which was subsequently premiered at Teatro Regio di Torino on 22 March 1994. With a group of six other Italian composers he wrote the Requiem per le vittime della mafia, a collaborative composition for soloists, choir and orchestra on an Italian text by Vincenzo Consolo. The requiem was first performed in the Palermo Cathedral on 27 March 1993. Furthermore, he wrote the music for the Sestriere Alpine World Ski Championships opening ceremony of 1997 including the official anthem, incidental music for stage productions, and a film score. British musicologist David Osmond-Smith described his style as "an unabashed synthesis of classical traditions and pop [...] that never forgets its 19-century precursors."The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, 1997, Vol. 2, p. 167. ===Opera=== * Rimbaud, ou Le Fils du soleil (1978), quasi un melodramma in three acts * Marilyn (1980), scenes from the '50s in two acts * La figlia del mago (1981), giocodramma melodioso in two acts * Mare nostro (1985), comic opera in two acts * Night (1985), opera in one act * Salvatore Giuliano (1986), opera in one act * Charlotte Corday (1989), opera in three acts * Le Bleu-blanc-rouge et le noir (1989), marionette opera * La nascita di Orfeo (1996), musical action in one act * La Conquista (2005), opera in two acts * Le piccole storie: Ai margini delle guerre (2007), chamber opera in one act * Risorgimento! (2011), opera in one act ===Ballet=== * Invito a nozze (1978), ballet * Lotus Eaters (1985), ballet * Franca Florio, regina di Palermo (2007), ballet in two acts ===Orchestral music=== * Ellipse IV (Waldmusik) (1977), for folk ensemble ad libitum * Romanza seconda (1977), for bassoon and strings * Arioso (1977), for orchestra and live electronics * Arioso II (1981), for large orchestra * Balletto (1981), for orchestra * My Blues (1982), for string orchestra * Thema 44 (ad honorem J. Haydn) (1982), for small orchestra * Ombres (1984), for orchestra and live electronics * The Miracle (1985), suite for orchestra * Intermezzo notturno from Mare nostro (1985), for small orchestra * Intermezzo "Portella della Ginestra" from Salvatore Giuliano (1986), for orchestra * Four Modern Dances (1990), for small orchestra * Zaubermarsch (1990), for small orchestra * Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1991) * Paesaggio con figura (1994), for small orchestra * Concerto for Violin, Cello, Piano and Orchestra (1994–95) * Palm Beach Overture (1995), for orchestra * Capriccio for Piano and String Orchestra (1996) * Three Baroque Buildings (1997), for bassoon, trumpet, and strings * Championship Suite (1997), for large orchestra * Storie di neve (1997), music for the Alpine World Ski Championships opening ceremony * La Nueva España (1992–99), a set of six symphonic poems ** La ruta de Cortés (1992) ** La noche triste (1996) ** Memoria del fuego (1998) ** Presagios (1999) ** El encuentro (1999) ** La matanza del Templo Mayor (1999) * Rastrelli in Saint Petersburg (2000), for oboe and string orchestra * Two Cathedrals in the South (2001), for trumpet and string orchestra * Five Easy Pieces (2002), transcription for orchestra * Guarini, the Master (2004), for violin and strings * DEsCH (2006), for oboe, bassoon, piano, and orchestra * Quattro variazioni su un tema di Banchieri: 2 Agosto. Prima variazione (2008), for organ and orchestra * Concerto for Piano and Orchestra No. 2 (2009) * Fantasy Suite No. 2 (2009), for violin and orchestra ===Chamber and instrumental music=== * Primavera che non vi rincresca (1971), electronic tape piece * Ellipse III (1974), for any 4 players/ensembles * Siglied (1975), for chamber orchestra * Romanza senza parole (1976), for chamber ensemble * Adagio cantabile (1977), for chamber ensemble * Variazioni sulla notte (1980), for guitar * Respiri (1982), for flute and piano * Soleils (1982), for harp * Ellipse (1983), for flute * Onde (1983), for guitar * My Rock (1985), (versions for piano and for big band) * Empty Stage (1985), for 4 clarinets and piano * My Blues (1986), for flute and piano * Passacaglia (1986), for flute, clarinet, and string quartet * Ostinato (1987), for 6 violoncelli * Parodia (1990), for chamber ensemble * Discanto sulla musica sull'acqua di Handel (1990), for flute, oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, French horn, and percussion * Cadenza (1990), for clarinet and marimba * Musica per un paesaggio (1990), for small orchestra * Movimento americano (1992), for oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet * Ostinato (1993), for two violoncelli and strings * Portrait (1994), for string quartet * Seven Seconds (1995), for clarinet, violin, and piano * Shadow Lines (1995), for bass flute and live electronics * My Piece of Africa (1996), for violin, viola, violoncello, and contrabass * Five Easy Pieces (1997), for flute and piano (version of a piano work) * Tempi di quartetto (1996–98), for string quartet * Glamorama Spies (1999), for flute, clarinet, violin, violoncello, and piano * Sonata (2000), for viola and piano * Moonlight Sonata (2001), for 5 percussion instruments * Three Baroque Buildings in a Frame (2002), for flute and string quartet * Macuilli Mexihcateteouch - Five Aztec Gods (2005), for string quartet * Haring at the Exhibition (2005), ambient piece * Fantasy Suite (2007), for flute, violoncello and piano * Freedom Variations (2008), for trumpet and chamber ensemble * Tourists and Oracles (2008), for eleven instruments and piano four- hands * Three Simple Songs (2009), for flute, clarinet, violin, violoncello, and piano * Venice 1976 (A Parody) (2013), for flute, clarinet, violin, violoncello, and piano * Country Life (2015) for saxophone and piano * A Night in Nashville (2015) for saxophone and piano Piano music * Aivlys (1977) * My Rag (1982) * My Blues (1982) * My Rock (1983) * Rock my Tango (1990) * Five Easy Pieces (1994) * Seven Portraits of the Same Person (1996) * Op.111 - Bagatella su Beethoven (2009) Organ and harpsichord * Ellipse II (1975), for harpsichord/clavichord * A Red Wedding Dress (1998), for organ ===Choral and vocal music=== * Fawn (1969/70), for voice and live synthesizer * Immigrati (1969/70), for voice and live synthesizer * Ellipse III (1974), for any 4 voices/choruses * Ghost Tantra (1975), for voice and synthesizer * Missa brevis (1975), for five voices and two synthesizers * Le Néant où l'on ne peut arriver (1976), for solo voices, mixed chorus, and orchestra * Non parto, non resto (1987), for mixed chorus * Introito, part of the Requiem per le vittime della mafia (1993), for chorus and orchestra * Night of the Nite (1979), aria from Marilyn for soprano and piano * Canzoni d'amore (1985), for voice and chamber ensemble * La fuga di Foscolo (1986), for 4 soloists, speaker, and small orchestra * Poi andro in America (1986), aria from Salvatore Giuliano for voice and orchestra * Ninna-nanna (1986), for tenor and piano * La Conquista (2006), symphonic-choral suite * Canti polacchi (2010), for female chorus and orchestra * Senza parole (2012), for mixed chorus ===Incidental and theatre music=== * Nebbia di latte (1987), for flutes and live electronics * La cena delle beffe (1988), stage music for Carmelo Bene * Maschere (1993), for Le Massere by Carlo Goldoni for string quartet * Lontano dagli occhi (1999), for one actor, 4 voices, and piano quartet * Mozart a Recanati (2006), for one actress, 1 voice, string trio, clarinet, and piano ===Film score=== * Anemia ===Books and book contributions=== * Ferrero, Lorenzo (2007). Manuale di scrittura musicale. Torino: EDT Srl. * Ferrero, Lorenzo, ed. (2008). Lo studio dell'orchestrazione. Torino: EDT Srl. * Capellini, Lorenzo (1987). Nascita di un'opera: Salvatore Giuliano. Bologna: Nuova Alfa Editoriale. * Ostali, Piero, ed. (1990). Il Piccolo Marat: Storia e rivoluzione nel melodramma verista. Atti del terzo convegno di studi su Pietro Mascagni. Milan: Casa Musicale Sonzogno. * Harpner, S, ed. (1992). Über Musiktheater: Eine Festschrift. Munich: Ricordi. * Jacoviello, Marco (1998). Il suono e l'anima: Il paesaggio invisibile del melodramma. Udine: Campanotto. * Jacoviello, Marco (2015). Al favor della notte... Notturni nel teatro di Mozart. Perugia: Morlacchi Editore. * Pozzi, S, ed. (2002). La musica sacra nelle chiese cristiane. Bologna: Alfastudio. * Donati, P, and Pacetti, E, eds. (2002). C'erano una volta nove oscillatori... Lo studio di fonologia della Rai di Milano nello sviluppo della nuova musica in Italia. Teche. Rome: RAI Teche; Milano: Scuole civiche di Milano, Fondazione di partecipazione, Accademia internazionale della musica, Istituto di ricerca musicale; Rome: RAI-ERI. * Maurizi, P, ed. (2004). Quattordici interviste sul «nuovo teatro musicale» in Italia. Perugia: Morlacchi Editore. * Hugony, Fabrizio (2010). Galileo e il segreto dei Maya. Milan: NR. ==Discography== Year Title Genre Label 1991 Lorenzo Ferrero – Concerto per pianoforte e orchestra, Parodia, Ostinato, Canzoni d'amore Classical Nuova Era 1992 Lorenzo Ferrero – Mare nostro Classical Ricordi 1998 Lorenzo Ferrero – Different Views: La ruta de Cortés, La noche triste, Championship Suite, Palm Beach Overture Classical BMG Ricordi 1999 Lorenzo Ferrero – Capriccio per pianoforte e archi, Concerto per violino, violoncello, pianoforte e orchestra, Concerto per pianoforte e orchestra Classical BMG Ricordi 2000 Lorenzo Ferrero – La Nueva España Classical Naxos 2013 Lorenzo Ferrero – Tempi di quartetto Classical Klanglogo 2020 Lorenzo Ferrero – A Life in Waves: Four Modern Dances, Intermezzo Notturno, Parodia, Paesaggio con Figura, My Blues Classical Klanglogo 2021 Lorenzo Ferrero – Baroque Revisited: Rastrelli in Saint Petersburg, Tree Baroque Buildings, Guarini, the Master, Two Cathedrals in the South Classical Klanglogo Year Title Genre Label 1972 Musica Elettronica – Computer Music: Immigrati, Fawn Electronic Compagnia Editoriale Pianeta 1972 Les Saisons: Primavera che non vi rincresca Electronic IMEB 1976 Steirischer Herbst – Ferrero-Neuwirth-Rühm: Le Néant où l'on ne peut arriver Classical ORF 1983 Marco Fumo – Piano in Rag: My Rag Classical Fonit Cetra 1983 Fantasia su Roberto Fabbriciani: Ellipse Classical Philips 1987 Steirischer Herbst – Musikprotokoll 1987: Ostinato Classical ORF 1991 Davide Ficco – Autori Italiani Contemporanei: Onde Classical Oliphant 1994 Flavio Cucchi – Italian Guitar Music: Onde Classical Arc Music 1995 Dominique Visse – Songs for Seven Centuries: Mi palpita il cuore (part of the song cycle Canzoni d'amore) Classical King Records 2002 Sentieri Selvaggi – Bad Blood: Glamorama Spies Classical Sensible Records 2003 Saxophone Colours – Italian & French music for saxophone and piano: My Blues Classical Stradivarius 2004 L'arte del funambolo – new Italian music for saxophone & piano: My Blues Classical Stradivarius 2006 Sentieri Selvaggi – AC/DC: Glamorama Spies Classical Cantaloupe Music 2009 Ex Novo Ensemble – Ex Novo Ensemble: Three Simple Songs Classical Stradivarius 2011 Duo Alterno – La voce contemporanea in Italia: Canzoni d'amore Classical Stradivarius 2012 Alberto Mesirca – ALBORADA Musica di autori italiani contemporanei: Onde Classical dotGuitar.It 2017 Mimmo Malandra – NOVOSAX Great Composers for Mimmo: Country Life Classical Sterling Records Year Title Genre Label 1982 Zeitgenössische Musik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1970-80: Glas-Spiele (as performer) Electronic Harmonia mundi 1986 Josef Anton Riedl – Klangfelder: Klangsynchronie II, Reaktion auf Komposition für Elektronische Klänge Nr. 2, Epiphyt II (as performer) Electronic Loft 2009 Josef Anton Riedl – Klangregionen 1951-2007: Mix Fontana Mix, Klangsynchronie I (as performer) Electronic Edition RZ 2010 Josef Anton Riedl – vielleicht-perhaps-peut-être: Glas-Spiele (as performer) Electronic Neos Year Title Genre Label 1995 Christmas in Vienna III: "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing", "Noël d'autrefois", "When A Child is Born", "Carol of the Bells", "The Twelve Days of Christmas", "Kumbaya", and "A Very Private Christmas" - arrangements by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 1997 A Tenors Christmas: "A Very Private Christmas" - arrangement by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 1997 Plácido Domingo – The Domingo Collection: "The Student Prince: I'll walk with God" - arrangement by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 1998 The Best of Christmas in Vienna: "Noël d'autrefois", "When a Child is Born", "Carol of the Bells", "The Twelve Days of Christmas", "Kumbaya, My Lord" - arrangements by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 1998 I'll be Home for Christmas: "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing", "A Very Private Christmas", "The Twelve Days of Christmas", "Kumbaya, My Lord" - arrangements by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 2000 Christmas All Over The World: "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" - arrangement by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols Sony Classical 2006 Weihnachtszeit mit Holger Wemhoff: "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing", "When a Child is Born" - arrangements by Lorenzo Ferrero Christmas carols ==See also== * Italian opera * List of historical opera characters * Classical music written in collaboration * DSCH motif * Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire * Music of Italy * Glamorama * 1985 in music ==Notes== ==References== * Cresti, Renzo (2019). Musica presente. Tendenze e compositori di oggi, pp. 33–39. Lucca: Libreria Musicale Italiana. * Holden, Amanda, ed. (2001). The New Penguin Opera Guide. London: Penguin Books. * Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1992–2002). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. London: Macmillan Publishers. * Vitelli, Niclo (2016). Un bel dì vedremo: Il festival di Giacomo Puccini. Cronaca di un'incompiuta. Florence: Firenze Leonardo Edizioni. ==Further reading== * Anon. (1982–83). "Lorenzo Ferrero "Marilyn"—Anmerkungen zur Oper." In Neuland: Ansätze zur Musik der Gegenwart, edited by Herbert Henck Vol. 3, pp 142–146. Bergisch Gladbach: Neuland Musikverlag Herbert Henck. * Arciuli, Emanuele (2006). Rifugio intermedio - Il pianoforte contemporaneo tra Italia e Stati Uniti. Monfalcone: Teatro Comunale. * Bagnoli, Giorgio, ed. (1993). The La Scala Encyclopedia of the Opera. New York: Simon & Schuster. * Baransky, Zygmunt G., West, Rebecca J. (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Italian Culture. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. * Boccadoro, Carlo (2007). Lunario della musica. Einaudi. * Budden, Julian (2002). Puccini: His Life and Works. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. * Bussotti, Sylvano (1982). I miei teatri. Palermo: Edizioni Novecento. * Donati, Paolo, and Ettore Pacetti, eds. (2002). C'erano una volta nove oscillatori: lo studio di fonologia della Rai di Milano nello sviluppo della nuova musica in Italia. Teche. Rome: RAI Teche; Milano: Scuole civiche di Milano, Fondazione di partecipazione, Accademia internazionale della musica, Istituto di ricerca musicale; Rome: RAI ERI. * Enciclopedia della musica (1996) entry: Lorenzo Ferrero. Turin: UTET. * Fearn, Raymond (1998). Italian Opera since 1945. London: Routledge. * Gasperini, Nicoletta (1985). "Lorenzo Ferrero" in Panorama, 25 August. * Gelli, Piero, ed. (2007). Dizionario dell'Opera 2008 entries: Lorenzo Ferrero, La conquista, Marilyn, Salvatore Giuliano. Milano: Baldini Castoldi Dalai editore. * Gerhartz, Leo Karl. Oper: Aspekte der Gattung. Laaber: Laaber-Verlag. * Girardi, Enrico (2000). Il teatro musicale italiano oggi: La generazione della post-avanguardia. Turin: De Sono-Paravia. * Gruhn, Wilfried, ed. (1989). Das Projekt Moderne und die Postmoderne: Die neue Tonalität bei Lorenzo Ferrero (by Theo Hirsbrunner). Kassel. * Henze, Hans Werner (1983). Die englische Katze: ein Arbeitstagebuch 1978-82. Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag. * Killinger, Charles (2005). Culture and Customs of Italy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. * Lanza, Andrea (1980). Il secondo novecento. Turin: EDT Srl. * Larousse Dictionnaire de la musique (2005) entries: Lorenzo Ferrero, Live electronic music. Paris: Larousse. * Moliterno, Gino, ed. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Italian Culture. London and New York: Routledge. * Nelson, Peter, and Stephen Montague (1991). Live Electronics. Chur and Philadelphia: Harwood Academic Publishers. * Peyser, Joan, ed. (2006). The Orchestra: A Collection of 23 Essays on its Origins and Transformations. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. * Randel, Don Michael, ed. (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press. * Russo, Marco (1988). Moderno, post-moderno, neo-romanticismo: orientamenti di teatro musicale contemporaneo, Il Verri. Vol. 2. * Schreiber, Ulrich (2005). Opernführer für Fortgeschrittene. Bärenreiter-Verlag. * Salzman, Eric, and Thomas Desi (2008). The New Music Theatre. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. * Stoïanova, Ivanka (2005). Entre détermination et aventure: essais sur la musique de la deuxième moitié du XXème siècle. Paris: L'Hartman. * Wignall, Harry James (1990). "Current Trends in Italian Opera." Perspectives of New Music 28, no. 2:312–26. ==External links== * * Casa Ricordi Catalogue * Casa Ricordi Digital Collection ===Interviews=== * Interview with Luciano Berio Category:Living people Category:1951 births Category:Musicians from Turin Category:University of Turin alumni Category:Italian classical composers Category:Italian musical theatre composers Category:Italian opera composers Category:Male opera composers Category:Italian opera librettists Category:Italian ballet composers Category:Composers for piano Category:Composers for violin Category:String quartet composers Category:Italian film score composers Category:Italian male film score composers Category:Academic staff of Milan Conservatory Category:20th-century classical composers Category:21st-century classical composers Category:Postmodern composers Category:Italian male classical composers Category:Translators to Italian Category:21st-century translators Category:20th-century Italian composers Category:21st-century Italian composers Category:20th-century Italian male musicians Category:21st-century Italian male musicians
|
One Life to Live (often abbreviated as OLTL) is an American soap opera created by Agnes Nixon. During the 1980s, the show was broadcast on the ABC television network and episodes were an hour long. This article describes in detail the show's plotlines during that decade. ==1980–1983== The early 1980s were a time of big changes for One Life to Live. The Wolek sisters were the spotlight characters of the show as the new decade began. The primary storyline on the show in 1979 concentrates on Viki’s trial for the murder of Marco Dane (Gerald Anthony). Anthony was so popular with fans that he quickly returned (a quick rewrite revealed Marco's heretofore unknown twin brother Mario was killed instead; Marco impersonated him for several years). Karen discovers Marco’s secret but realizes he was genuinely trying to rehabilitate, so she didn’t expose him. Meanwhile, Jenny was treated badly by her husband Brad who then manipulated her into taking him back over and over again. Brad also raped Karen. Jenny was in a high-risk pregnancy at the time, and the news of the rape sent her into early labor. When the baby died in the nursery, Karen forced Marco to switch the child with fellow hooker Katrina Karr's child. Jenny finally left Brad for good and married Dr. Peter Janssen, who was later killed in a car accident. It would be several years before she found out the truth about ‘her’ baby and in a heartbreaking sequence, gave her daughter back to Katrina. Joe Riley succumbed to a brain tumor and died in the fall of 1979, only weeks before Viki delivered their second son (whom she named Joseph in his memory). Viki buried herself in work as a publisher of the Banner, and in looking after Tina, who was perpetually involved with one bad-news boyfriend after another. Although she deliberately avoided a new relationship, she attracted two prospective love interests. One was Ted Clayton, Tina’s father (actually stepfather, though she didn’t know it at the time) who was more interested in Viki’s wealth than her. The other was Clint Buchanan (Clint Ritchie), who took over Joe’s position as chief editor of the Llanview Banner. Viki and Clint clashed both professionally and personally – Clint was a no- nonsense cowboy who initially saw Viki as a pampered Primadonna. Eventually, though true love won out and, despite numerous schemes by Ted, Viki and Clint were married. Ted was finally gunned down, prompting a devastated Tina to leave Llanview for a while. Quickly following Clint to Llanview were his brother Bo Buchanan (Robert S. Woods), and Father Asa Buchanan (Phil Carey). Asa is a Texas oil baron millionaire who has a love-hate relationship with his sons, and practically everyone he knew. The Buchanan clan was an obvious attempt to imitate the then wildly popular prime-time soap Dallas, but the Buchanans proved to be such big hits that they soon dominated the entire show. Most of the Wolek and Lord family members who anchored OLTL since its inception were written out, or (in the case of Viki) married into the Buchanan family. (Ironically the Buchanan family has remained a popular fixture on the daytime soap to this day, outlasting their inspirations on Dallas by more than a decade.) sa was as much a scoundrel as J.R. Ewing in his business dealings but he was also an irrepressible ladies' man. Almost immediately after arriving in Llanview, Asa wooed Brad Vernon's sister Samantha, who was decades younger than he was. What no one knew was that Asa's first wife Olympia (mother of Clint and Bo) was still alive, still legally Asa's wife, and being held prisoner by him. Throughout the 1980s, Asa took one young bride after another - including Delilah Ralston, Becky Lee Abbott, Pamela Stuart and Gabrielle Medina. He also locked horns with his sons, particularly Bo, who had his own romantic interest in both Delilah and Becky Lee. The role of Dorian was recast with Robin Strasser, who arguably became the definitive portrait of the character. While continuing to be a thorn in Viki’s side (she briefly ‘romanced’ Clint when he and Viki were on the outs), her character was fleshed out a little more. She married Herb Callison, the district attorney who prosecuted Viki for murder. Although she expected to be able to control him, Herb proved to be more than a match for her, and their marriage was a tempestuous affair, although surprisingly long-lasting for two soap opera characters. Also complicating Dorian’s life was the abrupt arrival of Cassie Howard, the illegitimate daughter whom Dorian had given up years earlier. Dorian at first resists becoming a mother to Cassie but eventually accepts the girl into her home. Karen’s "housewife hooker" storyline was rehashed in 1981 by having Karen go undercover, posing as a prostitute while investigating the murder of her cousin Vinnie Wolek. Karen & Marco are framed for murder and have to go on the run from the mob. The reality-based tales took a turn towards the absurd in the early 1980s, as Karen and Larry have control chips implanted in their brains by Dr. Ivan Kipling (Jack Betts) and Larry has to save Karen from Kipling's jungle hideaway. ==1983–1986== In 1983 Karen falls in love with fugitive Steve Piermont (Robert Desiderio, Light's real-life husband.) In spite of Larry urging her to remain in Llanview, she decided she would rather go on the run with a man who needed her than stay with her old demons. Karen’s sister Jenny fell in love with David Rinaldi (Michael Zaslow), a concert pianist, who had fathered Dorian’s daughter Cassie. Although married to Herb, Dorian was at turns furiously bitter towards, and jealously possessive of David. She sought to drive a wedge between David and Jenny, going as far as seducing him. Her schemes ultimately backfired; not only was she unsuccessful at breaking up David and Jenny, but Herb also found out about her fling and divorced her. David and Jenny were then embroiled in a spy storyline in 1985, taking them to Vienna, Austria with Viki & Clint. Jenny and David remained in Vienna. Thanksgiving 1983, Asa held a lavish costume ball in honor of his young wife Samantha. During the festivities, Olympia escaped captivity and revealed to Bo that she was still alive, and that Asa wasn’t really his father (the last bit turned out not to be true.) Olympia tried coaxing Bo into shooting Asa, but he couldn’t pull the trigger. When Olympia herself tried to kill her husband, Samantha lunged to save Asa and knocked Olympia and herself out a window. Only Samantha survived the fall. When she was informed that Asa was a liar and a bigamist, she dumped him then and there. Perhaps the most spectacular part of this storyline was its length. While it was all supposed to occur in the space of one night, it took up an entire month's worth of episodes, with five, hour-long episodes being aired for four whole weeks. These episodes took up approximately 20 hours of airtime and were all dedicated to the events of one single evening. Asa and Bo promptly went on fighting – mainly over women. Bo fell in love with Delila Ralston, but Asa deliberately led them both to believe that they were half- siblings (Bo had been told by Olympia that his real father had been Yancey Ralston – Delila’s father). Asa let them know that they weren’t actually related only after he married Delila. Soon afterward, Asa faked his death to test Delila’s fidelity – she wasted no time marrying Bo! Later, aspiring country-western singer Becky Lee Abbott became pregnant with Bo’s son Drew but married Asa instead. Later still, Bo fell in love with and married Didi O’Neill, whose father Harry O’Neill (Frank Converse) was a blue-collar workingman fighting Asa’s plans to ‘gentrify’ east Llanview. In 1986, it was revealed that throughout all the convoluted events of the past several years, Asa had been bigamously married to another woman, Pamela Stuart. Pamela was never involved with Bo in any way. In 1985, Viki returned to the spotlight in one of the show’s landmark storylines – the return of Niki Smith. Tina returned to Llanview and uncovered proof that she was Victor Lord’s illegitimate daughter. Viki angrily refused to believe Tina’s claims, until the discovery of a secret room in Llanfair (the Lord family mansion) that Victor had used as an illicit sex den. Shocked to discover this side of her father’s persona, Viki began having ‘Niki Smith’ episodes once again. Tina hooked up with sleazy con man Mitch Laurence (Roscoe Born), who concocted a plan to turn Viki into Niki permanently, which (thanks to a clause in Victor Lord’s will) would leave Tina in control of the vast Lord fortune. But when Tina discovered Mitch wanted to kill Niki, she turned against him. Niki remained in control for months, causing misery for Clint. Tina rebounded from her uncharacteristic bout of selflessness in order to seduce Clint. Niki was able to imitate Viki’s mannerisms well enough to fool people into thinking she was really Viki. She then used Clint’s transgression with Tina as grounds to divorce him. Clint was eventually able to shock Viki back to her senses. With Niki banished once more, Viki happily remarried Clint. On their wedding day, she broke the news to him that she was pregnant with his child. Almost nine months later, Viki delivered her daughter Jessica. The wildly popular Niki Smith storyline re-energized OLTL. It was during the Paul Rauch era when One Life to Live would maintain consistently high ratings, placing it in the top three daytime soap operas from 1985 into the late 1980s. OLTL also found success with the enormously popular supercouple pairing of Tina and good- hearted cowboy Cordero ‘Cord’ Roberts (John Loprieno). The two fell madly in love from the moment they met, but Tina was intent on marrying a rich husband. When she discovered that Cord was the illegitimate son of Clint (and potential heir to Buchanan mega-millions), she wasted no time marrying him! Cord however would soon become disgusted by Tina’s conniving ways. Complicating matters was Cord’s mother Maria Roberts (Barbara Luna), who despised Tina and sought to undermine her at every turn. Maria was also still in love with Clint and wanted to break up Clint and Viki in order to win him back. Maria even went as far as tracking down the late Joe’s heretofore unknown long-lost twin brother Tom Dennison (like Joe, played by Lee Patterson) and bringing him to Llanview in hopes that Viki would leave Clint for him. Mitch Laurence also returned to town to menace both Tina and Viki. In the guise of a fundamentalist minister, Mitch began leading a religious cult composed mainly of young women he seduced. He tried to rape Cassie but was (presumably) killed in self-defense by Dorian. Dorian was wrongly found guilty of premeditated murder and sent to prison. But evidence would lead to her conviction being overturned, releasing Dorian from jail. She would continue her TV journalism career at WVLE while finding romance with a private investigator, Jon Russell. With Cassie visiting her father, David in Vienna, Dorian also found a young protege in Diane Bristol. But Diane had a dark side and was secretly involved with Jon's sociopath nephew, Jamie Sanders' criminal activity. Cassie returned to Llanview and became suspicious of Diane's focus on Dorian. Jon shared Cassie's concern and the two paired up to uncover Diane's motives. Cassie soon found herself alongside Dorian in a dangerous confrontation with an unhinged and gun-toting Diane. Dorian saved Cassie by intercepting Diane, causing her to fall to her death through her penthouse's plate glass window. Soon Dorian noticed that Cassie had grown close with Jon during the ordeal. After confronting both of them, Cassie admitted to having feelings for him, leading Dorian to break up with Jon and to her falling out with her daughter. Dorian was soon offered the opportunity to become U.S. Ambassador to the country of Mendora. After mending her rift with Cassie, Dorian would leave Llanview to begin work in her new role. ==1987–1989== In the late 1980s, usually, either Viki and Clint or Tina and Cord were at the center of the major storylines. Viki and Clint were the show’s exemplary married couple; their love was strong enough to weather any crisis (no matter how bizarre.) Tina and Cord on the other hand broke up and reconciled (including marrying and divorcing) at a head-spinning rate. Tina genuinely tried to change her selfish ways to please Cord, but her greedy nature always got the better of her and she would alienate Cord’s affections time and again. Also, at this time storylines became extremely campy but were told in a way that viewers could understand, and they seemed to enjoy the change that was made as they became more and more bizarre from the Maria Roberts Saga to Viki going to Heaven, Eterna and the Crown Jewels to Mendora. Following the ‘Niki Smith’ saga, Allison Perkins (one of the ‘late’ Mitch Laurence’s cult disciples) kidnapped Viki’s baby Jessica for a while. This was a plot point that would have major ramifications in later years. Then in 1987, Viki underwent a brain operation to remove an aneurysm. During the operation, Viki had an out-of-body experience in which she visited Heaven and was reunited with many deceased characters, such as Victor, Meredith, Eugenia, Tony, Irene, Samantha, Harry and Vinnie. Many past cast members came back, and Lee Patterson (who was appearing as the new character Tom Dennison) even resurrected his original character, Joe Riley. Viki returned to her body and woke up, and it remained unclear whether Viki had actually been to Heaven or simply dreamed it. (Though later storyline developments have made it clear that Viki was only dreaming.) A new major family, the wealthy and powerful Sanders clan, was created with three power- house soap veterans playing the older members of the family: Emmy nominated Lois Kibbee (The Edge of Night) as powerful matriarch Elizabeth Sanders), Peter Brown (Days of Our Lives, The Young and the Restless, Loving) as her handsome son, Charles Sanders, ambassador to a fictional country named Mendora, and Louise Sorel (Santa Barbara, later Days of Our Lives) as his wife, Judith Sanders, the D.A. who prosecuted Dorian for Mitch Lawrence's murder. A controversial element of their storyline had acerbic Elizabeth openly anti-Semitic towards Judith even though she was quite powerful in her own right. While the family was given some entertaining storylines (very similar to the Quartermains from General Hospital), both Brown and Sorel became restless and left after only a year. Kibbee would remain on for another two years, only taken off of contract after Elizabeth was revealed to be the mastermind behind a plot to bring down the Buchannan family as part of revenge against both Asa and Cord. She would return infrequently over the next year until a summer storyline in 1989 had her in cahoots with grandson Jaime to escape from prison, ultimately resulting in Cord and Tina being held captive by them. ===OLTL does time travel=== The following year, 1988, Clint was blinded by a gunshot wound to the head. After a riding accident in the Arizona desert, he regained his sight but found himself transported back in time to 1888, and the old west town "Buchanan City". While there, Clint met the lookalike ancestors of Asa, Cord and Viki (played by Carey, Loprieno and Slezak respectively.) Like "Heaven", this storyline was intended to have a vague ending – after its resolution, Clint would reappear in the present and not be able to determine if he was actually there or had an extended hallucination. Before the storyline was finished though, the Writers Guild of America went on strike. Several scab writers rewrote the storyline so that Viki also went back in time to rescue Clint (who was on the verge of marrying her ancestor Ginny Fletcher at the time). Thus, the time-travel story was definitely established as a "real" event in the history of OLTL. As for Tina and Cord: Cord took an interest in scientist Kate Sanders (Marcia Cross), so Tina fled to Argentina with bad boy Max Holden (James DePaiva), even though she was pregnant by Cord at the time. After running afoul of drug dealers, Tina went over the Iguazu Falls in a raft and was presumed dead. (Actress Andrea Evans had it written into her contract that she gets eight weeks off per year.) Meanwhile, Tina was alive and well and being kept alive in the jungle. Cord rebounded by proposing to Kate, but Tina crashed the wedding ceremony carrying a baby she claimed was Cord’s son though it was not. Baby "Al" had actually been Max’s son by Gabrielle Medina (Fiona Hutchison). Tina then got into a scuffle with Cord’s mother Maria and accidentally killed her. Because she tried to cover up her accidental involvement, Tina was wrongfully found guilty of deliberately murdering her, and sent to jail for several months. After getting out of jail, Tina learned she had not miscarried Cord’s son after her plunge over the falls, but that a ring of baby-sellers had stolen the child. Tina and Max tracked down the baby, and Max had to storm a castle rampart to rescue both Tina and the baby (named Clint Jr. or C.J. Roberts in honor of Clint, who was thought dead at the time.) Tina almost married Max, but while saying her vows, she said Cord's name by accident. This caused Max to abruptly leave her at the altar. Max and Gabrielle became popular characters in their own right and were spun off into their own storyline. Another popular new character at the time was Renee Divine (played mainly by Patricia Elliott) as the new love of Asa’s life. For years, Asa had typically favored trophy wives, much younger women whom he could control (or attempt to control). However, Renee was his peer, and a former Texas madam. She was worldly and strong-willed enough to stand up to Asa, whom she often called an "old coot". ===Patrick London impersonates Bo Buchanan=== Bo returned to Llanview (actor Robert S. Woods had left the series for two years) and took center-stage for a while in 1988. When he came back to town, he was mysteriously divorced from his wife Didi, and acted quite strangely. Several months after his return, it was revealed that this was not the real Bo but an impostor (nicknamed Faux Bo) who was part of Elizabeth Sanders' elaborate scheme to stage a hostile takeover of Buchanan Industries. The real Bo, his wife Didi, and even his ex-wife Delila, were being held prisoner in a bunker. The real Bo, who escaped imprisonment and had a showdown with his impostor, thwarted the hostile takeover scheme. Alas, Didi was killed, but Bo eventually found happiness again with Sarah Gordon (Jensen Buchanan), who had been Clint’s therapist during the time he was blind. ===Soap within a soap Fraternity Row=== OLTL engaged in some meta-humor in 1988 when several characters became involved with the production of a fictional soap opera called Fraternity Row. The backstage antics at the soap became a central storyline for OLTL for several years. The star of the soap was Sarah's sister Megan Gordon (Jessica Tuck), a petty diva. Megan got involved with Max, who took her down a peg or two. But Megan would have a major impact in the life of central heroine Viki. Much to her surprise, Viki learned that she had become Niki Smith while still a teenager (much earlier than anyone knew) and that her father Victor had a hypnotist erase her memory of the incident. Even more shocking was the revelation that Viki/Niki had given birth to a daughter. (Adding insult to injury, Viki's longtime best friend Larry Wolek had delivered the baby and helped Victor cover the incident up.) Eventually, Viki would learn that the baby she had given birth to was Megan. But there were plenty of bizarre twists and turns to unravel before mother and daughter were reunited… ===The Lost Underground City of Eterna=== OLTL took a turn towards science fiction in early 1989 as, through Michael Grande's machinations, Viki and several others (including Tina, Cord, Gabrielle and several others) were trapped in the underground city of Eterna. Alone with Viki in the underground city, Roger Gordon finally confessed his long-buried secret: He was raised in Eterna but had found a way to escape. He met Viki when she was in high school. They made love. One day, Viki watched in horror as the entrance to Eterna exploded. Believing that Roger was dead, she turned into Niki Smith. Viki/Niki gave birth to his daughter, Megan. She had carried the baby as Niki, then later turned back to Viki during childbirth, but Victor had her hypnotized to forget the birth. He then paid Roger to take the baby and leave town. Viki was amazed to learn that Megan, who had been her adversary, was actually her flesh and blood. While in Eterna, Viki and Roger's old feelings for each other began to resurface. Led by Clint, the authorities located and rescued everyone trapped inside just before Eterna collapsed. Viki enjoyed an uneasy "reunion" with her reluctant daughter, Megan. In time, Viki and Megan mended their fences and came to respect, admire and love each other. Megan became the center of attention on OLTL and had several comical adventures with Marco Dane (who returned to the show after a five-year absence). ===Austin terrorizes Llanview=== Austin Buchanan, son of Asa's brother, Pike, arrived in town and became obsessed with Sarah Gordon. He set out to steal her from Bo. Austin knew that Bo and Michael Grande were mortal enemies, so he rigged the brakes on Michael's car to fail. The accident killed Alicia and her baby, and injured Gabrielle instead! Audrey Ames (Pia Porter), also on the road that night, was hit by the car driven by Gabrielle, putting her in a wheelchair. Austin framed Bo for the car crash that killed Alicia, and her baby and injured Gabrielle and Audrey. Austin eventually confessed to the crime but wanted Sarah to make love to him. She tried to put him off, but he became angry and brutally raped her. After the rape, Sarah shot Austin. To protect her, Cord and Asa buried Austin's body. However, the evil Buchanan cousin was not dead after all! He crawled out of his shallow grave and sought revenge on Sarah. Austin's reign of terror quickly came to an end. After taking Viki and Megan hostage, Clint found them and shot Austin. Felled by Clint's bullet, Austin plunged out a high-rise window to his death, but not before shooting Viki. As the decade drew to a close, OLTL featured a rehash of the classic Karen/Jenny baby-switch storyline. This time, Gabrielle (aided by Austin) switched Michael’s and the late Alicia’s baby (who died shortly after being born) with that of Brenda Grande’s baby. At the same time, Megan went into a fugue state in which she believed she was her Fraternity Row character Ruby Bright, a riff on her mother Viki’s Niki Smith escapades. Both stories, however, were well received by critics and fans. ===The Fraternity Row Stalker=== Another infamous story saw the soap, Fraternity Row being stalked from January to March 1989 as numerous past death scenes were recreated and used to kill the cast and crew as producer Randy was killed by a falling chandelier, Bo was attacked, Audrey was nearly strangled, Bo saved Sarah from a bomb, an explosion destroyed the lab and many other death plots. Bo soon discovered that anyone who seemed to put Mari-Lynn Dennison down died! Jon Russell, Melinda Cramer, Mari-Lynn, Sarah Gordon and Bo himself all teamed up to catch the killer. Prime suspects were Casey an autistic stagehand and Neil, another stagehand with a deep love for Mari-Lynn. The killer then tried to kill off Sarah again by pushing a stone gargoyle from a church rooftop where they were filming location scenes. Bo rescued her and while filming location scenes at Duke University, Sarah realized Neil was indeed the killer, so Neil stopped Sarah from escaping and chloroformed her as she cried out for Bo. He then dragged her to the University clock tower where he held Sarah captive. Mari-Lynn, Wade and Bo located Neil and Sarah and burst into the tower to rescue Sarah. Neil had an axe to defend himself with and pushed Wade over a railing as Mari-Lynn hovered over Neil in tears. Bo fell down a flight of stairs as Neil headed over to kill Sarah, Wade and Bo until Bo battled Neil one last time before the cops arrived. ===The Infamous Crown Jewels of Mendora=== Tina Lord Roberts set out to pursue the lost Crown Jewels of Mendora for Michael Grande throughout the summer despite her family's dismay. But what she did not know was that many of her past enemies were also after the jewels among them being Jamie and Elizabeth Sanders and Ursula Blackwell. To escape prison, Ursula set off a bomb that allowed numerous convicts to escape and they fled to the rundown Seaside Arena in Atlantic City where Tina and Cord were captured and held prisoner. They were forced into doing many wacky things including Cord wrestling the Titan in a wrestling ring and Tina and Ursula wrestling! Then Tina was put on a "murder trial" in the ring for killing Ursula's father Cornelius who fell out of a lighthouse window trying to save Tina in 1988. After the trial in which Tina escaped death row, Jamie and Elizabeth planned to flee the Arena on a helicopter and Leave Tina and Cord to die when the arena blew up. But Titan and Ursula dragged Tina and Cord away from their cells and strapped Tina to Ursula's homemade electric chair where Ursula fried Tina. However, the cops invade the Arena, and the convicts are captured, and Cord is reunited with an alive and well Tina. ==Ratings== ===1979-1980 Season (HH Ratings)=== *1. General Hospital 9.9 *2. All My Children 9.2 *3. The Young and the Restless 8.8 *4. One Life to Live 8.7 *5. Guiding Light 8.3 *6. As the World Turns 7.9 *7. Search for Tomorrow 7.6 *8. Another World 7.1 *9. Ryan's Hope 7.0 *10. Days of Our Lives 6.6 *11. The Doctors 6.1 *12. The Edge of Night 5.3 *13. Love of Life 3.5 *14. Texas (Debut) ===1981-1982 Season (HH Ratings)=== *1. General Hospital 11.2 *2. All My Children 9.4 *3. One Life to Live 9.3 *4. Guiding Light 8.0 *5. The Young and the Restless 7.4 ===1982-1983 Season=== *1. General Hospital 9.8 *2. All My Children 9.4 *3. One Life to Live 8.1 *4. The Young and the Restless 8.0 *5. As the World Turns 7.6 ===1983-1984 Season=== *1. General Hospital 10.0 *2. All My Children 9.1 *3. The Young and the Restless 8.8 *4. One Life to Live 8.2 *5. Guiding Light 8.1 ===1984-1985 Season (HH Ratings)=== *1. General Hospital 9.1 *2. All My Children 8.2 *3. The Young and the Restless 8.1 *4. Guiding Light 7.5 *5. One Life to Live 7.3 ===1985-1986 Season=== *1. General Hospital 9.2 *2. The Young and the Restless 8.3 *3. All My Children 8.0 *4. One Life to Live 7.8 *5. Days of our Lives 7.2 ===1986-1987 Season=== *1. General Hospital 8.3 *2. The Young and the Restless 8.0 *3. One Life to Live 7.2 *4. All My Children 7.0 *4. Days of our Lives 7.0 ===1987-1988 Season=== *1. General Hospital 8.1 (#1 in viewers) *2. The Young and the Restless 8.1 (#2 in viewers) *3. One Life to Live 7.7 *3. All My Children 7.7 *5. Days of our Lives 7.1 ===1988-1989 Season (HH Ratings)=== *1. The Young and the Restless 8.1 *2. General Hospital 7.5 *3. One Life to Live 7.1 *4. All My Children 6.7 *5. Days of our Lives 6.5 ==See also== *Storylines: 1968–1979 *Storylines: 1990–1999 *Storylines: 2000–2012 Category:One Life to Live storylines
|
The Palmerston North–Gisborne Line (PNGL) is a secondary main line railway in the North Island of New Zealand. It branches from the North Island Main Trunk at Palmerston North and runs east through the Manawatū Gorge to Woodville, where it meets the Wairarapa Line, and then proceeds to Hastings and Napier in Hawke's Bay before following the coast north to Gisborne. Construction began in 1872, but the entire line was not completed until 1942. The line crosses the runway of Gisborne Airport, one of the world's only railways to do so since Pakistan's Khyber Pass Railway closed. In conjunction with the Moutohora Branch that ran north from Gisborne between 1900 and 1959, the line was originally intended to connect to the East Coast Main Trunk, described in 1875 as the North Island trunk line, but the difficult inland section between the Tāneatua Branch in the Bay of Plenty and the Moutohora Branch was never completed. The line has not carried passenger trains since October 2001, when the Bay Express service was cancelled. The northern portion of the line, from Napier to Gisborne, was reviewed as part of KiwiRail's 2010 turnaround plan. It was effectively mothballed north of Wairoa due to four significant washouts during a storm in March 2012. The whole Napier–Gisborne section was officially mothballed (but not closed) in December 2012. The Napier–Wairoa section reopened for forestry traffic in June 2019. A slip near Whareongaonga worsened in November 2021, but a 2019 feasibility study had proposed repairs for that and other slips and concluded that there was an economic case for reopening the line. Cyclone Gabrielle closed the line north of Woodville after 13 February 2023. Bridges washed away were 176 in Waipawa, 212 and 216 north of Hastings, and Waitangi bridge, 217, north of Clive and some other areas of track were undermined. Reopening to Hastings was on 3 April, but 5 piers of bridge 217 were washed away, so that the line to Napier is likely to be closed for months and the line to Wairoa suffered extensive damage and will take even longer to reopen. In 2023 local bodies in the region proposed that the Wairoa- Gisborne section of the line be re-opened at an estimated cost of $80.5 million; including a new 500m tunnel to bypass a section of track washed away when a hillside collapsed in November 2021. KiwiRail said that the reinstatement cost estimate was "optimistic". The section from Napier to Wairoa was reopened in 2018. == Construction == The PNGL was constructed in two distinct phases. The southern portion between Napier and Palmerston North was built between 1872 and 1891, while the northern portion from Napier to Gisborne followed at a much later date, 1912 to 1942. === Palmerston North – Napier section === left|thumb|Tahoraiti railway station in 1912, south of Dannevirke. Hawke's Bay featured in Julius Vogel's "Great Public Works" scheme of 1870 to create a cohesive national transport network, and in 1871, a line south from Napier was officially authorised. Construction commenced in 1872 and the first section opened to Hastings on 13 October 1874; from Napier's railway station, it followed a coastal shingle ridge to Clive, and then turned inland. From Hastings, the line proceeded inland through the country that was initially easy but became steadily more difficult. It was thickly wooded at the time and the upper reaches and tributaries of the Manawatu River provided engineering difficulties. Nonetheless, construction proceeded apace; the line was opened to Pakipaki on 1 January 1875; Te Aute on 17 February 1876; Waipawa on 28 August 1876; and the township of Waipukurau just three days after Waipawa on 1 September 1876. Takapau followed on 12 March 1877, then Kopua on 25 January 1878 for a total of 103 km of railway built in six years. Construction slowed from this stage due both to the terrain and the beginning of the Long Depression. The next section, from Kopua to Makotuku, featured two viaducts; the long, high Ormondville viaduct and the long, high Makotuku viaduct. It opened on 9 August 1880. It was nearly four years until the next section, 7 km to Matamau, opened on 23 June 1884. On 1 December 1884, the major centre of Dannevirke was reached. Beyond Dannevirke, the terrain became somewhat easier and the line reached Woodville at the eastern end of the Manawatu Gorge on 22 March 1887. However, work from the Palmerston North end had not begun until 1886, and due to significant engineering troubles associated with the Manawatu Gorge, the line was not completed until 9 March 1891. Upon completion, a direct route between Napier and Wellington was established but required a change of trains in Longburn with the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company. On 11 December 1897, the Wairarapa Line was completed through to Woodville and this provided a through NZR connection from Wellington to Hawke's Bay, albeit via the torturous Rimutaka Incline. === Napier – Gisborne section === Due to the isolation of Gisborne, a railway link to other centres was not initially given serious consideration. By 1900, a Railway League had been formed to pressure the government into building two lines, one via Rotorua to Auckland and another to Napier and thus Wellington. Gisborne's first railway, the initial portion of what became the Moutohora Branch, opened to the north in 1902. In 1910 a route south was approved. This was proposed to follow an inland route to the Wairoa River, which would then be followed to the town of Wairoa before proceeding along the coastline to Napier. Work began in April 1911, and the first to Ngatapa was essentially complete by December 1914. The economic impacts of World War I led to the suspension of construction beyond Ngatapa towards Waikura, and it did not recommence until 1920 after further surveying was undertaken. This work may have included some tunneling but no trace of this exists today. Work also recommenced at the other end of the inland line in 1919, with about 20 men, later 54, working at Frasertown in 1920, though hampered by concrete shortages. Alternative routes, including the coastal route, were surveyed in 1923. As late as 1934 the partly-built Wairoa to Frasertown line was shown on the map, after which it became a stock road and then Wairoa aerodrome. In 1920, work began on a short isolated branch from Wairoa to the port of Waikokopu; it was completed in 1924 and was built initially to ship meat from a freezing works in Wairoa. In 1924, an engineer's report recommended this branch be incorporated as the southernmost portion of a new coastal route from Wairoa to Gisborne. The Public Works Department (PWD) accordingly abandoned the inland Ngatapa route and began work on the coastal route. At this time, the route from Napier to Wairoa was also under construction. The first sod had been turned in Napier in 1912, but delays meant the line was not opened to Eskdale by the PWD until December 1922 and handed over to the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) on 23 July 1923. The next section, to Putorino, was handed over to NZR on 6 October 1930. At this point, the construction of the line was plagued by natural disasters and a lack of money and government will to complete the project. The Great Depression following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to a temporary halt to the entire project. In January 1931 all the workers on the project were dismissed. In February that year the Hawke's Bay earthquake resulted in the closure of the completed Napier – Putorino section. Despite the closure of the completed section, work recommenced on the line after the earthquake, and by September, all that was required to complete the Napier to Wairoa section was one tunnel, one viaduct (Matahorua Viaduct), and of track. Due to the toll of the earthquake and the Great Depression, the government recommended that work cease and the line be abandoned. The line remained in place for the next four years with no work occurring on its completion, gradually deteriorating. A petition of 8,000 signatures to recommence construction of the line was presented to parliament, and in the November 1931 New Zealand general election, Gisborne MP Douglas Lysnar lost his seat to Labour candidate David Coleman on Labour's promise to recommence construction. There was briefly a proposal for a private company to take over construction and operation of the line in 1933. The proposal continued until a new government, the first Labour government, was elected in November 1935. In early 1936, the new Minister of Public Works Bob Semple ordered the recommencement of work on the line. This led to the Napier – Putorino section being reopened on 17 October 1936. On 1 July 1937, the long Mohaka Viaduct was completed; at high, it is New Zealand's highest viaduct. The full line from Napier to Wairoa and Waikokopu opened on 23 August 1937. Severe flooding in February 1938 forced the closure of the entire line beyond Putorino and killed 21 construction workers on the final stage between Waikokopu and Gisborne in the Kopuawhara disaster. The line was restored to operational standards by December 1938 and transferred from the PWD to NZR on 1 July 1939. Work persisted on the final section from Waikokopu to Gisborne through World War II and the final stage was completed in 1942. The PWD was able to operate freight trains through to Gisborne from 3 August 1942, passengers were carried from 7 September 1942, and the complete PNGL passed into NZR ownership on 1 February 1943. ==East Coast Main Trunk connection== The original intention of the Moutohora Branch was to connect Gisborne with Auckland via Rotorua. As the East Coast Main Trunk (ECMT) extended into the Bay of Plenty, surveys focused on connecting the Moutohora branch with ECMT. A 1928 survey proposed a route from Matawai to reach the ECMT railhead at Taneatua via Opotiki. This scheme was shelved in 1931 (along with construction of the Napier – Gisborne section) due to the Great Depression. Following the election of the first Labour government in 1935, Bob Semple promised work on the Moutohora – Taneatua section would commence once men and equipment were available. Prior to the 1938 New Zealand general election a new work camp and worksops were established at Taneatua, and pegging parties began to mark out the route from Taneatua to Opotiki. This work came to an abrupt end in the weeks following the general election. In 1939 £45,000 was provided for extension from Taneatua to Opotiki and a route pegged out as far as a proposed Waimana railway station. The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 ensured the Government had a justification for not bringing the project to a halt, while promising that the halt was only temporary. With the completion of the Napier – Gisborne section in 1943, further delegations were made by Gisborne business interests to complete the Moutohora – Taneatua section. Semple promised these delegations that work would recommence following the end of hostilities. By late 1946, no further work had been undertaken; in 1947 a further promise was made of an "early connection" following a strong showing for the opposition at the 1946 New Zealand general election. In 1948 Semple retrenched his position, claiming that he had only ever promised an investigation of the route. With the change in government following the 1949 New Zealand general election, a further delegation from Gisborne presented to new Minister of Works Stan Goosman (who was also Minister of Railways) a case for completing the link. Goosman would not make any commitment to the project, and pointed to a new highway parliament had authorised between Opotiki and Gisborne as an alternative to the rail link. Following this response, local Gisborne interests realised that the battle was lost. Motouhora was to remain a branch line, which closed in 1959. The ECMT was redefined in 1978 as Hamilton – Kawerau, leaving Taneatua as a branch, eventually being closed to traffic in 2001. == Operation == === Passenger services === thumb|Napier-Wairoa Souvenir Timetable 1939 Until the completion of the line from Napier to Palmerston North, passengers were catered for solely by slow mixed trains that also conveyed goods. Once the link with the WMR was established, the earliest incarnation of the Napier Express began operating. It first required a change of trains at Longburn, then, when the Wairarapa Line opened, it operated directly through to Wellington. Difficulties associated with the Rimutaka Incline meant the journey via the Wairarapa actually took over an hour longer than the west coast route of the WMR, and once the WMR's route was incorporated into the NZR network, the Napier Express was re-routed to the west coast, with the Wairarapa Mail providing a connection from Woodville with towns in the Wairarapa. While the Express ran through the Wairarapa, WA class locomotives hauled a feeder service between Palmerston North and Woodville. Following a trial run in 1938, NZR RM class Standard railcars began operating a service between Napier and Wairoa on 3 July 1939, and when the line to Gisborne was completed, the Gisborne Express was introduced on 7 September 1942, running from Wellington through to Gisborne. This service typically operated twice-weekly except for holiday periods when it was more frequent, but it ceased to operate in 1955 and was replaced by more efficient railcars except for occasional reinstatement during holiday periods to cater for heavy loads. By this time, railcars had already replaced the Napier Express; in 1954, the daily express was replaced by twice-daily services run initially by Standard railcars and then by 88 seaters. This markedly quickened the journey from Napier to Wellington from 7 hours to 5.5 hours. The railcars entered into service to Gisborne on 1 August 1955 and also ran twice daily; one return service terminated in Napier while one went through to Wellington. To augment the express trains and railcars, numerous other mixed trains and local passenger services also once operated on the PNGL between various destinations, including intermediate termini such as Waipukurau, but these had all ceased by the 1960s. In 1968 and 1971, cuts were made to the services as the railcars wore out, and on 6 November 1972, they were cancelled entirely on the Wellington to Napier run and replaced by the Endeavour, which was modelled on the successful Southerner. Railcars survived on the run through to Gisborne until 30 May 1976, when they were replaced by an extension of the Endeavour. It ran once daily in each direction, but its quality gradually declined during the 1980s as the rolling stock was reallocated to other trains; this included the removal of a buffet car, necessitating lengthy refreshment stops in Napier and Palmerston North. On 8 March 1988, Cyclone Bola significantly damaged the line between Napier and Gisborne, resulting in the truncation of passenger services to Napier. Passenger services never ran beyond Napier in regular service again. On 11 December 1989, the Endeavour was replaced by the Bay Express. This train restored the standards of the original 1972 Endeavour, and it operated throughout the 1990s. Declining patronage and an unwillingness on the part of Tranz Scenic to replace the decades-old rolling stock meant that the Bay Express was cancelled from 7 October 2001. Since this time, the PNGL has been entirely freight only. In 2017 a report said one of the restrictions was a on the whole line. === Freight === left|thumb|160px|DC4398 shunts milk tanks from Palmerston North at Oringi, 2008 In the earliest years of the line, the emphasis was on local freight, primarily agricultural products. As land was cleared for farming, timber also constituted a significant commodity. By the late 20th century, the emphasis had dramatically changed to long-distance bulk freight, including frozen meat, canned foods, and fertiliser from near Gisborne. The line between Fonterra's Oringi Milk Transfer Station, just south of Dannevirke, and Palmerston North was used for hauling milk wagons that then formed part of the freight to Fonterra's Whareroa plant near Hawera on the MNPL. The number of services varied seasonally, but at peak was usually two each way per day. The transfer station closed in 2015. Freight is conveyed to Napier Port, which is located near the PNGL and accessed via the short Ahuriri Branch. Presently, two trains run on weekdays each way between Palmerston North and Napier, with a third service one or both ways if required. A past direct service between Wellington and Napier using the Wairarapa line from Woodville has been discontinued. The Palmerston North to Woodville section of the PNGL is also utilised for two daily trains between Palmerston North and Pahiatua in the northern Wairarapa, and two shunts operate between Napier and Hastings, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Tunnels Nos. 3,4,5 near Woodville at the east end of the Manawatu Gorge were "daylighted" or opened out in May–November 2008 to allow the use of "hi-cube" containers on the line. The work was carried out by HRS, a subsidiary of Downers.New Zealand Local Government April 2009 pages 10–11 Following a storm in March 2012, the Wairoa–Gisborne section of the line was mothballed. The Napier–Wairoa section remained open for forestry traffic until December 2012, when it too was mothballed. In October 2016 KiwiRail and the Port of Napier announced an intention to reopen the section of line between Wairoa and the port from late 2017 due to a surge in forestry log traffic. In February 2018 it was announced that $5 million from the Provincial Development Fund would be allocated to reopen the section for forestry trains. The first train on the Napier–Wairoa line for six years ran from Napier to Eskdale on 6 June 2018 to make a ballast drop. The Napier–Wairoa section was reopened in June 2019. In 2021, it was announced the number of trains on the section would double with a weekday service added by KiwiRail. === Motive power === Steam locomotives operated most trains on the PNGL until the 1960s, when all passenger duties were taken by railcars and remaining trains were dieselised. The earliest motive power was provided by F class tank locomotives. J class tender locomotives were introduced for the Napier Express upon its commencement and were later augmented by N class locomotives. The Ns sometimes worked in conjunction with members of the M class, and after the acquisition of the WMR, the UD class also saw some use on the PNGL, especially on the Napier Express. The use of A class locomotives allowed timetables to be quickened in 1914; this again occurred with the introduction of the AB class in 1925 and the K and JA classes after World War II. BB class locomotives were employed on the Manawatu Gorge stretch during the 1930s. On the line to Gisborne, locomotives of the AA, JB, and X classes were also employed. A last JA-hauled train ran from Napier to Gisborne on 7 October 1966. Steam was fully replaced by diesel motive power in 1966, with DA class locomotives predominant. By the 1980s, the DF class had been introduced, the use of the underpowered DBR class had caused some tardy operation of the Endeavour, and the DA class was withdrawn by the late 1980s. During the 1990s, the DX and DC class locomotives were regularly used on the PNGL; the damage caused by Cyclone Bola meant that when repair work was undertaken, clearances were improved and the DX class were authorised to operate to Gisborne from September 1988. In the 2020s the dominant form of motive power on the PNGL is the DL class, with some services hauled by DF class locomotives and mainline shunts by DSG class locomotives. == Incidents == On 22 September 1925 three were killed and several others seriously injured after the Wellington to Napier mail train derailed just south of Opapa (Te Aute) due to excessive speed (about ), when taking a curve, with a speed limit. The derailed locomotive was NZR A Class No.600. The driver was convicted of manslaughter and imprisoned for two years. On 23 March 1967 a freight train and railcar had a head on crash at Whakaki, injuring 16 passengers, probably due to the drivers of the DA locomotive falling asleep. On 6 May 2005 part of a train (a 60-tonne crane and two wagons) repairing the bridge fell into the Nūhaka River at Nūhaka, when Bridge 256 collapsed beneath it, due to boring by teredo worms. No one was injured. Axle load limits were 16.3 tonnes, but the crane weighed up to 24.1 tonnes. Due to sales of lighter cranes, following privatisation, no other was available for the job. The report also mentioned an engineering manager's opinion that the standard and frequency of ageing timber bridge inspections had fallen below desirable levels and that there were insufficient engineering staff. The bridge reopened in July 2005. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * == External links == *1969 timetable *Photos of construction 1936–37 (and following pages) *The first passenger train over the Napier-Wairoa section, 1938 *Opening of the Napier-Wairoa-Waikokopu section, 1 July 1939 *Newspaper reports of 1942 opening *1950 report on problems with Tikiwhata Tunnel lining *Map and 2015 photos of slips in the Beach Loop area *October 2019 report on work needed to repair Wairoa-Gisborne line (with maps and many photos) Category:Railway lines in New Zealand Category:Rail transport in the Hawke's Bay Region Category:Rail transport in the Gisborne District Category:1872 in New Zealand Category:1942 in New Zealand Category:Railway lines opened in 1942 Category:1942 establishments in New Zealand
|
The PEN/Heim Translation Fund Grants were established in 2003 by PEN America (formerly PEN American Center) following a gift of $730,000 by Michael Henry Heim, a noted literary translator. Heim believed that there was a 'dismayingly low number of literary translations currently appearing in English'. The Grants' purpose is to promote the publication and reception of translated world literature in English. Grants are awarded each year to a select number of literary translators based on quality of translation as well as the originality and importance of the original work. The Fund's mission is to promote the publication and reception of world literature. Since the first grants were awarded in 2004, the Fund has supported translations of books from over 30 languages. Many works supported by the Fund are eventually published, and a significant number have won or been shortlisted for major literary awards including the Best Translated Book Award, the Northern California Book Award for Translation, the R. R. Hawkins Award for Outstanding Professional, Reference or Scholarly Book, the National Jewish Book Award for Poetry, National Book Critics Circle Award for Poetry, the Helen and Kurt Wolff Translator's Prize, and Griffin Poetry Prize. Others have received additional support from the Lannan Foundation, or been named one of the New York Public Library's annual list of 25 Books to Remember. Previously known as the PEN Translation Fund Grants, the awards were renamed in honor of Heim, who insisted on complete anonymity, after his passing in 2012. ==List of recipients== ===2004=== The names of ten winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Sara Bershtel, Barbara Epler, Michael Henry Heim, and Eliot Weinberger. * Andrea Berger for Zsolt Lang's Bestiarium Transylvaniae, vol. I: The Birds of the Air, a novel in Hungarian * Philip Boehm for Christoph Hein's Settlement, a novel in German (Metropolitan Books, 2008) * Peter Cole for The Dream of the Poem: Hebrew Poetry from Muslim and Christian Spain, c.950–1492, a collection of poetry in Hebrew (Princeton University Press, 2007) * Kent Johnson and Forrest Gander for Jaime Sáenz's The Night, a poem in Spanish (Princeton University Press, 2012) * Idra Novey for Paulo Henriques Britto's The Clean Shirt of It, a collection of poems in Portuguese (BOA Editions, 2007) * Joonseong (Jason) Park for Song Yong's Diary of a Vagabond, a collection of stories and novellas in Korean (Codhill Press, 2008) * Kristin Prevallet for Sony Lab'ou Tansi's The Other World: Unpublished Writings, a collection of prose in French * Timothy Sergay for Aleksandr Pavlovich Chudakov's A Gloom Descends Upon the Ancient Steps, a novel in Russian * Gerald Turner for Patrik Ouředník's Europeana: A Brief History of the Twentieth Century, a novel in Czech (Dalkey Archive Press, 2005) * Elizabeth Winslow for Dunya Mikhail's The War Works Hard, a collection of poems in Arabic (New Directions Publishing, 2005) ===2005=== The names of thirteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Sara Bershtel, Barbara Epler, Michael Henry Heim, and Eliot Weinberger. * Chris Andrews for Roberto Bolaño's Last Evenings on Earth, a collection of stories in Spanish (New Directions Publishing, 2007) * Rachel Tzvia Back for Leah Goldberg's Selected Poetry and Drama, a collection of poems and plays in Hebrew (The Toby Press, 2005) * Susan Bernofsky for Jenny Erpenbeck's The Old Child and Other Stories, a collection of stories and novellas in German (New Directions Publishing, 2005) * Heather Cleary for Olivero Girondo's The Persuasion of Days, a collection of poems in Spanish (New Directions) * Karen Emmerich for Miltos Sachtouris's Poems (1945-1971), a collection of poems in Greek (Archipelago Books, 2006) * Jason Grunebaum for Uday Prakash's The Girl with the Golden Parasol, a novel in Hindi (Yale University Press,2013) * Deborah Hoffman for The Littlest Enemies: Children in the Shadow of the Gulag, edited by Semen Samuilovich Vilenskii, a volume of memoirs, diaries, and letters in Russian by the children of Soviet enemies of the people (Slavica Publishers, 2007) * Elizabeth Macklin for Kirmen Uribe's Meanwhile Take My Hand: Poems, a collection of poems in Basque (Graywolf Press, 2007) * Susanna Nied for Inger Christensen's Butterfly Valley, a collection of poems in Danish (New Directions Publishing, 2004) * Laima Sruoginis for My Voice Betrays Me, a collection of oral narratives in Lithuanian by street children, collected by Vanda Juknaite (East European Monographs, 2007) * George Szirtes for László Krasznahorkai's War and War, a novel in Hungarian (New Directions Publishing, 2006) * Paul Vincent for Louis Paul Boon's Summer in Termuren, a novel in Dutch (Dalkey Archive Press, 2006) * Susan Wilf for Kang Zhengguo's Confessions: An Innocent Life in Communist China, a memoir in Chinese (W. W. Norton & Company, 2007) ===2006=== The names of nine winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Sara Bershtel, Barbara Epler, Michael Henry Heim, Michael F. Moore, Richard Sieburth, and Eliot Weinberger. * Johannes Goransson for Henry Parland's Collected Poems, a collection of poems in Swedish (Ugly Duckling, 2007) * Victoria Haggblom for Elisabeth Rynell's To Mervas, a novel in Swedish (Archipelago, 2010) * Nicky Harman for Han Dong's Banished!, a novel in Chinese (University of Hawaii Press, 2009) * Ann L. Huss for Ge Fei's Beauty (Renmian taohua), a novel in Chinese *Sawako Nakayasu for Takashi Hiraide's For the Fighting Spirit of the Walnut, a poem in Japanese (New Directions Publishing, 2008) *Tegan Raleigh for Assia Djebar's The Tongue’s Blood Does Not Run Dry: Algerian Stories, a collection of stories in French (Seven Stories Press, 2006) * Constantine Rusanov for Tomas Venclova's The Junction, a collection of poems in Lithuanian (Bloodaxe, 2008) * Stepan S. Simek for Petr Zelenka's Theremin and Iva Volankova's Three Sisters 2002.CZ, two plays in Czech * Alan Trei and Inna Feldbach for A. H. Tammsaare's Robber’s Rise (Book 1 of the Truth and Justice pentalogy), a novel in Estonian ===2007=== The names of ten winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Sara Bershtel, Barbara Epler, Michael Henry Heim, Michael F. Moore, Richard Sieburth, and Eliot Weinberger. * Susan Bernofsky for Robert Walser's The Assistant, a novel in German (New Directions Publishing, 2007) * Jennifer Hayashida for Fredrik Nyberg's Clockwork and Flowers: Explanations and Poems, a collection of poems in Swedish *Wen Huang for Yang Xianhui's The Woman from Shanghai, a collection of stories in Chinese (Pantheon, 2010) * Ha-yun Jung for Shin Kyung-sook's A Lone Room, a novel in Korean (Pegasus Books, 2015) *Sara Khalili for Shahriar Mandanipour's Seasons of Purgatory, a collection of stories in Persian * Paul Olchváry for Ferenc Barnás's The Ninth, a novel in Hungarian (Northwestern University Press, 2009) * Bill Porter (a.k.a. Red Pine) for Wei Yingwu's In Such Hard Times, a collection of poems in Chinese (Copper Canyon Press, 2009) *Katherine Silver for Horacio Castellanos Moya's Senselessness, a novel in Spanish (New Directions Publishing, 2008) * Christopher Southward for Hitonari Tsuji's Acacia, a collection of stories in Japanese (excerpted in Brooklyn Rail, 2008 * Alyson Waters for Albert Cossery's A Splendid Conspiracy, a novel in French (New Directions Publishing, 2010) ===2008=== The names of eight winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Sara Bershtel, Edwin Frank, Michael Henry Heim, Michael F. Moore, Richard Sieburth and Jeffrey Yang, and Esther Allen served as the non-voting Chair. * Bernard Adams for Dezső Kosztolányi's Kornél Esti, a collection of stories in Hungarian (New Directions Publishing, 2011) * Jeffrey Angles for Mutsuo Takahashi's Twelve Perspectives, a memoir in Japanese (University of Minnesota Press, 2012) * Andrea Lingenfelter for Anni Baobei's Padma, a novel in Chinese *Jessica Moore for Jean-François Beauchemin's Turkana Boy, a novel in French (Talonbooks, 2012) * Sean Redmond for Felix Fabri's Another Holy Land: Felix Fabri’s Voyage to Medieval Egypt, a memoir in Latin (American University in Cairo Press, 2010) *Mira Rosenthal for Tomasz Różycki's Colonies, a collection of poems in Polish (Zephyr Press, 2012) * Damion Searls for Nescio's Amsterdam Stories, a collection of stories in Dutch (NYRB Classics, 2012) ===2009=== The names of eleven winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Sara Bershtel, Edwin Frank, Michael Henry Heim, Michael F. Moore, Richard Sieburth, and Jeffrey Yang, and Esther Allen served as the non-voting Chair. *Eric Abrahamsen for Wang Xiaobo's My Spiritual Homeland, a collection of essays in Chinese * Mee Chang for Oh Jung-hee's Garden of Youth, a collection of stories in Korean *Robyn Creswell for Abdelfattah Kilito's The Clash of Images, a novel in French (New Directions Publishing, 2010) *Brett Foster for Cecco Angiolieri's Elemental Rebel: The Rime of Cecco Angiolieri, a collection of poems in Italian ([excerpted on Able Muse, 2014) * G.M. Goshgarian for Hagop Oshagan's The Remnants, a novel in Armenian (Gomidas Institute, 2013) *Tess Lewis for Alois Hotschnig's Maybe This Time, a novel in German (Peirene Press, 2011) * Fayre Makeig for Hushang Ebtehaj's 'Mourning, a collection of poems in Persian * Arvind Krishna Mehrotra for Kabir's Songs of Kabir, a collection of poems in Hindi (NYRB Classics, 2011) *Frederika Randall for Luigi Meneghello's Deliver Us from Evil, a memoir in Italian (Northwestern University Press, 2011) *Daniel Shapiro for Roberto Ransom's Missing Persons, Animals and Artists, a collection of stories in Spanish (Swan Isle Press, 2018) *Chantal Wright for Tzveta Sofronieva's A Hand Full of Water, a collection of poems in German (White Pine Press, 2012) ===2010=== The names of eleven winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, David Bellos, Susan Bernofsky, Edwin Frank, Michael F. Moore, and Jeffrey Yang. * Daniel Brunet for Dea Loher's The Last Fire, a play in German * Alexander Dawe for Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar's collection of stories in Turkish * Peter Golub for Linor Goralik's collection of flash fiction in Russian * Piotr Gwiazda for Grzegorz Wroblewski's Kopenhaga, a collection of poems in Polish (Zephyr Press) * David Hull for Mao Dun's Waverings, a novel in Chinese (Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014) * Akinloye A. Ojo for Akinwunmi Isola's Afaimo and Other Poems, a collection of poems in Yorùbá * Angela Rodel for Georgi Tenev's Holy Light, a collection of stories in Bulgarian * Margo Rosen for Anatoly Naiman's Poetry and Untruth, a novel in Russian * Chip Rossetti for Mohamad Makhzangi's Animals in Our Days, a collection of stories in Arabic ([excerpted in Words Without Borders, 2011) * Bilal Tanweer for Mohammad Khalid Akhtar's Love in Chikiwara (and Other Such Adventures), a novel in Urdu (Pan Macmillan India, 2016) *Diane Thiel for Eugenia Fakinou's The Great Green, a novel in Greek ===2011=== The names of eleven winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were David Bellos, Susan Bernofsky, Edwin Frank, Michael Reynolds, Natasha Wimmer, and Jeffrey Yang, and Michael F. Moore served as the non-voting Chair. * Amiri Ayanna for The St. Katharinental Sister Book: Lives of the Sisters of the Dominican Convent at Diessenhofen, a sacred text in German (excerpted in Asymptote, 2016) * Neil Blackadder for Lukas Bärfuss's 'The Test (Good Simon Korach), a play in German * Clarissa Botsford for Elvira Dones's Sworn Virgin, a novel in Italian (And Other Stories, 2014) * Steve Bradbury for Hsia Yü's Salsa, a collection of poems in Chinese (Zephyr Press, 2014) *Annmarie S. Drury for Euphrase Kezilahabi's collection of poems in Swahili (Michigan State University Press, 2015) * Diane Nemec Ignashev for Viktor Martinovich's Paranoia, a novel in Russian (Northwestern University Press, 2013) * Chenxin Jiang for Ji Xianlin's Memories of the Cowshed, a memoir in Chinese (New York Review Books, 2016) * Hilary B. Kaplan for Angélica Freitas's Rilke Shake, a collection of poems in Portuguese (Phoneme, 2016). 2016 National Translation Award winner. 2016 Best Translated Book Award winner. * Catherine Schelbert for Hugo Ball's Flametti, or the Dandyism of the Poor, a novel in German (Wakefield Press, 2014) * Joel Streicker for Samanta Schweblin's Birds in the Mouth, a collection of stories in Spanish * Sarah L. Thomas for Mar Goméz Glez's Turnaround, a novel in Spanish (excerpted in Words Without Borders, 2012) ===2012=== The names of thirteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Susan Bernofsky, Barbara Epler, Edwin Frank, Michael Reynolds, Richard Sieburth, Eliot Weinberger, and Natasha Wimmer, and Michael F. Moore served as the non-voting Chair. * Bernard Adams for Andrea Tompa's A Hóhér Háza (The Hangman’s House), a novel in Hungarian * Alexander Booth for Lutz Seiler's Im Felderlatein (In Latin Fields), a collection of poems in German * Brent Edwards for Michel Leiris's L’Afrique fantome (Phantom Africa), an ethnography in French (Seagull Books) * Joshua Daniel Edwin for Dagmara Kraus's cumbering (gloomerang), a collection of poems in German * Musharraf Ali Farooqi for Muhammad Husain Jah and Ahmed Husain Qamar's Hoshruba: The Prisoner of Batin, an epic in Urdu (Random House India) * Deborah Garfinkle for Pavel Šrut's Worm-Eaten Time: Poems from a Life Under Normalization, a collection of poems in Czech * Hillary Gulley for Marcelo Cohen's El fin de lo mismo (The End of the Same), a novel in Spanish * Bonnie Huie for Qiu Miaojin's Notes of a Crocodile, a novel in Chinese (NYRB Classics) * Jacquelyn Pope for Hester Knibbe's Hungerpots, a collection of poems in Dutch * Matt Reeck and Aftab Ahmad for Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi's Mirages of the Mind, a novel in Urdu * Carrie Reed for Duan Chengshi's Youyang zazu (Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang), a collection of prose in Chinese * Nathanaël for Hervé Guibert's The Mausoleum of Lovers, a set of journals in French (Nightboat Books) For a NYSCA grant, the Fund also nominated Ana Božičević for Zvonko Karanović's It Was Easy to Set the Snow on Fire. ===2013=== The names of thirteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Susan Bernofsky, Barbara Epler, Richard Sieburth, Lauren Wein, Eliot Weinberger, Natasha Wimmer, and Matvei Yankelvich, and Michael F. Moore served as the non-voting Chair. * Daniel Borzutzky for Raúl Zurita's El País de Tablas (The Country of Planks), a collection of Spanish poems (Action Books,) * Isabel Cole for Franz Fühmann's At the Burning Abyss, (Seagull Books) * Sean Cotter for Mateiu Caragiale's Rakes of the Old Court * Chloe Garcia Roberts for Li Shangyin's Escalating Derangements of My Contemporaries, (New Directions Publishing) * Edward Gauvin for Jean Ferry's The Conductor and Other Tales, (Wakefield Press) * Eleanor Goodman for Wang Xiaoni’s Something Crosses My Mind, (Zephyr Press) * Marilyn Hacker for Jean- Paul de Dadelsen's The Bridges of Budapest * Elizabeth Harris for Antonio Tabucchi's Tristano Dies, (Archipelago Books) * Jennifer Hayashida for Athena Farrokhzad's Vitsvit * Eugene Ostashevsky and Daniel Mellis for Vasily Kamensky's Tango with Cows * Jeremy Tiang for Zou Jingzhi's Nine Buildings * Annie Tucker for Eka Kurniawan's Beauty Is A Wound (New Directions) * Lara Vergnaud for Zahia Rahmani's France, récit d’une enfance (France, Story of Childhood) For a NYSCA grant, the Fund also nominated Iza Wojciechowska for Anna Piwkowska's Farbiarka (The Dye Girl). ===2014=== The names of fifteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Barbara Epler, Sara Khalili, Michael F. Moore, Lauren Wein, and Lorin Stein. * Kurt Beals for Regina Ullmann's The Country Road (New Directions Publishing) * Eric M.B. Becker for Mia Couto's Selected Stories * David Burnett for Johannes Urzidil's The American Stories * Janet Hong for Han Yujoo's The Impossible Fairytale * Paul Hoover for María Baranda's Nightmare Running on a Meadow of Absolute Light * Andrea G. Labinger for Guillermo Saccomanno's Gesell Dome (Open Letter) * Sergey Levchin for Chris Marker's Commentaires * Zachary Ludington for Agustín Fernández Mallo's Pixel Flesh (Carne de Píxel) * J. Bret Maney for Guillermo Cotto-Thorner's Manhattan Tropics * Philip Metres and Dimitri Psurtsev for Arseny Tarkovsky's I Burned at the Feast (Cleveland State University Poetry Center) * Sayuri Okamoto for Dear Monster: the Naked Poetry of Gozo Yoshimasu * Benjamin Paloff for Richard Weiner's The Game for Real, (Two Lines Press) * Miranda Richmond Mouillot for Romain Gary's The Kites * Thom Satterlee for ‘’New and Selected Poetry of Per Aage Brandt'' * Sholeh Wolpé for Farid ud-Din Attar’s The Conference of the Birds (Man-tiq ut-tayr) For NYSCA grants, the Fund nominated Edna McCown for Ursula Krechel's Shanghai, far from where and Yvette Siegert for Alejandra Pizarnik's Diana's Tree (Ugly Duckling Presse). ===2015=== The names of sixteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Mitzi Angel, Peter Blackstock, Howard Goldblatt, Sara Khalili, Michael F. Moore, Declan Spring, and Alex Zucker. * Allison M. Charette for Naivo's Beyond the Rice Fields (Restless Books) * Jennifer Croft for Olga Tokarczuk's The Books of Jacob (Biblioasis) * Stephan Delbos and Tereza Novická for Vítězslav Nezval's The Absolute Gravedigger.(Twisted Spoon Press) * Amanda DeMarco for Gaston de Pawlowski's New Inventions and the Latest Innovations.(Wakefield Press) * Adriana X. Jacobs for Vaan Nguyen's The Truffle Eye * Roy Kesey for Aurora Venturini's The Cousins * Lee Klein for Horacio Castellanos Moya's Revulsion: Thomas Bernhard in San Salvador. (New Directions Publishing) * Dong Li for Song Lin's The Gleaner Song * Meg Matich for Magnús Sigurðsson's Cold Moons * Jacob Moe for Maria Mitsora's Part Time Dragons. (Yale University Press) * Rajiv Mohabir for Lalbihari Sharma's Holi Songs of Demerara. * Takami Nieda for Kazuki Kaneshiro's GO * Zoë Perry for Veronica Stigger's Opisanie Świata * Will Schutt for The Selected Poems of Edoardo Sanguineti. * Sophie Seita for Uljana Wolf's Subsisters: Selected Poems(Belladonna) * Simon Wickhamsmith for Tseveendorjin Oidov's The End of the Dark Era. ===2016=== The names of fourteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Esther Allen, Peter Blackstock, Sara Khalili, Tynan Kogane, Allison Markin Powell, Antonio Romani, Chip Rossetti, and Alex Zucker. Each winner was given $3,670.00. * Gabriel Amor for Ana Azourmanian's Juana I, a poem cycle in Spanish. * Ellen Cassedy for Yenta Mash’s On the Landing: Selected Stories, a Yiddish collection of stories. * Chris Clarke for Marcel Schwob’s Imaginary Lives, a French short-story collection. (Forthcoming from Wakefield Press) * Sharon Dolin for Gemma Gorga's Book of Minutes, a Catalan prose poetry collection. * Kaiama L. Glover for René Depestre’s Hadriana in All My Dreams, a French novel. (Akashic Books) * Anita Gopalan for Geet Chaturvedi’s Simsim, a Hindi novella. * Amanda Lee Koe for Su Qing’s Ten Years of Marriage, a Chinese novel. * Karen Leeder for Ulrika Almut Sandig's Thick of It, a German poetry collection. * Rachel McNicholl for Anita Augustin's Operation Hinterland: Tales from the Silver Scrapheap, a German novel. * Alicia Maria Meier for Marta Carnicero Hernanz's The Sky According to Google, a Catalan novel. * Emma Ramadan for Ahmed Bouanani's Les Persiennes, a French prose poetry book. * Corine Tachtiris for Alexandra Berková’s Dark Love, a Czech novel. * Russell Scott Valentino for Miljenko Jergović’s Kin, a Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian family saga.. (Archipelago) * Jeffrey Zuckerman for The Complete Stories of Hervé Guibert, a French collection of short fictions. === 2017 === The names of fifteen winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were Tyan Kogane, Edna McCrown, Fiona McCrae, Canaan Morse, Idra Novey, Allison Markin Powell, Antonio Romani, Chip Rossetti, Shabham Nadiya, and Ross Ufberg. * Nick Admussen for Floral Mutter by YA Shi (哑石) translated from the Chinese * Polly Barton for The Cowards Who Looked to the Sky by Misumi Kubo, translated from the Japanese * Elizabeth Bryer for The Palimpsests by Aleksandra Lun, translated from the Spanish * Vitaly Chernetsky for Felix Austria by Sophia Andrukhovych, translated from the Ukrainian * Iain Galbraith for Raoul Schrott: Selected Poems, translated from the German * Michelle Gil-Montero for Edinburgh Notebook by Valerie Mejer Caso, translated from the Spanish * Sophie Hughes for The Remainder by Alia Trabucco Zerán, translated from the Spanish * Elisabeth Jaquette for Thirteen Months of Sunrises by Rania Mamoun, translated from the Arabic * Kira Josefsson for The Arab by Pooneh Rohi, translated from the Swedish * Adam Morris for I Didn’t Talk by Beatriz Bracher, translated from the Portuguese * Kaitlin Rees for A Parade by Nhã Thuyên, translated from the Vietnamese * Dayla Rogers for Wûf by Kemal Varol, translated from the Turkish * Christopher Tamigi for In Your Name by Mauro Covacich, translated from the Italian * Manjushree Thapa for There’s a Carnival Today by Indra Bahadur Rai, translated from the Nepali * Joyce Zonana for This Land That Is Like You by Tobie Nathan, translated from the French ===2018=== The names of twelve winners were announced. The voting members of the Advisory Board were John Balcom, Peter Constantine, Tynan Kogane, Allison Markin Powell, Fiona McCrae, Mary Ann Newman, Antonio Romani, Chip Rossetti, Ross Ufberg, Natasha Wimmer, and Board Chair Samantha Schnee. * Janine Beichman for The Essential Yosano Akiko: The Ripening Years by Yosani Akiko, translated from Japanese * Alexander Dickow for Neverending Quest for the Other Shore: An Epic in Three Cantos by Sylvie Kandé, translated from French * Emily Drumstra for Revolt Against the Sun by Nazik al-Malaika, translated from Arabic * Lindy Falk van Rooyen for Hope by Mich Vraa, translated from Danish * Bruce Fulton and Ju- Chan Fulton for One Left by Sum Kim, translated from Korean * Michael Gluck for Matisse by Alexander Ilichevsky, translated from Russian * Mariam Rahmani for Don't Worry by Mahsa Mohebali, translated from Farsi * Aaron Robertson for Beyond Babylon by Igiaba Scego, translated from Italian * Julia Sanchez for Slash and Burn by Claudia Hernández, translated from Spanish * Jamie Lee Searle for Winter's Garden by Valerie Fritsch, translated from German * Brian Sneeden for Rhapsodia by Phoebe Giannisi, translated from Greek * Ri J. Turner for Chaim Gravitzer by Fischel Schneerson, translated from Yiddish * Jeanne Bonner for A Walk in the Shadows by Mariateresa Di Lascia, translated from Italian (Winner of The PEN Grant for the English Translation of Italian Literature) ===2019=== * Bruna Dantas Lobato for Moldy Strawberries: Stories by Caio Fernando Abreu, translated from Portuguese * Stephen Epstein for The Wandering: Choose Your Own Red Shoes Adventure by Intan Paramaditha, translated from Indonesian * Misha Hoekstra for New Passengers by Tine Høeg, translated from Danish * Lucas Klein for Chinese of Words as Grains: New and Selected Poems of Duo Duo, translated from Chinese * Simon Leser for Of Our Wounded Brothers by Joseph Andras, translated from French * Emma Lloyd for Of Pearls and Scars by Pedro Lemebel, translated from Spanish * Ottilie Mulzet for Swedish (2nd, revised edition) by Gábor Schein, translated from Hungarian * Catherine Nelson for Tea Rooms: Working Women by Luisa Carnés, translated from Spanish * Julia Powers for Selected Poems of Hilda Hilst, translated from Portuguese * Lara Vergnaud for The Ardent Swarm by Yamen Manai, translated from French * Hope Campbell Gustafson for The Commander of the River by Ubah Cristina Ali Farah, translated from Italian ===2020=== Winners in 2020 were: * Curtis Bauer for Home Reading Service by Fabio Morábito, translated from Spanish * Fiona Bell for The Russian Of Stories by Natalia Meshchaninova, translated from Russian * Kevin Gerry Dunn for Easy Reading by Cristina García Morales, translated from Spanish * Dawn Fulton for Cajou by Michèle Lacrosil, translated from French * Anton Hur for Cursed Bunny by Bora Chung, translated from Korean * Yarri Kamara for So Distant From My Life by Monique Ilboudo, translated from French * Johnny Lorenz for Notebook Of Return by Edimilson De Almeida Pereira, translated from Portuguese * Shabnam Nadiya for The Meat Market And Other Stories by Mashiul Alam, translated from Bengali * Quyen Nguyen Hoang for Chronicles Of A Village by Hien Thanh Nguyen, translated from Vietnamese * Jacob Rogers for Extraordinary by Antón Lopo, translated from Galician * Minna Zallman Proctor for The Renegade: Natalia Ginzburg, Her Life And Writing by Sandra Petrignani, translated from Italian (Winner of The PEN Grant for the English Translation of Italian Literature) ===2021=== 10 grants were made in 2021: * Natascha Bruce for Owlish and the Music-Box Ballerina by Dorothy Tse, translated from the Chinese * Rohan Chhetri for The Dust Draws Its Face on the Wind: Essential Poems by Avinash Shrestha, translated from the Nepali *Rachael Daum for Lusitania by Dejan Atanacković, translated from the Serbian *Katharine Halls for Things That Can't Be Fixed by Haytham El-Wardany, translated from the Arabic *Banibrata Mahanta for Labanyadevi by Kusum Khemani, translated from the Hindi *Adrian Minckley for The Whore by Márcia Barbieri, translated from the Portuguese *Lara Norgaard for 24 Hours with Gaspar by Sabda Armandio, translated from the Indonesian *Ekaterina Petrova for Traveling in the Direction of the Shadow by Iana Boukova, translated from the Bulgarian *Jake Syersak for I, Caustic by Mohammed Khaïr-Eddine, translated from the French *Vala Thorodds for Swanfolk by Kristín Ómarsdóttir, translated from the Icelandic ===2022=== Winners in 2022 were: *Bernard Capinpin for A Brief Investigation to a Long Melancholia by Edel Garcellano, translated from the Filipino *Rajnesh Chakrapani and Anca Roncea for Detachment by Mina Decu, translated from the Romanian *Danielle Legros Georges for Balafres by Marie-Célie Agnant, translated from the French *Ryan Greene for The Green Sun by Yaxkin Melchy Ramos, translated from the Spanish *May Huang for Young Gods by Chiou Charng-Ting, translated from the Chinese *Mirgul Kali for To Hell with Poets by Baqytgul Sarmekova, translated from the Kazakh *Adam Mahler for Closed House/A Dau(gh)ter in His Stead by Luz Pichel, translated from the Castrapo *Jay Rubin for Rosa Mistika by Euphrase Kezilahabi, translated from the Swahili *Yasmine Seale for If You See Them Fall to Earth by Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, translated from the Arabic *Tim Cummins for We Will Take Our Revenge by Paolo Nori, translated from the Italian (Winner of The PEN Grant for the English Translation of Italian Literature) ===2023=== Winners in 2023 were: : *Kristine Muslim for Book of the Damned by Amado Anthony G. Mendoza III, translated from the Filipino *Mark Tardi for Dogs of Smaller Breeds by Olga Hund, translated from the Polish *Noor Habib and Zara Khadeeja Majoka for Oblivion and Eternity Within Me by Miraji, translated from the Urdu *Joaquin Gavilano for The Hostage by Gabriel Mamani Magne, translated from the Spanish *Stoyan Tchaprazov for The Misunderstood Civilization by Dobri Voinikov, translated from the Bulgarian *Margaret Litvin for The Russian Quarter by Khalil Alrez, translated from the Arabic *Stine An for Today’s Morning Vocabulary by Yoo Heekyung, translated from the Korean *Richard Prins for Walenisi by Katama Mkangi, translated from the Swahili *Priyamvada Ramkumar for White Elephant by B. Jeyamohan, translated from the Tamil *Caroline Froh for Words of Resistance by Mariella Mehr, translated from the German *Isabella Corletto for Fathers by Giorgia Tribuiani, translated from the Italian (Winner of The PEN Grant for the English Translation of Italian Literature) ==References== ==External links== * PEN/Heim Translation Fund Grants (official website) Category:Translation awards Category:PEN America awards Category:Awards established in 2003 Category:2003 establishments in the United States
|
thumb|Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band in 1918. Left to Right: Harry Raderman, Ted Lewis, John Lucas, Earl Fuller and Walter Kahn. Earl Bunn Fuller (March 7, 1885 – August 19, 1947) was a pioneering American ragtime and early jazz bandleader, composer and instrumentalist. Fuller helped to initiate the popularity of jazz in New York City shortly before America's entry into World War I. He also had an ear for talent, and discovered Ted Lewis and Teddy Brown.Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band, by Tim Gracyk republished from Gracyk, "Popular American Recording Pioneers," The Hayworth Press, Binghamton NY, 2000 ==Biography== Fuller was born on March 7, 1885Earl Fuller's WWI Draft Card, issued 1918, supplied by researcher Ryan Barna in Stonington, IllinoisEarl Fuller's WWII Draft Card, issued 1942, supplied by researcher Ryan Barna. The 1942 card shifts the birthdate ahead one day to March 8th, and one year to 1886, but Fuller's tombstone reads "1885." however his family had longstanding ties to Warren County, Ohio. Practically nothing is known of his musical education, but he was proficient on several instruments; photos of his jazz band show him seated at the piano, whereas he also is credited with playing trumpet and trombone in his Novelty Orchestra; other accounts identify him as a drummer. Fuller was hired, in 1913,"Earl B. Fuller" Obituary, Variety, August 27, 1947 pg. 55 as musical director of Rector's Restaurant on Broadway in Manhattan's theater district; since about 1912 it was already established as a place where famous personalities from the New York Stage rubbed shoulders with politicians and other prominent New Yorkers."Era of the Rectors," New York Times, November 28, 1947, Page 26 Fuller's Novelty Orchestra's star attraction was xylophonist Teddy Brown, then just a teenager and later destined for far greater fame in Britain.Earl Fuller's Rector Novelty Orchestra, by Tim Gracyk republished from Gracyk, "Popular American Recording Pioneers," The Hayworth Press, Binghamton NY, 2000 However, a Christmas ad placed in Variety on December 28, 1917, shows that Fuller also used George Hamilton Green in this role.Earl Fuller Christmas Ad, Variety December 28, 1917, pg. 156 According to an unpublished autobiography by Ted Lewis,Ted Lewis, Untitled Autobiography, manuscript held at the Ted Lewis Museum, Circleville, Ohio Lewis and his "clown band" was playing at the boardwalk at Coney Island; this was a group that had evolved from a circus band and included cornetist Walter Kahn, trombonist Harry Raderman and drummer John Lucas—at that time the "clown band" did not have a pianist. Sometime towards the end of the summer, Fuller approached Lewis' clown band and offered to hire them into Rector's. The contract they signed in April 1917 still survives,Contract between Earl Fuller and Ted Lewis, dated April 1, 1916, held at the Ted Lewis Museum in Circleville, Ohio and shows that what became "Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band" was signed, as a whole, into Rector's at one time. Trading in their clown costumes for tuxedoes, Fuller's Jazz Band was an immediate success, and began appearing at Rector's just a few months after the Original Dixieland Jazz Band made its acclaimed debut at Reisenweiber's Restaurant in January 1917. The Novelty Orchestra—playing rags, schottisches, waltzes, polkas and two-steps—alternated sets with the more raucous jazz band. While the jazz band was exciting, only the bravest dancers could contend with its tempo. So the resulting show was a successful balance between the revolutionary rhythm of jazz and more sedate material that was friendlier to dancers. According to the 1917 Christmas ad, Fuller also maintained two other groups, his "Celebrated Society Orchestra" and "Earl Fuller's Combination Seven," but of these only the first group is known on recordings through a single Victor side.Earl Fuller Christmas Ad, Variety December 28, 1917, pg. 156 The Novelty Orchestra recorded for the first time for Columbia on June 1, 1917, and the jazz band three days later for Victor. Fuller's groups remained busy in the recording studios through February 1919, recording for Victor, Columbia, Edison, Emerson and Starr/Gennett. There is some controversy as to whether Fuller functioned as pianist in the jazz band; some sources contend that the pianist in the Earl Fuller Famous Jazz Band was actually Ernest Cutting, rather than Fuller.Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band, by Tim Gracyk republished from Gracyk, "Popular American Recording Pioneers," The Hayworth Press, Binghamton NY, 2000 However, the Victor ledgers show Fuller as pianist, at least on sides made for that company; Cutting did play with the Famous Jazz Band in live engagements, however.Earl Fuller Christmas Ad, Variety December 28, 1917, pg. 156 Likewise, Fuller's authorship has been challenged for five Fuller Jazz Band titles credited to Fuller as composer. However, Fuller did publish sheet music that he had written,One example is "When the Old Boat Heads for Home" at the Lester S. Levy Sheet Music Collection of Johns Hopkins University and Lewis in his autobiography makes no such claim. Ted Lewis has taken some criticism over his handling of the matter of extracting himself from Rector's and Fuller's control, which included the whole of the Fuller Jazz Band, minus Fuller. In his autobiography, Lewis recalled that by mid-1919 he was being offered outrageous sums of money by Florenz Ziegfeld to play the Roof Garden of the New Amsterdam Theater. Neither Lewis nor his fellow jazz band members were paid more than other musicians at Rector's, and when his contract came up, he opted not to renew, and the band simply left Fuller along with him, including pianist Ernest Cutting. However, Cutting returned to Fuller after only about a month, and Cutting's composition Jazology was featured on the last recording credited to Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band, made in December 1919. This disc was issued both on Arto and as a special "Earl Fuller Record" with Fuller's picture on the label; the latter is one of the rarest of all early jazz records.Brian Rust, "Jazz Records 1897-1942, Volume 1: Irving Aaronson to Abe Lyman," Arlington House Publishers, New Rochelle, NY 1978 Jazology was one of 15 pieces compiled in Earl Fuller's Collection of Classic Jazz, published by a cooperative which Fuller headed called the American Musicians Syndicate with offices located at 1604 Broadway. The collection was available both as a piano folio and as a set of orchestral parts arranged by Harry L. Alford, whom Fuller brought out from Chicago to make the arrangements; among other pieces in the collection were early works composed by future bandleaders Lou Gold and Irving Aaronson. The folios were issued in conjunction with three QRS piano roll medleys consisting of nine pieces from the set.Jacobs' Band Monthly, Volume 4, September 1919 With the final passage of the Volstead Act (prohibiting the production, sale, and transport of "intoxicating liquors") in October 1919, rather than to continue as a restaurant without a liquor license, Rector's opted to close its doors. After making the final Earl Fuller Famous Jazz Band disc, Fuller took his bands on a coast to coast tour of vaudeville houses in the United States. Variety stated in his obituary that Fuller therefore "was the first big time orchestra leader to invade the hinterland.""Earl B. Fuller" Obituary, Variety, August 27, 1947 pg. 55 On returning to New York, Fuller diversified, renaming his band "Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra" and establishing a dance band booking agency, primarily run by his wife, Katherine.Earl Fuller's Rector Novelty Orchestra, by Tim Gracyk republished from Gracyk, "Popular American Recording Pioneers," The Hayworth Press, Binghamton NY, 2000 While Fuller's band halted its recording activities in 1921, the booking agency continued in New York until at least 1925."Mrs. Earl Fuller...", Variety, April 1, 1925, pg. 41 By 1928, Fuller had relocated to Cincinnati to continue the business there, but it ultimately foundered. Afterward, Fuller served as manager of WFBF radio in Cincinnati. When he died of a heart attack in Morrow, Ohio, on August 19, 1947, Earl Fuller was working as a real estate agent in nearby Lebanon.Earl Fuller Death Certificate, supplied by researcher Ryan Barna. He was buried in Morrow Cemetery, near to, but not in, the Fuller family plot.Morrow, Ohio Cemetery listing ==Legacy== Outside of enthusiasts of early jazz and vintage record collectors, Earl Fuller is a forgotten figure. He has not been regarded well by mainstream jazz experts; Gunther Schuller's evaluation of the Fuller Band in the seminal survey Early JazzGunther Schuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development, Oxford University Press, New York City 1968 was couched in mostly negative terms. However, there are listeners who are attracted to the "crude sort of excitement" that Schuller also alludes to, and overall their recordings are more violent and chaotic sounding than even the Original Dixieland Jazz Band. Some post-modern scholars refer to its like as "punk jazz," a kind of early jazz with a nihilistic aesthetic akin to the punk rock movement in England in the 1970s. The one inescapable factor of Earl Fuller's legacy is that he played a major role in popularizing jazz in New York City; Ted Lewis' "clown band" may have been one of the first groups to play something that could be regarded as instrumental jazz in New York, and by incorporating their act into his high- profile show at Rector's, Fuller exposed the new sound to the very clientele that would take to it most ardently. Moreover, like the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Fuller's groups were among the first artists to record pieces that have become standards, such as W. C. Handy's Beale Street Blues. Apart from Ted Lewis, Teddy Brown and George Hamilton Green, musicians who worked in Fuller's various groups included Sig Behrendson (who sometimes filled in for Raderman), Willie Creager, Ben Selvin, Joe Green, Joe Kayser, Joseph Samuels and Ted Weems. Variety states that of the band Fuller took on tour of the United States "many of the men later formed the basis of the late Ben Bernie's first stage band.""Earl B. Fuller" Obituary, Variety, August 27, 1947 pg. 55 ==Discography== thumb|Earl Fuller's first record, "Cold Turkey" Earl Fuller made an impressive number of recordings in a very short time. The table below contains all known Earl Fuller recordings, minus non-U.S. issues; some undocumented items may have also been issued on Olympic, Arto or Starr/Gennett, labels incompletely documented in this period. Edison Blue Amberol cylinders are generally identical to the Diamond Disc issues, though takes may vary. Victor 18395 was announced, but ultimately not released. Fuller is also credited as a director and/or manager on some Pathé recordings by Joseph Samuels' Orchestra, but his connection to these items remains uncertain.Encyclopedic Discography of Victor RecordingsOnline Discographical Project Emerson 900 listingOnline Discographical Project Columbia A2000 listingOnline Discographical Project Columbia A2500 listingOnline Discographical Project Columbia A5500 listingOnline Discographical Project Columbia A6000 listingRed Hot Jazz "Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra"Allen R. Sutton, "Edison Blue Amberol Cylinders: U.S., Foreign and Special Issues (1912-1929)," Mainspring Press, Denver, Colorado 2009 Artist Credit Title Date Label Issue Matrix Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Cold Turkey 6-1-1917 Columbia A2298 77092-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra 12th Street Rag 6-1-1917 Columbia A2298 77093-7 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Slippery Hank 6-4-1917 Victor 18321-A B-20062-2 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Yah-de-dah 6-4-1917 Victor 18321-B B-20063-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Cold Turkey 6-4-1917 Victor unissued B-20064 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra I Never Knew 6-4-1917 Victor unissued B-20065 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra One Fleeting Hour 6-9-1917 Columbia A5989 49235 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Castle Valse Classique 6-9-1917 Columbia A5989 49236 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Pork and Beans 7-20-1917 Columbia A2370 77220-3 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzin' Around 8-13-1917 Victor unissued B-20502-1-4 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band A Coon Band Contest 8-13-1917 Victor unissued B-20503-1-3 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band The Old Grey Mare 8-13-1917 Victor 18369-A B-20504-2 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Beale Street Blues 8-13-1917 Victor 18369-B B-20505-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra More Candy 9-5-1917 Columbia A2403 77307-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Ida Sweet As Apple Cider 9-5-1917 Columbia A2403 77308-2 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzin' Around 9-10-1917 Victor 18395-A B-20502-5 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band A Coon Band Contest 9-10-1917 Victor 18394-A B-20503-4 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band L'il Liza Jane 9-10-1917 Victor 18394-B B-20549-3 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Cotton Blossoms 9-10-1917 Victor 18395-B B-20550-1 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Smiles 11-17-1917 Columbia A2578 77516-2 Earl Fuller's Orchestra When the Incense is Burning 11-19-1917 Victor 18450-B B-21465-1 Earl Fuller's Orchestra Charming 11-19-1917 Victor unissued Vi trial Earl Fuller's Orchestra What Could Be Sweeter? 11-19-1917 Victor unissued Vi trial Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Mama's Baby Boy 12-18-1917 Columbia unissued 77582 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Graveyard Blues 3-1-1918 Columbia A2523 77583-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Sweet Emalina My Gal 3-1-1918 Columbia A2523 77697-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra I Ain't Got Nobody Much 3-18-1918 Columbia A2547 77725-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Down Home Rag 3-18-1918 Columbia A2547 77726-1 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazz De Luxe 3-1918 Emerson 952 3182-1, -2 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzbo Jazz 3-1918 Emerson 952 3183-1, -2 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzbo Jazz 3-1918 Medallion 817 3183 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazz De Luxe 3-1918 Medallion 818 3182 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Mickey 5-3-1918 Columbia A2595 77806-1 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra We'll Do Our Share 5-7-1918 Columbia A2566 77815-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra I Want Him Back Again 5-7-1918 Columbia A2566 77816-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra The Missouri Waltz 5-14-1918 Columbia A2578 77821-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Here Comes America 5-1918 Columbia A2595 77838-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra When I Feel Sad and Lonely 6-3-1918 Columbia unissued 49439 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Texas - Fox Trot 6-3-1918 Columbia A6075 49440-1 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Oriental - One Step 7-1918 Columbia A6075 49474-1 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band I'm Sorry I Made You Cry 6-4-1918 Edison Blue Amberol 3585 6198-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band I'm Sorry I Made You Cry 6-4-1918 Edison Diamond Disc 50521-L 6198-A-B-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzbo Jazz - One Step 6-4-1918 Edison Blue Amberol 3554 6199-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzbo Jazz - One Step 6-4-1918 Edison Diamond Disc 50505-L 6199-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazz De Luxe 6-13-1918 Edison Blue Amberol 3610 6005-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazz De Luxe 6-13-1918 Edison Diamond Disc 50541-R 6005-C Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzin' Around 6-13-1918 Edison Blue Amberol 3572 6225-C Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Howdy 8-6-1918 Columbia A2649 77987 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Cold Turkey 8-1918 Gennett 8504-B 1334 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band I'm Sorry I Made You Cry 8-1918 Gennett 8504-A 1335 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Unknown Selection 8-1918 Gennett unknown 1336 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazz De Luxe 8-1918 Gennett 8522-B 1337 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Russian Rag 8-30-1918 Columbia A2649 78034 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Sand Dunes 8-30-1918 Columbia unissued (12") 49488 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Singapore 12-10-1918 Columbia A2686 78194-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Out of the East 12-10-1918 Columbia A2686 78195-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Sand Dunes 12-19-1918 Columbia A2697 78195-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Spaniola 12-19-1918 Columbia A2697 78195-3 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Egyptland 1-31-1919 Columbia A2722 78280-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Mummy Mine 1-31-1919 Columbia A2722 78281-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Ruspana 2-21-1919 Columbia A2712 78310-2 Earl Fuller's Novelty Orchestra Sweet Siamese 2-21-1919 Columbia A2712 78311-3 Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazorient 12-1919 Arto/Earl Fuller 9009-A 31001- Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band Jazzology 12-1919 Arto/Earl Fuller 9009-B 31002-2 Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Ain't We Got Fun 5-1921 Olympic 15116-A Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Ain't We Got Fun 5-1921 Symphony Concert Record 21180-A Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Just Because 5-1921 Olympic 15116-B Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Just Because 5-1921 Symphony Concert Record 21180-B Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Melody in F 5-1921 Olympic 15118 Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Melody in F 5-1921 Black Swan 2058-B Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra Just Because 6-17-1921 Edison Diamond Disc 50824-R 8076 Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra I Wonder Where My Sweet, Sweet Daddy's Gone 6-17-1921 Edison Blue Amberol 4392 8077-A Earl Fuller's New York Orchestra I Wonder Where My Sweet, Sweet Daddy's Gone 6-17-1921 Edison Diamond Disc 50824-L 8077-A ==Reissues== Reissues of Earl Fuller recordings in modern formats are almost unknown. A notable, early departure from this state of affairs was the work of Dutch black music authority Dr. Hans Rookmaaker, who included two Earl Fuller selections on his 1961 collection New York Jazz Scene: 1917-1920Riverside RM 8801 which was the first volume in his series "Classic Jazz Masters" for Dutch Philips. Fuller is also included by virtue of two tracks on John R.T. Davies' Ragtime to Jazz ITimeless Historical CBC1-035, 1997 and one on Archeophone's Real Ragtime.Archeophone ARCH1A, 1999 ==References== ==External links== * * * *Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band at the Red Hot Jazz Archive *Earl Fuller's Rector Novelty Orchestra at the Red Hot Jazz Archive * Category:American jazz musicians Category:American bandleaders Category:Dance band bandleaders Category:1885 births Category:1947 deaths Category:People from Morrow, Ohio Category:Jazz musicians from Ohio
|
Blažej Baláž (born 29 October 1958) is a contemporary Slovak artist. His practise as an artist is usually associated with political art, environmental, activist, mail-art and neo-conceptualism. After 1988 he began working with text as art, neo-conceptual and post-conceptual texts (intext, outtext). ==Life and work== Baláž was born in Nevoľné, Slovakia, former Czechoslovakia. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts, Bratislava, and his Magister of Fine Arts degree received in 1983. Baláž has been the Head of Department of Fine Arts Education at the University of Trnava since 1999. He was a founder member of the artists group East of Eden (1998). Since 1979, he has been married to the artist Mária Balážová. He lives and works in Trnava. He has worked in the areas of political, environmental, activist and neo-conceptual art. His practice also comprises media painting, works on paper, performances, drawing, object, mail art and printmaking. He has shown work internationally in exhibitions including the Drawing 1990, Provo, USA (1990), Vth International Drawing Triennale, Wrocław (1992), 12th International Biennale of Small Sculpture, Murska Sobota (1995), International Biennale of Graphic Arts, Ljubljana (1989, 1995, 1999), Object / Object. Prague, Czech Museum of Fine Arts (2001), Intertext / From the conceptual to postconceptual text,Ján Koniarek Gallery website Ján Koniarek Gallery, Trnava (2009), Formats of Transformation 89 – 09 / Seven views on the new Czech and Slovak identity, House of Art, Brno (2009). Solo exhibitions (retrospective): Geld macht Kunst, Ján Koniarek Gallery, Trnava (2003) , Blažej Baláž Texts 1988/2007, The East Slovak Gallery, Košice (2007), Museum of Fine Arts, Žilina (2007), SUCHARATOLEST House of Art, Bratislava (2009), WARTEZEIT, Slowakisches Institut Wien (2009), Post-Geo-Text (with Mária Balážová), Slowakisches Institut Berlin (2011). His works are held in the public collections of Slovak National Gallery, Bratislava, National Gallery in Prague (CZ), Muzeum Archidiecezjalne, Katowice (PL), Fries Museum, Leeuwarden (NL), Jan Koniarek Gallery, Trnava , East Slovakian Gallery Košice, City Gallery , Bratislava, Central Slovakian Gallery, Banská Bystrica . ==Cycle Treptomachia== Baláž's works brings the new possibilities at the field of post-conceptual and neo- conceptual text. The exhibition is divided in three segments, all of them are connected by the specific and authentic search of the possibilities in the conceptual Macaronic language. The first is created from the neo-conceptual horizontal/vertical texts, a part of Treptomachia, (WARTEZEIT, 2006, WARTERAUM, 2006 and How to domesticate the English language, 2006). The internal orientation of artworks, the search of art itself, the search of language and text brings the cracking of syntactic/semantic wholeness of graphems. The metatexts of initial prototext are distinguished by the colors (oil on canvas, 300 x 200 cm). In this regard Baláž's eff ort culminates by the diptych TREPTOMACHIA.EN-A / How to domesticate the English language and TREPTOMACHIA.DE-B / How to domesticate the German language (2006). Both are depicted on big-size canvas, within which the only dominating word with partial messages is replaced with newly defined optical language with tens of words. The colour decomposition of the grapheme creates a symptomatic background for language overlapping and the contamination, which creates the supreme moment of the author's Babylonian crossroads. Another, the second segment, black and white acryl-paintings enriches the former one, the artworks are created on principle of the structuralist analysis of text. It is a variant, which is called and named by author and curator the intext. By the segmentation of text the author discovers several lexis. These have a different lexical origin, five West-European, five East-European, and „dead“ language of Medieval Esperanto – Latin. Despite the cold artificiality of works, this segment has also the hidden sociocritical context, which is oscillated between phenomenons West and East, art and politics. The third segment is the most open and subjective. These horizontal texts are named by its author as the simultaneous texts. It is a different alternative in the post-conceptual Makaronian text, the melange is created by harmony of the initial and derivative text. Its ironic and attacking character replaces a cold aspect of the first two segments. Vajanský's Suchá ratolesť (an ironic parallel of failing elits) is floundered by streams, the subject is named by the author as east rat in the age of 20-years of wandering a la democrazy, with a more complicated ambivalent reading. The fragility of ground – paper [four artworks, width 10 m] raises the openness of statement, ODRBMADEMOKRATICKY, 2008 [screw me over democratically], is predominative. ==Selected solo exhibitions== * Blažej Baláž / Painting, drawing, installations, Central Slovakian Gallery, Banská Bystrica, 1 July - 16 August 1992 (catalogue) * Postscriptum II, City Gallery of Bratislava, Bratislava, 16 December 1993 – 30 January 1994 * Gutten Tag, Frau Koppl, Jan Koniarek Gallery, Trnava, 18 February – 23 March 1997 * Geld macht frei, Vojtech Löffler Museum, Košice, 15 November – 30 December 2000 (catalogue) * Mária and Blažej Baláž : The Discreet Charm of the Painting , House of Art, Česke Budějovice, 27 March – 21 April 2002 * Geld macht Kunst, Jan Koniarek Gallery, Trnava, 12 June – 18 August 2003 * Texts 1988 / 2007, The East-Slovakian Gallery, Košice, 21 June – 23 July 2007 (catalogue); * Texts 1988 / 2007, Museum of Fine Arts, Žilina, 13 September – 14 October 2007 (catalogue); * SUCHARATOLEST, House of Art, Bratislava, 13 May – 8 June 2009 * WARTERAUM , Slowakisches Institut, Vienna, 27 May – 22 June 2009 (catalogue); * Conceptual texts, Liptov Gallery of P. M. Bohúň, Liptovský Mikuláš, 10 February – 9 April 2011 * Mária Balážová-Blažej Baláž : Post-Geo-Text, Slowakisches Institut, Berlin, 14 April – 30 May 2011 * EINEMU, Nitra Gallery, Nitra, 31 May – 22 July 2012 * Travesties, Turiec Gallery, Martin, 18 July – 15 September 2013 * Private/Public, Gallery of Art, Nové Zámky, 21 May – 24 June 2015 * When Activism Becomes Art, Central Slovakian Gallery, Banská Bystrica, 24 September - 8 November 2015 * ghOstwriter, Central Slovakian Gallery, Banská Bystrica, 24 April - 17 June 2018 ==Selected group exhibitions== *Art Basel 19´88, Basel, Switzerland, 1988 *12th International Print Biennale, Cracow, BWA (PL), 1988 *18th International Print Biennale, Moderna galerija, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1989 *Ľ Europe des Graveurs, Grenoble, Bibliothèque Municipale, France, 1989 *Drawing 1990, Provo, Utah, USA, 1990 *9.Internationale Grafik Triennale, Frechen, Kunstferein zu Frechen, Germany, 1990 *International Print Triennale, Cracow, Bunkier Sztuki (PL), 1991 *Vth International Drawing Triennale, Wroclaw, Poland, 1992 *12th International Biennale of Small Sculpture, Murska Sobota, Slovenia, 1995 *Seitenwechsel, Heidelberg, Heidelberger Schlos, Germany, 1995 *21st International Print Biennale, Ljubljana, Moderna Galerija (SL), 1995 *Picturale, Est, Strasbourg, France, 1997 *23rd International Biennial of Graphic Arts, Ljubljana, Moderna galerija (SL), 1999 *Object / Object. Metamorphoses in Time, The Czech Museum of Fine Arts, Prague, Czech Republic, 2001 *The Art of Action, 1989–2000, Poprad, Tatra Gallery, Nitra, Nitra Gallery, 2001 *New End of Painting, Trnava, Jan Koniarek Gallery, 2002 *Contemporary Slovak Painting 2000-2005, City Gallery of Prague, Prague, Czech Republic, 2005 *Slovak Graphic Art of the 20th Century, City Gallery, Bratislava, Slovakia, 2007 *Intertext / From conceptual to postconceptual text, Jan Koniarek Gallery, Trnava, Slovakia, 2009 *Formate der Transformation 89-09, MUSA - Museum auf Abruf, Vienna, Austria, 2010 *After Hours : Phase 2 / Artists from Slovakia, Santa Ana, Orange County Center for Contemporary Art, USA, 2010 *1st International Biennial of Drawing, Municipal Museum, Győr, Hungary, 2011 *Daisies and Clones, Slovak National Gallery, Bratislava, Slovakia, 2011 *ObraSKov, Wannieck Gallery, Brno, Czech Republic, 2011 *5th International Drawing Competition Wroclaw 2012, Muzeum Architektury, Wroclaw, Poland, 2012 *Blood, Slovak National Gallery, Bratislava, Slovakia, 2012 *IX. International Biennial of Drawing Pilsen 2014, Pilsen, Czech Republic, 2014 *Here and Now, Budapest, Kunsthalle (HU), 2015 *5th International Drawing Triennial: Black and White, Tallinn Art Hall, Tallinn, Estonia, 2015 *Osten Biennial of Drawing, Skopje (MK), 2016 *Socially alive, Gallery of Slovak Visual Artists, Bratislava, 2016 *International Print Triennial Krakow 2018, Krakow, Poland, 2018 *International Drawing Biennale India 2018-19, New Delhi (India), 2019 *SIGNAL – The Story of (Post-) conceptual art in Slovakia, Budapest, Ludwig Museum (HU), 2019 ==Awards== * 1987 Honorable Mention, Biennale of Slovak Graphic Art IX, Banská Bystrica * 1987 3rd Prize for Printmaking, Competition of Slovakian Fine Artists, Bratislava * 1989 Purchase Prize, 9è Mini Print Internacional, Cadaqués (E) * 1989 1st Prize for Painting, Competition of West-Slovakian Fine Artists, Trenčín * 1990 Award of Excellence, 6th International Miniature Print Biennale, Seoul ( South Korea) * 1995 Award of The Masaryk's Academy of Arts, Prague (CZ) * 1996 Prize Ex Aequo, Biennale of Slovak Graphic Art XIII, Banská Bystrica * 2005 The Jury's Award, Biennale of small graphics GRAFIX, Břeclav (CZ) * 2005 Award of The City Banská Bystrica, Triennial of Slovak Graphic Art XVI, Banská Bystrica * 2008 Award of The City Trnava * 2014 Prize of the Czech Union of Visual Artists of the Czech Republic, 9th International Biennial of Drawing Pilsen (CZ) * 2016 Special Award by the Jury - Osten Biennial of Drawing 2016, Skopje (MK) ==Collections == * Slovak National Gallery, Bratislava * Galéria mesta Bratislavy, Bratislava * East-Slovakian Gallery, Košice * Central Slovakian Gallery, Banská Bystrica * J. Koniarek Gallery, Trnava * M. A. Bazovský Gallery, Trenčín * National Gallery, Praha (CZ) * Moravská galerie, Brno (CZ) * Osten Museum of Drawing, Skopje (MK) * Muzeum Archidiecezjalne, Katowice (PL) * Miejska Galeria Sztuki, Lodž (PL) * Cremona Civic Museum, Prints Cabinet (I) * Friske Museum, Leuwarden (N) ==Works== * Mechanical Paradise (1988/1990) * HROBONJOUR (1992) * My Way (1993 - ) * Artwart (1997) * Skarabeus (1997) * Memory 2 / Unpowdered painting (1998) * Mandala 4 / Black (1997/2000) * Geld macht frei (2001) * Mandala 5 (2001) * Poppy Seed Field (2001/02)- Monochrome painting * CLEANMONEY (2002) * Mandala 15 (2003) * GODSAVEUS (2003) * The Art of kill (2004) * WETRUSTIN (2004–07) * Treptomachia. EN – A / How to domesticate the English language (2005/06) * Treptomachia. DE – B / How to domesticate the German language (2006) * WARTERAUM (2007) * WARTEZEIT (2007) * SUCHARATOLEST (2008) * SLOVENSKY (2006/09) * BESTEHLEN (2007/09) * BESTOCKEN (2007/09) * EINEMU (2011) * Treptomachia.En - Wart (2011) * Treptomachia.Sk - Vanitas (2011) * Art after Poetry 6 / IAMAPHERIPHERALARTIST (2011–12) * Art after Poetry 7 / IAMAPSEUDOCONCEPTUALARTIST (2012) * Art after Poetry 8 / IAMACHECHEN (2012) * WHYENTARTAINMENT, 2013 * Travesty.wd.5 / EINTOTESKAPITALKUNSTEMU (2013 /14) ==Books, catalogues== * VALOCH, J. – VARTECKÁ, A. 2003. Blažej Baláž. Trnava : Trnava University, East of Eden, 132 p. (In English and Slovak) * BESKID, V. – GAJDOŠ, R. 2007. Blažej Baláž : Texts 1988 /2007. Trnava : East of Eden, Trnava University, 48 p. (In English and Slovak) * BALÁŽ, B. 2009. The Texts of the Texts. Trnava : Trnava University, 30 p. * ORIŠKOVÁ, M. – GAJDOŠ, R. – BALÁŽ, B. 2016. Blažej Baláž – My Way. Trnava : Typi Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, 202 p. ==References== ==Further reading== * ž.u.m. (= URRA MUENA, Ž.).1992. Blažej Baláž. In Saur Allgemeines Künstler – Lexikon, band 6. Mϋnchen, Leipzig : K.G.Saur. (D) * BARTOŠOVÁ, Z. 1995. Blažej Baláž. In 12th International Biennial of Small Sculpture. Murska Sobota : Galerija Murska Sobota, p. 158-159 (SL) * GERŽOVÁ, J. 1999. Junk art. In Dictionary of World and Slovak Fine Art in the 2nd half of the 20th century. Bratislava : Kruh súčasného umenia Profil, p. 285 * VRBANOVÁ, A. 2000. New Form in Graphic Art. In RUSINOVÁ, Z. et al. 2000. Art of the 20th century. Bratislava : Slovak National Gallery, p. 114-116 * VALOCH, J. 2001. The Connotation of Powdered Painting. In Ateliér, vol.14, no.6, 22.3.2001, p. 9, Prague (CZ) * BESKID, V. 2003. Geld macht Kunst. Macht Kunst Geld? In Profil, vol. X, no.2/2003, p. 128-131 * ADAM, R. – ROBERTSON, C. 2007. Intaglio. London : Thames & Hudson, p. 29 (UK) * BÖHMEROVÁ, Z. – JANČÁR, I. 2007. Slovak Graphics of the 20th Century. Bratislava : City Gallery, 2007, p. 195, 285, 304, 312 * BARTOŠOVÁ, Z. 2007. 20th Century. In Art in Slovakia / Summary History of Pictures. Bratislava. Bratislava : Slovart, p. 224 * GAJDOŠ, R. 2008. The projection of linguistic thinking to contemporary fine arts.. In SCHNEIDER, J. – KRAUSOVA, L. 2008 (eds). Intermediality: Word – image – sound. Olomouc : University of J. E. Palacký, 334 p. [p. 223-229] (CZ) * VALOCH, J. 2009. Venice In-Between Geometry and Concept. Ateliér, vol.22, no.18, p. 4, 10.9.2009 (CZ) * GERŽOVÁ, B. 2009. From plaster to chewing gum – Author's techniques, Nitra : Nitra Gallery, p. 5, 9, 44, 45 * BESKID, V. 2009. From a Political Space toward a Public One. In KOWOLOWSKI, F. (ed.) 2009. Formats of Transformation 89 – 09 / Seven views on the new Czech and Slovak identity. Brno : House of Art, p. 14 – 17, 200 (CZ) * KNÍŽÁK, M. – VLČEK, T. (eds.). 2009. 909 / Art from the Turn of the Millennium in the National Gallery in Prague 1990 - 2009. Prague - National Gallery, p. 362 (CZ) * GAJDOŠ, R. 2010. Conceptual Text / Genesis and Metamorphosis. Trnava : Typi Universitatis Tyrnaviensis and Veda, p. 11, 12, 76, 87, 89, 99, 101, 104, 105, 128 (SK) * BESKID, V. 2012. Rónaiová's Cuts by Social Art. In Veronika Rónaiová's Social Investigation 2. Trnava : Typi Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, p. 6-7 * GAJDOŠ, R. 2012. In Veronika Rónaiová's Social Investigation 2. Trnava : Typi Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, p. 10, 13 * GREGOROVÁ, L. 2012. In. BURAN, D. (ed.). 2012. Blood. Bratislava : Slovak National Gallery, p. 86-87 * BESKID, V. 2012. The image of painting in the „Picture du nouveau“. In ObraSKovo nanovo / Contemporary Slovak Painting. Poprad : Tatranská Gallery, p. 15 * MICHÁLEK, O. 2016. Magie otisku. Grafické techniky a technologie tisku. Brno : Barrister & Principal, s. 246, 248, 249 * GAJDOŠ, R. 2016. In Opposite Direction. In Protocollum 2016/2017. Berlin : Dickersbach Kunstverlag, p. 94-97 ==External links== * http://www.bbalaz.sk/ * http://www.artfacts.net/en/artist/blazej-balaz-165810/profile.html * http://www.kunstaspekte.de/index.php?k=8735&action;=webpages * http://www.artgallery.sk/pouzivatel.php?ArtGallery_Session=f82e20a9e6d69f7b28890e45fd3bd3f1&getPouzivatel;=764 * http://www.osobnosti.sk/index.php?os=zivotopis&ID;=59280&mainkat;=4 * :sk:Blažej Baláž * https://web.archive.org/web/20080617073554/http://pdfweb.truni.sk/fak/katedry/kpvu/bbalaz/index.html * http://www.gjk.sk/en/exhibition/archive-of-expositions/2009/intertext/ * https://web.archive.org/web/20080918075827/http://www.pgu.sk/archive/2007/balaz.htm * Monochrome painting Category:1958 births Category:Living people Category:People from Žiar nad Hronom District Category:Slovak painters Category:Conceptual artists Category:Postmodern artists Category:Contemporary painters Category:Post-conceptual artists
|
Ellerslie is a suburb of the city of Auckland, in the North Island of New Zealand. Ellerslie lies seven kilometres to the southeast of the city centre, close to State Highway 1. Administratively, Ellerslie forms part of the Ōrākei Local Board, which also includes the suburbs of Orakei, Mission Bay, Kohimarama, Saint Heliers, Glendowie, St Johns, Meadowbank and Remuera. To the west, Ellerslie borders on the One Tree Hill area and Cornwall Park. Largely a residential suburb, the area is arguably best-known as the site of Auckland's main horse-racing venue, Ellerslie Racecourse, as well as the original site of the Ellerslie Flower Show. (From 2008 the Flower Show moved to Christchurch in the South Island.) ==History== ===The Development of Ellerslie=== The suburb was named by early local politician and entrepreneur Robert Graham, after his father's home in Elderslie (sic) in Renfrewshire, Scotland. Graham arrived in Auckland in October 1842 as an assisted immigrant from Scotland. Retrieved 2013-10-05. In 1848 Graham bought two blocks of land where, after his marriage to Sophia Swann in 1852, he built the ‘Ellerslie House’ as a family homestead. Adjacent to this home was a track along which Mrs Graham was in the habit of riding her horse every morning, now a street called Ladies Mile. Many of the local streets bear names of Graham family members. In 1873 the railway from Auckland was extended to reach Ellerslie. It is likely that Graham developed part of his property as the 'Ellerslie Zoological Gardens' because of this development. The gardens included flower beds, fountains, a bandstand, dance pavilion and a zoo. This made Ellerslie a popular leisure centre for Aucklanders. In 1886 much of the Graham farm was subdivided for housing. Horse races were already being held in Ellerslie since 1857, but in 1886 the Racing Club acquired a permanent site from the Graham family, including the Zoological Gardens. The racecourse had its own railway station for race days, and was a prominent feature of the Ellerslie area up until its heyday in the 1920s and 1930s. Next to Ellerslie Train Station a small township developed, servicing not only the local residents but also the race day crowds. As the 20th century progressed the surrounding rural land disappeared and Ellerslie became absorbed into suburban Auckland. The building of the Southern Motorway was to both strengthen the strategic location already created by the railway, as well as weaken the local cohesion of the area because of the physical divide the motorway created. The original local authority was Ellerslie Town District, established in 1908. The Borough of Ellerslie was formally declared on 1 April 1938. In 1989 Ellerslie was amalgamated into Auckland City Council. The area has seen strong population growth in the recent past, growing 32% in the inner Ellerslie area between 1991 and 2001.Draft Ellerslie’s Future Framework (Auckland City Council, 2006. Accessed 2008-06-28.) Ellerslie is now a desirable suburb with convenient access to the city centre for commuting (via rail and bus links) and ready access to the nearby Southern Motorway for road users. The town centre is pleasant with good services, while retaining a sense of community. Housing in the area is well planned and close to a number of attractive parks, such as Michaels Avenue Reserve and Waiatarua Reserve. ===Singing Caves=== Māori gave the name ‘Waiatarua’ to the site which later became the Ellerslie Racecourse. Translated as "two songs" the name refers to a waiata or song that emanated from caves. It was believed that this ‘singing’ was created by water and air blowing from a larger cave into a smaller passage, making a vibrating sound. In the 1960s a new grand stand was constructed at the racecourse and the caves were filled with concrete to create a seal. This was not wholly successful, and it is said that the singing could still be heard coming from the caves. ===The Town Centre=== thumb|left|Ellerslie town centre The Ellerslie Town Centre is on Main Highway near where it intersects with the Ellerslie-Panmure Highway. The construction in the 1960s of the Southern Motorway cut Ellerslie off nearby Greenlane, resulting in a downturn in trade and many empty shops. However, in the 2000s, Ellerslie recovered with a strong upturn in employment in the nearby business parks on the southern side of the motorway (connected to the area with a pedestrian overbridge). The overbridge was the location of the opening scene of the New Zealand film Once Were Warriors (film). In 2006, the overbridge was transformed with a ‘Bridge of Memories’ mosaic storyboard portraying different landmark buildings, houses (past and present), and images from the local schools. Thanks to the long-term strategy of the local business association, it is now increasingly oriented towards lunchtime shoppers and again has many prosperous smaller businesses. ===The Ellerslie Meteorite=== At 9.00 am on 12 June 2004 a meteorite crashed through the roof of the home of the Archer family in Ellerslie. Retrieved 2013-10-01. The meteorite landed into the living room of the house, bouncing off the couch and hitting the ceiling. The home owners heard an explosion and saw dust everywhere, but nobody was hurt. This meteorite is officially named the Auckland Meteorite, despite tradition demanding that a meteorite is named after the nearest post office. However, an Ellerslie Meteorite had already fallen in Australia. Retrieved 2013-10-01. The rock weighs 1.3 kg and is estimated to be around 4,600 million years old. Retrieved 2013-10-01. It is the ninth meteorite found in New Zealand and the first to hit a home. According to Auckland University experts, a meteorite that crashes through a roof is a very rare event. This meteorite received world-wide attention and an American collector offered the Archer family $50,000 for the space rock. The Archers declined this offer, favouring the public display of the rock in New Zealand, so that anyone interested could view it. The meteorite has been since on display in the Auckland Museum, where it can be seen in the Origins Gallery. ===The Ellerslie Flower Show=== The Ellerslie International Flower Show was first held in Ellerslie in 1994 at the Ellerslie Racecourse. This is New Zealand’s annual garden show. After 3 years in Ellerslie, it moved to the Auckland Botanic Gardens in Manurewa, Auckland. Retrieved 2013-10-02. In 2008 the Flower Show moved again, this time to Hagley Park in Christchurch. Retrieved 2013-10-02. ==Demographics== Ellerslie comprises four statistical areas. Ellerslie Central, East and South are primarily residential. Ellerslie West, which is separated from the rest of the suburb by the Auckland Southern Motorway, is commercial/industrial. Individual statistical areas Name Area (km2) Population Density (per km2) Households Median age Median income Ellerslie Central 1.49 3,306 2,219 1,122 37.2 years $42,700 Ellerslie East 0.40 3,153 7,883 1,107 35.0 years $47,300 Ellerslie South 0.83 2,580 3,108 894 34.1 years $51,400 Ellerslie West 0.75 147 196 51 32.4 years $52,300 New Zealand 37.4 years $31,800 ===Residential area=== The residential area of Ellerslie covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2. The residential area had a population of 9,039 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 453 people (5.3%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 1,101 people (13.9%) since the 2006 census. There were 3,123 households, comprising 4,395 males and 4,647 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.95 males per female, with 1,671 people (18.5%) aged under 15 years, 1,890 (20.9%) aged 15 to 29, 4,488 (49.7%) aged 30 to 64, and 990 (11.0%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 64.9% European/Pākehā, 7.0% Māori, 5.9% Pacific peoples, 28.8% Asian, and 3.8% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas was 39.7, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 46.9% had no religion, 36.7% were Christian, 0.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 3.8% were Hindu, 1.5% were Muslim, 2.7% were Buddhist and 3.5% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 3,141 (42.6%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 522 (7.1%) people had no formal qualifications. 2,184 people (29.6%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 4,491 (61.0%) people were employed full-time, 912 (12.4%) were part-time, and 213 (2.9%) were unemployed. ===Commercial/Industrial area=== Ellerslie West covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2. Ellerslie West had a population of 147 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 3 people (2.1%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 48 people (48.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 51 households, comprising 72 males and 75 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.96 males per female. The median age was 32.4 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 24 people (16.3%) aged under 15 years, 36 (24.5%) aged 15 to 29, 78 (53.1%) aged 30 to 64, and 9 (6.1%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 59.2% European/Pākehā, 4.1% Māori, 4.1% Pacific peoples, 30.6% Asian, and 6.1% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas was 49.0, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 49.0% had no religion, 34.7% were Christian, 2.0% were Hindu, 2.0% were Muslim, 6.1% were Buddhist and 2.0% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 54 (43.9%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 9 (7.3%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $52,300, compared with $31,800 nationally. 39 people (31.7%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 93 (75.6%) people were employed full-time, 15 (12.2%) were part-time, and 3 (2.4%) were unemployed. ==Local government== Ellerslie had a local government like other suburbs of Auckland. The local government was called Ellerslie Borough Council. It started in 1938 and eventually merged into Auckland City Council in 1989 and then merged into Auckland Council in November 2010. ===Mayors during Ellerslie Borough Council=== *Horace James White, 1938–1956 *Lloyd Elsmore, 1956–1962 *Alan Trevor Bell, 1962–1974 *William Edgar Brewster, 1974–1980 *William "Bill" James Cann, 1980–1981 *Leon Clarence Leicester, 1981–1989 ==Landmarks and features== ===The Ellerslie Race Course=== thumb|right|320px|Spectators at Ellerslie Racecourse, 1908 thumb|right|320px| Ellerslie Racecourse, 1908 The Ellerslie area has been known as the centre for horseracing since New Zealand’s first race meeting was organised there in 1842. Retrieved 2013-10-02. The property was first used as farmland by Robert Graham, who was a supporter of racing. He later developed both the Alexandra Park Racecourse and the Ellerslie Racecourse. In 1873, Graham sold both racecourses to the Auckland Racing Club. Retrieved 2013-10-02. The Auckland Jockey Club bought around 36 hectares (90 acres) in 1872. Retrieved 2013-10-02. Today, the club owns around 72 hectares (180 acres) and race meetings are regularly held at the race course, including the New Zealand Derby and the Auckland Cup, the main races at the summer meeting. The racecourse is also home to a golf driving range and a nine-hole pitch and putt. In recent years, associated activities like fashion shows and socialising have become as important as watching the races. ===Notable buildings=== * Christ Church – This wooden gothic Anglican church was opened in 1883 in Ladies Mile. Its most significant feature is a full set of stained glass windows gifted to the congregation by the English firm of Clayton and Bell. * Former Ellerslie Post Office – The post office was designed in 1909 by John Campbell. He modelled the building on the post offices in Mount Eden and Kingsland. The post office operated here until the privatisation of New Zealand Post in the late 1980s. * Former Southern Cross Picture Theatre – This cinema was opened in 1925 and represented an exciting change in socialising for the people of Ellerslie. In the 1970s it was converted into squash courts. * Former Municipal Offices – The Ellerslie Town District purchased the land on the corner of Ramsgate St and Main Highway in 1926 for the construction of its municipal buildings. The Ellerslie Borough Council was based in these offices until it merged with Auckland City in 1989. * Arborfield – This two-story wooden Italianate house on the corner of Ramsgate st. and Main Highway was the residence of Lieut. Col Charles Dawson (18th Royal Irish Regiment), Chairman of the Mount Wellington Road Board and Master of the Pakuranga Hunt. * Ellerslie War Memorial Hall Community Centre – This building was constructed in 1989 after fundraising by local groups and is used as a centre for performing arts. The Ellerslie servicemen who were killed or wounded in World War I and World War II are recognised in the Roll of Honour in the foyer of the War Memorial Hall. *Ellerslie supermarket ===Parks and reserves=== The Ellerslie Domain – The Ellerslie Domain is centrally located in Ellerslie and has sport facilities for tennis and rugby. Several sporting associations use the domain for their training, including the Ellerslie Eagles who compete in the Auckland Rugby League. Michaels Avenue Reserve – The Michaels Avenue Reserve is a huge open green space used for sports and recreation activities. The reserve has an interesting array of plants and wildlife and a wetland is present in its north corner. The reserve has a playground for children and grounds for cricket and soccer. Retrieved 2013-10-03. The Ellerslie Recreation Centre is located within the reserve, with a gymnasium which hosts various indoor sports. Retrieved 2013-10-03. Celtic Crescent Reserve – This reserve focuses on children, who can play on the adventure playground. The wider community can enjoy both passive and active recreation. ==Sport and recreation== Ellerslie is home to several sporting clubs, including Ellerslie AFC who compete in the Lotto Sport Italia NRFL Division 1 and the Ellerslie Eagles who compete in Auckland Rugby League competitions. Ellerslie is also the home of Ellerslie Bowling Club Established in 1911 Home to former British Empire Games Gold Medalist Robert Lang McDonald who attended the Ellerslie Primary School in early 1940s. ==Education== The main primary school in the area is Ellerslie School, a primary and intermediate school (years 1–8), that was founded in 1877. It has a roll of . St Mary's School is a state-integrated Catholic contributing primary school (years 1–6) with a roll of . Michael Park School is a state-integrated Waldorf composite school (years 1–13) with a roll of . The above schools are coeducational. Rolls are as of Other secondary schools serving the local population are One Tree Hill College, St Peter’s College and Baradene College of the Sacred Heart. ==Libraries== The residents and ratepayers of Ellerslie are entitled to free library membership at all of the library branches of Auckland City Libraries. There is no branch located in Ellerslie, but the nearest public libraries are the Remuera library and the Panmure library. The Ellerslie Toy Library in Leicester Hall is a branch of the Toy Library Federation of New Zealand. The Ellerslie Toy Library relies on membership fees and donations to operate. ==See also== * Ellerslie Racecourse * Ellerslie Flower Show ==References== ==External links== * Movie Ellerslie Meteorite *Photographs of Ellerslie held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections. Category:Suburbs of Auckland Category:Populated places established in 1908 Category:1908 establishments in New Zealand Category:Ōrākei Local Board Area
|
Carried interest, or carry, in finance, is a share of the profits of an investment paid to the investment manager specifically in alternative investments (private equity and hedge funds). It is a performance fee, rewarding the manager for enhancing performance.Lemke, Lins, Hoenig and Rube, Hedge Funds and Other Private Funds: Regulation and Compliance, §13:20 (Thomson West, 2013–2014 ed.). Since these fees are generally not taxed as normal income, some believe that the structure unfairly takes advantage of favorable tax treatment, e.g. in the United States. ==History== The origin of carried interest can be traced to the 16th century when European ships were crossing to Asia and the Americas. The captain of the ship would take a 20 % share of the profit from the carried goods to pay for the transport and the risk of sailing over oceans. ==Definition and calculation== Carried interest is a share of the profits of an investment paid to the investment manager in excess of the amount that the manager contributes to the partnership, specifically in alternative investments, e.g., private equity and hedge funds. It is a performance fee rewarding the manager for enhancing performance. ===Amount and calculation=== The manager's carried interest allocation varies depending on the type of investment fund and the demand for the fund from investors. In private equity, the standard carried interest allocation historically has been 20% for funds making buyout and venture investments, but there is some variability. Notable examples of private equity firms with carried interest of more than 20% ("super carry") include Bain Capital and Providence Equity Partners. Hedge fund carry percentages have historically centered on 20% but have had greater variability than those of private equity funds. In extreme cases performance fees have reached as high as 44% of a fund's profits but is usually between 15% and 20%. The distribution of fund returns is often directed by a distribution waterfall. Returns generated by the investment are first distributed to return each investor's initial capital contribution, including the manager. This is not "carried interest" because it is a repayment of principal. Second, returns are paid to investors other than the manager, up to a certain previously agreed rate of return (the "hurdle rate" or "preferred return")."Hurdle Rate" explained by mergers- acquisitions.org . The customary hurdle rate is 7% to 9% per annum. Third, returns are paid to the manager until it has received a rate of return equal to the hurdle rate (the "catch-up"). Not every fund provides for a hurdle and a catch-up. Often, returns during the catch-up phase are split with the manager receiving the larger (e.g. 80%) share and the investors receiving a smaller (e.g. 20%) share, until the manager's catch-up percentage has been collected. Fourth, once the manager's returns equal the investor returns, the split reverses, with the manager taking a lower (often 20%) share and the investors taking the higher (often 80%) share. All manager returns above the returns from the manager's initial contribution are "carry" or "carried interest." ===Timing=== Private equity funds distribute carried interest to managers and other investors only upon a successful exit from an investment, which may take years. In a hedge fund environment, carried interest is usually referred to as a "performance fee" and because it invests in liquid investments, it is often able to pay carried interest annually if the fund has generated a profit. This has implications for both the amount and timing of the taxes on the interest. ===Tax treatment=== Some believe that carried interest takes advantage of favorable tax treatment in the United States. ===Other fees=== Historically, carried interest has served as the primary source of income for manager and firm in both private equity and hedge funds. Both funds also tend to have an annual management fee of 1% to 2% of assets under management per year. The management fee covers the costs of investing and managing the fund. The management fee, unlike the 20% carried interest, is treated as ordinary income in the United States. As the sizes of both private equity and hedge funds have increased, management fees have become a more meaningful portion of the value proposition for fund managers as evidenced by the 2007 initial public offering of the Blackstone Group. ==Taxation== Private equity returns are tax-advantaged in several ways. Private equity carried interest is treated as a long-term capital gain for tax purposes in many jurisdictions. Long-term capital gains are returns on financial and other investments that have been held for a certain statutorily determined amount of time before being sold. They are taxed at a lower rate than ordinary income to promote investment. The long time horizons of funds allow their returns, including the manager's carried interest, to typically qualify as long-term capital gains. A manager's carried interest can be categorized as capital gains even if the return on the manager's initial investment is higher than the total rate of return for the asset. Furthermore, taxes on the increase in value of an investor or manager's share of the fund are not due until a realization event occurs, most commonly the sale of an investment. ===United States=== Treatment of active partners' return on investment as capital gains in the United States originated in the oil and gas industry of the early 20th century. Oil exploration companies, funded by financial partners' investments, explored and developed hydrocarbon resources. The profits generated were split between the explorers and the investors. The explorers' profits were subject to favorable capital gains treatment alongside the investors. The logic was that the non-financial partner's "sweat equity" was also an investment, since it entailed the risk of loss if the exploration was unsuccessful. Taxes on carried interest are deferred until a realization event due to the difficulties of measuring the present value of an interest in future profits.See, e.g., Campbell v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue (8th Cir. 1991). The Internal Revenue Service affirmed this approach in 1993 as a general administrative rule,Revenue Procedure 93-27, 1993 C.B. 343, clarified by Rev. Proc. 2001-43, 2001-2 C.B. 191, Internal Revenue Service, U.S. Dep't of the Treasury. and again in regulations proposed in 2005.Prop. Treas. Reg. section 1.83-3(l), 70 Fed. Reg. 29675, 29680-29681, Internal Revenue Service, U.S. Dep't of the Treasury (May 24, 2005). Carried interest is tax advantaged in several other ways as well. Private equity and hedge funds are usually structured as legal partnerships or other pass-through entities for tax purposes, which reduces taxes at the entity level as compared to corporations. That said, investment managers are still taxed on the pass-through income on their individual tax returns. Private equity funds also benefit from the interest deduction although this benefit decreased significantly in 2017 due to changes in the tax law. The implication of treating private equity carried interest as capital gains is that investment managers face significantly lower tax burdens than others in similar income brackets. As of 2021, the maximum long-term capital gains rate (including the net investment income tax) is 23.8% compared to the maximum 37% ordinary income rate. This has generated significant criticism. ====Controversy and regulatory attempts==== Critics of the carried interest system (as opposed to critics of the broader tax systems that affect private equity) primarily object to the ability of the manager to treat most of their return as capital gains, including amounts above and beyond the amount directly related to the capital contributed by the manager. Critics characterize this as managers taking advantage of tax loopholes to receive what is effectively a salary without paying the 37% marginal ordinary income tax rate.See, for example, However, some feel this criticism is not appropriate for small businesses that are not blind pools as the manager did risk capital prior to the partnership formation. This controversy has been ongoing since the mid-2000s and has increased as the growth in assets under management by private equity and hedge funds has driven up manager compensation. , the carried interest tax regime's total tax benefit for private equity partners is estimated to be from $2 billion to $16 billion per year. On June 22, 2007, U.S. Representative Sander M. Levin (D-MI) introduced , which would have eliminated the ability of managers to receive capital-gains tax treatment on their income. On June 27, 2007, Henry Paulson said that altering the tax treatment of a single industry raises tax policy concerns, and that changing the way partnerships in general are taxed is something that should only be done after careful consideration, although he was not speaking only about carried interest. In July 2007 the U.S. Treasury Department addressed carried interest in testimony before the U.S. Senate Finance Committee.07.11.07 Testimony Solomon on Carried Interest.doc U.S. Representative Charles B. Rangel included a revised version of H.R. 2834 as part of the "Mother of All Tax Reform" and the 2007 House extenders package. In 2009, the Obama Administration included a line item on taxing carried interest at ordinary income rates in the 2009 Budget Blueprint.. See page 122 of the White House version of "A New Era of Responsibility – Renewing America’s Promise". On April 2, 2009, Congressman Levin introduced a revised version of the carried interest legislation as . Proposals were made by the Obama Administration for the 2010, 2011, and 2012 budgets. Favorable taxation for carried interest generated national interest during the 2012 Republican primary race for president because 31% of presidential candidate Mitt Romney's 2010 and 2011 income was carried interest. Billionaire Warren Buffett, who also benefits from the capital gains system, famously opined that he should not be paying lower taxes than his assistant. On May 28, 2010, the House approved carried interest legislation as part of amendments to the Senate- passed version of . On February 14, 2012, Congressman Levin introduced . On February 26, 2014, House Committee on Ways and Means chairman Dave Camp (R-MI) released draft legislation to raise the tax on carried interest from the current 23.8 percent to 35 percent. In June 2015, Levin introduced the Carried Interest Fairness Act of 2015 (H.R. 2889) to tax investment advisers with ordinary income tax rates. some in the private equity and hedge fund industries had been lobbying against changes, being among the biggest political donors on both sides of the aisle. In June 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton said that if Congress were to fail to act, as president she would ask the Treasury Department to use its regulatory authority to end a tax advantage. In 2018, under President Donald Trump's administration, tax legislation passed that increased the length of time assets must be held by investment managers in order to qualify for long-term capital gains treatment from one year to three years. The legislation also limited the amount of interest deduction that could be taken to 30% of earnings before interest and taxes. The new rule had many exceptions including excepting the real estate sector. Proposed Treasury guidance in August 2020 tightened certain of these exceptions. In 2022, a proposal to narrow the carried interest loophole as part of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 was removed to allow the act to pass, reportedly due to "a last-minute intervention by Senator Kyrsten Sinema of Arizona." === United Kingdom === The Finance Act 1972 provided that gains on investments acquired by reason of rights or opportunities offered to individuals as directors or employees were, subject to various exceptions, taxed as income and not capital gains. This may strictly have applied to the carried interests of many venture-capital executives, even if they were partners and not employees of the investing fund, because they were often directors of the investee companies. In 1987, the Inland Revenue and the British Venture Capital Association (BVCA) entered into an agreement which provided that in most circumstances gains on carried interest were not taxed as income. The Finance Act 2003 widened the circumstances in which investment gains were treated as employment-related and therefore taxed as income. In 2003 the Inland Revenue and the BVCA entered into a new agreement which had the effect that, notwithstanding the new legislation, most carried-interest gains continued to be taxed as capital gains and not as income."Memorandum of Understanding, 2003, Inland Revenue and BVCA" (PDF). HM Revenue and Customs. Such capital gains were generally taxed at 10% as opposed to a 40% rate on income. In 2007, the favorable tax rates on carried interest attracted political controversy.. BBC News. July 3, 2007. It was said that cleaners paid taxes at a higher rate than the private equity executives whose offices they cleaned.. BBC News. June 12, 2007. The outcome was that the capital-gains tax rules were reformed, increasing the rate on gains to 18%, but carried interest continued to be taxed as gains and not as income."HMRC PBRN 17" (PDF). HM Revenue and Customs. 9 October 2007. ==See also== * Taxation of private equity and hedge funds ==References== ==Further reading== * Lily Batchelder, Business Taxation: What is carried interest and how should it be taxed?, Tax Policy Center (last updated June 25, 2008) * Lily Batchelder, What are the options for reforming the taxation of carried interest?, Tax Policy Center (last updated June 25, 2008) * Peter R. Orszag, The Taxation of Carried Interest: Statement of Peter R. Orszag, Director, Congressional Budget Office, before the Committee on Finance United States Senate, Congressional Budget Office (July 11, 2007). * Chris William Sanchirico, The Tax Advantage to Paying Private Equity Fund Managers with Profit Shares—What is it? Why is it Bad?, University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 75, pp. 1071–1153 (2008) Category:Hedge funds Category:Private equity Category:Venture capital
|
The Emergency Data Exchange Language (EDXL) is a suite of XML-based messaging standards that facilitate emergency information sharing between government entities and the full range of emergency-related organizations. EDXL standardizes messaging formats for communications between these parties. EDXL was developed as a royalty-free standard by the OASIS International Open Standards Consortium.Take a Tour EDXL was designed to enable information about life-saving resources to be shared across local, state, tribal, national and non-governmental organizations. Implementation of EDXL standards aims to improve the speed and quality of coordinated response activities by allowing the exchange of information in real time. == Background == EDXL is advanced by the OASIS Emergency Management Technical Committee,OASIS Emergency Management TC | OASIS a group that was formed in 2003 and remains open to participation from organizations, agencies, and individuals from around the world. EDXL is based on detailed requirements and draft specifications provided to OASIS by emergency practitioners, with support from the Emergency Interoperability Consortium,Emergency Interoperability Consortium (EIC) through a project sponsored by the United States Department of Homeland Security’s Disaster Management E-Gov Initiative. EDXL-DE was approved as an OASIS Standard in 2006; EDXL-RM and –HAVE were approved as OASIS Standards in 2008. Implementation of EDXL is promoted by the OASIS Emergency Management Adoption Committee, which was formed in 2009. == Components == The EDXL suite comprises a number of individual standards. Each standard is elaborated in the following sub-sections: === EDXL-DE (Distribution Element) === ==== Overview ==== EDXL- DE (Distribution Element)http://www.oasis- open.org/committees/download.php/17228/EDXL-DE_Spec_v1.0.pdf OASIS Standard, an XML-based header or wrapper that provides flexible message-distribution for emergency information systems’ data sharing. Messages may be exchanged by specific recipients, by a geographic area, or by other codes such as incident and agency type (police, fire, etc.). Any content payload can be distributed using the DE, not just EDXL messages. ==== Purpose ==== The primary purpose of the Distribution Element is to facilitate the routing of any properly formatted XML emergency message to recipients. The Distribution Element may be thought of as a "container". It provides the information to route "payload" message sets (such as Alerts or Resource Messages), by including key routing information such as distribution type, geography, incident, and sender/recipient IDs. ==== Conformance ==== Although there is an XML schema for EDXL-DE, there are some "business rules" or conformance rules that the developer must comply to in order to be considered conformant / compliant to the EDXL-DE Standard. Here are a list of the compliance rules from the EDXL-DE standard document: Element Name Schema Data Type Restriction Comments Notes senderID string In the form actor@domain-name In the format of an email address: '@' Should be valid domain - In the "format" of an email; can't have commas dateTimeSent dateTime The Date Time combination must include the offset time for time zone. language string Valid language values are supplied in the ISO standard [RFC3066] can be en-US or EN or both in the form char[2] OR char[2]'-'char[2] distributionReference string Comma delimited string consisting of a valid dist. ID, senderID, and dateTimeSent circle string In the form lat,lonradius Lat/lon is WGS84. Radius is in km polygon string Must be a valid polygon. Must be in the form list{lat,lon} No trailing space on the last point polygon string Ring Orientation Follow the "Left Hand Rule" for exterior linear ring orientation? Not intersecting itself country string Two character ISO 3166-1 country code Two characters subdivision string Iso3166-1’-‘char[3] subdivision code Should be in the form char[2]’-‘char[1-3] Two characters '-' 1-3 Characters locCodeUN string Iso3166-1’-‘UNLOCCODE Should be in the form char[2]’-‘char[3] 5 characters alphanumeric digest string Result of SHA-1 hash on payload data So the result of the hash is just 160 bits. String must be a Hexadecimal representation of the hash result. keyXMLContent string Must be explicitly namespaced as defined in the closing contentobject block It is correct that the XML data itself need to be within a separate namespace (not the entire content object). keyXMLContent must be well-formed embeddedXMLContent Example string Must be explicitly namespaced as defined in the closing contentobject block It is correct that the XML data itself need to be within a separate namespace (not the entire content object). embeddedXMLContent must be well-formed DistributionID string no commas === Background === The Disaster Management eGov Initiative of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) determined in 2004 to launch a project to develop interagency emergency data communications standards. It called together a group of national emergency response practitioner leaders and sought their guidance on requirements for such standards. In June, 2004 the first such meeting identified the need for a common distribution element for all emergency messages. Subsequent meetings of a Standards Working Group developed detailed requirements and a draft specification for such a distribution element (DE). During the same period the DM Initiative was forming a partnership with industry members of the Emergency Interoperability Consortium (EIC) to cooperate in the development of emergency standards. EIC had been a leading sponsor of the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP). Both organizations desired to develop an expanded family of data formats for exchanging operational information beyond warning. EIC members participated in the development of the DE, and in the broader design of the design of a process for the development of additional standards. This was named Emergency Data Exchange Language (EDXL). The goal of the EDXL project is to facilitate emergency information sharing and data exchange across the local, state, tribal, national and non-governmental organizations of different professions that provide emergency response and management services. EDXL will accomplish this goal by focusing on the standardization of specific messages (messaging interfaces) to facilitate emergency communication and coordination particularly when more than one profession is involved. It is not just an "emergency management" domain exercise. It is a national effort including a diverse and representative group of local, state and federal emergency response organizations and professionals, following a multi-step process. Just as a data-focused effort targets shared data elements, the EDXL process looks for shared message needs, which are common across a broad number of organizations. The objective is to rapidly deliver implementable standard messages, in an incremental fashion, directly to emergency response agencies in the trenches, providing seamless communication and coordination supporting each particular process. The effort first addresses the most urgent needs and proceeds to subsequent message sets in a prioritized fashion. The goal is to incrementally develop and deliver standards. EDXL is intended as a suite of emergency data message types including resource queries and requests, situation status, message routing instructions and the like, needed in the context of cross-disciplinary, cross-jurisdictional communications related to emergency response. The priorities and requirements are created by the DM EDXL Standards Working Group (SWG) which is a formalized group of emergency response practitioners, technical experts, and industry. The draft DE specification was trialed by a number of EIC members starting in October, 2004. In November, 2004, EIC formally submitted the draft to the OASIS Emergency Management Technical Committee for standardization. == EDXL-RM (Resource Messaging) == === Overview === EDXL-RM (Resource Message)http://docs.oasis-open.org/emergency/edxl-rm/v1.0/EDXL-RM- SPEC-V1.0.pdf OASIS Standard, which describes a suite of standard messages for sharing data among information systems that coordinate requests for emergency equipment, supplies, and people. === Purpose === The primary purpose of the Emergency Data Exchange Language Resource Messaging (EDXL-RM) Specification is to provide a set of standard formats for XML emergency response messages. These Resource Messages are specifically designed as payloads of Emergency Data Exchange Language Distribution Element- (EDXL- DE)-routed messages. Together EDXL-DE and EDXL-RM are intended to expedite all activities associated with resources needed to respond and adapt to emergency incidents. The Distribution Element may be thought of as a "container". It provides the information to route "payload" message sets (such as Alerts or Resource Messages), by including key routing information such as distribution type, geography, incident, and sender/recipient IDs. The Resource Message is constrained to the set of Resource Message Types contained in this specification. The Resource Message is intended to be the payload or one of the payloads of the Distribution Element which contains it. === History === Disaster Management (DM) is a communications program in the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) Office for Interoperability and Compatibility (OIC) and managed by the Science and Technology (S&T;) Directorate. The program was initiated as one of the President’s e-government initiatives. DM’s mission is to serve as the program within the Federal Government to help local, tribal, state, and federal public safety and emergency response agencies improve public safety response through more effective and efficient interoperable data sharing. The DHS DM program sponsors a Practitioner Steering Group (PSG). The DM Practitioner Steering Group (PSG) governance was formalized following publication of the EDXL Distribution Element. It plays a key role in the direction, prioritization, definition, and execution of the DHS-DM program. The group is composed of representatives of major emergency response associations, setting priorities and providing recommendations regarding messaging standards development as well as the other facets of the DM program. The PSG specified messaging standards-based systems interoperability as the top priority for the DHS Disaster Management program. The EDXL Resource Messaging Specification effort was identified as the top priority standard by this group following the EDXL-DE. The requirements and specification effort was initiated by this group in partnership with industry members of the Emergency Interoperability Consortium (EIC) in a Standards Working Group (SWG). That group developed a draft specification which was submitted to the OASIS Emergency Management Technical Committee to begin work on this EDXL-RM specification. The process remained the same as with the EDXL-DE specification with the exception that the Technical Committee requested that the initial candidate specification submitted by the expert group be recast as a formal Requirements Document according to a template that the Technical Committee provided to the expert group. The candidate specification was then resubmitted along with this requested requirements document. == EDXL-HAVE (Hospital Availability Exchange) == === Overview === EDXL-HAVE (Hospital Availability Exchange)http://docs.oasis-open.org/emergency/edxl- have/pr03/emergency_edxl_have-1.0-spec-pr03.html OASIS Standard, which allows a hospital's status, services, and resources (including bed capacity, emergency department status, and available service coverage) to be communicated. === Purpose === EDXL-HAVE specifies an XML document format that allows the communication of the status of a hospital, its services, and its resources. These include bed capacity and availability, emergency department status, available service coverage, and the status of a hospital’s facility and operations. === History === In a disaster or emergency situation, there is a need for hospitals to be able to communicate with each other, and with other members of the emergency response community. The ability to exchange data in regard to hospitals’ bed availability, status, services, and capacity enables both hospitals and other emergency agencies to respond to emergencies and disaster situations with greater efficiency and speed. In particular, it will allow emergency dispatchers and managers to make sound logistics decisions - where to route victims, which hospitals have the ability to provide the needed service. Many hospitals have expressed the need for, and indeed are currently using, commercial or self-developed information technology that allows them to publish this information to other hospitals in a region, as well as EOCs, 9-1-1 centers, and EMS responders via a Web-based tool. Systems that are available today do not record or present data in a standardized format, creating a serious barrier to data sharing between hospitals and emergency response groups. Without data standards, parties of various kinds are unable to view data from hospitals in a state or region that use a different system – unless a specialized interface is developed. Alternatively, such officials must get special passwords and toggle between web pages to get a full picture. Other local emergency responders are unable to get the data imported into the emergency IT tools they use (e.g. a 9-1-1 computer-aided dispatch system or an EOC consequence information management system). They too must get a pass word and go to the appropriate web page. This is very inefficient. A uniform data standard will allow different applications and systems to communicate seamlessly. In 2013 the OASIS EM Technical Committee created a sub-committee to revise HAVE. HAVE version 2.0 is under development with draft schema and working documents in place. HAVE version 2.0 is aimed at addressing some shortfalls of the HAVE v1.0 (and the unofficial HAVE v1.1 that evolved informally) and to increase the depth of support for non-hospital facilities (e.g. urgent care clinics, long-term care facilities, temporary facilities). == Common Alerting Protocol == See (Common Alerting Protocol) OASIS standard preceding EDXL-DE that is often included in the EDXL family. == EDXL-SitRep (Situation Reporting) == === Overview === EDXL-SitRep (Situation Reporting) completed the detailed practitioner requirements process in 2008 and was submitted by EIC and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to OASIS to begin its standards process in March 2009. === Purpose === EDXL-SitRep will provide a standard format for sharing general information across the disparate systems of any public or private organization and Emergency Support Function (ESF), about a situation, incident or event and the operational picture of current and required response. The purpose of EDXL-SitRep is to guide more effective preparation, response, management and recovery through seamless summary-level information-sharing before, during and after emergencies and disasters of any scale. == EDXL-TEP (Tracking of Emergency Patients) == === Overview === EDXL-TEP is an XML messaging standard primarily for exchange of emergency patient and tracking information from patient encounter through hospital admission or release. TEP supports patient tracking across the EMS incident continuum of care, as well as evacuations from hospitals and day to day hospital patient transfers, providing real-time information to responders, emergency management, coordinating organizations and care facilities involved in incidents and the chain of care and transport. The TEP purpose embraces larger Phase II effort objectives for tracking everyone affected by and requiring emergency service or assistance as a result of a mass casualty incident, but is aimed at increased effectiveness of emergency medical services and management, patient tracking, and continued patient care preparedness during emergency care. TEP is driven by cross-profession practitioner needs (Practitioner Steering Group and expanded stakeholder groups), and led by the National Association of State EMS Officials (NASEMSO). It supports select goals of the HHS-Agency for Health and Research Quality (AHRQ) and gaps identified by the Health Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP). == Government support == The U.S. Department of Homeland Security has increasingly embraced the EDXL suite of standards. Official grant guidance requires their use by grantees in information systems funded by the Department. == Related standards == === Customer Information Quality === Customer Information Quality is another OASIS standard that is used in EDXL-RM and EDXL-HAVE. The CIQ set of specifications is for party, person, and organization information. The CIQ TC's objective in producing their specification was for "global" identification and was discovered to include information not applicable to the Emergency Management Domain. In light of this a profile was developed that maintained compliance with the original CIQ specification, but removed items not needed for EDXL. === GeoOASIS Where === The Geography Markup Language (GML) is the XML grammar defined by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) to express geographical features. The EDXL Data Standards implement a profile of the GML standard called "GeoOASIS Where". === National Information Exchange Model === The National Information Exchange Model (NIEM) is an XML-based information exchange framework from the United States. NIEM represents a collaborative partnership of agencies and organizations across all levels of government (federal, state, tribal, and local) and with private industry. EDXL is considered to be NIEM compliant through a set of adapters that are contained within NIEM Core. == IEEE 1512 == A related series of standards sponsored by the United States Department of Transportation and critical to emergency operations. The IEEE 1512 Family of standards are incident management and traffic incident related message sets. They provide incident management message sets common to traffic management, public safety, and hazardous materials incident response activities. ==See also== * EDXL Sharp * Content Assembly Mechanism * Emergency management software * Computer-assisted dispatch == References == Category:XML markup languages Category:Emergency management software
|
thumb|Embassy of Germany in Japan Germany–Japan relations (; ), also referred to as German-Japanese relations, were officially established in 1861 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia (which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866/1870). Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867, often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange. After Japan aligned itself with Britain in 1900, Germany and Japan became enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on the German Empire in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific. In the 1930s, both countries adopted aggressive militaristic attitudes toward their respective regions. This led to a rapprochement and, eventually, a political and military alliance that included Italy known as the Axis Powers. During World War II, however, the alliance was limited by the great distances between the Axis powers; for the most part, Japan and Germany fought separate wars, and eventually surrendered separately. After the Second World War, the economies of both nations experienced rapid recoveries; bilateral relations, now focused on economic issues, were soon re-established. Today, Japan and Germany are, respectively, the third and fourth largest economies in the world, and benefit greatly from many kinds of political, cultural, scientific and economic cooperation. According to a late 2012 Bertelsmann Foundation Poll, the Germans view Japan overwhelmingly positively, and regard that nation as less a competitor and more a partner. The Japanese views of Germany are positive as well, with 97% viewing Germany positively and only 3% viewing Germany negatively. ==History== ===First contacts and end of Japanese isolation (before 1871)=== Relations between Japan and Germany date from the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), when Germans in Dutch service arrived in Japan to work for the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The first well- documented cases are those of the physicians Engelbert Kaempfer (1651–1716) and Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold (1796–1866) in the 1690s and 1820s, respectively. Both accompanied the director of the Dutch trading post at Dejima on the obligatory voyage to Edo to pay tribute to the shōgun. Siebold became the author of Nippon, Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan (Nippon, Archive for the Description of Japan), one of the most valuable sources of information on Japan well into the 20th century;Eberhard Friese: Philipp Franz von Siebold als früher Exponent der Ostasienwissenschaften. = Berliner Beiträge zur sozial- und wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Japan-Forschung Bd. 15. Bochum 1983 since 1979, his achievements have been recognised with an annual German award in his honour, the Philipp Franz von Siebold-Preis, granted to Japanese scientists. Von Siebold's second visit to Japan (1859–1862) became a disaster because he tried to influence Dutch politics in Japan and attempted to obtain a permanent post as a diplomat in that country. In 1854, the United States pressured Japan into the Convention of Kanagawa, which ended Japan's isolation. It was considered an "unequal treaty" by the Japanese public,Bert Edström, Bert. (2000) The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions, p. 101 since the US did not reciprocate most of Japan's concessions with similar privileges. In many cases, Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system, open up ports for trade, and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country. Shortly after the end of Japan's seclusion, in a period called "Bakumatsu" (幕末, "End of the Shogunate"), the first German traders arrived in Japan. In 1860, Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia, a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time. After four months of negotiations, another "unequal treaty", officially dedicated to amity and commerce, was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan.Louis M. Cullen. A History of Japan 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds (2003 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Despite being considered one of the numerous unjust negotiations pressed on Japan during that time, the Eulenburg Expedition, and both the short- and long-term consequences of the treaty of amity and commerce, are today honoured as the beginning of official Japanese-German relations. To commemorate its 150th anniversary, events were held in both Germany and Japan from autumn 2010 through autumn 2011 hoping "to 'raise the treasures of [their] common past' in order to build a bridge to the future."German Consulate General Osaka-Kobe: 150 Years Germany-Japan: Friendship with Future ====Japanese diplomatic mission in Prussia==== In 1863, three years after von Eulenburg's visit in Tokyo, a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin. After the treaty was signed, Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan – first representing Prussia, and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation, and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire.Masako Hiyama: "Max von Brandt (1835–1920)". In: Brückenbauer. Pioniere des japanisch-deutschen Kulturaustausches (Berlin: Iudicium, 2005). In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown and the Empire of Japan under Emperor Meiji was established. With the return of power to the Tennō dynasty, Japan demanded a revocation of the "unequal treaties" with the western powers and a civil war ensued. During the conflict, German weapons trader Henry Schnell counselled and supplied weapons to the daimyō of Nagaoka, a land lord loyal to the Shogunate.Adachi Yoshio 阿達義雄. Kaishō Suneru to Boshin Niigata kōbōsen 怪商スネルと戊辰新潟攻防戦. Niigata: Toyano Shuppan 鳥屋野出版, 1985 One year later, the war ended with the defeat of the Tokugawa and the renegotiation of the "unequal treaties".Donald Keene, Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912 (Columbia UP, 2005). ; p. 142 ===Modernization of Japan and educational exchange (1871–1885)=== With the start of the Meiji period (1868–1912), many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government as so-called "oyatoi gaikokujin" (, "hired foreigners") and contributed to the modernization of Japan, especially in the fields of medicine (Leopold Mueller, 1824–1894; Julius Scriba, 1848–1905; Erwin Bälz, 1849–1913), law (K. F. Hermann Roesler, 1834–1894; Albert Mosse, 1846–1925) and military affairs (K. W. Jacob Meckel, 1842–1906). Meckel had been invited by Japan's government in 1885 as an advisor to the Japanese general staff and as teacher at the Army War College. He spent three years in Japan, working with influential persons (including Katsura Tarō and Kawakami Soroku), thereby decisively contributing to the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army. Meckel left behind a loyal group of Japanese admirers, who, after his death, had a bronze statue of him erected in front of his former army college in Tokyo.The statue was removed in 1945 at the conclusion of World War II. Georg Kerst: Jacob Meckel. Sein Leben, sein Wirken in Deutschland und Japan. Musterschmidt, Göttingen 1970Welch, Claude Emerson. (1976). Civilian Control of the Military: Theory and Cases from Developing Countries Albany: State University of New York Press. , p. 161 Overall, the Imperial Japanese Army intensively oriented its organization along Prusso-German lines when building a modern fighting force during the 1880s. In 1889, the Constitution of the Empire of Japan was promulgated, greatly influenced by German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein, whom the Meiji oligarch and future Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909) visited in Berlin and Vienna in 1882. At the request of the German government, Albert Mosse also met with Hirobumi and his group of government officials and scholars and gave a series of lectures on constitutional law, which helped to convince Hirobumi that the Prussian-style monarchical constitution was best-suited for Japan. In 1886, Mosse was invited to Japan on a three-year contract as "hired foreigner" to the Japanese government to assist Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi in drafting the Meiji Constitution. He later worked on other important legal drafts, international agreements, and contracts and served as a cabinet advisor in the Home Ministry, assisting Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo in establishing the draft laws and systems for local government.Sims, Richard. Japanese Political History Since the Meiji Renovation 1868–2000. Palgrave Macmillan. Dozens of Japanese students and military officers also went to Germany in the late 19th century, to study the German military system and receive military training at German army educational facilities and within the ranks of the German, mostly the Prussian army. For example, later famous writer Mori Rintarô (Mori Ōgai), who originally was an army doctor, received tutoring in the German language between 1872 and 1874, which was the primary language for medical education at the time. From 1884 to 1888, Ōgai visited Germany and developed an interest in European literature producing the first translations of the works of Goethe, Schiller, and Gerhart Hauptmann.Mori Ôgai. A Bibliography of Western-Language Materials. Compiled by Harald Salomon. Incorporating the Findings of Rosa Wunner in Japonica Humboldtiana 2 (1998), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2008. 178 S., 1 Abb. (Izumi 10) ===Cooling of relations and World War I (1885–1920)=== At the end of the 19th century, Japanese–German relations cooled due to Germany's, and in general Europe's, imperialist aspirations in East Asia. After the conclusion of the First Sino-Japanese War in April 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, which included several territorial cessions from China to Japan, most importantly Taiwan and the eastern portion of the bay of the Liaodong Peninsula including Port Arthur. However, Russia, France and Germany grew wary of an ever-expanding Japanese sphere of influence and wanted to take advantage of China's bad situation by expanding their own colonial possessions instead. The frictions culminated in the so-called "Triple Intervention" on 23 April 1895, when the three powers "urged" Japan to refrain from acquiring its awarded possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula.Kajima, Morinosuke. The Diplomacy of Japan, 1894–1922, Tokyo, 1976Yellow Peril, Collection of Historical Sources, in 5 vols., edited by Yorimitsu Hashimoto, Tokyo: Edition Synapse. Another stress test for German–Japanese relations was the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/05, during which Germany strongly supported Russia. This circumstance triggered the Japanese foreign ministry to proclaim that any ship delivering coal to Russian vessels within the war zone would be sunk.Barbara Vogel: Deutsche Rußlandpolitik. 1973 After the Russo-Japanese War, Germany insisted on reciprocity in the exchange of military officers and students, and in the following years, several German military officers were sent to Japan to study the Japanese military, which, after its victory over the tsarist army became a promising organization to study. However, Japan's growing power and influence also caused increased distrust on the German side. The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German–Japanese relations had truly deteriorated. On 7 August 1914, only three days after Britain declared war on the German Empire, the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters. Japan, eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South-East Asia, especially on China's coast, sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914, which was left unanswered. Japan then formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain, France and Russia to seize the German-held Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands in the Pacific. The only major battle that took place between Japan and Germany was the siege of the German- controlled Chinese port of Tsingtao in Kiautschou Bay. The German forces held out from August until November 1914, under a total Japanese/British blockade, sustained artillery barrages and manpower odds of 6:1 – a fact that gave a morale boost during the siege as well as later in defeat. After Japanese troops stormed the city, the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp.Schultz-Naumann, p. 207. The Naruto camp orchestra (enlarged from the band of the III. Seebatallion) gave Beethoven and Bach concerts throughout Japan wearing their uniforms In 1919, when Germany formally signed the Treaty of Versailles, all prisoners of war were set free and most returned to Europe. Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany. In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the Palau Islands) and Kiautschou/Tsingtao in China.Louis (1967), pp. 117–130 Article 156 of the Treaty also transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to the Republic of China, an issue soon to be known as Shandong Problem. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations, and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement influenced China not to sign the treaty. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921. This fact greatly contributed to Germany relying on China, and not Japan, as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years.Sun Yat-sen. The International Development of China page 298. China Cultural Service, Taipei, 1953 ===Rapprochement, Axis and World War II (1920–1945)=== ====Reestablishment of relations and Sino-Japanese dilemma==== thumb|150px|As German ambassador in Tokyo from 1920 to 1928, Wilhelm Solf initiated the re- establishment of good German–Japanese relations. After Germany had to cede most of its Pacific and Asian possessions to Japan and with an intensifying Sino-German cooperation, relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead. Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf, who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928, cultural exchange was strengthened again. A cultural agreement was signed in 1926 that led to the re-establishment of the "German- Japanese Society" (1926), the founding of the "Japan Institute" in Berlin (1926), the establishment of the "Japanese-German Cultural Society" in Tokyo (1927), and later also the incorporation of the "Japanese-German Research Institute" in Kyoto (1934).Masako Hiyama: "Wilhelm Solf (1862–1936)". In: Brückenbauer. Pioniere des japanisch-deutschen Kulturaustausches. Hg. vom Japanisch-Deutschen Zentrum Berlin und der Japanisch-Deutschen Gesellschaft Tokyo. Iudicium, Berlin 2005. Saaler, Sven Mutual Perceptions and Images in Japanese-German Relations, 1860–2010, Brill's Japanese Studies Library, 2015, volume 59, page 47. Both, France and Germany, were also very attractive for Japanese wanting to study abroad, as both countries kept their currencies undervalued in the 1920s. As German universities were considered superior to their French counterparts, 80% of Japanese students going abroad thus chose Germany.Hotta, Eri Pan-Asianism and Japan's War 1931–1945, London: Palgrave, 2007 page 170. In fact, many of the men who emerged as leaders of the Pan-Asia movement in Japan in the 1930s studied at German universities in the 1920s, which led the Japanese historian Hotta Eri to note there was a strong German influence on the discourse of Japanese Pan-Asianism. On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler assumed power in Germany, abolishing the democratic system of the Weimar Republic within the first two months of its reign. This political turning point proved to be far-reaching for the relations between Germany and Japan. In spring and again in fall of 1933, German-Japanese relations were damaged, when the Sturmabteilung (SA), a para- military branch of the NSDAP, took to beating up Asians studying at German universities. Japanese and Chinese officials complained about "Yellow Peril" propaganda in German newspapers, reports of German plans to ban interracial relationships, and ongoing violence against Asian students all over the country. In October 1933, the Japanese government warned its nationals not to visit Germany, saying the country was unsafe for Asians to be in, and in November 1933, the Chinese government issued a similar warning to its citizens. German foreign minister and head of the Auswärtiges Amt Konstantin von Neurath persuaded Hitler to stop the SA violence against Asians, pointing out that Chinese head of state Chiang Kai-shek was threatening to expel the German military mission and replace it with a French one. In regards to Japan, Neurath noted it was advantageous to have so many scions of the Japanese elite studying at German universities, arguing that it was an incalculable advantage to Germany in the long run. At this time, however, Germany had much closer relations with China, which purchased an increasing amount of German arms and whose National Revolutionary Army received training by a German military mission. Not only did this happen against Japanese objections, but it also caused the original complaints from China, and not those from Japan, to eventually motivate Berlin's change of attitude. In late 1933-early 1934, another strain was placed on German-Japanese relations when the new German ambassador to Japan and outspoken proponent of German-Japanese partnership, Herbert von Dirksen, backed the appointment of Ferdinand Heye, a member of the Nazi Party and disreputable businessman, the Special German Trade Commissioner for Japan's puppet state Manchukuo in northern China. Berlin's interaction with Manchukuo was delicate, as its official diplomatic recognition by Germany was sought after by Japan, but would greatly damage Sino-German relations. Hitler's interest to keep China as a partner for the time being became obvious, when he disavowed Heye, who had falsely promised German recognition of Manchukuo in order to monopolize German trading in the region under his name. In the summer of 1935, Joachim von Ribbentrop, a German foreign policy official operating independently from the Auswärtiges Amt, together with his friend, the Japanese military attaché to Germany, General Hiroshi Ōshima, planned to relieve Germany of its China-or-Japan-dilemma by promoting an anti- Communist alliance that would unite all three countries together. However, the Auswärtiges Amt under Konstantin von Neurath vetoed this approach, as it deemed trade relations with China too important to be risked by a pact that Chiang Kai-shek was unlikely to join. Around the same time, von Rippentrop negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which caused a temporary deterioration of German-Japanese relations when it was signed in June 1935. At the time, many Japanese politicians, including Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (who was an outspoken critic of an alliance with Nazi Germany), were shockedEdwin P. Hoyt. Yamamoto: The man who planned Pearl Harbor (McGraw-Hill 1990). p. 101 by what was seen as Germany attempting to create an alliance with Great Britain. Nevertheless, the leaders of the military clique then in control in Tokyo concluded that it was a ruse designed to buy the Germans time to match the Royal Navy. After all, Hitler had already laid down his plans in Mein Kampf, in which he identified Britain as a potential ally but also defined Japan as a target of "international Jewry", and thus a nation which Germany could potentially form an alliance with: ====Consolidation of cooperation==== Tokyo's military leaders proceeded to devise plans assuring the Empire's supply with resources by eventually creating a "Greater East Asia Co- Prosperity Sphere". In general, further expansion was envisioned – either northwards, attacking the Soviet Union, a plan which was called Hokushin-ron, or by seizing French, Dutch and/or British colonies to the south, a concept dubbed Nanshin-ron.Peter Tsouras: "Rising Sun Victorious", Lionel Leventhal Limited 2001, . Hitler, on the other hand, never desisted from his plan to conquer new territories in Eastern Europe for Lebensraum; thus, conflicts with Poland and later with the Soviet Union seemed inevitable. The first legal consolidation of German-Japanese mutual interests occurred in 1936, when the two countries signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which was directed against the Communist International (Comintern) in general and the Soviet Union in particular. After the signing, Nazi Germany's government also included the Japanese people in their concept of "honorary Aryans". Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu then attended the 1937 Nuremberg Rally in Germany and met Adolf Hitler, with whom he tried to boost personal relations.Princess Chichibu, The Silver Drum, Global Oriental, 1996, p.137 Fascist Italy, led by Benito Mussolini joined the Anti-Comintern Pact the same year, thereby taking the first steps towards the formation of the so-called Axis between Rome, Berlin, and Tokyo. Originally, Germany had a very close relationship with the Chinese nationalist government, even providing military aid and assistance to the Republic of China. Relations soured after the outbreak of the Second Sino- Japanese War on 7 July 1937, and when China shortly thereafter concluded the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding the superior Sino-German economic relationship, Hitler concluded that Japan would be a more reliable geostrategic partner and chose to end his alliance with the Chinese as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and militarily powerful Japan.Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China In a May 1938 address to the Reichstag, Hitler announced German recognition of Japan's puppet state Manchukuo and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific now held by the Japanese Empire. Hitler ordered the end of arm shipments to China, as well as the recall of all German officers attached to the Chinese Army. Despite this move, however, Hitler retained his general perception of neither the Japanese nor the Chinese civilizations being inferior to the German one. In The Testament of Adolf Hitler, he wrote: > Pride in one's own race – and that does not imply contempt for other races – > is also a normal and healthy sentiment. I have never regarded the Chinese or > the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves. They belong to ancient > civilizations, and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our > own. They have the right to be proud of their past, just as we have the > right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong. Indeed, I believe > the more steadfast the Chinese and the Japanese remain in their pride of > race, the easier I shall find it to get on with them. Adolf Hitler, (13 > February 1945) "V – 13th February 1945" in Fraser, L. Craig (ed.) The > Testament of Adolf Hitler: The Hitler-Bormann Documents, February–April 1945 > Boring, Oregon: CPA Book Publishers. p.26 The relations between Japan and Germany continued to grow closer during the late 1930s and several cultural exchanges took place, albeit motivated by political and propaganda reasons. A focus was put on youth exchanges, and numerous mutual visits were conducted; for instance, in late 1938, the ship Gneisenau carried a delegation of 30 members of the Hitlerjugend to Tokyo for a study visit. In 1938, representative measures for embracing the German- Japanese partnership were sought and the construction of a new Japanese embassy building in Berlin was started. After the preceding embassy had to give way to Hitler's and Albert Speer's plans of re-modeling Berlin to the world capital city of Germania, a new and more pompous building was erected in a newly established diplomatic district next to the Tiergarten. It was conceived by Ludwig Moshamer under the supervision of Speer and was placed opposite the Italian embassy, thereby bestowing an architectural emphasis on the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis.Derek Fraser: Berlin. The Buildings of Europe. Manchester University Press ND, 1996, , S. 53Matthias Donath: Architektur in Berlin 1933–1945, herausgegeben vom Landesdenkmalamt Berlin. Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2007, S. 101. File:Hitlerjugend Nijūbashi Edo Castle Hirohito Emperor Shōwa 1938.jpg|Hitlerjugend in Nijūbashi Edo Castle holding a symbolic greeting ceremony for Emperor Shōwa. File:Hitlerjugend meeting with Japanese leaders 1938.jpg|The Hitlerjugend meeting with Japanese leader Prince Fumimaro Konoe, August 1938. File:Japanese young ladies stage show for Hitlerjugend 1938.jpg|Female members of the Nichigeki dancing team welcoming the Hitlerjugend at Nichigeki Music Hall in Tokyo. Although tentative plans for a joint German-Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact, the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan's decision to not expand northward (i.e., against the USSR) but to the south. The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets, the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol, thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army, lacking heavy tanks and the like, would be in no position to challenge the Soviet Army at that time. Nevertheless, Hitler's anti-Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan, since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union, either actively by invading southeast Siberia, or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army, which was fearing an attack of Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo, numbering ca. 700,000 men as of the late 1930s. In contrast to his actual plans, Hitler's concept of stalling – in combination with his frustration with a Japan embroiled in seemingly endless negotiations with the United States, and tending against a war with the USSRJohn Costello: "The Pacific War 1941–1945, Harper-Perennial, New York 1982" – led to a temporary cooperation with the Soviets in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which was signed in August 1939. Neither Japan nor Italy had been informed beforehand of Germany's pact with the Soviets, demonstrating the constant subliminal mistrust between Nazi Germany and its partners. After all, the pact not only stipulated the division of Poland and Baltic states between both signatories in a secret protocol, but also rendered the Anti-Comintern Pact more or less irrelevant. In order to remove the strain that Hitler's move had put on German–Japanese relations, the "Agreement for Cultural Cooperation between Japan and Germany" was signed in November 1939, only a few weeks after Germany and the Soviet Union had concluded their invasion of Poland and Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. Over the following year, Japan also proceeded with its expansion plans. The Invasion of northern French Indochina on 22 September 1940 (which by then was controlled by the collaborating government of Vichy France), and Japan's ongoing bloody conflict with China, put a severe strain on Japan–United States relations. On 26 July 1940, the United States had passed the Export Control Act, cutting oil, iron and steel exports to Japan.Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War. History Today. Dec. 2000 This containment policy was Washington's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions. However, such US moves were interpreted by Japan's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire's situation, thereby driving Japan closer to Germany.Jäckel, Eberhard: Hitler in History. ====Formation of the Axis==== With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France, but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat,Nekrich, Ulam & Freeze 1997, p. 192 Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies. Japan's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to be exploited and subsequently started to seek even closer cooperation with Berlin. Hitler, for his part, not only feared a lasting stalemate with Britain, but also had started planning an invasion of the Soviet Union. These circumstances, together with a shortage in raw materials and food,Ericson, Edward E. (1999), Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 138, increased Berlin's interest in a stronger alliance with Japan. German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was sent to negotiate a new treaty with Japan, whose relationships with Germany and Italy, the three soon to be called "Axis powers", were cemented with the Tripartite Pact of 27 September 1940. The purpose of the Pact, directed against an unnamed power presumed to be the United States, was to deter that power from supporting Britain, thereby not only strengthening Germany's and Italy's cause in the North African Campaign and the Mediterranean theatre, but also weakening British colonies in South-East Asia in advance of a Japanese invasion. The treaty stated that the three countries would respect each other's "leadership" in their respective spheres of influence, and would assist each other if attacked by an outside party. However, already-ongoing conflicts, as of the signing of the Pact, were explicitly excluded. With this defensive terminology, aggression on the part of a member state toward a non- member state would result in no obligations under the Pact. These limitations can be interpreted as a symptom of the German-Japanese relations of that time being driven by mutual self-interest, underpinned by the shared militarist, expansionist and nationalistic ideologies of their respective governments. thumb|upright|The Japanese embassy in Berlin, clad in the banners of the three signatories of the Tripartite Pact in September 1940 Another decisive limitation in the German-Japanese alliance were the fundamental differences between the two nation's policies towards Jews. With Nazi Germany's well-known attitude being extreme Antisemitism, Japan refrained from adopting any similar posture. On 31 December 1940, Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka, a strong proponent of the Tripartite Pact, told a group of Jewish businessmen: On a similar note, both countries would continue to conceal any war crimes committed by the other side for the remainder of the war. The Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo, just as Japanese war crimes, e.g. the situation in China, were kept secret from the German public.Martin, Bernd and Gerhard Krebs (Hg.). (1994) Formierung und Fall der Achse Berlin-Tôkyô. München: Iudicium An example would be the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in Nanking in 1937, which were denounced by German industrialist John Rabe. Subsequently, the German leadership ordered Rabe back to Berlin, confiscating all his reports and prohibiting any further discussion of the topic.Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe Nevertheless, after the signing of the Tripartite Pact, mutual visits of political and military nature increased. After German ace and parachute expert Ernst Udet visited Japan in 1939 to inspect the Japanese aerial forces, reporting to Hermann Göring that "Japanese flyers, though brave and willing, are no sky-beaters", General Tomoyuki Yamashita was given the job of reorganizing the Japanese Air Arm in late 1940. For this purpose, Yamashita arrived in Berlin in January 1941, staying almost six months. He inspected the broken Maginot Line and German fortifications on the French coast, watched German flyers in training, and even flew in a raid over Britain after decorating Hermann Göring, head of the German Luftwaffe, with the Japanese "Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun". General Yamashita also met and talked with Hitler, on whom he commented, According to Yamashita, Hitler promised to remember Japan in his will, by instructing the Germans "to bind themselves eternally to the Japanese spirit." On 11 November 1940, German–Japanese relations, as well as Japan's plans to expand southwards into South-East Asia, were decisively bolstered when the crew of the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis boarded the British cargo ship . Fifteen bags of Top Secret mail for the British Far East Command were found, including naval intelligence reports containing the latest assessment of the Japanese Empire's military strength in the Far East, along with details of Royal Air Force units, naval strength, and notes on Singapore's defences. It painted a gloomy picture of British land and naval capabilities in the Far East, and declared that Britain was too weak to risk war with Japan. The mail reached the German embassy in Tokyo on 5 December, and was then hand-carried to Berlin via the Trans-Siberian railway. On the initiative of the German naval attaché Paul Wenneker, a copy was given to the Japanese; it provided valuable intelligence prior to their commencing hostilities against the Western Powers. The captain of the Atlantis, Bernhard Rogge, was rewarded for this with an ornate katana Samurai sword; the only other Germans honored in this manner were Hermann Göring and Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. After reading the captured documents, on 7 January 1941 Japanese Admiral Yamamoto wrote to the Naval Minister asking whether, if Japan knocked out America, the remaining British and Dutch forces would be suitably weakened for the Japanese to deliver a deathblow. Thereby, Nanshin-ron, the concept of the Japanese Navy conducting a southern campaign quickly matured and gained further proponents.Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental. (cloth) reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007 – previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation ====Stalling coordination of joint war plans==== Hitler, on the other hand, was concluding the preparations for "Operation Barbarossa", the invasion of the Soviet Union. In order to directly or indirectly support his imminent eastward strike, the Führer had repeatedly suggested to Japan that it reconsider plans for an attack on the Soviet Far East throughout 1940 and 1941. In February 1941, as a result of Hitler's insistence, General Oshima returned to Berlin as ambassador. On 5 March 1941, Wilhelm Keitel, chief of OKW issued "Basic Order Number 24 regarding Collaboration with Japan": On 18 March 1941, at a conference attended by Hitler, Alfred Jodl, Wilhelm Keitel and Erich Raeder, Admiral Raeder stated: In talks involving Hitler, his foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, his Japanese counterpart at that time, Yōsuke Matsuoka, as well as Berlin's and Tokyo's respective ambassadors, Eugen Ott and Hiroshi Ōshima, the German side then broadly hinted at, but never openly asked for, either invading the Soviet Union from the east or attacking Britain's colonies in South-East Asia, thereby preoccupying and diverting the British Empire away from Europe and thus somewhat covering Germany's back. Although Germany would have clearly favored Japan's attacking the USSR, exchanges between the two allies were always kept overly formal and indirect, as shown in the following statement by Hitler to ambassador Ōshima (2 June 1941): Matsuoka, Ōshima and parts of the Japanese Imperial Army were proponents of Hokushin-ron, Japan's go-north strategy aiming for a coordinated attack with Germany against the USSR and seizing East Siberia. But the Japanese army-dominated military leadership, namely persons like minister of war Hideki Tōjō, were constantly pressured by the Japanese Imperial Navy and, thus, a strong tendency towards Nanshin-ron existed already in 1940, meaning to go south and exploit the weakened European powers by occupying their resource-rich colonies in South-East Asia. In order to secure Japan's back while expanding southwards and as a Soviet effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed in Moscow on 13 April 1941 by Matsuoka on his return trip from a visit to Berlin. Joseph Stalin had little faith in Japan's commitment to neutrality, but he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism, to reinforce a public affection for Germany. Hitler, who was not informed in advance by the Japanese and considering the pact a ruse to stall, misinterpreted the diplomatic situation and thought that his attack on the USSR would bring a tremendous relief for Japan in East Asia and thereby a much stronger threat to American activities through Japanese interventions. As a consequence, Nazi Germany pressed forward with Operation Barbarossa, its attack on the Soviet Union, which started two months later on 22 June without any specific warning to its Axis partners. From Japan's point of view the attack on Russia very nearly ruptured the Tripartite Pact, since the Empire had been depending on Germany to help in maintaining good relations with Moscow so as to preclude any threat from Siberia. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe felt betrayed because the Germans clearly trusted their Axis allies too little to warn them about Barbarossa, even though he had feared the worst since receiving an April report from Ōshima in Berlin that "Germany is confident she can defeat Russia and she is preparing to fight at any moment." Foreign minister Matsuoka on the other hand vividly tried to convince the Emperor, the cabinet as well as the army staff of an immediate attack on the Soviet Union. However, his colleagues rejected any such proposal, even regarding him as "Hitler's office boy" by now and pointed out to the fact that the Japanese army, with its light and medium tanks, had no intention of taking on Soviet tanks and aircraft until they could be certain that the Wehrmacht had smashed the Red Army to the brink of defeat. Subsequently, Konoe removed Matsuoka from his cabinet and stepped up Japan's negotiations with the US again, which still failed over the China and Indochina issues, however, and the American demand to Japan to withdraw from the Tripartite Pact in anticipation of any settlement. Without any perspective with respect to Washington, Matsuoka felt that his government had to reassure Germany of its loyalty to the pact. In Berlin, Ōshima was ordered to convey to the German foreign minister Ribbentrop that the "Japanese government have decided to secure 'points d'appui' in French Indochina [i.e., also occupy its southern half] to enable further to strengthen her pressure on Great Britain and the United States of America", and to present this as a "valuable contribution to the common front" by promising that "We Japanese are not going to sit on the fence while you Germans fight the Russians." Over the first months, Germany's advances in Soviet Russia were spectacular and Stalin's need to transfer troops currently protecting South-East Siberia from a potential Japanese attack to the future defense of Moscow grew. Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo was constantly kept in manoeuvres and, in talks with German foreign minister Ribbentrop, ambassador Oshima in Berlin repeatedly hinted at an "imminent Japanese attack" against the USSR. In fact, however, the leadership in Tokyo at this time had in no way changed its mind and these actions were merely concerted to create the illusion of an eastern threat to the Soviet Union in an effort to bind its Siberian divisions.Bernd Martin Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940–1945, Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation. Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2001 Unknown to Japan and Germany, however, Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy disguised as a German journalist working for Eugen Ott, the German ambassador in Tokyo, advised the Red Army on 14 September 1941, that the Japanese were not going to attack the Soviet Union until: *Moscow was captured *the size of the Kwantung Army was three times that of the Soviet Union's Far Eastern forces *a civil war had started in Siberia.Prange, Gordon W. Gordon Prange with Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon Target Tokyo The Story of the Sorge Spy Ring. New York: McGraw-Hill 1984. Toward the end of September 1941, Sorge transmitted information that Japan would not initiate hostilities against the USSR in the East, thereby freeing Red Army divisions stationed in Siberia for the defence of Moscow. In October 1941 Sorge was unmasked and arrested by the Japanese. Apparently, he was entirely trusted by the German ambassador Eugen Ott, and was allowed access to top secret cables from Berlin in the embassy in Tokyo. Eventually, this involvement would lead to Heinrich Georg Stahmer replacing Ott in January 1943. Sorge on the other hand would be executed in November 1944 and elevated to a national hero in the Soviet Union.Bernd Martin Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940–1945, Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation. Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2001, pp. 122–136 ====Japan enters World War II==== In September 1941, Japan began its southward expansion by expanding its military presence to southern Indochina ("securing 'points d'appui'") and decisively increased the number of stationed personnel and planes. This provoked the United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets, while the US (which supplied 80 percent of Japan's oilIrvine H. Anderson, Jr. De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 2 (May 1975), p. 201) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire.Northrup, Cynthia Clark. The American economy: a historical encyclopedia, p. 214 As a result, Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South-East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force. The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan's humiliating defeat in 1939 at the Battle of Khalkin Gol against General Georgy Zhukov amongst others and the final rejection of any near-term action in Siberia shortly after Germany began its invasion of the USSR. Moreover, many officers considered America's oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.Lightbody, Bradley. The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis, p. 125 With the harsh oil sanctions imposed by the United States, the Japanese leadership was now even more determined to remain in China. Germany had refused to sell Japan the blueprints to make synthetic fuel, so Japan's only hope for oil was to invade the Dutch East Indies, which would result in war with the United States and Britain. To succeed the Japanese had to neutralize the powerful United States Pacific Fleet, so they could prevent it from interfering with future Japanese movements in South-East Asia and negotiate peace terms from a strong hand.Peattie, Mark R.; Evans, David C. (1997), Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, Naval Institute Press, Hitler and Ribbentrop agreed that Germany would almost certainly declare war when the Japanese first informed them of their intention to go to war with the United States on 17 November 1941.Longerich, Peter Hitler: A Life (2019) p. 784 On 25 November 1941, Germany tried to further solidify the alliance against Soviet Russia by officially reviving the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936, now joined by additional signatories, Hungary and Romania.Edmund Osmańczyk, Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements (2002) p. 104 However, for several reasons including logistics and Soviet defenses being reinforced by East Siberian divisions, Germany's offensive on Moscow ground to a halt with the onset of the Russian winter in November and December 1941. In the face of his failing Blitzkrieg tactics, Hitler's confidence in a successful and swift conclusion of the war diminished, especially with a US-supported Britain being a constant threat in the Reich's western front. Furthermore, it was evident that the "neutrality" which the US had superficially maintained to that point would soon change to an open and unlimited support of Britain against Germany. Hitler thus welcomed Japan's sudden entry into the war with its air raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and its subsequent declaration of war on the United States and Britain, just two days after the Soviet Union started to push the Germans away from Moscow with a successful counter-offensive led by General Zhukov, who had already defeated the Japanese at Khalkhin Gol in 1939. Upon learning of Japan's successful attack, Hitler even became euphoric, stating: "With such a capable ally we cannot lose this war."John Toland: Adolf Hitler. Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach 1977, Preceding Japan's attack were numerous communiqués between Berlin and Tokyo. The respective ambassadors Ott and Ōshima tried to draft an amendment to the Tripartite Pact, in which Germany, Japan and Italy should pledge each other's allegiance in the case one signatory is attacked by – or attacks – the United States. Although the protocol was finished in time, it would not be formally signed by Germany until four days after the raid on Pearl Harbor. Also among the communiqués was another definitive Japanese rejection of any war plans against Russia: Nevertheless, publicly the German leadership applauded their new ally and ambassador Ōshima became one of only eight recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold, which was awarded by Hitler himself, who reportedly said: Although the amendment to the Tripartite Pact was not yet in force, Hitler chose to declare war on the United States and ordered the Reichstag, along with Italy, to do so on 11 December 1941, three days after the United States' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Roosevelt's "shoot on sight" order had effectively declared naval war on Germany and Italy in September 1941,Burns, James MacGregor (1970). Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. hdl:2027/heb.00626. . p. 141-42 and Germany had learned of Rainbow Five in early December. Hitler could no longer ignore the amount of economic and military aid the US was giving Britain and the USSR. Hitler's hopes that, despite the previous rejections, Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union, were not realized, as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south, not north, and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union. Nazi Conspiracy & Aggression Volume I Chapter IX – Collaboration with Italy & Japan: Aggressive War Against the United States, November 1936 to December 1941 (Part 10 of 12) Nevertheless, Germany's declaration of war further solidified German–Japanese relations and showed Germany's solidarity with Japan, which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British. To some degree, Japan's actions in South- East Asia and the Pacific in the months after Pearl Harbor, including the sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse, the occupation of the Crown Colonies of Singapore, Hong Kong, and British Burma, and the raids in the Indian Ocean as well as on Australia, were a tremendous blow to the United Kingdom's war effort and preoccupied the Allies, shifting British (including Australian) and American assets away from the Battle of the Atlantic and the North African Campaign against Germany to Asia and the Pacific against Japan. In this context, sizeable forces of the British Empire were withdrawn from North Africa to the Pacific theatre with their replacements being only relatively inexperienced and thinly spread divisions. Taking advantage of this situation, Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps successfully attacked only six weeks after Pearl Harbor, eventually pushing the allied lines as far east as El Alamein. Until the attack on the Soviet Union, Germany and Japan were able to exchange materials and personnel using the Trans-Siberian Railway. Afterwards, IJN submarines had to be sent on so-called Yanagi (Willow) – missions,Felton Mark (2005). Yanagi: The Secret Underwater Trade between Germany and Japan 1942–1945, Leo Cooper Ltd since the American and British navies rendered the high seas too dangerous for Axis surface cargo ships. However, given the limited capacities of submarines, eyes were soon focused directly on the Mediterranean, the Middle East and British India, all vital to the British war effort. In the long run, Germany and Japan envisioned a partnered linkage running across the British-held Indian subcontinent that would allow for the transfer of weaponry and resources as well as potential joint military operations. After all, the choice of potential trading partners was very limited during the war and Germany was anxious for rubber and precious metals, while the Japanese sought industrial products, technical equipment, and chemical goods. By August 1942 the German advances in North Africa rendered an offensive against Alexandria and the Suez Canal feasible, which, in turn, had the potential of enabling maritime trade between Europe and Japan through the Indian Ocean. On the other hand, in the face of its defeat at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 with the loss of four aircraft carriers, the Japanese Navy decided to pursue all possibilities of gaining additional resources to quickly rebuild its forces. As a consequence, Ambassador Ōshima in Berlin was ordered to submit an extensive "wish list" requesting the purchase of vast amounts of steel and aluminium to be shipped from Germany to Japan. German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop quickly dismissed Tokyo's proposal, since those resources were vital for Germany's own industry. However, in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German-Japanese trade treaty, which should also secure the rights of German companies in South-East Asia, he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands. It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark-Yen-exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory, the Italian government, until the "Treaty on Economic Cooperation" was signed on 20 January 1943. Despite this treaty, the envisioned German-Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status. The British kept control of the Suez Canal and submarines with very small cargo capability remained the main method of contact. With the loss of North Africa and the heavy defeat at Stalingrad, Germany was in a defensive posture by early 1943, and never regained the initiative. Japan was being outproduced in carriers and was unable to launch any offensives after its defeat at Midway in June 1942. It was overextended and could not even feed its garrisons on islands across the Pacific. Tokyo's plan of conquering the Solomons at Australia's doorstep turned into a continuous retreat for the Japanese of which the defeat on Guadalcanal in early 1943 marked the beginning. Japan's invasion of India had been halted at Imphal and Kohima, rendering impossible any joint operations against India. With submarines remaining practically the only link between Nazi-controlled Europe and Japan, trade was soon focused on strategic goods such as technical plans and weapon templates. Only 20–40% of goods managed to reach either destination and merely 96 persons travelled by submarine from Europe to Japan and 89 vice versa during the war as only six submarines succeeded in their attempts of the trans-oceanic voyage: (August 1942), delivering drawings and examples of the torpedo bomber-deployed, aerial Type 91 torpedo used in the Attack on Pearl Harbor, (June 1943), (October 1943), (December 1943), (March 1944), and the (August 1943). Before I-29 embarked on her voyage to German- occupied France in December 1943, she had rendezvoused with the during an earlier mission to the Indian Ocean. During this meeting on 28 April 1943, Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose transferred to I-29, thereby becoming the only civilian exchange between two submarines of two different navies in World War II. on the other hand is one of the most popular examples of an aborted Yanagi mission in May 1945. Amongst others, her cargo included examples of the newest electric torpedoes, one crated Me 262 jet aircraft, a Henschel Hs 293 glide bomb, and 560 kg of uranium oxide. Whether the uranium was weapons-grade material has not yet been clarified, however. On rare occasions, German surface ships were able to reach Japan as well. These included auxiliary cruisers Michel and Thor, which were brought to Yokohama after the Kriegsmarine chiefs realized in late 1942 that it would not be practical for them to return to Germany-controlled European ports. German supply ships (Uckermark) and foreign ships captured by German merchant raiders would come to Japanese ports as well. In the face of their failing war plans, Japanese and German representatives more and more began to deceive each other at tactical briefings by exaggerating minor victories and deemphasizing losses. In several talks in spring and summer 1943 between Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and the Japanese naval attaché in Berlin, Vice Admiral Naokuni Nomura, Jodl downplayed the afore described defeats of the German Army, e.g. by claiming the Soviet offensive would soon run out of steam and that "anywhere the Wehrmacht can be sent on land, it is sure of its untertaking, but where it has to be taken over sea, it becomes somewhat more difficult."Bernd Martin Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940–1945, Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation. Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2001, p. 270-281 Japan, on the other hand, not only evaded any disclosure of its true strategic position in the Pacific, but also declined any interference in American shipments being unloaded at Vladivostok and large numbers of men and amounts of material being transported from East Siberia to the German front in the west. Being forced to watch the continued reinforcement of Soviet troops from the east without any Japanese intervention was a thorn in Hitler's flesh, especially considering Japan's apparent ignorance with respect to the recent Casablanca Conference at which the Allies declared only to accept the unconditional surrenders of the Axis nations. During a private briefing on 5 March 1943, Hitler remarked: As the war progressed and Germany began to retreat further, Japanese ambassador Ōshima never wavered in his confidence that Germany would emerge victorious. However, in March 1945 he reported to Tokyo on the "danger of Berlin becoming a battlefield" and revealing a fear "that the abandonment of Berlin may take place another month". On 13 April, he met with Ribbentrop – for the last time, it turned out – and vowed to stand with the leaders of the Third Reich in their hour of crisis but had to leave Berlin at once by Hitler's direct order. On 7 and 8 May 1945, as the German government surrendered to the Allied powers, Ōshima and his staff were taken into custody and brought to the United States. Now fighting an even more hopeless war, the Japanese government immediately denounced the German surrender as an act of treason and interned the few German individuals as well as confiscated all German property (such as submarines) in Japanese territory at the time. Four months later, on 2 September, Japan had to sign its own surrender documents. ====Alleged German- Japanese long-term conspiracy==== After the Second World War was officially concluded with the capitulation of the Empire of Japan, plans for trying the major German and Japanese war criminals were quickly implemented in 1946. While Japanese officials had to face the Tokyo Trials, major German war crimes were dealt with at the Nuremberg Trials. Here it was the goal of the Allied prosecutors to portray the limited cooperation between the Third Reich and Imperial Japan as a long-planned conspiracy to divide the world among the two Axis-partners and thereby delivering just another demonstration of the common viciousness expressed by alleged joint long-term war plans. Although there was a limited and cautious military cooperation between Japan and Germany during the Second World War, no documents corroborating any long-term planning or real coordination of military operations of both powers exist.Bernd Martin Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940–1945, Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation. Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2001, p. envelope text ===Post-WWII developments=== ====Rebuilding relations and new common interests==== After their defeat in World War II, both Japan and Germany were occupied. Japan regained its sovereignty with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and joined the United Nations in 1956. Germany was split into two states. It was agreed in 1951 to take up diplomatic relations between Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). The bilateral diplomatic ties between West Germany and Japan were fully restored in 1955; between East Germany and Japan in 1973, the year both German states became UN-members. Beginning in the 1950s, Japanese companies sought to acquire needed raw materials like steel and chemical products in the West German Ruhr region, with a small Japanese business community in Düsseldorf. In 1969, Japanese Culture Institute opened in Cologne which became a part of Japan Foundation in 1972. This Institute has a library and cinema and also offers a Japanese language course. In 1985, Japanese German center also opened in Berlin at locality of Dahlem due to suggestion between both country leaders Helmut Kohl and Nakasone Yasuhiro. In 1974, West Germany and Japan signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in science and technology, re- intensifying joint scientific endeavours and technological exchange. The accord resulted in numerous projects, generally focused on marine research and geosciences, life sciences and environmental research. Additionally, youth exchange programs were launched, including a "Youth Summit" held annually since 1974. West German-Japanese political dealings were enlarged with both countries taking part in the creation of the so-called Group of Six, or simply "G6", together with the US, the UK, France and Italy in 1975 as a response to the 1973 oil crisis. The G6 was soon expanded by Canada and later Russia, with G6-, G7-, and later G8-, summits being held annually since then. Over the following years, institutions, such as in 1985 the "Japanese–German Center" (JDZB) in Berlin and in 1988 the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ) in Tokyo, were founded to further contribute to the academic and scientific exchange between Japan and West Germany. Around the mid-1980s, West German and Japanese representatives decided to rebuild the old Japanese embassy in Berlin from 1938. Its remains had remained unused after the building was largely destroyed during World War II. In addition to the original complex, several changes and additions were made until 2000, like moving the main entrance to the Hiroshima Street, which was named in honour of the Japanese city, and the creation of a traditional Japanese Garden.Brian Ladd: The Ghosts of Berlin. Confronting German History in the Urban Landscape. University of Chicago Press, 1998, , S. 252.Andrea Schulte-Peevers, Tom Parkinson: Berlin. Mair Dumont DE, 2006, , S. 50. Post-war relations between Japan and both Germanies, as well as with unified Germany since 1990, have generally focused on economic and business questions. Germany, dedicated to free trade, continues to be Japan's largest trading partner within Europe. This general posture is also reflected in the so-called "7 pillars of cooperation" agreed on by Foreign Minister of Japan Yōhei Kōno and Foreign Minister of Germany Joschka Fischer on 30 October 2000: *Pillar 1: Contribution for peace and stability of the international community *Pillar 2: Consolidation of economic and trade relationships, under benefit of globalization impulses. *Pillar 3: Contribution for a solution of global problems and social duties and responsibilities. *Pillar 4: Contribution for the stability in the regions (Korean Peninsula, People's Republic of China, former Yugoslavia, Russia, South Asia, new independent states, Middle East and Gulf region, Middle and South America, East Timor, Africa) *Pillar 5: Further constitution of faithful political relations between Japan and Germany *Pillar 6: Promotion of economic relations *Pillar 7: Promotion of mutual understanding and the cultural relations In 2000, bilateral cultural exchange culminated in the "Japan in Germany" year, which was then followed by the "Germany in Japan" year in 2005/2006. Also in 2005, the annual German Film Festival in Tokyo was brought into being. In 2004, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan, the promotion of economic exchange activities, youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields. ====Current relations==== In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Germany and Japan, being the United Nations' second and third largest funders respectively, demanded a reform of the United Nations Security Council and an increase of the number of its permanent members. For this purpose both nations organized themselves together with Brazil and India to form the so-called "G4 nations". On 21 September 2004, the G4 issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent seats, together with two African countries. This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus. In January 2006, Japan announced that it would not support putting the G4 resolution back on the table and was working on a resolution of its own.Japan Says No to G4 Bid, Global Policy Forum, News24.com, 7 January 2006 Certain inefficiencies with respect to the bilateral cooperation between Germany and Japan were also reflected in 2005, when former Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa wrote in a commemoration to the 20th anniversary of the Japanese-German Center in Berlin that Nevertheless, as of 2008, Japan still was Germany's second largest trading partner in Asia after China. In 2017, German imports from Japan totaled $18 billion and German exports to Japan $23 billion. In 2008, however, Japanese exports and imports to and from the European Union fell by 7.8 and 4.8% after growing by 5.8% in 2007 due to the global financial crisis. Bilateral trade between Germany and Japan also shrank in 2008, with imports from Japan having dropped by 6.6% and German exports to Japan having declined by 5.5%. Despite Japan having remained Germany's principal trading partner in Asia after China in 2008, measured in terms of total German foreign trade, Japan's share of both exports and imports is relatively low and falls well short of the potential between the world's third- and fifth-largest economies. Unaffected by any stagnating German-Japanese trade relations, the Japanese community in Düsseldorf, home to Europe's largest Japantown, is growing again after a decline in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2008, over 8000 Japanese lived in the Düsseldorf area, which features a Japanese school, two kindergartens, three libraries and numerous Japanese clubs. Moreover, over 200 Japanese companies are active in that region, creating over 20,000 jobs.State capital Düsseldorf, press release 08011710_0160 from 21 January 2008 The Japanese community is widely considered a great asset for Düsseldorf. Japanese school also exists in Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich and Japan has a German school in Kobe and Yokohama. On 14 and 15 January 2010, German foreign minister Guido Westerwelle conducted his personal inaugural visit to Japan, focusing the talks with his Japanese counterpart, Katsuya Okada, on both nation's bilateral relations and global issues. Westerwelle emphasized, that and both ministers instructed their Ministries to draw up disarmament initiatives and strategies which Berlin and Tokyo can present to the international community together. Especially with regard to Iran's nuclear program, it was also stressed that Japan and Germany, both technically capable of and yet refraining from possessing any ABC weapons,Tagesspiegel: Ex- Minister: Atomwaffen für Deutschland 27 January 2007 should assume a leading role in realizing a world free of nuclear weapons and that international sanctions are considered to be an appropriate instrument of pressure. Furthermore, Westerwelle and Okada agreed to enhance cooperation in Afghanistan and to step up the stagnating bilateral trade between both countries. The visit was concluded in talks with Japan's Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama, before which the German foreign minister visited the famous Meiji Shrine in the heart of Tokyo. On Friday 11 March 2011, the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the most powerful known earthquake to hit Japan at the time, and one of the five most powerful recorded earthquakes of which Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan." hit Honshu. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami not only devastated wide coastal areas in Miyagi Prefecture but also caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster triggering a widespread permanent evacuation surrounding the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. German chancellor Angela Merkel immediately expressed her deepest sympathy to all those affected and promised Japan any assistance it would call for. As a consequence rescue specialists from the Technisches Hilfswerk as well as a scout team of I.S.A.R. Germany (International Search and Rescue) were sent to Japan, however parts of the German personnel had to be recalled due to radiation danger near the damaged power plant. Furthermore, the German Aerospace Center provided TerraSAR-X- and RapidEye-satellite imagery of the affected area. In the days after the disaster, numerous flowers, candles and paper cranes were placed in front of the Japanese embassy in Berlin by compassionates, including leading German politicians. Though never materialised, additional proposals for aid included sending special units of the German Bundeswehr to Japan, as the German Armed Forces' decontamination equipment is among the most sophisticated in the world. On 2 April 2011, German Foreign Minister Westerwelle visited Tokyo on an Asia voyage, again offering Japan "all help, where it is needed" to recover from the tsunami and subsequent nuclear disaster of the previous month. Westerwelle also emphasised the importance of making progress with a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union in order to accelerate the recovery of the Japanese economy. Together with his German counterpart, Japanese foreign minister Takeaki Matsumoto also addressed potential new fields of cooperation between Tokyo and Berlin with respect to a reform of the United Nations Security Council. ==See also== *Baruto no Gakuen *France–Japan relations *Germany–Japan industrial co-operation before World War II *Germany–South Korea relations *History of Germany *History of Japan *Italy–Japan relations *Japanese people in Germany *Japan–United Kingdom relations *List of German ministers, envoys and ambassadors to Japan *List of Japanese ministers, envoys and ambassadors to Germany *:Category:German expatriates in Japan *Category:Foreign relations of the Empire of Japan (Japanese version) *Category:Foreign relations of the State of Japan (Japanese version) ==References== ==Further reading== ===English=== *Akira, Kudo. (1998) Japanese-German Business Relations: Co-operation and Rivalry in the Interwar Period (Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies) (1998) * Bara, Xavier. "The Kishū Army and the Setting of the Prussian Model in Feudal Japan, 1860–1871". War in History 19.2 (2012): 153–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0968344511432980 *Baskett, Michael (2009). "All Beautiful Fascists?: Axis Film Culture in Imperial Japan" in The Culture of Japanese Fascism, ed. Alan Tansman. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 212–234. * Boyd, Carl. Hitler's Japanese Confidant: General Hiroshi Ōshima and Magic Intelligence, 1941–1945 (University Press of Kansas, 1993) * Burton, Fred, and Freddy Saelens. "The Structure and Characteristics of Japanese Foreign Direct Investment in West Germany". Management International Review (1980): 7–16. online * Cho, Joanne Miyang, Lee M. Roberts, and Christian W. Spang. "German-Japanese Relations from Meiji to Heisei". in Cho et al. eds. Transnational Encounters between Germany and Japan (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2016) pp. 1–15. excerpt * * Katada, Saori N., Hanns Maull and Takashi Inoguchi, eds. Global Governance: Germany and Japan in the International System (2004). * * McLaren, Ian A. Nazi Germany and imperial Japan: The hollow diplomatic alliance (Routledge, 2017), 1930s and World War II. * * Saaler, Sven, Akira Kudo, and Nobuo Tajima, eds. (2017). Mutual Perceptions and Images in Japanese-German Relations, 1860-2010. Leiden: Brill, 2017. * Skya, Walter A. (2004) "Fascist Encounters: German Nazis and Japanese Shintō Ultranationalists". in Japan in the Fascist Era (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) pp. 133–153. * Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich (eds.). (2006) Japanese–German Relations, 1895–1945. War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion (). London: Routledge. excerpt and text search * Yellen, Jeremy A. "Into the Tiger's Den: Japan and the Tripartite Pact, 1940". Journal of Contemporary History 51.3 (2016): 555–576. online ===Other languages=== *Hübner, Stefan (2009) Hitler und Ostasien, 1904 bis 1933. Die Entwicklung von Hitlers Japan- und Chinabild vom Russisch-Japanischen Krieg bis zur "Machtergreifung" [Hitler and East Asia, 1904 to 1933. The Development of Hitler's Image of Japan and China from the Russo-Japanese War to the "Coming to Power"], in OAG-Notizen 9/2009, 22–41. [PDF download] * Ishii, Shiro et al. (ed.): Fast wie mein eigen Vaterland: Briefe aus Japan 1886–1889 [Almost as my own Motherland: Letters from Japan]. München: Iudicium 1995. * Kreiner, Josef (ed.). (1984) Deutschland – Japan. Historische Kontakte [Germany – Japan. Historical Contacts]. Bonn: Bouvier. * Kreiner, Josef (ed.). (1986) Japan und die Mittelmächte im Ersten Weltkrieg und in den zwanziger Jahren [Japan and the Central Powers in World War I and the 1920s]. Bonn: Bouvier. * Kreiner, Josef and Regine Mathias (ed.). (1990) Deutschland–Japan in der Zwischenkriegszeit [Germany – Japan in the inter-war period]. Bonn: Bouvier. * Pantzer, Peter und Saaler, Sven: Japanische Impressionen eines Kaiserlichen Gesandten. Karl von Eisendecher im Japan der Meiji-Zeit/明治初期の日本 － ドイツ外交官アイゼンデッヒャー公使の写真帖より (A German Diplomat in Meiji Japan: Karl von Eisendecher. German/Japanese). München: Iudicium, 2007. * Martin, Bernd and Gerhard Krebs (eds.). (1994) Formierung und Fall der Achse Berlin–Tôkyô [Construction and Fall of the Berlin–Tôkyô Axis]. Munich: Iudicium. * Martin, Bernd. (2001) Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940–1945, Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation. Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co. KG, Hamburg. ==External links== * "Relations between Germany and Japan: 150 Years of Friendship between Germany and Japan" 2015 exhibit at National Museum of Japanese History, in English * OAG (German East Asiatic Society) * German Institute for Japanese Studies, Tōkyō * Japanese–German Center, Berlin * The Knackfuss Painting Japan Germany
|
The City of Hackensack is the most populous municipality and the county seat of Bergen County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey.New Jersey County Map, New Jersey Department of State. Accessed December 22, 2022. The area was officially named New Barbadoes Township until 1921, but has informally been known as Hackensack since at least the 18th century.New Jersey 1793, Historic Map Works. Accessed January 30, 2018. As of the 2020 United States census, the city's population was 46,030, its highest decennial count ever and an increase of 3,020 (+7.0%) from the 2010 census count of 43,010, which in turn reflected an increase of 333 (+0.8%) from the 42,677 counted in the 2000 census.Table 7. Population for the Counties and Municipalities in New Jersey: 1990, 2000 and 2010, New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development, February 2011. Accessed May 1, 2023. An inner suburb of New York City, Hackensack is located approximately northwest of Midtown Manhattan and about from the George Washington Bridge. From a number of locations, including portions of Prospect Avenue, the New York City skyline can be seen.Rondinaro, Gene. "If You're Thinking Of Living In: Hackensack", The New York Times, March 18, 1984. Accessed December 13, 2011. "There are other signs of renewed health. New high-rise residential buildings with exceptional views of the Manhattan skyline have sprung up along Prospect Avenue in the Heights area to the west." The Metropolitan Campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University straddles the Hackensack River in both Hackensack and Teaneck. Hackensack is also the home of the former New Jersey Naval Museum and the World War II submarine USS Ling. Astronaut Wally Schirra is perhaps Hackensack's most famous native son. The city has diverse neighborhoods and land uses located close to one another. Within its borders are the Hackensack University Medical Center, a residential high-rise district about a mile long (along Prospect Avenue between Beech Street and Passaic Street), suburban neighborhoods of single-family houses, stately older homes on acre-plus lots, older two-family neighborhoods, large garden apartment complexes, industrial areas, the Bergen County Jail, a tidal river, Hackensack River County Park, Borg's Woods Nature Preserve, various city parks, large office buildings, a major college campus, the Bergen County Court House, a vibrant small-city downtown district, and various small neighborhood business districts.Cheslow, Jerry. "If You're Thinking of Living In/Hackensack, N.J.; After Long Decline, Downtown Rebounds", The New York Times, May 3, 1998. Accessed December 13, 2011. ==History== thumb|right|Hackensack map The first inhabitants of the area were the Lenni Lenape, an Algonquian people who became known to settlers as 'the Delaware Indians.' They lived along a river they called Achinigeu-hach, or "Ackingsah- sack", which translates to stony ground—today this river is more commonly known by the name 'the Hackensack River.'Wright, Kevin W. The Indigenous Population of Bergen County , Bergen County Historical Society. Accessed June 30, 2011. "Achkinckeshacky or Acking-sack, (later Hackensack) is an approximation of Achsinnigeu-haki, meaning stony ground." A representation of Chief Oratam of the Achkinhenhcky appears on the Hackensack municipal seal. The most common explanation is that the city was named for the Native American tribe,The Origin of New Jersey Place Names: H, GetNJ.com. Accessed July 2, 2007.Cheslow, Jerry. "If You're Thinking of Living In/Hackensack, N.J.; After Long Decline, Downtown Rebounds", The New York Times, May 3, 1998. Accessed August 26, 2018. "Hackensack is named for the Achkinhenhcky branch of the Leni Lenape Indians, who traded with Dutch settlers along the Hackensack River as far back as the 1660s. The portrait of their chief, Oratam, who negotiated a treaty with English and Dutch settlers in 1690, appears on the municipal seal." though other sources attribute it to a Native American word variously translated as meaning "hook mouth", "stream that unites with another on low ground", "on low ground" or "land of the big snake",Hutchinson, Viola L. The Origin of New Jersey Place Names, New Jersey Public Library Commission, May 1945. Accessed August 31, 2015.Gannett, Henry. The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States, p. 146. United States Government Printing Office, 1905. Accessed August 31, 2015. while another version described as "more colorful than probable" attributes the name to an inn called the "Hock and Sack".Herman, Jennifer New Jersey Encyclopedia, p. 281. State History Publications, 2008. . Accessed August 31, 2015. Settlement by the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland on the west banks of the Hudson River across from New Amsterdam (present-day lower Manhattan) began in the 1630s at Pavonia, eventually leading to the establishment of Bergen (at today's Bergen Square in Jersey City) in 1660."Bergen; Original boundaries included most of present-day Hudson County, East of Newark Bay and the Hackensack River.", Jersey City Past and Present, New Jersey City University, backed up by the Internet Archive as of July 20, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. Oratam, sachem of the Lenni Lenape, deeded the land along mid-Hackensack River to the Dutch in 1665. The area was soon taken by the English in 1667, but kept its Dutch name. Philip Cartaret, governor of what became the proprietary colony of East Jersey granted land to Captain John Berry in the area of Achter KolHistorical marker of Achter Col "colony", Historical Marker Database. Accessed December 8, 2013. and soon after took up residence and called it "New Barbadoes," after having resided on the island of Barbados. In 1666, a deed was confirmed for the tract that had been given earlier by Oratem to Sarah Kiersted in gratitude for her work as emissary and interpreter.MacLean, Maggie. "Sarah Kiersted", History of American Women, March 10, 2008. Accessed December 28, 2016. "Painting depicts Sarah Kiersted, a Dutch woman in New Netherlands who learned the Lenape language and served Chief Oratam as a translator in his negotiations with Dutch colonists. She was rewarded by him in 1666 with a gift of 2260 acres of land on the Hackensack River."Nottle, Diane. "Do You Know These Women?", The New York Times, March 1, 1998. Accessed December 8, 2013. "Even before the Elizabeths, a Dutch housewife named Sarah Kiersted was learning the language of the local Lenape Indians, possibly as early as the 1640s. She became a channel of communication between Dutch settlers and the Lenape Chief Oratam, and for her services the chief granted her almost 2,300 acres – comprising all of Ridgefield Park and sections of Teaneck and Bogota – in 1666." Other grants were given at the English Neighborhood.Poppino/Popenoe/Popnoe& Allied Families , September 15, 2008. Accessed December 18, 2011.Archives Documents, Manuscripts, Maps, & Photographs: Manuscript Group 944, Edsall Family (English Neighborhood, NJ) , New Jersey Historical Society. Accessed December 18, 2011.Brief History of Ridgefield, Ridgefield Online, backed up by the Internet Archive as of April 18, 2012. Accessed July 31, 2014. "In 1675, Ridgefield was known as the English Neighborhood, covering an area of about 10 square miles from the Hudson River on the east to the Hackensack River on the west, Englewood on the north and Hudson County on the south." In 1675, the East Jersey Legislature established the administrative districts Bergen, Essex, Middlesex, and Monmouth. In 1683, Bergen (along with the three other counties) was officially recognized as an independent county by the Provincial Assembly.History of Bergen County, Bergen County Technical Schools, backed up by the Internet Archive as of January 26, 2007. Accessed June 1, 2015. The seal of Bergen County bearing this date includes an image of an agreement between the settlers and the natives. New Barbadoes Township, together with Acquackanonk Township, were formed by Royal charter on October 31, 1693.Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey's Civil Boundaries: 1606–1968, Bureau of Geology and Topography; Trenton, New Jersey; 1969. p. 78-79 re Hackensack, p. 82 re New Barbadoes. Accessed September 10, 2012Edited by Harvey, Cornelius Burnham. "Genealogical History of Hudson and Bergen Counties New Jersey: Introduction Of Township Governments", Originally published in 1900. Accessed December 8, 2013. In 1700, the village of Hackensack was little more than the area around Main Street from the Courthouse to around Anderson Street. New Barbadoes Township included what is now Maywood, Rochelle Park, Paramus and River Edge, along with those portions of Oradell that are west of the Hackensack River. These areas were all sparsely populated and consisted of farm fields, woods and swamplands. The few roads that existed then included the streets now known as Kinderkamack Road, Paramus Road/Passaic Street and Essex Street. The southernmost portions of what is now Hackensack were not part of New Barbadoes Township at that time and were acquired in the late 1800s. The neighborhood that came to be known as the village of Hackensack (today the area encompassing Bergen County's municipal buildings in Hackensack) was a part of Essex County until 1710, when Bergen County, by royal decree of Queen Anne of Great Britain, was enlarged and the Township of New Barbadoes was removed from Essex County and added to Bergen County.Lang, Arnold. "Bergen County's Townships and Municipalities – Part I", The Archivist, May 1999, Genealogical Society of Bergen County. Accessed December 13, 2011. In 1710, the village of Hackensack (in the newly formed Township of New Barbadoes) was designated as being more centrally located and more easily reached by the majority of the Bergen County's inhabitants and, hence, was chosen as the county seat of Bergen County, as it remains today. The earliest records of the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders date back to 1715, at which time agreement was made to build a courthouse and jail complex, which was completed in 1716.Discovering History, Bergen County, New Jersey. Accessed Ocgtober 2, 2019. "The oldest records of the Bergen County Board of Freeholders and Justices are dated May 19, 1715. At that meeting, it was decided to build a combined courthouse and jail which was erected on Hackensack’s historic Green in 1716." During the American Revolutionary War, George Washington headquartered in the village of Hackensack in November 1776 during the retreat from Fort Lee via New Bridge Landing and camped on 'The Green' across from the First Dutch Reformed Church on November 20, 1776. A raid by British forces against Hackensack on March 23, 1780, resulted in the destruction by fire of the original courthouse structure.Grant Reaps Beautiful Results in Hackensack, Representative Steve Rothman, backed up by the Internet Archive as of April 7, 2012. Accessed August 30, 2017. thumb|Article in The Street Railway Review of July 1900 The Hackensack Improvement Commission was incorporated by an Act of the state legislature approved on April 1, 1868, within New Barbadoes township and including the village of Hackensack, with authority to develop sewers and other improvements in Hackensack.Mary G. Bakman, et. al. v. The Hackensack Commission, Reports of cases argued and determined in the Supreme Court and, at law, in the Court of Errors and Appeals of the State of New Jersey, Volume 70, pp. 500–502. Accessed December 13, 2011. The New Jersey Legislature passed the Township School Act in 1894, under which each village, borough, town, or city in New Jersey was delegated responsibility for its own public schools through the office of the county superintendent. Hackensack established a local board of education in 1894, as required by the new law, which took over operation of schools located in the township and established Hackensack High School.History of the Hackensack Board of Education . Accessed December 13, 2011. The 1894 act allowed local residents, by petition, to change municipal boundaries at will, setting off fearsome political battles statewide. Portions of the township had been taken to form Harrington Township (June 22, 1775), Lodi Township (March 1, 1826), Midland Township (March 7, 1871) and Little Ferry (September 20, 1894). After these departures, secessions, and de- annexations, all that was left of New Barbadoes Township was the village of Hackensack and its surrounding neighborhoods of Fairmount, Red Hill and Cherry Hill. In 1896, New Barbadoes acquired a portion of Lodi Township covering an area south of Essex Street from the bend of Essex Street to the Maywood border. That same year the Hackensack Improvement commission was abolished and the City of Hackensack and New Barbadoes Township became coterminous.Chapter 138: A further Supplement to an act entitled "An act to incorporate the Hackensack improvement commission," approved April first, One thousand eight hundred and sixty-eight, extending the boundaries thereof., Acts of the Legislature of the State of New Jersey, Session of 1896, p. 196. New Jersey Legislature, 1896. Accessed December 13, 2011.Wright, Kevin. "Punkin Duster Finds The Woodchuck Borough: A Centennial Review of Bergen County Borough Fever 1894–95", Bergen County Historical Society. Accessed December 13, 2011. "In February 1896, the Legislature annexed a portion of Lodi Township to New Barbadoes so as to place Polifly Road as far south as the Lodi Branch Railroad within the boundaries of the Hackensack Improvement Commission. Scuttlebutt had it that the 'chief purpose [of the annexation] is, as appears on the surface, to secure improvement of Polifly road.' By further act of the legislature, the Township of New Barbadoes became conterminous in boundaries with the city of Hackensack and the New Barbadoes Township Committee was abolished in favor of government by the Hackensack Improvement Board of Commissioners." The final parcel lost by New Barbadoes Township was the northeastern corner of what is now Little Ferry, which was incorporated in September 1894.Bergen County New Jersey Municipalities, Dutch Door Genealogy. Accessed December 13, 2011. "Little Ferry became a Bergen County, N.J. borough organized by referendum September 18, 1894 and incorporated September 20, 1894 from area taken from Lodi and New Barbardoes Townships." An act of the State Legislature incorporated the Fairmount section of New Barbadoes with the Hackensack Improvement Commission, and eliminated New Barbadoes Township as a political entity. On November 21, 1921, based on the results of a referendum held on November 8, 1921, New Barbadoes Township received its charter to incorporate as a city and officially took on its name "Hackensack," a name derived from its original inhabitants, the Lenni Lenape, who named it "Ackingsah-sack". In 1933, Hackensack adopted the Manager form of government under the terms of the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, with five Council persons all elected at-large and a mayor selected by the council from among its members.Historic Meeting Minutes, City of Hackensack. Accessed August 30, 2017. "The City's form of government was changed by referendum vote on May 23, 1933, to the Municipal Manager Plan. This called for the appointment of a professional manager and a five-person Council elected at large. The first new Council was elected June 20, 1933." The Sears location on Main Street, which opened on October 27, 1932, and was the last freestanding Sears in the state of New Jersey, closed on September 12, 2020.Accardi, Nicolette. "Sears will have just 1 department store left in N.J. after 2 more to permanently close", NJ Advance Media for NJ.com, July 1, 2020. Accessed December 27, 2020.Albrizio, Lianna. "Hackensack Sears Poised To Be Next in New Jersey To Shutter", TAPinto Hackensack, July 2, 2020. Accessed December 27, 2020. "When Sears first opened in Hackensack on October 27, 1932 at 436 Main Street, what had become the city’s landmark department store decades later was the largest of its kind in all of Bergen County, according to the county’s historic site survey, and its population was almost half of what it is today." ==Geography== thumb|Aerial view of Hackensack According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 4.35 square miles (11.27 km2), including 4.19 square miles (10.86 km2) of land and 0.16 square miles (0.41 km2) of water (3.63%). The city is bordered by the Bergen County municipalities of Bogota, Hasbrouck Heights, Little Ferry, Lodi, Maywood, Paramus, Ridgefield Park, River Edge, South Hackensack, Teaneck and Teterboro.Areas touching Hackensack, MapIt. Accessed March 25, 2020.Bergen County Map of Municipalities, Bergen County, New Jersey. Accessed March 25, 2020.New Jersey Municipal Boundaries, New Jersey Department of Transportation. Accessed November 15, 2019. There are many houses of historic value, and some of these were identified in the 1990 Master Plan. The city does not have any registered historic districts, or any restrictions on preserving the historic facade in any portions of the city. Areas considered suburban single-family residential neighborhoods account for about one-third of the city's area, mostly along its western side. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Fairmount and North Hackensack.Locality Search, State of New Jersey. Accessed May 21, 2015. ==Demographics== ===Ethnic diversity=== As the initial destination for many immigrants to Bergen County from around the globe, Hackensack's ethnic composition has become exceptionally diverse. As of 2013, approximately 38.9% of the population were foreign-born. In addition, 2.5% were born in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico or abroad to American parents. 51.7% of the population over the age of five speak only English in their household, while 32.5% of the population speak Spanish at home.DP02: Selected Social Characteristics In The United States from the 2009–2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates for Hackensack city, New Jersey , United States Census Bureau. Accessed June 1, 2015. The South Asian and East Asian populations have increased most rapidly in Hackensack since 2000, with nearly 2,000 Indian Americans, over 1,000 Filipino Americans, and over 600 Korean Americans represented in the 2010 United States Census.Hackensack city, New Jersey QuickLinks , United States Census Bureau. Accessed June 1, 2015 Hackensack's Hispanic population has also risen rapidly, to over 15,000 in 2010; Ecuadoreans, Dominicans, and Colombians have become the top Hispanic groups in northern Hackensack.Green, Jeff. "Hackensack neighbors shocked by 2nd police killing in a matter of weeks", The Record, June 12, 2015, backed up by the Internet Archive as of March 11, 2016. August 30, 2017. "Ecuadoreans, Dominicans and Colombians are the top Hispanic groups in the area of northern Hackensack where the neighborhood is situated." The Black population dropped as a percentage, although minimally in absolute numbers between 2000 and 2010. The city lost approximately 10% of its White population between 2000 and 2010, which has stabilized and resumed growth since 2010 and has remained substantial, at over 20,000 in 2010. The city has also witnessed greatly increasing diversity in its non-Hispanic white segment, with large numbers of Eastern Europeans, Eurasians, Central Asians, and Arabic immigrants offsetting the loss in Hackensack's earlier established Italian American, Irish American, and German American populations. ===2010 census=== The 2010 United States census counted 43,010 people, 18,142 households, and 9,706 families in the city. The population density was . There were 19,375 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup was 46.67% (20,072) White, 24.44% (10,511) Black or African American, 0.56% (241) Native American, 10.30% (4,432) Asian, 0.02% (10) Pacific Islander, 13.59% (5,844) from other races, and 4.42% (1,900) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 35.31% (15,186) of the population. Of the 18,142 households, 23.2% had children under the age of 18; 34.1% were married couples living together; 13.9% had a female householder with no husband present and 46.5% were non- families. Of all households, 39.3% were made up of individuals and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 3.11. 18.7% of the population were under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.5 years. For every 100 females, the population had 98.0 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 96.4 males. The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $57,676 (with a margin of error of +/− $3,577) and the median family income was $66,911 (+/− $5,433). Males had a median income of $45,880 (+/− $4,012) versus $42,059 (+/− $1,681) for females. The per capita income for the city was $32,036 (+/− $1,809). About 8.9% of families and 10.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over.DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics from the 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates for Hackensack city, Bergen County, New Jersey, United States Census Bureau. Accessed April 3, 2012. Same-sex couples headed 145 households in 2010, an increase from the 112 counted in 2000.Lipman, Harvy; and Sheingold, Dave. "North Jersey sees 30% growth in same-sex couples", The Record, August 14, 2011, backed up by the Internet Archive as of February 3, 2013. Accessed July 24, 2013. ===2000 census=== As of the 2000 United States census, there were 42,677 people, 18,113 households, and 9,545 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 18,945 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 52.61% White, 24.65% African American, 0.45% Native American, 7.45% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 9.71% from other races, and 5.08% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 25.92% of the population.Census 2000 Profiles of Demographic / Social / Economic / Housing Characteristics for Hackensack city, New Jersey , United States Census Bureau. Accessed September 10, 2012.DP-1: Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 – Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data for Hackensack city, Bergen County, New Jersey, United States Census Bureau. Accessed September 10, 2012. There were 18,113 households, out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.8% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.3% were non-families. 39.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was spread out, with 18.2% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 38.4% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $49,316, and the median income for a family was $56,953. Males had a median income of $39,636 versus $32,911 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,856. About 6.8% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.1% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over. ==Government== ===Local government=== Hackensack operates under the 1923 Municipal Manager Law form of New Jersey municipal government. The city is one of seven municipalities (of the 564) statewide that use this form of government.Inventory of Municipal Forms of Government in New Jersey, Rutgers University Center for Government Studies, July 1, 2011. Accessed June 1, 2023. The City Council is comprised of five members who are elected to four-year terms on a concurrent basis in a non-partisan election held every four years in May.2012 New Jersey Legislative District Data Book, Rutgers University Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, March 2013, p. 157."Forms of Municipal Government in New Jersey", p. 9. Rutgers University Center for Government Studies. Accessed June 1, 2023. This form of government separates policy making (the work of the mayor and city council) from the execution of policy (the work of the city manager). This maintains professional management and a Citywide perspective through: nonpartisan election, at-large representation, concentration of executive responsibility in the hands of a professional manager accountable to the Mayor and Council, concentration of policy making power in one body: a five-person Mayor and Council.Mayor and City Council, City of Hackensack. Accessed March 25, 2020. "The City operates under the New Jersey Municipal Manager Law of 1923. This form of government separates policy making (the work of the Mayor and City Council) from the execution of policy (the work of the City Manager)." In the several decades in which the City has used the Municipal Manager form of government, Hackensack has had only nine City Managers. , the mayor of the City of Hackensack is John P. Labrosse Jr., whose term of office as mayor ends June 30, 2025, along with those of all other councilmembers. The other members of the Hackensack City Council are Deputy Mayor Deputy Mayor Kathleen Canestrino, Leonardo "Leo" Battaglia, Gerard Carroll and Stephanie Von Rudenborg.Mayor and City Council, City of Hackensack. Accessed March 13, 2023. "The City operates under the New Jersey Municipal Manager Law of 1923. This form of government separates policy making (the work of the Mayor and City Council) from the execution of policy (the work of the City Manager). This maintains professional management and a City-wide perspective through: nonpartisan election, at large representation, concentration of executive responsibility in the hands of a professional manager accountable to the Mayor and Council, concentration of policy making power in one body - a five-person Mayor and Council."2022 Municipal Data Sheet, City of Hackensack. Accessed March 13, 2023.2023 County and Municipal Directory, Bergen County, New Jersey, March 2023. Accessed June 1, 2023. Led by Mayor Labrosse, a team of candidates including four incumbents (and one newcomer) won the May 2021 municipal election. The winning slate defeated two other groups of five candidates, one of which was led by former deputy mayor David Sims.Sobko, Katie. "Mayor, incumbents claim victory in Hackensack nonpartisan election", The Record, May 11, 2021. Accessed June 26, 2022. "Voters went to the polls Tuesday to choose their city leadership for the next four years. They backed the predominantly incumbent slate led by two-term Mayor John Labrosse, according to unofficial results provided by the city clerk. Labrosse received 1,323 of the ballots tallied so far. Council newcomer Gerard Carroll picked up 1,294 votes, Councilwoman Stephanie Von Rudenborg received 1,278 votes, Deputy Mayor Kathleen Canestrino got 1,261 and Councilman Leonardo Battaglia received 1,234.... This year’s election pitted Labrosse against one slate of progressive challengers led by Leila Amirhamzeh and another ticket headed by Deputy Mayor David Sims, a former Labrosse ally." The May 2017 election was won by the Labrosse Team, which include the mayor and three other incumbents, joined by one newcomer.Jerde, Sara. "Ticket of mostly incumbents wins Hackensack race", NJ Advance Media for NJ.com, May 10, 2017. Accessed August 30, 2017. "After an intense campaign season, the Labrosse team swept in the municipal election Tuesday night in Hackensack, according to unofficial election results.... In Hackensack, the ticket with the most incumbents running, including Mayor John Labrosse, Deputy Mayor Kathleen Canestrino, Councilman Leo Battaglia and Councilman David Sims, won. Stephanie Von Rudenborg was also on the ticket." In April 2015, the city council selected Jason Some on an interim basis to fill the vacant seat of Rose Greenman, who had resigned the previous month citing claims that her council colleagues had discriminated against her.Vazquez, Jennifer. "Hackensack council appoints new member to fill vacancy left by resignation", Hackensack Chronicle, April 24, 2015, backed up by the Internet Archive as of April 19, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. "City officials appointed a young business owner to the seat left vacant after the resignation by former councilwoman Rose Greenman.... The vacancy was a result of Greenman's resignation last month, in which she claimed discrimination and retaliation." In the November 2015 general election, Deborah Keeling-Geddis was elected to serve the balance of the term of office, edging interim councilmember Jason Some by 24 votes in the final count, with four candidates running for the seat.South, Todd. "Keeling-Geddis is confirmed winner in Hackensack council race", The Record, November 11, 2015, backed up by the Internet Archive as of March 19, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Keeling-Geddis emerged as the winner in last week's race for an unexpired council term after the votes were certified late Tuesday. She defeated incumbent Jason Some – who initially was in the lead – and two other candidates.... In numbers Keeling-Geddis said she received in a fax from the county elections board, she won in the field of four with 819 votes, followed by Jason Some with 785, Jason Nunnermacker with 758 and Richard Cerbo with 266."Bergen County Statement of Vote November 3, 2015 General Election , Bergen County, New Jersey Clerk, December 2, 2015. Accessed March 21, 2016. City Council candidate Joseph DeFalco, principal of Hackensack High School, died of a heart attack the day of the municipal election in 2005, but was elected despite his death.Staff. "Dead Candidate's Slate Wins Hackensack Election", The New York Times, May 11, 2005. Accessed August 30, 2017. "A candidate for the City Council in Hackensack, N.J., who died of a heart attack yesterday morning was elected last night as part of a five-person slate. The candidate, Joseph DeFalco, 61, who was the principal of Hackensack High School, collapsed at his home around 8 a.m. and was pronounced dead at Hackensack University Medical Center, according to his campaign staff." His running mates agreed to create a rotation under which each of the four surviving members of the New Visions for Hackensack slate would serve for a year as Mayor, creating a series of firsts for the City. Townes took office in 2005 as the city's first black mayor, and Sasso became the first female mayor in 2006. Meneses became Hackensack's first Hispanic mayor when he was sworn in on July 1, 2007, and Melfi took the reins as mayor in 2008.Sposito, Sean. "'Tag Team' of Pioneers; Hackensack Swears in Its First Hispanic Mayor", The Record, July 2, 2007, backed up by the Internet Archive as of January 12, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Members of the City Council have been rotating the mayoralty since running mate Joe DeFalco's fatal heart attack on Election Day 2005. Traditionally, in Hackensack a mayor is appointed after the council is elected. But DeFalco's sudden death left the New Visions for Hackensack ticket in disarray. Councilman Marlin Townes served until June 2006, becoming the city's first black mayor. He was followed by Karen Sasso, who became the city's first woman mayor. She handed over the reins to Meneses on Sunday.... Newly appointed Deputy Mayor Michael R. Melfi will take his turn as mayor next in what Sasso describes as a 'tag team' of politicians." Four of the same five officials were re-elected in 2009 (Townes, Melfi, Sasso, Meneses), along with one opposition candidate, LaBrosse. The city council continued to rotate the mayor's seat, with the exception of Labrosse, and Melfi became mayor again in 2012. Frank Zisa served as mayor from 1977 to 1981,Levin, Jay. "Frank C. Zisa, mayor, businessman, dies at 91", The Record, June 10, 2011, backed up by the Internet Archive as of March 11, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Frank C. Zisa of Hackensack, who served 16 years on the City Council and was mayor from 1977 to 1981, died Wednesday." Fred Cerbo from 1981 to 1989,"Fred CerboObituary", The Record, August 27, 2012. Accessed November 12, 2015. "He began his public service career with the Hackensack City Council and was elected and served as Mayor from 1981–1989." and John F. "Jack" Zisa (son of Frank Zisa) from 1989 to 2005.Davis, Tom; and Alvarado, Monsy. "Zisa clan a dynasty of public service, iron-fist politics", The Record, April 30, 2010, backed up by the Internet Archive as of August 21, 2016. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Jack Zisa, who served as mayor from 1989 to 2005, and Ken Zisa vehemently denied the allegations." Former Assemblyman Charles "Ken" Zisa served as chief of the Hackensack Police Department from his 1995 appointment to replace John Aletta until May 2010 when he was suspended without pay on charges of official misconduct and insurance fraud. Tomas Padilla was appointed the acting police chief while the police department was being monitored by the Bergen County Prosecutors office. In May 2012, a judge ordered Zisa out of his position as police chief, a decision that cost him his police retirement benefits.Judge orders police chief from office, Couriierposstonline, 31 May 2012Shuman, Marah. "Mayor's Brother To Be Acting Cop Chief; Officer Who Wants Job Plans To Sue Hackensack", The Record, May 10, 1995. Accessed April 2, 2008.Mosk, Matthew. "Zisa Vows To Focus On Community Policing", The Record, December 19, 1995. Accessed April 2, 2008. In January 2013, Mike Mordaga was appointed the new civilian police director, which replaced the previous position of police chief.Adely, Hannan. "Mordaga appointed Hackensack's civilian police director", The Record, January 22, 2013, backed up by the Internet Archive as January 31, 2017. Accessed August 30, 2017. ===Federal, state and county representation=== Hackensack is located in the 5th Congressional DistrictPlan Components Report, New Jersey Redistricting Commission, December 23, 2011. Accessed February 1, 2020. and is part of New Jersey's 37th state legislative district.Municipalities Sorted by 2011-2020 Legislative District, New Jersey Department of State. Accessed February 1, 2020.2019 New Jersey Citizen's Guide to Government, New Jersey League of Women Voters. Accessed October 30, 2019.Districts by Number for 2011–2020, New Jersey Legislature. Accessed January 6, 2013. Prior to the 2010 Census, Hackensack had been part of the , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections.2011 New Jersey Citizen's Guide to Government , p. 58, New Jersey League of Women Voters. Accessed May 22, 2015. ===Politics=== As of March 2011, there were a total of 19,123 registered voters in Hackensack, of which 8,630 (45.1% vs. 31.7% countywide) were registered as Democrats, 1,993 (10.4% vs. 21.1%) were registered as Republicans and 8,492 (44.4% vs. 47.1%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 8 voters registered as either Libertarians or Greens.Voter Registration Summary – Bergen, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, March 23, 2011. Accessed December 7, 2013. Among the city's 2010 Census population, 44.5% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 54.7% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).GCT-P7: Selected Age Groups: 2010 – State – County Subdivision; 2010 Census Summary File 1 for New Jersey, United States Census Bureau. Accessed December 7, 2013. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 59.7% of the vote (4,268 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 39.0% (2,790 votes), and other candidates with 1.2% (89 votes), among the 7,327 ballots cast by the city's 19,506 registered voters (180 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 37.6%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 6,247 ballots cast (70.9% vs. 48.0% countywide), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 2,194 votes (24.9% vs. 45.8%), Independent Chris Daggett with 288 votes (3.3% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 31 votes (0.4% vs. 0.5%), among the 8,812 ballots cast by the city's 19,819 registered voters, yielding a 44.5% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).2009 Governor: Bergen County , New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 31, 2009. Accessed December 7, 2013. In the 2016 presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 12,015 votes (76.0% vs. 54.2% countywide), ahead of Republican Donald Trump with 3,345 votes (21.2% vs. 41.1%) and other candidates with 380 votes (2.4% vs. 4.6%), among the 15,913 ballots cast by the city's 22,926 registered voters, for a turnout of 69.4% (vs. 72.5% in Bergen County).Presidential November 8, 2016 General Election Results - Bergen County, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, November 8, 2016. Accessed May 24, 2020 In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 11,335 votes (78.6% vs. 54.8% countywide), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 2,835 votes (19.6% vs. 43.5%) and other candidates with 113 votes (0.8% vs. 0.9%), among the 14,428 ballots cast by the city's 20,971 registered voters, for a turnout of 68.8% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County).Presidential November 6, 2012 General Election Results – Bergen County , New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, March 15, 2013. Accessed December 13, 2013.Number of Registered Voters and Ballots Cast November 6, 2012 General Election Results – Bergen County , New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, March 15, 2013. Accessed December 13, 2013. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 11,711 votes (75.7% vs. 53.9% countywide), ahead of Republican John McCain with 3,498 votes (22.6% vs. 44.5%) and other candidates with 102 votes (0.7% vs. 0.8%), among the 15,461 ballots cast by the city's 20,616 registered voters, for a turnout of 75.0% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County).2008 Presidential General Election Results: Bergen County, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 23, 2008. Accessed December 7, 2013.2008 Presidential General Election Results: Bergen County, New Jersey Department of State, December 23, 2008. Accessed August 30, 2017. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 9,815 votes (71.0% vs. 51.7% countywide), ahead of Republican George W. Bush with 3,870 votes (28.0% vs. 47.2%) and other candidates with 88 votes (0.6% vs. 0.7%), among the 13,818 ballots cast by the city's 19,013 registered voters, for a turnout of 72.7% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).2004 Presidential Election: Bergen County, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 13, 2004. Accessed December 7, 2013. ==Education== ===Public schools=== thumb|Main Entrance, Hackensack Middle School The Hackensack Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade.Hackensack Board of Education District Policy 0110 - Identification, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. "Purpose: The Board of Education exists for the purpose of providing a thorough and efficient system of free public education in grades Pre-Kindergarten through twelve in the Hackensack School District. Composition: The Hackensack School District is all the area within the County of Bergen." As of the 2019–20 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 5,790 students and 431.3 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 13.4:1.District information for Hackensack School District, National Center for Education Statistics. Accessed April 1, 2020. Schools in the district, with 2019–20 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics,School Data for the Hackensack Public Schools, National Center for Education Statistics. Accessed April 1, 2020. are Early Childhood Development CenterEarly Childhood Development Center, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed November 1, 2018. Fairmount Elementary SchoolFairmount Elementary School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (617 students in grades Pre-K–4), Fanny Meyer Hillers SchoolFanny Meyer Hillers School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (570 students in grades Pre-K–4), Jackson Avenue SchoolJackson Avenue School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (442 students in grades Pre-K–4), Nellie K. Parker SchoolNellie K. Parker School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (533 students in grades Pre-K–4), Hackensack Middle SchoolHackensack Middle School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (1,571 students in grades 5–8) and Hackensack High SchoolHackensack High School, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020. (1,918 students in grades 9–12).School Directory, Hackensack Public Schools. Accessed April 6, 2020.New Jersey School Directory for the Hackensack Public Schools, New Jersey Department of Education. Accessed December 29, 2016. Hackensack High School serves high school students living in neighboring communities as part of sending/receiving relationships with the respective districts, including about 250 from Maywood, 120 from Rochelle Park and 250 from South Hackensack as of 2012.Tarrazi, Alexis. "Agreement reached between Maywood, Hackensack" , Hackensack Chronicle, March 9, 2012. Accessed November 5, 2013. "The Maywood school district has been sending its students to Hackensack High School for decades and currently sends 250 students. The high school also serves about 120 students from Rochelle Park and 80 students from South Hackensack, according to The Record." Teterboro residents had been able to choose between Hackensack High School and Hasbrouck Heights School District's Hasbrouck Heights High School. In March 2020, the Maywood Public Schools received approval from the New Jersey Department of Education to end the relationship it had established with Hackensack in 1969 and begin transitioning incoming ninth graders to Henry P. Becton Regional High School beginning in the 2020–2021 school year.Stoltz, Marsha A. "Here's why Maywood will send its students to Becton instead of Hackensack High School", The Record, March 9, 2020. Accessed April 6, 2020. "Maywood high school students will have four years to phase out of Hackensack High School and into Henry P. Becton Regional High School in East Rutherford. The process will begin in September, when current Maywood eighth-graders will be the first to attend Becton as freshmen, according to a March 7 joint announcement by the superintendents of the two districts." Bergen Arts and Science Charter School serves public school students from Hackensack, as well as those from Garfield and Lodi.New Application , iLearn Schools. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Bergen Arts and Science Charter School (Bergen-ASCS): Garfield, Lodi and Hackensack" Public school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the Bergen County Technical Schools, which include the Bergen County Academies in Hackensack and the Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro or Paramus. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.About Us , Bergen County Technical Schools. Accessed December 7, 2013.Admissions , Bergen County Technical Schools. Accessed December 29, 2016. ===Private schools=== The First Baptist Church operates Bergen County Christian Academy, a K–12 school that was established in 1972 and is located at Union Street and Conklin Place.About , Bergen County Christian Academy. Accessed August 30, 2017. The YCS George Washington School is a nonprofit private school for classified students ages 5–14 in grades K–8 who are experiencing behavioral and/or emotional difficulties. Its population consists of students who reside at the YCS Holley Child Care and Development Center in Hackensack and students within the surrounding communities whose needs cannot be adequately met in special education programs within their districts.About The School, YCS George Washington School. Accessed November 29, 2014. "The YCS George Washington School is a NJ Department of Education approved private school for classified students with behavioral, emotional and social challenges. We have been successfully educating students ages 5 – 14, grades K – 8, for over 30 years." Padre Pio Academy is a defunct K–8 school that operated under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark until its closure at the end of the 2012–2013 school year in the wake of declining enrollment and a deficit approaching $350,000.Adely, Hannan. "Archdiocese plans to close Hackensack Catholic school" , The Record, February 12, 2013. Accessed November 29, 2014. "The Padre Pio Academy, a Catholic elementary school, will close for good at the end of the school year, an archdiocese spokesman said Tuesday.... 'Very clearly, this is a case where there are fewer and fewer students each year to be educated and the deficit that the school has been running has been consistently high — at least $200,000 a year,' Goodness said. This year, the school was expected to operate with a $347,000 deficit, he said." The school had been formed in 2009 by the diocese through the merger of St. Francis of Assisi School with Holy Trinity.Hughes, Jennifer V. "Catholic Plan to Shut Schools Draws Protests", The New York Times, March 5, 2009. Accessed November 29, 2014. "The other schools in the Newark Archdiocese, all kindergarten to eighth grade, that will be affected include Holy Trinity and St. Francis of Assisi, both in Hackensack, which will merge to become Padre Pio Academy at the St. Francis site on South Main Street." ===Colleges and universities=== The Metropolitan Campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University straddles the Hackensack River in both Hackensack and Teaneck.Metropolitan Campus Schematic Map, Fairleigh Dickinson University. Accessed August 30, 2017. Bergen Community College has a location in Hackensack. The Philip Ciarco Jr. Learning Center, is located at 355 Main Street at the corner of Passaic Street.Philip Ciarco Jr. Learning Center, Bergen Community College. Accessed August 30, 2017. Eastwick College is located at 250 Moore Street.2013–14 Catalog, Eastwick College and the HoHoKus Schools. Accessed July 31, 2014. == Healthcare == Hackensack University Medical Center, part of Hackensack Meridian Health, is the primary health care provider and hospital for the city. Its main hospital campus, which includes a children's hospital, an all women's hospital, and Heart and Vascular Hospital, is located on 30 Prospect Avenue. The hospital's John Theurer Cancer Center is located on 2nd Street.Home Page - Hackensack UMC. Accessed August 5, 2018. Hackensack University Medical Center has two medical offices located on Russell Place and Essex Center. ==Transportation== ===Roads and highways=== , the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Bergen County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation.Bergen County Mileage by Municipality and Jurisdiction, New Jersey Department of Transportation, May 2010. Accessed December 8, 2013. Interstate 80, Route 17, Route 4, and County Route 503 are among the many main roads serving Hackensack. Several bridges, including the Court Street Bridge, the Midtown Bridge and the Anderson Street Bridge span the Hackensack River. ===Public transportation=== The city is served by three train stations on NJ Transit's Pascack Valley Line, two of them in Hackensack, providing service to Hoboken Terminal, with connecting service to Penn Station New York and other NJ Transit service at Secaucus Junction.Pascack Valley Line , NJ Transit. Accessed October 26, 2013. Anderson Street stationAnderson Street station , NJ Transit. Accessed October 26, 2013. serves central Hackensack while Essex Street stationEssex Street station , NJ Transit. Accessed October 26, 2013. serves southern portions of the city. The New Bridge Landing station,New Bridge Landing station , NJ Transit. Accessed October 26, 2013. located adjacent to the city line in River Edge also serves the northernmost parts of Hackensack, including The Shops at Riverside. NJ Transit buses include lines 144, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165 and 168 serving the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan; the 171, 175, 178 and 182 to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station; the 76 to Newark; the 83 route to Jersey City; and local service on the 709, 712, 751, 752, 753, 755, 756, 762, 770, 772 and 780 lines.Routes by County: Bergen County, NJ Transit, backed up by the Internet Archive as of May 22, 2009. Accessed September 14, 2016.Bergen County System Map , NJ Transit. Accessed September 14, 2016. Many of the bus routes stop, originate and terminate at the Hackensack Bus Terminal, a regional transit hub.Hackensack Bus Terminal , NJ Transit. Accessed December 13, 2011. Route 1X jitney of Fordham Transit originates/terminates at the bus terminal with service Inwood, Manhattan via Fort Lee Road. Spanish Transportation and several other operators provide frequent jitney service along Route 4 between Paterson, New Jersey, and the George Washington Bridge Bus Station.Jitney Transportation Along New Jersey's Route 4 Corridor, Columbia University Urban Transportation Policy, December 2006. Accessed September 14, 2016.Paterson – George Washington Bridge, Jitney Buses of New Jersey. Accessed September 14, 2016. The Passaic-Bergen Rail Line planned to have two stops in Hackensack, but the proposal went dormant."Agreement Advances Passaic-Bergen Rail Project: Future cross-county service will link nine stations between Hawthorne and Hackensack" , NJ Transit press release dated May 13, 2009. Accessed June 30, 2011. "The Board approved a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with NYS&W; that provides a framework for NJ Transit's plan to construct and operate the Passaic-Bergen line using the NYS&W; Main Line right-of-way between Hawthorne and Hackensack." ==Emergency services== thumb|upright|Hackensack Fire Department responding to a house fire ===Fire department=== The City of Hackensack is protected by a force of 100 paid, professional firefighters of the city of Hackensack Fire Department (HFD).Hackensack Fire Department, City of Hackensack. August 30, 2017. The Hackensack Fire Department was first established on April 1, 1871, as Bergen Hook & Ladder Co. 1. In 1911, the full-time fire department was organized. The Hackensack Fire Department responds to approximately 7,500 emergency calls annually.2011 Run Totals, City of Hackensack. Accessed August 30, 2017. The Hackensack Ford dealership fire on July 1, 1988, resulted in the deaths of five firefighters after a bowstring truss roof collapsed. A message issued a minute before the collapse ordering firefighters out was never received due to defective communications equipment and two firefighters who survived the initial collapse could not be rescued as their calls for help were not received."Ford Car Dealership Fire, Hackensack, NJ, July 1st, 1988" , United States Fire Administration, September 8, 2011. Accessed April 4, 2012.Adely, Hanna. "(Archive) The Hackensack tragedy that changed how fires are fought", The Record, June 30, 2013, reprinted August 31, 2017. Accessed March 25, 2020. "That fateful day, July 1, 1988, the firemen rushed inside to knock down a fire they thought to be like any other they'd faced. After 35 minutes, the dealership's 60-ton bow-truss roof collapsed, killing three firefighters. Two others were trapped inside, radioing for help, but they could not be rescued before their air ran out." Ten firefighters from Hackensack have died in the line of duty. The Hackensack Fire Department currently operates out of four fire stations located throughout the city, under the command of a Deputy Chief / Tour Commander for each shift. The Hackensack Fire Department operates a fire apparatus fleet of four engines, one ladder, two rescues (Rescue 2 is part of the Metro USAR Collapse Rescue Strike Team), one Metro USAR (urban search and rescue) Collapse Rescue Shoring Unit, one Special Operations (flood rescue) Unit, one Air Cascade Unit, one fire alarm maintenance bucket truck, two spare engines, and one spare ladder, as well as several special and support units.Apparatus, City of Hackensack. Accessed May 13, 2016. The department is part of the Metro USAR Strike Team, which consists of nine North Jersey fire departments and other emergency services divisions working to address major emergency rescue situations.Steadman, Andrew. "Bayonne firefighters participate in mock disaster drills in Newark", The Jersey Journal, May 1, 2012. Accessed June 6, 2016. "According to the press release, the Metro USAR Strike Team is made up of nine fire departments from Bayonne, Elizabeth, Hackensack, Hoboken, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, Morristown as well as the five-municipality North Hudson Regional Fire and Rescue Agency." ;Fire station locations and apparatusHistory of the Hackensack Fire Department, City of Hackensack. Accessed May 13, 2016. Engine company Ladder company Special unit Command unit Address Engine 1 Special Operations Flood Rescue Unit 199 Hudson Street Engine 2 107 S. Summit Avenue Engine 4 Ladder 1 Rescue 1, Rescue 2 (Metro USAR Collapse Rescue Strike Team Unit), Air Cascade 1, Metro USAR (Urban Search And Rescue) Collapse Rescue Shoring Unit, (reserve/spare apparatus – Ladder 2, Engine 3, Engine 6) Deputy Chief 1/Tour Commander 205 State Street Engine 5 784 Main Street ===Ambulance=== The Hackensack Volunteer Ambulance Corps provides emergency medical services to Hackensack and other nearby towns through mutual aid agreements. The Corps operates nightly from 6pm to 6am, and 24 hours on Saturdays and Sundays.Home page, Hackensack Volunteer Ambulance Corps Inc. Accessed March 21, 2015 Daytime EMS is provided seven days a week by the Hackensack University Medical Center's ambulance service, overlapping volunteer coverage on weekends. Both the Hackensack University Medical Center and Hackensack Volunteer Ambulance Corps are dispatched by MICCOM, the Northern New Jersey Mobile Intensive Care Communications Network. MICCOM provides dispatch and emergency medical call taking with pre-arrival instructions and updates.About Us, MICCOM. Accessed April 18, 2016. ==Points of interest== The city historian is Albert Dib. Walking tours are conducted of historic markers in downtown Hackensack, in and around The Green and lower Main Street, and a virtual historic walking tour is available as far north as the Pascack Valley Line crossing at Main Street.Virtual Historic Walking Tour: Main Street, Hackensack, NJ, City of Hackensack. Accessed September 21, 2013.Main Street, Hackensack, NJ – Historic Walking Tour (Courthouse to Sears), City of Hackensack. Accessed October 2, 2019. The First Dutch Reformed Church ("Church on The Green") was built in 1696. In 1696 Major Berry donated land for the First Dutch Reformed Church,Photographic Inventory: Hackensack First Reformed Church, accessed August 7, 2006. erected in that same year, which still stands in Hackensack today as the oldest church in Bergen County and the second oldest church in New Jersey. The following is list of notable people buried in the Church's adjoining cemetery: * Enoch Poor, one of George Washington's officers.Enoch Poor burial site , accessed August 7, 2006.Encyclopedia of New Jersey * Richard Varick, former mayor of the city of New York and former New York Attorney General.Col. Richard Varick burial site , accessed August 7, 2006.northjersey.com Bergen County's largest newspaper, The Record, a publication of the North Jersey Media Group, had been headquartered in Hackensack until moving to Woodland Park. Its campus is largely abandoned and has been sold to be redeveloped for a mixed-use commercial project that would include 500 residential apartments and a hotel, in association with the river walkway project.Adely, Hannan. "High-profile developers eye apartments, hotel at Record site in Hackensack" , The Record, June 24, 2013. Accessed December 8, 2013. "The Record's former headquarters, a 19.7-acre property on River Street in Hackensack, is being sold to a well- known local developer who said he wants to build a high-end residential and retail community with more than 500 apartments and a hotel." The New Jersey Naval Museum is home to the World War II submarine USS Ling, a Balao class submarine, and several smaller water vessels and artifacts. The museum was open select weekdays for group tours.Keegan, Matthew. Hackensack, New Jersey: 300 Years of Modern History . Accessed August 25, 2013. In July and August 2018, several individuals broke in to the submarine attempting to steal artifacts and caused extensive flooding that severely damaged the vessel.Nobile, Tom. "Charges upgraded for five suspects in USS Ling vandalism", The Record, July 23, 2019. Accessed October 2, 2019. "Authorities have upped charges against five people accused of burglarizing the USS Ling in Hackensack, who are now charged with flooding the historic submarine during two break-ins last summer, allegedly causing damage in the hundreds of thousands, according to the submarine’s trustees. An eight-count indictment from July 9 added counts of conspiracy and knowingly causing a flood, both second-degree crimes, to the burglary and criminal mischief charges the five so-called urban explorers faced for allegedly stealing artifacts from the WWII-era vessel." The Hackensack Cultural Arts Center, located at 39 Broadway, is the city's leading theater arts institution and houses many local arts groups such as the Teaneck Theater Company and the Hackensack Theater Company. The facility also serves as the summer indoor location for the Hudson Shakespeare Company in case of rain. Otherwise, the group performs outdoors at Staib Park, with two "Shakespeare Wednesdays" per month for each month of the summer.Ciccarelli, Jon. Venues, Hudson Shakespeare Company. Accessed October 2, 2014. The Shops at Riverside (formerly known as Riverside Square Mall), is an upscale shopping center located at the intersection of Route 4 and Hackensack Avenue at the northern edge of the city along the Hackensack River near its border with River Edge to the north and with Teaneck across the river. The mall, which has undergone a significant expansion, is anchored by a number of high-end department stores and restaurants, including Bloomingdale's, Tiffany & Co., Pottery Barn and Barnes & Noble, offering a gross leasable area of ."The Shops at Riverside", Malls and Outlets. Accessed December 8, 2013. The mall also added an AMC Theatres dine-in movie theater on September 13, 2017, which replaced the former Saks Fifth Avenue storeFirst look: New AMC dine-in theatre in Hackensack. northjersey.com. Accessed September 12, 2017. that opened in 1977 and closed down in 2014.Ma, Myles. "Saks Fifth Avenue to close store in Shops at Riverside in Hackensack", NJ Advance Media for NJ.com, October 21, 2014. Accessed April 14, 2021. "Saks Fifth Avenue plans to close its store in the Shops at Riverside later this year.... The Hackensack store opened in February 1977." The mall is known for its marble floors and attracts a great many upper-income shoppers from Manhattan and Northern Bergen County. Hackensack's Main Street is devoted to shopping and includes some of the city's iconic landmarks, including the United Jersey Bank headquarters building and the former Woolworth site that is now a housewares store. The only remaining major store on Hackensack's Main Street had been Sears Roebuck and Co., which was located on the corner of Main and Anderson Streets. In July 2020, Sears announced that it would close its store in Hackensack. The site is close to the Anderson Street train station, and has been open since the 1930s.South, Todd. "A brand new world downtown in Hackensack, which appears set for remake", The Record, December 27, 2014. Accessed August 31, 2015. Bergen County Jail is a detention center for both sentenced and unsentenced prisoners. It is located on South River Street. The County is in the process of moving the County Police from the northern end of the city to a new site across from the Jail. The former site will be redeveloped as a "transit village" complex associated with the New Bridge Landing station in adjoining River Edge.Burrow, Megan. "Vision for Kinderkamack Road corridor taking shape", Town News, May 3, 2011. Accessed November 8, 2011. "Transit Village, a proposed joint project between River Edge and New Jersey Transit, has received interest from six developers. The project would consist of mixed-use buildings housing residential units, retail and office space, and a parking garage near the New Bridge Landing train station." The city's Johnson Public Library at 274 Main Street is a member of the Bergen County Cooperative Library System. The library opened in 1901 with a gift from State Senator William M. Johnson.History of the Johnson Public Library in Hackensack, Johnson Public Library. Accessed October 26, 2013. Ice House is a complex with four full-sized skating rinks that opened in 1996. It is home to the New Jersey Avalanche mainstreamed and special needs hockey teams and several high school hockey teams, in addition to being the home rink of gold medalists Sarah Hughes, Elena Bereznaia and Anton Sikharulidze.About Us , Ice House. Accessed October 26, 2013. At the 2018 Winter Olympics, there were 11 Olympic figure skaters—from Israel, Switzerland, Slovakia, Canada, and Australia—who trained at the Ice House for the ladies' singles, men's singles, pairs and ice dance competitions.Shkolnikova. Svetlana. "Winter Olympics: How figure skaters with North Jersey ties fared in Pyeongchang", The Record, February 21, 2018. Accessed October 2, 2019.Shkolnikova, Svetlana. "Winter Olympics: Who are the Ice House Olympians?", The Record, January 26, 2018. Accessed October 2, 2019. "The 11 athletes heading to Pyeongchang from the Ice House in Hackensack will represent five countries — Israel, Switzerland, Slovakia, Canada and Australia — in the ladies' singles, men's singles, pairs and ice dance competitions at the 2018 Winter Olympics." Other points of interest within the city include the Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack River County Park, Bowler City Bowling Lanes, Borg's Woods Nature Preserve, the Bergen County Court House and the Bergen Museum of Art & Science. ==Local media== Radio station WNYM at 970 AM, is licensed to Hackensack and has its transmitter in the city. The station is currently owned by Salem Communications with a conservative talk format.Application Search Details, Federal Communications Commission. Accessed December 8, 2013. During the 1970s, it played a Top 40 music radio format for several years, competing with Top 40 powerhouse 77 WABC. == In popular culture == Hackensack has been mentioned in the lyrics of songs by several musical artists, many of whom have lived in New Jersey or New York City. The town was home to the original Van Gelder recording studio at 25 Prospect AvenueDan Skea "Rudy Van Gelder in Hackensack: Defining the Jazz Sound in the 1950s" , Musicological Studies, 71/72, Spring 2001-Spring 2002, p. 54-76 where the jazz musicians Sonny Rollins and Thelonious Monk recorded some of their landmark work. Monk recorded a tribute to Rudy Van Gelder entitled "Hackensack". Other notable examples of Hackensack in songs include: * The 1929 Billy Murray/Walter Scanlan recording of "Shut the Door" has the lines, "I live out in Hackensack in a place down by the sea. (Oh, you live out in Hackensack. Well, don't blame that on me!)" despite the fact that Hackensack is a dozen miles from the sea, and on the other side of the Hudson. * "I Happen to Like New York" by Cole Porter, written in 1930 for the musical The New Yorkers. * "Back In Hackensack, New Jersey" which was written in 1924."Back In Hackensack, New Jersey" * "Roller Derby Queen" by Jim Croce, describes the tough titular character in the song as "She's my big blonde bomber, my heavy handed Hackensack mama." * "Daddy Don't Live in That New York City No More" by Steely Dan from their 1975 album Katy Lied includes the rhyme "Driving like a fool out to Hackensack/Drinking his dinner from a paper sack". * Fountains of Wayne, "Hackensack" (Welcome Interstate Managers, 2003) which was also covered by Katy Perry, 2009.Montgomery, James. "Katy Perry's MTV Unplugged Album Will Feature Two New Songs; The never-before-released 'Brick by Brick' and a cover of Fountains of Wayne's 'Hackensack' will be included on CD/DVD set.", MTV.com, October 12, 2009. Accessed August 30, 2017. "Featured in the package are rearranged takes on hits like 'I Kissed a Girl,' Waking Up in Vegas,' 'Thinking of You' and a pair of brand-new songs: Perry's version of the Fountains of Wayne's 'Hackensack' and a never-before-released original 'Brick by Brick.'". * Johnny Cash, "I've Been Everywhere" (Unchained) a 1996 cover of a number 1 hit in Country Music in November 1962 in the United States by Hank Snow. * Peter Schickele (under the pseudonym P. D. Q. Bach), "O Little Town of Hackensack", a parody of the traditional carol "O Little Town of Bethlehem".Choral Christmas Carols, The Peter Schieckele P.D.Q. Bach Web Site. Accessed May 28, 2013. * "Movin' Out (Anthony's Song)" by Billy Joel includes the lines "Who needs a house out in Hackensack? Is that all you get for your money?" * "Lost In Hollywood" by System of a Down includes the lyrics, "The lines in the letter said, 'We have gone to Hackensack'". * Tom Rush's 2018 song "If I Never Get Back to Hackensack" pokes gentle fun at the town and mentions various other places in New Jersey.Lustig, Jay. "‘If I Never Get Back to Hackensack,’ Tom Rush", NJArts.net, April 19, 2020. Accessed May 28, 2023. "Veteran singer-songwriter Tom Rush’s 'If I Never Get Back to Hackensack' joins the small club of novelty songs that take advantage of the large number of weird New Jersey town names (such as Dave Van Ronk’s 'Garden State Stomp' and Steve Forbert’s 'Strange Names (New Jersey’s Got 'Em)')." Hackensack also appears in movies, video games, books and television. * In the 2001 film Zoolander, Mugatu is threated by someone saying "Perhaps you'd like to go back to turning out novelty neck ties in Hackensack." * In the 1978 film Superman: The Movie, Hackensack was to have been ground zero for a nuclear missile launched by Lex Luthor (Gene Hackman), as Superman (Christopher Reeve) is slowly dying from exposure to kryptonite. This however prompts Luthor's secretary, Eve Teschmacher, to save Superman's life, after making him promise to save her mother, a Hackensack resident.Borg, Stephen A. "An Armenian story: Charles Agemian", (201) magazine, backed up by the Internet Archive as of March 3, 2016. Accessed November 2, 2019. "In the 1978 movie, Superman, Lex Luthor (Gene Hackman) boasts to Superman (Christopher Reeve) that Hackensack is the target of one of two missiles he has fired to reap destruction on planet Earth." * In the 1954 film Rear Window directed by Alfred Hitchcock, L.B. Jefferies' (Jimmy Stewart) maid, Stella (Thelma Ritter), muses that she had handled enough rhodium tri-eckonol pills to "put everybody in Hackensack to sleep for the winter." She makes the statement while she and Jefferies spy on his neighbors, one of which was laying out on a table a set of pills in an apparent contemplation of suicide. * The 1985 film Brewster's Millions starred Richard Pryor, who played a pitcher for the Hackensack Bulls, a fictional minor-league baseball team that plays in a stadium where a railroad track runs across the outfield.Blowen, Michael. "Pryor Steals 'Brewster's Millions'", The Boston Globe, May 22, 1985. Accessed May 5, 2008. "Pitcher Montgomery Brewster (Richard Pryor), a dead ringer for Satchel Paige until he throws the ball, plays for the Hackensack Bulls in the mythical Jersey League." *The 1997 game Grand Theft Auto features the district of Hackenslash, based on Hackensack. * In the 1998 film Bride of Chucky, Chucky's human body is said to be buried in a fictional Hackensack cemetery.Van Gelder, Lawrence. "Film Review; Carrying a Torch for a Malevolent Doll", The New York Times, October 17, 1998. Accessed August 26, 2018. "Bride of Chucky, directed this time by Ronny Yu, splatters blood, piles up corpses and puts two star-crossed young lovers in peril before it reaches the inevitable conclusion (in a Hackensack, N.J. graveyard) that suggests that the family of Chucky films that began in 1988 with Child's Play is prepared to grow yet again." *The 2013 film Don Jon starring and directed by Joseph Gordon-Levitt was filmed in Hackensack. The Church of St. Anthony of Padua, located on S. Main Street, can be seen in the movie.Gerace, Joseph M. "Upcoming Don Jon Filmed on Location in Bergen County", Teaneck Patch, September 20, 2013. Accessed August 26, 2018. "While you never know what's going to make it into a final cut, multiple sources reported last year that the film—starring, directed and written by Joseph Gordon-Levitt—shot on location in Hackensack." *In the 1997 film adaptation Private Parts, when Howard Stern leaves WCCC for WWWW, he is speaking to DJ Fred Norris from a vehicle parked in front of 299 Main Street. The camera pans out and stores are seen in the backdrop as Howard Stern drives off.Cowen, Richard. "Hackensack, DJ make peace; Stern reschedules film shoot", The Record, August 1, 1996. Accessed November 4, 2021, via Newspapers.com. "It seems controversy follows Howard Stern everywhere he goes and doesn't go. In this case, the controversy is on Main Street in Hackensack, where Stern was supposed to be on July 8 to film a scene for the movie, Private Parts, based on his best-selling auto- biography." *The 2021 horror television series Chucky uses Hackensack as the main plot location. It was also revealed to be the hometown of the main antagonist of the series, Charles Lee "Chucky" Ray, in which he grew up.Atkinson, John. "Why Chucky Chose To Target Hackensack, New Jersey; Chucky sees the killer doll go to Hackensack, New Jersey. Here's how it ties to his origin and the reason it's a fitting locale for a final showdown.", Screen Rant, October 14, 2021. Accessed November 4, 2021. ==Notable people== People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Hackensack include: * Enzo Amore (born 1986 as Eric Arndt), former professional wrestler; worked for WWELocicero, Anthony. "Where are they now? Former Waldwick football player Eric Arndt" , The Record, June 11, 2013. Accessed December 17, 2014. "So now, eight years after graduating from Waldwick High School, Arndt is living his dream." * Phil Arnold (1909–1968), actorTwomey, Alfred E.; and McClure, Arthur F. "The versatiles:a study of supporting character actors and actresses in the American motion picture, 1930–1955", p. 32. A. S. Barnes, 1969. Accessed May 28, 2013. "Phil Arnold was born in Hackensack, New Jersey, and appeared in many amateur contests around Bayonne, New Jersey, in which 'he won them all.'" * Carol Arthur (1935–2020), actress who played a number of supporting roles in films by Mel BrooksStaff. Contemporary Theatre, Film, and Television: Volume 46, p. 90. Gale Research, 2003. . Accessed October 26, 2013. "DeLuise, Carol 1935– (Carol Arthur) Personal: Original name, Carol Arata; born August 4, 1935, in Hackensack, NJ; married Dom DeLuise (an actor), November 23, 1965"Attrino, Anthony G. "N.J.'s Carol Arthur Deluise, widow of Dom Deluise, dies in California after long illness", NJ Advance Media for NJ.com, November 5, 2020. Accessed November 5, 2020. "Born Carol Arata in Hackensack, she lived in East Rutherford and was the daughter of a police lieutenant in the borough." * Pete Athas (1946–2015), cornerback who played for the New York Giants during his six NFL seasonsStaff. "Giants Drop Athas, Add Two; Vote on Strike Looms in N.F.L.; Wells, Boone Join Team Hunter Quits", The New York Times, September 11, 1975. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Pete Athas, starter at left cornerback since 1971, was dropped yesterday as the New York Giants continued to move out the old guard.... Athas, who will be 28 years old on Monday was born in Hackensack, N. J." * Barton Lidice Beneš (1942–2012), artistVitello, Paul. "Barton Lidice Benes, Provocative Artist, Dies at 69", The New York Times, June 18, 2012. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Barton Lidice Benes was born in Hackensack, N.J. on Nov. 16, 1942, the son of Marie and Richard Benes." * Ellsworth P. Bertholf (1866–1921), Commandant of the Coast Guard from 1915–1919Kroll, C. Douglas. Commodore Ellsworth P. Bertholf : first Commandant of the Coast Guard, Naval Institute Press, 2002. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Shortly after this birth the family moved across the Hudson River from New York City into the bustling New Jersey village of Hackensack. By this time Ellsworth had received the nickname 'Todd,' by which he would be known throughout his childhood." * James Black (1800–1872), blacksmith who is credited with creating the Bowie knifeGwaltney, Francis Irby. "A Survey of Historic Washington, Arkansas", Arkansas Historical Quarterly; Volume 17, Winter 1955, p. 339. Accessed October 26, 2013. "But the principal character in the story of the Bowie Knife is not James Bowie of Vadalia, Memphis, and the Alamo. It is James Black of Washington, Arkansas.... James Black was born in Hackensack, New Jersey, May 1, 1800." * David Boll (born 1953), cyclist who competed in the individual road race event at the 1976 Summer OlympicsDavid Boll, Sports Reference. Accessed September 13, 2015. * Debby Boone (born 1956), singervia Knight News Service. "Debby Boone feels comfortable with a country label", Lakeland Ledger, February 10, 1981. Accessed April 4, 2012. "The third of four daughters of Pat and Shirley Boone (Red Foley, who died in 1968, was Shirley's father), Debby was born in Hackensack, N.J., but her family moved to Los Angeles when she was 4." * Warren Boroson (born 1935), author and journalistWarren Boroson; Author and Journalist . Accessed June 2, 2007.Boroson, Warren. "The case for consulting the Value Line Investment Survey" , NewJerseyNewsroom.com, August 31, 2009. Accessed April 4, 2012. "Yes, a subscription to either publication is very expensive, but you can always patronize that horrible socialist institution, a public library, to read them. In Hackensack, where I live, when you ask for permission to examine Value Line, the librarians insist that you leave your driver's license with them – lest you drive off with Value Line to parts unknown." * Adam Boyd (1746–1835), represented New Jersey in Congress from 1803 to 1805, and again from 1808 to 1813Adam Boyd, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed August 22, 2007. * Glenn Britt (1949–2014), CEO of Time Warner Cable from 2001 to December 2013Henry, David; and Sherman, Alex. "Glenn Britt, Who Raised Time Warner Cable Shares, Dies at 65", Bloomberg Businessweek, June 11, 2014. Accessed December 14, 2015. "Glenn Alan Britt was born on March 6, 1949, in Hackensack, New Jersey, to parents Walter E. Britt and Helen Crupi, according to Marquis Who's Who." * David Brock (born 1962), Neo-Liberal political operative, author and commentator who founded the media watchdog group Media Matters for AmericaLei, Richard. "The Reliable Source", The Washington Post, August 1, 2004. Accessed November 25, 2017. "David Brock... Born: July 23, 1962, in Hackensack, N.J.; grew up on Windsor Street and Sussex Road in Wood-Ridge, N.J." * Hector Luis Bustamante (born 1972), Colombian-American actorStaff. "Award-winning Actor Hector Bustamante Guests on Eye on Entertainment on Time Warner Cable", Newswire, June 2, 2010. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Bustamante began his acting career in high school (Hackensack, NJ) but was discouraged after being told by an acting teacher that his thick accent would never allow him to be a professional actor." * Oleksii Bychenko (born 1988), Ukrainian-born Israeli Olympic figure skater who competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics * Cody Calafiore (born 1990), reality television personality who was runner up on Big Brother 16Staff. "Hackensack native joins 'Big Brother' cast", The Record, June 20, 2014. Accessed December 17, 2014. "Cody Calafiore of Hackensack is among the 16 'Houseguests' competing on the new season of Big Brother, which premieres 8 p.m. Wednesday and Thursday on CBS. Calafiore, 23, is a sales account executive who currently lives in Howell." * Frank Capsouras (born 1947), weightlifter who represented the United States in the men's heavyweight event at the 1972 Summer OlympicsFrank Capsouras, Sports Reference. Accessed January 18, 2020. "Born: January 29, 1947 (Age 72.354, YY.DDD) in Hackensack, New Jersey, United States" * Philip Carey (1925–2009), actor who starred in One Life to Livevia Associated Press. "Phil Carey, 83, Longtime One Life to Live Star, Dies", The New York Times, February 13. 2009. Accessed April 4, 2012. "Born Eugene Joseph Carey on July 15, 1925, in Hackensack, N.J., Mr. Carey began his film career with a part in Operation Pacific, starring John Wayne." * George Cassedy (1783–1842), member of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey who served from 1821–1827Cassedy, George, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed October 26, 2013. * Vinny Ciurciu (born 1980), linebacker who has played in the NFL with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Carolina Panthers, Minnesota Vikings and Detroit LionsVinny Ciurciu, National Football League. Accessed October 26, 2013. * Austen Crehore (1893–1962), World War I pilot in the Armée de l'Air and the recipient of the Legion of Honor and Croix de Guerre with two palmsQuarter-centenary Record of the Class of 1885, Yale University: Covering the Thirty-one Years from Its Admission Into the Academic Department, 1881–1912, p. 365. Yale University Class of 1885. Accessed September 13, 2015. * Dave Davis (1942–2022), professional ten- pin bowler; 1967 PBA Player of the Year and PBA Hall of FamerDave Davis, Professional Bowlers Association. Accessed April 10, 2011. "Through all his years of Tour competition dating back to 1963, Davis, a tall, slim lefty from Hackensack, N.J., won 18 career Tour titles, amassed official earnings of $912,765, and also found time to serve on the PBA's various committees, including the all-important Tournament Committee and Executive Board." * Christopher Dell (born 1956), diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Kosovo, Angola and ZimbabweDi Lellio, Anna. "Interview with Christopher Dell", Oral History Kosovo, August 27, 2018. Accessed January 19, 2021. "Christopher Dell: So I was born in Hackensack, which is very close to New York. My family was from Palisades Park, which you probably know being from New York." * Anthony DiCosmo (born 1977), gridiron football playerAnthony DiCosmo, all-xfl.com. Accessed March 31, 2016. * Harold Dow (1947–2010), correspondent on 48 HoursHarold Dow profile, 48 Hours. Accessed October 11, 2007. "Dow was born in Hackensack, N.J. He attended the University of Nebraska at Omaha."Fields, Walter. "Opinion: Harold Dow: He never forgot his roots", The Record, August 24, 2010. Accessed April 4, 2012. "When someone who is still relatively young dies suddenly, it is cliché to suggest that it was 'too soon.' In the case of CBS News correspondent Harold Dow, the cliché is appropriate. Dow, a product of Hackensack and a source of pride in the community, still had much to give a profession that is in dire need of the character and purpose this award-winning journalist brought to his craft." * John Fenn (1917–2010), chemist who was a co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 for his work in mass spectrometryFenn, John. "John B. Fenn – Biographical", Nobel Prize. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Our home was in Hackensack, N.J., next door to Lodi and County Seat of Bergen County. I was born in New York City in 1917 and three plus years later my brother Norman arrived in Paterson, N.J. where two of mother's brothers were surgeons." * F. Scott Fitzgerald, went to the prep school, the Newman School, in Hackensack in 1911Ellis, Robert. "F. Scott Fitzgerald's Hackensack days", The Record, January 5, 2004. Accessed November 11, 2015. "He had come to Jersey City from Hackensack. Before Scott Fitzgerald, young, unpublished, unknown, became Scott Fitzgerald, chronicler of the Jazz Age whose gin, bootleggers, speakeasies, and morning-after squint he illuminated, before Scott and his wife Zelda caroused in the fountain at The Plaza Hotel, before all the novels that would eventually make him the quintessentially American novelist of his generation, there was only Scott and Hackensack, his true lost city."Fitzgerald, Francis Scott; Bruccoli, Matthew Joseph; Baughman, Judith. Conversations with F. Scott Fitzgerald, P. 35. University of Missouri Press, 2004. . Accessed November 11, 2015. * Jim Finn (born 1976), New York Giants fullbackZinser, Lynn. "Pro Football; For Giants' Finn, There's No Place Like Home", The New York Times, September 6, 2003. Accessed April 4, 2012. "At 26, Finn has come home. He lives in Hackensack, N.J., a short drive from the stadium and a short drive from his family." * Dave Fiore (born 1974), offensive lineman for the San Francisco 49ers and the Washington RedskinsDave Fiore profile , database Football. Accessed June 14, 2007.Staff. "Raiders, 49ers Await Decision", Contra Costa Times, September 12, 2001. Accessed April 4, 2012. "Tuesday also was the regular day off for the 49ers, though a few players did briefly show up at the team's Santa Clara headquarters, including safety Lance Schulters and right guard Dave Fiore, who grew up in Brooklyn, NY, and Hackensack, NJ, respectively." * Percy Keese Fitzhugh (1876–1950), author of many popular children's books"Fitzhugh, Author, Is Victim Of Stroke At Oradell Home", copy of article from The Record, July 7, 1950. Accessed April 2, 2008. * Silvia Fontana (born 1976), figure skater who represented Italy at the 2006 Winter Olympics in TurinWojnarowski, Adrian. "Fontana fulfilling dream in Italy", The Record, February 21, 2006. Accessed April 4, 2012. "Figure skater Silvia Fontana, right, a resident of Hackensack, enjoying a break from training with her coach, Robin Wagner." * Chet Forte (1935–1996), television director and sports radio talk show hostStaff. "Chet Forte, 60, Is Dead; An Innovative TV Director", The New York Times, May 20, 1996. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Fulvio Chester Forte Jr. was born Aug. 7, 1935, in Hackensack, N.J., the only child of a sports-loving mother and a physician. The class president at Hackensack High School, he became an all-America player at Columbia despite being 5 feet 7 inches and 145 pounds." * Donald Frankos (1938–2011), contract killer and mob associate of the Lucchese crime familyForbus, Jason. Contract Killing in the Information Age, p. 22. Lulu Press, 2015. . Accessed March 31, 2016. "Frankos was born in 1938 in Hackensack, New Jersey, to a Greek father and an Italian mother." * Bob Franks (1951–2010), represented from 1993–2001Schudel, Matt. "Bob Franks, four-term congressman from N.J., dies at 58", The Washington Post, April 12, 2010. Accessed October 26, 2013. "Robert Douglas Franks was born in Hackensack, N.J., and graduated from DePauw University in Indiana. He received a law degree from Southern Methodist University in Dallas in 1976, then returned to New Jersey to work as a political consultant." * Mike Fratello (born 1947), NBA coach and TV commentatorMike Fratello, Basketball-Reference.com. Accessed November 1, 2007.Broussard, Chris. "Pro Basketball; Nets Might Withdraw Offer To Jackson and Hire Casey", The New York Times, June 4, 1999. Accessed April 3, 2012. "Tuesday's surprising firing of Coach Mike Fratello by the Cleveland Cavaliers provoked thought among the members of the search committee, but Fratello, a Hackensack, N.J., native, is a long shot at best." * Dean Gallo (1935–1994), represented from 1985 until his deathKuzma, David. "Inventory to the Dean A. Gallo Congressional Papers", Rutgers University. Accessed October 26, 2013. "1935: On November 23rd, Dean Anderson Gallo is born in Hackensack, New Jersey." * Elene Gedevanishvili (born 1990), figure skater who represented the nation of Georgia at the 2010 Winter Olympics in VancouverIorfida, Chris. "Rochette 3rd behind Kim, Asada", CBC Sports, February 24, 2010. Accessed April 10, 2011. "Gedevanishvili lives in Hackensack, N.J., training under former skater Robin Wagner, who coached 2002 gold medallist Sarah Hughes." * Norm Gigon (1938–2013), utility player who played for the Chicago Cubs in 1967Norm Gigon, Baseball-Reference.com. Accessed September 13, 2015. * Doug Glanville (born 1970), Major League Baseball outfielder who played for the Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago Cubs and the Texas Rangers; writer and broadcasterBorden, Sam. "Giambi one of many questions as Bombers return in 2005", New York Daily News, February 13, 2005. Accessed April 10, 2011. "The biggest competition this spring will be for the backup outfield spot, with incumbent Bubba Crosby trying to keep his job against several other candidates including Hackensack product Doug Glanville or the group of relievers (oft- injured Steve Karsay, among them) vying for a less visible role in the bullpen." * Junior Glymph (born 1980), linebacker who played in the NFL for the Atlanta Falcons and Dallas CowboysJunior Glymph, National Football League. Accessed October 26, 2013. * Navarro Gray (born 1979), lawyer best known for his accomplishments in the entertainment industry, including representing Fetty Wap"Hackensack appoints city's first African American public defender", Community News, September 20, 2013, backed up by the Internet Archive as of August 8, 2016. Accessed January 30, 2018. "Without realizing it, Navarro Gray made history when he was named the city’s public defender — becoming the first African-American to hold this position in Hackensack. Before graduating from Hampton University Cum Laude and Hofstra University School of Law, Gray attended Fairmont Elementary School and Hackensack High School — having graduated from the latter in 1997." * David Grisman (born 1945), mandolin playerLindsey, Caroline. "Veteran Musician Grisman Continues Innovation", Greensboro News & Record, August 14, 2003. Accessed July 5, 2008. * John Groninga (born 1945), politician who served in the Iowa House of Representatives from the 20th district from 1983 to 1993Representative John D. Groninga, Iowa General Assembly. Accessed January 13, 2021. "Born in Hackensack, N.J., May 5, 1945. Grew up in Butler County and graduated from Dumont High School, 1963." * Bill Hands (1940–2017), former Major League Baseball pitcher who played for the Chicago Cubs during his 11-year careerBill Hands, Baseball-Reference.com. Accessed June 1, 2015. * Chet Hanulak (1933–2021), former NFL running back who played for four seasons for the Cleveland BrownsChet Hanulak, NFL.com. Accessed July 12, 2016. * Harry Harper (1895–1963), Major League Baseball pitcher from 1913 to 1923Staff. "Harry Harper To Wed This Winter", The Day, Harry Harper, the left handed pitcher of the Washington baseball club, has been recently engaged to a Hackensack young woman... The wedding will take place during the winter at his hometown, Hackensack." * Archibald C. Hart (1873–1935), represented New Jersey's 6th congressional district from 1912–1913 and 1913–1917Archibald C. Hart, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed July 28, 2007.Staff. "Hart Wins Election M'Clave Defeated; Democrat Goes to Congress from Sixth Jersey District – Congratulated by Wilson.", The New York Times, July 23, 1913. Accessed April 4, 2012. "Archibald C. Hart of Hackensack, Bergen County, was chosen Congressman for the Sixth New Jersey district at the special election to-day to succeed the late Congressman James Martin of Sussex County." * Matt Herr (born 1976), ice hockey forward who played for parts of four NHL seasonsMatt Herr Legends of Hockey. Accessed December 18, 2007."Ex- NHL Player Matt Herr Named Executive Director Of UPMC Lemieux Sports Complex", Pittsburgh Penguins, May 5, 2015. Accessed September 13, 2015. "The native of Hackensack, NJ played 58 NHL games over parts of four seasons with the Washington Capitals, Florida Panthers and Boston Bruins." * Henry Kent Hewitt (1887–1972), United States Navy commander of amphibious operations in North Africa and southern Europe throughout World War IICherpak, Evelyn M., ed. The Memoirs of Admiral H. Kent Hewitt, p. 15. Naval War College Press, 2004. . Accessed September 13, 2015. "I was born on February 11, 1887, in my maternal grandfather's house on what was then known as Kent place on Polifly Road (or Terrace Avenue), about a tenth of a mile south of Essex Street in the southern outskirts of Hackensack, New Jersey." * John Huyler (1808–1870), represented in the United States House of Representatives from 1857–1859John Huyler, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed September 2, 2007. * Mark Ingram II (born 1989), Heisman Trophy winning running back and BCS National Champion at Alabama, who plays for the Baltimore RavensMark Ingram, National Football League. Accessed May 28, 2013. * Connor Jaeger (born 1991), competition swimmer who specializes in distance freestyle eventsConnor Jaeger, United States Olympic Committee. Accessed August 8, 2016. * Howie Janotta (1924–2010), professional basketball player who played for the Baltimore Bullets in 9 games during the 1949–50 NBA seasonHowie Janotta, Real GM. Accessed May 12, 2016. * Eric Karros (born 1967), Major League Baseball player and TV commentatorEric Karros Stats, Baseball Almanac. Accessed December 3, 2012.Downey, Mike. "Next Up For Tyson: Go, Xena!", Lakeland Ledger, August 8, 2004. Accessed December 5, 2012. "It's OK with me if Karros – who was born in Hackensack, N.J. – gets to play for the Greeks because of his heritage." * Lena Kleinschmidt (1835–after 1886), German-born New York criminal who was a prominent jewel thief during the late 19th centuryMalone, Noreen. "Jersey Housewife Nabbed Red-Handed; Yippy dogs, sticky fingers.", New York, April 1, 2012. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Make of it what you will that the woman crowned the 'Queen of Hackensack' was a petty thief with high-flying social aspirations and a taste for small yippy dogs who was eventually brought down by her gaudy taste in jewelry. It was in the 1860s, long before The Real Housewives of New Jersey, that Lena Kleinschmidt acquired her title." * Hailey Kops (born 2002), Israeli pair skaterHailey Esther Kops - Identity, The- Sports.org. Accessed December 29, 2021. "Place of residence : Hackensack (United States)" * Louis F. Kosco (born 1932), politician who served in both the New Jersey General Assembly and the New Jersey SenateManual of the Legislature of New Jersey, 2000, p. 241. Fitzgerald's, 2000. Accessed November 15, 2017. "Louis F. Kosco, Rep., Paramus - Assemblyman Kosco was born in Hackensack on June 5, 1932." * Harvey M. Krueger (1929–2017), investment banker who was CEO and President of Kuhn, Loeb & Co."Obituaries", Columbia College Today, Winter 2017-18. Accessed June 30, 2020. "Harvey M. Krueger, attorney, financial executive, New York City, on April 23, 2017. Raised in Hackensack, N.J., Krueger was legendary in Israeli business circles and was the first banker to bring Israel to the international capital markets." * Marc Kudisch (born 1966), stage actor"Marc Kudisch", Playbill. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Born: Sep 22, 1966 in Hackensack, NJ, USA" * Lauren Lake (born 1969), lawyer and presiding judge of Lauren Lake's Paternity CourtRohan, Virginia. "Ex-North Jersey lawyer presides over new show 'Paternity Court'", The Record, September 21, 2013. Accessed May 12, 2016. "She moved to Teaneck, Hackensack, then back to Teaneck, then Edgewater and Cliffside Park, while also practicing law in the area." * Rich LeFurgy (born ), advertising consultant and investorStaff. "Digital Media Masters; Rich Lefurgy", Advertising Age, September 23, 1996. Accessed September 12, 2017. "Title: VP-director of advertising and marketing, Starwave Corp., Seattle Age/bio: 40; born in Hackensack, N.J." * Coi Leray (born 1997), rapper and songwriterSeabrook III, Robby. "The Break Presents: Coi Leray", XXL, June 26, 2019. Accessed April 14, 2021. "Hometown: Hackensack, N.J." * William Alexander Linn (1846–1917), journalist and historianA Thousand American Men of Mark To-day, p. 260. Accessed November 15, 2017. "William Alexander Linn Lawyer, Banker, Author of Hackensack, N.J. was born Sept 4. 1846, in Sussex, N.J" * John Maessner (born 1969), soccer player and coach who played six seasons in Major League SoccerJohn Maessner, University of Central Missouri, November 1, 2014. Accessed May 12, 2016. "A native of Hackensack, New Jersey, Maessner graduated Virginia in 1992." * Roger Mandle (1941–2020), art historian, curator and academic administrator, who was president of the Rhode Island School of Design"Nomination of E. Roger Mandle To Be a Member of the National Council on the Arts", The American Presidency Project, September 8, 1988. Accessed December 2, 2020. "Mr. Mandle graduated from Williams College (B.A., 1963). He was born May 13, 1941, in Hackensack, NJ." * Hugh McCracken (1942–2013), rock guitarist and session musicianMartin, Douglas. "Hugh McCracken, 70, Who Made His Sound in Studios", The New York Times, April 6, 2013. Accessed August 26, 2018. "Hugh Carmine McCracken was born on March 31, 1942, in Glen Ridge, N.J., and grew up in nearby Hackensack." * James McEachin (born 1930), actor and authorDegener, Richard. "'Forgotten War' Remembered / Cape Korean War Vets Honored At Naval Air Station Wildwood", The Press of Atlantic City, May 9, 2004. Accessed April 3, 2012. "'We left in silence and returned in deeper silence,' James McEachin said. The Hollywood actor and author of six books was the featured speaker at Korea Day. The Hackensack native volunteered to go to Korea and in October 1951, after segregated basic training in Fort Dix with the Army's all-black 24th Regiment..." * Earl Schenck Miers (1910–1972), historian who wrote extensively about the American Civil WarStaff. "Earl Schenck Miers Dies at 62; Wrote on Civil War and Lincoln", The New York Times, November 19, 1972. Accessed August 26, 2018. "Edison, N.J. Nov. 18 – Earl Schenck Miers was born in Brooklyn on May 27, 1910, and grew up in Hackensack." * E. Frederic Morrow (–1994), the first African American to hold an executive position at the White House, when he served President Dwight Eisenhower as Administrative Officer for Special Projects from 1955 to 1961Saxon, Wolfgang. "E. Frederic Morrow, 88, Aide In Eisenhower Administration", The New York Times, July 21, 1994. Accessed November 25, 2017. "The son of a Methodist minister, Everett Frederic Morrow was born in Hackensack, N.J., and earned his bachelor and Doctor of Laws degrees at Rutgers University." * John H. Morrow (1910–2000), diplomat, who was appointed by President Dwight Eisenhower in 1959 as the first Ambassador to independent Guinea'Morrow, John Howard (1910-2000)", BlackPast.org. Accessed November 25, 2017. "He was born John Howard Morrow on February 5, 1910 in Hackensack, New Jersey to John and Mary Hayes Morrow." * Don Nelson (1927–2013), screenwriter, film producer and jazz musician, best known for his work on the sitcom The Adventures of Ozzie and HarrietKelly, Devin. "Don Nelson dies at 86; writer for 'Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet'; Screenwriter Don Nelson, younger brother of Ozzie Nelson, contributed to more than 200 episodes of the popular TV show 'Ozzie and Harriet.' He was also a jazz singer and saxophonist.", Los Angeles Times, September 11, 2013. Accessed May 11, 2017. "Donald Richard Nelson was born Jan. 20, 1927, in Hackensack, N.J., and grew up in the nearby borough of Tenafly." * Richard Cooper Newick (1926–2013), multihull sailboat designerMartin, Douglas. "Dick Newick, Sailboat Design Visionary, Dies at 87", The New York Times, September 15, 2013. Accessed September 27, 2015. "Richard Cooper Newick, who his family said died of heart failure, was born in Hackensack, N.J., on May 9, 1926. He grew up in Rutherford, N.J., where at age 10 he built two kayaks with his father and brother." * Donald Nichols (1923–1992), United States Air Force officer who worked in military intelligenceLeebaert, Derek. To Dare and to Conquer: Special Operations and the Destiny of Nations, from Achilles to Al Qaeda, p. 511. Little, Brown and Company, 2006. . Accessed May 12, 2016. "... 'Mister Nichols', a hefty, thirty-seven-year-old former motor-pool sergeant from Hackensack, New Jersey, with a sixth-grade education. Donald Nichols was known in the ghost world Donald Nichols was known in the ghost world where he thrived as 'Lawrence of Korea'..." * Dan Oates (born 1955), police chief of Miami Beach, FloridaNaanes, Marlene; and Koloff, Abbott. "Bergen County native leading investigation of Colorado theater massacre", The Record, July 23, 2012, backed up by the Internet Archive as of December 13, 2013. Accessed November 25, 2017. "Daniel Oates, who, as the chief of police in Aurora, Colo., is in charge of investigating the most extensive mass shooting in the nation's history, grew up in Midland Park.... Oates was born in Hackensack and lived in Oradell before his family moved to Midland Park, his parents said.... He graduated from St. Joseph's Regional High School in 1973 and attended college at Bucknell University in Pennsylvania, where he majored in English."Daniel Oates Resume. University of Colorado. Accessed July 27, 2013 * Frederick Albion Ober (1849–1913), naturalist and writerStaff. "Frederick A. Ober Dead.; Noted Ornithologist and Explorer, Who Discovered New Bird Species.", The New York Times, June 2, 1913. Accessed April 10, 2011. * Danny Oquendo (born 1987), wide receiver who played for the Maryland Terrapins football teamKoloff, Abbott. "Trouble again finds ex-Hackensack High School football standout", The Record, June 30, 2013. Accessed May 12, 2016. "As he prepared for the biggest break of his young life, Ausar Walcott told football players at his alma mater, Hackensack High School, about a bad decision that nearly cost him his football career." * Deborah Oropallo (born 1954), artist who is best known for her digital montagesDeborah Oropallo, Monterey Museum of Art. Accessed May 6, 2021. "Deborah Oropallo (Hackensack, NJ, 1954 - ) American" * William A. Pailes (born 1952), United States Air Force astronaut in the Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program during the mid-1980s whi served as a Payload Specialist on STS-51-J Atlantis (October 3–7, 1985)Payload Specialist Astronaut Bio: William A. Pailes, NASA. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Born June 26, 1952, in Hackensack, New Jersey, but considers Kinnelon, New Jersey, to be his hometown." * John B. Paolella (born 1949), politician who represented the 38th Legislative District in both houses of the New Jersey LegislatureStaff. Fitzgerald's Legislative Manual, 1984, p. 233. Accessed August 12, 2019. "John B. Paolella, Rep., Hackensack - Senator Paolella was born in Hackensack Feb. 14, 1949. He attended Bergen Catholic High School in Oradell, and studied psychology at Harvard University, where he was graduated with honors in 1971." * Nellie Morrow Parker (1902–1998), first African American school teacher in Bergen County, New Jersey, and the namesake of Nellie K. Parker Elementary SchoolBurstyn, Joan N. Past and Promise; Lives of New Jersey Women, p. 373. Syracuse University Press, 1996. . Accessed November 25, 2017. "Nelle Katherine (Morrow) Parker was the first African-American public school teacher in Bergen County, NJ.... Parker was born August 27, 1902, in Hackensack, NJ, the second child and only daughter of John Eugene and Mary Ann (Hayes) Morrow." * Randi Patterson (born 1985), former professional soccer player"Randi Patterson Named Second Team All-American by College Soccer News", UNCG Spartans, March 28, 2005. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Patterson, a native of Hackensack, NJ, was named the 2004 Southern Conference Player of the Year where he led the league in goals scored (19) and points (46)." * Randolph E. Paul (1890–1956), lawyer specializing in tax law who has been credited as "...an architect of the modern tax system"Staff. "Randolph E. Paul Dies At Hearing; Roosevelt Adviser on Taxes Stricken While Testifying on U.S. Fiscal Policy Began as Phone Operator", The New York Times, February 7, 1956. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Mr. Paul was born in hackensack, N. J., Aug. 8, 1890, and worked his way through Amherst College." * Bill Peck (–2017), football player and coach who was head coach of the Middle Tennessee Blue Raiders football team in the 1970sWilliams, Joe. "63 years into coaching career, Mount Dora assistant, 86, exudes youthful enthusiasm", Orlando Sentinel, August 6, 2013. Accessed December 11, 2018. "A native of Hackensack, N.J., Peck quit high school after his junior year in 1943 to enlist in the Army." * Melissa Perello (born 1976), chefRising Star Chef Melissa Perello of Frances - Biography, StarChefs, November 2011. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Born in Hackensack, New Jersey, Perello knew at a young age that she wanted to be a chef." * Stan Pitula (1931–1965), right-handed pitcher who played for the Cleveland IndiansSmith, Steve. Stan Pitula, Society for American Baseball Research. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Stanley Pitula Jr. was born March 23, 1931, in Hackensack, New Jersey." * Charles Lane Poor (1866–1951), astronomy professor, noted for his opposition to Albert Einstein's theory of relativityThe National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, p. 224. J. T. White Company, 1910. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Poor, Charles Lane, astronomer and scientist, was born in Hackensack, N. J., Jan. 18, 1866." * Willie Prall (born 1950), pitcher who appeared in three games in 1950 for the Chicago CubsWillie Prall, Baseball-Reference.com. Accessed May 12, 2016. * George Prévost (1767–1816), British Army officer and colonial administratorSir George Prévost, National Park Service. Accessed May 12, 2016. "Place of Birth: Hackensack, Colony of New Jersey" * Jahvon Quinerly (born 1998), college basketball player for the Alabama Crimson Tide men's basketball teamJahvon Quinerly, Alabama Crimson Tide men's basketball. Accessed March 30, 2021. "Hometown: Hackensack, N.J." * Alice Huyler Ramsey (1886–1983), first woman to drive across the United States from coast to coastAmerica on the Move: Other Early Trips, Smithsonian Institution. Accessed May 12, 2016. "In 1909, Alice Huyler Ramsey, of Hackensack, New Jersey, became the first woman to drive across the United States." * John R. Ramsey (1862–1933), politician who represented New Jersey's 6th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1917 to 1921Official Congressional Directory, Volume 65, p. 65. United States Congress. Accessed May 12, 2016. "John Rathbone Ramsey, Republican, of Hackensack, was born at Wyckoff, N. J., April 25, 1862, the son of John F. and Martha (Rathbone) Ramsey, and spent much of his early life with his maternal grandfather John V. Rathbone in Parkersburg, W. Va. where he received a private-school education." * David Remnick (born 1958), journalist, writer, and magazine editor who won a Pulitzer Prize in 1994 for his book Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet EmpireFrank, Steve. "Goodbye to 'The New Yorker'", The Jerusalem Post, April 30, 2012. Accessed May 12, 2016. "One can only surmise that Remnick is working out his own conflicted identity issues (Remnick was born of Jewish parents in Hackensack, New Jersey) on the company dime." * Hezly Rivera (born 2008), artistic gymnastHezly Rivera, USA Gymnastics, Accessed May 9, 2023. "Birthplace: Hackensack, NJ; Hometown: Oradell, NJ" * Joe Rizzo (born 1998), professional baseball third basemanJoe Rizzo, Minor League Baseball. Accessed November 16, 2022. "Born: 3/31/1998 in Hackensack, NJ" * Nicholas Romayne (1756–1817), physicianLossing, Benson John. History of New York City: Embracing an Outline Sketch of Events from 1609 to 1830, and a Full Account of Its Development from 1830 to 1884, Volume 1, p. 119. A.S. Barnes & Company, 1884. Accessed May 17, 2016. "Nicholas Romayne, M.D., was born in Hackensack, N.J., in September 1756 and studied medicine under Dr. Peter Wilson." * Hatch Rosdahl (1941–2004), football player who played for the Buffalo Bills and Kansas City ChiefsGavin, John A. "Harrison 'Hatch' Rosdahl, ex-pro football player, at 62", The Record, June 18, 2004. Accessed July 31, 2014. "Ridgefield Park – Harrison 'Hatch' Rosdahl, a professional football player for seven years, died from injuries suffered in a fall at his home Tuesday. He was 62. Mr. Rosdahl was born in Hackensack." * Jason Rullo (born 1972), professional drummer, one of the founding members of progressive metal band Symphony XMike Portnoy, amazingdrumgod.blogspot.com, September 22, 2007. Accessed November 2, 2013Staff. drumstudio.ca . Accessed November 2, 2013 * Alfred D. Schiaffo (1920–1988), politician who served in the New Jersey Senate from the 13th district from 1968 to 1973"Alfred D. Schiaffo, 68, Judge and Politician", The New York Times, November 8, 1988. Accessed May 17, 2020. "Alfred D. Schiaffo, a judge in New Jersey Superior Court and a former Republican majority leader of the State Senate, died Saturday at Englewood (N.J.) Hospital after a brief illness. He was 68 years old and lived in Hackensack." * Wally Schirra (1923–2007), NASA astronaut, one of the original seven astronauts chosen for Project MercuryAbout Wally, WallySchirra.com. Accessed May 18, 2016. "Born March 12, 1923, in Hackensack, New Jersey."Savage, Brett. "Jersey's Other Space Pioneer: Wally Schirra; To commemorate Jersey astronaut Wally Schirrra's historic first mission in space, we present a list of his notable space-age achievements.", New Jersey Monthly, September 10, 2012. Accessed May 17, 2016. "That honor belongs to Hackensack-born Wally Schirra, who on October 3, 1962, became the fifth American to orbit the earth as part of the original Project Mercury team." * Walter G. Schroeder (1927–2021), politician who was a member of the Oregon House of Representatives from 1985 to 1993"Extension Oral History Project - Walt Schroeder – Part 1", Oregon Digital, October 28, 2007. Accessed May 17, 2016. "Well, I was born in a little town, at that time, called Hackensack, New Jersey which was the county seat of Bergen County." * Dave Scott (born 1953), offensive lineman who played for the Atlanta FalconsDave Scott , database Football. Accessed January 16, 2008. * Chris Smalls (born 1988/1989), labor organizer known for his role in leading Amazon worker organization in the New York City borough of Staten IslandStaff. "The 2021 New York City 40 Under 40 Recognizing the next generation of rising stars in city politics.", City & State, October 12, 2021. Accessed February 20, 2022. "Before he made headlines organizing at an Amazon warehouse, Chris Smalls hoped to become a professional basketball player. The Hackensack, New Jersey, native was a three-sport athlete in high school before he was run over while he worked as a car attendant." * Robert Stiles (born 1959), field hockey player who competed in the men's tournament at the 1984 Summer OlympicsBob Stiles, Sports-Reference.com. Accessed October 15, 2019. "Born: September 12, 1959 (Age 60.033, YY.DDD) in Hackensack, New Jersey, United States" * Adel Tankova (born 2000), Ukrainian-born Israeli Olympic figure skater who competed at the 2018 Winter OlympicsAdel TANKOVA / Ronald ZILBERBERG, International Skating Union. Accessed February 17, 2018. * Warren Terhune (1869–1920), United States Navy Commander and the 13th Governor of American SamoaStaff. "Samoan Governor Commits Suicide; Naval Commander Terhune of Hackensack, N.J., Shoots Himself When Suspended. was to face an inquiry Troubles with Natives Led to Charges Against His Administration There.", The New York Times, November 6, 1920. Accessed May 17, 2016. * Russell Thacher (1919–1990), author and film producer who co-produced the films Soylent Green and The Last Hard Men together with Walter SeltzerStaff. "Russell Thacher, 71, Producer and Writer", The New York Times, October 4, 1990. Accessed November 25, 2017. "He was born in Hackensack, N.J., and was a graduate of Bucknell University. In World War II, he served as an ensign in the Navy." * Joe Lynn Turner (born 1951), singerAberback, Brian. "Hackensack native Joe Lynn Turner credits Bergen upbringing for his international music career", The Record, February 24, 2016, backed up by the Internet Archive as of August 8, 2016. Accessed November 25, 2017. "Hackensack native Joe Lynn Turner says his prolific career as a solo artist, singer with the legendary English rock bands Deep Purple and Rainbow, and backing vocalist on albums by high-profile artists like Billy Joel can be traced to his Bergen County upbringing." * Rudy Van Gelder (1924–2016), recording engineer who taped many jazz albums for Blue Note Records in his Hackensack recording studio in the 1950sZan, Stewart. "The state of jazz: Meet 40 more Jersey greats" , The Star-Ledger, September 28, 2003. Accessed June 14, 2007.Phelan, J. Greg. "He Helped Put the Blue in Blue Note", The New York Times, May 22, 2005. Accessed April 4, 2012. "He opened it in 1959, after spending most of the 1950s recording people like Thelonious Monk, Miles Davis and Cannonball Adderley in his parents' living room in Hackensack and refining the sound of recorded jazz working with Alfred Lion of Blue Note Records and other producers." * Richard Varick (1753–1831), lawyer and politicianCushman, Paul. Richard Varick: A Forgotten Founding Father, SUNY Press, 2010. . Accessed May 18, 2016. "Born in 1753 to a prominent Dutch- American family in Hackensack, New Jersey, Richard Varick became a lawyer, then a Patriot officer in the American Revolutionary War." * Charles H. Voorhis (1833–1896), lawyer and judge from New Jersey who served one term representing New Jersey's 5th congressional districtStaff. "Charles H. Voorhis A Suicide.; Was Formerly a Congressman and a New-Jersey Judge.", The New York Times, April 16, 1896. Accessed May 17, 2016. ""Charles H. Voorhis was born in Hackensack sixty-four years ago." * Douglas Watt (1914–2009), theater critic for the New York Daily NewsWeber, Bruce. "Douglas Watt, New York Theater Critic, Dies at 95", The New York Times, October 2, 2009. Accessed April 3, 2012. "Douglas Benjamin Watt was born in the Bronx on Jan. 20, 1914, and he grew up in Hackensack and Ridgewood, N. J." * Teresa Weatherspoon (born 1965), professional basketball player, formerly with WNBA's New York LibertyLelinwalla, Mark. "Where are they now? Former Liberty guard Teresa Weatherspoon", New York Daily News, January 31, 2009. Accessed April 10, 2011. "'I love New York City,' added Weatherspoon, 43, who resides in Hackensack, N.J. 'Anything they need I'm there. That's where my heart is forever, in a Liberty uniform.'" * Leslie West (1945–2020), rock guitarist, vocalist, and songwriter who is best known as a founding member of the hard rock band MountainBeckerman, Jim. "Mountain's Leslie West releases new solo album", The Record, October 30, 2013. Accessed May 17, 2016. "'To me, 1969 was the beginning of all this,' says Mountain's ('Mississippi Queen,' 'Nantucket Sleighride') ace guitar-slinger, Leslie West, who partly grew up in Hackensack." * William B. Widnall (1906–1983), member of the United States House of Representatives for 24 years representing New Jersey's 7th congressional district"Widnall, William Beck, (1906 - 1983)", Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed May 18, 2016. "Widnall, William Beck, a Representative from New Jersey; born in Hackensack, Bergen County, N.J., March 17, 1906" * Anna Wessels Williams (1863–1954), physician who worked as a bacteriologist at the first U.S. municipal diagnostic laboratory, helped develop the diphtheria antitoxin and was the first woman to be elected chair of the laboratory section of the American Public Health AssociationDr. Anna Wessels Williams, United States National Library of Medicine. Accessed May 17, 2016. "Anna Wessels Williams was born in Hackensack, New Jersey, in 1863, to Jane Van Saun, and William Williams." * Bill Willoughby (born 1957), basketball player who, along with Darryl Dawkins, were the first high school players drafted by the NBA after they graduated in 1975Broussard, Chris. "Why Pros Spent 20 Years Shunning High Schoolers", The New York Times, November 16, 2003. Accessed April 3, 2012. "Willoughby, 46, now lives in relative anonymity in a two-bedroom apartment in Hackensack, N.J." * Chris Wragge (born 1970), news anchor for WCBS-TVSpelling, Ian. "Broadcast Newsman: WCBS-TV's Chris Wragge is anchored in Bergen", (201) magazine, February 1, 2009, backed up by the Internet Archive as of January 26, 2011. Accessed July 30, 2018. "Chris Wragge knows his way around this county. The popular WCBS-TV news anchor was born in Hackensack, raised in Rutherford and moved to Mahwah when he was in sixth grade." * Ronald Zilberberg (born 1996), Israeli Olympic figure skater who competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics * Ken Zisa (born 1954), politician who served as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly from 1994 to 2002, where he represented the 37th Legislative District"Assembly tos the ballot", The Record, November 5, 1995. Accessed July 24, 2020. "Charles "Ken" Zisa - Address: Hackensack; Age: 41; Education: Hackensack High School; Bergen County Police Academy" == References == == Sources == * Municipal Incorporations of the State of New Jersey (according to Counties) prepared by the Division of Local Government, Department of the Treasury (New Jersey); December 1, 1958. * Clayton, W. Woodford; and Nelson, Nelson. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, 1882. * Harvey, Cornelius Burnham (ed.), Genealogical History of Hudson and Bergen Counties, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Genealogical Publishing Co., 1900. * Lark, Terry (editor), Hackensack – Heritage to Horizons, The Hackensack Bicentennial Committee, The City of Hackensack, 1976 * Van Valen, James M. History of Bergen County, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Publishing and Engraving Co., 1900. * Westervelt, Frances A. (Frances Augusta), 1858–1942, History of Bergen County, New Jersey, 1630–1923, Lewis Historical Publishing Company, 1923. == External links == * * Borg's Woods Nature Preserve * Hackensack, New Jersey, at City-Data * Hackensack Community Profile and Resource Links, NJ HomeTownLocator * U.S. Census Bureau – State & County QuickFacts for Hackensack Category:1693 establishments in New Jersey Category:1921 establishments in New Jersey Category:1923 Municipal Manager Law Category:Cities in Bergen County, New Jersey Category:County seats in New Jersey Category:Populated places established in 1693 Category:New Jersey populated places on the Hackensack River
|
The 2008 presidential campaign of Fred Thompson, lawyer, lobbyist, character actor and former Senator from Tennessee began on September 5, 2007 after six months of speculation. He was a Republican Party primary candidate seeking to represent his party in the 2008 United States presidential election. ==Campaign development== ===Prelude=== On March 11, 2007, Thompson appeared on Fox News Sunday to discuss the possibility of a 2008 candidacy for president. The announcement spurred several grassroots draft movements, including a well- organized draft campaign started by Dean Rice, a former Thompson political aide, in Knoxville, Tennessee. While Thompson had not yet formally announced his intentions, he said he would "leave the door open." He stated that he would not be interested in accepting a hypothetical nomination for vice president, explaining "I don't think I would ever want to do that and be in the second position."Seidman, Joel. "Thompson rules out VP spot on GOP ticket", NBC News (2007-05-11). Thompson's March 11 announcement spurred a flurry of conjecture, discussion, and activity on the Internet. A "Draft Fred Thompson" forum site became a particularly popular online forum for supporters.See DraftFredThompson.com. One group of supporters organized under the banner "FredHeadsUSA" with a plan to build a grassroots political movement to expand on Thompson's support on the Internet.See the FredHeadsUSA web site and the FredHeads web site. On May 15, Thompson published a video in which he declined to debate Michael Moore about Cuba. Thompson formed an exploratory committee on June 1, 2007. Unlike most candidate exploratory groups, his organized as a 527 group. Thompson made his first public appearance after this exploratory committee formed on June 2 at the Virginia Republicans annual fund-raising gala in Richmond, Virginia. Shortly thereafter, on June 5, 2007, Thompson launched his official website.imwithfred.com. The same day, there was a Republican Presidential candidates debate with the then current 10 candidates, from New Hampshire, broadcast on CNN. Thompson was mentioned repeatedly as one of the poll front runners, even though he did not participate.Struglinski, Suzanne and Roche, Lisa. "Actor heightens GOP debate drama", Deseret Morning News (2007-06-05). On June 12, 2007, Thompson appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. He would not announce his candidacy, but referred to his presidential exploratory committee, which he stated had yielded positive prospects. Leno mentioned that Thompson was #2 in the polls, and asked him if he would at least state if he would like the job of President. Thompson responded that, while he did not crave the job itself, there were things he would like to do that he could only do by holding that office. In early July 2007, Liz Sidoti of the Associated Press wrote: "Thompson's easygoing, no-nonsense style is clearly his strength and undoubtedly has helped him soar in presidential polls."Sidoti, Liz. "Thompson Strong on Style, Not Substance", Associated Press (2007-07-05). Retrieved (2007-07-07). Tucker Eskew, a Republican strategist unaligned in the race, said, "Smooth is good, but sometimes nitty gritty is essential" and "He'll be tested (but) he has a little time." Meanwhile, he received a flurry of press attention over lobbying work he had done in 1991 and 1992 for a group advocating relaxed regulations on abortion counseling at federally funded clinics.Becker, Jo.Records Show Ex-Senator’s Work for Family Planning Unit, New York Times (2007-07-19). In July 2007, a New York Times article cited Thompson's aides as saying on July 18 that he planned to enter the race just after Labor Day (the first Monday in September), followed by a national announcement tour.Nagourney, Adam. "Candidates Shift as G.O.P. Field Alters", NY Times (2007-07-19). On July 31, 2007, the Thompson committee reported to the IRS that it had raised almost $3.5 million and spent $625,000 in its first month. Thompson visited Iowa on August 17, 2007, but did not then officially launch his presidential campaign. Thompson was asked by NBC if he was officially in the race for president. Thompson replied with a simple "No." It was also noted that Thompson was already prepping for the Republican debates, so that he would be able to join the other Republican candidates on stage at the events after becoming an announced candidate. Prior to Thompson's entry into the presidential race on September 5, 2007, the September 10, 2007 issue of Newsweek hit newsstands with a detailed cover story about him.Bailey, Holly. "Grin and Bear It" , Newsweek (2007-09-10). ===Official announcement=== Thompson declared his intent to seek the nomination on September 5, 2007 on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Brief excerpts from the Tonight Show appearance are available from NBC . He then began a five-day tour of early voting states, including Iowa, New Hampshire and South Carolina. ===The campaign begins=== In late September and early October, Fred Thompson made several blunders including not being aware of the Supreme Court decision regarding lethal injection,Thompson unaware of death penalty cases - Tommy Thompson News - nbcnews.com confusing the party in power during the John Roberts nomination, being unaware of the controversy over drilling for oil in the Everglades, and confusing Russia and the Soviet Union.nbcnews.com Video Player On September 27, 2007, PBS television hosted a Republican debate in Baltimore, Maryland, at Morgan State University that aired live on PBS and on www.pbs.org. Thompson, who missed his first debate opportunity since declaring his candidacy, was criticized by event organizers and other GOP candidates for his absence.Washington Post The October 9, 2007, CNBC, The Wall Street Journal, and the University of Michigan–Dearborn hosted Republican debate in Dearborn, Michigan, at the Ford Community and Performing Arts Center,migopdebate.org cnbc.com featured Thompson in attendance. In early December, Fred Thompson rejected the NIE report stating that Iran stopped its nuclear weapons program. He later stated that the report should be looked at with skepticism. ===Primaries and caucuses=== Thompson competed in the Republican primary or caucus in five states. He won 13% of the vote in the Iowa Republican caucuses, trailing Mike Huckabee (34%) and Mitt Romney (25%). John McCain also got 13%, but Thompson received more actual votes. Thompson won 3 of the 12 delegates in the Wyoming Republican County Conventions on January 5, 2008. On January 15, 2008, Thompson placed 5th in the Michigan Republican primary with 4% of the vote, winning no delegates. He received 8% of the vote and 2 delegates in the Nevada Caucuses, placing 5th, on January 19, 2008. On January 19, 2008, Thompson placed 3rd in the South Carolina primary with 16% of the vote, earning no delegates. Thompson was counting on a win in the southern conservative state to save his struggling campaign, and his poor showing was seen as a fatal blow to his candidacy. ===Withdrawal from race=== On January 22, 2008, after finishing third in South Carolina — a primary which he had publicly said he needed to win — Thompson announced his withdrawal from the race. In a statement released by his campaign, Thompson said, "Today, I have withdrawn my candidacy for president of the United States. I hope that my country and my party have benefited from our having made this effort." He did not immediately endorse any of the remaining candidates, but in February 2008 endorsed John McCain.Fred Thompson Endorses John McCain ==Campaign staff and policy team== Political insiders in Tennessee expected the inner circle of a Thompson campaign to include, in addition to his politically experienced wife, a number of functionaries with whom Thompson has been associated in the past.Cillizza, Chris. "Fred Thompson's Inner Circle" , washingtonpost.com's Politics Blog (2007-06-12) Thompson's chief fundraiser was Wyatt A. Stewart, a former fundraiser for the National Republican Congressional Committee. Also said to be likely senior advisers were former Republican National Committee chair Ed Gillespie, former vice president of the food and tobacco company Altria Tom Collamore, PR advisor Mark Corallo, former chairman of the Federal Election Commission Michael E. Toner, former Senate aide Tom Daffron, longtime Tennessee politician Tom Ingram, and Congressman Zach Wamp. On July 24, 2007, Thompson announced he was replacing his acting campaign manager, Tom Collamore, with former Michigan Senator and Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham and Florida GOP strategist Randy Enright.Associated Press, Thompson Shakes Up Staff, by LIBBY QUAID, July 24, 2007 Collamore would remain as an advisor, Enright would be political director, and Abraham did not have a title. On August 8, 2007, Bill Lacy was named manager of Thompson's "testing the waters committee". Lacy had worked in the campaigns of Presidents Reagan and Bush, as well as Senator Bob Dole, and had worked on Thompson's 1994 campaign. ==Political positions== Thompson described Federalism as his "lodestar", providing "a basis for a proper analysis of most issues: 'Is this something government should be doing? If so, at what level of government?'"Thompson, Fred. "Federalism 'n' Me" , AEI (2007-04-23). Retrieved 2007-05-13. Thompson supported free trade and low taxes.Thompson, Fred. "Prepared Remarks for Speech to Lincoln Club Annual Dinner", ABC Radio, May 4, 2007. Accessed May 13, 2007.Thompson, Fred. "Case Closed: Tax Cuts Mean Growth", ABC Radio, April 14, 2007. Accessed May 13, 2007. He was a self-described authentic conservative since he was part of the Conservative Revolution of the 90s. He said that Roe v. Wade was a wrong decision that ought to be overturned, and that he was anti-abortion, but he also said that states should decide not to criminalize young women for early term abortions."Exclusive! Former Tennessee Senator Fred Thompson on Possible White House Bid" , Fox News Interview (2007-06-05).Bailey, Holly. "Away From the Cameras ," Newsweek (2007-06-25). Thompson was skeptical that humanity is to blame for global warming.Thompson, Fred. "Plutonic Warming" , AEI, March 22, 2007. Accessed May 13, 2007. He said citizens are entitled to keep and bear arms if they do not have criminal records.Thompson, Fred. "Armed with the Truth", ABC Radio, May 10, 2007. Accessed May 13, 2007. Thompson's support of the McCain-Feingold campaign finance legislation brought criticism from groups such as Gun Owners of America (GOA), who said that the legislation limited their ability to inform the public about the gun rights voting records of incumbent politicians.Fields, Craig. "Presidential Candidates And The Second Amendment: Fred Thompson", Gun Owners of America (GOA). Accessed June 10, 2007. Thompson said that the limitation on political speech within thirty or sixty days of an election was wrong and should be repealed.Sean Hannity interview of Fred Thompson , Fox News, June 6, 2007. Accessed June 9, 2007. Thompson said U.S. borders need to be secured before considering comprehensive immigration reform. Thompson supported the U.S. invasion of Iraq, but later stated that mistakes had been made since then. He opposed withdrawal from Iraq. He also believed that Iran should be taken seriously.Thompson, Fred."Remarks to Policy Exchange in London" (2007-06-19). Retrieved 2007-07-02. ==Endorsements== January 11, 2008, Human Events, a popular weekly conservative magazine, officially endorsed Thompson saying, "Thompson best represents conservative principles."Human Events Endorsement Page , January 11, 2008 On November 13, 2007, the National Right to Life Committee announced its endorsement of Fred Thompson, stating "Our endorsement is a testament to Senator Thompson’s long-standing pro-life record, his commitment to unborn children, and our belief in his ability to win."National Right to Life Committee press release , November 13, 2007 As of September 6, 2007, Thompson had been endorsed by 20 current members of Congress, including both Tennessee senators.Endorsements '08 , The Hill (2007-08-01). Retrieved 2007-08-30. Also, on June 12, 2007 former U.S. Senator Alfonse D'Amato (New York) endorsed Thompson for president.Keating, Raymond. "D'Amato could be right on Thompson", Newsday (2007-06-18). Retrieved 2007-08-30. Former Senate Majority Leader Howard Baker of Tennessee also expressed his support, saying: "If I had to pick one thing that qualifies him to be president, it's this: he approaches things calmly, deliberately—and he doesn't shoot from the hip." Thompson received strong support from California legislators, seen in this photo from left, Assemblyman Chuck DeVore Assemblyman Alan Nakanishi, Senator Sam Aanestad Senator Tom McClintock, Thompson, Assemblyman Martin Garrick, Assemblyman Tom Berryhill, and Senator Dave Cogdill. *U.S. Senator Jim Inhofe (R-OK) *U.S. Senator Thad Cochran (R-MS) *U.S. Senator Lamar Alexander (R-TN) *U.S. Senator Bob Corker (R-TN) *U.S. Senator Roger Wicker (R-MS) (fourth cousin of Fred Thompson) *Fmr. U.S. Senator Howard Baker (R-TN) *Fmr. U.S. Senator Spencer Abraham (R-MI) *Fmr. U.S. Senator George Allen (R-VA) *Elizabeth Cheney *Fmr. Texas Court of Appeals Judge Paul Pressler (R-TX) * Wyoming State Senator Amy Edmonds (R-WY) *Former Chair of Wyoming Republican Party Drake Hill (R-WY) (husband of subsequent Wyoming Superintendent of Public Instruction Cindy Hill) *Missouri Lt. Governor Peter Kinder (R-MO) *Rep. Gresham Barrett (R-SC) *Rep. Jeff Miller (R-FL) *Rep. Donald A. Manzullo (R-IL) *Rep. Adam Putnam (R-FL) *Rep. Lee Terry (R-Neb) *Rep. John Sullivan (R-Okla) *Rep. Zach Wamp (R-Tenn) *Rep. Lynn Westmoreland (R-GA) *Rep. Sue Myrick (R-N.C) *Rep. Thaddeus McCotter (R-Mich) *Rep. Marsha Blackburn (R-Tenn) *Rep. Dan Burton (R-Ind) *Rep. Steve Buyer (R-Ind) *Rep. David Davis (R-Tenn) *Rep. Jimmy Duncan (R-Tenn) *Rep. Louie Gohmert (R-Texas) *Rep. Steve King (R-IA) *Attorney General of Virginia Robert F. McDonnell *George P. Bush, a member of the Bush familyKey Bush backers rally to Fred Thompson - Mike Allen - Politico.com *Pat Sajak, television personalitySajak's Federal Campaign Contribution Report *Fmr. U.S. Senator Alfonse D'Amato (R-NY) ==See also== *United States Republican presidential candidates, 2008 *Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2008 *Opinion Polling for the Republican Party ==Footnotes== ==External links== *The Fred Thompson Report, ABC Radio Networks (official site). *The Official YouTube Page for Fred Thompson (official video site). *The Official Flickr Page for Fred Thompson (official photo site). *Spartan Internet Political Performance (SIPP) Index - Ranking of Fred Thompson Internet-wide popularity Weekly *The Fred Thompson Papers, University of Tennessee (official archive). * * acting career. *The Fred Files Lobbying disclosures, 1975-1994\. *Fred Thompson Hometown Biography, Lawrenceburg Tennessee * Category:2008 Republican Party (United States) presidential campaigns
|
The Wasserverband Westdeutsche Kanäle (WWK) is a German statutory body for the adjustment of the Lippe water level and service water supply from the West German shipping canals and artificial watercourses in connection with the rivers Rhine, Lippe and Ruhr. ==Responsibilities and Tasks of the Wasserverband Westdeutsche Kanäle (WWK)== Responsibilities and tasks of the WWK (= water board West German canals) are defined in the related statutes, enacted December 3, 1969,Statutes: „Satzung des Wasserverbandes Westdeutsche Kanäle WWK“ published 03/12/1969 in the Official Journal of the regional authority Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf N° 50 a), reviewed 13/01/1972 (Official Journal Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf page 39) based on a treaty between the German Federal Ministry for Transport and the Federal State of North Rhine- Westphalia Abkommen über die Verbesserung der Lippewasserführung, die Speisung der westdeutschen Schifffahrtskanäle mit Wasser und die Wasserversorgung aus ihnen (Treaty on the improvement of the Lippe water management, the supply of West German waterways with water and the water provision herefrom) 08/08/1968 (GV. NW. 1968 S 343) updated 22/12/1972 (GV. NW. 1973 S. 63) and an executive order of the Environment Ministry of North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany).Executive Order of the Environment Ministry North Rhine-Westphalia: „Zulassung von Wasserentnahmen und Wasserableitungen aus den westdeutschen Schifffahrtskanälen“, RdErl. d. Ministeriums für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten I A 4 – 605/1-11889, published 11/07/19841984 The WWK is a public German water board (“Wasserverband”Act of water boards, published 12/02/1991 (BGBl. I page 405), revised 23/05/2002) located in Essen (North Rhine- Westphalia/Germany) and responsible for the adjustment of the river Lippe water level and service water supply from the West German shipping canals and artificial watercourses in connection with the rivers Rhine, Lippe and Ruhr. The responsibilities are solely covering the water supply sector and not the operation of the shipping canals that are under direction of the Federal Waterways Authority (BundeswasserstraßenverwaltungGerman web page of the Bundeswasserstraßenverwaltung). The catchment area of the WWK comprises the Rhine-Herne Canal, the Wesel-Datteln Canal, the Datteln-Hamm Canal and the Dortmund-Ems Canal. The main tasks are * operation and development of (new) pumping stations at sluices, * cooperation with the water supplier Gelsenwasser regarding the water exchange facility between the river Lippe and the Datteln-Hamm Canal in Hamm and from the Dortmund-Ems Canal to the river Stever in Senden, * the provision of water for the replenishment of Lippe flow and * in the role of the supplier of water services to calculate and charge the arising costs in cooperation with the Federal Waterways Authority. Though being a statutory body the WWK has no sovereign power but depends on permissions of governmental institutions. For the amount of water tapped by local clients individual permissions from the responsible municipal or District Council departments are obligatory. Regulating authorities are the District Council of Düsseldorf and the Environment Ministry of North Rhine- Westphalia. Moreover, the distributed volume of water depends on pump capacities and demands of the shipway trafficability. As the canals are designed for navigation all other interests are second-rank. Members of the WWK decide about the guidelines of the association, the business plan and fees, elect the chairman (“Verbandsvorsteher”) and chief operating officer (“Geschäftsführer”). The number of votes depends on the quantity to be received * of water that is used and has to be treated separately and discharged as waste water and/or * of water that has been removed, warmed-up and discharged again into the canal. The control and supervision is carried out from a centralized telecontrol stationWeb page of the telecontrol station “Fernsteuerzentrale Datteln” in Datteln ==History== ===Origins and early development of WWK=== The West German shipping canals serve the mass transportation in the Ruhr region between the rivers Rhine and Ems direction North Sea and via the Mittelland Canal to the Weser, Elbe, Oder and Vistula. This canal network shows the highest traffic density in Europe. The canals are state-owned by the Federal Waterways Authority (Bundeswasserstraßenverwaltung”). The construction of artificial shipping canals was necessary in the industrialisation period of the Ruhr due to lacking transportation routes via capable, navigable rivers. The oldest part, the Dortmund-Ems Canal, is connecting the eastern Ruhr since 1898 with the North Sea. In 1914 the connection to the Rhine followed via the Rhine-Herne Canal and the Datteln-Hamm Canal was opened, too. In 1930 the Wesel-Datteln Canal was finished. All these connected waterways need to bridge altitude differences between the starting point, the connected harbours and the arrival point. For these purposes there are today e.g at the Rhine-Herne Canal 5 sluices and at the Wesel-Datteln Canal 6 sluices; at the Henrichenburg boat lift two ancient and two actually utilized sluices facilitate the bypassing of the altitude difference within the Dortmund-Ems-Kanal to Dortmund harbour. To feed the planned canal system with water already in 1905 before the construction of the Datteln-Hamm Canal the decision was passed by the Prussian State to use 10 m3/second water from the river Lippe – the only relevant river in the area – for the compensation of evaporation, infiltration and loss of water from the sluicesLippeverband (Selbstverlag): „50 Jahre Lippeverband“, Dortmund/Essen 1975Webpage of the Federal Waterways Authority, district West). That was leading from 1914 on to severe water management problems in the river Lippe where in dry summers only 4 m3/second water was left downstream. From 1926 on the newly established water board Lippeverband negotiated with the competent authorities and finally the governmental waterway administration (“Reichswasserstraßenverwaltung”) confirmed to reduce the water abstraction to 7.5 m3/second from 1938 on. The industrial development of the coal and steel industry and especially the coal-fired power stations after World War II meant a growing demand of service water (from the canals and the river Lippe) and a growing discharge of too warm and/or unsatisfactory treated waste water into the river Lippe. Negotiations of the Lippeverband with the government of North Rhine Westphalia and with the Federal Waterways Authority (Bundeswasserstraßenverwaltung) were finally from 1968 on leading to new regulations: The ’’Wasserverband Westdeutsche Kanäle’’ WWK was established, consisting of representatives of the Lippeverband and the water users, accompanied by the Federal Waterways Authority and the Environment Ministry of North Rhine Westphalia .Treaty on the improvement of Lippe water level and input from West German canals: „Abkommen über die Verbesserung der Lippewasserführung, die Speisung der westdeutschen Schifffahrtskanäle mit Wasser und die Wasserversorgung aus ihnen“ published 08/08/1968 (GV.NW. 1968 S. 343), revised 22/12/1972 (GV. NW. 1973 S. 63) Moreover, the permission for maximum discharge of the Lippe into the West German canal system was increased to 10 m3/second again but now with the additional limitation to guarantee a minimum discharge of 10 m3/second in the Lippe, too, otherwise the water abstraction for the canals had to be limited. This regulation was possible because of already constructed pumps at the sluices that started compensating partly the loss of water from locking. In the years 1973-1978 a series of new pumping stations was established that could serve the canals “upstream” from the rivers Rhine and Ruhr and discharge “downstream” in case the Lippe has enough water to supply with. Parallel pumping systems had been developed along the Rhine-Herne Canal and the Wesel-Datteln Canal/ Datteln-Hamm Canal, all controlled and supervised from a centralized telecontrol station. ==The WWK at present== Today the Lippe and the West German canal system still play a decisive role regarding the supply of industry and businesses with service water, even though the water demand in total is declining. Circular economy, energy efficiency in all kind of businesses and the reduced water demand due to the changing energy policy (reduction of thermal power stations) unburden the river.Press Release of the North Rhine-Westphalian Government, 2006 Moreover, the discharge of warmed water back to the river has been regulated by public law.River Catchments North Rhine-Westphalia/ results Lower Rhine, Environment Ministry NRW Improved municipal waste water treatment and the decline of coal mining have had positive impact on the water management, too. The water demand for shipping nevertheless is important in the West German canal system. To compensate the loss of water from evaporation, infiltration and locking in the sluices annually 500 million m3 of water have to be injected.Speisung des westdeutschen Kanalnetzes / Schifffahrtskanäle zur Wasserversorgung; joint brochure of the WWK and the Federal Waterways Authority, 2010 To reduce especially in dry weather periods the demand of water that gets lost from the sluices it is locally pumped up again. The total water demand from the canal system of up to 800 million m3/year is mainly covered by supply from the Lippe and Ruhr.„Wenn Sie Brauchwasser brauchen“ (= “If you need Service Water”), Brochure of the WWK, 2003 The permission to withdraw up to 25 m3/second from the Lippe still today is limited to a remaining discharge in the Lippe of 10 m3/second. If the water level in the river falls below that flow rate the Lippe receives up to 4.5 m3/second out of the canal system for low water replenishment. For example in the 12 months period from November 2014 to October 2015 the Lippe discharged on 257 days water into the Datteln-Hamm Canal and on 102 days canal water was pumped into the Lippe.Annual business report Lippeverband 2014/2015, published 03/12/2015 in the annual meeting in Kamen ===Drinking Water=== The Stever is a tributary of the Lippe which is fed by water out of the Dortmund-Ems Canal and has a huge meaning for drinking water supply for the northern Ruhr region. To balance the whole system the Stever – after being fed out of the canal in Senden – is backed-up in two water reservoirs (Talsperre Hullern and Halterner Stausee) of 32 million m3 capacity. Two-thirds of the Stever flow is discharged downstream; one-third is used by the drinking water supplier Gelsenwasser AG for drinking water processing via soil infiltration from groundwater wells (of all together approximately 129 million m3/yearBrochure of the water supplier Gelsenwasser AG, July 2013). Additionally the municipal utilities Stadtwerke Münster use water from the Dortmund-Ems Canal to supply the groundwater wells for drinking water processing.Fact sheet Stadtwerke Münster, July 2015 In total, via several water works annually 250 million m3 of water are transported in pipework from the Ruhr to the area at the canals. The regionally diversified origin and processing of drinking water – pumped water from Rhine and Ruhr, various groundwater wells, replenishment with infiltrated canal water – guarantees constantly the regional supply with water of highest quality in Ruhr and Münsterland region. Hereby it is also possible in case of calamities (like exceeding threshold values at certain groundwater wells) to substitute the water supply from other sources (like the infiltration of canal water). ===Service Water=== Along the canals industry and businesses consume about 60 million m3 annually for cooling, production, irrigation and the afore mentioned processing of ground water wells. Frequent measurements of state-approved inspection authorities show results and values close to drinking water quality in the canals. The network of the canals in the densely populated Ruhr region and the high water quality is (since 1989 the Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park took place) frequently topic in scientific, public and political debates about the utilisation of attractive urban water fronts, also in context with climate change aspects. Action programme in Dorsten between Wesel-Datteln Canal and Lippe, 2015City of Hamm - Perspectives for the Inner City 2030, published 2015Universität Dortmund LODE_PORT – International Excellence School of Innovative Approaches in Regeneration Planning and Design of Low Density Urbanized Polycentric Regions in Transformation, 2012Cooperation KuLaRuhr sustainable urban culture and landscape in the Metropole Ruhr, 2014 ===Members and data=== Members of the WWK are according to the status 31.12.2014:Jahresbericht WWK, 2014 * the Lippeverband (with focus on the water level of the river Lippe), * 36 water abstractors of canal water (industry and businesses), * 6 enterprises for public water supply as canal water abstractors for drinking water purposes and for service water supply to third parties. Customers with lower water demand may draw insignificant amounts without becoming a formal member. In cases of water shortage they have to renounce the supply for the benefit of the regular members. The need of service water varies very much – for example annually for a public pool 500 m3/year up to 15 million m3/year for a thermal power station. All together the withdrawal is on the average 60 million m3/year (with downward drift). The technically possible maximum of 400 million m3/year has never been used. The discharge of canal water via the Stever into Halterner Stausee and Talsperre Hullern depends on the annual rainfall, for example the discharge in 1976 was 11.5 million m3 but in “wet years” nothing is discharged. The withdrawal of service water that is used and has to be treated separately and discharged as waste water is invoiced with 0.0353 €/m3 (waste water is invoiced separately by the operator of the wastewater treatment facility). For water that has been removed, warmed-up and discharged again into the canal the invoice value is 3.3% of that amount. The fees cover the costs that appear from operation and maintenance of the pumping stations and other costs related to the water services.User contract between Federal Waterways Authority and WWK, published 09/09/1971 ==Technical facilities== * Exchange facility Lippe in Hamm 1972 * Pumping station Oberhausen 1974 * Pumping station Gelsenkirchen 1975 * Pumping station Wanne-Eickel 1977 * Pumping station Herne-Ost 1979 * Pumping station Hamm-Werries 1981 * Pumping station Friedrichsfeld 1982 * Pumping station Hünxe 1982 * Pumping station Duisburg-Meiderich 1982 * Telecontrol station Datteln 1984 * Pumping station Dorsten 1985 * Exchange facility Stever in Senden 1985 * Pumping station Flaesheim 1986 * Pumping station Ahsen 1988 * Pumping station Datteln 1988 ==Sources and Literature== ==References== Category:Canals in Germany Category:Transport in North Rhine-Westphalia Category:Water management authorities Category:Federal waterways in Germany Category:Drinking water CDatteln-Hamm
|
Guilherme Costa Marques (born 21 May 1991), known simply as Guilherme, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays for Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Goiás. ==Club career== ===SC Braga=== Born in Três Rios, Brazil, Guilherme began playing futsal and trained at a football school. As he grew older, began to take football seriously. Guilherme then started out his career at Paraíba do Sul before moving to Portugal, where he joined Braga in 2009 at age sixteen. Immediately after joining the club, Guilherme was assigned to the youth team. It wasn't until on 24 January 2010 when he made his SC Braga first team debut, starting the whole game, in a 4–1 win over Leiria. He also appeared as an unused substitute in a league match against Vitória on 6 March 2010. For the remaining part of the 2009–10 season, Guilherme appeared in a number of matches as an unused substitute, as he made one appearance for the side. Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Guilherme was promoted to Braga's senior squad. His first appearance of the season came on 21 August 2010, where he came on as a second–half substitute, in a 0–0 draw against Vitória. It wasn't until on 22 January 2011 when Guilherme scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Vitória. Eight days later, on 30 January 2011, he scored again in the third round of Taça da Liga, in a 4–0 win over Arouca. At the end of the 2010–11 season, Guilherme went on to make eight appearances and scoring once in all competitions. During the season, he was linked a move away from SC Braga, as Juventus, Manchester City and FC Barcelona were interested in signing him. The start of 2011–12 season saw Guilherme making one appearance, which came on 25 August 2011, where he set up a goal for Lima in a 2–2 draw against BSC Young Boys in the second leg of the UEFA Qualification Play–Off and saw the club go through to the Group Stage, thanks to away goal. After spending the 2011–12 season on loan at Gil Vicente, Guilherme was sent to the Braga B team for the whole 2012–13 season. At Braga B team, Guilherme received a handful of playing time despite being called up from the senior team. He also helped the side reach the final of final against S.L. Benfica, which they lost 2–1. Despite being sent–off on two occasions, Guilherme went on to make twenty–six appearances and scoring four times for Braga B team. It was announced on 19 June 2013 that Guilherme's future at the SC Braga was in doubt, leading the club become more interested in signing him. He spent the rest of the year, training for the reserve side. It was announced on 10 January 2014 that Guilherme was expected to leave SC Braga, either having his contract terminated or on loan. ====Loan Spells==== In the first part of the following season, Guilherme was loaned to Segunda Liga side Vizela, where he made seven appearances for the side. For the 2011–12 season, Guilherme was loaned out to Gil Vicente for the rest of the season. Guilherme made his Gil Vicente debut on 16 September 2011, where he came on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–2 draw against Olhanense. The following month, on 27 October 2011 in the Taça da Liga campaign, he scored his first goal for Gil Vicente, scoring from a penalty, in a 2–1 loss against Belenenses. Throughout the 2011–2012 season, Guilherme went on to make twenty–six appearances and scoring once in all competitions. ===Legia Warsaw=== On 14 January 2014, it was announced that Guilherme was loaned out to Legia Warsaw for the next twelve months. Upon joining the club, Guilherme became the twelve Brazilian player to join Legia Warsaw. Guilherme made his Legia Warsaw debut on 14 February 2014, where he started the match before being substituted in the 74th minute, in a 1–0 win over Korona Kielce. After making another appearance, he, however, suffered a ruptured intraarticular ligament initiation in the ankle that saw him sidelined until the end of the 2013–14 season. By the time he suffered a rupture to his ankle, Guilherme went on to make two appearances for the side this season. Despite this, he went on to win February's Player of the Month by the club's supporters. During his injury, the club went on to win the league. At the start of the 2014–15 season, Guilherme remained sidelined from the first team, due to suffering from injury. It wasn't until on 17 October 2014 when he made his return from injury, coming on as a substitute, where Legia Warsaw beat Lechia Gdańsk 1–0. Four days later, on 22 October 2014, he made his first start as a left–back since returning from injury, in a 1–0 win over Metalist Kharkiv in the group stage of the UEFA Europa League. Since returning to the first team from injury, Guilherme regained his first team place, playing in the left–back position. The following month on 14 January 2015, it was announced that Guilherme signed for Legia Warsaw on a permanent basis, signing a three–year contract. After losing his place by the returning Tomasz Brzyski, Guilherme regained his first team place in attacking position, although he occasionally played at the left–back position. His first goal for the club came on 29 April 2015, where he scored an equaliser, in a 2–1 win over Pogoń Szczecin. Three days later, on 2 May 2015, Guilherme helped the beat Lech Poznań, who went on to win the league, 2–1 in the Polish Cup final. Despite being sidelined several times later in the 2014–15 season, Guilherme went on to make thirty appearances and scoring once for the side. At the start of the 2015–16 season, Guilherme remained in the first team regular for the side, where he played in the right–wing position despite competing with Michał Kucharczyk. He started the season well when he scored in the second leg of the UEFA Europa League Qualification against FC Botoșani, in a 3–0 win to advance to the next round. A month later, on 27 August 2015, Guilherme scored again in the play–offs round of the UEFA Europa League, in a 3–2 win over Zorya Luhansk to advance to the Group Stage. Three days later, on 30 August 2015, he scored his first league goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Jagiellonia Białystok. His performance at Legia Warsaw attracted interests from Serie A side Inter Milan, but the move never happened. After being sidelined on two separate matches between late–February and early–March, Guilherme scored on his return from the sidelines on 12 March 2016, in a 2–1 win over KS Cracovia. The following month, he scored the second leg of the semi–final of the Polish Cup, in a 2–1 win over Zawisza Bydgoszcz to reach the final; which they beat Lech Poznań again in the Polish Cup final for the second time in a row. After adding his eighth goal of the season against Piast Gliwice on 8 May 2016, Guilherme helped the side win the league. At the end of the 2015–16 season, he went on to make 55 appearances and scoring 8 times in all competitions. At the start of the 2016–17 season, Guilherme started the season when he scored the club's first goal of the season, as Legia Warrsaw lost 4–1 to Lech Poznań in the Polish SuperCup. But he soon suffered a shoulder injury during a 2–0 win over Zrinjski Mostar in the second leg of the UEFA Champions League second round and was sidelined for a month. He then made his return from injury on 20 August 2016 against Arka Gdynia, where he came on as a second-half substitute and set up a goal for Kasper Hämäläinen, in a 3–1 loss. Since returning from a shoulder injury, Guilherme regained his first team place, playing in the right–wing position. On 1 October 2016, Guilherme scored a brace, scoring from the first and second goal of the game, in a 3–0 win over Lechia Gdańsk. Then, on 7 December 2016, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal, in a 1–0 win over Sporting CP, their first win of the UEFA Champions League's Group Stage. The following month saw the club opened a contract negotiation to convince Guilherme stay at the club beyond 2018, whose contract was expected to expire. Later in the 2016–17 season, he helped the club win the league for the second time in a row on the last game of the season. Despite being sidelined later in the 2016–17 season, he went on to make 41 appearances and scoring 7 times in all competitions. Ahead of the 2017–18 season, Guilherme was linked away from the club, as Sporting CP and Trabzonspor were among interested. Despite this, Guilherme stayed at the club and started the season when he set up the equaliser for Thibault Moulin to score against Arka Gdynia in the Polish SuperCup on 7 July 2017; leading the match to extra–time and penalty shoot–out, where he successfully converted the shootout, but lost 4–3 in the penalty shoot–out. He then scored in both legs of the UEFA Champions League second round qualification against IFK Mariehamn in a 9–0 on aggregate to advance to the next round. However, Guilherme was sidelined for a month after suffering a knee injury during a 1–1 draw against Sheriff Tiraspol in a UEFA Europa League Play–Off Round match in the first leg. After returning to training, he didn't make his return to the first team on 1 October 2017, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 3–0 loss against Lech Poznan. Guilherme then scored two goals in two matches on 9 December 2017 and 12 December 2017 against Bruk-Bet Termalica Nieciecza and Piast Gliwice. It was announced on 8 December 2017 that Guilherme was not signing a new contract with Legia Warsaw and expected to leave the club when the transfer window opens next month. His last appearance, which also coincidentally turns out to be his 150th appearance for Legia Warsaw, came on 16 December 2017, in a 2–0 loss against Wisła Płock. After the match, he made a farewell statements, thanking the club during his four years spell there. By the time he departed the club, Guilherme's contribution to the club winning the league this season, where he made 22 appearances and scoring five times, earned him a medal. During his time at Legia Warsaw, Guilherme made 150 appearances and scoring 21 times, as he helped the side win the Polish Cup on two occasions and the league on three occasions. He was also the club's fan favourite, due to his dribbling and shooting skills. ===Benevento=== With his contract not being renewed, Guilherme was linked a move to Serie A side Benevento, who was at 20th place at the time, and was looking for reinforcements to help the side avoid relegation. On 16 December 2017, Italian media Tutto Mercato Web reported that Guilherme agreed a deal to join the club. However, his move to Benevento was delayed over paperwork issues. Eventually, it was announced on 19 January 2018 that he joined Benevento. Guilherme made his Benevento debut on 21 January 2018 against Bologna, where he started the whole game, in a 3–0 loss. After his making his debut, Eurosport gave his performance 6/10, commenting: "Encouraging the performance of the last arrived; in the first part of the race he sows panic in the opposing defence." His first goal came on 11 February 2018, in a 5–2 loss against Roma. A month later on 31 March 2018, he scored again, which saw Benevento lost 6–2 loss against Lazio. However, Guilherme suffered ankle injury during a 2–2 draw against Sassuolo on 15 April 2018 and was expected to be out for the rest of the season. While on the sidelines, the club were relegated to Serie B after spending one season at Serie A. But in the last game of the season, he made his return from injury on 20 May 2018 against Chievo, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 loss. During the second half of the 2017–18 season, Guilherme made twelve appearances with two goals in league competition. Following the club's relegation, Guilherme was linked a move away from Benevento despite being keen on playing in Serie B next season. ===Alvarenga=== On 1 July 2018, Guilherme joined Portuguese club GD Santa Cruz Alvarenga. ====Yeni Malatyaspor (loan)==== It was announced on 4 August 2018 that Guilherme joined Yeni Malatyaspor on a season–long deal for the 2018–19 season. Guilherme made his Yeni Malatyaspor debut in the opening game of the season, where he started the match before being substituted in the 81st minute, in a 3–1 win over Göztepe. In a follow up match against Fenerbahçe seven days later on 19 August 2018, he played a vital role for the side when he set up a goal for Danijel Aleksić to score the only goal in the game, in a 1–0 victory. On 15 September 2018, Guilherme scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–1 loss against Beşiktaş. Then, on 9 November 2018, he scored a brace and set up two of the other three goals, in a 5–0 win over Trabzonspor. Since joining the club, he quickly established himself in the starting eleven and impressed the management with his display. Despite suffering an injury and facing suspension at separate times towards the end of the year, Guilherme then scored again and was sent–off later in the game, in a 1–1 draw against Bursaspor on 23 December 2018. After suffering an injury and facing suspension at separate times once again in early–January, Guilherme made his return to the first team on 28 January 2019, in a 3–2 loss against Fenerbahçe. ====Trabzonspor (loan)==== On 31 January 2020, Guilherme joined Trabzonspor on loan for the remainder of the 2019–20 season. ====Göztepe (loan)==== On 1 October 2020, Göztepe signed Guilherme on a two- year loan with an option to buy. ====Guangzhou City==== On 1 March 2021, Guilherme signed Chinese Super League club Guangzhou City on a three-year deal. The club was dissolved in March 2023. ====Goiás==== On 13 April 2023, Guilherme returned to Brazil and signed a with Campeonato Brasileiro Série A side Goiás. ==Style of Play== Guilherme plays in an offensive midfielder and prefers to play in the middle position. Goal.com said about Guilherme, commenting: "he's a Brazilian of great creativity and imagination, able to make himself valuable for his team with a play of class or a winning assist for his teammate". During at his early career at Legia Warsaw, Guilherme also played in the left–back position, reflecting: "At this point I focus on the left defense, because I'm needed there. Therefore, I listen to many comments, watch matches, analyzing the players' play in this position. For sure, the fact that I'm doing so well on left defense is caused by the help of the training staff. There really was no conversation with the trainer about the game on the left defense." ==Club statistics== Club Season League League Cup Continental Other1 Total Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Braga 2009–10 Primeira Liga 0 0 1 0 – – 1 0 2010–11 5 1 3 1 – – 8 2 2011–12 0 0 0 0 1 0 – 1 0 Total 5 1 4 1 1 0 0 0 10 2 Gil Vicente (loan) 2011–12 Primeira Liga 19 0 7 1 – – 26 1 Braga B (loan) 2012–13 Segunda Liga 27 4 0 0 – – 27 4 Legia Warsaw 2013–14 Ekstraklasa 2 0 0 0 – – 2 0 2014–15 18 1 6 0 6 0 0 0 30 1 2015–16 35 5 7 1 12 2 1 0 55 8 2016–17 29 5 0 0 11 1 1 1 41 7 2017–18 15 3 1 0 5 2 1 0 22 5 Total 99 14 14 1 34 5 3 1 150 21 Benevento 2017–18 Serie A 12 2 0 0 – – 12 2 Yeni Malatyaspor (loan) 2018–19 Süper Lig 30 5 5 0 – – 35 5 2019–20 18 5 4 2 4 0 – 26 7 Total 48 10 9 2 4 0 0 0 61 12 Trabzonspor (loan) 2019–20 Süper Lig 14 0 4 2 – – 18 2 2020–21 2 0 0 0 – – 2 0 Total 16 0 4 2 4 0 0 0 20 2 Göztepe (loan) 2020–21 Süper Lig 10 2 1 1 – – 11 3 Guangzhou City 2021 Chinese Super League 14 5 0 0 – – 14 5 2022 0 0 0 0 – – 0 0 Total 48 10 9 2 4 0 0 0 61 12 Career total 250 38 39 8 43 5 3 1 331 52 1 Including Polish SuperCup. ==Personal life== Guilherme mentioned in an interview with Gol 24 that he has a wife, implying that he's married. During the same interview, he's currently learning Polish and spoke English and occasionally Portuguese when he was at Legia Warsaw. Having spent four years in Poland, he applied for the Polish Citizenship to help the club reduce the limit of foreigners in the league. In February 2018, Guilherme became a first time father. Growing up in Três Rios, Brazil, Guilherme revealed that he stayed all day on the pitch that "sometime his mother came for me because I forgot about the dinner". Although he described his mother as "strict", due to the fact that "she did not always like that him spending so much time playing football" and "demanding", she, nevertheless, supported him. He also grew up supporting Flamengo. He also have a tattoo that said: "Minha Família é minha vida" (translated "My family is my life") in his right arm. Guilherme also has a brother. ==Honours== === Club === ;Legia Warsaw *Ekstraklasa: 2013–14, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18 *Polish Cup: 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18 ;Trabzonspor *Turkish Cup: 2019–20 ==References== ==External links== * * Guilherme cedido ao Gil Vicente * * Category:1991 births Category:Living people Category:Brazilian footballers Category:Brazilian expatriate footballers Category:Primeira Liga players Category:Ekstraklasa players Category:Serie A players Category:Süper Lig players Category:Chinese Super League players Category:Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players Category:S.C. Braga players Category:S.C. Braga B players Category:F.C. Vizela players Category:Gil Vicente F.C. players Category:Legia Warsaw players Category:Benevento Calcio players Category:Yeni Malatyaspor footballers Category:Trabzonspor footballers Category:Göztepe S.K. footballers Category:Guangzhou City F.C. players Category:Goiás Esporte Clube players Category:Expatriate footballers in Portugal Category:Expatriate footballers in Poland Category:Expatriate footballers in Italy Category:Expatriate footballers in Turkey Category:Expatriate footballers in China Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Poland Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Italy Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Turkey Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in China Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:People from Três Rios
|
John Barrett Kerfoot (March 1, 1816 – July 10, 1881) served as Rector of the College of St. James near Hagerstown, Maryland, as President of Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut, and as the first Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. ==Early life== John Barrett Kerfoot was born on March 1, 1816, in Dublin, Ireland. His parents, Richard Kerfoot and Christiana Barrett, were Scotch-Irish, by descent, brought up in the Church of Ireland, but afterwards connected with the Wesleyans. Richard Kerfoot and his family moved to Lancaster, Pennsylvania in 1819, where he was successful in business. However, he "lost a considerable sum of money from endorsing notes for his friends".Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 1. Richard Kerfoot died of "inflammatory fever" in 1825. His son John said that he remembered his father as he was dying "blessing him and giving him his dying counsels," such as "to be a good boy, to say his prayers regularly, to read his Bible, and to obey and take care of his mother." The children "loved and reverenced" their mother who died in the summer of 1858.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 2. ==Education== John Kerfoot's "earliest secular education" began in a school in Lancaster that used the "Lancastrian" or Monitorial System, in which older students taught the younger ones.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 3. From age six until Kerfoot began his theological studies in 1833, the Rev. William Augustus Muhlenberg was "a major influence" in Kerfoot's life and the primary factor in his education. Muhlenberg was "unequalled in some respects as an educator of youth." He came to Lancaster in 1820 as associate rector of St. James's Church, Lancaster and opened a Church Sunday-School. Kerfoot began attending the school when he was six years old.The Church Review, Volume 48:165, "John Barrett Kerfoot," 370-371. In 1826, Muhlenberg moved from Lancaster to Flushing, on Long Island. Two years later he opened the "Flushing Institute." By the generosity of Miss Yeates, Kerfoot's Sunday School teacher in Lancaster, the twelve-year-old Kerfoot was enabled to attend the Flushing Institute, where he was again "under the care and instruction" of Muhlenberg.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 4, 14. At age 14, on February 24, 1830, Kerfoot wrote about his gratefulness for being in Flushing Institute under the influence of Dr. Muhlenberg.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 7. In March 1832, Kerfoot wrote about spending his seventeenth birthday at the Flushing Institute and about having a paper on "Private Prayer" he had written published in The Churchman.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 10. Kerfoot was confirmed on April 19, 1832, by the Rt. Rev. Benjamin T. Onderdonk, Bishop of Episcopal Diocese of New York. ===Theological education=== Kerfoot's goal had always been the holy ministry. In 1833, he became a candidate for Holy Orders and began his theological studies. During his first year of theological studies, he had an essay published in the Churchman.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 4, 12. Kerfoot was ordained to the diaconate on March 1, 1837 (Kerfoot's twenty-first birthday) by Bishop Onderdonk.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 14. Kerfoot stayed on at the Flushing Institute after completing his studies as Muhlenberg's "principal assistant" until he left to become Rector of the College of St. James in Maryland in 1843.Hall Harrison, "The College of St. James", 259. ==Ministry in New York== On March 5, 1837, after having been ordained Deacon, Kerfoot described his "first Sunday in the ministry. I have read the service and preached twice to-day, morning and evening, in St. John's Church, York, Pennsylvania."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 15. In March 1838, Kerfoot wrote that, while remaining at the Flushing Institute, he would do "ministerial" work at Zion Church, Little Neck, near College Point.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 21. Kerfoot was ordained to the Priesthood on March 1, 1840, by Bishop Onderdonk.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 27. In February 1841, Kerfoot was offered the position as head of Nashotah House, a new "religious house". However, he turned down the offer.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 29. The Rt. Rev. William Rollinson Whittingham, bishop of the Episcopal Church's Diocese of Maryland, called Kerfoot to head the College of St. James in Maryland. Kerfoot accepted this offer and, thus, he moved from the Flushing Institute to Maryland.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 30. In June 1841, before his move to Maryland, Kerfoot was offered the position of President of Kemper College, Missouri. Having already accepted the call to head the College of St. James, he declined this offer. In the summer of 1841, Kerfoot and Miss Eliza M. Anderson became engaged. In September 1842, they were married in St. John's Chapel, New York. One week later, the couple moved to "Fountain Rock" near Hagerstown, Maryland, the site purchased for the construction of the College of St. James. This became "the scene of his educational labors and happy married life for the next twenty-two years." However, the Kerfoots' marriage was vitiated by the death of four children.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 43. The Diocese of Maryland, to which Kerfoot was about to transfer his educational labors, was at that time presided over by Bishop Whittingham William Rollinson Whittingham. ==College of St. James== Kerfoot spent twenty- three years of his ordained ministry as Rector of the College of St. James. Kerfoot himself called them "happy years of my life" and added that his heart was bound to the college "by sorrows as well as by joys, by disappointment as well as by success."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 358. The college "owed its origin to the Rt. Rev. William Rollinson Whittingham, " bishop of the Episcopal Church's Diocese of Maryland. The purpose of the college was to "give a high grade of education under the influences of the Episcopal Church."Hall Harrison, "The College of St. James", 258. After property had been purchased, Whittingham needed to find a head for the school. He looked to the Rev. William Augustus Muhlenberg who headed a school in College Point, NY. Muhlenberg refused the offer, but suggested and offered his "principal assistant" the Rev. John Barrett Kerfoot who had been educated by him. The school was incorporated as the College of St. James in 1843 with Kerfoot as its head. "The Rector and his assistant teachers were obliged to work without salaries at first, receiving only their board and lodging from the Institution."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 55. Under Kerfoot, the college and its preparatory school were an almost immediate success. Kerfoot followed Muhlenberg's example that "combined thorough religious instruction with the usual secular education." He hired "a small, largely northern, faculty, and soon attracted students from wealthy families all over the South." In the college chapel, Kerfoot was "an able and successful preacher." In his preaching, "his statements of truth and duty . . . ; the illustrations and examples were most pertinent."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 347. The first year, in spite of the financial difficulties, the college was doing well "until the health of the Rector completely broke down." It was a recurrence of Bronchitis that made preaching and teaching impossible, It was hoped that a voyage to England would remedy the condition. The return voyage was stormy and when near land the ship ran aground. All on board the ship were for thirteen hours in danger of death until their rescue. After their rescue, the captain and passengers spoke of the "help given them" by Kerfoot.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 66. The trip did not serve its purpose, because on December 14, 1843, having returned from England, Kerfoot wrote, "my health generally is much improved; my throat is not any better. I am forbidden preaching or teaching for nearly a year."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 95. The college and preparatory school attracted students. In 1848, St. James had 98 students and in 1857 it had 117. By the end of term in June 1861, there were "almost 175 students." Civil War Diary of Joseph H. Coit, 247. The college had "every prospect of permanence" until the Civil War was declared. In spite of the war, Kerfoot and his staff were determined to keep the college going and opened the October 1862 session with "between forty and fifty students." However, by June 25, 1863, there were only 12 students and all from Washington County in which the college was located. Civil War Diary of Joseph H. Coit, 247, 257. The college became the "pivot of the strife of the two armies."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 267-268. Two major battles, the Battle of South Mountain and the Battle of Antietam, were fought only a few miles away. Kerfoot and his mainly Union sympathizers staff gave "every possible assistance to the wounded, Confederate or Union." Kerfoot was "unwearied in his visitations to the hospitals," while doing his duties as "pastor and ruler of the little community" of the college.Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 361-362. After Confederate troops were defeated in Battle of Gettysburg, Lee began his retreat back into Virginia. The college was sacked several times by the retreating Confederate troops who were like a "vagabond mob of a beaten army." Civil War Diary of Joseph H. Coit, 260. In spite of these blows, Kerfoot, with his faculty and staff, kept the college going until the summer of 1864 when Kerfoot was arrested by the Confederates. He was later released. After Kerfoot's release, it had become evident that the 1863-1864 session was "likely to be the last session of St. James's College."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 279. Therefore, Kerfoot "finally decided that St. James's must be given up and accepted the Presidency of Trinity College, Hartford."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 300. The property on which the College of St. James was built is now the location of Saint James School, a coeducational college preparatory school. ==President of Trinity College== In 1864, the College of St. James had been closed. After much consideration of his options, Kerfoot decided that "St. James must be given up." So he accepted the Presidency of Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. He began his presidency "worn out and exhausted by the protracted cares and anxieties which had come upon him during the Civil War."Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 1 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 300-346. At Trinity College, by Commencement Day in the summer of 1865, there was great enthusiasm about Kerfoot's becoming its new president. His inaugural address on the nature of "The Christian College" was "very warmly received." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 375. The Civil War had wrought a devastating impact on Trinity College. Many of its students from Union states had been "drawn away into the ranks of the army." What had been a "considerable" number of students from states that seceded as part of the Confederacy had been reduced to zero. Thus, Trinity College was in serious straits. Kerfoot's taking the office of president "was the turning of the tide" for the college. Even though Kerfoot's time as president was brief, the effectiveness of his administration was demonstrated by fact that the college moved "forward so strongly and well in the years" after he left. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 376-377. In 1865, the Diocese of Connecticut elected him a Deputy to the twenty-eighth General Convention held October 4–24, 1865. This meeting authorized the formation of the new Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh. At a meeting to elect a bishop, Kerfoot was chosen on the first ballot. He accepted the election.The Church Review, Volume 48:165, "John Barrett Kerfoot," 374-375. When Kerfoot was elected Bishop of Pittsburgh, the trustees, the students, the alumni, and the clergy of Connecticut wanted him to remain at the college "whose prospects were just then becoming very bright." However, Kerfoot believed that it was "his duty to accept" his call to the episcopacy and to end "his long, arduous academical career." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 375-376. ==Bishop of Pittsburgh== Kerfoot would have been willing to remain at Trinity College and continue his work in Church education. However, he believed that "it was his duty to accept" his election as the first bishop of the new Diocese of Pittsburgh. Therefore, on December 5, 1865, he sent notice of his acceptance to the Presiding Bishop." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 411. Kerfoot was consecrated on the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul, January 25, 1866, in Pittsburgh. The consecration in Trinity Church, Pittsburgh, of which the Presiding Bishop John Henry Hopkins had once been the rector. The congregation was so large that many people were unable to find standing-room. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 425."History of Trinity" Immediately after his consecration, Kerfoot began his work as bishop. His first official act that day was to receive his son, Abel Anderson Kerfoot, as a candidate for Holy Orders. That night, Kerfoot presided at a missionary and prayer-book meeting and delivered an address. On the following Tuesday, January 30, he consecrated Trinity Church, New Castle, Pennsylvania. That evening, at the same church, Kerfoot held his first Confirmation." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 431. The new Diocese needed to be strengthened and enlarged. Kerfoot worked at this by spending several days when he made his parish visitations. During that time, he visited and made friends with the laity. He also held services in towns where no Episcopal Church clergyman had ever been seen as a way of starting new parishes. By such actions, Kerfoot won the "affection and confidence" of church people. Because of this, they were "liberal and ready" to contribute to diocesan projects such as the Church Home and the Church Guild. People, not only Episcopalians, learned to respect Kerfoot. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 432, 443. Kerfoot "allowed himself but little rest." He wrote many letters to clergymen and laymen who asked his advice. He also had to travel to Trinity College to perform some duties to which he was committed. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 432-433. ===First illness as bishop=== On Easter Tuesday, April 3, 1866, Kerfoot participated in the service at Trinity Church by reading the ante-Communion. After that, he met with the Board of Diocesan Missions from 10:45 until 1:30. During the last half hour, he began to feel weak and bewildered, as he later wrote, very weak. He said that he "broke down utterly; body feeble, mind and memory confused," so he had to stop work and cancel a visit to Meadville. By the next day, Kerfoot was still "very weak, but better." He blamed his illness on "nervous prostration from Hospital fever, the hot weather, and overwork." By April 16, he was much better and began to resume his work. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 433-434. ===First diocesan convention=== Kerfoot's first Diocesan Convention assembled in Pittsburgh on May 16, 1866, but he was unable to participate in it fully. On the opening day, he met with Diocesan Board of Missions in Trinity Church from 10.30 a. m. to 1.30 p. m. and again from 3:00 p. m. to 4.30 p. m. At 5:00 p. m., he opened the Diocesan Convention with prayers, and presided till adjournment at 6.30 p. m. At 8:00 p. m., he presided at a Diocesan Missionary Meeting at St. Andrew's Church till 10:00 p. m. After that he said that he was "very weary, exhausted and sick." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 434. Kerfoot missed the morning session of the second day of the convention because of his sickness. In the afternoon session he read his Episcopal address to the convention. That night, he had to miss a Prayer-Book Meeting in Trinity Church. He attended the third day of the convention, but did not preside. At 5:00 p. m., he closed the convention with an address and prayers. ===Progress in diocese=== Kerfoot facilitated much progress in his diocese in his first two years. ====More clergy==== In 1866, Kerfoot began his work with thirty-three clergy in the diocese. In two years this number had grown to forty-nine. His clergy "gave him unreserved sympathy and love; they worked for and with him. Also, the laity trusted their bishop and responded with liberality. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 438. ====The Church Home==== The Church Home in Pittsburgh had existed since 1859, but it was "weak and struggling" without sufficient income. The Home was originally for old members of the Church, but it soon admitted young children also. Thus, when Kerfoot visited the Home two days after his consecration, he found it to be a "struggling" institution. He raised sufficient funds to provide religious services and classes for its residents. One of Kerfoot's last official acts was laying the cornerstone of an addition that contained a chapel, rooms for old women, and an infirmary. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 440. ====The Church Guild==== In his first year as bishop, Kerfoot organized the Church Guild. Its purpose was "to bring Churchmen together socially and in the unity of interest" in the work of the diocese. The Guild owned its building that included a library and reading-room. This was made possible by the contributions of laymen. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 441. ====Schools==== Education in the Muhlenberg tradition was a favorite ministry of Bishop Kerfoot. An 1868 diocesan committee on education encouraged creation of low- fee schools supervised by parish rectors. It also encouraged the founding of secondary schools for boys and girls from the "wealthy class." One such school was Trinity Hall School for Boys in Washington, Pennsylvania, that operated from 1879 to 1906. By his seventh year as bishop, Kerfoot noted the diocese had increased the number of working-class parishioners by two-thirds. This included a strong focus on ministry to coal minters of English descent. ===Attended the first Lambeth Conference in 1867=== Kerfoot accepted the Archbishop of Canterbury's invitation to the first Lambeth Conference. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 447. While in England, Kerfoot preached on several occasions for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He also "preached and spoke" in many places by invitation. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 448, 455, 460.. The University of Cambridge conferred the honorary degree of LL. D. on Kerfoot and six other American bishops. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 448. ===Ritualism=== Kerfoot rejected Anglo-Catholic tendencies but was decidedly High Church. As part of the Tractarian movement, Ritualism increased during Kerfoot's episcopate. The word Ritualism refers to the introduction of new vestments and ceremonies in worship to symbolize certain doctrines. Ritualism was a reaction from a "coldness and baldness" in worship. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 475-476. Kerfoot supported the aesthetic side of Ritualism. However, he opposed doctrines connected with Ritualism about the Holy Eucharist and "sacramental confession" as contrary to the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 476. He forbade the Anglo-Catholic practice of bowing at the altar because it implied "carnal presence." In controversies regarding Ritualism, Kerfoot "endeavored to act fairly towards all." At the same time, he tried to prevent excess and insure obedience to the Book of Common Prayer by his clergy. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 510. Surviving correspondence between Hill Burgwin of the diocesan standing committee shows leaders blocked the appointment of a Low Churchman because his views were not "harmonious" with Kerfoot's High Church practices. ===Influence at General Convention=== Kerfoot's influence in the affairs of the Episcopal Church "increased rapidly." He took a "prominent part" in his second General Convention of 1871. He had gained the "confidence of his brethren" by his "executive capacity" and his "strong common sense." Kerfoot was elected by General Convention as a trustee of the General Theological Seminary. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 507, 512. Kerfoot attended two more General Conventions (1874 and 1877). However, by the 1880 Convention he was too ill to attend. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 513. ===Summary of first seven years as bishop=== In 1873, Kerfoot wrote a summary of the growth in his diocese during his first seven years as bishop: Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 536-537. *twenty-seven new churches had been built (five of these replacing former and inferior ones); *ten more churches had been enlarged and refitted; *seven new churches were being built, and four more were to be begin building soon; *the building outlay, so far, had been about $570,000; two- thirds or more of this outside of Pittsburgh, and mostly spent in small churches; *the number of communicants had grown from 2000 to 4000; *the number of working class communicants had grown by two-thirds; *Confirmations were somewhat above the average (i. e., one-tenth of the communicants); *Diocesan missions had received $1.30 per communicant yearly; *most older churches had been revived and strengthened; *at forty places, which had not been reached in 1866, there were now services; *there was peace and order in the Diocese. ===Second illness as bishop=== In the spring of 1873, Kerfoot had "an alarming illness, which was nearly fatal." Although he lived and worked seven more years after this severe attack, his strong constitution had received a shock which left its mark upon him. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 537-538. The following spring, because Kerfoot was still "weak and exhausted," some laymen sent him to Europe for the summer of 1874 for rest and recreation. The plan was to take a "leisurely trip." However, at the urging of the Presiding Bishop, he attended two meetings of Old Catholic Church leaders in Germany. So Kerfoot's trip included "days of full of hard, thoughtful work." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 546. On August 21, 1874, before Kerfoot left England, Archbishop Tait wrote him asking that he ascertain from the Episcopal Church's House of Bishops "their wishes" regarding a second Lambeth Conference. On November 3, 1874, Kerfoot wrote the Archbishop that the American Bishops had expressed their that there be a second Conference.The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878, and 1888: with the Official Reports and Resolutions, Together with the Sermons Preached at the Conferences, edited by Randall Thomas Davidson. (London: SPCK, 1889), 141-144. Kerfoot attended his second Lambeth Conference in 1878 after having served as "the medium of correspondence" between the Archbishop of Canterbury Tait and the American bishops in making decisions about the time and shape of the Conference. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 581-582. ===The reform movement in Mexico Commission=== Kerfoot served on a seven-member Commission of bishops that dealt with "The Reform Movement in Mexico." At the General Convention of October 1874, the House of Bishops met in secret session to consider a memorial from "Members of the Synod of the Church of Jesus in Mexico." The memorial solicited American bishops consecrate the Rev. Dr. Riley as a bishop for their church. This was done. Kerfoot, who had had numerous interviews with Riley, supported the consecration. However, the new bishop's actions led to the House of Bishops at the General Convention of 1883 to unanimously request the "removal of his jurisdiction." Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 616-617, 634. ===Final two years=== In 1879, Kerfoot was often weary, but he still attended to his Diocesan duties. He made his visitations and preached. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 665. However, illnesses and bad news began to weigh upon him. On October 17, 1879, Bishop Whittingham, Kerfoot's bishop while he was in Maryland and close friend for life died. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 673. Kerfoot attended the funeral in Orange, New Jersey. In the following months there were more signs of weariness with his work.The Church Review, Volume 48:165, "John Barrett Kerfoot," 376. On March 1, 1880, Kerfoot's sixty-fourth birthday, he visited his doctor regarding his deafness. On May 12, 1880, Kerfoot and family, with exception of his wife, came down with Scarlet fever. On June 6, 1880, Kerfoot's only surviving son Abel, a priest, died. In addition, he suffered "bitter grief" at the failure of Bishop Riley to keep his promises to him. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 670-673. Such "severe blows" to Kerfoot made him unable to carry on his work. His last year was a year of "continuous feebleness." On July 8, 1881, Kerfoot suffered another attack of paralysis and on July 10, 1881. He died in Meyersdale, Pennsylvania, eighty-six miles from Pittsburgh. His funeral was on July 13, 1881, in Trinity Church, Pittsburgh with a congregation that overflowed the building. He was buried in Homewood Cemetery. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 673, 677-678. Immediately after the funeral, the clergy of the Diocese met. In the meeting, one of the leading clergymen the Rev. Dr. William A. Hitchcock presented a Minute (i.e. a memorandum) about Kerfoot. The opening words of the Minute were "In the simplicity and godly sincerity of his walk and conversation, in the quick and ready sympathy which he showed toward the sorrowful, the suffering and the sinful, and in the devout spirit of his public services and private life, he was a pattern to his clergy and his flock. Hall Harrison, Life of the Right Reverend John Barrett Kerfoot, First Bishop of Pittsburgh: With Selections from His Diaries and Correspondence, Volume 2 (J. Pott & Company, 1886), 682-683. ==References== ==External links== * Documents by and about Kerfoot from Project Canterbury * Volume one Volume two Category:1816 births Category:1881 deaths Category:Burials at Homewood Cemetery Category:19th- century Anglican bishops in the United States Category:Irish emigrants to the United States Category:Education in Hartford, Connecticut Category:Presidents of Trinity College (Connecticut) Category:Episcopal bishops of Pittsburgh
|
Superman & Lois is an American television series developed by Todd Helbing and Greg Berlanti, based on the DC Comics characters Superman and Lois Lane, created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. The series stars Tyler Hoechlin and Elizabeth Tulloch in the title roles, as well as Jordan Elsass, Michael Bishop, Alex Garfin, Inde Navarrette, Erik Valdez, Emmanuelle Chriqui and Dylan Walsh. The series was initially set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the franchise. However, after season 2, it was revealed that the series took place on an as-yet-unidentified alternate Earth in the Arrowverse Multiverse. The following is a list of characters who have appeared in the television series. Many are named after (or based on) DC Comics characters. ==Overview== ;Legend : = Main cast (credited) : = Recurring cast (4+ in seasons 1-3, 3+ in season 4) : = Guest cast (1-3 in seasons 1-3, 1-2 in season 4) Cast and characters in Superman & Lois Character Portrayed by Seasons 1 2 3 4 Main characters Clark Kent / Superman Tyler Hoechlin colspan="4" Lois Lane Elizabeth Tulloch colspan="4" Jonathan Kent Jordan Elsass colspan="2" colspan="2" Michael Bishop colspan="2" colspan="2" Jordan Kent Alex Garfin colspan="4" Kyle Cushing Erik Valdez colspan="3" colspan="1" Sarah Cortez Inde Navarrette colspan="3" colspan="1" John Henry Irons / The Stranger Wolé Parks colspan="3" colspan="1" Morgan Edge / Tal-Rho / Eradicator Adam Rayner colspan="2" Samuel Lane Dylan Walsh colspan="3" colspan="1" Lana Lang Emmanuelle Chriqui colspan="3" colspan="1" Natalie Lane Irons Tayler Buck colspan="1" colspan="2" colspan="1" Chrissy Beppo Sofia Hasmik colspan="1" colspan="2" colspan="1" Bruno Mannheim Chad L. Coleman colspan="2" colspan="1" Lex Luthor Michael Cudlitz colspan="2" Recurring characters Sophie Cushing/Cortez Joselyn Picard colspan="3" Leslie Larr Stacey Farber colspan="4" Jor-El Angus Macfadyen colspan="3" Zeta-Rho A.C. Peterson colspan="3" Lieutenant General Mitch Anderson Ian Bohen colspan="1" colspan="2" Candice Pergande Samantha Di Francesco colspan="2" Lara Lor-Van Mariana Klaveno colspan="1" Lucy Lane Jenna Dewan colspan="1" Alexandra "Ally" Allston Rya Kihlstedt colspan="1" colspan="2" Matteo Mannheim Spence Moore II colspan="2" colspan="1" Peia Mannheim / Onomatopoeia Daya Vaidya colspan="2" colspan="1" ==Main characters== ===Clark Kent / Superman=== Kal-El / Clark Kent / Superman (portrayed by Tyler Hoechlin; seasons 1-present; Dylan Kingwell as a teenage Clark in season one, Josh Zaharia as a teenage Clark in season two, Thomas Hoeving as a child, Parker Cousineau during his grade school years, Lennix James as a 4-year-old Clark) is a superhero from Krypton who defends Earth and is Lois' husband. In season one after losing his job at the Daily Planet and his mother dying of a stroke, Clark relocates the family to Smallville for a fresh start and becomes the assistant football coach in Smallville High School. Hoechlin previously portrayed Clark in a recurring role in Supergirl, where the character was introduced, before appearing in guest roles in Arrow, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Batwoman. In season two, Clark starts to have strange visions and butts heads with Lt. General Mitch Anderson. A scan by Lara Lor-Van's A.I. at Tal-Rho's lair reveals that they are being caused by an "invasive cosmological event". This would lead to an encounter with Bizarro and a fight against Ally Allston. Following the defeat against Ally Allston and her Bizarro counterpart, Superman builds a new Fortress of Solitude in the ocean for his family. In season three, Clark works to train Jordan in using his powers. In addition, he also goes to work for Chrissy. * Hoechlin also portrays an evil version of Superman from another Earth. His history in the canon Arrowverse comic mini-series Earth-Prime #2 revealed that his Jonathan and Martha died in a car accident and he was put in a terrible foster home. After unknowing using his powers on the foster father, Clark fled until he was caught by the government who kept him in their custody until the day he escaped. Clark made his way to the Fortress of Solitude where he met the A.I. of his world's Jor-El. After getting training for his abilities, Clark became Superman and used his powers. After being delusioned that the entire world will still be in danger no matter how many times he averts danger, Superman met Tal-Rho who persuaded him to remake Earth into the new Kryton which led to different attacks with Kryptonian-powered people where he killed his world's Lois Lane and Sam Lane and became an opponent to John Henry Irons. While pursuing him into space where John flew into the energy wave during the Crisis on Infinite Earths, Superman was saved by Magog who offered to pair him up against Earth-Prime's Superman. ====Bizarro==== Bizarro (portrayed by Tyler Hoechlin; recurring: season 2; guest: season 3; performed by Daniel Cudmore in full-armored form, motion-captured by Paul Lazenby in monstrous form) is a deformed version of Superman from Bizarro World who sports a tattered cape and a backwards version of the Superman logo while sporting opposite abilities. His fame and the development of his son Jon-El's powers go over his head putting a strain on his family. When it came to the rise of his world's Ally Allston, Bizarro's relationship with his Tal-Rho is strained. After getting deformed, Bizarro informs Lois and Sam of his mission to go after the other Ally Allston before they can merge. He was first seen in a full-armored form in the Shuster Mine. His attack in the Shuster Mine attracted the attention of Dr. Faulkner and her as-yet-unidentified superior. When it was freed, Bizarro went on the attack on the soldiers there until it engaged Superman and John Henry Irons. While John was able to break part of the helmet to show its face, Bizarro only retreated when he suffered from the same painful visions that Superman had. In the arctic, Bizarro sheds his armor. Bizarro attacks Superman again where his special necklace starts to siphon some energy from him. John barely manages to help repel him. The Supermen of America track down the figure at Salar de Uyuni as Superman senses him killing the two unnamed members. Superman arrives to fight him while Tag escapes with the necklace. The figure is repelled at the cost of John getting hospitalized. Superman later fights Bizarro again after he kills Dr. Faulkner and nearly kills Ally Alston. With help from Lara's A.I., Superman was able to translate Bizarro's language where he learns that Ally will bring ruin to his world after she had conquered his world. After Superman and Lois escaped from Mitch Anderson's custody, Tal-Rho learned from Bizarro that his Bizarro counterpart was inseparable from him until Tal-Rho's wife nearly killed him. When Anderson attacks while wielding Project 7334 weapons and X-Kryptonite, Lara's A.I. released Bizarro to help fight Anderson. Bizarro was overpowered by Anderson who used X-Kryptonite grenades on him and strangled Bizarro to death. Both the Bizarro version of Lara's A.I. and the Bizarro version of the Kents learned of what happened from both Superman and Anderson. In season three, Bizarro's corpse is stolen by Intergang. Dr. Hook later does an autopsy on it to further Intergang's research. Bizarro later returns from the dead. Mannheim later shows Matteo the body of Bizarro as he plans to use it for research to find a cure for Peia Mannheim. After Peia died and Bruno was defeated, Bizarro has been fully revived by the serum. Given the fact that his skin is pulsating and he is yelling incoherently, its debatable if he is the same man he was. Lex and Otis find Bizarro in the damaged tunnels, feeding on rats. When Bizarro spots them, he immediately tackles and implicitly eats Otis as a more filling meal. Luthor repeatedly kills Bizarro in order to make him stronger, eventually turning him into a more monstrous form. ===Lois Lane=== Lois Lane (portrayed by Elizabeth Tulloch; seasons 1-present) is a renowned journalist and Clark's wife. In season one, Lois quits her job after Morgan Edge buys the Daily Planet and start working at a local publication Smallville Gazette. In season two, Lois and Chrissy start to work on expanding their staff. Due to some sources recanting the stories written by Lois, she and Chrissy work to prove them starting with one that Lois was told about by her sister Lucy and her encounter with cult leader Ally Alston. Thanks to Sam, Lois works to speak with Lucy only to end up confronted by Ally Alston who claimed that Lucy sent her in her place. Following Ally Allston's defeat, Lois reveals to Chrissy that Clark is Superman and has a brief chat with Ally and her Bizarro counterpart. In season three, Lois visits Dr. Irons about what she knows about what this Earth's version of John Henry Irons did that involved Bruno Mannheim. Later on, Dr. Irons asks Lois to come in to do some more tests. Lois later reveals that she has been diagnosed with Stage 3 inflammatory breast cancer. * Tulloch also portrays a variation of Lois Lane from another Earth where she is married to John Henry Irons. Before being killed by Superman, she gives away the Kryptonite weakness in her news report and tells her family that she loves them. * Tullock also portrays Lois' Bizarro counterpart whose relationship with Bizarro was strained. She works with Sam and Jordan in a resistance against her world's Ally Allston. Bizarro Lois later watches Allston's broadcast where she plans to merge both worlds. ===Jonathan Kent=== Jonathan Kent (portrayed by Jordan Elsass; seasons 1–2; Michael Bishop; season 3-present; Brady Droulis as a 7-year-old) is the modest and kind-hearted son of Clark and Lois although unlike his twin brother Jordan, Jonathan doesn't seem to have inherited any of Clark's kryptonian powers even though he is a top level athlete by human standards. In season 1 although Jonathan initially claims that he isn't bothered by the fact that he unfortunately didn't get superpowers like Jordan and even supports his brother on his journey to master his new abilities, he does admit later on that a part of him is actually jealous of his twin brother's new powers since thanks to them Jordan becomes very popular at their new high school and Smallville High's best new football player, but doesn't let his jealousy destroy his relationship with his brother and they both still love each other very much. Jonathan's insecurities comes to ahead later in season 1 after Jonathan and Jordan find out about how Morgan Edge and John Henry Irons are threatening both Smallville and their parent's lives. Jonathan feels powerless and defenseless compared to his father and brother's powers which leads him to take some of Irons' weapons until he returns them in the season 1 finale. He is named after Clark's adoptive father Jonathan Kent. Jonathan is on the Smallville high school football team called the Smallville Crows, but gets kicked off of the team after he tries to get rid of his girlfriend's illegal drugs and takes the fall for her in season 2. In season two, Jonathan starts dating Candice Pergande and finds out that she was the one who sold X-Kryptonite crystals to Timmy Ryan, and confronts her about it. Instead of telling on her, Jonathan asks for a crystal, which enhances his strength and vision. After getting caught by Principal Balcomb and the Smallville Sheriff Department trying to dispose of Candice's supply, he was unable to admit to Lois that they were Candice's. After a fight with a crazed Mitch Anderson, Clark returns and is informed of what happened, telling Jonathan to start apologizing to Principal Balcomb, Coach Gaines, and the Smallville Crows. Clark persuades Principal Balcomb to allow Jonathan to do an online education as Jonathan will also be working at Brit and Dunn's. After a fire at a warehouse containing X-Kryptonite, Sam persuades Jonathan to come clean as he advises them to keep the identity of the person private from the press. He calls Candice to the farm as she informs them on what she knows. Jonathan is eventually allowed to start attending school again and although he initially has struggles from being outcasted by his peers following his circumstances after being expelled and meeting Jon-El, going on a small adventure with Jordan and Natalie helps Jonathan overcome this hurdle. Following Ally Allston's defeat, Jonathan and Jordan receive trucks that were delivered to them by "Uncle Tal". In season three, Jonathan gets his driver's license and celebrates his 16th birthday. While at a party in Metropolis, Jonathan runs into Eliza who regretted breaking up with him. Jonathan lets her down easily when he mentions that he is now with Candice. Jonathan later learns of his mother's diagnosis. After learning about his mom's cancer, Jonathan and Jordan along with Natalie try to encourage her and offer their support by getting a gift watch for her which they leave within Jonathan's new truck while at school, but unfortunately Jon's truck gets stolen while he's in class. Things between Jon and Candice temporarily become icy after Jon accuses her dad of stealing his truck. After locating his truck within a warehouse, Jordan and Natalie help Jonathan get his truck back and he later reconciles with Candice after she reveals that she found confirmation that it was indeed her father who stole Jonathan's truck when she returns the gift watch. Jonathan later confronts Candice's dad Emmett over his illegal activities including his theft of Jonathan's truck which Emmett falsely denies. When Jonathan further insists on Emmett's bad qualities, he's given a black eye by Emmett and is forced to tell his parents what happened after they inquire about what happened. After Clark and Lois confront Emmett, he leaves town with the Kents allowing Candice to live with them. 3 weeks later Candice moves in with her aunt in Topeka with Jonathan agreeing to a long-distance relationship despite working most of the week at Brit and Dunn's and being offered a place within the fire department by Kyle on the weekends. * Jordan Elsass also portrays Jon-El Jonathan's Bizarro counterpart, who has powers. With his relationship with his father is strained, Jon-El is swayed to the side of his world's Ally Allston. When both versions of Ally Allston start to merge, Jon- El is instructed to merge with his counterpart as Superman goes after him. He appears to inform Lois and Jordan that Superman lost. After attempt to merge with Jonathan failed, Jon-El kidnaps Lana, luring Superman into a Kryptonite- based trap and summons Lana-Rho. When he goes after Jonathan again, Jordan managed to defeat them in mid-air. Jon-El was remanded to DOD custody where Superman tries to get an imprisoned Jon-El to turn against Ally Allston to no avail. Lana-Rho later sprung him from his imprisonment where they attacked a weakened Superman at Smallville High School. They were defeated by Jordan and Natalie. ===Jordan Kent=== Jordan Kent (portrayed by Alex Garfin; seasons 1-present; Dawson Littman as a 7-year-old) is the introspective son of Clark and Lois. He has social anxiety and enjoys playing video games alone. He has inherited his father's powers, though initially his abilities are only in 'small bursts'; Jordan's powers being much weaker than a full kryptonians and originally had trouble using some of them on command like his heat vision, but did still develop other powers such as super hearing and freeze breath. He is named after Clark's biological father Jor-El. Jordan later joins Smallville high school football team although he later quits in order to focus on helping his family deal with Tal-Rho. In season two, Jordan's powers have matured and started to grow at a tremendous rate with him able to now use his abilities much more easily. After Superman begins to have painful visions that debilitate him while in the field, Jordan plans to find a way to help his dad. Sam agrees to secretly train him in order for Jordan to become more adept at using his powers, during which at some point Jordan gains his super speed. Lois finds out that Jordan withheld information on Jonathan taking X-Kryptonite. After Jordan secretly helps save Kyle from a fire by super leaping through a wall that John Henry Irons witnesses, Lois confronted Jordan about it and learned that Sam trained him. She forbade Jordan to follow in his father's footsteps until Lois and Sam were caught outside an X-Kryptonite distribution house. Lois was forced to call for Jordan's help when she realized that without him they would've been killed and witnessed him effortlessly defeat their captors after he gained his ability of accelerated perception and save them thanks to his newfound handle on his powers. When it came to the fight against Ally Allston's followers, he struggled in his fight against Jon-El (who had been sent to merge with Jonathan), but manages to defeat him while in the air when Jordan flies for the first time. After Jon- El's defeat Jordan also gets taught by Clark on how to fly and even learns how to fly in space, but still doesn't know how to land yet. When Lana-Rho springs Jon-El from his imprisonment and they attacked Superman, Jordan and Natalie defeat them. During the fight against Ally Allston, Jordan went to rescue Tal- Rho from being slain by Ally. After Ally is defeated, Jonathan and Jordan receive trucks that were delivered to them by "Uncle Tal". In season three, Jordan celebrates his 16th birthday while being trained by his father in using his abilities, although Jordan gets scolded by Clark when he attempts solo heroics. Even though Jordan has reconciled with Sarah, she decides to not get back together with him which leaves Jordan feeling awkward about how to be around her, although he decides to respect her choice. Unlike Jonathan, Jordan doesn't try to bother getting his drivers license due to returning his own truck since he could already fly and run at super speed. With Smallville High temporarily closed due to black mold remediations, Jonathan convinces Jordan to fly them to a party in Metropolis in order for Jordan to meet with another girl to try and get over Sarah. After meeting Sarah at the party, they both decide to continue with being just friends and have fun together at the party. The Smallville teens are forced to leave the party early when Sarah and Jordan get into an argument with the party's host Travis, although as payback for Travis' rudeness Jordan uses his super breath to freeze Travis' new SUV birthday gift. Jordan later learns of his mother's diagnosis. To show their support and encouragement to Lois, the Kent twins along with Natalie decide to gift her with a watch that belonged to Natalie's mother. The watch is unfortunately stolen when inside Jonathan's truck while at school the next day, which Jordan and Natalie deduce was taken by Candice's father after Jonathan brings up his interest in his truck the previous night. Locating the truck after school, Jordan uses his powers while Natalie uses her armor to help Jon successfully steal his truck back after which Natalie gives the watch to Lois after its returned by Candice. After helping his dad deal with a forest fire, Jordan gets slightly chewed out over his carelessness after Sam shows him pictures of satellite images which showed Jordan's hair after his hood briefly fell down. Jordan argues with Sam over whether or not he should get his hair cut, but they later reconcile after Sam gives Jordan his own suit to better hide his identity when operating as a superhero. Jordan eventually becomes frustrated after Clark's insistence that he's not ready to be a superhero and being given more and more training tests one after another. After Superman is tricked into an ambush by Intergang, Jordan manages to save his father and is shot with kryptonite in the process. Even though the kryptonite briefly incapacitates him, Jordan discovers that due to being half- human, Kryptonite doesn't seem to affect him the way it does normal Kryptonians, with Clark even speculating that Jordan could have the potential to even surpass him in power. Jordan attends a party where he bumps into Sarah and they eventually have a heated argument. Despite this, after the police raid the party, Jordan rescues Sarah and George Dean Jr. after they end up in a car crash while fleeing from the cops. Jordan later develops X-ray vision during Lois' surgery which he gains control of thanks to help from Jonathan and later uses to save the doctors operating on Lois when Peia's powers cause massive earthquakes and almost causes an explosion that Jordan prevents. * Alex Garfin also portrays Jordan's Bizarro counterpart who doesn't have powers. He helps his mother and grandfather in a small resistance against his world's Ally Allston. Bizarro Jordan later watches Allston's broadcast where she plans to merge both worlds. ===Kyle Cushing=== Kyle Cushing (portrayed by Erik Valdez; seasons 1-3) is Lana's ex-husband and the father of Sarah and Sophie. He is Smallville's fire chief. In season two, Kyle supports Lana's campaign to become the next Mayor of Smallville after the original candidate Daniel Hart dropped out. His previous affair with Tonya Martinz was found out by Sarah which partially affects her quinceañera. While Lana forgave him, Kyle was advised to move out. At Aubrey's advice, Sarah visits Kyle outside the liquor store. Kyle later helps Lana rehearse for the debate on family values against Mayor Dean. While fighting a fire at a warehouse that contained X-Kryptonite, Kyle was injured by a fire tornado and was secretly rescued by Jordan. As Ally Allston started to merge Earth-Prime and Bizarro World, Kyle suddenly disappeared. This landed him on Bizarro World where Lois states that what happened recently was not his fault. After Ally was defeated, Kyle and Lana reconciled but Lana told him that although they will always be in each other's lives, things between them could never go back to how they were and that Kyle had to stop holding out hope that they would get back together. In season three, Kyle and Lana have gotten a divorce and he later finds himself sleeping with Chrissy. He was visited by Lana at the scene of George Dean's murder. After hearing about the argument between Lana and Sarah, Kyle arranged a sit-down at the diner to settle this matter. He is among those who saw Clark deal with Emmit Pergande. While taking Jonathan in as a trainee, he starts to get suspicious when one of the fires he had to put out had ice found inside. Clark is forced to reveal to Kyle that he's Superman when Kyle independently figures out that one of his sons (the wrong one, but still) has powers and won't let the issue go, at the same time that Peia makes her escape from the DOD. After hearing that Chrissy is pregnant and breaking the news to Lana, Kyle later proposes to her before the meteor shower. ===Sarah Cortez=== Sarah Cushing (portrayed by Inde Navarrette; seasons 1-3) is Kyle and Lana's oldest daughter. In season two, Sarah returned from camp and starts acting awkward around Jordan. She later revealed to him that she kissed a fellow camper named Aubrey for some unknown reason. At the advice of her mother, Sarah and Jordan work out this issue. There was even a mentioning that Sarah had an earlier suicide attempt at some point in her life. During her quinceañera, Sarah and Jordan overheard the discussion between Kyle and Sarah which Lana plans to settle at a later point. Sarah later invites Aubrey to the local diner to talk about the issues with her family right now. Aubrey advises Sarah to talk with her father. When her mom wins the election, Sarah was saddened that Jordan wasn't present when the victory was announced and breaks up with him. Jordan tries to find ways to explain himself to Sarah. At the time when Ally Allston started to merge Earth-Prime and Bizarro World, Sarah witnessed Jordan using his powers on Lana-Rho and later confronted her mom about this. Their argument was interrupted when Sophie informed them that their father disappeared. After Ally was defeated, Sarah learns the truth about Jordan's abilities and that his father Clark Kent is Superman. In season three, Sarah sports a shoulder- length hairstyle and agrees with Jordan that they should stay separated. After Lana scolds her for sneaking off the Metropolis, they end up in an argument where Lana regrettably slapped Sarah. After hearing about what happened, Kyle arranged a sit-down at the diner to settle this matter. Sarah is among those who see Clark deal with Emmit Pergande. Sarah reconnects with her childhood friend George Dean Jr. and later bonds with him at a drinking party where she brushes Jordan aside when he tries to join in on their conversation. This leads to the 2 having a falling out after an argument. The police later raid the party and while fleeing the scene with George Jr., Sarah almost hits a deer and ends up in a car crash where she almost dies, but she and Jr. are saved by Jordan in the nick of time. Sarah later gets charged with a D.U.I and gets grounded by her parents. Sarah later apologizes to Jordan about their argument, but Jordan refuses to accept her apology after he points out how she's only doing so out of guilt because he rescued her. This leads to Sarah spiraling down into a deep depression after she realizes all of her mistakes, which her parents try to help her out of. Sarah eventually ends up getting a job as a waitress to gain a sense of responsibility as her first step of recovery from her depression and downward spiral. ===John Henry Irons=== John Henry Irons (portrayed by Wolé Parks; seasons 1-3) is a mysterious and solo survivor from an unidentified parallel Earth. Introduced under the alias of "Captain Luthor", this version is from an unidentified alternate Earth that was ravaged by an army of evil Kryptonians, engineered by his Earth's Tal-Rho and led by Superman. Additionally, he was married to his Earth's Lois Lane and had a daughter named Natalie. After Lois exposed the Kryptonians' weakness to Kryptonite on the news, she was killed by Superman. In response, John and Nat built a suit of armor and incorporated an A.I. named Hedy he took from his Earth's Lex Luthor. As he was unable to reprogram its recognition protocols, John was forced to go by "Captain Luthor". At some point prior to his Earth's destruction, John makes his way to Earth-Prime and witnesses its Superman. Convinced he will inevitably turn evil, John hunts down Earth-Prime Superman. Along the way, he encounters Earth-Prime's Lois, introduces himself as "Marcus Bridgewater", and offers to help her investigate Morgan, leading to them finding X-Kryptonite. After finishing his hammer, John uses Lois to arrange a meeting with Superman and beats him after weakening him with red solar flares. Upon having Lt. Reno Rosetti run the prints on the box he gave them to see if he was related to Lex Luthor, she learned that "Marcus" is a variation of John Henry Irons. Meanwhile, having obtained John's fingerprints to see if he was related to Luthor, Lois deduces John's identity and joins forces with her sons, Jonathan and Jordan, to save Superman while the Department of Defense take John into their custody. While being interrogated by Superman, John briefly reminisces on his past and how he got to Earth-Prime before warning Superman that Earth-Prime will go through what his Earth did. However, Lois convinces John that her Superman is nothing like the ones from his Earth. John later helps Superman in his fight against Tal-Rho. Afterwards, John is surprised by the arrival of Natalie. In season two, John works to help Natalie adjust to Earth-Prime when they are in Metropolis. When this fails and she has a talk with Natalie, Lois allows them to move in with them. John even helps her in measuring the tremors at the Shuster Mine. He was present when Clark tells Lois about his visions being tied to an "invasive cosmological event". Following a fight with Bizarro, John receives help from Natalie on repairing the armor. When it comes to the next fight with Bizarro, John was beaten up enough to end up in the hospital's ICU. After getting out, Clark was able to have John and Natalie move into a house that was owned by an old friend of his. When Superman entered the Inverse World, John had to cover for him and even joined Natalie in honoring the memory of their Lois. John later found out that Natalie had made her own super-suit and couldn't destroy it due to being coated in a lacquer made from X-Kryptonite. He does allow her to help him when it comes to Superman's fight with Ally Allston in Burnham Woods. After Natalie uses the X-Kryptonite lacquer on his armor, John later fights Ally in the portal between Earth-Prime and Bizarro World only to be knocked unconscious by her powers. Natalie rescued him despite the buggy message to bring X-Kryptonite. Both of them were rescued by Superman before Ally can harm them. After Superman defeated Ally, she and her Bizarro counterpart were handed over to John and Natalie. Sometime later, John was approached by John Diggle who was looking for answers on why this Earth's John Henry Irons was killed by Bruno Mannheim. In season three, John joins the DOD. He does reprimand Sam Lane when he hears that he tried to get Natalie in joining the DOD's academy. When ex-mayor George Dean confronts Lana on some reallocated funds, John orders George to take his leave. Following Dean's murder, John follows Lana to city hall where they find a drive. Before they can figure out what's on it, Peia Mannheim uses a sound attack on them where she makes off with the drive and destroys the laptop while getting a glimpse of John. He later sets up a perimeter around Lana's house just in case of another attacker. After helping Superman defeat Mike Gunn, John analyzes the gautnlets he used. Comparing them to the rockets on his armor, John finds out that they are similar. After a talk with Clark, John goes to Metropolis and meets this world's version of his sister Dr. Darlene Irons while mentioning that he is not from this Earth. Upon learning about his counterpart from Darlene, John was later visited by Elias Orr who stated that Bruno Mannheim wanted to meet him. When meeting John, Bruno mentioned his awareness of John not being his John, that this Earth's John wanted to be a hero, and the allegations towards Bruno. Wanting to know who smart this John is, Bruno had arranged Darlene to be strapped to a bomb that was made by this Earth's John. Upon locating her and disarming the bomb, John went back to Bruno who stated that he has Intergang members on standby to target his counterpart's other relatives. During the latest visit with Darlene, John learns that the restaurant that Matteo Mannheim took Natalie to meet her parents at was where her John met with Bruno. When John arrived, Bruno had Natalie and Matteo evacuated so that he and his men can deal with John. Upon John summoning his armor, Peia went on the attack even when Superman arrived to help. Following the incident, John had to confiscate Natalie's phone as a precaution. * Parks' image was also used to portray the John Henry Irons from Superman and Lois' Earth who is mentioned to have been killed in action. The season two finale revealed that this John was killed by Bruno Mannheim during the discussion above. He is also revealed to have a sister named Dr. Irons and was said to have sold some weapons to Bruno Mannheim until he started to have a change of heart. Peia was revealed to have been the one who killed this Earth's John Henry Irons on Bruno Mannheim's orders seven years ago. ===Morgan Edge / Tal-Rho=== Morgan Edge (portrayed by Adam Rayner; main: season 1; recurring: season 2; Jack Rehbein as a 10-year- old, Ben Cockell as a 19-year-old Tal-Rho) is an intelligent, eloquent and impassioned self-made mogul" and CEO of Edge EnerCorp who has taken an interest in Smallville, raising suspicion from Lois. In Smallville, Edge's company Edge EnerCorp gains ownership of a mine that contains X-Kryptonite which he plans to use to continue experiments in an attempt to create a superpowered army. His previous experiments resulted in only one non-flawed subject, his assistant Leslie Larr. His work in Smallville brings him into further conflict with Lois Lane and an alternate John Henry Irons, who comes from an Earth where a similar army led by Superman ravaged Metropolis and murdered John's wife, Lois. Edge is later revealed to be a Kryptonian named Tal-Rho, the son of Lara Lor-Van and Zeta-Rho and thus Superman's maternal half-brother. His escape pod landed in England, where he immediately came into conflict with the local townspeople. He was captured and experimented on before managing to escape, causing him to hate mankind. His goal is to resurrect Krypton on Earth by implanting Kryptonian consciousnesses into human hosts using the X-Kryptonite and the Eradicator. Upon finding Superman's body at the Fortress of Solitude following the defeat of most of the Subjekts, Tal- Rho uses Kryptonian technology to review Superman's memories, discovering his human family. With his family threatened, Superman agrees to accompany Tal-Rho to his hideout where the A.I. of Zeta-Rho instructs Tal-Rho to use the Eradicator on him. After the attempt is thwarted during a fight with John, Tal-Rho is defeated with the Eradicator not being found and is placed in a Kryptonite cell. What nobody knows is that Tal-Rho had somehow become fused with the Eradicator which enables him to overcome the Kryptonite and begin his next plot that involved placing a copy of Zeta-Rho into Jordan. Superman and John were able to defeat Tal-Rho and remove Zeta-Rho from Jordan. Tal-Rho and Leslie are placed in DOD custody. In season two, Tal-Rho is kept in a special cell that has red solar lights. Superman visited him to see if there were side-effects to the Eradicator conscious due to the painful visions he has. Tal-Rho mentioned that he hasn't experienced them while also claiming that he lost his powers in the solar flare that Irons caused. When the vision happen again following a hostage crisis caused by Phillip Karnowski, Superman gives in to Tal-Rho's deal to make use of his lair as Jordan comes with Superman to keep an eye on Tal-Rho. As Tal-Rho activates the A.I. copy of Lara as she scans Superman, he starts to have the visions again as Jordan learns that Tal- Rho faked losing his powers. After a brief scuffle between Superman and Tal- Rho, Lara tells Superman that his visions are the result of an "invasive cosmological event" and tells Tal-Rho that there might be some good in him. Tal-Rho is later returned to his cell. When Superman ends up locked in Tal- Rho's cell by Anderson, Tal-Rho is tortured so that Superman can get Anderson the location of Bizarro. Thanks to a later tactic from Bizarro, Superman and Tal-Rho escape from their cell as Superman follows Tal-Rho to his fortress. With Lara's A.I. translating, Tal-Rho learned that his Bizarro counterpart was inseparable from Bizarro until Bizarro Tal-Rho's wife tried to kill him. Before Tal-Rho can ask who his wife was, they were attacked by Anderson who was powered with Project 7334 weapons and X-Kryptonite. When Anderson fired a Kryptonite gun at Superman, Tal-Rho jumped in front of him. As Anderson fights Bizarro, Superman had to use his heat vision on the Kryptonite shards and fly Tal-Rho to the sun. Back in his cell, Tal-Rho is informed by Superman that Bizarro is dead and Anderson is at large. Before Superman departs, Tal-Rho has him forward his apology to Jordan. Superman later had Tal-Rho released so that he can help destroy Ally Allston's pendant. Though he had to get Lois' apology first. During this plan in an active volcano, Superman and Tal-Rho were ambushed by Ally Allston. With help from John, Superman and Tal-Rho fended off Ally and destroyed the pendant. Once that was done, Superman found that a weakened Tal-Rho managed to sneak away. Tal-Rho later returned to help Superman regain his powers so that he can defeat Ally Allston. Once Ally was defeated, Tal-Rho used his "Uncle Tal" alias to send Jonathan and Jordan two trucks. Then he went to Bizarro World to start life anew as he starts to learn from a bartender on who his wife was. * Adam Rayner also portrays Tal-Rho's Bizarro counterpart who was on good terms with Bizarro and was named by a magazine to be an eligible bachelor. In addition, he is married to his world's Lana Lang. Tal-Rho's relationship with his brother was strained due to a disagreement about their world's Ally Allston. He and Lana later accompanied both versions of Ally Allston in claiming the pendant from Superman and Mitch Anderson. After Anderson was killed by Jon-El and both versions of Ally Allston start to merge while sending Jon-El to merge with his counterpart, Tal-Rho blows down Lana and allows Superman to go after Jon-El. While imprisoned for this action, Ally Allston visited Tal-Rho's cell. When he asks to see his wife, Ally states that she won't see him anymore as she drains his lifeforce from his body. ===Sam Lane=== Sam Lane (portrayed by Dylan Walsh; seasons 1-3) is Lois Lane's father, Jonathan and Jordan's grandfather, and an Army general who is determined to keep America and the world safe from all threats. Following the fight against Tal-Rho, Sam tells John Henry Irons that he is planning on retiring from active duty. In season two, Sam Lane is called to the Kent farm by Lois when Superman starts suffering from visions caused by an "invasive cosmological event". While advising Superman to settle his difference with Mitch Anderson, Sam uses his connections to help get John access to the Shuster Mine and was hesitant to help Lois get through to Lucy. He does come through for her. Sam later scrambles the security footage in the Oyelowo family store after Jordan secretly uses his freezing breath to stop some possible shoplifters. He does agree to train Jordan in secret. Sam later found out that Mitch Anderson has arrested Superman for treason. After Anderson stole Project 7334 weapons and X-Krptonite as well as killing Bizarro, Sam informs Lois and Clark that he has talked General Hardcastle into letting him lead the manhunt for Anderson as it turned out that Sam had recommended him as his successor. After Ally was apprehended, Sam was visited by Lucy who secretly spiked his drink so that she can claim his DOD access card and have Ally travel to meet her counterpart. Lois later learns that Sam was training Jordan at the time an investigation at a burnt-down warehouse containing X-Kryptonite was conducted. After Jonathan comes clean about Candice being associated with the X-Kryptonite distribution and her father being broke, Sam agreed with Jonathan to keep her anonymous. At the location of an X-Kryptonite distribution area, Sam and Lois were captured by a criminal powered by X-Kryptonite causing Lois to allow Jordan to fight them. When Sam and Lois find Lucy with the remaining followers of Ally Allston, he had to briefly handcuff himself to Lucy in order to get Lucy to hear them out. Upon Allston's arrival, she badly weakened Sam in order to draw Superman to her. After Allston got away, Lucy stayed by Sam's side at the DOD's infirmary where he forgave her. After recovering and having a brief trip to Bizarro World, Sam was able to help Lucy relocate to Metropolis following Ally's defeat. In season three, Sam rejoins the DOD. He tries to get Natalie to enroll in a DOD- sponsored academy which led to him getting reprimanded by John. Sam later apologizes to Natalie during Jonathan and Jordan's birthday party. He starts to get concerned that Jordan's hair would give him away to satellite images which led to an argument between them. Clark and Lois would hear about what happened and advised Jordan to apologize to Sam and take his advice. Sam and General Hardcastle later informed Superman about how Intergang got a hold of his blood samples that was harvested from him when he was recuperating from Ally Allston's attack. To avoid another theft, Superman used his heat vision on the blood samples. After giving Jordan his forgiveness, Sam stated that he found an alternative to avoid Jordan being identified by giving him a special suit and his father's aviation goggles before going fishing. When Sam gets a date with a woman named Gretchen Kelley, he learns too late that she is working for Lex Luthor as she and Otis Grisham abduct him. * Dylan Walsh also portrays a version of Sam Lane from John Henry Irons' Earth who was killed in conflict against his world's version of Superman. * Dylan Walsh also portrays Sam Lane' Bizarro counterpart. He was the head of the DEO before his world's version of Ally Allston rose to power and later assisted his Lois and Jordan in a small resistance against Allston. Bizarro Sam later watched Allston's broadcast where she plans to merge both worlds. ===Lana Lang=== Lana Lang (portrayed by Emmanuelle Chriqui; seasons 1–3; Milana Hryschenko as a child, Sara Rizk when in grade school, Emma Newton as a teenager) is an old friend of Clark and the loan officer at Smallville Bank. She is married to Kyle and the mother of Sophie and Sarah. In addition, she is also the cheerleader coach at Smallville High School. Due to what Tal-Rho did in Smallville causing the civilians to blame her and Kyle, Lana becomes appalled when she overhears Mayor George Dean talking negative things about them. Lana and Kyle are later forgiven by the citizens of Smallville following Tal-Rho's defeat. In season two, Lana becomes the campaign manager of Daniel Hart during the mayoral election against Mayor George Dean. She hits a snag in the campaign when Daniel drops out due to having been offered a job in another town. While looking for another candidate, Kyle tells Lana that his fellow firefighters support the idea that she should run for Mayor of Smallville. Lana agrees with him on that. As she works on her campaign, Lana hears about Sarah's camp experience and gives her some advice to work it out with Jordan. During Sarah's quinceañera, Lana finds out about Sarah overhearing Kyle's discussion with Tonya Martinez which she states will be settled on another day. After getting some information from Tonya, Lana forgives Kyle. Though she advises him to move out for a while. After a talk with Lois, Lana crashes Mayor Dean's latest campaign and persuades those in attendance not to fall for the family affair thing. Lana gets assistance from Kyle on the rehearsal of her "family values" debate against Mayor Dean. On the day of the election, Lana defends Jonathan from Barb Dodge's negative comments and sends those involved in her campaign to obtain some voters. When the results were in, Lana was told by Emily Phan that she has won the election. While moving in her stuff to Smallville City Hall, Lana is abducted by Jon-El and used as bait to lure Superman into a Kryptonite trap. While summoning Bizarro Lana to come to Earth, Jon-El goes after Jonathan as Lana works to remove the Kryptonite shards from Superman. Following Jon-El's defeat and with the support of his family, Clark reveals that he is Superman to Lana. This briefly put a strain on her friendship with Clark and Lois. After being informed about Lana-Rho by Clark and Lois, Lana advises them not to interact with her or her family for a while. At the time when Ally Allston was merging Earth-Prime and Bizarro World, Lana held a town meeting at Smallville High School to tell them the truth. George Dean led the townspeople into not believing her until Superman confirmed her case. While getting Sarah, she got a glimpse at Lana-Rho before Jordan fought her and revealed his powers to Sarah. Sarah later argued with her mother about withholding this information until Sophie informed them that their father disappeared. After Ally Allston was defeated, Lana held a celebration to thank Superman and reconciled with Kyle, but decided in the end not to get back together with him. In season three, Lana and Kyle have gotten a divorce. Principal Balcomb informs Lana about the mold in the school which Clark confirms to her. When George Dean shows up at Jonathan and Jordan's birthday party to get her to return the funds she reallocated, John Henry Irons came to her defense as George leaves stating that she doesn't know what she is getting herself into. After Dean was found murdered, Lana uses the last lines he said to him prior to his death to head to city hall with John. They find a drive behind a plaque. Before it can be fully uploaded, they are attacked by the hooded figure who uses a sound attack on them as she makes off with the drive and destroys the laptop. John later places a perimeter around Lana's house just in case another attacker comes after her. After Lana gets into an argument with Sarah about her sneaking off to Metropolis, she regretabbly slaps her. Kyle hears about what happened and arranges a sit-down at the diner to settle this matter. She was among those who saw Clark deal with Emmit Pergande. Lana later finds out that Chrissy is seeing Kyle at the time when Sofie left Kyle's apartment. After a talk with Sam Lane, Lana finds that Sarah has changed her mind about wanting to go with her to The Cure concert. While dating John, Lana hears from Kyle that Chrissy is pregnant. * Emmanuelle Chriqui also portrays a Bizarro version of Lana Lang called Lana- Rho who defends Ally Allston from Bizarro. This version was a former waitress before she married her world's version of Tal-Rho and later gained superpowers. She and Tal-Rho accompanied both versions of Ally Allston in reclaiming the pendant from Superman and Anderson. After both versions of Ally start to merge and Jon-El is sent to merge with his counterpart, Lana was blown down by Tal-Rho so that Superman can go after Jon-El. At the time when Jon-El had abducted Lana, he called Bizarro Lana to Earth. She arrived and ended up fighting John Henry Irons and Natalie. Bizarro Lana beat up John before Natalie stabbed her with X-Kryptonite causing Bizarro Lana to fall back to her world. After weakening Superman, Allston begins to merge both worlds while sending Lana-Rho to finish off Superman. She and Jon-El were defeated by Jordan and Natalie Irons. ===Chrissy Beppo=== Chrissy Beppo (portrayed by Sofia Hasmik; main: seasons 2–3; recurring: season 1) is a journalist and proprietor of the Smallville Gazette who Lois works with. By the end of season one, Lois buys half of the Smallville Gazette to keep it from being sold to someone else. In season two, Chrissy looks for recruits for the Smallville Gazette as Lois is displeased with some of her choices. Due to a podcast causing some of Lois' sources to recant the stories she published like the one on cult leader Ally Alston, Chrissy is persuaded by Lois that they have to prove one of them by looking for Lois' sister Lucy. At Ally Allston's event in New Carthage, Chrissy infiltrates it under the alias of Penelope Collins. Ally sees through Chrissy's disguise and plays the live footage of Lois and Lucy's argument which puts a strain on Lois and Chrissy's friendship. After being fed drugged tea by Ally during a talk with her, Chrissy was put through the Inverse Method where she saw her Bizarro counterpart. She later mentioned to Lois about her counterpart being afraid of her father and Ally having supposedly taken over the United States of America on that world. After Ally was defeated, Chrissy learns from Lois that Clark is Superman. In season three, Chrissy gains Clark as a new employee and finds herself sleeping with Kyle. Chrissy later tells Kyle that she is pregnant as Lana, Sarah, Sophie, Lois, and Clark are informed. Before the meteor shower, Kyle proposes to Chrissy. * Sofia Hasmik also portrays Chrissy's Bizarro counterpart. While operating the Smallville Gazette with her staff, Mitch Anderson shows up and arranges for her to silently get a message to Lois for her. Chrissy was able to secretly get the message to her. ===Natalie Lane Irons=== Natalie Lane Irons (portrayed by Tayler Buck; main: seasons 2–3; guest: season 1) is the daughter of the alternate John Henry Irons and Lois Lane from an unidentified parallel Earth. She helped her father to work on his armor when facing the alternate Superman and an army of Kryptonians. When the Crisis hit, Natalie was put under a hibernation by the A.I. Hedy until it can locate the Earth where her father is on. By the end of season one, a vessel carrying Natalie arrives on Earth-Prime. As Natalie reunites with her dad, she sees Lois and mistakes her for her mother. In season two, Natalie works to adjust to Earth- Prime when operating in Metropolis where she can't interact with Earth-Prime's version of her friends. This became rocky enough that John had to persuade Lois to speak to Natalie. This leads to the Irons family moving in with the Kent family. She later befriends Sarah Cushing and helps her with the car that Sarah and Kyle were working on. While having noticed that her father is still make use of the armor, Natalie agrees to help John in repairing it. On the day when Lana became the new Mayor of Smallvile, Natalie started honoring the memory of her mother as John later joins her in it. Natalie later starts working on her version of her father's armor. John later found out about the armor and tried to destroy it to no avail as Hedy reveals that Natalie had coated it in a lacquer made from X-Kryptonite. After her father was defeated by Ally, Natalie rescued him despite the buggy message to bring X-Kryptonite. Both of them were rescued by Superman before Ally can harm them. After Superman defeated Ally, she and her Bizarro counterpart were handed over to John and Natalie. In season three, Sam invites Natalie to a movie where he also tries to get her to enroll in a DOD-sponsored academy. This didn't go well and Sam was reprimanded by John. During Jonathan and Jordan's birthday party, Sam apologized to Natalie. With Smallville High temporarily closed due to black mold remediations, Natalie is convinced by Sarah to attend a party in Metropolis hosted by the doppelganger of a boy named Travis who Natalie had a crush on in her original world. After getting to the party and learning that Travis already has a girlfriend, Natalie meets and bonds with a boy named Matteo, but is forced to leave the party early before she can get his contact information due to Sarah and Jordan getting into a fight with Travis and his friends. After Lois informs her friends and family of her diagnosis of breast cancer, Natalie convinces the Kent twins to show their support with her by gifting their mother with a watch that belonged to Natalie's version of Lois. While at school, Jonathan's truck gets stolen while the gift watch was placed within the truck, which Natalie and Jordan deduce was stolen by Candice's dad after Jonathan brings up his interest in his truck the former night. After locating the truck, Natalie uses her armor while Jordan uses his powers to help Jon get his truck back and later gives Lois the gift watch after it was returned by Candice. Matteo later invites Natalie on a date where she will meet his parents Bruno Mannheim and Peia Mannheim. The dinner was crashed by John who learned about the restaurant from Darlene causing Bruno to have Natalie and Matteo evacuated. Following Superman and John's fight with Peia which led to her being placed under medical care in the DOD, John had to confiscate Natalie's phone as a precaution. ===Bruno Mannheim=== Bruno Mannheim (portrayed by Chad L. Coleman; season 3) is a businessman and the leader of Intergang who has used tactics to avoid arrest. At some point, Boss Moxie would found and lead the first iteration of Intergang in Metropolis. However, he would later be killed by Peia after she turned on him when ordered to kill Bruno Mannheim for disobeying him. This would lead to Mannheim taking over from him as leader of Intergang and the blame of his death would later be placed on Lex Luthor. He is first seen when he has his scientists experiment on the corpse of Atom Man after his hooded robed minion snatched it after diverting Superman. Bruno Mannheim played a role in freeing Henry Miller and possibly getting him super powers. Superman believes that he was able to manipulate Judge Tara Reagan into letting him go which is later confirmed as Mannheim states that he is the self-proclaimed hope for the people of Suicide Slum. Later that night after getting the status of Henry Miller, Bruno is confronted by the hooded figure who stated that what was used on Henry's corpse isn't working and also informs him about her encounter with someone that looks like John Henry Irons even though Mannheim had the figure kill Irons seven years ago. This led to Bruno arranging a meeting with John and seeing if he was smart as his counterpart by having Darlene Irons strapped to a bomb of his counterpart's making. After the bomb was disarmed, Bruno was confronted by John. Though John departed after Bruno mentioned that he has Intergang operatives on standby to target more of his counterpart's relatives. After Deadline's death, Bruno gets a status report on Dr. Hook's autopsy. His sound-manipulating operative is revealed to be his dying wife Peia. Bruno and Peia are revealed to have a son named Matteo. Bruno later met Natalie when Matteo invited her to dine with his family. The dinner at Bruno's restaurant was crashed by John causing Bruno to have Matteo and Natalie. Bruno and his men beat up John until he summoned his armor causing Peia to go on the attack. Superman showed up to help John as Peia collapses during her sound attacks due to her cancer spreading. Bruno allows Superman to fly Peia to the hospital as Matteo later argues with his dad about what happened. After a DOD search of Mannheim's apartment despite Superman being there first, Mannheim orders Dr. Hook to awaken Atom Man and send him to make John Henry Irons suffer. Following Atom Man's second death, Mannheim takes Matteo to a secret room where the body of Bizarro was being held as he can use what is in him to make a cure for Peia. Both Bruno and Matteo are held at the D.O.D. following Peia's death with Bruno promising to cooperate with the D.O.D. if they can drop all charges they have against Matteo. ==Recurring characters== ===Introduced in season one=== ====Sophie Cushing==== Sophie Cushing (portrayed by Joselyn Picard) is the youngest daughter of Lana and Kyle and the sister of Sarah. In a discussion between Sarah and Lana, it is mentioned that Sophie picks on some of her classmates. In season two, Sophie helps out in her mother's mayoral campaign. At the time when Ally Allston started merging Earth-Prime and Bizarro World, Sophie witnesses her father disappear as she tells Lana and Sarah about it. In season three, Sophie feels like she is being neglected by her family and runs out unnoticed from Kyle's apartment. Jonathan helps find her and tells him about his similar situation with his family. Sophie was present when Kyle informs Lana that Chrissy is pregnant as Sophie claims that she won't be the baby of the family anymore. ====Leslie Larr==== Born Irma Sayres, Leslie Larr (portrayed by Stacey Farber) is a woman with super- strength and heat vision who works as the personal assistant to Morgan Edge. Her abilities come from being experimented on by X-Kryptonite. She assisted her boss in his campaign to make the Earth people the hosts for the Kryptonian consciousness in the Eradicator. Both of them are defeated by Superman and John Henry Irons in the season one finale. ====Jor-El==== Jor-El (portrayed by Angus Macfadyen) is Clark Kent's biological Kryptonian father. Though he died along with Krypton, a copy of his consciousness is encoded virtually as an AI within the arctic Fortress of Solitude in hologram form to provide guidance when his son seeks help. Before the crystal containing his A.I. was destroyed by Tal-Rho, Jor-El told Superman that he loves him. After Tal-Rho was defeated, Clark buried the broken crystal on the Kent family farm. ====Hedy==== Hedy (voiced by Daisy Tormé) is an A.I. that works for John Henry Irons and Natalie Irons after it was stolen from his Earth's Lex Luthor. ====Sean Smith==== Sean Smith (portrayed by Fritzy-Klevans Destine) is a student at Smallville High School and football player on the Smallville Crows. He was Sarah's boyfriend and antagonizes the Kent brothers before she breaks up with him. ====Tag Harris==== Tag Harris (portrayed by Wern Lee) is a student at Smallville, a friend of Sean Smith, and a member of the Smallville Crows football team who developed vibration abilities upon being exposed to yellow phosphorescence (later revealed to be X-Kryptonite) the day Jordan's heat vision manifested. In season two, Tag appears as a member of the Supermen of America. ====Timmy Ryan==== Timmy Ryan (portrayed by Zane Clifford) is a student at Smallville High School who is a friend of Sean Smith and a member of the Smallville Crows football team. In season two, Timmy Ryan gets stronger as Jonathan suspects that he is using steroids. When Jonathan confronts him on this, Timmy claims that he got a strange crystal that gave him his strength from Candice Pergande. He was later mentioned to have been caught with an inhaler with X-Kryptonite in it. ====Reno Rosetti==== Lt. Reno Rosetti (portrayed by Hesham Hammoud) is a military lieutenant in the DOD that works for Sam Lane. He later gets empowered by Morgan Edge through X-Kryptonite offscreen and fights Superman in Project 7734's room before being killed by a Kryptonite spear wielded by John Henry Irons. * Hesham Hammoud also portrays Reno Rosetti's Bizarro counterpart. He was a member of the DOD before siding with his world's version of Ally Allston. ====Gaines==== Gaines (portrayed by Danny Wattley) is the football coach at Smallville High School who coaches the Smallvile Crows football team. In season two, Gaines loses his football program when Jonathan Kent was suspected of being involved in the X-Kryptonite sales. In season three, Gaines has taken a side job as a driving instructor where he gets Jonathan as a student while still resenting him for what happened to his football program. Despite some flaws during Jonathan's test, Gains allows Jonathan to pass. While overseeing the set-up for the meteor shower that he is overseen, Gaines gets some chairs unloaded by Jonathan who tries to get Gaines to forgive him to no avail. * Danny Wattley also portrays Gaines' Bizarro counterpart. ====Malcolm Teague==== Malcolm Teague (portrayed by Austin Obiajunwa) is a student at Smallville High School who is a member of the Smallville Crows football team. ====Cobb Branden==== Cobb Branden (portrayed by Dee Jay Jackson) is a farmer who is a friend of the Kent family. ====George Dean==== George Dean (portrayed by Eric Keenleyside) was the Mayor of Smallville and the father of George Dean Jr. He and Lana later had a falling out when it came to Lana's family being pawns in Tal-Rho's plot. In season two, Lana Lang successfully defeated George Dean in the mayoral election. At the time when Ally Allston was merging Earth with Bizarro World, he attended the town meeting at Smallville High School and was among those who doubted Lana's claim until Superman corroborated her information. In season three, George Dean arrived at Jonathan and Jordan's birthday party where he tries to get Lana to return to allocated funds. After John Henry Irons orders him to leave, George does that as he states to Lana that she doesn't know what she is getting herself into. Before being killed by Peia's sound attack, Dean calls up Lana and gives her a clue on what to find in her office. ====Corey Wellnitz==== Corey Wellnitz (portrayed by Pavel Romano) is a student at Smallville High School who is a member of the Smallville Crows football team. His parents own a lake house. ====Aidy Manning==== Aidy Manning (portrayed by Monique Phillips) is a resident of Smallville. ====Tamera Dalley==== Tamera Dalley (portrayed by Tori Katonga) is a firefighter that works for the Smallville Fire Department. ====Emily Phan==== Emily Phan (portrayed by Leeah Wong) is a woman who knows Lana Lang and later undergoes Morgan Edge's X-Kryptonite experiments. After being purified of the Kryptonian conscious, Emily is among the Smallville citizens that blame Lana and Kyle for trusting Morgan Edge. Though she later forgives them following Tal-Rho's defeat. In season two, Emily Phan gets involved in Lana's campaign to become the new Mayor of Smallville and informs Lana about the word on the street that Mayor George Dean would use some of Sarah's past in his re-election. She later informs Lana that she has won the election. ===Introduced in season two=== ====Mitch Anderson==== Lieutenant General Mitch Anderson (portrayed by Ian Bohen) is the metaphorical “new sheriff in town” at the DOD. His worldview divides into two types – those you serve and those who serve you. He does not like that Superman exists outside that paradigm and tries to bring the Man of Steel under his authority officially. He starts a superhero group that even includes Tag as one of his recruits as they sport the Superman logo on their chest much to the dismay of Superman. When Superman gives Anderson the information needed to track the Superman look-alike, Anderson ignores his advice not to send the Supermen of America out to confront the figure which resulted in the two-unnamed members getting killed. Due to Superman withholding information and not wanting to give up the pendant Bizarro was wearing as well as having been scolded by General Hardcastle, Mitch has Superman arrested for treason under red solar lights and has him transported to where Tal-Rho is. Thanks to a tactic from Superman and Tal-Rho, Anderson was led into believing that Bizarro was at the Fortress of Solitude. After they escaped, Anderson had a call from General Hardcastle put on hold as takes matters into his own hands. Using some Project 7334 weapons and X-Kryptonite, Anderson tracked Superman and Tal-Rho to Tal-Rho's lair where he attacked them. After Tal-Rho was hit by the Kryptonite gun that was meant for Superman, Lara Lor-Van's A.I. released Bizarro to help fight Anderson. As Superman tended to Tal-Rho, Bizarro fought Anderson who overpowered him with X-Kryptonite grenades and strangled him to death. Following these incidents, General Hardcastle established a manhunt for Anderson who went AWOL. Anderson later approached Ally Allston and gave her the pendant that was on Bizarro. After going through the same procedure as Chrissy, he relays the message to Ally from her Bizarro counterpart to come now. He was able to lead some of Ally's followers through the portal while Superman rescued Chrissy, Ally, and another one of Ally's followers. When he arrived, he was nearly absorbed by his Bizarro counterpart until Jon-El accidentally killed him with his heat breath. Anderson managed to escape and have the Bizarro version of Chrissy arrange a meeting with Lois. Upon learning about Bizarro's family, Anderson starts to regret his actions even when Superman arrives. While also apologizing for his actions toward Superman while seeing that he was right all along, Anderson helps Superman when both versions of Ally Allston and the Bizarro versions of Tal-Rho and Lana Lang arrived. Anderson was killed in battle with Jon-El. * Bohen also portrays his Bizarro counterpart. He accompanied his world's Ally Allston in meeting the arrivals. When Anderson arrived, Bizarro Anderson tried to merge with him only to be accidentally killed by Jon-El's fire breath. ====Candice Pergande==== Candice Pergande (portrayed by Samantha Di Francesco) is Jonathan's latest girlfriend and the daughter of Emmit Pergande. He later found out that he sold a special crystal that gave Timmy Ryan enhanced strength. Jonathan confronted her about and she stated that she needed to make money to keep herself and her father off the streets. Rather than break up with her, Jonathan asks for one of the crystals. When he tries to get rid of the X-Kryptonite at the time when the Sheriff Department arrives, he had to take the blame to protect Candice when one of the dogs detected it. When Jonathan and Candice were threatened by rival X-Kryptonite distributor Mickey Jeroux, they are saved by Jordan. With some persuasion from Sam Lane following a warehouse fire that contained X-Kryptonite, Jonathan brings Candice over who comes clean with her involvement with the X-Kryptonite, her connection with Mickey Jeroux, and her father's financial problems. Sam agreed to Jonathan's suggestion to keep her anonymous to the press. In season three, Candice gets into an argument with Jon about her father supposedly stealing his car. She would later apologize for what she said to Jon after finding the watch that was meant for Lois Lane in her father's stuff and confirming that Jonathan was right about her dad stealing his truck. While also having taken a job as a waitress at the diner, Candice witnesses her father being intimidated by Clark and learned what Emmit did to Jonathan. Clark and Lois later allow Candice to bunk with them until further notice with Emmit having left Smallville. ====Ally Allston==== Ally Alston (portrayed by Rya Kihlstedt as an adult, Amber Young as a child) is a cult leader investigated by Lois Lane who once affected Lucy Lane. She preaches something known as "The Inverse Method" and has managed to ensnare Lucy during a particularly vulnerable point in her life. Through the Inverse Method, Chrissy saw her other world counterpart as Superman prevents Bizarro from attacking Ally. Superman later learned from Bizarro that Ally took over his world and will do the same thing to Superman's world if she isn't stopped. Ally was later approached by Mitch Anderson who gave her the pendant that was on Bizarro. After putting Anderson through the same procedure she did to Lucy, Ally gets the message from Anderson that her Bizarro counterpart wants her to come now. Superman prevented the departure of Ally, Chrissy, and another member where Ally ends up in DOD custody. Sam tries to get her to divulge any knowledge on where Lucy is. With help from Lucy, Erin Wu freed Ally and gave her the rebuilt armor that Bizarro wore upon his arrival. Superman aided the Bizarro versions of Lois, Jordan, and Sam against Ally, her Bizarro counterpart, and their allies. Ally manages to get a hold of the pendant and combines with her Bizarro counterpart while sending Jon-El to merge with Jonathan. After the pendant was confiscated, Ally appears to fight Superman and Tal-Rho even when John Henry Irons shows up. When Superman and Tal-Rho destroy the pendant, Ally grabs the pieces and flies off. Back in Bizarro World, Ally informs Lana-Rho about what happened. She then visits the cell of her Tal-Rho and drains him off his lifeforce. Afterwards, Ally broadcasts to all of Bizarro World that she is going to merge Earth and Bizarro World. Ally later appears before her remaining followers in Burnham Woods where she drains some energy out of Sam in order to draw Superman to her. When Superman arrives, she badly weakens him before retreating. As she plans to merge Earth and Bizarro World, Ally sends Lana-Rho to finish off Superman. Ally begins to merge Earth-Prime and Bizarro World and manages to defeat John Henry Irons when he tries to interfere. After Superman is recharged by the Sun with help from Tal-Rho, he defeats Ally Allston enough to split her back into two, has them restrained by John and Natalie, and prevents Bizarro World from merging with Earth. Ally and her Bizarro counterpart are shown to have been remanded to DOD custody as Lois briefly visits them. * Kihlstedt also portrays the Bizarro version of Ally Alston. ====Lucy Lane==== Lucy Lane (portrayed by Jenna Dewan) is Lois Lane's younger sister who had fallen in with the "Inverse Method" cult five years ago. Lois and Sam had a hard time persuading her that Ally is dangerous, but when Ally weakened Sam and Superman at Burnham Woods, Lucy saw that her family was right about Ally. Lucy stayed by her father's bed at the DOD's infirmary where he forgave her. After Ally was defeated, Lucy moved to Metropolis with her father taking her there. In season three, Lucy Lane was called up by Lois who informs her of her diagnosis. Dewan previously played a different version of Lucy in Supergirl. ===Introduced in season three=== ====Aleister Hook==== Dr. Aleister Hook (portrayed by Shekhar Paleja) is an Intergang scientist who is among those working to revive and stabilize Atom Man. After Peia died and Bruno was defeated, Hook was murdered offscreen by Lex Luthor's right-hand man Otis who presents Dr. Hook's glasses to Lex. ====Elias Orr==== Elias Orr (portrayed by Christian Sloan) is an Intergang fixer who is loyal to Bruno Mannheim. When Peia starts losing control of her powers, Elias Orr is accidentally killed. ====Matteo Mannheim==== Matteo Mannheim (portrayed by Spence Moore II) is the son of Bruno and Peia Mannheim who Natalie meets at a party in Metropolis. During a dinner date with Natalie wher she met his parents, Matteo and Natalie were evacuated by Bruno's men when John Henry Irons showed up. After punching the guy escorting them away and witnessing John in his armor, Matteo later had an argument with his dad. After a secret visit to Natalie, Matteo questions his father's motives as Bruno shows Matteo the body of Bizarro. He states to Matteo that he plans to use what is in Bizarro to make a cure for Peia. Following Peia's death, Bruno and Matteo are detained by the D.O.D. Bruno agrees to cooperate with them if the charges against Matteo are dropped. This ended up occuring as Natalie later learns that Matteo is attending the D.O.D. Academy. ====Peia Mannheim / Onomatopoeia==== Peia Mannheim (portrayed by Daya Vaidya) is the cancer- afflicted wife of Bruno Mannheim and the mother of Matteo Mannheim. Using a special mask, she operates as Onomatopoeia where she can manipulate all types of sounds. A flashback revealed that she used to work for Boss Moxie until she turned on him and used her powers to kill Boss Moxie and those loyal to him. At the behest of her husband, Peia murdered John Henry Irons on July 7, 2015. She later told Bruno about an encounter with someone who looks like John sometime after killing George Dean. Lois later meets Peia at the Hob's Bay Medical Center and learns of her connection with Bruno. She and Bruno later met Natalie when she was on a dinner date with Matteo. When John shows up, Bruno has Matteo and Natalie evacuated as Peia goes on the attack even when Superman shows up. Peia collapses when her cancer spreads as Superman persuades Bruno to let him take Peia to the hospital. Peia was later placed in a special cell in the DOD to receive treatment for her cancer condition. The serum may have cured Peia's cancer and dramatically increased her powers, but it also seems to have made her powers that much harder to contain. She ends up releasing a scream that causes a city-wide blackout when she can no longer hold them in. A second dose of the serum makes it even worse, causing her to release a sonic blast that liquefies Elias Orr. Realizing Mannheim's cure will not work, she leaves him behind to avoid having him see her die or face the authorities who will be drawn to her; as he mourns her back in his hideout. When Superman arrives on the scene, he sees that her tumors have gotten even worse when he tries to help her. Peia's skin begins to glow with orange spots from the force of the vibrations she is holding in. It is to the point that his only choice is to talk her into allowing herself to die, rather than holding on and risking the lives of everyone in the city. The sheer force of her powers eventually kills her when she releases it in a single, massive burst after Superman takes her into the sky. Superman then leaves her corpse and forwards her final words to Bruno and Matteo. ==Guest characters== ===Introduced in season one=== * Martha Kent (portrayed by Michele Scarabelli) - The adoptive mother of Clark Kent. She later dies of a stroke in the pilot. A bench was later dedicated in memory of her. * Jonathan Kent Sr. (portrayed by Fred Henderson) - The adoptive father of Clark Kent. He died of a heart attack while Clark was still a teenager. * Perry White (portrayed by Paul Jarrett) - The editor-in-chief of the Daily Planet before Morgan Edge bought it out. * Samuel Foswell (portrayed by Dean Marshall) - A minion of Morgan Edge who runs the Daily Planet after it was bought by Edge. * Dr. Frye (portrayed by Chy Liu) - Martha Kent's doctor who informs Clark about Martha having a stroke. * Eliza (portrayed by Coral Humphrey in season 1 and Yasmeene Ball in season 3) - Jonathan's girlfriend who he speaks to through a video chat ever since the Kent family relocated to Smallville. She eventually broke up with him. * David Fuglestad / Subjekt-11 (portrayed by Daniel Cudmore) - A man with super-strength that rivals Superman's super-strength due to having been experimented on with X-Kryptonite by Morgan Edge and Dabney Donovan."Exclusive: X-Men Actor Daniel Cudmore To Guest on Superman & Lois" - KryptonSite After being defeated by Superman, David was later killed by Leslie Larr on Morgan Edge's orders after he called him up while driving. She later calls up Edge to inform him that her job is done and that she'll arrange for a team to dispose of his body. * Sharon Powell (portrayed by Jill Teed) - A woman whose son was offered a job by Morgan Edge and later gets targeted by Subjekt-11. * Derek Powell (portrayed by Clayton James) - A miner and Sharon's son who took a job by Morgan Edge. After being killed in an accident, Derek was revived by Morgan and Leslie using X-Kryptonite that gave him Kryptonian abilities. During the fight with Superman, Derek commits suicide by turning the heat vision on himself. * Tom Mitchel (portrayed by Rohain Arora) - A firefighter that works for the Smallville Fire Department. * Thaddeus Killgrave (portrayed by Brendan Fletcher) - A mad scientist and old enemy of Superman who works with Intergang. * Denise Olowe (portrayed by Kelcey Mawema) - A cheerleader at Smallville High School. * Dabney Donovan (portrayed by Robel Zere) - A scientist and associate of Morgan Edge who assisted in his experiment with X-Kryptonite and the Eradicator. * Robbie Alvarez (portrayed by Stephen Adekolu) - A firefighter that works for the Smallville Fire Department. * Tegan Wickhem (portrayed by Kayla Heller) - A student at Smallville High School who becomes Jonathan's love interest. She and her mother moved to Smallville from Central City after her father was arrested and incarcerated. * Dr. Wiles (portrayed by Wendy Crewson) - A Department of Defense (DOD) therapist whom Lois sees. * Jason Trask (portrayed by Spencer Lang) - A lieutenant in the DOD who was supposed to torture John Henry Irons before being killed by Lt. Rosetti. * Duc Phan (portrayed by Jay Zhang) - The husband of Emily Phan. * Avery Phan (portrayed by Kenendy Chew) - The daughter of Emily and Duc Phan. * Ms. Sharp (portrayed by Marika Siewert) - A music teacher at Smallville High School. * Jasper Townes (portrayed by Shawn Stewart) - A man who undergoes Morgan Edge's X-Kryptonite experiments. * Ron Troupe (portrayed by Charles Jarman) - A reporter from the Daily Planet during Clark's early days. * Janet (portrayed by Yoshi Bancroft) - A television producer from the Daily Planet during Clark's early days. ** Yoshi Bancroft also portrays Janet's Bizarro counterpart. * Henry Miller / Atom Man (portrayed by Paul Lazenby) - A Neo-Nazi arsonist whom Clark fought in his early days. In season three, Atom Man is shown attacking Metropolis where Superman finds that he has superpowers. Before being supposedly shot and having his corpse snatched away by a mysterious figure, Atom Man mentions that he is dying and some people are after him. Superman would later learn that Atom Man was dying from a tumor. While underground, Bruno Mannheim has his scientist Dr. Aleister Hook and his fellow Intergang scientists inject something into Atom Man's corpse in order to revive him. The life support system that Atom Man is hooked up to starts beeping. Intergang's scientists work to stabilize him. During the latest attempt, Elias Orr forwarded orders to Dr. Hook to pump the blood sample of Superman into him. Following a DOD raid on his apartment, Bruno Mannheim orders Dr. Hook to awaken Atom Man and dispatch him to make John Henry Irons suffer. He does cause trouble for John. Superman arrives to help fight Atom Man who sends Superman flying. Upon summoning his hammer, John kills Atom Man in self-defense much to the dismay of Superman and Sam Lane. * Dr. Patel (portrayed by Yasmin Abidi) - The doctor who delivered Clark and Lois' sons. * Zeta-Rho (portrayed by A. C. Peterson) - The father of Tal-Rho and ex-husband of Lara Lor-Van. Like Jor-El, a copy of his consciousness is encoded virtually as an A.I. within Tal-Rho's desert hideout in hologram form. * John Diggle (portrayed by David Ramsay) - An A.R.G.U.S. operative from Star City. John Diggle arrived in Smallville with some A.R.G.U.S. equipment upon Sam Lane contacting Lyla Michaels. After a talk with Lois, Diggle scolds Sam for plotting to use the A.R.G.U.S. technology to take out Superman due to Tal-Rho planning to subject him to the Eradicator. When he finds out that John Henry Irons is from another Earth, Diggle states to Sam that they will have a talk about this later. Later on, Diggle mentioned to Sam that he left the life of dealing with the deaths of people he knew and encounter characters from other Earths. A few months later following Ally Allston's defeat, Diggle visits John Henry Irons to find out why Bruno Mannheim killed this Earth's Irons. Ramsay previously portrayed a different version of Diggle in the Arrowverse. ===Introduced in season two=== * Daniel Hart (portrayed by Nathan Witte) - A man who runs against Mayor George Dean in the mayoral election. Lana Lang becomes his campaign manager. He drops out of the election when he gets offered a job in another town. * Jessie Vance (portrayed by Evelyn Gonda) - A woman who is a member of the Supermen of America. She and her unnamed teammate were killed by Bizarro. * Lara Lor-Van (portrayed by Mariana Klaveno) - The mother of Superman through Jor-El and Tal-Rho through Zeta-Rho. Like Jor-El and Zeta-Rho, a copy of her consciousness is encoded virtually as an A.I. within Tal-Rho's desert hideout in hologram form. While pleased to see her sons and displeased with Zeta-Rho's manipulation of Tal-Rho, Lara scans Superman to find the source of his visions. After Superman's latest vision and his brief fight with Tal-Rho, Lara reveals to Superman that his visions are tied to an "invasive cosmological event" and states to Tal-Rho that there might be some good in him. Her revelation lead to the arrival of Bizarro. In season three, Lara's A.I. is placed in the Kent family's Fortress of Solitude. Clark would later mention to Sam that Lara was informed of Lois' diagnosis and that there's nothing in the Fortress of Solitude that could help her. ** Mariana Klaveno portrays the Bizarro version of Lara Lor-Van's A.I. who learns the fate of her son from Superman before being turned off by Jon-El. * Dr. Kit Faulkner (portrayed by Catherine Lough Haggquist) - A geologist working for AmerTek Industries that oversees the mining operation at the Shuster Mine in Smallville. After a monstrous figure was seen in the mines that causes a miner to detonate the tunnel, Faulkner calls up an unknown person about it. At the time when John Henry Irons gets access thanks to Sam Lane's contact, Dr. Faulkner knocks him out when he finds detonated rocks. Kit was later revealed to have connections with Ally Allston and was later killed by Bizarro. * Phillip Karnowski (portrayed by Shaw Madson) - An arms dealer and drug dealer that got his hands on some X-Kryptonite. While holding a pilot and those with him hostage, Superman arrived to fight as Karnowski breathed in some X-Kryptonite to fight Superman. When Superman started to have the painful visions, Karnowski was defeated by the Supermen of America. * Chuck Arden' (portrayed by Tony Hargrave) - A resident of Smallville who Lana once sold a small business loan to which didn't turn out to be legit. He brought up Lana's dealings in Smallville during one of her mayoral campaign activities. * Tonya Martinez (portrayed by Cynthia Mendez) - A bartender at a Smallville bar called Monito's who Kyle once had an affair with. When Kyle took Sarah to Monito's for open mic night, it was mentioned by Kyle that Tonya no longer works there. Though she was able to carry a favor from Kyle to the bar's manager. * Erin Wu (portrayed by Stephanie Cho) - A U.S. Army member with the rank of First Sergeant who works under Mitch Anderson. She later helps to free Ally Allston from DOD custody and give her the rebuilt armor that Bizarro wore upon his arrival on Earth. * John Pugh (portrayed by Jim Thorburn) - An attorney that was associated with Ally Allston's family. * David (portrayed by Matthew Graham) - The uncle of Ally Allston who tried to persuade her not to go down the same path as her father did. * Maryann Cushing (portrayed by Carmen Aguirre) - The mother of Kyle and the grandmother of Sarah and Sophie who attends Sarah's quinceañera. * General Hardcastle (portrayed by Patricia Drake) - The superior of Mitch Anderson who reprimands him for the DOD's poor relationship with Superman under his watch. In season three, General Hardcastle and Sam Lane inform Superman about how Intergang got a sample of his blood. It was revealed that some of Superman's blood was harvested while he was recuperating from Ally Allston's attack. To avoid more thefts, Superman uses his heat vision on the blood samples. * Sandra Vance (portrayed by Laura Drummond) - The mother of Jessie Vance who attended her funeral. She scolded Mitch Anderson for sending her daughter to her death. * Aubrey (portrayed by Djouliet Amara) - A girl from Clover that Sarah met at camp and had a brief kiss with her. She later came from upon being called by Sarah to talk about what is going on with her parents. As the daughter of divorced parents, Aubrey advised Sarah to talk to her father. Before heading back to Clover, Aubrey and Sarah agreed to remain friends. * Balcomb (portrayed by Lossen Chambers) - The principal of Smallville High School. In season three, Principal Balcomb informs Lana about the mold in Smallville High School. * Mickey Jeroux (portrayed by Kenny Wood-Schatz) - A townie who is a rival X-Kryptonite dealer of Candice. * Rahim Olowe (portrayed by Broadus Mattison) - The father of Denise and proprietor of Brit and Dunn's. * Barb Dodge (portrayed by Nancy Kerr) - A citizen of Smallville. She blamed Jonathan for getting football at Smallville High School cancelled until Lana gets her to back off. * Beau Besser (portrayed by Hilda Martin) - * Meghan (portrayed by Madeleine Kelders) - A follower of Ally Allston who leaves her group upon getting tired of waiting for Ally Allston to return from Bizarro World. ===Introduced in season three=== * Dr. Darlene Irons (portrayed by Angel Parker) - A physician in Metropolis who is the sister of this Earth's John Henry Irons. She tells Lois about her brother selling weapons to Bruno Mannheim and later has Lois come in for some additional tests. Darlene would later meet her brother's counterpart and mention what she knows about her John. To see if John was as smart as his counterpart, Bruno Mannheim had Darlene strapped to a bomb of John's making in a van. John was able to disarm the bomb. * Tara Reagan (portrayed by Karen Holness) - A judge who was pressured by Intergang into having Atom-Man released. As the judge responsible for the sentencing of Lex Luthor, she was later killed offscreen on Luthor's orders. * Travis Michaels (portrayed by Zachary Loewen) - A teenager at Metropolis High School. * Emmit Pergande (portrayed by Adrian Lynn McMorran) - The father of Candice Pergande who causes problems for Jonathan. After hearing of Lois's encounter with Emmit regarding the punching he did to Johnathan, Clark confronted him at the diner and intimidated him into leaving his family alone. Clark would later learn from his super-hearing that Emmit has left town. * Mike Gunn (portrayed by Arpad Balogh) - A member of Intergang who oversaw the clearing out of one of the abandoned buildings that Lois and Chrissy snuck into. When he found Lois and Chrissy in the freezer where different blood samples are, Lois took the opportunity to signal Superman to her location. After knocking down some Intergang members, Superman fought Mike Gunn who wielded gauntlets that became two Kryptonite hand cannons against him. John Henry Irons saved Superman by destroying the guns. After getting knocked down, Mike Gunn set off the explosives taking the building down with him. John would later find that the gauntlets were the same as the technology of both him and his counterpart. * George Dean Jr. (portrayed by Dylan Leonard) - The son of George Dean. * James DiStefano / Deadline (portrayed by Jason Beaudoin) - A terminally ill ex-con who Bruno Mannheim arranged to be freed and has gone through the same procedure as Atom-Man. Equipped with a special phasing suit, James became Deadline and raided a DOD headquarters to get to its console. Despite his suit being damaged by Superman enough to trap in a wall, the device he used uploaded information to Intergang on their DOD headquarters which led to Intergang stealing a lot of stuff from there. He later succumbs to his lymphoma. * Boss Moxie (portrayed by Artine Tony Brown) - The founder and previous leader of Intergang who Bruno worked for. While it was said that he was killed by Lex Luthor, what really happened is that Bruno turned on him when Moxie declined his proposition leading to Peia killing Moxie and those loyal to him before Moxie can have Bruno killed. * Kerry Wexler (portrayed by Christine Willes) - The governor of Kansas. * Lex Luthor (portrayed by Michael Cudlitz) - The CEO of LexCorp who secretly is behind different illegal activities. Peia Mannheim framed him for the death of Boss Moxie which landed him with life at Stryker's Prison as his family life is strained. After having been beaten by Otis Grisham and his fellow inmates when Otis wouldn't give him the electric razor that he would use to shave his head, Lex Luthor uses his outside contacts to intimidate Warden Ellis into working for him as Lex has the guards beat up Otis and those who beat Lex up. After Warden Ellis procured him a razor, Lex shaved his head. Following the death of Peia and her frame-up getting exposed, Lex was released from Stryker's Prison with Warden Ellis delaying the news. Luthor proceeded to walk all the way to the Kent family farm where he advised Lois to retired. Upon being picked up by Otis, Lex advises Lois to tell Superman that he'll be coming for him next. Otis informs him that Dr. Aleister Hook has been dealt with as he is given Dr. Hook's bloody glasses. They find Bizarro feeding off rats as Bizarro bites off Otis's right ear in front of Lex. He assists Lex in his death experiments on Bizarro. Then Otis assists Gretchen Kelley in abducting Sam Lane. * Otis Grisham (portrayed by Ryan Booth) - An inmate at Stryker's Prison. When Lex Luthor was sentenced to Stryker's Prison, Lex tries to borrow the razor that Otis was using on an inmate only to get beaten up by Otis and his fellow inmates. Upon Lex getting Warden Ellis to cooperate with him, Otis and those involved in the beating were beaten up by the prison guards. Sometime later, Otis is released from prison. After picking up Lex at the Kent family farm, Otis presents him with Dr. Aleister Hook's bloody glasses as proof that he was taken care of. They find the location where Bizarro is. Upon them finding Bizarro eating rats, Otis is attacked by Bizarro who bites off his right ear. He has it reattached as Otis assists Lex Luthor in his death experiments on Bizarro. Otis later assists Gretchen Kelley in abducting Sam Lane. * William Ellis (portrayed by Dean Redman) - The prison warden of Stryker's Prison. In order to get control of the inmates, Lex Luthor used his outside contacts in order to blackmail Warden Ellis by threatening his family. Warden Ellis complied with Lex's demands and arranged for Otis Grisham and those that beat up Lex Luthor to be beaten up. He also procured Lex a razor so that he can shave his head. Following Peia Mannheim's death and her frame-up of Lex being exposed, Warden Ellis saw Lex off when he was released and delayed the news of it to the press. * Gretchen Kelley (portrayed by Rebecca Staab) - An older woman who dates Sam Lane. What he didn't know until too late that she is actually working for Lex Luthor as she tases him as part of Otis Grisham's plan to abduct Sam. ==See also== * List of DC Comics characters * List of Arrowverse actors ==References== Superman and Lois Superman and Lois Superman and Lois Category:Superman & Lois characters Category:Lists of DC Comics television characters
|
Anna Rudolf (born 12 November 1987) is a Hungarian chess player, chess commentator, livestreamer, and YouTuber who holds the titles of International Master (IM) and Woman Grandmaster (WGM). She is a three-time Hungarian women's national chess champion and has represented Hungary at the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship. She has a peak FIDE rating of 2393 and a career-best ranking of No. 71 in the world among women. Rudolf began playing chess with her younger sister Kata when she was four years old. They had success at a young age, both qualifying for the World Youth Chess Championships, where Rudolf finished in the top 10 of the under-12 girls' division in 1999. In Hungary, she became a three-time girls' national champion, once each at the under-12 and under-16 youth levels and the under-20 junior level. At the senior level, Rudolf qualified for the Woman Grandmaster title in 2007 when she reached a rating of 2300 and earned three WGM norms, including a double norm at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship, all at age 19. Rudolf did not qualify for the International Master title until seven years later in 2014, having earned her three IM norms years apart in 2007, 2010, and 2014, and briefly reaching the rating threshold of 2400 in 2010. One of her best tournament results came at the 2007 Vandœuvre Open where she had a career-best performance rating of 2541 and earned both her last WGM norm and first IM norm. In her career, she has defeated two Grandmasters (GM) rated above 2600, Yaroslav Zherebukh and Christian Bauer, who had ratings of 2642 and 2634 at the time of their games. Outside of her playing career, Rudolf is a regular chess commentator at high-profile tournaments, having worked with both Chess.com and chess24. She was the official commentator for the 2018 World Chess Championship together with her childhood idol Judit Polgár. She had started producing instructional videos for chess24 in 2013, and has co-hosted a series with fellow IM Sopiko Guramishvili where they are known respectively as Miss Strategy and Miss Tactics. Since 2017, Rudolf has not played any competitive chess tournaments and focused primarily on her broadcasting career. She launched her own Twitch channel in 2018 and also runs her own YouTube channel. ==Early life== Rudolf was born in Miskolc, which was then in the Hungarian People's Republic, on 12 November 1987. She grew up in Bátaszék and has a younger sister named Kata. Her father, László Rudolf, is an experienced chess player with a peak FIDE rating of 2185. He has also been a world champion of hexagonal chess. Rudolf learned how to play chess at the age of four with her sister through the Battle Chess computer game, which follows the same rules as chess while also animating moves and captures anthropomorphically. At nine years old, she drew media attention for defeating Hungarian Grandmaster (GM) Lajos Portisch as a participant in a simultaneous exhibition. While growing up, Rudolf was coached by Béla Molnár. She won the under-12 girls' division of an international youth chess tournament in Visegrád in 1998, while her sister won the under-10 girls' division. They had both finished runner-up one age group lower a year earlier. Rudolf won the under-12 girls' division of the Hungarian national championship in 1999, the same year her sister won the under-10 girls' division. With these victories, they both qualified for the European Youth and World Youth Chess Championships. Rudolf finished in equal ninth place out of 66 competitors in the under-12 girls' division at the 1999 World Youth Chess Championship with a score of , three behind the winner Nana Dzagnidze. She later studied Russian and English at the University of Pécs. Rudolf's childhood idol was her compatriot Judit Polgár, who is widely acknowledged as the greatest female chess player of all time. She had the opportunity to play against Polgár at age 11 when she traveled to Budapest to participate in a simultaneous exhibition given by Polgár. She later became good friends with Polgár, helping to promote the annual Global Chess Festival started by Polgár, and the two commentated on the 2018 World Chess Championship together. ==Chess career== ===2000–03: Under-16 girls' national champion === Rudolf first reached a FIDE rating above 2000 in January 2000 at the age of 12, having been rated 2087 on that list. She rose to a rating of 2100 in the middle of 2002 at age 14 mainly from two second-place finishes at the First Saturday FM B tournament in Budapest and the under-20 Hungarian Junior Girls' Championship in Paks. She scored 4/8 in Budapest in a field of six competitors. She scored 6/9 in Paks, only behind Lili Tóth. Although she only scored 3½/8 against her rated opponents at the Pula Open in Croatia the next month, she also gained 25 rating points there as well. Rudolf rose another 100 points again the following year, reaching 2200 in July 2003 at age 15. Her best performance during this span came at the Zalakaros Cup Open in May, where she scored 5½/9 against opponents with a much-higher average rating of 2304 to gain 45 rating points. In the second half of the year, Rudolf had one of her best results in both national and international competitions. First, she won the under-16 Hungarian girls' national championship with an unbeaten 5½/6, which was 1½ points ahead of second place. Several months later, she entered the under-16 girls' division at the World Youth Championship in Kallithea in Greece and finished equal fourth with a score of 7½/11, one point behind the leaders. ===2004–07: Junior national champion, WIM and WGM titles=== Rudolf maintained a steady rating of around 2200 for a three-year period from mid-2003 until mid-2006. At the 2004 under-20 Hungarian Junior Girls' Championship, she finished in third place for the second consecutive year. She played the under-18 the following year in 2005, and also finished in third place. During 2005, Rudolf was awarded the Woman International Master (WIM) title. She resumed rising in rating in large part from another strong performance in Zalakaros, where she scored an even 4½/9 against opponents with a much-higher average rating of 2387 to gain 32 rating points. Rudolf closed out the year with a good performance at the World Junior Chess Championship in Yerevan in Armenia, scoring 8½/13 in the girls' division to finish in equal fifth, just a ½ point behind the leaders. She finished 2006 with a rating of 2279, having just turned 19 years old. During 2007, Rudolf fulfilled both her norm and rating requirements for the Woman Grandmaster (WGM) title. At the beginning of the year, Rudolf won the under-20 Hungarian Junior Girls' Championship, scoring 1½ points ahead of second place with 8/9 and gaining enough rating to cross 2300, the threshold for the WGM title. In April, she earned her first two WGM norms as a double norm at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship, scoring 6½/11. After a poor performance at the World Junior Chess Championship in Yerevan where she lost 51 rating points with 5/11, Rudolf produced the best result of her career by performance rating at the 2007 Vandœuvre Open in late December. She won the first four rounds of the event, including victories over Christian Bauer and Cyril Marzolo, the former of which was the top seed and a GM rated 2634, and the latter was an IM rated 2478. After a loss to the eventual tournament winner Thorsten-Michael Haub, she won a fifth game against Vera Nebolsina and finished in ninth place with 6/9. She faced the most difficult opposition in the tournament with her opponents having an average rating of 2421. She squandered an opportunity to finish equal first by losing her last game, which she had needed to win, against Ilmārs Starostīts. The tournament became enshrouded in controversy when three Latvian players (Starostīts, Oleg Krivonosov, and Vladimir Lazarev) falsely accused Rudolf of cheating by hiding a computer in her lip balm. Starostīts in particular asked the arbiter to confiscate her belongings and refused to shake her hand before their game, an action which could have been penalized. Marie Boyarchenko, another player at the event, believed these actions were key factors in Rudolf losing that last-round game. Overall, Rudolf compiled a performance rating of 2541, second only to the winner Haub and sufficient for both her final WGM norm as well as her first IM norm. She was officially awarded the WGM title in 2008. ===2008–11: Three-time national champion, second IM norm, 2400 rating=== thumb|upright=0.95|Rudolf in 2008 Over the next four years, Rudolf won the Hungarian women's national championship three times in 2008, 2010, and 2011. Her first national championship in the 2008 event came in a knockout tournament in which she won the final against Veronika Schneider. After the tournament switched to a 10-player round robin, she won the 2010 event easily by 1½ points over Tóth and Melinda Göcző with a score of 7½/9. The 2011 event was more competitive, ending with three players tied for first with 6/9 and Rudolf winning over Schneider and Ticia Gara on the tiebreak criteria. Overall, Rudolf maintained a rating near 2300 for about three years from when she first achieved it through March 2010. She reached a new career-best rating of 2337 in the middle of 2008 by following up her excellent performance at the Vandœuvre Open with good results at the Open International de Cappelle in February, the Kaupthing Open A in May, and the Hungarian Team Championship Final that was played twice a month from October through May. Rudolf's last major rating climb occurred in the middle of 2010. In February, she participated in the Talent and Courage IM tournament in Szentgotthárd in her home country, a ten-player round robin for talented young players that was held in conjunction with a GM tournament. As only the seventh-highest rated player, she won the event with a score of 6½/9, a ½ point ahead of Attila Gergacz, who with a rating of 2421 was the highest- rated player participating. She was undefeated at the tournament, and won her games against both the second and third place finishers. With a performance rating of 2499, she also earned her second IM norm. This helped her reach another career-best rating at 2344 in May 2010. In the next list for July 2010, Rudolf rose to a rating of 2393, the highest published rating of her career and putting her among the top 100 women's players at No. 71 in the world. This climb of nearly 50 points was primarily from winning her second national championship as well as another good performance in the half-year- long Hungarian Team Championship Final. She entered her first tournament of the next rating period, the Heart Of Finland, needing seven rating points to reach 2400. After a last-round win against Mikael Agopov, a Finnish IM rated 2436, she reached an unpublished rating of 2397.80, having gained 4.80 points at the event. She then began her next event, the Open Internacional Hotel Avenida de Canarias in Spain, with two wins against much lower-rated players. As a result, Rudolf reached an overall career-best unpublished rating of 2401.25, passing the 2400 threshold required for the IM title, and only needed one more IM norm to qualify for the title. Nonetheless, she did not finish that tournament well and ended up keeping a rating of around 2350 through the end of 2011. ===2012–17: International Master title=== thumb|upright=1.25|Rudolf in 2016 Rudolf was unable to match her success in the Hungarian women's national championship the remaining times she participated. As the two-time defending champion in 2012, she finished in joint fourth with a score of 5/9, 1½ points behind the winner Petra Papp. The following year, she finished in third place with 5½/9, but two points behind the winner Anita Gara. Rudolf kept a steady rating in the low 2300s and high 2200s for about four years from mid-2012 through mid-2016, having fallen slightly from her peak in 2010. At the 2012 Open International de Cappelle, Rudolf won a game against Yaroslav Zherebukh, a GM who with a rating of 2642 was the highest-rated player she ever defeated. In the middle of 2014, Rudolf earned her final IM norm in the Master Open at the Biel Chess Festival in Switzerland. She scored 6/11 and was able to count her performance of 5½/9 in the first nine rounds towards a norm. She was awarded the International Master title in 2015. In the middle of 2016, Rudolf had her first significant longterm drop in rating in years. After only scoring 4/11 at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship, highlighted by losses against lower- rated players in the last three rounds, she lost 54 rating points. Because she only participated in a few tournaments thereafter, she kept a rating near 2250 for a little over a year. Nonetheless, Rudolf was able to regain that lost rating and more in the last two events of her career in late 2017. At her penultimate tournament, she scored 5½/7 at the CE Division de Honor in Spain, a team club competition. Although she and her teammate Yuriy Kuzubov were among three players who tied for the highest individual score among all participants, her team did not perform well. For her last event, Rudolf played the Isle of Man International Masters, one of the world's leading open tournaments. She scored 4½/9 against opponents with an average rating of 2466, a performance above the level needed for IM norms. Her three wins included one against Harika Dronavalli, a GM who is one of the leading women's players. Between these last two events, Rudolf gained 65 rating points to finish her competitive playing career with a rating of 2325. ==National representation== ===Chess Olympiad=== Rudolf was a member of the Hungary Chess Olympiad women's team from 2008 to 2012. She made her debut at the 2008 Dresden Olympiad on the fourth board, playing behind Hoang Thanh Trang, Szidonia Vajda, and Ildikó Mádl. She had an average performance, scoring 5/9 as Hungary finished in 14th place out of 112 teams with a team score of 14 points (–3=2). Rudolf was again on the fourth board at the 2010 Khanty-Mansiysk Olympiad behind the same three teammates, with Mádl swapping boards with Vajda. As a team, Hungary produced a near-identical result with the exact same team score and a 15th-place finish. Rudolf did not have as good of a performance, scoring 2½/5 and being substituted for reserve player Ticia Gara in the other six rounds. Rudolf made her last Olympiad appearance at the 2012 Istanbul Olympiad, this time on the third board behind Hoang and Ticia Gara and ahead of Anita Gara as well as Papp, who was given a significant number of games as a reserve. Hungary again had the exact same team score, this time putting them in 17th place. Rudolf scored better than her other Olympiads with 5/8, but still performed slightly below expectation based on her rating. ===European Team Chess Championship=== Rudolf also represented Hungary in the women's division at the European Team Chess Championship from 2009 to 2015, an event that is held every two years like the Chess Olympiad. At her first event, she played the second board behind Szidonia and ahead of the Gara sisters. She had a good performance, scoring 4/7 and gaining 10 rating points. Hungary finished in 10th place out of 28 teams with 10 points (+4–3=2). Rudolf's best performance at the event came in 2013. Although she was the reserve player, she had the opportunity to play all but one round and scored 6½/8, compiling a performance rating of 2395 and gaining 20 rating points. Hungary also produced their best result in the years Rudolf participated, finishing in sixth place with 11 points (+4–2=3). ==Playing style== Rudolf primarily plays 1.e4 (the King's Pawn Game) compared to 1.d4 (the Queen's Pawn Game) or other first moves. When playing against 1.e4, she prefers to respond with the French Defence (1.e4 e6), which she often continues with the Tarrasch Morozevich variation (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nd2 Be7). When facing 1.d4, she commonly defends with the Queen's Gambit Declined (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6). ==Broadcasting career== Rudolf began her online instructional career by creating a video series for chess24 in 2013. The following year, she teamed up with fellow International Master Sopiko Guramishvili to launch the long-running Miss Strategy and Miss Tactics video series on chess24 in which they aim to combine strategical and tactical approaches to chess with Rudolf as Miss Strategy and Guramishvili as Miss Tactics. Rudolf had already begun to combine teaching chess with her playing career when she moved to Spain and settled in Madrid in 2010. On chess24, she presents content both in English and in Spanish. She has also released several online training courses, including one titled the Anna Rudolf Method and another via the Chessable course website on attacking strategies in chess. Rudolf is one of the leading chess commentators. Alongside Judit Polgár, she co-hosted the official coverage of the 2018 World Chess Championship match between Magnus Carlsen and Fabiano Caruana. She has also commentated on the Grand Chess Tour. In addition to over-the-board events, she is also a regular commentator for online events hosted on Chess.com such as the PRO Chess League finals that feature professional chess players and the Pogchamps tournaments that feature popular streamers relatively new to chess. Rudolf launched her own YouTube channel in 2016, and began streaming on her own Twitch channel in 2018. She complements her focus on chess on her YouTube and Twitch channels with variety content as well. ==Personal life== Rudolf has been in a relationship with Irish YouTuber Kevin O'Reilly, better known as CallMeKevin, since 2019. They were introduced to each other by YouTuber Daniel Condren, better known as RTGame, earlier that year. In early 2020, she began living with O'Reilly in his home city of Cork. In July 2021, the couple moved to Spain, where Rudolf has permanent residency from living there previously. Rudolf later revealed that she had never "officially" left Spain, and was actually visiting O'Reilly in Ireland when COVID-19 lockdowns prevented her from leaving. ==Awards and honours== In 2017, Rudolf was named "Outstanding Athlete of the City" in her hometown of Bátaszék during its 875th anniversary celebration. ==Notable games== * Christian Bauer (2634) – Anna Rudolf (2293), 2007 Vandœuvre Open: Round 2; Polish opening, . Dylan Loeb McClain, a FIDE Master (FM), provided some comments on the game in an article he published in The New York Times. Some of these comments are included below. ::1. b4 ["the Polish, also called the Orangutan or the Sokolsky. It does not have a good reputation because White does little to fight for the center."] e5 2. a3 d5 3. Bb2 Nd7 4. e3 Bd6 5. c4 dxc4 6. Bxc4 Ngf6 7. Nf3 O-O 8. Qc2 b6 9. d3 Bb7 10. Nbd2 a6 11. O-O b5 12. Bb3 Rc8 13. d4 exd4 14. exd4 Bd5 15. Bxd5 Nxd5 16. Ne4 N7b6 17. Rad1 c6 18. Nc5 Ra8 19. Rfe1 Qc7 20. g3 h6 21. Nh4 Rfd8 22. Bc1 Bf8 23. Nf5 a5 24. bxa5 Rxa5 25. Qe2 Raa8 26. Qg4 Kh8 27. Qh4 Re8 28. Kg2 Qd8 29. Rxe8 Qxe8 30. Qg4 Nf6 31. Qf3 Nbd5 32. g4 Bxc5 33. dxc5 Qe4 34. h3 Kg8 35. Qxe4 Nxe4 36. Bb2 ["Bauer’s critical error was 36 Bb2, which left his bishop on an exposed square. Instead, after 36 Nd4 Rd8 (36 ... Rc8 fails to 37 Nb5) 37 Be3 Nxe3+ 38 fxe3 Rc8 39 Rc1, White is fine."] f6 37. Nd4 Nxc5 38. Nxc6 Nf4+ 39. Kf3 Nfd3 40. Bd4 Rxa3 41. Be3 b4 42. Rb1 b3 43. Nb4 b2 44. Nc2 Rc3 45. Nd4 Kf7 46. Ke2 Na4 47. Kd1 Rc4 48. Ne2 Ke6 49. Kd2 Nb4 50. Kd1 Kd5 51. f3 Na2 52. Bd2 Rc7 53. h4 Kc4 54. Kc2 Nb4+ 55. Kd1 Kb3 56. Nc1+ Rxc1+ 57. Rxc1 bxc1=Q+ 58. Kxc1 Nc3 59. Be3 Ncd5 60. Bd2 Kc4 61. g5 hxg5 62. hxg5 f5 63. Kd1 Kd3 64. Bc1 Nc2 65. Bb2 g6 0–1 ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * * * * Category:1987 births Category:Living people Category:Chess International Masters Category:Chess woman grandmasters Category:Hungarian female chess players Category:Hungarian people of German descent Category:Sportspeople from Miskolc Category:Twitch (service) streamers
|
Physically bridging Europe and Asia, Turkey is a secular country that has pursued a Western-oriented foreign policy.Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991. To this end, Turkey uses its global diplomatic network—the fourth most extensive—of 246 diplomatic and consular missions. Since the Cold War, Turkey's most important ally has been the United States, which shared Turkey's interest in containing Soviet expansion.Migdalovitz, Carol. "Turkey: Ally in a Troubled Region." Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, 93-835F. Washington: September 14, 1993.Karasapan, Omer. "Turkey and US Strategy in the Age of Glasnost," Middle East Report, No. 160, September–October 1989, pp. 4–10, 22. In support of the United States, Turkey contributed personnel to the UN forces in the Korean War (1950–1953), joined NATO in 1952, recognized Israel in 1948 and has cooperated closely with it.Aybet, Gülnur. Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994. Turkey's alliance with Israel during the Arab–Israeli conflict strained its relations with the Arab world,Fuller, Graham E., Ian O. Lesser, Paul B. Henze, and J.F. Brown. Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. and Iran, and subsequently led to overt Syrian support for Palestinian and Armenian terrorist operations against Turkish diplomats abroad until 1990.United States. Department of Defense. Terrorist Group Profiles. Washington: GPO, 1988.United States. Department of State. Patterns of Global Terrorism, 1992. Washington: 1993.United States. Department of State. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1993. Washington: 1994. ==History== Historically, the Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire and later Turkey balanced regional and global powers off against one another, forming alliances that best protected the interests of the incumbent regime.William Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012). The Soviet Union played a major role in supplying weapons to and financing Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction during the Turkish War of Independence but Turkey's followed a course of relative international isolation during the period of Atatürk's Reforms in 1920s and 1930s. International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, through the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936.J.M. Hakov, "The Great States, Turkey and Issue Concerning the New Regime of the Straits during the First Years of World War Two." Archiv Orientální 54 (1986): 47–60. In the late 1930s Nazi Germany made a major effort to promote anti-Soviet propaganda in Turkey and exerted economic pressure. Britain and France, eager to outmaneuver Germany, negotiated a tripartite treaty in 1939. They gave Turkey a line of credit to purchase war materials from the West and a loan to facilitate the purchase of commodities.Yücel Güçlü, "Turco-British relations on the eve of the Second World War." Middle Eastern Studies 39.4 (2003): 159–205. Afraid of threats from Germany and Russia, Turkey maintained neutrality.Onur Isci, "The Massigli Affair and its Context: Turkish Foreign Policy after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact." Journal of Contemporary History (2019): DOI: 10.1177/0022009419833443. online It sold chrome—an important war material—to both sides. It was clear by 1944 that Germany would be defeated and the chrome sales to Germany stopped.Gül İnanç, "The politics of 'active neutrality' on the eve of a new world order: The case of Turkish chrome sales during the Second World War." Middle Eastern Studies 42.6 (2006): 907–915.S. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An 'Active' Neutrality (Cambridge 1989).N. Tamkin, Britain, Turkey and the Soviet Union, 1940–1945 (London 2009). ===After 1945=== After World War II Turkey sought closer relations with Western powers. It became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, a recipient of Marshall Plan aid and a member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. European Union–Turkey relations warmed during the Cold War period and the post-Cold War period has seen a diversification of relations, with Turkey, at various moments, seeking to strengthen its regional presence in the Balkans, the Middle East and the Caucasus, as well as taking steps toward EU membership. Under the AKP government (2003–), Turkey's economy has grown rapidly and the country's influence has grown in the Middle East based on a strategic depth doctrine, also called Neo-Ottomanism. Debate on Turkey's foreign relations is controversial both within Turkey itself and outside the country. In the West, there is a divide between those who are worried about Turkey's perceived movement away from the West toward a less democratic, more Islamic or more pro-Russian and pro-Chinese orientation and those who do not see Turkey's changing political structure, growing regional power and relations with Russia as a threat.Kubilay Yado Arin: The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East? Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2013. ISBN 9 783865 737199. ==Bilateral relations== Despite being one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence, Turkey has never established formal diplomatic relations with Armenia. Turkey formerly had diplomatic relations with Cyprus, Taiwan and Syria. ===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations Began Notes See Turkey–European Union relations See Turkey in NATO ===Africa=== There has been a revival in Turkey's relation with Africa after 1998 and civil society is the leading factor in this process.Mehmet Ozkan and Birol Akgun, "Turkey's Opening to Africa", The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol 48, No 4 (2010): 525–546, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context;=mehmetozkan Initially this revival came as a passive attempt, but after 2005 it became an offensive interest in developing relations with the continent. The recent Turkey–Africa Cooperation Summit in 2008 marks the latest stage in Turkey's keen interest in developing relations with Africa, and should be seen as a turning point.Mehmet Ozkan, "What drives Turkey's Involvement in Africa?", Review of African Political Economy, Vol 37, No 126 (2010): 533–540, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1087&context;=mehmetozkan Turkey since its involvement in Somalia in 2011, is eager to be considered as a political actor in the continent.Mehmet Ozkan, "A New Actor or Passer-By? The Political Economy of Turkey's Engagement with Africa", Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, Vol 14, No 1 (2012): 113–133, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1178&context;=mehmetozkan ====Northern Africa==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 1962 See Algeria–Turkey relations * Algeria has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Algiers. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.17 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.03/1.14 billion USD). * 213,333 Algerian tourists visited Turkey in 2017. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Algiers. 8 May 1925 See Egypt–Turkey relations * Egypt has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Cairo and a Consulate General in Alexandria. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.25 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 3.06/2.19 billion USD). * 100,971 Egyptian tourists visited Turkey in 2017. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Cairo since 2010. 1 January 1952 See Libya–Turkey relations * Libya has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Tripoli. and a Consulate General in Misurata. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.87 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.50/0.37 billion USD). *188,312 Libyan tourists visited Turkey in 2018. 17 April 1956 See Morocco–Turkey relations * Morocco has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Rabat. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.71 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.99/0.72 billion USD). *114,155 Moroccan tourists visited Turkey in 2017. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Rabat. 1956 See Tunisia–Turkey relations * Tunisia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Tunis. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.09 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 904/182 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Tunis. ====Sub–Saharan Africa==== Since 2008, Turkey has prioritized friendly relations with Africa partly to build friendly and conflict–free relations, which was not available in the hostile atmosphere in its neighborhood.Akgün, B. "Turkey's opening to Africa." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 48, pp. 525–546. 2010. Capitalizing on a strong sentiment of fellowship among Turkish people towards Africans, economic and diplomatic relations with Africa flourished: Foreign trade between sub-Saharan Africa and Turkey increased from US$581 millionÖzkan, M. "Turkey's 'New' engagements in Africa and Asia: Scope, content and implications." Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, XVI(3), pp. 115–137. 2011. in 1998 to US$5.08"Afrika'ya Yatırım Atağı." Ekonomist, 26(152273), pp. 17–21. 2016. billion in 2015. Dating back to 1800, Turkey's relations with sub-Saharan Africa flourished from the 1860s—when the Ottoman Empire started sending trained imams to the region—until 1885 when other European colonial powers blocked Ottoman influence.Kavas, A. Osmanlı-Afrika İlişkileri. İstanbul: Tasam Yayınları. 2006. Relations were restored in the 1950s,Aydın, M. "Determinants of Turkish foreign policy: Changing patterns and conjectures during the Cold War." Middle Eastern Studies, 36(1), pp. 105–121. 2000. and gained momentum when Emperor Haile Selassie visited Turkey in March 1967 and December 1969.Ataman, M. "Leadership change: Özal leadership and restructuring in Turkish foreign policy." Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 1(1), pp. 132–151. 2002. Since 2008, Turkey has contributed to the region through participation in peacekeeping missions, including the UN Mission in Ivory Coast (UNOC), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Central African Republic, Chad.İpek, V. "Turkey's foreign policy implementation in Africa: A post international approach." New Perspectives on Turkey, 49(Fall), pp. 121–156. 2013. Turkey has also dramatically increased financial aid to the region, providing a total of US$6.38 billion to the region just between 2006 and 2011Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). Turkey's development cooperation. Retrieved February 12, 2016, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/ turkiyenin-kalkinma-isbirligi.tr.mfa. 2016. including the 2011 donation of US$200 million to fight the famine in East Africa. Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 9 July 1980 See Angola–Turkey relations * Angola has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Luanda. *Trade volume between the two countries was 212 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Luanda since 27 October 2021. 1973 See Benin–Turkey relations * Benin closed its embassy in Ankara in 2021. *Turkey has an Embassy in Cotonou. *Trade volume between the two countries was 142 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Cotonou since 2014. 20 January 1981 *Permanent Representation of Botswana in the UN Geneva Office is also accredited to Turkey. *Turkey has an Embassy in Gaborone. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.9 million USD in 2019. 6 April 1970 See Burkina Faso–Turkey relations * Burkina Faso has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Ouagadougou. *Trade volume between the two countries was 52.2 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 31.4/20.8 million USD). 30 April 1981 See Burundi–Turkey relations * Burundi has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Bujumbura. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.1 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.6/0.5 million USD). 9 August 1963 See Cameroon–Turkey relations * Cameroon has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Yaoundé. *Trade volume between the two countries was 205 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 151/54 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Yaoundé. 24 June 1979 See Cape Verde–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Dakar to Senegal is also accredited to Cabo Verde. *Trade volume between the two countries was 9.5 million USD in 2019. 18 February 1980 See Central African Republic–Turkey relations * Central African Republic has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul. *The Turkish ambassador in Yaoundé to Cameroon is also accredited to the Central African Republic. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.81 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 3.84/1.97 million USD). 27 January 1970 See Chad–Turkey relations * Chad has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in N'Djamena. *Trade volume between the two countries was 72.4 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 39.9/32.5 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to N'Djamena since December 12, 2013. 22 August 1979 See Comoros–Turkey relations *The ambassador of the Comoros in Cairo to Egypt is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Antananarivo to Madagascar is also accredited to the Union of the Comoros. *Trade volume between the two countries was 21.1 million USD in 2019. 9 November 1981 See Republic of the Congo–Turkey relations * Congo has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Brazzaville. *Trade volume between the two countries was 57.25 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 55.8/1.47 million USD). 14 July 1964 See Ivory Coast–Turkey relations * Côte d'Ivoire has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Abidjan. *Trade volume between the two countries was 409.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 220.9/188.8 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Abidjan since July 2012. 22 October 1975 See Democratic Republic of Congo–Turkey relations * Democratic Republic of Congo has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kinshasa. *Trade volume between the two countries was 54.7 million USD in 2019. 25 June 1979 See Djibouti–Turkey relations * Djibouti has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Djibouti. *Trade volume between the two countries was 252 million USD in 2019. 19 July 1993 See Eritrea–Turkey relations *The ambassador of Eritrea in Doha to Qatar is also accredited to Turkey. *Turkey has an Embassy in Asmara. *Trade volume between the two countries was 13.9 million USD in 2019. 16 September 1980 See Equatorial Guinea–Turkey relations *Equatorial Guinea has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Malabo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 23.8 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 20.2/3.6 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Malabo since February 7, 2020. 20 January 1981 *The Embassy of the Eswatini in Brussels to Belgium is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Pretoria to South Africa is also accredited to Eswatini. *Trade volume between the two countries was 309 thousand USD in 2019. 30 January 1926, severed in 1936, re-established 23 December 1957 See Ethiopia–Turkey relations * Ethiopia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Addis Ababa. *Trade volume between the two countries was 398.8 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 378.3/27.5 million USD). 1 February 1963 See Gabon–Turkey relations * Gabon has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Libreville. *Trade volume between the two countries was 38.9 million USD in 2018. 1965 See Gambia–Turkey relations * Gambia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Banjul. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Banjul since August 2018. 1958 See Ghana–Turkey relations * Ghana has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Accra. *Trade volume between the two countries was 353.3 million USD in 2018. 1962 See Guinea–Turkey relations * Guinea has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Conakry. *Trade volume between the two countries was 136.7 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Conakry since January 30, 2017. 1975 See Guinea-Bissau–Turkey relations * Guinea Bissau has an embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an embassy in Bissau. * Trade volume between the two countries was 4.95 million USD in 2019. 30 March 1968 See Kenya–Turkey relations * Kenya has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Nairobi. *Trade volume between the two countries was 234 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Nairobi since 20 February 2009. 1980 *The Embassy of Lesotho in Rome is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Pretoria to South Africa is also accredited to Lesotho. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.65 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.62/0.03 million USD). 15 April 1970 See Liberia–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Liberia in Brussels is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Accra to Ghana is also accredited to Liberia. *Trade volume between the two countries was 191.9 million USD in 2019. 30 January 1963 See Madagascar–Turkey relations * Embassy of Madagascar in Rome to Italy is also accredited to Turkey. *Turkey has an Embassy in Antananarivo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 76.5 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 71.3/5.2 million USD). 3 August 1970 See Mali–Turkey relations * Mali has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Bamako. *Trade volume between the two countries was 57 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 48.4/8.6 million USD). 4 August 1969 See Malawi–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Malawi in Berlin to Germany is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Lusaka to Zambia is also accredited to Malawi. *Trade volume between the two countries was 21 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 4.67/16.4 million USD). 18 October 1976 See Mauritius–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Mauritius in Berlin to Germany is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Antananarivo to Madagascar is also accredited to Mauritius. *Trade volume between the two countries was 76.5 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Mauritius since December 15, 2015. 14 April 1970 See Mauritania–Turkey relations * Mauritania has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Nouakchott. *Trade volume between the two countries was 245 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Nouakchott. 20 January 1981 See Mozambique–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Mozambique in Rome to Italy is also accredited to Turkey. *Turkey has an Embassy in Maputo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 153 million USD in 2019. 27 March 1990 See Namibia–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in Windhoek. *Trade volume between the two countries was 11.84 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 9.40/2.44 million USD). 30 March 1967 See Niger–Turkey relations * Niger has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Niamey. *Trade volume between the two countries was 72 million USD in 2019. 16 February 1961 See Nigeria–Turkey relations * Nigeria has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Abuja. *Trade volume between the two countries was 726 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Abuja, Lagos and Port-Harcourt. 18 February 1980 See Rwanda–Turkey relations * Rwanda has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kigali. *Trade volume between the two countries was 32.4 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 32.2/0.2 million USD). 1981 *The Embassy of São Tomé and Príncipe in Lisbon is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Libreville to Gabon is also accredited to São Tomé and Príncipe. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.3 million USD in 2019. 17 October 1963 See Senegal–Turkey relations * Senegal has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Dakar. *Trade volume between the two countries was 292 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Dakar. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Dakar. 22 June 1995 See Seychelles–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Seychelles in Paris is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in Nairobi to Kenya is also accredited to the Seychelles. *Trade volume between the two countries was 25.4 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 17.7/7.7 million USD). 15 February 1971 See Sierra Leone–Turkey relations * Sierra Leone has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Freetown. *Trade volume between the two countries was 53.4 million USD in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Freetown. 13 December 1965 See Somalia–Turkey relations * Somalia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Mogadishu and a Consulate General in Hargeisa. *Trade volume between the two countries was 250.8 million USD in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Mogadishu. 12 October 1992 See South Africa–Turkey relations *South Africa has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Pretoria. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.3 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 552.5/757.5 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Cape Town and Durban since 2015. *3,600 Turkish citizens reside in South Africa. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Johannesburg. 9 July 2011 See South Sudan–Turkey relations *South Sudan has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Juba. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.2 million USD in 2019. 20 July 1957 See Sudan–Turkey relations *Sudan has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Khartoum. *Trade volume between the two countries was 434 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 361/73 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Khartoum. 1963 See Tanzania–Turkey relations *Tanzania has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Dar es Salaam. *Trade volume between the two countries was 151 million USD in 2015. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro since 2010. 27 April 1960 See Togo–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in Lomé (planned). *Trade volume between the two countries was 106 million USD in 2019. 18 September 1969 See Turkey–Uganda relations *Uganda has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kampala. *Trade volume between the two countries was 40 million USD in 2018. 25 February 1971 See Turkey–Zambia relations *Zambia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Lusaka. *Trade volume between the two countries was 23.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 17.8/5.9 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Lusaka since December 14, 2018. 2 July 1982 See Turkey–Zimbabwe relations *Zimbabwe has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Harare. *Trade volume between the two countries was 17.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 5.9/11.8 million USD). ===Americas=== ====Southern Cone==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 29 June 1926 See Argentina–Turkey relations * Argentina has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Buenos Aires. * Both countries are members of G20 and WTO. * Flights from Istanbul to Buenos Aires via São Paulo commenced in December 2013 and are taking place on a daily basis. * Trade volume between the two countries was 455 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 161/294 million USD. * 64,483 Argentine tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 30 January 1926 See Chile–Turkey relations * Chile has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Santiago. * Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. * Chile–Turkey Free Trade Agreement was signed on July 14, 2009 and is in effect since March 1, 2011. * Trade volume between the two countries was 579 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 344/236 million USD. * 18,509 Chilean tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Chile was the first country in Latin America that recognized Turkey. 11 September 1953 See Paraguay–Turkey relations * Paraguay has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Asunción. *Trade volume between the two countries was 82.1 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 47.1/35 million USD). * 1,328 Paraguayan tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 4 January 1929 See Turkey–Uruguay relations *Uruguay has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Montevideo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 341.4 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 42.8/298.6 million USD). * 7,191 Uruguayan tourists visited Turkey in 2019. ====North America==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 25 November 1943 See Canada–Turkey relations * Canada has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Ottawa and Consulates General in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver. *Both countries are members of OECD, G20, NATO and WTO. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (starting in December 2020). *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.46 billion USD in 2019. *139,164 Canadian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Around 65,000 people of Turkish origin live in Canada. 12 July 1928 See Mexico–Turkey relations * Mexico has an embassy in AnkaraEmbassy of Mexico in Ankara and a consulate in Istanbul.Consulate of Mexico in Istanbul * Turkey has an embassy in Mexico City.Embassy of Turkey in Mexico City (in Spanish and Turkish) *Both countries are members of OECD, G20 and WTO. *Flights from Istanbul to Mexico City and Cancún were launched in August 2019. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.3 billion USD USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 602/678 million USD). *66,557 Mexican tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Mexico City. 13 September 1831, relations broke off 20 April 1917, re-established 17 February 1927 See Turkey–United States relations * United States has an Embassy in Ankara, a Consulate General in Istanbul and a Consulate in Adana. * Turkey has an Embassy in Washington, D.C. and Consulates General in Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami and New York City. *Both countries are members of OECD, G20, NATO and WTO. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, Newark, San Francisco, Seattle (starts March 9, 2022) and Washington, D.C. * 578,074 American tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Washington, D.C. *Following its NATO membership in 1952 and subsequent hosting of the United States Air Force in Incirlik Air Base, Turkey became the bulwark of NATO's southeastern flank, the directly bordering Warsaw Pact countries. Turkey participated with the United States during the Korean War of the early 1950s and the Gulf War of 1990. ====Caribbean==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement June 1999 *The Turkish ambassador in Santo Domingo to the Dominican Republic is also accredited to Antigua and Barbuda. *Trade volume between the two countries was 12.5 million USD in 2019. 5 November 1974 See Bahamas–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Havana to Cuba is also accredited to the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. *Trade volume between the two countries was 86.1 million USD in 2019. 20 September 1972 *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to Barbados. *Trade volume between the two countries was 8.5 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 8.45/0.05 million USD). 23 November 1952 See Cuba–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in Havana. *Trade volume between the two countries was 54.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 42.9/11.8 million USD). * The Ottoman Empire Embassy to Cuba opened in 1873.Kutlu, M. N. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu-Latin Amerika (Başlangıç Dönemi). Ankara: LAMER Yayınları. 2012 13 April 2006 *The Turkish ambassador in Santo Domingo to the Dominican Republic is also accredited to Dominica. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.6 million USD in 2019. 28 November 1951 See Dominican Republic–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in Santo Domingo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 132.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 118.6/14.1 million USD). Feb. 25, 1975 *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to Grenada. *Trade volume between the two countries was 910 thousand USD in 2019. 1950 See Haiti–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Santo Domingo to the Dominican Republic is also accredited to Haiti. *Trade volume between the two countries was 129.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 128.9/0.8 million USD). 30 March 1971 See Jamaica–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Havana to Cuba is also accredited to Jamaica. *Trade volume between the two countries was 90.5 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 90/0.5 million USD). *The Turkish ambassador in Santo Domingo to the Dominican Republic is also accredited to St. Kitts and Nevis. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.9 million USD in 2019. 25 May 2005 *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to St. Lucia. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3 million USD in 2019. 4 April 2002 See Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to St. Vincent and Grenadines. *Trade volume between the two countries was 11.3 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 4.8/6.5 million USD). 22 May 1972 See Trinidad and Tobago–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in Port of Spain. *Trade volume between the two countries was 120.8 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 68.4/52.4 million USD). ====Central America==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 2 November 1989 See Belize–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to Belize. *Trade volume between the two countries was 13.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 10.1/3.6 million USD). 21 September 1950 See Costa Rica–Turkey relations * Costa Rica has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in San Jose. *Trade volume between the two countries was 100 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 58.9/41.8 million USD). 21 September 1950 * El Salvador has an embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an embassy in San Salvador. * Trade volume between the two countries was 17.1 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 14.8/2.3 million USD). 1952 See Guatemala–Turkey relations * Guatemala has an Embassy in Ankara and an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Guatemala City. *Trade volume between the two countries was 63.5 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 53.5/10 million USD). 4 April 1950 *The Turkish ambassador in Guatemala City to Guatemala is also accredited to Honduras. *Trade volume between the two countries was 19.8 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 15/4.8 million USD). 21 September 1950 See Nicaragua–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in San José to Costa Rica is also accredited to Nicaragua. *Nicaraguan Embassy in Berlin to Germany is also accredited to Turkey. *Trade volume between the two countries was 11.6 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 11.1/0.5 million USD). 14 April 1950 See Panama–Turkey relations * Panama has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Panama. *Trade volume between the two countries was 260.9 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 248.8/12.1 million USD). ====Latin America, rest of==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 26 July 1950 See Bolivia–Turkey relations *Turkey has an Embassy in La Paz. *Trade volume between the two countries was 130 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 22/108 million USD). * 2,491 Bolivian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 8 September 1927 See Brazil–Turkey relations *Brazil has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Brasília and a Consulate General in São Paulo. *Both countries are members of G20 and WTO. *There are daily direct flights from Istanbul to São Paulo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.1 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.48/2.6 billion USD). * 101,164 Brazilian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 10 April 1959 See Colombia–Turkey relations * Colombia has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Bogotá. * Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. * Flights from Istanbul to Bogotá commenced in May 2016. * Trade volume between the two countries was 1.7 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.25/1.46 billion USD). * 70,974 Colombian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 11 December 1959 See Ecuador–Turkey relations * Ecuador has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Quito and a Consulate General in Guayaquil. * Trade volume between the two countries was 117 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 59/58 million USD). * 8,416 Ecuadorian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 2 May 1973 *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to Guyana. *Trade volume between the two countries was 29.6 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 28.6/1 million USD). 1952 See Peru–Turkey relations * Peru has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Lima. *Trade volume between the two countries was 250 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 177.4/72.6 million USD). * 11,430 Peruvian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 29 June 1976 See Suriname–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Port of Spain to Trinidad and Tobago is also accredited to Suriname. *Trade volume between the two countries was 18.2 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 18.1/0.1 million USD). 29 December 1950 See Turkey–Venezuela relations * Turkey has an Embassy in Caracas and an Honorary Consulate in Maracaibo. * Venezuela has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Trade volume between the two countries was 150 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 130/20 million USD). ===Asia and Oceania=== ====Turkic states==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement Jan. 14, 1992 See Azerbaijan–Turkey relations * Azerbaijan has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Kars. * Turkey has an Embassy in Baku and Consulates General in Nakhchivan and Ganja. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Council of Europe, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and OSCE. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.18 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.63/2.55 billion USD). * 901,723 Azeri tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Azerbaijan-Turkey relations have been described as "one nation with two states" due to a common culture and the mutual intelligibility of Turkish and Azerbaijani. *Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Azerbaijan in November 1991. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Baku. March 2, 1992 See Kazakhstan–Turkey relations * Kazakhstan has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Nur-Sultan and a Consulate General in Almaty. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, OSCE and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.9 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.9/3 billion USD). * 455,724 Kazakh tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Kazakhstan. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Nur-Sultan. Jan. 29, 1992 See Kyrgyzstan–Turkey relations * Kyrgyzstan has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Bishkek. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, OSCE and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 519 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 442/77 million USD). * 121,364 Kyrgyz tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. Feb. 29, 1992 See Turkey–Turkmenistan relations * Turkmenistan has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Ashgabat. *Both countries are members of Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture and OIC. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.35 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 745/601 million USD). * 297,706 Turkmen tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Turkmenistan on October 27, 1991. March 4, 1992 See Turkey–Uzbekistan relations * Uzbekistan has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul * Turkey has an Embassy in Tashkent. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, OSCE and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.3 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.23/1.14 billion USD). *252,138 Uzbek tourists visited Turkey in 2019. ====Asia-Pacific==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 1921 See Afghanistan–Turkey relations *Afghanistan has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kabul and Consulates General in Kandahar and Mazar-e Sharif. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, OIC and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 180 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 24/156 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Kabul. 1967 See Australia–Turkey relations * Australia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulates General in Istanbul and Çanakkale. * Turkey has an Embassy in Canberra and Consulates General in Melbourne and Sydney. *Both countries are members of G20, MIKTA, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.66 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 521.6/544.8 million USD). * 120,837 Australian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *150 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Australia. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Melbourne. Feb. 22, 1974 See Bangladesh–Turkey relations *Bangladesh has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Dhaka. *Both countries are members of OIC. *Trade volume between the two countries was 934 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 427/509 million USD). 26 September 2012 * Bhutan and Turkey cooperate through their respective embassies in New Delhi."Economic Development and Social Changes in Bhutan." pp. 82–99 in Urmila Phadnis, S.D. Muni, and Kalim Bahadur (eds.), Domestic Conflicts in South Asia. New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1986. * Trade volume between the two countries was 1.58 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.1/1.48 million USD). 27 June 1984 See Brunei–Turkey relations * Brunei Darussalam has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. * Both countries are members of OIC. * Trade volume between the two countries was 4.88 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 4882/16 million USD). 1959 See Cambodia–Turkey relations * Cambodia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Phnom Penh. *Trade volume between the two countries was 108.4 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 13.7/94.7 million USD). 1971 See China–Turkey relations * China has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Izmir. * Turkey has an Embassy in Beijing and Consulates General in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai *Both countries are members of G20 and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 21.08 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.58/18.49 billion USD). *426,344 Chinese tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai. Oct. 28, 2008 *The Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to the Cook Islands. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2019. 20 May 2002 See East Timor–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Jakarta to Indonesia is also accredited to East Timor. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. Dec. 17, 1975 *The Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to Fiji. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. Aug. 15, 1947 See India–Turkey relations * India has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in New Delhi and Consulates General in Hyderabad and Mumbai. * Both countries are members of G20 and WTO. * Trade volume between the two countries was 7.80 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.17/6.64 billion USD). * 230,131 Indian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1950 See Indonesia–Turkey relations * Indonesia has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Jakarta. * Both countries are members of D-8, G20, MIKTA, OIC and WTO. * Trade volume between the two countries was 1.85 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.21/1.64 billion USD). * 127,149 Indonesian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *2,400 Indonesian citizens reside in Turkey. 1890 See Japan–Turkey relations * Japan has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Tokyo and a Consulate General in Nagoya. *Both countries are members of G20, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.02 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.5/3.52 billion USD). * 103,320 Japanese tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Tokyo. 2008 *The Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Kiribati. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. 1958 See Laos–Turkey relations *The Embassy of Laos in Vienna is also accredited to Turkey. * Turkey has an Embassy in Vientiane. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.92 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.44/1.48 billion USD). 1979 See Maldives–Turkey relations *The Permanent Mission of the Republic of Maldives to the United Nations Office in Geneva is also accredited to Turkey. *The Turkish ambassador in New Delhi to India is also accredited to the Maldives. *Both countries are members of OIC. *Trade volume between the two countries was 46.5 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 28.2/18.3 million USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Malé since November 24, 2012. 1964 See Malaysia–Turkey relations * Malaysia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kuala Lumpur. *Both countries are members of D-8, OIC and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.70 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.36/1.34 billion USD). * 114,214 Malaysian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Kuala Lumpur. April 9, 2008 See Marshall Islands–Turkey relations * Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to the Marshall Islands. * Marshall Islands has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. 6 August 2007 * The Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Micronesia. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. June 24, 1969 See Mongolia–Turkey relations * Mongolia has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 39.7 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 39.2/0.5 million USD). 1958 See Myanmar–Turkey relations *The Burmese Embassy in Cairo to Egypt is also accredited to Turkey. * Turkey has an Embassy in Yangon. *Trade volume between the two countries was 38.7 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 30.7/8 million USD). 27 April 1976 * The Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Nauru. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. 1915 See New Zealand–Turkey relations * New Zealand has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Wellington. *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 152.8 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 90.1/62.7 million USD). * 20,912 New Zealanders visited Turkey in 2019. *1,700 Turkish citizens reside in New Zealand. June 7, 2014"Joint Declaration concerning the establishment of diplomatic relations between Turkey and Niue, ...were signed." * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. Jan. 15, 2001 See North Korea–Turkey relations *The Embassy of North Korea in Sofia is also accredited to Turkey. *The ambassador in Seoul to South Korea is also accredited to North Korea. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. 1947 See Pakistan–Turkey relations *Pakistan has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Islamabad and Consulates General in Karachi and Lahore. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, OIC and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 856 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 550/306 million USD). * 130,736 Pakistani tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Karachi and Lahore. May 10, 2007 *Turkish ambassador in Tokyo to Japan is also accredited to Palau. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.7 million USD in 2014. May 30, 1979 *Papua New Guinea has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul. *The Turkish ambassador in Canberra is also accredited to Papua New Guinea. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. June 13, 1949 See Philippines–Turkey relations * Philippines has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Manila. *Trade volume between the two countries was 219.7 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 104/115.7 million USD). * 139,126 Filipino tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *2,200 Philippine nationals are residing in Turkey. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Manila since March 2015. April 12, 1979 See Samoa–Turkey relations *The Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to Samoa. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. Feb. 12, 1969 See Singapore–Turkey relations * Singapore has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Singapore. *Trade volume between the two countries was 808 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 443/365 million USD). * 34,930 Singaporean tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Singapore. Mar. 8, 1979 See Solomon Islands–Turkey relations * The Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Solomon Islands since March 8, 1979. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. Aug. 11, 1949 See South Korea–Turkey relations * South Korea has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Seoul. *Both countries are members of G20, MIKTA, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 6.53 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.88/5.64 billion USD). *212,970 South Korean tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Free Trade Agreement between the two countries entered into force on May 1, 2013 and was updated on August 1, 2018 to include an Investment Agreement. *Turkey ranks third in number of martyrs among the 16 countries that participated in the Korean War. United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Busan honors 462 of the 966 Turkish soldiers who died during the war. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Seoul. Feb. 4, 1948 See Sri Lanka–Turkey relations *Sri Lanka has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Colombo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 185.7 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 84.3/101.4 million USD). 1971 Diplomatic recognition withdrawn in 1971 by the establishment of diplomatic relations between Turkey and China but both countries still maintain informal relations. Jan. 29, 1992 See Tajikistan–Turkey relations * Tajikistan has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Dushanbe. *Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, OIC and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 274 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 143/131 million USD). * 44,155 Tajik tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1958 See Thailand–Turkey relations * Thailand has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Bangkok. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.34 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.26/1.09 billion USD). * 62,192 Thai tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Negotiations on a bilateral Free Trade Agreement (FTA) began in 2017. *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Bangkok and Phuket. Jan. 26, 1976 See Tonga–Turkey relations * The Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to Tonga since January 26, 1976. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. July 19, 1979 * The Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to Tuvalu. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. April 10, 1987 * Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Vanuatu. * Vanuatu has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul. * Trade volume between the two countries was 17.4 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 10.3/7.1 million USD). 1978 See Turkey–Vietnam relations * Vietnam has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Hanoi. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.91 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.16/1.76 billion USD). *There are direct flights from Istanbul to Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City since June 27, 2016. ====Western Asia==== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement See Armenia–Turkey relations * Diplomatic relations suspended over the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Dec. 4, 1973 See Bahrain–Turkey relations * Bahrain has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Manama. *Trade volume between the two countries was 486 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 299/187 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Manama. * Diplomatic relations suspended over the Cyprus dispute. 1983 *Northern Cyprus has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Antalya, Gaziantep, Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin and Trabzon. *Turkey has an Embassy in North Nicosia *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in North Nicosia. May 21, 1992 See Georgia–Turkey relations * Georgia has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Trabzon. * Turkey has an Embassy in Tbilisi and a Consulate General in Batumi. *Both countries are members of Council of Europe, Economic Cooperation Organization, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.85 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.58/0.27 billion USD). * 1,995,254 Georgian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Tbilisi. Aug. 23, 1514 See Iran–Turkey relations * Iran has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul, Trabzon and Erzurum. * Turkey has an Embassy in Tehran and Consulates General in Tabriz, Orumiyeh and Mashhad. *Both countries are members of Economic Cooperation Organization and OIC. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.60 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.31/3.29 billion USD). * 2,102,890 Iranian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Tehran. 1932 See Iraq–Turkey relations *Iraq has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Gaziantep and Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Baghdad and a Consulate General in Erbil. *Trade volume between the two countries was 9.77 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 8.35/1.42 billion USD). * 1,374,896 Iraqi tourists visited Turkey in 2019. May 11, 1949["The Palestinian Question in Turkish Foreign Policy from the 1950s to the 1990s", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Volume 25, No.: 1, February 1993 and also, ] See Israel–Turkey relations * Israel has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Tel Aviv. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.37 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.70/1.67 billion USD). * 569,368 Israeli tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *The history of the Jewish–Turkish relations dates back to 14th–16th centuries, when the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II invited the Sephardic Jews fleeing the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions to settle in the Ottoman Empire. *During the 1930s and 1940s, the Republic of Turkey again served as a safe haven for the European Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazi-perpetrated Holocaust. A Turkish diplomat, Selahattin Ulkumen, is honoured as one of the Righteous Among The Nations for his work in rescuing Jews from Nazi officials on the island of Rhodes, by issuing them Turkish visas and later arranging for their transport to Turkish territory. Another diplomat, Necdet Kent, also rescued Jews from Nazi authorities, for which he was awarded a special medal by the government of the State of Israel. *Turkey was the first country with a Muslim majority to formally recognize the State of Israel. *The founders of the State of Israel and prominent Israeli politicians such as David Ben-Gurion, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi and Moshe Shertok had all studied in the leading Turkish schools of Istanbul in their youth, namely Galatasaray High School and Istanbul University. Jan. 11, 1947 See Jordan–Turkey relations *Jordan has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Amman. *Trade volume between the two countries was 962 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 835/127 million USD). * 474,874 Jordanian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Free Trade Agreement went into force on 11 March. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Amman. 1964 See Kuwait–Turkey relations *Kuwait has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kuwait City. *Trade volume between the two countries was 678 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 534/144 million USD). * 374,191 Kuwaiti tourists visited Turkey in 2018. Oct. 3, 1952 See Lebanon–Turkey relations *Lebanon has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Beirut. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1070 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 901/169 million USD). *376,721 Lebanese tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Beirut. 18 June 1973 See Oman–Turkey relations *Oman has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Muscat. *Trade volume between the two countries was 489 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 422/67 million USD). Nov. 15, 1988 See Palestine–Turkey relations * Palestine has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has a Consulate General in Jerusalem accredited to Palestine. *Trade volume between the two countries was 84 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 82/2 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Jerusalem and Ramallah. 6 June 1972 See Qatar–Turkey relations * Turkey has an Embassy in Doha. * United Arab Emirates has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.4 billion USD in 2018. *Turkey has a military base in Qatar. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Doha. 1932 See Saudi Arabia–Turkey relations *Saudi Arabia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Riyadh and a Consulate General in Jeddah. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.96 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.64/2.32 billion USD). * 564,816 Saudi tourists visited Turkey in 2019. Nov. 17, 1944 See Syria–Turkey relations *Diplomatic relations suspended since 2011. 1971 See Turkey–United Arab Emirates relations * United Arab Emirates has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Abu Dhabi and a Consulate General in Dubai. *Trade volume between the two countries was 6.92 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 3.14/3.78 million USD). March 4, 1946 See Turkey–Yemen relations *Yemen has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Sana'a. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. ===Europe=== Country Relations began Notes Free trade agreement 1958 See Albania–Turkey relations * Albania has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Tirana. *Both countries are members of OIC, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 430 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 408/22 million USD). * 125,935 Albanian tourists visited Turkey in 2018. *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Shkoder and Tirana *There are over 500,000 Albanians residing in Turkey. Oct. 8, 1998 *The Turkish ambassador in Madrid to Spain is also accredited to Andorra. *Trade volume between the two countries was 478 thousand USD in 2010 (Turkish exports/imports: 476/1.4 thousand USD). 1526 See Austria–Turkey relations * Austria has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Vienna and Consulates General in Bregenz and Salzburg *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.43 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.14/1.29 billion USD). *401,475 Austrian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Vienna. Mar. 25, 1992 See Belarus–Turkey relations * Belarus has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Minsk. *Both countries are members of OSCE.Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belarus *Trade volume between the two countries was 691 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 531/160 million USD). * 258,419 Belarusian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1838 See Belgium–Turkey relations * Belgium has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Brussels and a Consulate General in Antwerp. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.7 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.6/3.1 billion USD). *220 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Belgium. See Turks in Belgium *557,435 Belgian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Brussels. 1908 See Bulgaria–Turkey relations * Bulgaria has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Bursa, Edirne and Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Sofia and a Consulate General in Burgas. and Plovdiv. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.1 billion USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.1/2.0 billion USD). * 2,713,464 Bulgarian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. Aug. 29, 1992 See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Turkey relations * Bosnia and Herzegovina has an Embassy in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Sarajevo. *Trade volume between the two countries was 661 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 420/241 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Fojnica, Mostar and Sarajevo. Aug. 6, 1992 See Croatia–Turkey relations * Croatia has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Izmir. * Turkey has an Embassy in Zagreb. * Both countries are members of NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 384 million USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 232/152 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Zagreb. 1924 See Czech Republic–Turkey relations * Czech Republic has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Prague. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.65 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1/2.65 billion USD). *4,500 Turkish citizens reside in the Czech Republic. *311,359 Czech tourists visited Turkey in 2019. See Denmark–Turkey relations * Denmark has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Copenhagen. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.88 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.1/0.81 billion USD). *70 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Denmark. See Turks in Denmark *335,877 Danish tourists visited Turkey in 2018. 1924 See Estonia–Turkey relations * Estonia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Tallinn. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 312 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 92/220 million USD). * 77,041 Estonian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *575 Turkish citizens live in Estonia. 1924 See Finland–Turkey relations * Finland has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Helsinki. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.32 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 0.34/0.98 billion USD). *13 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Finland. See Turks in Finland *135,192 Finnish tourists visited Turkey in 2018. 1483 See France–Turkey relations * France has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Paris and Consulates General in Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Nantes and Strasbourg. *Both countries are members of G20, NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 13.4 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 5.8/7.6 billion USD). *650 thousand Turkish citizens reside in France and 3,152 French citizens reside in Turkey. *875,957 French tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Paris. 1790 See Germany–Turkey relations * Germany has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Antalya, Istanbul and İzmir. *Turkey has an Embassy in Berlin and Consulates General in Cologne, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg Hanover, Karlsruhe Mainz, Munich, Münster, Nuremberg and Stuttgart. *Both countries are members of G20, NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 35.9 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 16.6/19.3 billion USD). *3 million people of Turkish origin reside in Germany. *5,027,472 German tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Relations with Turkey significantly deteriorated after the 2016–17 Turkish purges and Turkey's turn to authoritarianism including the arrest of journalists such as Die Welt's Deniz Yücel. *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Berlin and Cologne. 1830 See Greece-Turkey relations * Greece has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Edirne, Istanbul and İzmir. *Turkey has an Embassy in Athens and Consulates General in Komotini, Piraeus, Rhodes and Thessaloniki. *Both countries are members of BSEC, OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.18 billion USD in 2018. *150 thousand muslims that Turkey claims are "ethnic Turks" reside in Western Thrace, Greece. * 836,882 Greek tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Turkey and Greece have clashed for decades over the status of Aegean islands and over the extent of territorial waters and airspace. In February 1999, the discovery that Greek authorities had been aiding and abetting Abdullah Öcalan, Turkey's most wanted criminal, caused a diplomatic crisis. When Abdullah Öcalan was captured by Turkish authorities, he was found holding Greek and Cypriot passports and he later revealed that he had been hiding in the Greek Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya. Relations have since improved, particularly following the earthquakes that struck both countries in 1999. 1960 See Holy See–Turkey relations * The Holy See has a nunciature in Ankara. * Turkey has an Embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See. * Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018. 1521 See Hungary–Turkey relations *Hungary has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Budapest. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. Hungary is an observer in the Turkic Council. *Trade volume between the two countries was 2.5 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.16/1.4 billion USD). * 149,523 Hungarian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *2,600 Turkish citizens reside in Hungary. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Budapest. June 17, 1944 See Iceland–Turkey relations *Bilateral relations between Turkey and Iceland are being coordinated by the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey in Oslo and the Embassy of Iceland in Copenhagen. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 51 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 24/27 million USD). *100 Turkish citizens reside in Iceland. 1972 See Ireland–Turkey relations * Ireland has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Dublin. *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.5 billion USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 528/970 million USD). *1,800 Turkish citizens reside in Ireland. *118,620 Irish tourists visited Turkey in 2011. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Dublin. 1381 See Italy–Turkey relations * Italy has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and İzmir. *Turkey has an Embassy in Rome and a Consulate General in Milan *Both countries are members of G20, NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 19.7 billion USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 8.47/11.3 billion USD). *205,788 Italian tourists visited Turkey in 2017. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Rome. Feb. 18, 2008 See Kosovo–Turkey relations * Kosovo has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Pristina and a Consulate General in Prizren. *Trade volume between the two countries was 249 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 241/7 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Peć, Pristina and Prizren. 1925 See Latvia–Turkey relations * Latvia has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Riga. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *200 Turkish citizens reside in Latvia. *Trade volume between the two countries was 291 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 126/165 million USD). * 86,051 Latvian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 2 October 1992 *Bilateral relations between Turkey and Liechtenstein are being coordinated by the Embassies of the Republic of Turkey and Liechtenstein in Bern. *Both countries are members of WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 7 million USD in 2017. 1930 See Lithuania–Turkey relations * Lithuania has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Vilnius. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 687 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 277/410 million USD). * 229,704 Lithuanian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *350 Turkish citizens reside in Lithuania. 10 July 1946 See Luxembourg–Turkey relations * Luxembourg has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Luxembourg. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 160 million USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 36/124 million USD). *900 Turkish citizens reside in Luxembourg. 10 October 1967 See Malta–Turkey relations * Malta has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Valletta. *Both countries are members of WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 593 million USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 541/52 million USD). Feb. 3, 1992 See Moldova–Turkey relations * Moldova has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Chişinău and a Consulate General in Comrat. *Both countries are members of BSEC. *Trade volume between the two countries was 568 million USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 322/246 million USD). *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Comrat. 1954 See Monaco–Turkey relations *Bilateral relations between Turkey and Monaco are being coordinated by the Consulates General of Turkey and Monaco in Marseille. *Trade volume between the two countries was 15.1 million USD in 2017. July 3, 2006 See Montenegro–Turkey relations * Montenegro has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Podgorica. *Trade volume between the two countries was 46 million USD in 2015. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Podgorica. 1612 See Netherlands–Turkey relations * Netherlands has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in The Hague and Consulates General in Amsterdam, Deventer and Rotterdam. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 8.97 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 5.76/3.20 billion USD). *500 thousand people of Turkish origin reside in the Netherlands. *1,117,290 Dutch tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Amsterdam. Aug. 26, 1992. See North Macedonia–Turkey relations * North Macedonia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. * Turkey has an Embassy in Skopje and a Consulate General in Bitola. *Both countries are members of NATO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 503 million USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 396/107 million USD). *209,519 Macedonian tourists visited Turkey in 2018. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Skopje. 1926 See Norway-Turkey relations * Norway has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.28 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 513/765 million USD). *20 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Norway . * 208,330 Norwegian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1414 See Poland–Turkey relations * Poland has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Warsaw. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 6.45 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 3.34/3.34 billion USD). *880,839 Polish tourists visited Turkey in 2018. See also Polonezköy 1843 See Portugal–Turkey relations * Portugal has an Embassy in Ankara. *Turkey has an Embassy in Lisbon. *Both countries are members of NATO, OECD and WTO. Turkey is an observer in Lusophone Commonwealth. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.5 billion USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 811/684 million USD). * 54,130 Portuguese tourists visited Turkey in 2019. Oct. 22, 1879 See Romania–Turkey relations * Romania has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Izmir. *Turkey has an Embassy in Bucharest and a Consulate General in Constanţa. *Both countries are members of BSEC, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 5.4 billion USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.8/2.6 billion USD). *763,320 Romanian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Bucharest and Constanța. 1699 See Russia–Turkey relations * Russia has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Antalya, Istanbul and Trabzon. *Turkey has an Embassy in Moscow and Consulates General in Kazan Novorossiysk and Saint Petersburg. *Both countries are members of BSEC, G20 and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 26.3 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 3.85/22.4 billion USD). * 7,017,657 Russian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has local branches in Kazan and Moscow. 1879 See Serbia–Turkey relations * Serbia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Belgrade. *Both countries are members of BSEC, Central European Free Trade Agreement and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 731 million USD in 2015 (Turkish exports/imports: 493/328 million USD). * 282,347Serbian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Belgrade. 1993 See Slovakia–Turkey relations * Slovakia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Bratislava. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.29 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 532/767 million USD). * 207,108 Slovak tourists visited Turkey in 2019. Feb. 6, 1992 See Slovenia–Turkey relations * Slovenia has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Ljubljana. *Both countries are members of OECD, NATO and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 1.15 million USD in 2015. * 50,414 Slovenian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1782 See Spain–Turkey relations * Spain has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Madrid and a Consulate General in Barcelona. *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 12.7 billion USD in 2017 (Turkish exports/imports: 6.3/6.4 billion USD). *257,342 Spanish tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Madrid. 1603 See Sweden–Turkey relations * Sweden has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Stockholm. *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 3.2 billion USD in 2018 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.5/1.7 billion USD). *115 thousand people of Turkish origin reside in Sweden. See also Turks in Sweden *444,285 Swedish tourists visited Turkey in 2019. 1899 See Switzerland–Turkey relations * Switzerland has an Embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Bern and Consulates General in Geneva and Zürich. *Both countries are members of OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.41 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 1.04/3.38 billion USD). *130 thousand Turkish citizens reside in Switzerland. *314,572 Swiss tourists visited Turkey in 2019. Feb. 3, 1992 See Turkey–Ukraine relations * Ukraine has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Antalya and Istanbul. *Turkey has an Embassy in Kyiv and a Consulate General in Odesa. *Both countries are members of WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 4.8 billion USD in 2019 (Turkish exports/imports: 2.1/2.72 billion USD). * 1,547,996 Ukrainian tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in Kyiv. 1583 See Turkey–United Kingdom relations * United Kingdom has an Embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Antalya, Istanbul and Izmir. *Turkey has an Embassy in London and a Consulate General in Edinburgh. *Both countries are members of G20, NATO, OECD and WTO. *Trade volume between the two countries was 13.9 billion USD in 2011. *250 thousand Turkish citizens reside in the United Kingdom. *2,562,064 British tourists visited Turkey in 2019. *Yunus Emre Institute has a local branch in London. ==International organizations== *ASEAN (Sectoral Dialogue Partner) *ACD *ADB *Australia Group *BIS *Black Sea Naval Force *BSEC *CE *Community of Portuguese Language Countries (observer) *Developing-8 *EBRD *G20 *IAEA *IBRD *International Energy Agency *NATO *NEA *NSG *OECD *OIC *OSCE *Turkic Council *TURKPA *TÜRKSOY *UfM Turkey is a founding member of the UN (1945), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (1969), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (1973), and the G20 industrial nations (1999). Turkey is a member state of the Council of Europe (1949) and NATO (1952) as well as being in full accession negotiations with the European Union since 2005, having been an associate member since 1963. Turkey was also an associate member of the Western European Union from 1992 to 2011, and signed the E.U. Customs Union agreement in 1995. Turkey entered NATO in 1952 and serves as the organization's vital eastern anchor, controlling the Turkish Straits which lead from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and sharing a border with Syria, Iraq, and Iran. A NATO headquarters is located in İzmir, and the United States has maintained air forces at the Incirlik Air Base in the province of Adana. Turkey is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995. It has signed free trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Israel, and many other countries. In 1992, Turkey and 10 other regional nations formed the BSEC to expand regional trade and economic cooperation. In 2017, ASEAN-Turkey Sectoral Dialogue Partnership was recognized by the 50th ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting in Manila, Philippines. ==See also== * List of diplomatic missions in Turkey * List of diplomatic missions of Turkey * Turkey's membership of international organizations * Visa requirements for Turkish citizens ==References== ==Further reading== ===European Union–Turkey relations=== * Aybet, Gülnur. Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994. * Aydin-Duzgit, Senem and Keyman, Fuat, "EU–Turkey Relations and the Stagnation of Turkish Democracy," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 2 (2012). * Barchard, David. "Turkey and the West." (Chatham House Papers, No. 27, published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs.) London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985. * Cakir, A.E. (ed.), Fifty Years of EU–Turkey Relations (Oxon: Routledge, 2011). * Dixon, Jeffrey C., "Turkey, Islam and the EU," Contexts, 8.4 (2009). * Engert, Stefan, EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus (New York: Routledge, 2010). * Esfahani, Hadi Salehi and Ceviker-Gurakar, Esra, "Fading Attraction: Turkey's Shifting Relationship with the European Union," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 53.4 (November 2013). * Fuller, Graham E. Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China. (A Rand Study.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. * Gocek, Fatma Muge. East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the 18th Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. * Goffman, Daniel. Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990. * International Crisis Group, "Turkey and Europe: The Way Ahead," Europe Report No. 184 (17 August 2007). * Kramer, Heinz, A Changing Turkey: A Challenge to Europe and the US (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000). * Kubicek, Paul, "Turkey's Inclusion in the Atlantic Community: Looking Back, Looking Forward," Turkish Studies, 9.1 (March 2008). * Kuniholm, Bruce R. "Turkey and the West," Foreign Affairs, 70, No. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 34–48. * Kuniholm, Bruce R., "Turkey and NATO," in Kaplan, L., Clawson, R. and Luraghi, R. (eds.), NATO and the Mediterranean (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1985). * McGhee, George C. "Turkey Joins the West." Foreign Affairs, July 1954, pp. 617–30. * Oguzlu, Tarik, "Turkey and Europeanization of Foreign Policy?" Political Science Quarterly, 125.4 (Winter 2010/2011). * Pierini, Marc, "Options for the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe, 3 May 2019. * Pierini, Marc and Ulgen, Sinan, "A Moment of Opportunity in the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe (Brussels, December 2014). * Reuther, Helmut (ed.). Deutschlands Aussenpolitik seit 1955. With a contribution by Franz von Cancig, "Die Türkei, Griechenland und die deutsche Aussenpolitik." Stuttgart- Degerloch: Seewald Verlag, 1965. * Steinbach, Udo. "Turkey-ECC Relations: Cultural Dimension." pp. 13–24 in Erol Manisali, ed., Turkey's Place in Europe: Economic, Political, and Cultural Dimensions. Istanbul: Ucer, 1990. * Tocci, Nathalie, "New Doubts and Uncertainties in Turkey–EU Relations," Paper, Centre for European Policy Studies (October 2000). * Narbone, Luigi and Tocci, Nathalie, "Running Around in Circles? The Cyclical Relationship Between Turkey and the European Union," in Verney, S. and Infantis, K. (eds.), Turkey's Road to European Union Membership: National Identity and Political Change (London: Routledge, 2009). ===Greece–Turkey relations=== * "Der Zypern-Konflikt, eine Bewahrungsprobe westlicher Friedensordnung." Europa-Archiv, 1964, pp. 713–26. * Bahcheli, Tozun. Greek–Turkish Relations since 1955. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990. * Balci, Ali, "Foreign Policy as Politicking in the Sarikiz Coup Plot: Cyprus Between the Coup Plotters and the JDP," Middle East Critique, 21.2 (Summer 2012). * Brus, Marcel et al., "A Promise to Keep: Time to End the International Isolation of the Turkish Cypriots," TESEV, Foreign Policy Analysis Series, No. 7 (Istanbul, June 2008). * Couloumbis, Theodore A. The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle. New York: Praeger, 1983. * Engert, Stefan, EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus (New York: Routledge, 2010). * Ertekün, Necati M. The Cyprus Dispute and the Birth of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Nicosia, Northern Cyprus: Rustem, 1984. * International Crisis Group, "Reunifying Cyprus: The Best Chance Yet," Europe Report No. 194 (23 June 2008). * International Crisis Group, "The Cyprus Stalemate: What Next?" Europe Report No. 171 (8 March 2006). * Migdalovitz, Carol, "Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations and Related Issues," CRS Report (Washington, DC, 20 July 2007). * Ozcan, Gencer, "The Military and the Making of Foreign Policy in Turkey," in Kirisci, K. and Rubin, B. (eds.), Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001). * Pipinelis, Panayotis. "The Greco-Turkish Feud Revived." Foreign Affairs, January 1959, pp. 306–16. * Psomiades, Harry J. The Eastern Question: The Last Phase. A Study in Greek Turkish Diplomacy. Salonika (Greece): Institute for Balkan Studies, 1968. * Qicek, Kemal. "Living Together: Muslim-Christian Relations in 18th-Century Cyprus as Reflected by the Shari'a Court Record," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations [Birmingham, United Kingdom], 4, No. 1, 1993. * Sozen, Ahmet, "The Cyprus Challenge in Turkey–EU Relations: Heading Towards the Defining Moment?" in Cengiz, F. and Hoffmann, L. (eds.), Turkey and the European Union: Facing New Challenges and Opportunities (London: Routledge, 2014). * Stearns, Monteagle. Entangled Allies: US Policy toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992. * Turkeş, Alpaslan. Dış Politikamız ve Kıbrıs (Our Foreign Policy and Cyprus). Istanbul: Publication of the Istanbul Cypriote-Turkish Society, 1966. ===Middle East–Turkey relations=== * Ayoob, Mohammed, "Beyond the Democratic Wave in the Arab World: The Middle East's Turko-Persian Future," Insight Turkey, 13.2 (2011). * Bank, André and Karadag, Roy, "The 'Ankara Moment': The Politics of Turkey's Regional Power in the Middle East," Third World Quarterly, 34.2 (2013). * Bengio, Ofra and Ozcan, Gencer, "Old Grievances, New Fears: Arab Perceptions of Turkey and Its Alignment with Israel," Middle Eastern Studies, 37.2 (April 2001). * Bolukbasi, Suha. "Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and the Euphrates Dam," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 16, No. 4, June 1993, pp. 9–32. * Brummett, Palmira. Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. * Burton, J.A. "Relations Between the Khanate of Bukhara and Ottoman Turkey, 1558–1702," International Journal of Turkish Studies, 5, 1990–91, pp. 83–103. * Fuller, Graham, The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2008). * Haddad, Benjamin, "Time for Turkey and Europe to Face Reality: Turkey Is Not Going to Join the EU. And That Is OK," Foreign Policy, 23 May 3016. * Nafi, Basheer M., "The Arabs and Modern Turkey: A Century of Changing Perceptions," Insight Turkey, 11.1 (2009). * Hale, William M. "Turkey, the Middle East, and the Gulf Crisis," International Affairs [London], 68, No. 2, Spring 1992, pp. 679–692. * International Crisis Group, "Turkey and the Middle East: Ambitions and Constraints," Europe Report No. 203 (7 April 2010). * Jennings, Ronald C. Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640. New York: New York University Press, 1993. * Karpat, Kemal H., "Turkish and Arab-Israeli Relations," in Karpat, K. (ed.), Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). * Kirisci, Kemal, Tocci, Nathalie, and Walker, Joshua, "A Neighborhood Rediscovered: Turkey's Transatlantic Value in the Middle East," The German Marshall Fund of the United States, Paper Series (Washington, DC, 2010). * Kirisci, Kemal, "The EU, Turkey and the Arab Spring: Challenges and Opportunities for Regional Integration," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 1 (2012). * Kirisci, Kemal and Winrow, Gareth M., The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). * Levy, Aviador. The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Darwin Press and Washington: Institute of Turkish Studies, 1992. * Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991. * Sayari, Sabri. "Turkey: The Changing European Security Environment and the Gulf Crisis," Middle East Journal, 46, No. 1, Winter 1992, pp. 9–21. * Shaw, Stanford. The Jews of the Ottoman Emire and Modern Turkey. New York: New York University Press, 1991. === Russia–Turkey relations and the Turkish Straits === * "The Turkish Straits in the Light of Recent Turkish-Soviet Russian Correspondence." American Journal of International Law, October 1947, pp. 727–47. * Bayazit, Vural. "Black Sea and Mediterranean Challenges for the Turkish Navy," NATO's Sixteen Nations [Brussels], 39, January 1994, pp. 67–69. * DeLuca, Anthony R. The Great Power Rivalry at the Turkish Straits: The Montreux Conference and the Convention of 1936. (East European Monographs.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981. * Dranov, B. Chernomorskie Prolivy-Mezhdunarodno-pravovoi rezhim (The Black Sea Straits-International-legal regime). Moscow: Yurid, izd-vo, 1948. * Edmonds, Martin, and John Skitt. "Current Soviet Maritime Strategy and NATO." International Affairs, January 1969, pp. 28–43. * Eren, Nuri. "Die türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1965, pp. 337–48. * Erkin, Feridun Cerna. Les Relations Turco-Soviétiques et la Question des Detroits. Ankara: Banur Matbaas1, 1968. * Esmer, Ahmed Şükrü. "The Straits: Crux of World Politics." Foreign Affairs, January 1947, pp. 290–302. * Fernau, Friedrich-Wilhelm. "Nachbarschaft am Schwarzen Meer. Wendepunkte in den türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1967, pp. 613–20. * Howard, Harry N. "The United States and the Question of the Turkish Straits." Middle East Journal, January 1947, pp. 59–72. * Hurewitz, J. C. The Background of Russia's Claims to the Turkish Straits. Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1964. * Imhoff, Christoph von. Duell in Mittelmeer: Moskau greift nach dem Nahen und Mittleren Osten. Freiburg i. Br.: Rombach, 1968. * Rohn, Peter H. "Turkish Treaties in Global Perspective." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1965, pp. n9-60. * Routh, D. A. "The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Black Sea Straits." Survey of International Affairs, 1936. London: Oxford University Press, 1937. * Sadak, Necmeddin. "Turkey Faces the Soviets." Foreign Affairs, April 1949, pp. 449–461. * Shotwell, James T., and Francis Deak. Turkey at the Straits: A Short History. New York: Macmillan, 1940. * Yanik, Lerna. "Allies or Partners An Appraisal of Turkey's Ties to Russia 1991–2007", East European Quarterly 41#3 (2007), pp. 349–370. ===Turkey–Turkic world relations=== * Contessi, Nicola P. "Turkey and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Common values, economics or pure geopolitics?" in Emre Erşen, Seçkin Köstem, eds. Turkey's Pivot to Eurasia. Geopolitics and Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order, (Routledge, 2019), pp. 93–110. * Gokalp, Ziya. The Principles of Turkism. Trans., Robert Devereux. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1968. * Kubilay Yado Arin. The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East? (Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, 2013). * Landau, Jacob M. Pan-Turkism in Turkey: A Study of Irredentism. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1981. * Robins, Philip. "Between Sentiment and Self-interest: Turkey's Policy toward Azerbaijan and the Central Asian States," Middle East Journal, 47, No. 4, Autumn 1993, pp. 593–610. ===Turkey–United States relations=== * Armaoglu, Fahir H. "Turkey and the United States: A New Alliance." The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1965, pp. 1–15. * Aybet, Gülnur. Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994. * Barkey, Henri. "Turkish-American Relations in the Post-War Era: An Alliance of Convenience," Orient [Leverkusen, Germany], 33, No. 3, 1992, pp. 447–464. * Barlas, Dilek, and Şuhnaz Yilmaz. "Managing the transition from Pax Britannica to Pax Americana: Turkey's relations with Britain and the US in a turbulent era (1929–47)." Turkish Studies (2016): pp. 1–25. * Bolukbasi, Suha. The Superpowers and the Third World: Turkish–American Relations and Cyprus. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1988. * Couloumbis, Theodore A. The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle. New York: Praeger, 1983. * Yilmaz, Şuhnaz. Turkish-American Relations, 1800–1952: Between the Stars, Stripes and the Crescent (Routledge, 2015). ===Foreign relations (1923–1945)=== * "Türk Dış Politikasına Yon Veren Etkenler (1923–1968)" ("Controlling Factors of Turkish Foreign Policy, 1923–1968"). Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi (Review of the Political Science Faculty), 23 (1968). * Ataöv, Türkkaya. "Turkish Foreign Policy: 1923–1938." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1961, pp. 103–42. * Ataöv, Türkkaya. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1939–1945. Ankara: Publication of the Faculty of Political Sciences of the University of Ankara, 1965. * Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012). * Howard, Harry N. The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913–1923. New York: Ferig, 1966. * Kohn, Hans. "Ten Years of the Turkish Republic." Foreign Affairs, October 1933, pp. 141–155. * Sousa, Nasim. The Capitulatory Regime of Turkey: Its History, Origin, and Nature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. * Vere-Hodge, Edward Reginald. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1918–1948. Ambilly Annemasse: Imprimerie Franco-Suisse, 1950. ===Foreign relations (1945–2002)=== * Abramowitz, Morton. "Dateline Ankara: Turkey after Özal," Foreign Policy, No. 91, 1993, pp. 164–81. * Balci, Ali and Mis, Nebi, "Turkey's Role in the Alliance of Civilizations: A New Perspective in Turkish Foreign Policy?" Turkish Studies, 9.3 (September 2008). * Batu, Hamit. "La politique étrangère de la Turquie." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1964, pp. 1–12. * Black, Joseph E., and Kenneth W. Thompson (eds.). Foreign Policies in a World of Change. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. With a contribution by Nuri Eren, "The Foreign Policy of Turkey." * Danforth, Nicholas. 2021. The Remaking of Republican Turkey: Memory and Modernity since the Fall of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. *Deshocquets, Claude. "La Turquie de 1960 et la stratégie globale." Revue de Defense Nationale, 17 (1961), pp. 222–236. * Dodd, Clement H., ed. Turkish Foreign Policy: New Prospects. Huntingdon, United Kingdom: Eothen Press, 1992. * Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012). * Hartmann, Hans Walter. Die auswärtige Politik der Türkei, pp. 923–940. Zurich: Leemann & Co., 1999. * Karpat, Kemal H. (ed.), Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). * Kirisci, Kemal and Rubin, Barry (eds.), Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001). * Robins, Philip, "Turkish Foreign Policy Under Erbakan," Survival, 39.2 (Summer 1997). * Rouleau, Eric. "The Challenges to Turkey," Foreign Affairs, 72, No. 5, November–December 1993, pp. 110–126. ===Foreign relations (2002–present)=== * Duran, Burhanettin, "JDP and Foreign Policy as an Agent of Transformation," in Yavuz, H.M. (ed.), The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Party (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2006). * Dursun-Özkanca, Ova. 2019. Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-Alliance Opposition. Cambridge University Press. * Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012). * Kirisci, Kemal, "Turkey's Foreign Policy in Turbulent Times," Chaillot Paper 92 (Paris, EUISS, 2006). * Kutlay, Mustafa, "Economy as the 'Practical Hand' of 'New Turkish Foreign Policy': A Political Economy Explanation," Insight Turkey, 13.1 (2011). * Renda, Kadri Kaan, "Turkey's Neighborhood Policy: An Emerging Complex Interdependence?" Insight Turkey, 13.1 (2011). * Sandole, Dennis J.D., "Turkey's Unique Role in Nipping in the Bud the 'Clash of Civilizations'," International Politics, 46.5 (September 2009). * Schenkkan, Nate, Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats, Foreign Affairs Committee, United States House of Representatives, Hearings on "The Future of Turkish Democracy," 15 July 2014. ==External links== * Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey * Örmeci, Ozan & Işıksal, Hüseyin (2015), Turkish Foreign Policy in the New Millennium, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Category:Euromediterranean Partnership
|
Amanda Lucy Foreman (born 1968) is a British/American biographer and historian. Her books include Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, A World on Fire, and The World Made by Women. She also wrote and starred in a four-part documentary regarding the role of women in society, entitled The Ascent of Woman. Currently, she is a columnist for The Wall Street Journal bi-weekly 'Historically Speaking' and an Honorary Research Senior Fellow in the History Department at the University of Liverpool. ==Family== Foreman was born in London. Her parents were Evelyn (Smith) and the screenwriter and film producer Carl Foreman (1914–1984). Her father moved to England to work after being blacklisted by the Hollywood movie studios during the McCarthyism of the 1950s. Her brother, Jonathan Foreman, is an international correspondent and film critic. She has five children and is married to Jonathan Barton. ==Education== Amanda Foreman was educated at Hanford School, a girls' junior independent school in southwest England, followed by various girls' boarding schools. She attended Sarah Lawrence College in Yonkers, New York, then Columbia University, before returning to England in 1991. She was awarded a 1993 Henrietta Jex-Blake Senior Scholarship at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Foreman completed an MPhil thesis Politics or Providence?: Why the Houses of Parliament voted to abolish the slave trade in 1807 (1993) and a DPhil with her thesis The political life of Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, 1757–1806 (1998) which was then turned into her first biography. She received her doctorate from Oxford University in 18th Century British History. ==Career== ===Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire=== After completing her DPhil, Foreman remained at Oxford as a researcher, and in 1998 she published her first book, Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, based on her doctoral thesis. Published by HarperCollins in the UK and Random House in the US, the book was an international best-seller and reached number one in the UK as a hardback, paperback, and reissue nine years later. It was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian First Book Award, and won the 1998 Whitbread Prize for Best Biography. The book has been the subject of a television documentary, a radio play starring Judi Dench, and a film, The Duchess, starring Ralph Fiennes and Keira Knightley. ===A World on Fire=== Foreman's most recent book, A World on Fire, a history of British-American relations in the American Civil War, was published in 2010 by Penguin in the UK on 30 June, and in 2011 by Random House in the US. The book was a critical success in both countries and a national best-seller in the US. Writing in The Guardian, Jay Parini stated, "One can hardly overestimate the brilliance of Foreman's conception, seeing this turning point in American history from a British viewpoint, drawing on a vast range of actors on this great stage, including lesser-known British sympathisers who fought on either side in this conflict or journalists." Adam I.P. Smith of History Today said, "Amanda Foreman's magnificent new book . . . resembles nothing so much as War and Peace." In a rare accolade, The New York Times Book Review awarded Foreman her second cover review. Michael Burlingame of The Wall Street Journal heralded Foreman as "such an engaging writer that readers may find this 958-page volume too short". Hendrik Hertzberg of The New Yorker wrote: "The pages fly like the wind – like Gone with the Wind – because there's so much life, so much action, and so many vivid people in them." In 2011, A World on Fire was "highly commended" by the judges of the PEN Hessell- Tiltman Prize. It was chosen as a "Book of the Year" by The New Yorker and The Economist and named one of the "Ten Best Books of 2011" by The New York Times, Bloomberg, The Washington Post, the Chicago Tribune, and NPR. In 2012, A World on Fire won the Fletcher Pratt Award for excellence in Civil War history writing. It was a finalist for the 2012 Lincoln Prize, the Lionel Gelber Prize, and the National Book Critics Circle Award. It was also nominated for the Jefferson Davis Prize. ===The Ascent of Woman=== In September 2015, The Ascent of Woman, Foreman's acclaimed four-part documentary regarding the role of women in society, was first aired on BBC 2. The series received positive reviews, with The Telegraph calling it "powerful, inspiring, and important." The series was subsequently programmed on Netflix in 2016. ===The World Made by Women=== Foreman's next book, The World Made by Women: A History of Women from the Apple to the Pill, is slated for publication by Random House (US) and Allen Lane (UK) in 2023. === Queen Victoria's Palace === In 2018, twenty-five years after Queen Elizabeth II opened Buckingham Palace to the public during the summer months, Royal Collection Trust set a new precedent by inviting an outsider, Foreman, to curate an exhibition for the 2019 Buckingham Palace Summer Opening. 'Queen Victoria's Palace' opened on 18 July 2019. The exhibition, which coincided with the 200th anniversary of Queen Victoria's birth, argued that Victoria's transformation of Buckingham Palace laid the foundations for the modern Monarchy. The refurbished Palace reflected a new form of gendered power. Victoria replaced the 'male' values of glory, wealth, lineage, and conquest with the 'female' values of family, duty, patriotism, and public service. "These four "female" virtues formed the pillars not only of her reign but of every one that followed". The show delighted the public and critics. Singled out was Foreman's introduction of modern technology, including holograms and CGI projections on walls and ceilings, to enhance the exhibition experience. The Guardian newspaper reported: "The story of how Victoria and Prince Albert rebuilt the palace into the most glittering court in Europe is explored through paintings, sketches and costumes, and includes a Hollywood-produced immersive experience that brings to life the balls for which she was famous." Foreman also co-wrote a book to accompany the exhibition, 'Queen Victoria's Palace'. ===Other=== In addition to her work as a historian and biographer, Amanda Foreman also writes for radio, television and print media. Her work is spread across a broad range, and includes a meditation on the role of the historian for BBC Radio 3, a documentary series on the Georgians, 1714–1832, for BBC Radio 4, a discussion of the Anglo- American relationship for Andrew Neil's This Week on BBC One, cover interviews with Emma Watson and Keira Knightley for Vogue, profiles of Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi for Porter, and a cover story on Margaret Thatcher for Newsweek in December 2011. Foreman herself has graced the covers of both The Sunday Times Magazine and The Lady in the UK. She is also a passionate advocate for freedom of speech and has written about the subject for many publications. In addition to freedom of speech, Foreman has campaigned on a variety of other issues, from justice for Jean McConville to gender equality. In 2016, Foreman received the St. George's Society of New York's Anglo- American Cultural Award, which recognizes individuals who have made significant contributions to the US-UK cultural world. In 2013, Foreman founded the House of SpeakEasy, a literary nonprofit organization based in New York City that brings authors and their audiences together in innovative and entertaining ways. The organization hosts a series of acclaimed literary cabarets in New York City, where writers are invited to speak informally on the evening's theme. Past participants include Salman Rushdie, Susan Minot, Jeff Kinney (author), Elif Şafak, and Yusef Komunyakaa. House of SpeakEasy also operates several community outreach programs under the umbrella name Seriously Involved. SpeakFreely provides free tickets to teachers and writing students to come to the shows put on by Seriously Entertaining. SpeakTogether works with Union Settlement in East Harlem, bringing writers together with senior high school students in Union Settlement's college readiness initiative. John Guare, Susan Cheever, David Gilbert (author), Michael Jan Friedman and Lemon Andersen are among the writers who have taken part in the program. Foreman has served as a judge on the Guardian First Book Award (1999), the Orange Prize for Fiction (2000), the National Book Award (2010), the Cheltenham Booker Prize (2011), the Dan David Prize (2012), the Pen Hessell-Tiltman Prize (2012), and the Man Booker Prize (2012). Most recently, she was appointed chair of the Man Booker Prize (2016). In 2013, Foreman began writing "Historically Speaking", a biweekly column on history and world affairs, for The Wall Street Journal. In 2014, she also joined Smithsonian magazine and The Sunday Times as a regular columnist. Foreman was invited by the Royal Collection to curate an exhibit about Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace for the summer of 2019. She has served as a member of jury to various prizes, including the Orange Prize, the Dan-David Prize, the PEN Hessell- Tiltman Prize and the Man Booker Prize. ==Books== * Foreman, Amanda. The World Made by Women: A History of Women from the Apple to the Pill. Forthcoming. * Foreman, Amanda. A World on Fire: An Epic History of Two Nations Divided (Penguin, 2010), 988 pp. Reissued as A World on Fire: Britain’s Crucial Role in the American Civil War * Foreman, Amanda. The Duchess (Random House, 2008), 456 pp. Originally published as Georgiana: Duchess of Devonshire. * Foreman, Amanda. Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (Random House, 2001), 512 pp. Another ed. was published By HarperCollins in 2000. * Foreman, Amanda. Georgiana's World: The Illustrated Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire. London: HarperCollins, 2001. ==Essays== Dr. Amanda Foreman has contributed essays and introductions for: * Exploring Lincoln: Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President edited by Harold Holzer, Craig L. Symonds, and Frank J. Williams "Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: A Propaganda Tool for the Enemy?” by Amanda Foreman * The Civil War as Global Conflict: Transnational Meanings of the American Civil War edited by David T. Gleeson and Simon Lewis "Coda: Roundtable on Memory" by Amanda Foreman * Greenwich Village Stories: A Collection of Memories edited by Judith Stonehill "Greenwich Village" by Amanda Foreman * The New York Times' Disunion: Modern Historians Revisit and Reconsider the Civil War from Lincoln's Election to the Emancipation Proclamation edited by Ted Widmer "How to Lose Allies and Alienate People" by Amanda Foreman * City Parks: Public Spaces, Private Thoughts edited by Catie Marron "Hyde Park, London" by Amanda Foreman * Reconfiguring the Union: Civil War Transformations edited by Iwan W. Morgan and Philip John Davies Palgrave "Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: A Propaganda Tool for the Enemy?” by Amanda Foreman * George IV by Christopher Hibbert, foreword by Amanda Foreman * What Might Have Been?: Leading Historians on Twelve 'What Ifs' of History edited by Andrew Roberts "The Trent Incident Leads to War" by Amanda Foreman * The Sylph - by Georgiana Duchess of Devonshire, foreword by Amanda Foreman * Madame de Pompadour by Nancy Mitford, foreword by Amanda Foreman * Gender in Eighteenth Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities edited by Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus "A politician’s politician: Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire and the Whig party" by Amanda Foreman ==Lectures== * The Chalke Valley History Festival – 28 June 2015 From Empress Wu Zeitan to Margaret Thatcher explored their role from the Palaeolithic era to Britain today, revealing their extraordinary and often overlooked impact in the forging of the modern world. * Surrounded on All Sides – Five Lessons in Leadership From History, 11 June 2013, the Sydney Institute. * "Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation in England: A Propaganda Tool for the Enemy?” – 26 March 2011 – was a program of the 14th Annual Abraham Lincoln Institute Symposium, “The Latest in Lincoln Scholarship,” sponsored by the Abraham Lincoln Institute and the Foundation for the National Archives at the National Archives at College Park. Dr. Amanda Foreman talked about the international response to the Civil War, particularly by Great Britain, in her speech. * A World on Fire: Britain's Crucial Role in the American Civil War – 30 November 2011 – The New York Society Library ==Awards== Awards: * 2012 Fletcher Pratt Award for excellence in Civil War history writing. * 1998 Whitbread Prize for Best Biography. * 1993 Henrietta Jex-Blake Senior Fellowship, Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford Finalist: * 2012 Lincoln Prize * 2012 Lionel Gelber Prize * 2012 National Book Critics Circle Award * 2011 Jefferson Davis Award * 2010 PEN/Hessell-Tiltman History Prize * 1998 Guardian First Book Award ==Personal life== Foreman has dual citizenship, and splits her time between New York City, Kinderhook, New York, and London. She is an Honorary Research Senior Fellow in the Department of History at The University of Liverpool. Outside of her professional life, Foreman is a passionate gardener. ==References== ==Sources== * 'Reassessing Georgiana a decade later', Sunday Times, August, 2008 * 'Life as working mother of Five', Sunday Times, February, 2007 * 'The Queen of HIstorical Biography', The Independent, October, 2010 * 'Interview with Amanda Foreman', The Daily Telegraph, November, 2010 ==External links== * Amanda Foreman's Official Website * The Ascent of Woman * Interview on A World on Fire at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library * * **After Words interview with Foreman about A World on Fire, August 7, 2011 Category:Alumni of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford Category:English expatriates in the United States Category:Columbia University alumni Category:English biographers Category:Writers from New York (state) Category:Writers from London Category:Sarah Lawrence College alumni Category:1968 births Category:Living people Category:People educated at Hanford School Category:20th-century English historians Category:21st-century English writers Category:21st-century American historians Category:English women non-fiction writers Category:20th- century American women writers Category:21st-century American women writers Category:20th-century American biographers Category:American women biographers Category:21st-century American biographers Category:English people of American-Jewish descent Category:American women historians Category:20th- century American historians Category:20th-century English women Category:20th- century English people Category:21st-century English women
|
Global Underground is a British record label and compilation series founded in 1996 by Andy Horsfield and James Todd. The label symbolised the international explosion of dance music during the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s and first manifesto for high-end DJs such as Tony De Vit, Sasha, Paul Oakenfold, John Digweed, Danny Tenaglia, Nick Warren, Dave Seaman, Darren Emerson, James Lavelle, Carl Cox, and Solomun. The name Global Underground originally refers to a series of electronic music compilation albums which reflect the performances of various DJs in venues around the world. The Global Underground series was released by a record label formerly known as Boxed which featured several sister series such as Nubreed and Electric Calm. Boxed closed in 2001 and was superseded by Global Underground Ltd. Since its first release in 1996, the series was well received and became a hallmark in the progressive house world. The dance music style featured is mostly progressive house, but there is some house, trance house, hard house, techno and breakbeat included in the releases. The first five installments were live recorded from respective clubs, while the rest are mixed and recorded in a studio. ==Background== Each issue in the series is based on the idea that Global Underground would take DJs to play a party in one of the most unusual, exotic clubbing locations on Earth. The set is then released in a 2CD format that is formatted to capture the night of the party and the overall feel of the DJ visit in music, contemporary photography by photographer Dean Belcher and extensive sleeve notes. There are consistent characteristics in almost every album in the series including: *Each album being mixed by a globe-trotting DJ. *The prominent influence of the location on the music and packaging. *Extensive sleeve notes describing local clubbing scene and/or venue often written by Mixmag Editor Dom Phillips. *Each album consisting of two discs. *The song list is edited from the complete set based on a retrospective view of the performance. *Photography by Dean Belcher ==International recognition== Billboard has recognized Global Underground as the first DJ mix compilation to place high-quality photographs of DJs on the album covers. This, it further asserted, played a part in turning DJs into superstar figures within the culture of electronic dance music. Thrive Records was the U.S. distributor for some of the early Global Underground releases. Global Underground albums had an alternate numbering sequence and had different artwork, but were otherwise the same. ==Catalogue== This is the complete listing of available albums in the Global Underground main series which includes the sequential number of the album in the series, the performing DJ/producer, the location in which the performance took place and the official release date. The listed catalog numbers are for the British releases. The numbers on the albums distributed by Thrive in the United States are shown in parentheses - those without such labels do not have a differing release number. Global Underground also has several "sub-series" entitled Nubreed, Prototype, 24:7, Electric Calm, Afterhours, and most recently Global Underground DJ. === GU official === thumb|right|This map shows the countries which have been featured in the GU series through GU043.|600px Title Artist Release date Peak chart positions UK Comp UK Dance US Dance NL 001: Tony De Vit, Live in Tel Aviv Tony De Vit 11 November 1996 — — — — 002 colspan="5" 003: Nick Warren, Live in Prague Nick Warren 24 March 1997 39 — — — 004: Paul Oakenfold, Live in Oslo Paul Oakenfold 9 June 1997 21 — — — 005: Tony De Vit, Tokyo Tony De Vit 6 November 1997 68 — — — 006: John Digweed, Sydney John Digweed 13 April 1998 16 — — — 007: Paul Oakenfold, New York Paul Oakenfold 25 May 1998 12 — 43 — 008: Nick Warren, Brazil Nick Warren 27 July 1998 27 — — — 009: Sasha, San Francisco Sasha 9 November 1998 18 — — — 010: Danny Tenaglia, Athens Danny Tenaglia 15 February 1999 16 — — — 011: Nick Warren, Budapest Nick Warren 31 May 1999 20 — — — 012: Dave Seaman, Buenos Aires Dave Seaman 23 August 1999 26 — — — 013: Sasha, Ibiza Sasha 28 September 1999 12 — — — 014: John Digweed, Hong Kong John Digweed 14 December 1999 24 — — — 015: Darren Emerson, Uruguay Darren Emerson 15 May 2000 20 — — — 016: Dave Seaman, Cape Town Dave Seaman 14 August 2000 22 — — — 017: Danny Tenaglia, London Danny Tenaglia 18 September 2000 21 — — — 018: Nick Warren, Amsterdam Nick Warren 6 November 2000 24 26 — — 019: John Digweed, Los Angeles John Digweed 26 February 2001 14 — 11 — 020: Darren Emerson, Singapore Darren Emerson 2 July 2001 33 — — — 021: Deep Dish, Moscow Deep Dish 29 October 2001 25 37 13 — 022: Dave Seaman, Melbourne Dave Seaman 29 April 2002 31 — 8 — 023: James Lavelle, Barcelona James Lavelle 30 September 2002 18 — 19 — 024: Nick Warren, Reykjavik Nick Warren 24 March 2003 34 — 25 — 025: Deep Dish, Toronto Deep Dish 2 June 2003 33 30 1 — 026: James Lavelle, Romania James Lavelle 1 March 2004 27 — 26 — 027: Danny Howells, Miami Danny Howells 28 March 2005 33 — 14 — 028: Nick Warren, Shanghai Nick Warren 12 July 2005 44 — 14 — 029: Sharam, Dubai Sharam 2 October 2006 35 1 — — 030: Nick Warren, Paris Nick Warren 19 February 2007 44 2 20 — 031: Dubfire, Taipei Dubfire 2 April 2007 42 2 — — 032: Adam Freeland, Mexico City Adam Freeland 4 June 2007 42 3 — — 033: Layo & Bushwacka!, Rio Layo & Bushwacka! 8 October 2007 44 4 — — 034: Felix Da Housecat, Milan Felix Da Housecat 13 May 2008 53 11 — — 035: Nick Warren, Lima Nick Warren 13 October 2008 57 1 — — 036: Darren Emerson, Bogotá Darren Emerson 9 February 2009 71 11 — — 037: James Lavelle, Bangkok James Lavelle 3 August 2009 31 8 — — 038: Carl Cox, Black Rock Desert Carl Cox 1 February 2010 38 12 — 28 039: Dave Seaman, Lithuania Dave Seaman 27 September 2010 39 24 — — 040: Solomun, Hamburg Solomun 31 August 2014 72 25 — — 041: James Lavelle, Naples James Lavelle 6 November 2015 41 5 23 — 042: Patrice Bäumel, Berlin Patrice Bäumel 29 March 2019 48 5 — — 043: Joris Voorn, Rotterdam Joris Voorn 30 October 2020 — — — — 044: Amelie Lens - Antwerp Amelie Lens 25 November 2022 — — — — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ;GU Sampler series releases: * GUSAM001 The Forth, Departures, release date: 27 October 1998 * GUSAM002 The Forth, Arrivals, release date: 1999 * GUSAM003 The Forth, Destinations, release date: 29 January 2001 * GUSAM004 The Forth, Locations, release date: 2001 * GUSAMUS001 The Forth, Passport, release date: 2001 * GUSAM005 The Forth, Exposures, release date: 2004 * GUSAM006 The Forth, Synchronised, release date: October 2005 * GUSAM007 Dubfunk, Synchronised 2, release date: 6 November 2007 ;Anniversary compilations: * GUXCD GU10 10th anniversary compilation release date: 15 May 2006 ===GU DJ=== * GUDJ001 Nic Fanciulli, release date: 27 April 2009 * GUDJ002 Plump DJs, release date: 12 October 2009 * GUDJ003 Wally Lopez, release date: 27 April 2009 * GUDJ004 Tom Novy, release date: 15 November 2010 ===Nubreed=== Nubreed features mix albums from what Boxed considers "up-and- coming DJs", though it has featured experienced DJs such as Satoshi Tomiie. ;NuBreed series releases: *Nubreed 001 (2000) by Anthony Pappa * Nubreed 002 (2000) by Danny Howells * Nubreed 003 (2000) by Steve Lawler * Nubreed 004 (2001) by Sander Kleinenberg * Nubreed 005 (2001) by Lee Burridge * Nubreed 006 (2002) by Satoshi Tomiie * Nubreed 007 (2009) by Jim Rivers * Nubreed 008 (2009) by Sultan * Nubreed 009 (2016) by Habischman * Nubreed 010 (2017) by Oliver Schories * Nubreed 011 (2018) by Theo Kottis * Nubreed 012 (2018) by Denney ===Prototype=== * PRO:001 Seb Fontaine, release date: 29 April 1999 * PRO:002 Seb Fontaine, release date: 2 November 1999 * PRO:003 Seb Fontaine, release date: 18 April 2000 * PRO:004 Seb Fontaine, release date: 29 May 2001 ===24:7=== 24:7 is a series where DJs are asked to put together a set of two notably contrasting halves, based on the conceptual opposites of 'day' and 'night'. ;24:7 series releases * GU247001 Danny Howells, release date: 21 July 2003 * GU247002 Lee Burridge, release date: 15 September 2003 ===Chill out compilations=== Electric Calm is a series in the chill or "calm" side of electronica while Afterhours is similar to the Back to Mine series. Both Afterhours and Electric Calm, along with GU "Sampler" CDs, were compiled and mixed by Global Underground themselves. ;Electric Calm series releases * GUEC001 The Forth, release date: 30 September 2002 * GUEC002 The Forth, release date: 25 August 2003 * GUEC003 The Forth, release date: 13 February 2006 * GUEC004 Dubfunk, release date: 1 October 2007 * GUEC005 Trafik, release date: 7 December 2009 * GUEC006 Trafik, release date: 21 August 2015 *GUEC007 Trafik, release date: 19 May 2017 ;Afterhours series releases: * GUAF001 The Forth, release date: 11 November 2002 * GUAF002 Trafik, release date: 21 February 2005 * GUAF003 Trafik, release date: 29 January 2007 * GUAF004 Trafik, release date: 16 July 2007 * GUAF005 Unknown, release date: 30 March 2008 * GUAF006 Unknown, release date: 28 July 2008 *GUAF007 Unknown, release date: 22 April 2016 *GUAF008 Unknown, release date: 20 April 2018 ===Lights Out=== In 2002, former NuBreed DJ Steve Lawler was given his own imprint on the Global Underground label that he titled "Lights Out". The concept of the series of mixed CDs was to bring the darker, grittier side of the dancefloor into the spotlight. ;Lights Out series releases: * GULO001 Steve Lawler, release date: 24 June 2002 * GULO002 Steve Lawler, release date: 27 October 2003 * GULO003 Steve Lawler, release date: 3 October 2005 ===Fundacion=== ;Fundacion series releases: * GUFUN001C Sasha - Fundacion NYC, release date: 13 June 2005 ===GU Music=== In 2003, the Global Underground franchise began their "GU Music" imprint. Up until this time, they were strictly a label that dealt in DJ compiled and mixed CDs. GU Music allowed Global Underground to get into full length artist albums and Vinyl/CD/MP3 single releases. The GU Music team commented: "Having nurtured some of the worlds finest DJs we have applied this expertise to original music, cherry picking the coolest future talent from across the globe..." They have featured releases from such artists as UNKLE, Lostep, and Trafik. In 2007, it expanded with the release of the compilation GU Mixed which started a series of the same name that consisted of music sought from GU Music. ;GU Music album releases: * GUMU001 Pako & Frederik - Atlantic Breakers, release date: 20 October 2003 * GUMU002 Trafik - Bullet, release date: 4 October 2004 * GUMU003 Lostep - Because We Can, release date: 17 April 2006 * GUMU004 The Remote - Too Low to Miss, release date: 26 June 2006 * GUMU005 Sissy - All Under, release date: 2006 * GUMU006 Dark Globe - Nostalgia for the Future, release date: 2006 * GUMU007 Trafik - Club Trafikana, release date: 6 August 2007 * GUMU008 Roland Klinkenberg - Mexico Can Wait, release date: 20 August 2007 * GUMU009 Eelke Kleijn - Naturally Artificial, release date: 2 October 2007 * GUMU010 Pako & Frederik - The Alert, release date: 5 November 2007 * GUMU011 Rogue Audio - Haphazard, release date: 21 April 2008 * GUMU012 Alex Dolby - Psiko Garden, release date: 17 June 2008 * GUMU013 The Last Atlant - A Cloudburst of Colors, release date: 25 August 2008 * GUMU014 Anil Chawla & Dale Anderson - Roadhouse, release date: 23 February 2009 * GUMU015 Trafik - None But the Brave, release date: 21 June 2010 ;GU Mixed Releases * GUMIX1CD CD1, CD2, CD3 In mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 21 May 2007 * GUMIX1CDX CD1, CD2, CD3, CD4 Limited Edition in mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 21 May 2007 * GUMIX2CD CD1, CD2, CD3 In mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 3 September 2007 * GUMIX2CDX CD1, CD2, CD3, CD4 Limited Edition in mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 3 September 2007 * GUMIX3CD CD1, CD2, CD3 In mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 16 June 2008 * GUMIX3CDX CD1, CD2, CD3, CD4 Limited Edition in mixed and unmixed formats, release date: 16 June 2008 * GUMIX4CD CD1, CD2, CD3 In mixed format, release date: 25 May 2009 ==GU002== In Boxed's UK releases, GU002 was the never released second installment in the Global Underground series (in Thrive's US re-numbered releases, Paul Oakenfold's New York mix was released as GU002). Global Underground jumped directly from GU001: Tony De Vit - Live In Tel Aviv to GU003: Nick Warren - Prague, which resulted in a lot of controversy and rumours on the nature of GU002. However, GU002 does exist in form of the tape pack of Tony De Vit's Tel Aviv CD as the actual catalogue number of the release is GU002T. When Boxed started the GU series in 1996, they did not have a clear vision about the numbering scheme (later to become part of their image), which resulted in the "missing" release. ==References== == External links == * * * * Category:English electronic dance music record labels Category:Compilation album series Category:Record labels established in 1996
|
{{Infobox settlement | name = Hatay Province | native_name = Hatay ili | native_name_lang = tr | settlement_type = Province of Turkey | image_skyline = ANTAKYA_EYLÜL_2011_-_panoramio_(1).jpg | image_caption = St. Paul's Church, Antakya | image_flag = | image_seal = | image_map = Hatay in Turkey.svg | mapsize = 300px | map_caption = Location of Hatay Province in Turkey | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = Turkey | subdivision_type1 = Region | subdivision_name1 = Mediterranean | subdivision_type2 = Subregion | subdivision_name2 = Hatay | subdivision_type3 = Largest City | subdivision_name3 = Antakya | seat_type = Provincial seat | seat = Antakya | seat1_type = Largest city | seat1 = Antakya | coordinates = | leader_title = Electoral district | leader_name = Hatay | leader_title1 = Mayor | leader_name1 = Lütfü Savaş (CHP) | total_type = Total | area_total_km2 = 5,524 | population_footnotes = | population_total = 1686043 | population_as_of = end 2022 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_urban = | population_urban_footnotes = | population_rural = | population_rural_footnotes = | area_code_type = | area_code = 0326 | iso_code = TR-31 | registration_plate = 31 | website = | footnotes = | blank_emblem_type = Emblem of Hatay Metropolitan Municipality | image_blank_emblem = Hatay City Logo.png }} Hatay Province (, ) is the southernmost province of Turkey. It is situated mostly outside Anatolia, along the eastern coast of the Levantine Sea. The province borders Syria to its south and east, the Turkish province of Adana to the northwest, Osmaniye to the north, and Gaziantep to the northeast. It is partially in Çukurova, a large fertile plain along Cilicia. Its administrative capital is Antakya (ancient Antioch), making it one of the three Turkish provinces not named after its administrative capital or any settlement. The second-largest city is İskenderun (formerly Alexandretta). Sovereignty over most of the province remains disputed with neighbouring Syria, which claims that the province had a demographic Arab majority, and was separated from itself against the stipulations of the French Mandate of Syria in the years following Syria's occupation by France after World War I. == History == === Antiquity === Settled since the early Bronze Age, Hatay was once part of the Akkadian Empire, then of the Amorite Kingdom of Yamhad. Later, it became part of the Kingdom of Mitanni, then the area was ruled by a succession of Hittites and Neo-Hittite peoples that later gave the modern province of Hatay its name. The Neo-Hittite kingdom of Palistin was also located here. The area came under the control of Assyrians (except for a brief occupation by Urartu), and later the Neo-Babylonians and the Persians. The region was the center of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, home to the four Greek cities of the Syrian tetrapolis (Antioch, Seleucia Pieria, Apamea, and Laodicea). From 64 BC onwards the city of Antioch became an important regional centre of the Roman Empire. Among the famous archaeological sites in the province are Alalakh, Tell Tayinat, Tell Judaidah, and Antioch. === Medieval era === The area was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 638 and later it came under the control of the Umayyad and Abbasid Arab dynasties. Tulunids briefly ruled it before Abbasid one was restored. From the 10th century onwards, the region was controlled by the Aleppo-based Hamdanids after a brief rule of Ikhshidids. In 969 the city of Antioch was recaptured by the Byzantine Empire. It was conquered by Philaretos Brachamios, a Byzantine general in 1078. He founded a principality from Antioch to Edessa. It was captured by Suleiman I, who was Sultan of Rum (ruler of Anatolian Seljuks), in 1084. It passed to Tutush I, Sultan of Aleppo (ruler of Syria Seljuks), in 1086. Seljuk rule lasted 14 years until Hatay's capture by the Crusaders in 1098, when parts of it became the centre of the Principality of Antioch. At the same time, much of Hatay was part of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, who subsequently allied with the Mongols and took control of the Principality of Antioch in 1254. Hatay was captured from the Mongol-Armenian alliance by the Mameluks in 1268, who subsequently lost it to Timur (Tamerlane) at the start of the 15th century. === Sanjak of Alexandretta === By the time it was taken from the Mameluks by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1516, Antakya was a medium-sized town on of land between the Orontes River and Mount Habib Neccar. Under the Ottomans the area was known as the sanjak (or governorate) of Alexandretta. Gertrude Bell in her book Syria: The Desert & the Sown published in 1907 wrote extensively about her travels across Syria including Antioch & Alexandretta and she noted the heavy mix between Turks and Arabs in the region at that time. thumb|Ethnic groups in the Balkans and Asia Minor, early 20th Century, Historical Atlas, 1911 Many believe that Alexandretta had traditionally been a part of Syria. Maps as far back as 1764 confirm this. During the First World War in which the Ottoman Empire was defeated most of Syria was occupied by the British forces. But when the Armistice of Mudros was signed at the end of the war, Hatay was still part of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, after the armistice it was occupied by the British forces an operation which was never accepted by the Ottoman side. Later like the rest of Syria it was handed to France by the British Empire. After World War I and the Turkish War of Independence, the Ottoman Empire was disbanded and the modern Republic of Turkey was created, and Alexandretta was not part of the new republic, it was put within the French mandate of Syria after a signed agreement between the Allies and Turkey, the Treaty of Sèvres, which was neither ratified by the Ottoman parliament nor by the Turkish National Movement in Ankara.William M. Hale Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000 p.45 Routledge, 2000 , 9780714650715 The subsequent Treaty of Lausanne also put Alexandretta within Syria. The document detailing the boundary between Turkey and Syria around 1920 and subsequent years is presented in a report by the Official Geographer of The Bureau of Intelligence and Research of the US Department of State. A French-Turkish treaty of 20 October 1921 rendered the Sanjak of Alexandretta autonomous, and it remained so from 1921 to 1923. Out of 220,000 inhabitants in 1921, 87,000 were Turks. Along with Turks the population of the Sanjak included: Arabs of various religious denominations (Sunni Muslims, Alawites, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Maronites); Jews; Syriacs; Kurds; and Armenians. In 1923 Hatay was attached to the State of Aleppo, and in 1925 it was directly attached to the French mandate of Syria, still with special administrative status. thumb|Turkish borders according to the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 Despite this, a Turkish community remained in Alexandretta, and Mustafa Kemal said that Hatay had been a Turkish homeland for 4,000 years. This was due to the contested nationalist pseudoscientific Sun Language Theory prevalent in the 1930s in Turkey, which presumed that some ancient peoples of Anatolia and the Middle East such as the Sumerians and Hittites, hence the name Hatay, were related to the Turks. In truth, the Turks first appeared in Anatolia during the 11th century when the Seljuk Turks occupied the eastern province of the Abbasid Empire and captured Baghdad.. Resident Arabs organised under the banner of Arabism, and in 1930, Zaki al-Arsuzi, a teacher and lawyer from Arsuz on the coast of Alexandretta published a newspaper called 'Arabism' in Antioch that was shut down by Turkish and French authorities. The 1936 elections returned two MPs favouring the independence of Syria from France, and this prompted communal riots as well as passionate articles in the Turkish and Syrian press. This then became the subject of a complaint to the League of Nations by the Turkish government concerning alleged mistreatment of the Turkish populations. Atatürk demanded that Hatay become part of Turkey claiming that the majority of its inhabitants were Turks. However, the French High Commission estimated that the population of 220,000 inhabitants was made up of 46% Arabs (28% Alawites, 10% Sunni, 8% Christians), 39% Turks, 11% Armenians, while the remaining 4% was made up of Circassians, Jews, and Kurds. The sanjak was given autonomy in November 1937 in an arrangement brokered by the League. Under its new statute, the sanjak became "distinct but not separated" from the French mandate of Syria on the diplomatic level, linked to both France and Turkey for defence matters. ===Hatay State=== Hatay State (, , ), also known informally as the Republic of Hatay, was a transitional political entity that existed from September 7, 1938, to June 29, 1939, in the territory of the Sanjak of Alexandretta of the French Mandate of Syria. The state was transformed de jure into the Hatay Province of Turkey on July 7, 1939, de facto joining the country on July 23, 1939. ===Hatay Province of Turkey=== On 29 June 1939, following a referendum, Hatay became a Turkish province. This referendum has been labelled both "phoney" and "rigged", and is seen as a way for the French to cede the area to Turkey, in the hope that they would turn on Hitler. For the referendum, Turkey moved tens of thousands of Turks into Alexandretta so they could vote. These Turks were born in Hatay but now they were living in other regions of Turkey. In two government communiqués which were issued in 1937 and 1938, the Turkish government asked all local government authorities to make lists of all of their employees who were originally from Hatay. Those employees whose names were listed were then sent to Hatay so they could register as citizens and vote.Çağatay, Soner. Islam, secularism, and nationalism in modern Turkey: who is a Turk? Volume 4 of Routledge studies in Middle Eastern history. p. 119-120. Taylor & Francis, 2006. , Syrian President Hashim al-Atassi resigned in protest at continued French intervention in Syrian affairs, maintaining that the French were obliged to refuse the annexation under the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence of 1936. The Hassa district of Gaziantep, Dörtyol district (Erzin was nahiya of it) of Adana were then incorporated into Hatay. As a result of the annexation, a number of demographic changes occurred in Hatay. During the six months following the annexation, inhabitants over the age of 18 were given the right to choose between staying and becoming Turkish citizens, or emigrating to the French Mandate of Syria or Greater Lebanon and acquiring French citizenship. If they chose to emigrate, they were given 18 months to bring in their movable assets and establish themselves in their new states. Almost half of the Sunni Arabs left. Many Armenians also left and 1,068 Armenian families were relocated from the six Armenian villages of Musa Dagh to the Beqaa Valley which is located in Lebanon. Many of these Armenians had fled for their lives and settled in the French Mandate of Syria because they were survivors of the genocide which had previously been committed against their people by the government of the Ottoman Empire. The total number of people who left for Syria was estimated to be 50,000 including 22,000 Armenians, 10,000 Alawites, 10,000 Sunni Arabs and 5,000 Arab Christians. ===Turkish–Syrian dispute=== For much of its premodern history, Alexandretta, with its capital city Antioch, was considered as part of Bilad al-Sham, the area known today as Syria. In Ottoman times, Hatay was part of the Vilayet of Aleppo in Ottoman Syria. In 1920 the sanjak (province) of Alexandretta was warded to Syria by the League of Nations in the guise of a French mandate. In 1936 Alexandretta became the subject of a complaint to the League of Nations by Turkey, which claimed that the privileges of the Turkish plurality in the sanjak were being infringed. (In 1921, there were 87,000 Turks amid a population of 220,000.) Unlike other regions historically belonging to Syrian provinces (such as Aintab, Kilis and Urfa), Alexandretta was confirmed as Syrian territory in the Treaty of Lausanne agreed upon by Kemal Atatürk but was granted a special autonomous status because it contained a Turkish plurality. However, culminating a series of border disputes with France- mandated Syria, Atatürk obtained in 1937 an agreement with France recognizing Alexandretta as an independent state, and in 1939 this state, called the Republic of Hatay, was annexed to Turkey as the 63rd Turkish province following a controversial referendum. Syria bitterly disputed both the separation of Alexandretta and its subsequent annexation to Turkey. Syria maintains that the separation of Alexandretta violated France's mandatory responsibility to maintain the unity of Syrian lands (article 4 of the mandate charter). It also disputes the results of the referendum held in the province because, according to a League of Nations commission that registered voters in Alexandretta in 1938, Turkish voters in the province represented no more than 46% of the population.Arnold Twinby, 1938 Survey of International Affairs p. 484 Syria continues to consider Hatay part of its territory as of the 2010s, and shows it as such on its maps. At the same time, Turkey and Syria have strengthened their ties and opened the border between the two countries. thumb|Protests in Damascus in 1939 by women demonstrators against the secession of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, and its subsequent joining into Turkey as the Hatay Province. One of the signs reads: "Our blood is sacrificed for the Syrian Arab Sanjak." Syrians hold the view that this land was illegally ceded to Turkey by France, the mandatory occupying power of Syria in the late 1930s. Syria still considers it an integral part of its own territory. Syrians call this land Liwa' aliskenderun () rather than the Turkish name of Hatay. Official Syrian maps still show Hatay as part of Syria.parliament.gov.sy – معلومات عن الجمهورية العربية السورية "The Alexandretta Dispute", American Journal of International Law Under the leadership of Syrian President Bashar al Assad from 2000 onwards, there was a lessening of tensions over the Hatay issue. Indeed, in early 2005, when visits from Turkish President Ahmet Necdet Sezer and Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan opened a way to discussions between two states. These discussions resulted with the Syrian government agreeing to end its demand that the province should be returned under Syrian sovereignty as a condition to end hostilities; however, there was no official announcement by the Syrians relinquishing their rights of sovereignty. Following changes to Turkish land registry legislation in 2003 a large number of properties in Hatay were purchased by Syrian nationals, mostly people who had been residents of Hatay since the 1930s but had retained their Syrian citizenship and were buying the properties that they already occupied. By 2006 the amount of land owned by Syrian nationals in Hatay exceeded the legal limit for foreign ownership of 0.5%, and sale of lands to foreigners was prohibited. There has been a policy of cross border co-operation, on the social and economic level, between Turkey and Syria starting in the 2000s. This allowed families divided by the border to freely visit each other during the festive periods of Christmas and Eid. In December 2007 up to 27,000 people crossed the border to visit their brethren on the other side. In the wake of an agreement in the autumn of 2009 to lift visa requirements, nationals of both countries can travel freely. However, out of 50 agreements signed between Turkey and Syria in December 2009, the Hatay dispute stalled a water agreement over the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Turkey asked Syria to publicly recognize Hatay as a Turkish territory before signing on to the agreement.PM vows to build model partnership with Syria Today's Zaman 23 December 2010 Apart from maps showing Hatay as Syrian territory, the Syrian policy has been to avoid discussing Hatay and giving evasive answers when asked to specify Syrian future goals and ambitions with regard to the area. This has included a complete media silence on the issue.Lundgren Jörum, Emma: "The Importance of the Unimportant" in Hinnebusch, Raymond & Tür, Özlem: Turkey-Syria Relations: Between Enmity and Amity (Farnham: Ashgate), p 114-122. In February 2011 the dispute over Hatay was almost solved. The border separating Syria from Hatay was going to be blurred by a shared Friendship Dam on the Orontes river and as part of this project the two states had agreed on the national jurisdiction on each side of the border. Only weeks before the outbreak of the Syrian uprising and later war, groundbreaking ceremonies were held in Hatay and Idlib. As a result of the Syrian war and the extremely tense Turkish-Syrian relations it brought, construction was halted. As part of the ongoing war, the question of the sovereignty of Hatay has resurfaced in Syria and the Syrian media silence has been broken. Syrian media began broadcasting documentaries on the history of the area, the Turkish annexation and Turkification policies. Syrian newspapers have also reported on demonstrations in Hatay and on organizations and parties in Syria demanding an "end to the Turkish occupation". However, although the Syrian government has repeatedly criticized the Turkish policies towards Syria and the armed rebel groups operating on Syrian territory, it has not officially brought up the question of Hatay.Lundgren Jörum, Emma: Beyond Syria's Borders: A history of territorial disputes in the Middle East (London & New York: I.B. Tauris), p 108 === 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake === 250px|thumb|right|Earthquake damage in Hatay Hatay Province was heavily damaged by the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake. The province registered 23,065 earthquake-related fatalities and 30,762 injuries. More than 13,500 buildings collapsed, 67,346 were heavily damaged and 8,162 had to be demolished. The most affected aras were Antakya, Kırıkhan and İskenderun. ==Geography== Hatay is traversed by the north- easterly line of equal latitude and longitude. 46% of the land is mountain, 33% plain and 20% plateau and hillside. The most prominent feature is the north-south leading Nur Mountains and the highest peak is Mığırtepe (2,240m), other peaks include Ziyaret dağı and Keldağ (Jebel Akra or Casius) at 1,739 m. The folds of land that make up the landscape of the province were formed as the land masses of Arabian-Nubian Shield and Anatolia have pushed into each other, meeting here in Hatay, a classic example of the Horst–graben formation. The Orontes River rises in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and runs through Syria and Hatay, where it receives the Karasu and the Afrin River. It flows into the Mediterranean at its delta in Samandağ. There was a lake in the plain of the Amik Valley but this was drained in the 1970s, and today Amik is now the largest of the plains and an important agricultural center. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean, with warm wet winters and hot, dry summers. The mountain areas inland are drier than the coast. There are some mineral deposits, İskenderun is home to Turkey's largest iron and steel plant, and the district of Yayladağı produces a colourful marble called Rose of Hatay. ==Climate== Hatay has a humid Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: 'wet' Cs or Cf) which has very hot, long and dry summers with cool rainy winters. ==Districts== thumb|Districts of the Hatay Province Hatay province is divided into 15 districts, listed below with their populations officially estimated as at 31 December 2022:Turkish Statistical Institute, 2023. * Altınözü (60,344) * Antakya (399,045) * Arsuz (101,233) * Belen (34,449) * Defne (165,494) * Dörtyol (128,941) * Erzin (41,558) * Hassa (56,675) * İskenderun (251,686) * Kırıkhan (121,028) * Kumlu (13,333) * Payas (43,919) * Reyhanlı (108,092) * Samandağ (123,447) * Yayladağı (36,803) ==Demographics== thumb|upright=1.59|right|Late 20th – early 21st century language distribution. • Turkish • Arabic speakers are shown by religious affiliation: Alawite (circle), Christian (triangle), Sunni (square), Bedouin Sunni (rectangle), Jewish (rhombus). The majority of the population adheres to Islam, belonging to either the Alawi branch of Shia Islam or Sunni Islam, but other minorities are also present, including Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Maronite, Antiochian Greek and Armenian communities. The village of Vakıflı in the district of Samandağ is Turkey's last remaining rural Armenian community. Arabs form the majority in three districts out of the twelve: Samandağ (Suwaidiyyah) (Alawi), Altınözü (Qusair) and Reyhanlı (Rihaniyyah) (Sunni). Unlike most Mediterranean provinces, Hatay has not experienced mass migration from other parts of Turkey in recent decades and has therefore preserved much of its traditional culture; for example, Arabic is still widely spoken in the province.Radikal-çevrimiçi / Türkiye / Samandağ'da 'Alluş'la dans To celebrate this cultural mix, in 2005 "Hatay Meeting of Civilisations" congress was organised by Dr Aydın Bozkurt of Mustafa Kemal University and his "Hatay Association for the Protection of Universal Values".Spiritual leaders speak up in Hatay for global peace – Turkish Daily News Sep 27, 2005 During the Syrian Civil War, the province has experienced an influx of refugees. According to official figures, as of 21 April 2016, 408,000 Syrian refugees lived in the province. ===Language=== As of 2016, 85% of Arabic-heritage-speaking people in relevant parts of Hatay, specifically those who hear and may use the language on a daily basis, believe its use is decreasing; the rest disagree. The Arabic-speaking Antiochian Greek Christian minority has the right to teach Arabic under the Treaty of Lausanne, however they tend to refrain from doing so to avoid sectarian tensions as the treaty does not apply to the Muslim majority. ===Population=== ==Education== Mustafa Kemal University is one of Turkey's newer tertiary institutions, founded in İskenderun and Antakya in 1992. ==Transport== The province is served by Hatay Airport, as well as inter-city buses. ==Culture== ===Cuisine=== Hatay is warm enough to grow tropical crops such as sweet potato and sugar cane, and these are used in the local cuisine, along with other local specialities including a type of cucumber/squash called kitte. Well- known dishes of Hatay are its local variety of a widespread syrup-rich shredded pastry künefe (kanafeh), squash cooked in onions and tomato paste (sıhılmahsi), aubergine and tahini paste (Baba ghanoush), chickpea and tahini paste hummus and dishes such as kebab found throughout Turkey. Particular spice mixes and herb mixes are popular. Pastes include: *walnut and spice paste, muhammara *thyme and parsley paste, Za'atar Animal products include spicy köfte (across western Asia and beyond, kofta): "oruk"; and spicy sun- dried cheese, surke. Syrup of pomegranate (nar ekşisi) is Hatay's hallmark salad dressing. ===Landmarks=== * World's second-largest collection of Roman mosaics in the Hatay Archaeology Museum at Antakya. * Habib-i Najjar Mosque, built on a former Pagan temple, where two saints are buried and visited by Muslims. * Rock-carved Church of St Peter in Antakya, a site of Christian pilgrimage. * Gündüz cinema, once parliament building of the Republic of Hatay. * Titus Tunnel of Vespasian, in Samandağı, built as a water channel in the 2nd century. * Castles: Koz Castle, Bakras Castle, Payas Castle, Mancınık Castle, Cin Castle, Darbısak Castle ===Films=== * Hatay is featured in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, where it was portrayed as the final resting place of the Holy Grail in the fictitious "Canyon of the Crescent Moon" outside of Alexandretta. In the movie, set in 1938, the Nazis offer the Sultan of Hatay (a monarchy which the province never had in real life) precious valuables to compensate for removing the Grail from his borders. He ignores the valuables, but accepts their Rolls-Royce Phantom II. * The Turkish film Propaganda (1999) by Sinan Çetin, portrays the difficult materialisation of the Turkish-Syrian border in 1948, cutting through villages and families. * The 2001 film Şelale by local director Semir Aslanyürek was filmed in Hatay. ==Notable residents== * Mehmet Aksoy – sculptor (b. Antakya 1939–) * Gökhan Zan – Beşiktaş and Galatasaray footballer, (b. Antakya 1981) * Selçuk İnan – Trabzonspor and Galatasaray footballer, (b. İskenderun 1985) * İsmail Köybaşı – Beşiktaş and Fenerbahçe footballer, (b. İskenderun 1989) * Yasin Özdenak – Retired Galatasaray footballer, (b. İskenderun 1948) * Selami Şahin – musician, composer and actor (b. Yayladağı 1948) ==See also== * Baku–Supsa Pipeline * Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline * Çukurova * Harbiye * Kışlak * List of populated places in Hatay Province * Payas == Notes== == References == ==Bibliography== * * * ==External links== * Hatay News * pictures Photo Gallery * the provincial governor's website * Pictures of Antakya * Pictures of Antakya Museum * Pictures of Hatay * Flag and info of the Republic of Hatay * Hatay Weather Forecast Information * Hatay Radio Stations * Tourist Information and pictures about Hatay/Antakya with Webcams and weather information * Hatay Radio Station ;Turkish * The local newspaper * Mustafa Kemal University * The local newspaper Category:Disputed territories in Asia Category:Eastern Mediterranean Category:Geographic history of Syria Category:Levant Category:States and territories established in 1939 Category:Syria–Turkey relations Category:Territorial disputes of Syria Category:Territorial disputes of Turkey
|
The COVID-19 pandemic in Malta was a part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (). The first case of the disease in Malta was an Italian 12-year-old girl on 7 March 2020. The girl and her family were in isolation, as required by those following the Maltese health authority's guidelines who were in Italy or other highly infected countries. Later, both her parents were found positive as well. A mandatory quarantine was imposed on travellers and those who were possibly in contact with those who travelled abroad. A mandatory lockdown was imposed on those over the age of 65 or those with chronic health conditions. WHO praised the Maltese government's response to the pandemic, before the number of cases rose to 52 on 7 April. On May Day, because the reproductive rate of the virus was below 0, the first relaxation of some measures were announced. Malta's second wave of the virus, which was more severe, began in the summer of 2020.Cuschieri, S., Balzan, M., Gauci, C. et al. Mass Events Trigger Malta's Second Peak After Initial Successful Pandemic Suppression. J Community Health (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-020-00925-6 On 12 May 2021, the Minister for Health, Chris Fearne, stated that Malta would be the first EU country to open up the vaccine to its population of over 16 years of age. On 25 May 2021, Fearne announced that 70% of the Maltese population had become fully vaccinated, making it the first nation in the world to reach the minimum estimated benchmark for herd immunity against the virus. , Malta has reported 118977 confirmed cases, 117592 recoveries and 841 deaths, while 148 cases remain active. As of 4 February 2023, a total of 1,279,922 vaccine doses have been administered. == Background == On 12 January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed that a novel coronavirus was the cause of a respiratory illness in a cluster of people in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, which was reported to the WHO on 31 December 2019. Early in the pandemic, it was noted that the case fatality ratio for COVID-19 was much lower than SARS of 2003 but that the transmission was significantly greater and would thus lead to a significant total death toll. == Timeline == On 7 March, Malta reported its first three cases of coronavirus: an Italian family consisting of a 12-year-old girl and her parents, who arrived in Malta on 3 March from Rome after a holiday in Trentino. The girl was the first case, with the parents testing positive for the coronavirus later in the day. They had been in self-quarantine since arriving from Italy, and they were held in isolation at Mater Dei Hospital. On 23 March, the total number of confirmed cases in the country crossed over 100 as another seventeen new cases were reported. The first death due to COVID-19 in Malta was reported on 8 April in a press-conference held by the Minister for Health & Superintendent of Public Health. The deceased was a 92-year-old woman from Gozo. On 8 August, the total number of confirmed cases in the country crossed over 1000. On 2 December, the total number of confirmed cases in the country crossed over 10,000. In May 2021, Malta became the first EU country to open up the vaccine to the entire population. On 25 May 2021, the Minister for Health announced that 70% of the Maltese population had become fully vaccinated, making it the first nation in the world to reach the minimum estimated benchmark for herd immunity against the virus. == Government response == === Health and precautions === On 24 January 2020, the Superintendent for Public Health, Charmaine Gauci, predicted low exposure due to no direct flights between Malta and China. On 24 February, the health authorities announced that all passengers arriving in Malta were to be screened by thermal cameras; two thermal scanning devices were installed in Malta International Airport. Passengers disembarking from vessels at the Grand Harbour and catamaran terminal in Marsa were also scanned. At Mater Dei Hospital, all patients with respiratory symptoms were checked for COVID-19. On 25 February, the Ministry for Health recommended travellers coming from Italy to self-quarantine for 14 days and for all citizens not to travel to regions of Italy affected by the outbreak. As the Italy coronavirus pandemic proceeded south with the first case discovered in Palermo, panic buying ensued and supermarkets were emptied. Maltese chandlers and ship workers refused to board vessels from Italy to unload cargo, unless they were provided supervision and clearance by medical doctors. The Malta Union of Teachers recommended members not to accept any homework from students who were unwell and requested students and teachers who visited countries affected by the virus to stay home. Some work places requested their staff who recently returned from Italy to work from home as well as deferred non-essential travels to Italy. On 11 March, a travel ban has been placed on trips to Germany, France, Spain and Switzerland, in addition to the ban on trips to Italy, which had been placed on 9 March. Additionally anyone travelling back from mentioned countries must follow a mandatory self-quarantine. Disobeying the order makes the individuals subject to a €1,000 fine. ====Hunting controversy==== Most activities were banned in Malta in early 2020 and violators risked being fined for public health risks. Although the government allowed the hunting season to commence, the Public Health Superintendent left the decision to a government-set committee, which allowed it. This increased pressure on police and health authorities. Several illegal activities related to hunting were reported with no police presence. As soon as police were informed of individual illegal activities, the individuals were tipped off and left the scene with protected birds in non-hunting protected zones. In the midst of the pandemic, the Cabinet at Castille had a closed door meeting with hunting lobby over permanently sealing off natural reserves from the public and allowing access only to registered hunters. ===Measures for containment=== thumb|"Stay Home" banner promoted by children, and the display of the flag of Malta as promoted by organisations and the government On 11 March, Prime Minister Robert Abela announced a ban on all sea and air travel (except for cargo) and a mandatory quarantine on travellers returning from the most infested countries of France, Germany, Switzerland and Spain from that day onwards, together with Italy, for which it applied for the previous 14 days. Infringements were to be penalised with a €1,000 each time. On 12 March, the Prime Minister announced a number of measures including: # Closure of all schools, university and childcare centres for a week; # Closure of day centres for the elderly; # Stop religious activities unless absolutely necessary; # Television channel TVM2 will be transmitting religious activities in agreement with the Archbishop; # All football games to be played behind closed doors. Other matches were postponed; # No political activities. On 13 March, mandatory quarantine was extended to travellers returning from any country. This was also published on the Malta Tourism Authority's and Air Malta's websites. Following reports from spot checks, Malta tripled its mandatory quarantine fine to €3,000 each time since 16 March. Later on in the evening, Abela informed the nation that all gyms, bars and restaurants would temporarily close. Food and Beverage outlets were to be allowed to operate only if they were offering take away and/or delivery service. On 22 March, Minister for Health Chris Fearne announced three more measures: * closure of non-essential retail (fashion, appliances, electronics) * closure of non-essential services (hairdressers, nail salons, beauticians, spas) * banning of all organised group gatherings. Any infringements were to be charged with a €3,000 fine each time. On the evening of 23 March, the Maltese government raised the fine for those infected up to €10,000. On 28 March, the government announced decisions related to education institutions and exams. These included: * Schools and educational institutions will be closed until the end of the scholastic year. Online teaching is being used for continuity. * The SEC examinations (ordinary levels) will not be held in the session beginning on 23 April. MATSEC will then issue a certificate to successful students, showing whether Level 2 or Level 3 was reached based on performance and mid-year mock exams. This certificate will be instrumental in deciding whether to allow students to progress further education. Intermediate and A Level exams will be held in September 2020. On 16 October, due to a massive spike in cases, the Maltese Government announced new measures that would go into effect on 19 October. These were: * Entertainment and catering establishments, including bars and każini must close at 11pm. * Wearing of facemasks is compulsory in all public places and workplaces bar certain exceptions. * Children under 3 exempt from wearing a mask, as will those with respiratory conditions. The mask may not be worn when someone is travelling alone in their private car, while performing physical activity or in circumstances where lip reading is a necessity. * The wearing of face masks to be obligatory for all students at all times in primary schools. * All previous measures on public gatherings and social distancing remain in force. On 10 March 2021, following 510 new reported cases, the Maltese Government announced new measures that would go into effect on 11 March. These were: * Schools to close on Monday and lessons shift online * Non-essential shops, restaurants, cafes, bars, casinos and services closed from tomorrow * Childcare centres to close from Monday * All ancillary services in hotels will be shut * Gozo travel restricted to essential travel and to those who own property there * Public group gatherings will be limited to 4 people * All organised sport activities are suspended * Pools, gyms, museums, theatres and cinemas will close * No weddings can be held * Religious services, including mass are cancelled * Funerals will continue being held according to existing protocols * Non-urgent operations at hospital are postponed On 5 August 2021, the Maltese Government announced a number of new measures, these were that: * Vaccinated people in contact with COVID-19 cases only have to quarantine for seven days. * Outdoor seated events capacity to increase to 300 from 16 August * Pregnant women are encouraged to take the COVID-19 vaccine * Additional COVID-19 vaccine booster planned for September for elderly care homes and those immunocompromised * Standing events are off-limits for time being On 9 December 2021, Minister for Health Chris Fearne announced that as of 11 December, mask wearing would be obligatory in all public places, regardless of whether they were indoors or outdoors, as well as if an individual was on their own. Furthermore, he also announced that the COVID-19 booster shot could be taken after only 4 months of the second dose being taken, as opposed to the previous time of 6 months. In addition to this, he also announced that as of 14 December, children between the ages of 5 and 11 were to be eligible to receive the COVID-19 vaccination. On 23 December 2021, following more than 3000 new cases in the preceding week, the Maltese Government announced new measures that would go into effect on 27 December. These were: * All organised standing events have to be seated * Funerals and weddings to continue with existing protocols * Establishments have to close at 1am * Sports events can continue, but without spectators * Reduction in visiting hours at Mater Dei Hospital Only a week later, on 31 December, due to the incredibly large number of cases of COVID-19, the Government announced that as of 10 January 2022, schools would reopen online, with the University of Malta deciding on whether to hold lectures online or in person as per each faculty's discretion. ===Arriving Migrants=== As of 16 August, Malta no longer reported arriving migrant cases in the official figures as per ECDC direction, due to this (on of the aforementioned date) 105 cases were removed from the official figures. On 17 August, authorities provided information that out of the 105 migrant cases, 44 have recovered while 61 still remain active. On 28 August, in a press briefing it was announced that from a group of newly arrived migrants, 2 were infected with the virus, bringing the total of arriving migrant cases to 107. On 31 August, in a press release it was confirmed that another 32 migrants tested positive for COVID-19. There are now 139 cases linked to arriving migrants, 44 have recovered while 95 remain active. On 3 September 10 migrants residing in closed centres were tested positive during the last 24 hours. On 4 September 27 migrants residing in closed centres were tested positive during the last 24 hours. On 10 September, A theory floated to explain the WHO discrepancy is that its analysts counted the Sudanese man who died while trying to escape a detention centre on 2 September among Malta's COVID-19 deaths. Sources told Times of Malta that while the deceased had tested positive for COVID-19, his death was caused by other factors related to his escape attempt and was not linked to his viral infection. An inquiry into the circumstances leading to the man's death is under way. On 17 September, WHO has corrected their deaths figures for Malta, they now reflect the official count. On 21 September, 5 migrants who reside in closed centres tested positive in the last 24 hours. === Vaccination === Malta has one of the highest levels of COVID-19 vaccination in the European Union as of the end of September 2021. ==Notable deaths== * Fr. Lino Cardona (76, Priest and Teacher) * Fr. Edward Mercieca (80, Jesuit priest) * Fr. Robbie Wirth (86, Jesuit priest) * Renald Falzon (46, mayor of Qormi) * Cynthia Turner (88, Pianist) * Godfrey Grima (79, veteran journalist and political commentator) * Rosalie Freestone-Bayes (77, sister of former PN President, Frank Portelli) == Statistics == The charts below are based on the data collected by the Ministry of Health of Malta, as per the actual dates. Cumulative confirmed, active, recovered cases and deaths New cases per day Recoveries per day Deaths per day Cumulative number of vaccinations Number of cases by age and gender ;Number of cases by age ;Number of cases by gender ==See also== * COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory * COVID-19 pandemic in Europe == References == == External links == * Maltese Government announcement * Maltese Government advice page Category:COVID-19 pandemic in Malta Malta Malta Category:Disease outbreaks in Malta Category:2020s in Malta Category:2020 in Malta Category:2021 in Malta Category:2022 in Malta Category:2023 in Malta
|
The Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings are a collection of audio and video recordings of musical performances by the English rock band Led Zeppelin which were never officially released by the band, or under other legal authority. The recordings consist of both live concert performances and outtakes from studio sessions conducted by the band. Many hundreds of Led Zeppelin bootlegs exist, and are widely collected by fans. ==Overview== Led Zeppelin were, throughout the decade of the 1970s, one of the world's most frequently bootlegged performers, and to this day remain one of the most bootlegged artists in the history of rock music. In August 1999, the band topped the list of Britain's most bootlegged musicians with 384 bootleg titles, compiled by the Anti-Piracy Unit of British Phonographic Industry.Led Zeppelin gain dubious honour of being Britain's most bootlegged band. The Independent. Retrieved 25 March 2010. This phenomenon was due partly to the popularity of the band, which has ensured a large and enthusiastic market for unauthorised recordings, and partly to the large size of the audiences who attended their performances, which made the effective detection of covert recording equipment at these concerts virtually impossible. Led Zeppelin's manager, Peter Grant, sometimes took extraordinary measures to combat the practice of live bootleg recordings at Led Zeppelin concerts. He is reported to have personally visited record stores in London which were selling Led Zeppelin bootlegs and demanded all copies be handed over. He also monitored the crowd at Led Zeppelin concerts so as to locate anything which resembled bootleg recording equipment. At one concert at Vancouver in 1971 he saw what he thought was recording equipment on the floor of the venue and personally ensured that the equipment be destroyed, only to find out later that the equipment was a noise pollution unit being operated by city officials to test the volume of the concert.Newspaper clipping on ledzeppelin.com (official site) Similarly, at the Bath Festival in 1970, he personally threw a bucket of water over unauthorised recording equipment.Welch, Chris (1994) Led Zeppelin, London: Orion Books. , pp. 24, 56. These efforts were not enough to prevent the release of a flood of Led Zeppelin bootlegs from the 1970s onwards. As is explained by Led Zeppelin archivist Dave Lewis: ===Earliest bootlegs=== During the 1970s, bootleg labels such as Smilin' Ear, Kornyfone, Dragonfly, Trade Mark of Quality, Condor and Toasted released unofficial recordings of several Led Zeppelin shows on vinyl. The following table includes a sample of these recordings. Most of them derived from audience tapes, though a few (such as Destroyer) were sourced from soundboard recordings. Title Recording details Notes Gonzaga '68 The Gymnasium, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington, December 30, 1968 Audience recording. Fillmore West, San Francisco, April 24, 1969 Erroneously credited as being on January 9, 1969. The original LP was released in a magnificent red, green and blue color. Killing Floor Boston Tea Party, Boston, January 26, 1969. Audience recording. Don't Mess With Texas Texas International Pop Festival, Dallas, August 31, 1969 Soundboard recording. We're Gonna Groove/Feel All Right Montreux Casino, Montreux, Switzerland, March 7, 1970 The Feel All Right version was released in 1984 by Audio Recording Corporation under the incorrect title of Live in Montreux 1971. Mudslide Pacific Coliseum, Vancouver, Canada on March 21, 1970 The first ever Led Zeppelin bootleg to be released. FM broadcast. Mudslide is a remake of the original first LP 'PB'. Ottawa Sunshine Tracks 1-3 are FM recordings from London on March 19, 1969. All other tracks were recorded live in Ottawa, Ontario on April 14, 1970. Soundboard/audience recording. Live on Blueberry Hill Los Angeles Forum, Los Angeles, September 4, 1970. Audience recording. One of the first Led Zeppelin bootleg LPs to be released. BBC Zep The Paris Theatre, London, April 1, 1971. Soundboard recording (mono). Another early release on LP (1972), later included on the official BBC Sessions album. Going to California Berkeley Community Theatre, Berkeley, September 14, 1971 Audience recording. Japan Tour '71 Budokan Hall, Tokyo, Japan, September 23, 1971 Audience recording, distributed by BUG Recording Corp. Bombay, India, April, 1972 Soundboard recording. Custard Pie Offenburg, West Germany, March 24, 1973 Audience recording. Tympani for the Butter Queen Tarrant County Convention Center, Fort Worth, Texas, May 19, 1973 Soundboard recording. Bonzo's Birthday Party Los Angeles Forum, California, May 31, 1973 Audience recording (incomplete soundboard available). "A favourite of mine because of the artwork by an artist named William Stout…" remarked photographer (and Jimmy Page's friend) Ross Halfin. "I like the picture of a pig coming out of a birthday cake. William Stout also did artwork for the Rolling Stones bootleg In Exotic Honoluludiscogs.com/Rolling-Stones-In-Exotic-Honolulu/master/338681 and The Who's Who's Zoo.discogs.com/The-Who-Whos-Zoo/master/592560" Persistence Kezar Stadium, San Francisco, June 2, 1973 Audience recording. V-1⁄2 Seattle Center Coliseum, Seattle, July 17, 1973 Audience recording. Duckwalks and Lasers Madison Square Garden, New York City, July 28, 1973 and Tarrant County Convention Center, Fort Worth, Texas, May 22, 1977 Soundboard recording (side 1 & 2 - July 28, 1973) and audience recording (side 3 & 4 - May 22, 1977). 214 Seattle Center Coliseum, March 21, 1975. Audience recording. 207.19 Seattle Center Coliseum, March 21, 1975. Audience recording. Earls Court Earls Court Arena, May 24, 1975. Soundboard recording. Destroyer Richfield Coliseum, Cleveland, Ohio, April 27, 1977 Soundboard recording. Listen to This Eddie Los Angeles Forum, Los Angeles, June 21, 1977 Audience recording (taped by Mike Millard). For Badgeholders Only Los Angeles Forum, Los Angeles, June 23, 1977 Audience recording. (The original vinyl bootleg was recorded by an unknown taper, although it is commonly mistaken as having been taped by Mike Millard, who made a separate recording of the show.) Keith Moon joined in on drum set for "Moby Dick" and the encores. ===The 1980s: the release of the soundboards=== In the late 1980s, the number of available soundboard recordings of Led Zeppelin shows increased significantly as a result of original soundboard tapes being stolen during a burglary at the home of Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page and later copied for underground release. Also stolen were copies of several rare studio out-takes, which were released under titles such as Jennings Farm Blues (featuring run-throughs of an electric version of "Bron-Y-Aur Stomp" recorded in October 1969) and Studio Daze (including different studio mixes of "Since I've Been Loving You", "No Quarter" and "All My Love"). "Midnight Moonlight", a song later recorded by "The Firm", is also available through studio bootlegs. ===The 1990s: the CD era=== The 1990s saw a multitude of Led Zeppelin bootlegs become available on the CD format, with limited-edition and higher quality releases being produced in Japan on labels such as Tarantura and Antrabata. The most significant 90s label TDOLZ (The Diagrams of Led Zeppelin) has covered most of the circulating concerts for that period releasing over 100 titles. In 1999, the BBC reported that the number of Led Zeppelin bootleg titles in circulation exceeded those of The Beatles. Some notable Led Zeppelin bootlegs released on CD include: *"Don't Mess with Texas" : Recorded at the Texas international Pop Festival in Dallas on August 31, 1969. *Burn Like A Candle : The complete show from the Los Angeles Forum on June 25, 1972. *Pigeon Blood : Recorded at Tampa Stadium, Florida on May 5, 1973. *Knebworth : Both of the band's performances at the Knebworth Festival in August 1979. ===The 2000s and present: Empress Valley soundboard breakthrough=== Numerous previously uncirculated complete high quality soundboard recordings were released by newly established Empress Valley label (also referenced as Empress Valley Supreme Disc or EVSD) which is the semi-successor of retired Tarantura. While Empress Valley surfaced many of the recordings, some, including "Working Tapes" were merely repackages of tapes fans had already surfaced and traded via the Internet. Also, early releases such as the "Physical Rocket" DVD were made from sub-par videotapes and were later far surpassed by versions surfaced by fans: Year Title Recording details 2002 Earl's Court, London, UK on 25 May 1975; professionally shot live video from that concert was released subsequently on DVD, audio material was reissued two times as A Young Person's Guide to Led Zeppelin and When We Were Kings 2002 Flying Circus Madison Square Garden, New York City, US on 12 February 1975 2003 Florida Sunshine Orlando Sports Stadium, Orlando, US on 31 August 1971 2003 Bringing the House Down Capital Centre, Landover, US on 26 May 1977 2003 Chasing the Dragon Memorial Auditorium, Dallas, US on 4 March 1975; an incomplete soundboard recording of this concert had previously circulated. Also included in Statistical Analyzing Shot box set as A Conspiracy in Dallas 2004 Conspiracy Theory Sports Arena, San Diego, US on 14 March 1975. An unknown concert date before this bootleg's release. 2004 St. Louis Blues St. Louis Arena, St. Louis, US on 16 February 1975 2005 The Summit, Houston, US on 21 May 1977 2006 Snow Jobs Pacific Coliseum, Vancouver, Canada on 19 March 1975 2007 Days Confused Memorial Auditorium, Dallas, US on 5 March 1975; also included in Statistical Analyzing Shot box set as The Ultimate Punishment 2007 Working Tapes The Old Refectory, Southampton University, UK on 22 January 1973 2007 The Powhatan Confederacy Capital Centre, Landover, US on 28 May 1977 2008 St. Valentine's Day Massacre Nassau Coliseum, Uniondale, US on 14 February 1975 2009 Long Beach Californication Long Beach Arena, Long Beach, US on 11 March 1975 2009 Rampaging Cajun LSU Assembly Center, Baton Rouge, US on 28 February 1975 2010 Magical Sound Boogie Madison Square Garden, New York City, US on 7 June 1977 2011 Haven't We Met Somewhere Before? Seattle Center Coliseum, Seattle, US on 17 March 1975 2012 Snowblind Pacific Coliseum, Vancouver, Canada on 20 March 1975; package also includes the previous 19 March Vancouver show soundboard that was released in 2006 as Snow Jobs 2012 Double Shot Capital Centre, Landover, US on 25 May 1977 and 30 May 1977; two separate shows in one release; also Maryland Moonshine a box set containing all four Capital Centre shows (26 May 1977 and 28 May 1977 released previously) 2013 Nassau Coliseum, Uniondale, US on 13 February 1975. Jamming with a Woody is a 3 CD release of only the 13 February soundboard recording. Simultaneously released The King's of the Stone Age is a 9-CD box set containing the same 13 February soundboard, along with a duplicate of EVSD's 2008-released St. Valentine's Day Massacre soundboard from 14 February, and a duplicate of EVSD's 2002-released Fighting Back At the Coliseum audience tape recording of the 13 February concert; The King's of the Stone Age title also was issued as a 6 CD version with only the two soundboards from 13 and 14 February. 2014 Texas Hurricane Tarrant County Convention Center, Fort Worth, US on 22 May 1977 2015 Rock Super Stars Tarrant County Convention Center, Fort Worth, US on 3 March 1975; also included in Statistical Analyzing Shot box set as Sparking J.H.B. 2016 Ultra Violent Killer Droog Capital Centre, Landover, US on 10 February 1975 2017 Deus Ex Machina Seattle Center Coliseum, Seattle, US on 21 March 1975 2018 How The East Was Won Festival Hall, Osaka, Japan on 29 September 1971 2020 The Awesome Foursome Live at the Forum The Forum, Los Angeles, US on 24 March 1975 2021 Jesus Met Center, Bloomington, US on 18 January 1975 Since Empress Valley is the only supplier of new soundboard material for the moment, its issues are being cloned after initial release by numerous minor labels, sometimes with alternative titles. As noted above, however, Empress Valley has done its own share of repackaging already existent tapes. ===Bootleg trading on the Web=== In the 80s and 90s before broadband Internet access became widely available, bootlegs (CD-Rs or Compact Cassette copies) circulated mostly via the mail. Today, all of the unauthorised Led Zeppelin material is available on the Internet, mostly on BitTorrent resources in lossless media formats. Decoding and redistributing audio in lossy formats (such as MP3) is strongly frowned upon among the trading community as it diminishes the quality of the audio and can make it difficult for recipients to know if they are receiving the best available copy. During the 2000s, previously uncirculated audience recordings surfaced mostly on the BitTorrent resources. Notable previously unheard audience recordings that surfaced on the Web from 2000's: * Olympia Stadium, Detroit, US on August 28, 1970. * Madison Square Garden, New York City, US on September 19, 1970. * The Casino, Montreux, Switzerland on August 7, 1971. * The Spectrum, Philadelphia, US on June 13, 1972. * Chicago Stadium, Chicago, US on January 22, 1975. * Riverfront Coliseum, Cincinnati, US on April 20, 1977. * Freedom Hall, Louisville, US on April 25, 1977. * École Centrale, Paris, France on December 6, 1969. ==2007 court case== In July 2007 Page appeared in a Glasgow Sheriff courtroom to give testimony and observe evidence on behalf of Led Zeppelin against an alleged bootlegger. Robert Langley was charged with, and denied, 12 counts of producing and selling products without copyright permission. Page was shown hundreds of CDs and DVDs, ranging from his solo material to his time with Led Zeppelin and the Yardbirds, which Langley was allegedly selling in Scotland during 2005. Many contain footage and audio from Page's personal collection, stolen from his home in the early 1980s. The goods were found on sale as far away as New York City, where shop-owners thought they were official. Page later said "If you have something like this that appears legitimate then it is just not right". Following Page's testimony, Langley changed his plea and admitted guilt to three trademark and two copyright infringements. He was sentenced to 20 months in prison which, at the time, was believed to be the highest sentence handed out to a bootlegger in Scotland. ==References== ==Sources== *Dave Lewis and Simon Pallett (1997) Led Zeppelin: The Concert File, London: Omnibus Press. . *Robert Godwin (1994) The Illustrated Collectors Guide to Led Zeppelin Volume 1, Burlington: Collectors Guide Publishing. *Robert Godwin (1997) The Illustrated Collectors Guide to Led Zeppelin Volume 2, Burlington: Collectors Guide Publishing. *Luis Rey (1997) Led Zeppelin Live: An Illustrated Exploration of Underground Tapes, Ontario: The Hot Wacks Press. . ==External links== *The Year of Led Zeppelin A collection of in-depth reviews of every known live recording *Underground Uprising A comprehensive database of Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings *Bootlegpedia.com: Led Zeppelin The complete Led Zeppelin's Bootleg Encyclopedia *BootLedZ.Com another label database with title comparisons. *Ramble On Zep concert transcriptions. *Led Zeppelin Live (domain has expired) *Reviews List of Led Zeppelin bootleg reviews *Argenteum Astrum Comprehensive list of Led Zeppelin bootlegs, included vinyl, CD, and visual material *ZeppelinArt Comprehensive repository for artwork of unofficial Led Zeppelin releases/bootlegs
|
Isaac Doolittle (August 3, 1721 – February 13, 1800) was an early American clockmaker, inventor, engineer, manufacturer, militia officer, entrepreneur, printer, politician, and brass, iron, and silver artisan. Doolittle was a watchmaker and clockmaker, known for making and selling at his shop in New Haven, Connecticut, one of the first brass wheel hall clocks in America,"American Clock Making", Scientific American, Munn & Company, 1896, Volume 74, p. 387 where he also crafted and sold scientific instruments, and is regarded as "the first native practitioner" of silversmithing in the Connecticut Colony.Bohen, Peter, and Hammerslough, Philip, and Eisenbarth, Erin, Early Connecticut Silver, 1700–1840, Wesleyan University Press, 2007, p. xvi He was also an engraver and printer of both legal forms and currency, and became the first American to design, manufacture, and sell a printing press in 1769.Steiner, Bruce, E., Connecticut Anglicans in the Revolutionary Era: A Study in Communal Tensions, Hartford: American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of Connecticut, 1978, p.23 Somewhat late in life, he became a successful self-educated bell-foundryman, learning the difficult craft of casting large metal bells. Doolittle was an important figure in the religious life of Connecticut as an Episcopal Churchwarden and co-founder of Trinity Church on the Green in New Haven. Called a "good Whig" by Yale President Ezra Stiles,Stiles, Ezra, The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles, ed. Franklin Bowditch Dexter, 3 vols. (C. Scribner’s and Sons, 1901), 3:111. he was an active Patriot during the American Revolution. Perhaps his most notable contribution is his having designed and crafted in 1775 the moving and brass parts for David Bushnell's submersible vessel Turtle, the first submarine used in combat. In making the watch work triggering mechanism for Bushnell's explosive underwater magazine, Doolittle created the first mechanical time bomb, while his two-blade propeller was the first practical and applied use of a propeller in watercraft.Stein, Stephen K. The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes], Editor Stephen K. Stein, ABC-CLIO, 2017, Volume 1, p. 600Manstan, Roy R.; Frese, Frederic J., Turtle: David Bushnell's Revolutionary Vessel, Yardley, Pa: Westholme Publishing. . OCLC 369779489, 2010, pp. xiii, 52, 53 Doolittle was well known in his time as an "ingenious mechanic", or what would be called an engineer today.Morgan, William James, and Clark, William Bell, and Crawford, Michael J., Naval documents of the American Revolution, Volume 1, Naval History Division, Dept. of the Navy, 1964, Letter from Benjamin Gale of Yale from Killingsworth to Benjamin Franklin, August 7, 1775, p. 1089 His many pioneering innovations are associated with the popular notion of Yankee ingenuity, for which he has been called "The First Yankee".Olsen, Neil C. “Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee.” Connecticut History Review, vol. 59, no. 2, 2020, pp. 38–71. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/connhistrevi.59.2.0038. Accessed 19 Feb. 2021. ==Early life== Isaac Doolittle was born in Wallingford, Connecticut, the son of Joseph and Elizabeth (Holt) Doolittle.Jarvis, Lucy Cushing, Sketches of Church Life in Colonial Connecticut: Being the Story of the Transplanting of the Church of England Into Forty Two Parishes of Connecticut, with the Assistance of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company, 1902, p. 117 At an early age he apprenticed under the clockmaker Macock Ward in Wallingford, but moved to New Haven about the time he married Sarah Todd of Wallingford on November 10, 1743. He opened a shop across from Yale College on Chapel Street,Hoopes, Penrose R., Connecticut Clockmakers of the Eighteenth Century, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1986, p.9 where he repaired, made, and sold not only clocks and watches, but "compasses, sea and land surveyors scales and protractors, gauging rods, walking sticks, silver plated buttons turned upon a horn, and a variety of other work".Hoopes, p. 72 ===First Warden of Trinity Church=== After opening his clock, instrument, and silversmith shop in New Haven, Doolittle became quite wealthy. Around 1749, he was appointed along with Enos Alling by the Anglican missionary priest and educator the Reverend Samuel Johnson, D.D., as one of two church wardens of Trinity Church on the Green, the first Church of England parish in Puritan-dominated New Haven, where the Congregationalist Church was the established state religion of the colony and Yale College in the town was seen as "The School of the Prophets" and the bastion of Puritan orthodoxy. Against strong and determined Puritan opposition, in 1752, he and fellow warden Alling obtained a deed for a plot from innkeeper Samuel Mix, Jr., and oversaw the construction of the first Trinity Church in 1752–1753, with Doolittle contributing more money to its construction than any of its other founding members.Beardsley, Eben Edwards, The History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut: From the settlement of the colony to the death of Bishop Seabury, Hurd and Houghton, 1874, p. 172 He continued on in the role of warden, guiding the parish for much of the next 35 years, from 1750 to 1765, from 1770 to 1777, and again from 1783 to 1785.Croswell, Frederick, “A History of Trinity Church, New Haven, by Frederick Croswell, esq., Read March 8, 1868”, Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, New Haven Colony Historical Society, 1865., Appendix A ===French and Indian War=== thumb|Isaac Doolittle brass hall clock face, c. 1770s At the height of the French and Indian War the General Court of Connecticut appointed Doolittle Armourer (or Armorer) of the Connecticut Militia: in 1755, he served on the General Staff under General William Johnson from June 9 to August 6 and from September 10 to December 6, supporting Connecticut's war effort.Bates, Albert, Rolls of Connecticut men in the French and Indian war, 1755–1762, Connecticut Historical Society, 1903, Volume 1, p.3 He was again appointed Armorer in 1758, this time for Connecticut's Fourth Regiment under Colonel David Wooster.Hoadly, Charles J, The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut [1757–1762], Lockwood & Brainard Company, 1880, p. 125 As armorer "he gained some experience in gunpowder production", which would prove vitally important to the Patriot war effort during the American Revolutionary War twenty years later.Kuslan, Louis I., Connecticut Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Era of the American Revolution, American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of Connecticut, 1978, p. 38 He designed an innovative nested bateau or lake boat for the 1755 amphibious attack on Fort Carillion and saw the construction of the Land Tortoise, a floating gunboat, skills he would use two decades later in the American Revolution.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 47, 60. He also gained firsthand knowledge of British leadership incompetence in the disastrous expedition against Fort Carillon as well as their superior naval capabilities in the successful Siege of Louisbourg of 1758.Nester, William, The Epic Battles of the Ticonderoga, 1758. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 2005, . OCLC 105469157, pp. 162–164 While he was armorer in the summers of 1755 and 1758, he was billeted with the provincial militia and British officers at the manor house of Fort Crailo. There he met the British Army surgeon Dr. Richard Shuckburgh, who composed the song Yankee Doodle while at the manor house in June of 1758. As the contemporary meaning of "doodle" was "a cant word, perhaps corrupted from do little" meaning "idler",Johnson, Samuel, A Dictionary of the English Language, 2 vols. (London, 1755), 1:638. and Doolittle was from the then rural and culturally backward town of Wallingford, it has been suggested in a 2020 paper that Isaac Doolittle was the ironic inspiration for the comic song.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 40–53. thumb|Video of Isaac Doolittle hall clock striking the hour ===Pre-Revolution business activities=== By 1760, he had returned wholly to civilian endeavors. He was selling imported silver watches, and advertising his own manufactured clocks, bar iron, "screws for clothiers"Hoopes, p. 72 and surveyor's instruments and mariner's compasses in his Chapel Street shop. As the British Parliament's Iron Act of 1750 prohibited iron and steel manufacturing, Doolittle was already exhibiting a resistance to the British he had so recently joined to fight the French. In 1764, he was appointed tax collector in New Haven for "Proprietors of the Township of Ludlow, in the Province of New Hampshire.Hoopes, p. 71 He was also a sealer of weights and measures for town of New Haven, and printed Connecticut currency in his shop as well as government forms. In 1769, after successfully duplicating the iron screw used in printing presses, he expanded his business to manufacture and sell the first printing press made in America, which he sold to William Goddard of Philadelphia. The Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News- Letter of September 7, 1768 described it as a "Mahogany Printing-Press on the most approved construction, which by some good judges in the Printing Way, is allowed to be the neatest ever made in America and equal, if not superior to any imported from Great-Britain".Massachusetts Gazette and Weekly New Letter, Boston [Mass.] : R. Draper, 1769–1776, September 7, 1768Hoopes, p. 71 He and his son Isaac Jr. produced about a dozen presses over the next 20 years, each taking 5 weeks to build and priced at 16 pounds sterling, half the price of a press imported from England.Amory, Hugh, and Hall, David D., A History of the Book in America: Volume 1: The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World, Univ of North Carolina Press, 2009, p. 168 In August 1774, Doolittle advertised in the New Haven newspapers that he had erected a bell-foundry, and was selling bells made to order. It was said that the town always treated the casting of a bell as a great event, and many came to “watch the furnace being tapped and the metal flaming into the molds.”Beals, Carleton, Our Yankee Heritage: The Making of Greater New Haven (New Haven, CT: Bradley & Scofield, 1957), 62. His move from small metal casting to large may have been motivated by the need for arms in the coming war: given his experience as a field armorer, it was a small step from molding bells to molding cannons.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 55. He would continue to cast bells almost until his death in 1800. thumb|Advertisement for Isaac Doolittle's bell foundry in New Haven Connecticut Journal, September 29, 1784 ==American Revolutionary War== Doolittle was a member of the New Haven Committee of Correspondence.Kellogg, A.H. editor, A National Register of the Society, Sons of the American Revolution by Sons of the American Revolution, Press of A. H. Kellogg, 1902, p. 180Hinman, Royal, A Historical Collection from Official Records, Files, &c.;, of the Part Sustained by Connecticut, During the War of the Revolution: With an Appendix, Containing Important Letters, Depositions, &c.;, Written During the War, E. Gleason, 1842, p. 39 When the war started in 1774, Doolittle, with his partners Jeremiah Atwater and Elijah Thompson, erected a gun powder mill in the nearby village of Westville, three miles north-west of New Haven, which turned out large quantities of gunpowder during the war to supply the patriot army and militias.Rockey, John L., History of New Haven County, Connecticut, Volume 1, W. W. Preston, 1892, p.197 He was also a paymaster for the militia.Munsell, Frank, American Ancestry: Embracing lineages from the whole of the United States, J. Munsell's sons, 1890, p. 105 He was a New Haven selectman and served on a committee to procure guns for the town's defense.The Collector, Volumes 24–29, Walter Benjeman, 1911, p. 90 In 1775, he was appointed a commissioner in charge of erecting a beacon to be used to give an alarm if the British attacked New Haven,Towshend, Charles Hervey, Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, Volume 6, The Society, 1900, p. 160 and was in charge of New Haven's port ship inspections to ensure the boycott of British imports was followed.Hinman, Royal, A Historical Collection from Official Records, Files, &c.;, of the Part Sustained by Connecticut, During the War of the Revolution: With an Appendix, Containing Important Letters, Depositions, &c.;, Written During the War, E. Gleason, 1842, p. 516Barber, John Warner, Connecticut Historical Collections, New Haven: Hamlen, 1836, p. 176 He was also appointed that year to a Connecticut government committee to prospect for lead mines in the colony.Child, Elias, Genealogy of the Child, Childs and Childe Families, of the Past and Present in the United States and the Canadas, from 1630 to 1881, Utica NY: Curtiss and Childs, 1881, p. 209 In 1776, he was a member of the New Haven Committee of Safety,Hinman, p. 567 where he organized a September 17, 1776, memorial warning against the activities of notorious Loyalists such as his fellow churchwarden Abiathar Camp,Hinman, p. 566 who five years later in 1781 indeed procured pilots and boats to guide the British fleet into New London harbor.Foster, Alexander, Ontario Bureau of Archives, Report of the Bureau of Archives for the Province of Ontario, Volume 2, Part 1, L.K. Cameron, 1905, p. 80 There is a tradition that Doolittle, though "the most important man among its founders",Scientific American, p.387 was forced out of the position Warden at Trinity Church, then part of the Church of England, "because he had aided the king's enemies by making powder" and that it was not until "the conclusion of peace Mr. Doolittle was reinstated in the hearts of his countrymen and in the vestry he became one of the wardens".Jarvis, p. 118Scientific American, p. 387 However, only two of the 100 heads of households of the church Doolittle helped found were Loyalists. A large number of its members were Patriot privateers or soldiers, and even the neutralists members of his church turned Patriot after the destructive British General Tryon's raid on New Haven. Its rector the Rev. Dr. Bela Hubbard even substituted General George Washington's name for King George III in its prayer services.Olsen, Neil, Two Hundred Years on the Green: Celebrating the 1816 Consecration of Trinity Episcopal Church, New Haven, Connecticut, Trinity Church Publications, 2017, p. 61-76 It was more likely that Doolittle's many war-time activities left him too busy to fulfill the warden's duties until after the war. ===The Turtle=== The Turtle submarine, built in New Haven in 1775 under the authority and funding of the Connecticut government, was the first submarine to engage in warfare. According to Benjamin Gale, a respected doctor in the town of Clinton, Connecticut, and an inventor himself, the many brass and mechanical (moving) parts of were built by Doolittle.Diamant, Lincoln, Chaining the Hudson: The Fight for the River in the American Revolution, New York: Fordham University Press, 2004, p. 23 Though Yale student David Bushnell is often given the overall design credit for the idea of the Turtle by Gale and others, Doolittle is often credited if at all as only a hired "mechanic". However, the relationship was actually asymmetric in the other direction.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 58–62. In 1775, Bushnell was a poor 35 year old Yale bachelor student and a former farmer in rural Connecticut who had sold his half-share of his Westbrook, Connecticut, farm to his brother to fund his education as a medical doctor. Doolittle was a very wealthy and highly respected 55 year old head of a family of seven, a successful shop owner with a thriving business, the long time Warden and founder of Trinity Church in New Haven, and a pillar of the city, where he was a city and state armorer, tax collector, selectman, port inspector, lead prospector, and gunpowder miller with access to government funding. He was experienced in large metal design and manufacturing of iron screws and brass bells, as well as the more delicate design and construction of pumps, navigation instruments, and clockwork devices. He owned with his own foundry and had team of apprentices at hand, many of whom were underemployed as "the demand for clocks was extremely limited" darning the war.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 61. He had access to gunpowder and lead, the two most scarce materials needed for the submarine. In the context of the time, an "ingenious mechanic" in Gale's wordingMorgan, William James, and Clark, William Bell, and Crawford, Michael J., Naval documents of the American Revolution, Volume 1, Naval History Division, Dept. of the Navy, 1964, Letter from Benjamin Gale of Yale from Killingsworth to Benjamin Franklin, August 7, 1775, p. 1089 was what today would be called an engineer and inventor, a designer and not just a craftsman.thumb|The Turtle submarine "Much of the equipment Bushnell needed to produce for his submarine was beyond the skills of a blacksmith" and were "sophisticated designs requiring precision manufacturing"; they required artisans with years of skill as apprentices, and the ability "to visualize mechanical concepts and interactions between gears and levers" as well as the tools and machinery to make the parts.Manstan and Frese, p. 52 Given his mechanical engineering expertise and previous experience in design and manufacturing brass bells, clocks, screws, and marine instruments, it seems likely Doolittle designed the brass and the moving parts of the Turtle.Manstan and Frese, p. 52, 52–53, 57, 88, 105, 107, 109, 110, 112, 120–123, 131, 138, 150, 194–198 Given his wealth and public position, he also likely funded the Turtle's development, supplied the scarce commodities of gunpowder and lead, and obtained the colonial government's cooperation for the first tests. Of the four major innovations of the first submarine, Bushnell figured out how ignite gunpowder underwater while he was a student at Yale,Tucker, Spencer C. Editor,"Bushnell, David (1740–1824)",American Revolution: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection, ABC-CLIO, 2018, Volume 1, p. 200 while brass caster, watchmaker, and scientific instrument maker Doolittle designed the propeller and its drive systems, the first working underwater depth gauge,Marstan and Frese, pp. 120–124 and the mine attachment and clockwork timed detonator. Doolittle's propeller, described as a "a pair of oars fixed like the two opposite arms of a windmill",Abbot, Henry L., Beginning of Modern Submarine Warfare under Captain Lieutenant David Bushnell, Hamden, CT: Acrhon Books,1966, p. 177 had "no precedent" in design and was the first known use of a bladed propeller in a watercraft.Manstan and Frese, p. 150 His clockwork detonator attached to the underwater mine was the first known mechanically detonated time bomb. Other parts of the Turtle, its hand crank, the food-driven treadle, and the flywheel for propulsion,Manstan and Frese, p. 94, 95 brass and iron emergency ballast drop,Manstan and Frese, pp. 103–104 brass forcing or bilge pumps for water ballast,Manstan and Freese, pp. 105–108 brass circular hinged hatchManstan and Frese pp.109–114 with three round glass ventilation doors,Manstan and Frese, pp. 114–115 two brass snorkel pipes and ventilator bellows,Manstan and Frese, pp. 116–117 compass marked with bio-luminescent foxfire,nstan and Frese, p. 120a and the rudder along with its iron bar steering mechanisms were based on preexisting designs and were likely jointly designed by Bushnell, Doolittle and his team, then built by Doolittle in his shop and brass factory. Recently, Doolittle's involvement in the Turtle was part of an important ruling in the field of copyright law over the ownership rights of the "original analysis" identifying Doolittle as the engineer of the brass hatch for the Turtle submarine. On July 15, 2015, US District Judge Jeffrey Alker Meyer ruled in the lawsuit of Leary v. Manstan, in the District of Connecticut that copyright law for nonfiction works does not cover "original historical theories nor use of typical storytelling techniques so long as they do not appropriate the particular expression used by another author."Leary v. Manstan, Case 3:13-cv-00639-JAM Document 70 Filed 07/15/15 ==Marriage and children== Isaac Doolittle married Sarah Todd on November 10, 1743. Sarah Todd Doolittle was born on January 30, 1725, in New Haven, and died on March 10, 1814, in New Haven. Together they had nine children, five of whom died before Isaac's death in 1800 and a sixth before Sarah's:Jocobus, Donald Lines, Families of Ancient New Haven, Rome, New York, Clarence D. Smith, 1923, p. 547Doolittle, William Frederick, M.D, The Doolittle Family in America, Vols 1–7, Cleveland, 1901–1908, p. 104DAR Records, Vol 32. p. 118Mackenzie, George Norbury & Rhoes, Nelson Osgood, Colonial Families of the USA, 1995, Vol 7, p. 198Tuttle, George Frederick Tuttle, The Descendants of William & Elizabeth, 1883), p. 598. Thankful Doolittle (b. January 21, 1745, bapt. January 27, d. May 17, 1751, in Wallingford, aged 6); Sarah Doolittle (b. June 29, 1747, bapt. July 16 in Stafford, d. July 21, 1832, in New Haven, aged 85); Abigail Doolittle (b. October 3, 1749, bapt. November 1749, d. October 24, 1794, in New Haven, aged 45); Mary Doolittle (b. March 12, 1752, bapt. April 8, d. August 6, 1760, in New Haven, aged 8); Thankful Doolittle (b. January 21, 1754, d. February 16, 1827, in New Haven, aged 73); John Todd Doolittle (b. May 20, 1756, d. 1773 in New Haven, aged 17); Isaac Doolittle Jr. (b. February 13, 1759, d. September 15, 1821, in Cheshire, aged 62); William Frederick Doolittle (b. April 14, 1761, death date unknown, suggesting infant mortality); and Elizabeth Mary Doolittle (b. March 16, 1765, d. April 5, 1811, in Guilford, aged 46). ==Final days== Doolittle's health failed in 1785 and he suspended business activity for several years, but in January 1788 he announced in a newspaper advertisement his return to health and business in his reopened shop.Hoopes, p. 72 There is a humorous anecdote by the well-known New Haven physician Eneas Munson, a man known not only as a scientific doctor but for his droll comments at the expense even of his intimate friends, that may illuminate something of Doolittle's irascible character in this period. According to the account of Henry Bronson: :He gave an emetic to a troublesome neighbor, Isaac Doolittle, who in a fit of intoxication had taken an ounce of laudanum. The next day, finding his patient sober, he admonished him in the most solemn manner of the error of his ways, saying he had rescued him from a horrible death. “I do not thank you for what you have done,” Doolittle replied. “Well, I am sure the neighbors won't,” responded the doctor.Bronson, Henry, M.D., "Medical History and Biography", Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, Volume 2, New Haven Colony Historical Society, 1877, p. 272 Doolittle continued to make clocks and cast bells until 1797, when his health failed again and he largely retired from business. He died on February 13, 1800, at age 78, according to his obituary, "after a long and distressing illness of several years", honored as "a very worthy and respectable character".Connecticut Journal, February 20, 1800; Hoopes, p. 72 He was buried on the Green in New Haven near the State House;Jarvis, p. 118 there is an empty space apparently reserved for his stone at Grove Street Cemetery next to his co-warden Enos Alling, but his stone was either lost, broken, or not transferred when the other stones from people buried on the Green were moved to Grove Street Cemetery in 1821 – though his daughter Mary's stone can be found along the west wall there. His wife Sarah, born on January 30, 1725, in New Haven, Connecticut, died on March 10, 1814, in New Haven and is buried in Center Street Cemetery, Wallingford, Connecticut. ==Legacy== The brass works for a number of Doolittle's clocks survive in private hands, and a circa 1765 "tall clock" is part of the holding of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.The Met Fifth Avenue, New York, New York, Bequest of Helena D. Swift, 1943, Accession Number:43.148 A number of Doolittle's many apprentices continued his work, including his son Isaac Doolittle Jr. (who took over his father's clockmaking shop following the elder Isaac's death), his nephew Enos Doolittle, Hezekiah Hotchkiss, Nathan Howell, Simon Jocelin, his younger cousin Amos Doolittle,Hoopes, p.9 and James Cochran, who took over Doolittle's bell-foundry. It has been noted that, "The talent of these local artisans and others ensured New Haven's reputation as a leading hardware and clock-manufacturing city by the middle of the nineteenth century".Sletcher, Michael, New Haven: From Puritanism to the Age of Terrorism, Arcadia Publishing, 2004, p.43 Doolittle's grandson, Isaac Doolittle III, was also a Patriot in the War of 1812, an inventor who patented devices for steam engines and furnaces, and, like his grandfather, a pioneering printer and artist who illustrated the poem "Old Santeclaus with Much Delight" in an 1821 book that was the first publication to illustrate the modern American legend of Santa Claus. In this and in other illustrated books he is sometimes credited with introducing the United States to lithography. The Turtle was the first submersible vessel used for combat. Historian of technology Brooke Hindle credited the Turtle as "the greatest of the wartime inventions."Alex Roland, "Bushnell's Submarine: American Original or European Import," Technology and Culture 18 (April 1977), 158. Thus it has inspired a number of working and artistic replicas, some of which can be found on display at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum in Gosport, United Kingdom, the Connecticut River Museum in Essex, the Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton, and the Oceanographic Museum in Monaco. Rick Brown, a co-builder of a 2002 replica, called it "the greatest technological advancement of the American Revolutionary War," and that with it, "Yankee ingenuity was born".Tom Gidwitz, "The Turtle Dives Again: Two artists recreate George Washington's wooden sub." Archaeology, 58 (May/June 2005): 36–41 In addition to inspiring the song Yankee Doodle, Isaac Doolittle also inspired the New Haven area playwright General David Humphreys in 1814 to present a comic rustic "Yankee Character" named Doolittle on stage.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 64–67. He published it along with a glossary of peculiar Yankee’s expressions and pronunciations that was mined for decades by other playwrights. This Yankee Character dominated American Theater, appearing in over 100 plays from 1825 to 1850; it created a set of works considered by American theater historian Francis Hodge “as an actor’s theatre—as an American commedia dell’ arte.”Hodge, Francis, Yankee theatre; the image of America on the stage, 1825–1850 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964), Prologue, Bibliography. At the same time, Isaac Doolittle’s cousin Amos Doolittle engraved and printed the now famous cartoon Brother Jonathan Administering a Salutary Cordial to John Bull (1813), launching the Brother Jonathan stock Yankee figure into popular culture. This somewhat darker and less pleasant version of the Yankee Character also appeared in novels with characters named Doolittle, including Washington Irvine's Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820), and James Fenimore Cooper’s The Pioneers (1823). The comic yet warlike cultural icon that progressed from Yankee Doodle, to the Yankee Character, to Brother Jonathan, to Uncle Sam in the nineteenth century,Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 64–69. remained popular in American "hillbilly" media, cartoons, and stage productions in the twentieth century.Olsen, "Isaac Doolittle: The First Yankee", 64–69.Harkins, Anthony, Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon (Oxford University Press, 2004). For over half a century, from 1743 until his retirement in 1797, Doolittle was "one of the leading manufacturers and most versatile mechanics"Hoopes, p. 70 in the American colonies and "a citizen of character and enterprise, whose mark in his generation was that of striking originality",Scientific America, p. 387 as well as a key historical transition figure in the shift from Puritan to Yankee in New England. Doolittle, "The First Yankee", is often cited as an early example of the famous Yankee ingenuity stereotype of inventiveness, discovering technical solutions to practical problems, self-reliance, and individual enterprise. ==See also== * Early American publishers and printers ==Notes== ==References== Category:1721 births Category:1800 deaths Category:18th-century American inventors Category:People of Connecticut in the American Revolution Category:People from Wallingford, Connecticut Category:People from New Haven, Connecticut Category:American Episcopal clergy Category:American people of Norman descent Category:18th-century American clergy Category:Inventors from Connecticut
|
Women in ancient Egypt had some special rights other women did not have in other comparable societies. They could own property and were, at court, legally equal to men. However, Ancient Egypt was a patriarchal society dominated by men. Only a few women are known to have important positions in administration, though there were female rulers and even female pharaohs. Women at the royal court gained their positions by relationship to male kings.F. G. Wilfong: Gender in Ancient Egypt, in: Willeke Wendrich (editor): Egyptian Archaeology, Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology, Malden, Oxford 2010, , p. 165 == Work == Most women belonged to the peasantry and worked alongside their husbands. Women were known to manage farms or businesses in the absence of their husbands or sons. Among the upper classes of society, a woman usually did not work outside the home, and instead supervised the servants of the household and her children's education. An exception is the textile industry. Here women are well attested as weavers. A letter found at Lahun and dating around 1800 BC names six female weavers.Marc Collier, Stephen Quirke: The UCL Lahun Papyri: Accounts, Oxford 2006, , 144-145 In the Old Kingdom wealthy women often owned their own households. There was working men and women side by side, and it is not uncommon to find in the staff of a women's household other women with administrative titles. Especially in tomb scenes of the periods, men are often served by men, while women are served by women. Here, the separation of sexes is visible.Henry George Fischer: Egyptian Woman of the Old Kingdom And of the Heracleopolitan Period, Second Edition, revised and augmented, New York 2000 , pp. 19-10 online Women belonging to families wealthy enough to hire nannies to help with childcare frequently worked as perfume-makers and also were employed in courts and temples, like acrobats, dancers, singers, and musicians, which were all considered respectable pursuits for upper-class women. Women belonging to any class could work as professional mourners or musicians, and these were common jobs. Noblewomen could be members of the priesthood connected to either a god or goddess. Women could even be at the head of a business as, for example, the lady Nenofer of the New Kingdom, and could also be a doctor, as the lady Peseshet during the Fourth dynasty of Egypt. == Family and marriage == === Marriage === The purpose of marriage was to have more children and descendants of the family. In the New Kingdom, there was a saying that: "Take a wife while you are young That she make a son for you She should care for you while you are youthful It is proper to make people Happy is the man whose people are many He is saluted on account of his progeny." It is true that some egalitarian relationships between husband and wife were implied in Egyptian depictions. For example, in love songs, brother and sister carried the same significance as husband and wife. "Sn", the Egyptian word for "brother", also meant "peer", "mate", or "second". Thus, the love songs may be referring to the egalitarian relationship between husband and wife.Marriage and Family Life in Ancient Egypt by Ray Erwin Baber, Social Forces, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Mar., 1935), pp. 409-414 The example for interbreeding among royalty was set by the gods since Osiris married his sister, Isis. However, depictions usually show a husband and wife in an affectionate attitude with their children, so we assume most families were generally happy, but marriage was more realistic. The wife shared responsibilities and worked with her husband. Marriages in ancient Egypt were usually monogamous, but it also was not uncommon for a man of high economic status to have more than one wife. This was especially true if the man's first wife was unable to have children of her own. Although it was possible to divorce, it was very difficult. Marriages were usually arranged by parents, who chose appropriate partners for their children. Despite what the laws stated, it was suggested that women made more family decisions and controlled more of the home than usual. Women had control over most of their property, could serve as legal persons who brought cases to the court, and even worked in public. Husbands did not take total control over their wives property because women had a degree of independence in ancient Egypt. For example, from ca. 365 B.C, a new marriage contract was emerged which mainly protected women from divorce, placing more financial burdens on men. The influence of queens and queen mothers was considered as a big reason for women's special rights in ancient Egypt compared to other societies at that time. Queens and queen mothers always had a great power since many pharaohs were very young when they succeeded the throne. For example, the great pharaoh Ahmose I in New Kingdom, always took advice from his mother, Ahhotep I, and his principal wife, Nefertari. Although the women of ancient Egypt were viewed as one of the most independent groups of women, widowhood could result in suspicion due to the lack of male control. Widows also gained more legal freedom, being able to buy and sell land, making donations, and even making loans. === Pregnancy === thumb|Ramesside Ostraca with woman breastfeeding baby There is much evidence of complex beliefs and practices in ancient Egypt related to the important role fertility played in society. If a woman was not fertile, her husband could potentially divorce her for not producing heirs. Religious beliefs included rules concerning purification, similar to other religions in the region. Women in Egypt were believed to be eliminating impure elements during menstruation, and were excused from work and could not enter the restricted rooms of temples while menstruating. Fertility rituals were used by couples desiring children. Contraception was permitted as well, and medical texts survive that refer to many contraceptive formulas (although the ingredients are often now difficult to identify). Some formulas, such as drinks made of celery base and beer, are dubious, but others show a basic knowledge of somewhat effective methods, such as a spermicide made of fermented acacia gum, which produces a sperm-killing lactic acid. Once pregnant, the uterus was placed under the protection of a specific goddess, Tenenet. Ritual medical care was given by anointing the woman's body with beneficial oils, using a small bottle in the form of a woman posed with her hands placed on a round belly. There was a way in the Ancient Egyptian society for families who wanted to know the sex of their baby, which spread to Greece, Byzantium, and then to Europe, where it was practiced for centuries without anyone realizing its origins in ancient Egypt. It involves placing grains of barley and wheat in a cloth sachet and soaking them in the pregnant woman's urine; if barley sprouted first, the baby was said to be a boy, and if the wheat sprouted first, the baby was said to be a girl. In ancient Egypt, the word for barley was the synonym of "father". === Childbirth === When it was time for childbirth, the pregnant woman was assisted by midwives. She would be shaved, including her head. The midwives would support the woman during labor while she remained in a squatting position on a mat. On the corners of the mat were placed four bricks, believed to be the incarnation of four goddesses: Nut, the great goddess of the sky; Tefnut, the elder, the feminine polarity of the first couple; Aset the beautiful; and Nebet-Het, the excellent. == Women playing an official role at the highest levels == There are few preserved examples of women as high officials. Some women are known to have become Pharaohs. One example of a woman in a high state position is Nebet who became vizier in the Sixth Dynasty. The vizier was the highest state official, second only to the king.Henry George Fischer: Egyptian Woman of the Old Kingdom And of the Heracleopolitan Period, Second Edition, revised and augmented, New York 2000 iISBN 0-87099-967-2, pp. 36-37 online Egyptian society of antiquity, like many other civilizations of the time, used religion as a foundation for society. This was how the throne of the power of the Pharaohs was justified, as anointed by the gods, and the holder of the throne had a divine right. Typically, in ancient societies power was transferred from one male to the next. Women gave birth to the heirs, signaling importance towards marriage, as well. The son inherited the power, and in cases where the king did not have a son, the throne was then inherited by the male members of the family further removed from the king, such as cousins or uncles. In this system, daughters did not automatically inherit power. In Egyptian civilization, this obligation of passing power to a male successor was not without exceptions. Royal blood, a factor determined by divine legitimacy, was the unique criteria for access to the throne. However, the divine essence was transmitted to the royal spouse, as was the case with Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton. Egyptians preferred to be governed by a woman with royal blood (being divine according to mythology) rather than by a man who did not have royal blood. Also, during crises of succession, there were women who took power. When this happened, the female Pharaoh adopted all of the masculine symbols of the throne. There even exist doubts, in some instances, about the sex of certain Pharaohs who could have been women. During the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, when Amenhotep I died, his successor Thutmose I appears to have not been his son, at least he was not the child of a secondary wife of the late Pharaoh; if his wife Ahmes was related to Amenhotep I, this union permitted divine legitimacy. For the following successor, princess Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Royal Wife, enabled Thutmose II, son of his second wife and therefore half- brother of the princess, to gain the throne by marrying him. It became more common for women to gain the throne in ancient Egypt. For example, as with Hatshepsut, who took the place of her nephew Thutmose III. When Hatshepsut inherited the throne from her late husband and became Pharaoh, her daughter Neferure took on a role that exceeded the normal duties of a royal princess, acquiring a more queenly role. There were also the Cleopatras, of whom the best known is Cleopatra VII (69 BCE to 30 BCE), famous for her beauty and her relationships with Julius Caesar and then Marc Antony, the leaders who depended upon her throne. The women Pharaohs who are best known, and of whom historians are most certain, are: * Nitocris (Sixth dynasty of Egypt) * Sobekneferu (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt), * Hatshepsut (Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt), * Neferneferuaten (Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt), * Twosret (Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt). Many of the Great Royal Wives also played significant diplomatic and political roles: * Tiyi wife of (Amenhotep III) * Nefertiti wife of (Amenhotep IV) * Nefertari wife of (Ramses II) Elsewhere in the New Kingdom, the Great Wife was often invested with a divine role: "Wife of god", "Hand of god". Hatshepsut was the first Great wife (of Thutmose II) to receive this latter title. For women holding office in the highest levels of the bureaucracy, one can cite Nebet, a Vizir in ancient Egypt during the Sixth dynasty of Egypt. It is necessary to recognize that a woman at such a high level of authority remained extremely rare and it was not until the Twenty- sixth dynasty of Egypt that a similar situation can be found. Women did, however, occupy numerous offices such as scribe in the bureaucracy, except during the New Kingdom, where all public bureaucracy posts were filled by men. There was also the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, granted major spiritual power, but also a power restricted to Thebes. ==="Royal harem"=== There has been a modern trend to refer to the women's quarters of the Pharaoh's palace in Ancient Egypt as a harem. The popular assumption that Pharaonic Egypt had a harem is however an anachronism; while the women and children of the pharaoh, including his mother, wives, and children, had their own living quarters with its own administration in the Palace of the Pharaoh, the royal women did not live isolated from contact with men or in seclusion from the rest of the court in the way associated with the term "harem".Silke Roth, Johannes Gutenberg- Universität Mainz, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2012, escholarship.org The custom of referring to the women's quarters of the pharaoh's palace as a "harem" is therefore apocryphal, and has been used because of incorrect assumptions that Ancient Egypt was similar to later Islamic harem culture. == Women in ancient Egyptian literature == Literature of ancient Egypt did include depictions of women as frivolous, capricious, and untrustworthy. However, women benefitted from a status that has been described as rare in the civilizations of the time. While the painters and sculptors gave to women a serene image as part of a happy family, writers sometimes portrayed women as being the origin of misfortune and guilty of sins. Gaston Maspero describes in Contes populaires (Popular Tales), there was the fatal misadventure of Bytaou, the humble farmhand at the home of his brother Anoupou. Seduced by the wife of his brother, he succumbs to the charm of her beauty. She does not hesitate to denounce him to Anoupou, lying and never ceasing until she obtains the ultimate punishment for Bytaou at the hands of Anoupou. But she is punished in turn; Anoupou discovers much later that he has been played for a fool by his wife, who he kills, and throws her body to the dogs. It is important not to interpret this incorrectly: the rarely flattering portrayal of women in Egyptian literature does not reveal for nothing that women were despised. The Pharaoh was often given the same treatment by storytellers who presented the Pharaoh as a stubborn and whimsical character. Men were invited to cherish their wives. Ptahhotep (Third dynasty of Egypt) expressed this in the following maxim (written in the Papyrus Prisse): "You must love your wife with all your heart, [...], make her heart happy as long as you live". Romance was present in Egyptian literature, for example, in a papyrus at the Leyden Museum: == Women in ancient Egyptian art == thumb|left|Upper torso of a woman's figurine. Slit eyes and mouth. She wears an elaborate headdress. Pottery fragment. Ramesside period. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London thumbnail|right|Nefertiti with body similar to Akhenaten's Egyptian women were seldom depicted as ageing and wrinkled; there were standards to be met. The women were shown as slender and beautiful, partly so that they could take on that frame in the afterlife. Egyptian art was far from realistic. It shows how much the ancient Egyptians cared about how they were perceived. There were hardly any images of pregnant women or women's bodies after giving birth. The man, however, could be shown as athletic and engaging or old and experienced. These idealistic depictions would reflect the targeted image, such as the physically able king, or the tired king who works day and night for his people. People were depicted at the peak of their beauty and youth, in an attempt to remain so forever. However, in the Third Intermediate Period, scholars see a shifting in the artistic style representing women. A more rounded body type appeared, with larger, more drooping breasts and a thickened body.Forever Young? The Representation of Older and Ageing Women in Ancient Egyptian Art by Deborah Sweeney, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 41, (2004), pp. 67-84 This depiction was no longer necessarily associated with the ageing of women. There was also a certain "type" to be followed. Women, and children, were represented with an artistic style that would link them to their husband or father. The most obvious example would be the Amarna Period. Akhenaten's Amarna Period hosted great changes in artistic style. However, the most distinctive part was how Nefertiti, his wife, and his kids were shown with the same body type as his, which was quite unique for that matter. There are depictions showing Nefertiti with a body so similar to Akhenaten's, that you couldn't tell which one of them it was; long chins, round waists, full buttocks, sunken cheekbones and full lips. But there are also other depictions showing Nefertiti completely different, with a feminine face and a slender shape. After the Amarna Period, elite women were occasionally shown with fuller breasts. == Divine image and religion== In the abundance of divinities in Egyptian mythology, there existed a large number of goddesses, as was also the case in Greece. By studying their symbolism one can learn the image that women had in the eyes of the ancient Egyptians. As with Greek divinities, many were related to one another, by blood or marriage, such as Isis and her sister Nephthys, both the respective wives of Osiris (the god of the dead) and of Set, themselves brothers. Women and their image were most often associated with life and fertility. In the case of the goddess Isis, who was associated with many principles: as the wife of Osiris who was killed by his brother, she was connected to funeral rites. As a mother, she became the feminine protector, but above all the mother- creator, she who gives life. Through this goddess, the principles of life and death were closely linked. In effect, while she was associated with funeral rites, these rites were to prevent the deceased from submitting to a second death in the succeeding dimension, which explains among other things, the food found in abundance by archeologists in the tombs. On the other hand, life in its physical aspect meaningful only by death, because these principles are part of a movement of eternal new beginning that is then in a sense more spiritual, the movement of life, or eternal life. A symbol of the goddess is also the palm tree, the symbol of eternal life. She breathed the breath of eternal life to her dead husband. The goddess represented the era's regard for women, because it was crucial to maintain the spirit in her image, it was this idea of eternal life and of maturity that Isis reflected, venerated as the Celestial Mother. It was in this role that Isis was arguably made the most important deity of Egyptian mythology. Her influence even extended to religions of different civilizations, where she would become identified under different names and where her cult grew, particularly in the Roman Empire. The most influential goddesses were: * Isis: goddess of magic and mysticism, * Hathor: goddess of nourishment and love, * Bastet: goddess protector of the home, * Sekhmet: goddess of wrath ===Priesthood=== Women could become priests in Ancient Egypt. However, as was common in Ancient societies, there was no general rule for women's rights to become priests. Instead, the priesthood was different for each separate divinity depending on the local cult of each divinity. This meant that women could be accepted as priests for a specific divinity in one temple and not accepted in another, as was the case with men. ====Priestess of Hathor==== One of the most famed priesthoods for women in Ancient Egypt was the Priestess of Hathor or Prophetess of Hathor, which was the title of the Priestess of the goddess Hathor in the Temple of Dendera in Ancient Egypt.Gillam, R. (1995). Priestesses of Hathor: Their Function, Decline and Disappearance. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 32, 211-237. doi:10.2307/40000840 ==== God's Wives ==== "God's Wife of Amun" was the highest-ranking priestess of the Amun cult. At the beginning of the New Kingdom, the title was associated with royalty, usually kings' wives or kings' mothers. The first royal wife to hold this title was Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of Ahmose I, who then passed it on to her daughter, Meritamen who then passed it on to Hatshepsut. Both Ahmose-Nefertari and Hatshepsut used this title as an alternative to King's Principal Wife which reflects the significance that lay behind the title. The title God's Wife was another title given to royal women in sacral roles. In the Nubian and Saite Periods, they built their own chapels and mortuary temples. In addition to God's Wife, these women had other titles such as Divine Adorer or God's Hand. Unlike revered women in other cultures, the concept of chastity wasn't relevant to the ancient Egyptians' religious practice.God's Wife, God's Servant: The God's Wife of Amun (c. 740–525 BC) by Mariam F. Ayad == Social and political position of women == thumbnail|right|Couple harvesting cropsthumbnail|right|Female musiciansthumbnail|right|Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye In many of ancient Egypt's artistic approaches, we see women supporting or clasping their husband, maybe even protecting them. So in some sense, the woman could be the protector, probably associated with the concept of protective goddesses. Women mingled in society, we see evidence of that where peasant women were depicted helping with the harvest;Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Barbara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15 townswomen are shown as professional musicians, dancers,Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Barbara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15 members of temple staff and party guests. So women weren't just traditional stay at home wives, but they contributed to society and sometimes even in untraditional ways. There are scenes of women in weaving workshops, and tomb inscriptions of women's professional involvement. Such titles could range from political to religious to funerary. Some titles inscribed on tombs were mainly honorific; to honor the women after they die. Some examples of titles are: Overseer of Female Physicians, Judge and Vizier, Director of the Dining Hall, and Overseer of Funerary Priests.Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Barbara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15 Religious positions weren't limited to noblewomen as some would think, in fact, we see evidence of priestesses of major goddesses bearing humble titles like tenant farmer. As history moves from the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom, we see less and less of women in authority which may suggest changes in political and social norms. In the New Kingdom, however, texts show that women had their own legal identity and could even purchase and inherit land without the need for male consent. During this period, women were portrayed in all shapes and sizes, where their status and wealth were reflected in the size of their statue. Idealistic portrayals were an important part of Egyptian art, mainly because they believed that these representations would follow them into eternity. Egyptian mothers were a significant part of ancient Egypt. Egyptian men, even those of the highest social class, often placed only their mother's names on their monuments. Egyptian mothers were more prominently displayed than the fathers, also in literature. The ancient Egyptians paid attention to size and quantity; large tombs indicated a significance of the deceased. Some queens of the early dynasties even commemorated tombs as large as their husbands'. The pair statue of Amenhotep III and his common-born wife, Queen Tiye, dominates a room at the Cairo Museum, showing the queen as of equal size as the king. Hatshepsut, unsatisfied with her status as second best to her father, took it to clarifying her divine conception, so as to legitimize her ruling as pharaoh by recording the miracle of her birth on the walls of the second terrace. == Influence of the image == === Rediscovery of ancient Egypt during the era of Napoleon === In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led a campaign in Egypt that would be a military fiasco, but which enabled him to return to France with drawings and observations by artists and scientists that he had brought on the expedition. But it was in 1822 that Egypt became more open to researchers, the wider world developed a passion for ancient Egypt, and wanted to know more about its history and its culture. The fascination with Egypt that followed, and with everything that concerned Antiquity, carried a powerful influence. In this era, in Paris, almost all fields of creativity were heavily inspired by the rediscoveries from Antiquity. The arts became redirected along this path, following the fashion for ancient Egypt down every esthetic route. In this way, clothing styles changed, and women during the Napoleonic Empire adopted styles associated with ancient Egyptian women, combined with the influence of Ancient Greece and Rome: corsets were abandoned (only temporarily), as well as petticoats, and the raised Empire waist was the popular dress silhouette. Dresses were lighter, and were decorated with motifs from Antiquity, for example palm trees, one of the symbols of the goddess Isis. === Modern images of women in ancient Egypt === When women in ancient Egypt are evoked, the first image that comes to mind for most is that of Cleopatra, or more precisely, Cleopatra VII. Although having a Greek origin, it is she who would be associated with the image of women in ancient Egypt, for several generations. This has been in large part due to modern cinema, especially the films of the Golden Age of Hollywood. During the 1950s and 1960s, a number of costume dramas were produced, putting on screen Egyptian women imagined during this era where filmmakers want to show glamour. In 1963, the glamorous image of Cleopatra was cemented for the public in the film Cleopatra directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, and portrayed by Liz Taylor. This passion for the queen is explained by the tumultuous life that she lived, full of intrigues, romances (her two most famous lovers being Julius Caesar and Marc Antony), her power, and her tragic death (she died by suicide). In short, she fascinates, by her life and by what she did. Through her connection to ancient Egypt, she has an aura of mystery for spectators, the same aura that surrounds ancient Egypt and its esoteric aspects, the same mysteriousness linked in the popular imagination with ancient curses of mummies, or other secrets of the tombs. Presented this way, Egyptian women become a sort of seductress, fascinating because of a romanticized view of her. As a sign of celebrity, this imagined Egypt has not only been the object of fantasies but has also been caricatured. The best-known of these caricatures today are those appearing in such media of popular culture as the Astérix comic books of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. Playing on the glamorous image created by cinema, the authors satirize the fascination that Cleopatra exercises on those around her, focusing especially on her nose and exaggerating her queenly status by depicting her as capricious and temperamental, far-removed from the ideal of the seductive woman so often imagined. In a more general manner, this image of Egyptian women, forceful, behind a mysterious and magical veil, and exercising a seductive power, continues to this day, for example in the American series Stargate SG-1, or again in Luc Besson's film The Fifth Element (1997). Fashion designers are also regularly inspired by the iconography of Egyptian women, who have become an esthetic point of reference. == Royal women (in chronological order) == * First dynasty of Egypt ** Merneith, daughter of Djer, wife of Djet, mother of Den * Third dynasty of Egypt ** Djefatnebti, wife of Huni * Fourth dynasty of Egypt ** Meresankh I, second wife of Huni, mother of Sneferu ** Hetepheres I, wife of Sneferu, mother of Khufu ** Meritites I, wife of Khufu, mother of Kawab, Baufra, Djedefhor and Meresankh II ** Henutsen, second wife of Khufu, mother of Khufukhaf I and Khafre ** Nubet, fourth wife of Khufu, mother of Khentetenka, Djedefra and Hetepheres II ** Khamerernebti I, wife of Khafre, mother of Menkaure ** Khamerernebti II, second wife Khafre then wife of Menkaure ** Khentkaus I, wife of Shepseskaf then of Userkaf, mother of Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure * Fifth Dynasty of Egypt **Nimaethap II unknown husband * Eleventh dynasty of Egypt ** Neferu, wife of Intef II, mother of Intef III ** Iah, wife of Intef III, mother of Mentuhotep II ** Tem, first wife of Mentuhotep II, mother of Mentuhotep III ** Neferu, second wife and sister of Mentuhotep II ** Achaït or Ashayt, concubine of Mentuhotep II, also a priestess of the goddess Hathor ** Imi, wife of Mentuhotep III, mother of Mentuhotep IV * Twelfth dynasty of Egypt ** Neferet or Nofret, wife of a priest in Thebes, Senousret, mother of Amenemhat I ** Neferitatjenen, principal wife of Amenemhat I, mother of Senusret I ** Dedyet, other wife of Amenemhat I, possibly also his sister ** Neferu III, wife of Senusret I, mother of Amenemhat II ** Itakaiet, daughter or wife Senusret I ** Neferusobek, Neferuptah, Nenseddjedet, daughters of Senusret I ** Khenemetneferhedjet I, daughter of Amenemhat II ** Neferet II, wife of Senusret II ** Khenemetneferhedjet I, wife of Senusret II, mother of Senusret III ** Sithathoryunet, daughter of Senusret II ** Mereret or Meriret or Merit, wife of Senusret III ** Sithathormerit, daughter of Senusret III ** Sobekneferu, daughter of Amenemhat III, wife of her own brother Amenemhat IV * Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt ** Nubhotepti I, wife of Hor ** Senebhenas I, wife of Khendjer ** Senebhenas II and Neni, wives of Sobekhotep III ** Senebsen, wife of Neferhotep I ** Tjan, wife of Sobekhotep IV ** Aya, wife of Intef ** Sitmut, wife of Mentuhotep V *Fourteenth dynasty of Egypt ** Tati, wife of Sheshi * Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt ** Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti * Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt ** Noubkhaes II, wife of Sobekemsaf I ** Sobekemsaf, wife of Antef VII ** Noubemhet, wife of Sobekemsaf II ** Tetisheri, daughter of Tienna and Neferu, wife of Senakhtenre Tao I ** Ahhotep I, daughter of Senakhtenre Tao I, sister and wife of Seqenenre Tao II ** Ahmose-Nefertari, daughter of Seqenenre Tao II and of Ahhotep I, sister and wife of Ahmose I, mother of Amenhotep I and Ahmose-Sipair * Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt ** Ahmose-Meritamon daughter of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of her brother Amenhotep I ** Ahmes, possible sister of Amenhotep I, wife of Thutmose I, mother of Hatshepsut and Amenemes ** Mutnofret, second wife of Thutmose I, mother of Thutmose II ** Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmose I and of Ahmes, wife of her half-brother Thutmose II, mother of Neferure and Merytre- Hatshepsut ** Isis, second wife of Thutmose II, mother of Thutmose III ** Mutemwiya, wife of Thutmose IV, mother of Amenhotep III ** Tiyi (wife of Amenhotep III), wife of Amenhotep III ** Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton * Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt ** Satre, wife of Ramses I, mother of Seti I ** Tuya, wife of Seti I ** Nefertari, wife of Ramses II ** Isetnofret, second wife of Ramses II, mother of Merenptah ** Twosret, wife of Seti II * Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt ** Berenice I, wife of Ptolemy I, mother of Arsinoe II and of Ptolemy II ** Arsinoe I, wife of Ptolemy II, mother of Ptolemy III ** Berenice II, daughter of Magas, King of Cyrene and of Arsinoe, wife of Demetrios the Just, brother of the King of Macedonia then of Ptolemy III, mother of Arsinoe III and of Ptolemy IV ** Cleopatra I, wife of Ptolemy V ** Cleopatra II, wife of Ptolemy VI then of Ptolemy VIII ** Cleopatra III, second wife of Ptolemy VIII ** Cleopatra IV of Egypt, wife of Ptolemy IX ** Cleopatra V, second wife of Ptolemy IX ** Berenice III, wife of Ptolemy X ** Cleopatra VI of Egypt, wife of Ptolemy XII ** Berenice IV, second wife of Ptolemy XII ** Cleopatra VII, wife of Ptolemy XIII then of Ptolemy XIV, Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, mother of Ptolemy XV ** Cleopatra VIII, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony, wife of Juba II, King of Numidia == See also == *Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt * Women in Egypt == Bibliography == * Joyce Tyldesley, Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt, Penguin (1995) * Gay Robins, Women in Ancient Egypt, Harvard University Press (1993) * Carolyn Graves-Brown, Dancing for Hathor: Women in Ancient Egypt, Continuum (2010) === Sources === * Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, La femme au temps des pharaons, Stock, 1986 * Pierre Montet, La vie quotidienne en Égypte au temps des Ramsès, Hachette, 1946 == References == == External links == *Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF) Ancient Egypt Category:Ancient Egyptian women Egypt
|
thumb|Carbon footprint scale of meat eating thumb|Carbon footprint scale of transportation means The carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) serves as an indicator to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted from an activity, product, service, company or country. For a product, its carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption. Similarly for an organization, its carbon footprint includes the direct as well as the indirect emissions caused by the organization (called Scope 1, 2 and 3 in the Greenhouse Gas Protocol that is used for carbon accounting of organizations). Several methodologies and online tools exist to calculate the carbon footprint accurately. In practical terms, the carbon footprint of products could help consumers decide which product to buy if they want to be climate aware. In the context of climate change mitigation activities, the carbon footprint can help distinguish those economic activities with a high footprint from those with a low footprint. In other words, the carbon footprint concept allows everyone to make comparisons between the climate-relevant impacts of individuals, products, companies, countries etc. The carbon footprint is commonly expressed as the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) and is meant to sum up the total greenhouse gas emissions (not just carbon dioxide) caused by economic activities, events, organizations, services etc. In other definitions, only the carbon dioxide emissions are taken into account but not those of other greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.IPCC, 2022: Annex I: Glossary [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020 To calculate the carbon footprint, the following methods are used: The Greenhouse Gas Protocol includes three carbon emission scopes (the direct carbon emissions, called Scope 1) and the indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2 and 3). The difference between Scope 2 and 3 is that Scope 3 emissions are those indirect emissions that are derived from the activities of an organization but that stem from sources which they do not own or control.Green Element Ltd., What is the Difference Between Scope 1, 2 and 3 Emissions? , published 2 November 2018, accessed 11 November 2020 Other calculations methods are the life cycle analysis (LCA) and consumption-based emissions accounting which is based on input-output analysis. For example, analysis of global supply chains is possible using consumption-based accounting through input-output analysis assisted by using today’s super-computing capacity. A strength of comprehensive carbon footprint reporting (including Scope 3 emissions) is that it does away with loopholes of current systems: International transport is currently not included in countries’ GHG inventories for the UNFCCC. GHG emissions in those inventories are from activities in the country (called territorial-based accounting or production-based accounting) rather than taking account of production of goods and services (that may be imported) on behalf of residents, which is called consumption-based accounting. Under this kind of comprehensive carbon footprint reporting (also called consumption- based carbon accounting), emissions are relegated to final demand, namely to those that consume the goods and services. == Definition == Scientists proposed the following definition of a carbon footprint in 2011: "A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (GWP100)." In the definition of carbon footprint, some scientists include only CO2, but more commonly several of the important greenhouse gases are included. The various greenhouse gases are made comparable by using carbon dioxide equivalents over a relevant time scale, like 100 years. Some organizations use the term greenhouse gas footprint or climate footprint to emphasize that all greenhouse gases are included, not just carbon dioxide. In comparison, the IPCC in 2022 uses a definition for carbon footprint which only includes carbon dioxide: The carbon footprint is defined there as the "measure of the exclusive total amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the lifecycle stages of a product." The IPCC report's authors chose to adopt the same definition that had been proposed in 2007 by two scientists from the UK. Those scientists had pointed out that there was no clear definition of the term yet. In their definition, only carbon dioxide was included in the analysis. Their reasoning for not including other greenhouse gases was that those are more difficult to quantify. They also states that an inclusion of all greenhouse gases would make the carbon footprint indicator less practical. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol also includes all of the most important greenhouse gases: "The standard covers the accounting and reporting of seven greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PCFs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)." === Types of greenhouse gas emissions === The greenhouse gas protocol is a set of standards for tracking greenhouse gas emissions. The standards divide emissions into three scopes (Scope 1, 2 and 3) within the value chain. Those greenhouse gas emissions caused directly by the organization/company itself (e.g. by burning fossil fuels) are referred to as Scope 1. The emissions caused indirectly by an organization, e.g. by purchasing secondary energy sources (e.g. electricity, heat, cooling or steam) and the associated emissions are called Scope 2. Lastly, the indirect emissions associated with upstream or downstream processes are called Scope 3. ==== Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1) ==== Direct or Scope 1 carbon emissions come from sources that are directly from the site that is producing a product or delivering a service. An example for industry would be the emissions related to burning a fuel on site. On the individual level, emissions from personal vehicles or gas burning stoves would fall under Scope 1. ==== Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2 and 3) ==== Indirect carbon emissions are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the process being studied, also known as Scope 2 or Scope 3 emissions. Scope 2 emissions are the indirect emissions related to purchasing electricity, heat, and/or steam used on site. Examples of upstream, indirect carbon emissions may include: Transportation of materials/fuels, any energy used outside of the production facility, wastes produced outside of the production facility. Examples of downstream, indirect carbon emissions may include: Any end-of-life process or treatments, product and waste transportation, emissions associated with selling the product. Scope 3 emissions are all other indirect emissions derived from the activities of an organization but from sources which they do not own or control. The GHG Protocol's Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Accounting and Reporting Standard allows companies to assess their entire value chain emissions impact and identify where to focus reduction activities. Scope 3 emission sources include emissions from suppliers and product users (also known as the value chain). Transportation of goods, and other indirect emissions are also part of this scope. In 2022 about 30% of US companies reported Scope 3 emissions. The International Sustainability Standards Board is developing a recommendation that Scope 3 emissions be included as part of all GHG reporting. == Purpose == The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans who are burning fossil fuels.Allen, M.R., O.P. Dube, W. Solecki, F. Aragón-Durand, W. Cramer, S. Humphreys, M. Kainuma, J. Kala, N. Mahowald, Y. Mulugetta, R. Perez, M.Wairiu, and K. Zickfeld, 2018: Chapter 1: Framing and Context. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre- industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 49-92. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.003. Additional contributions to increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere include deforestation as well as agricultural and industrial practices, for example cement production. The two most notable greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane. The carbon footprint concept allows comparisons between the climate-relevant impacts of individuals, products, companies, countries etc. For example, a carbon footprint label on products could enable consumers to choose those products with a lower carbon footprint if they wanted to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. Scope 3 carbon emissions (or indirect carbon emissions) refer to emissions throughout the extended upstream and downstream supply chain and in most cases comprise the majority of emissions. For most countries, businesses and consumers, the vast majority of emissions do not come from Scope 1 (on site) or Scope 2 (energy supplied directly to the company in the production of the goods or services) activities. Once the size of a carbon footprint is known, a strategy can be devised to reduce it. Investigations from 2009 indicate that a major part of GHG emissions arise from “indirect supply chains” so if one focuses only on first or second levels of production, not all emissions of importance will be detected thus limiting mitigation activities. For large companies (e.g. clothing and automobile) to fully report their carbon footprints would require examination of more than 100,000 supply chain pathways – which is much more than the Scope 1 and 2 levels, where most footprint assessments around the world are currently focused. === Development === The term carbon footprint was first used in a BBC vegetarian food magazine in 1999, though the broader concept of environmental footprint had been used since at least 1979. The concept and name of the carbon footprint was derived from the ecological footprint concept.Wiedmann, T. and Minx, J. (2008). A Definition of 'Carbon Footprint' . In: C. C. Pertsova, Ecological Economics Research Trends: Chapter 1, pp. 1-11, Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge NY, USA. While carbon footprints are usually reported in tons of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per year, ecological footprints are usually reported in comparison to what the planet can renew. This assesses the number of "earths" that would be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint. The carbon footprint can be treated as one component of the ecological footprint. The carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators, which also include ecological footprints, water footprints, land footprints and material footprints. The importance of displacement of carbon emissions – also referred to as carbon leakage – has been known for some years. Researchers have amassed evidence in terms of other environmental indicators such as air pollution, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, raw material, and energy depletion. Researchers have pointed out that "the general direction of impact displacement is from developed to developing countries". Increasingly, social impacts have been quantified indicating rich consumers often benefitting from goods or services, the footprints of which are not normally detected. Extending triple-bottom-line reporting from economic and environmental to social impacts, it is possible to quantify the consumer's implication in child labor, global inequality, occupational injuries and deaths and poverty worldwide. To bring global, rigorous oversight to carbon footprint reporting, an International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) has formed out of the International Financial Reporting Standards, which will require companies to report on their Scope 3 emissions. The ISSB has taken on board criticisms of other initiatives in its aims for universality, consolidating the Carbon Disclosure Standards Board, the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board and the Value Reporting Foundation, complementing the Global Reporting Initiative and being influenced by the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures. It was reported in early 2023 that once the draft standards have been finalized, countries such as Britain and Nigeria were already preparing to adopt them. In a Scope 3 emissions standard, the ISSB is planning a second Standard in the future, focused on other material sustainability issues, such as human rights. === Strengths === The carbon footprint addresses concerns of carbon leakage unlike the Paris Agreement which does not identify this. Carbon leakage occurs when importing countries outsource production to exporting countries. For example, countries can make it look like their GHG emissions are reducing by moving dirty industries (those that emit a lot of greenhouse gases) abroad, but when you look at their emissions from a consumption perspective they could be increasing not decreasing.Wiedmann, T., Wood, R., Lenzen, M., Minx, J., Guan, D. and Barrett, J. (2007) Development of an Embedded Carbon Emissions Indicator – Producing a Time Series of Input-Output Tables and Embedded Carbon Dioxide Emissions for the UK by Using a MRIO Data Optimisation System, Report to the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs by Stockholm Environment Institute at the University of York and Centre for Integrated Sustainability Analysis at the University of Sydney, June 2008. Defra, London, UK Scholars have argued that consumption-based accounting (including all Scope 3 emissions) should be used in addition with production-based for shared producer and consumer responsibility. For example, currently countries report on their annual GHG inventory to UNFCCC based on their territorial emissions (also called territorial-based approach or production-based approach). However, it would be beneficial to include consumption-based calculations in the requirements to close loopholes (e.g. to address the challenge of carbon leakage). Another example is that the Paris Agreement currently does not force countries to include in their national totals the GHG emissions associated with international transport. These emissions are reported separately and not subject to limitation and reduction commitments of Annex 1 Parties under the Climate Convention and Kyoto Protocol. The carbon footprint methodology includes GHG emissions associated with international transport. This means it assigns emissions caused by international trade to the importing country. == Calculation methods == thumb|The carbon footprint explained The calculation of the carbon footprint of a product, service or sector requires expert knowledge and careful examination of what is to be included. For calculating personal carbon footprints, several free online carbon footprint calculators exist. Software exists that can routinely quantify Scope 3 emissions and assist consultants and researchers in modelling global sustainability footprints. However, to achieve 95% carbon footprint coverage, it would be necessary to follow up on 12 million individual supply-chain contributions (based on analyzing 12 sectoral case studies). The Scope 3 calculations can be made easier using input-output analysis, a technique which was originally developed by Nobel-Prize winning economist Wassily Leontief. === Consumption-based emission accounting based on input-output analysis === thumb|upright=1.5|Consumption-based CO₂ emissions per capita, 2017Consumption- based emission accounting (also called consumption-based carbon accounting) traces back the impacts of demand for goods and services to the end consumer. It places responsibility to demand along the global supply chain all the way to the end consumer. In contrast, a production-based approach to calculating GHG emissions is not a carbon footprint analysis: The production-based approach (also called territorial-based approach) only includes impacts physically produced in the country in question. 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Consumption-based accounting redistributes the emissions from production-based accounting and considers that emissions in another country are necessary for the home country’s consumption bundle. Consumer- based accounting is based on input-output analysis and is used at the highest levels for any economic research question related to environmental or social impacts. Analysis of global supply chains is possible using consumption-based accounting through input-output analysis assisted by using super-computing capacity. Input-output analysis (IO) was created by Nobel Prize-winning economist Wassily Leontief to demonstrate the relationship between consumption and production in an economy. It incorporates the entire supply chain, using input-output tables from countries’ national accounts and international data such as UN Comtrade and Eurostat. Input-output analysis has been extended globally to multi-regional input-output analysis (MRIO), aided by innovations and technology enabling the analysis of billions of supply chains. Standards set by the United Nations underpin this analysis. The analysis enables a Structural Path Analysis which scans and ranks the top supply chain nodes and paths, conveniently listing the hotspots for urgent action. Input-output analysis has increased in popularity because of its ability to interrogate global value chains. One example for a suitable tool is the Sustainable Consumption and Production Hotspot Analysis Tool (SCP-HAT) which includes a number of socio-economic and environmental indicators.Piñero, P., Sevenster, M., Lutter, S., Giljum, S. (2021). Technical documentation of the Sustainable Consumption and Production Hotspots Analysis Tool (SCPHAT) version 2.0. Commissioned by UN Life Cycle Initiative, One Planet Network, and UN International Resource Panel. Paris. It offers calculations that are either consumption-based (i.e. following the carbon footprint approach) or production-based. The database of the SCP-HAT tool is underpinned by input- output analysis. This means it includes Scope 3 emissions. The IO methodology is also governed by UN standards and is based on input-output tables of countries' national accounts and also international trade data such as UN Comtrade, so it is comparable worldwide. === Combination with life cycle analysis (LCA) === thumb|Life cycle analysis: The full life cycle includes a production chain (comprising supply chains, manufacture, and transport), the energy supply chain, the use phase, and the end of life (disposal, recycle) stage. In general, Life cycle assessment or LCA (also known as life cycle analysis) is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. Some widely recognized procedures for LCA are included in the ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards. A standard called ISO 14040:2006 has the framework for conducting an LCA study. ISO 14060 family of standards provides further sophisticated tools for quantifying, monitoring, reporting and validating or verifying of GHG emissions and removals. Greenhouse gas product life cycle assessments can also comply with specifications such as Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 and the GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard."PAS 2050:2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services". BSI. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013."Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard" . GHG Protocol. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013. An advantage of LCA is the high level of detail that can be obtained on-site or by liaising with suppliers. However, LCA has been hampered by the artificial construction of a boundary after which the impact of no further upstream suppliers are considered. This can introduce significant truncation errors. LCA has been combined with input-output analysis (IO), thereby enabling on-site detailed knowledge to be incorporated, where known, while IO connects to global economic databases to incorporate the entire supply chain. == Critique == Consumers may think that the carbon footprint is a proxy for environmental impact, however there are many examples where this is not correct. There can in fact be trade-offs between reducing the carbon footprint and environmental protection goals. For example, whilst biofuel is a renewable energy source and can reduce the carbon footprint of energy supply, it can nevertheless pose ecological challenges during its production as it is often produced in monocultures with ample use of fertilizers and pesticides. Another example are offshore wind parks that could have unintended impacts on marine ecosystems. Critics argue that the original aim of promoting the personal carbon footprint concept was to shift responsibility away from the corporations and institutions and onto personal lifestyle choices. This is because the idea of a personal carbon footprint was popularized by a large advertising campaign of the fossil fuel company BP in 2005, designed by Ogilvy. It instructed people to calculate their personal footprints and provided ways for people to "go on a low-carbon diet". This strategy, also employed by other major fossil fuel companies, has been criticized for trying to shift the blame for negative consequences of those industries onto individual choices. Geoffrey Supran and Naomi Oreskes of Harvard University have argued that concepts such as carbon footprints "hamstring us, and they put blinders on us, to the systemic nature of the climate crisis and the importance of taking collective action to address the problem". The term carbon footprint has been applied to limited calculations that do not include Scope 3 emissions or the entire supply chain. This can lead to claims of misleading customers with regards to the real carbon footprints of companies or products. == Reported values == Greenhouse gas emissions, and hence humanity's carbon footprint has been increasing during the 21st century. This is problematic as greenhouse gas emissions lead to increasing global temperatures and other effects of climate change. The Paris Agreement states that global temperatures must be capped at 1.5-2 °C by 2100 to attempt to prevent runaway climate change; this is the equivalent of net zero carbon emissions by 2050 and at least 45% reduction in emissions by 2030. Carbon footprints can be calculated at different scales: for whole countries, for cities, neighborhoods and also for sectors, companies and products. === Greenhouse gas emissions overview === === By products === The Carbon Trust has worked with UK manufacturers to produce "thousands of carbon footprint assessments". As of 2014 The Carbon Trust state they have measured 28,000 certifiable product carbon footprints. The precise carbon footprint of different textiles varies considerably according to a wide range of factors. Accounting for durability and energy required to wash and dry textile products, synthetic fabrics generally have a substantially lower carbon footprint than natural ones. === By sector === The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report found that global GHG emissions have continued to rise across all sectors, most rapidly in transport and industry. driven by increased global consumption. A key driver of global carbon emissions is affluence, with the IPCC noting that the global wealthiest 10% contribute between about one-third to half (36%–45%) of global GHG emissions. Affluence has been noted by researchers previously as being the key driver of carbon emissions, outpacing the negative impact of population growth and the positive effect of technological developments; continued economic growth mirrors the increasing trend in material extraction and GHG emissions. The IPCC highlighted: “Industrial emissions have been growing faster since 2000 than emissions in any other sector, driven by increased basic materials extraction and production”. === By organization === ==== Carbon accounting ==== === By country === According to the World Bank, the global average carbon footprint in 2014 was about 5 metric tons CO2 per person. The EU average for 2007 was about 13.8 tons CO2e per person, whereas for the U.S., Luxembourg and Australia it was over 25 tons CO2e per person. In 2017, the average for the USA was about 20 metric tons CO2e per person. This is one of the highest per capita figures in the world. The footprints per capita of countries in Africa and India were well below average. To set these numbers into context, assuming a global population around 9–10 billion by 2050 a carbon footprint of about 2–2.5 tons CO2e per capita is needed to stay within a 2 °C target. The carbon footprint calculations are based on a consumption based approach using a Multi-Regional Input-Output (MRIO) database, which accounts for all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the global supply chain and allocates them to the final consumer of the purchased commodities. == Reducing the carbon footprint == thumb|Sign at demonstration: "Go vegan and cut your climate footprint by 50%" === Climate change mitigation === Efforts that aim to reduce the carbon footprint of products, services, organizations etc. are a contribution to limit climate change (climate change mitigation). ===Reducing industry's carbon footprint=== Carbon offsetting can reduce a company's overall carbon footprint by offering a carbon credit. This works by counteracting carbon dioxide emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Reforestation, the restocking of existing forests or woodlands that have previously been depleted, is an example of carbon offsetting. A carbon footprint study using input-output analysis can identify specific and critical areas for improvement because it scrutinizes the entire supply chain. Such an analysis could be used to eliminate the most impactful supply chains, i.e. those with the highest greenhouse gas emissions. == See also == * Carbon intensity * Carbon neutrality *Embedded emissions * Food miles *Greenhouse gas inventory *Individual action on climate change == References == ==External links== * The GHG Protocol Category:Environmental impact of the energy industry Category:Greenhouse gas emissions Category:Environmental indices Category:Environmental terminology Category:Articles containing video clips
|
Brave New World is a role-playing game originally released by Pinnacle Entertainment Group in 1999. The game was sold to Alderac Entertainment Group in 2000. The game is an alternate history superhero game set in a fascist United States of America living in a perpetual state of martial law since the 1960s. Inspired by the Kingdom Come and Batman: The Dark Knight Returns comic storylines, X-Men, Nineteen Eighty-Four, and the political and social upheavals of the 1990s, the game depicts renegade superheroes fighting a corrupt and evil government. The game debuted at the 1999 Gen Con Game Fair in Milwaukee. ==Development== Matt Forbeck left Pinnacle Entertainment Group to move to Alderac Entertainment Group just before the two companies ended their relationship, and sold his Brave New World role-playing game to AEG. ==Alternate history== ===Deltas=== While the history of the Brave New World setting actually diverged from real history in antiquity, the first point of divergence known to the general public was in the trenches of World War I, when a dying soldier discovered he had the power to turn incorporeal. He became the Silver Ghost, the first superhero, a secret spy for the War Department who helped end the Great War months early. He was the first, but soon after the war many other super-powered humans started to appear. Nobody knew from where, but people who were in mortal danger would sometimes begin to manifest superhuman powers. In the early days, in the 1920s and 1930s, most of these new heroes didn't bother to wear disguises, and the government and people were fairly accepting of their vigilante methods. There were super- powered villains appearing, but heroes were always there to keep them in check. This was analogous to the Golden Age of Comic Books. Fairly quickly, scientists began to refer to these super-powered beings as "Homo Delta" or "Deltas", meaning change. Mankind didn't know what these new people were, only that something had changed about them. Then, in the late 1930s, one superhero named "Yankee" was officially deputized as a law enforcement officer by the city of Chicago. Wearing a brightly colored, red, white and blue outfit, he worked with Eliot Ness to bring down Al Capone, and became a powerful role model for other superheroes. ===Alphas=== On December 7, 1941, the US Navy base at Pearl Harbor was destroyed by Imperial Japanese Navy fighters alongside military Deltas. The Third Reich and Imperial Japan had their own Deltas as weapons of war, alongside traditional weapons. The United States was drawn into World War II. Delta Squadron was founded to be the super-powered arm of the United States. America had super soldiers who fought on the battlefields, and some were as strong as entire tanks, or as deadly in the skies as fighters and bombers. In the fall of 1943, the Yankee was captured along with his young sidekick Sparky. They were taken to a concentration camp to be imprisoned and eventually disposed of, as the Nazis considered Delta soldiers, and Deltas who refused to serve the Reich, too dangerous to be kept alive indefinitely like normal prisoners of war. However, after almost two years of torture and interrogation, Yankee and Sparky staged their revolt. At first it seemed like the Yankee and Sparky, along with all the other Deltas, were killed in the resulting battle, but as the Nazis threw the Yankee and Sparky's bodies into the ovens to be incinerated, something incredible happened: out of the charnal fires of the ovens came Superior, the most powerful superhuman ever born. Sparky had somehow come back to life, and come back far more powerful. He was apparently virtually immune to guns, could move at incredible speed, and was as strong as thousands of men. He rescued the Yankee and two other Deltas from the ovens just in time. Then, in a matter of moments, he killed every Nazi at the camp. The Nazi's own Delta guard, Kaptian Krieg, received the distress call, and came to put down what he thought was another Delta uprising, only to be torn limb from limb by Superior. With his incredible new superpowers, he flew to Berlin, fought his way into the bunker of Adolf Hitler, killed him, and then flew across the world to force the surrender of Emperor Hirohito. In only a few hours, he brought the Second World War to a complete end. The Cold War began in the aftermath, much like in the real world. The United States did not develop nuclear weapons for several more years (they didn't need to finish them, as Superior's early victory in the war meant the Manhattan Project was canceled late in development). However, the real arms race was in the new "Alpha" class super-humans. A handful of other "Alphas" emerged at the end of the war, and in the aftermath, and the Soviet Union was able to "create" several new Alphas, none as powerful as Superior, but still enough to challenge him. In 1949 they also detonated an atomic bomb, and the Cold War began in earnest. Even Superior was uncertain he could survive a nuclear blast. The United States quickly finished its own nuclear program, and like the real world, the fear and paranoia of the Cold War gripped the nation. Senator Joseph McCarthy held his HUAC hearings, but the moral superiority of a Delta hero named Patriot eventually shamed him into closing them. ===Forced registration=== The largest divergent point in this alternate history was November 22, 1963. In Brave New World, like in the real world, John F. Kennedy was the subject of an assassination attempt. However, in Brave New World, apparently Kennedy survived the assassination due to the intervention of Superior. Instead of sniper fire, in this world, Lee Harvey Oswald was one of several super-villains in power armor who flew in and destroyed the President's limousine with energy weapons. Superior managed to save the life of the President, but in the aftermath the government decided it must take a much harsher line on dealing with super-humans. The Delta Registration Act was quickly passed by Congress, making it a federal offense worthy of life imprisonment to not register superpowers with the government within seven days of manifesting them. Furthermore, all super-humans essentially had no civil rights, and could be used by the government in any way it felt appropriate. The government created Delta Prime as a super-powered law enforcement agency to control unregistered Deltas. Witch hunts begin to flush out super-humans who had not registered. In these troubled times, a group of heroes emerged to fight for freedom and civil rights. Calling themselves the "Defiance", they were a loosely organized resistance group that opposed having to register their superpowers. Portrayed as domestic terrorists by the government, they were a thorn in the side of the government for decades. In 1966, a battle between Delta Prime forces and the super-villain Devastator (who was responsible for the assassination attempt on Kennedy) ended up with Devastator escaping (although his entire tower in New York City along with four square blocks were destroyed) and thousands of lives being lost. In the aftermath of this, Kennedy declared martial law throughout the country. Stoking fears of Delta terrorists, he was establishing himself as President For Life, ignoring the Constitution, and keeping the people in control by manipulating their fears. He considered everything from the Congress to the Supreme Court of the United States to be merely "advisory" bodies; he would take advice from them, but he would make all the decisions from now on. Protected by a Secret Service detachment of Delta Prime, enforcing his will through hearings and secret trials that made HUAC look "like a Girl Scout meeting", and extrajudicial executions of many prisoners, the United States quickly became a neo-fascist nightmare. A super-powered prison, the "Fortress", a secret supermax prison enhanced with super-science and magic was built somewhere in Nebraska to house Delta and Alpha enemies of the state. ===Disappearance of Alphas=== Then, on July 4, 1976, in many ways, things got even worse. The "Bicentennial Battle" erupted in downtown Chicago, as a showdown between the Devastator, his minions and allies, and Superior and the forces of Delta Prime. Devastator threatened to detonate a mysterious "doomsday bomb" on top of the Sears Tower unless Superior surrendered to him. Of course, Superior would never surrender, but in the middle of the battle, Devastator set off the bomb. In that moment, the entire world changed. Everything within of the Sears Tower vanished without a trace. Buildings, people, plants, everything was gone. A shallow crater was even gouged into the earth, which Lake Michigan immediately flowed into, creating "Chicago Bay". However, at that moment, every Alpha, everywhere on Earth, vanished. Millions of people died, an entire city was destroyed, and the Alpha superheroes, including Superior, which had been America's greatest defender for 30 years, had vanished. Over the next few years, Crescent City would be built on the shores of Chicago Bay (named for the crescent shape it takes when seen from above). The center of superpowered activity on Earth, it would be the headquarters of both Delta Prime and the Defiance. Without Superior and other Alpha superheroes to keep the world relatively calm, global politics collapsed quickly. The Defiance movement (as well as Delta super-villains) were emboldened to act, since they didn't have the mighty Superior to fear, leaving many American cities scarred and blasted from super-powered conflicts. Many nations of the world broke down into open war. The Iron Curtain never fell, instead, in 1988 when the Soviet Union started to dissolve, a bloody military coup restored communist power, and the CIA decided that the General who initiated the coup had to die. The lowest point was in 1989, after the nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl, sabotaged by American Deltas, when a limited nuclear war between the US and USSR broke out. By the time calmer heads prevailed, Atlanta and San Francisco had been destroyed by Soviet nuclear weapons, while the US had destroyed Kyiv and Minsk. The public was told it was an unprovoked first strike, and that the events in Chernobyl were a terrible accident wrongfully blamed on the USA. The Defiance reached its greatest strength after that point, as the development of the Internet in the 1990s made it much easier for Deltas to stay in contact and organize. Secret, encrypted web pages, email, and offshore data havens helped the Defiance movement grow from a loose group of malcontents into a much larger and more organized movement. Kennedy would love to shut down the Internet, but it is too useful for commerce, and the sagging economy of the US needs all the help it can get. ===Outside the United States, 1990 to present=== * In 1996, Nelson Mandela was murdered, ending any chance of a peaceful settlement of apartheid in South Africa, where racial order is enforced by superhuman powers. * Australia is actually quite open and hospitable to Deltas, and is one of the few havens in the world where they are treated as equal citizens, assuming they can make it to Australian soil to claim the offer. * Canada has its own laws requiring registration of Deltas, but they are nowhere near as harsh as American laws. * China is strangely shorthanded with Deltas, compared to other countries, for reasons nobody quite understands. Fearing that the United Kingdom would not return Hong Kong, they staged a military invasion of the island in 1998, which still was ongoing as of the 1999 date of the books. * The European Union never formed, and Europe is a fractious, contentious continent of heavily armed police states, although Norway and Sweden are also havens for Deltas. * Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, but the world was too busy to expel the Iraqi invaders, so Saddam Hussein is slowly building an empire of his own in the Middle East. * The city of Madras in India was destroyed by a nuclear weapon, although it could never be proven it was from Pakistan, so a nuclear war was avoided, barely. * In the aftermath of the Bicentennial Battle, the Emperor of Japan reasserted his power, reasserted his divinity, renounced pacifism, and began to rebuild the Japanese Empire, and the rest of the world had too many problems to be able to stop him. * The Soviet Union still goes strong, with a government which is seemingly immune to coup attempts (with coup or assassination attempts happening frequently). ==Game system== The game system of Brave New World was based on a simplified version of the rules system developed by Pinnacle Entertainment Group earlier in 1996 for Deadlands. Brave New World eschewed the use of poker cards and poker chips, and only used six- sided dice instead of the many polyhedrals of Deadlands. Superpowers were represented as specific "power packages" of thematic powers grouped together, such as "flyer", "speedster" or "blaster" (similar systems of archetypes are found in other superhero games, like City of Heroes). The Brave New World books were mostly black & white, with small glossy color sections that would give exposition about the setting and plot, and very important information, like new power packages. The back of each book contained a "Guide's Handbook", which was information specifically for use by the game master, such as some of the secrets of the setting (see below). The game was published from 1999 until early 2001, when AEG cancelled the line. Author Matt Forbeck has revealed on his web site the general plans for the game when it was canceled, and the direction it was going to take. A coming expansion would feature Superior reappearing in the skies of Crescent City, wounded and exhausted, but alive, and with him would be revealed the truth behind what really happened to him, all the Alphas, the City of Chicago, and eventually reveal where Alphas and Deltas got their powers, and other mysteries of the setting. Matt Forbeck has stated his interest in returning to produce new Brave New World materials, possibly in PDF format, but acknowledges the legal and licensing issues that may make such a project very difficult. However, in 2009, Alderac have released all of the Brave New World books in PDF through DriveThruRPG."Brave New World product listing on RPG Resource". Retrieved 9 August 2009 ==Secrets of the setting== Brave New World books always were intentionally vague about some parts of the setting, implying that there were mysteries that the general public (and player characters) would not know about. The truth to these elements was revealed in the "Guide's Handbook" part of each book. Elements of the setting that were planned, but never published, were revealed on the author's web site in 2004, providing a much clearer picture of the Brave New World setting. The most important secret was that President Kennedy was dead. He really was killed by assassins in 1963. The man who calls himself John F. Kennedy is actually "Facade", an Alpha shapeshifter who Superior convinced to temporarily impersonate the President to allow for a more orderly transfer of office. Facade was not about to give up the most powerful office in the world so lightly, though. Famous Defiance martyr "Patriot", supposedly executed by the government, was secretly rescued by the Defiance and living in hiding, with the Defiance unwilling to reveal he was alive and lose a powerful martyr, and the government being unwilling to admit that one of their biggest enemies was forcibly rescued from New Alcatraz. The reason that the USSR did not fall and that coups have failed is that the Premier is a Delta himself, with superhuman healing as his power. Whenever he is poisoned or shot, he recovers within moments. China actually does have as many Deltas as other nations, but it keeps their existence a closely guarded secret, preserving an illusion of scarcity. Alphas and Deltas got their power from being descended from extra- dimensional entities. In other universes, the laws of physics were different, allowing beings to fly, or shoot beams of energy, or be incredibly strong. When they traveled from universe to universe, they were sometimes mistaken for gods, like they were on Earth. They interbred with the native humans, before being chased away by mysterious "multiversal police" who were an order of being far more powerful, "Omegas", who were as far above Alphas as Alphas were from Deltas. The Multiversal police considered it a serious crime to visit universes that did not natively have superpowers, as it seriously damages the fabric of reality to use superpowers in a world that isn't able to support them. Thus, the gods and monsters of legend and the angels and devils of religions were real, and are not around anymore because they were chased away by other powerful beings. However, most of mankind is descended, however distantly, from at least one of these beings. Most humans have the raw genetic potential to be Deltas and Alphas, but never get the chance. Only the greatest stress could trigger the subconscious to actually use Delta powers, and the same stresses could turn a Delta into an Alpha. While Delta powers were not natural to Earth, their use was not very injurious to the universe. However, mighty Alpha powers were beginning to slowly destroy the world. If something was not done, the world would be destroyed fairly soon. The Multiversal Police returned to Earth, and spoke with Facade (impersonating President Kennedy), explaining the real nature of their powers and the danger their world was in, and they made a deal with him. They provided Facade with a device which would eliminate most of the Alphas and prevent Earth's entire universe from collapsing. This device was handed over to Devastator, being told it was a doomsday bomb, which he activated during the Bicentennial Battle. At the moment the bomb was activated, every Alpha on Earth who was not specially protected (such as being in a special prison) was teleported to a specially prepared pocket dimension, along with everything within of the bomb (the Chicago metropolitan area). Thus, the entire city of Chicago, along with almost all the Alphas on Earth, were imprisoned in a pocket universe, seemingly forever. It was intended for Superior, aided by a quarter century of work by every Alpha formerly on Earth, to escape, and for the truth about Facade, the Multiversal Police, the source of Delta powers to be revealed, and for heroes from Earth to be able to explore other universes, but that book, "Crossroads", never got to be published. ==Reviews== *Pyramid ==References== * * * * Author Matt Forbeck's Notes on the Brave New World game ;Specific Category:Superhero role-playing games Category:Alternate history role-playing games Category:Pinnacle Entertainment Group games Category:Alderac Entertainment Group games Category:Role-playing games introduced in 1999 Category:Apartheid in fiction Category:Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy Category:Dystopian fiction
|
The Grande Seca (English: Great Drought), or the Brazilian drought of 1877–1878, was the largest and most devastating drought in Brazilian history."Drought, Smallpox, and Emergence of Leishmania braziliensis in Northeastern Brazil." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 500,000 people.Amazônia: interesses e conflitos "Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History ." Princeton University Press. Of the 800,000 people who lived in the affected Northeastern region, around 120,000 migrated to the Amazon while 68,000 migrated to other parts of Brazil. The Grande Seca was exacerbated by poorly managed agriculture. Overgrazing, sharecropping, and lack of sustainable agricultural practice compounded the effects of the drought. The majority of the sertão population (sertanejos) were poor sharecroppers, who depended on the winter rains to provide water for crops and cattle. Without adequate preparation the peasants of the sertão were unprepared for extended drought and quickly began to starve. Reactions to the disaster were almost nonexistent. Outside Brazil, news outlets briefly covered the drought. In the most-affected state of Ceará, many pleas for help were written to the Brazilian government, but these were mostly ignored because of political and social biases. When aid eventually arrived, it was poorly distributed. The eventual government response was a bureau to address future droughts in 1909 and building a reservoir. == Causes and contributing factors == === Environmental factors === left|thumb|330x330px|Brazilian sertão in the Northeast The Brazilian Northeast is an area where political and social development has been hindered by the harsh environment of the arid sertão. Characterized by the presence of nine major rivers, among which are the São Francisco and the Parnaíba, the sertão has an average annual temperature of between 20 °C and 28 °C and a maximum of 40 °C. The pluviosity of the area is source of concern for farmers and local governments alike. Although the annual average precipitation is slightly lower than 1,000 mm, the rainy period, which usually lasts just two months a year, is unstable. Sometimes precipitation halts for one year or more, often causing regional droughts. Sustained occurrences of below average water availability can happen in all areas of the country as a consequence of abnormally low precipitation rates and high evaporation rates; but it is in the Northeast where they happen with greater frequency. The zona da mata, which runs along the Northeastern coast and in which major cities are located. In this sub-biome, rains are frequent and vegetation is plentiful. This area does not usually suffer from droughts, but the magnitude of the Great Drought was so great that even the coastal region was impacted. Since the rivers that flow to the coast almost always have their origin in the sertão, a drought in the semiarid and arid sub-regions can extend to the entire Northeastern area. Prior to Portuguese settlement in the 16th century, there were no pressing problems because the predominant caatinga ecosystem was adapted to the cyclical climate. Indigenous groups who inhabited the land were affected by extreme droughts, which forced them to move to the humid coastal region, but these rarely occurred. The Northeast is heavily influenced by the El Niño phenomenon and by the surface temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean. El Niño years are characterized by below-average rainfall in the semiarid zone, which typically averages at 800 mm annually but is concentrated in a brief time period sometimes shorter than two months. During extreme droughts, precipitation can decrease by more than 50%. As a direct consequence of variation in climatic patterns around the world in 1877 parts of Ceará witnessed four days of rainfall from March 18 to March 21. These rains allowed seeds to germinate, but it wasn't enough to sustain agriculture and cattle herds. Much of the vegetation quickly perished. The situation created by increasing human migration to the Northeastern interior made the land more vulnerable to drought. The absence of water impacts agriculture first, but it also has economic, social, and environmental ramifications. Drought is now an integral part of the Northeastern environment and various episodes throughout history have caused serious damage to its states, though they are often forgotten once they pass. Agriculture and pasture outputs go back to normal, giving people a brief sense of security before the next drought arrives. This recurrence of events and behavioral stagnation was named “hydroillogical cycle” by Professor Donald Wilhite of the University of Nebraska.thumb|Children during the drought, 1878|alt=|269x269px At the time of the Great Drought, agriculture in the Northeast consisted mostly of sugarcane, cotton, and subsistence farming. The economic prosperity of the early 19th century called for an increase in arable land, which led to more soil erosion and contributed to the catastrophe of 1877-79. Public officials and experts pointed out the rotinismo—the idea of blindly following tradition without seeking improvement—as an issue which worsened the impacts of the Great Drought. One example of rotinismo is the heavy reliance on single crops, sugarcane and cotton namely, which speeds up soil erosion. Another instance is the lack of attempt to commercialize manioc, which could provide additional income and decrease the need for land usage. Additionally, sertanejos could not take advantage of any functional irrigation systems which they could use to store and ration water, due to lack of both government interest in the region and agricultural knowledge on the part of the farmers. The intensive, ill-suited monoculture and the absence of a robust network of artesian wells, dams, and reservoirs rapidly exacerbated the issues the Great Drought created. Another concern were the vast cattle herds. Before the sugar boom of the 18th and early 19th centuries, cattle herds were predominantly found in the zona da mata. When farmers moved to the coast, the herds were pushed into the sertão which, as Kenneth Webb has argued, “is not really very good for cattle” but was adapted to this use. The cattle population also increased from 1.2 million in 1860 to 2 million in 1876. Legislation was introduced to limit the number of cattle but was largely ignored by farmers who relied on it as a vital source of food. Many hectares of land were required by one cow, and over- grazing easily led to increasingly rapid erosion. In 1877, when winter rains were late, much of the cattle and many crops were destroyed, the soil quickly eroded and the land became drier as a consequence. Ironically, during the early stage of the Great Drought there was abundance of dried beef, but that was the case only because people were killing cattle before the animals became totally unusable. === Social climate === At the time of the Great Drought, the regional difference between Northeast and Southeast was a significant factor in Imperial Brazil and exacerbated the environmental disaster. The Northeast had been the epicenter of the sugar-led economic boom of the 18th century and had also seen an increase in cotton production, which became one of the biggest exports by the 1800s. The Southeast, on the other hand, had developed less recently, and the independent coffee industry had taken over the market, dictating exchange rates and surpassing the once fervent sugar industry and the equally important cotton industry of the Northeast. alt=|thumb|336x336px|Railways in Brazil, 19th century In 1870, the quality of life in the Northeast was similar to that of the South and Southeast; however, this changed very quickly as per capita income in the Northeast fell by 30%, whereas it remained virtually unchanged in the South. Unequal regional development in the 19th century can be seen in the appreciation and devaluation of products in the two regions. In Ceará, per capita product value went from £2.2 in 1872 to £0.8 in 1900, a change of -275%. In São Paulo per capita product value increased from £3.1 to £15.7, a +506% change in the same period. In the 1870s, southern states turned their attention to immigration as a solution to the unavailability of labor for their fast-growing economy. Elites demanded that migrants be brought to the South not from Northeastern provinces but from European and Asian countries. The motivations behind this preference are not totally clear, but Leff and Deutsch blame the racial attitudes on the part of coffee planters who regarded sertanejos as lazy and less productive. Infrastructure in the Southern regions was much more developed and efficient than in the poorer Northeastern states. The first railway was finished in 1854, connecting the Port of Mauá to Raiz da Serra in the province of Rio de Janeiro. By 1900, Brazil had some 20,000 km of track. As shown in Figure 1, the South had a more elaborate railway network which also contributed to the transportation of goods. In contrast, the Northeast’s railroad complex was very limited, serving mostly coastal cities. By 1889, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais—the major coffee-growing provinces—had 65% of the total railroad tracks, compared to only 35% of the rest of the country. The lack of extensive railways in the Northeast meant slower locomotion of goods and people and higher transportation costs. Combined with the low number of navigable rivers and the precariousness of roads in the Northeast, the disparities between the two regions led to the aggravation of the drought. Further, most public officials in the South believed that sertanejos were unwilling to work, which to them explained the slow dynamic of the Northeast’s economy. However, experiencing the absence of infrastructural development first-hand, sertanejos thought that the Imperial government favored Southern states and offered them few if any opportunities to work and better the infrastructure they so desperately needed. The unavailability of government investment in the Northeast is partly due to financial hardships, but for many Northeasterners it was seen as a malicious attempt to slow down economic growth in their land. As a result of regional economic and social inequality, tension between the provinces contributed to the ineffective management of the problems created by the Great Drought. === Economy === The Brazilian economy during the second half of the 19th century focused on exports of raw materials. The domestic market was underdeveloped due to lack of credit and the total self-sustainability of farmers, villages, and cities whose primary sources of food were subsistence agriculture and cattle herding. During the first half of the 19th century, the Imperial government allocated a significant amount of resources to building roads and ports. The former made inter-regional transportation much easier (though almost exclusively in the South) and the latter opened the door for foreign trade. For a country with limited capital, exports were fundamental for the survival of Brazil’s economy. Sugar and cotton were main exports for much of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Coffee, however, made a grand entrance in the early 1900s and grew rapidly, due to, among other factors, the lack of notable competitors around the world, in contrast to the global sugar and cotton industries. It is worth noting that the cotton industry was booming in the 1860s as a consequence of the American Civil War and its repercussions on cotton markets in North America. This quick and illusory economic growth provided enough income to the Northeast but was followed by debt, entrenchment, and stress during the 1870s. With industrialization and the improvement of living standards in Europe and North America, coffee consumption expanded greatly. In the decade of the 1820s, coffee accounted for 19% of total exports, but by 1891, this share had risen to 63%. The product, produced almost exclusively in the three Southeastern provinces of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais, drove sugar and cotton prices down, dragging the Northeast’s economy toward decline shortly before the drought. As Brazil seceded from Portugal and declared independence, Britain began to shorten its distance from the newly independent nation, becoming its principal trading partner and informal protectorate by the mid-1800s. The clearest evidence of British hegemony was exhibited by the financial ties between the two Empires. Right before the Great Drought, 51% of imports came from Britain and 37% of exports were consumed by Britain. Trade deficits in Brazil were "repeatedly financed by punitive British loans whose interest payments generated permanent budget deficits which, in turn, were financed by yet more foreign bonds." The leading exporters were all British and most import houses were financed by British companies and specialized in British imports. Further, by 1870, four British companies owned 72% of Brazil’s railroads, which had been subsidized by British capital. Economic dependence on the British Empire chained Brazil to financial policies that needed to protect British interests. Moreover, the banking system in Brazil was underdeveloped, with 13 out of 20 provinces having no local bank systems. The Bank of Brazil "confined itself to the conservative management of the money supply in the interest of British creditors." The total capital of the entire nation was £48 million, a trifling sum compared to the capital of British banks. Foreign banks were known for their unwillingness to "make long-term loans to agriculture or domestic concerns," conveniently neglecting Brazil when the need for investment was highest. Hence, the inability of the Brazilian government to implement infrastructure projects in many areas of the country was due to the suffocating nature of foreign debt—most of which was tied to Britain—, the primitive banking system, and the volatility of its export income. This financial state contributed to the magnitude of the Great Drought in that it limited the economic growth of the Northeast, increased its people’s vulnerability to drought, and made relief efforts more difficult to carry out. == Charity == Although more of an exception, sertanejos were helped by some of the elite members, such as Rodolfo Teófilo, a pharmacist who developed a vaccine for smallpox and distributed it around the sertão. The majority of the initial aid for the victims of the drought was gathered through civilian charity. Some citizens in the provinces that were less affected, such as Pernambuco, created public subscriptions and sent the money and other relief items collected to the victims through ships without being charged for the transportation. However, the provisions bought were not necessarily "wisely purchased" and soon it became clear that only private charity was not enough to overcome the disaster. == Reaction == The reaction across the world was muted. In Brazil, poor channels of communication and perceived superiority on the part of Brazil’s politically dominant Southeast meant that reports of drought were largely ignored. Outside Brazil, pervasive eurocentrism discouraged reporting on the disaster. In areas of Brazil not affected by the drought, the initial reaction was nonexistent. Elites in southern Brazil saw the drought as a product of northeastern laziness. These elites cited the lack of infrastructure such as deep wells and dams, though construction of these projects was underway prior to the drought. Greenfield writes that Brazilian senators questioned the intelligence of the sertanejos by questioning why they hadn’t built artesian wells. According to Greenfield, the senators' delusion stemmed from extremely different socio-political realities between themselves and the struggling population of the sertão. The drought also brought an end to the popular belief of Brazilian exceptionalism with regard to tropical miasms. The dominant scientific discourse of the time stated that the climate of tropical countries made people lazy and unintelligent and allowed disease to fester. Brazil did not have major epidemics of Smallpox, Yellow Fever, and Cholera between the time of initial contact of Portuguese explorers with the indigenous population (from which the indigenous contracted diseases to which they had no resistance) and the drought. However, in 1878, epidemics swept Brazil. The Great Drought marked the beginning of widespread use of drought relief for patronage. Relief was typically used to reward powerful supporters. Greenfield writes that leaders in local police forces were particularly prone to corruption as they were appointed by the local political leaders. Appointments were made as patronage to key supporters. Drought relief was a lucrative source of government funds, so relief panels commonly used it for their own enrichment. Initially, those government funds were put toward resettling locals on plantations in the hopes of giving them self-sufficiency. Once they flooded the coastal cities and nearby sugar plantations, there was a glut of free labor. Many wealthy plantation owners sold their slaves and hired resettled people as sharecroppers. In the rest of the world, the Great Drought was barely reported. Reporting was Eurocentric and the drought wasn’t causing emigration from Brazil as the Irish Famine did. Sertanejos were typically internally displaced, with many moving to the Amazon in search of work harvesting rubber. One in-depth article appeared in the New York Herald in 1879. Written by American naturalist Herbert Huntingdon Smith, the article described harrowing scenes of "living skeletons", crowded huts filled with migrants, and even cannibalism. The Herald article did not galvanize substantial international aid despite sensational depictions of the drought. The Great Drought is mentioned twice in issues of the Mexican publication La Colonia Española. One article on world affairs reported that the drought was ongoing, while the other mention of the drought is in the context of a drought-resistant tree native to the sertão. In this context, the drought- resistant properties of the tree were the focus of the article rather than the drought itself. == Government response == The Great Drought historically impacted Brazilian public policies related to drought. Greenfield mentions that "the roots of the very definition of drought and relief as national issues, date back to the Great Drought." The Brazilian government only recognized drought in the northeast as a national affair that should receive government attention after the Great Drought. In October of 1877, the first positioning from the Empire to solve the drought was to form a commission with the objective of traveling around Ceará, studying the practical means of supplying enough water provision for the population and the cattle production during droughts, and establishing an irrigation system to always support the cultivation of the land.Pinheiro, L. C. M. Notas Sobre as Secas. Boletim Tecnico do Departamento Nacional de Obras Contra as Secas, Fortaleza, v.20, n.6, p.57-137, 1959. il. This commission was formed by members of the Polytechnic Institute of Rio de Janeiro and other intellectuals from the southeast. The Southeastern intellectual class also formulated the government policies.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p.XVII-XVIII Since these intellectuals were not in the region affected, they could not appreciate what was happening in the northeast, causing governmental aid to be insufficient, and even nonexistent in the initial months of drought.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought. p. XI In fact, after receiving a call for help from some presidents of northeastern provinces, the Imperial government believed that the presidents of the provinces were abusing their relief budgets, and some in the Imperial government believed that the drought did not exist. Even some local politicians believed that the request for relief was premature, as rain could start at any time. By the middle of 1877, the government invested two thousand contos of réis for relief, but due to lack of infrastructure, it was impossible to reach the remote areas.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p. XXIII In January 1878, Joāo Lins Vieira Cansaçāo de Sinimbu, a liberal from Pernambuco, assumed the role of prime minister and created a program for public relief. Sinimbu's program was based on senator Pompeu's idea of lifting up the economic development of the drought region based on cheap and abundant workforce: the retirantes, drought refugees.Souza, J. W. F. (2009) Política e seca no ceará: um projeto de desenvolvimento para o Norte (1869-1905). The program distributed direct relief, such as food and water, as well as indirect relief, such as job opportunities, but only at the regions near the coast, causing an immigration wave to move to the coast. These policies were influenced by the fact that the government was undergoing an economic deficit and facing the payment of foreign loans due the next year.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought P. XXIV Sinimbu's policies were also supported by a moral discourse also created by the elites.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought. P. 21 In the elite's perspective, the sertanejos were lazy, idle, vicious, and indolent.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p. 21-23 Therefore, the best remedy to overcome their laziness and save the government economy would be through "moralizing" work.Relatório … do ministerio e secretaria de estado dos negocios do imperio (Rio de Janeiro, 1878). Translated by Greenfield, G. M Retirantes' labor force was employed in the construction of roads, public buildings, railroads, and even makeshift work camps.Greenfield, G. M. The Great Drought and Elite Discourse in Imperial Brazil p. 380 As the refugees started to gather in the coastal cities, the government implemented another policy that sent the sertanejos to be used as cheap labor in the Amazon, for the extraction of rubber, and in the southeast, for the coffee production. By June 1879, all relief governmental relief was discontinued, although the drought did not end until 1880.Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World, (London: Verso, 2002). After the Great Drought, the northeast was constantly plagued by recurrent drought, (1888-89, 1900, 1903-4) and in 1909, the government created a Inspetoria de Obras Contra as Secas (IOCS).Campos, J. N. B. Paradigms and Public Policies on Drought in Northeast Brazil: A Historical Perspective. N.P. This governmental organ focused mainly on increasing water storage infrastructure, but even today the system continues to be insufficient to promote relief during drought.Brant, S. Assessing Vulnerability to Drought in Ceara, Northeast Brazil The first large public construction responding to the drought is Cedro Dam, which was built in Quixáda, Ceará, between 1881 and 1906. Although the Cedro Dam is no longer being used, it plays an important role as the legacy of historical and cultural memories in Ceará. == Emigration == As the living conditions in the sertão became even more difficult, emigration became the only option for the victims of the drought. By the middle of the summer, in Inhamuns' sertão, for example, only 10% of the population waited at their homes for the drought to be over.Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World, (London: Verso, 2002). P. 84 With the public policies encouraging emigration, retirantes fled to the coastal settlements, to the Amazon, to the Southeast, and to any other settlement in the Northeast that had not been affected by the drought.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought. P. XXI-XXII The emigration provoked by the lack of supplies put pressure on areas that initially were not affected by the drought, causing the spread of the disaster and epidemics.Greenfield, G. M.The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p. 43 The refugees' working conditions were filled with privation and disease, in particular the smallpox, and some policies did not allow sertanejos to receive food without working.Greenfield, G. M.The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p. XXII During the Great Drought, the refugees' workforce was employed the development of hydraulic projects, such as dams, weirs, and reservoirs, as well as railroad lines, under contracts with the private sector.Greenfield, G. M.The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought. P. 69 Mike Davis claims that in the coastal areas of the northeast, as the number of retirantes was increasing, the elite preferred to risk the possibility of losing the surplus workforce over living under an "insurrectionary threat" as the victims assembled, and therefore supported the retirantes relocation to Amazon. == Death toll == right|thumb|Malnourished child, Ceará, 1877. Picture by Joaquim Antônio Correia There is no clear death toll, though a range can be ascertained through the examination of literature written in the late 1870s. Smith, who was on an expedition in Brazil when disaster struck, consequently wrote about the death he witnessed. He claimed "the entire mortality of Ceará" was nearly "500,000, or more than half the population." Smith also states, in an article written for the New York Herald, that "by the 20th of December, [1878] the death rate was 400 per day" in Fortaleza, a popular city for emigration within Ceará. But, as asserted by the Wellington Post, Fortaleza did not provide sanction for all: "at least 200,000 refugees," were forced to "encamp about the larger town," where the "famine mortality… [had] reached twenty per day." In total, the Wellington Post found that the "whole drought" resulted in "as high as 300,000" deaths. Further variation within the statistics is seen through a New York Times' article, "Pestilence and famine in Brazil," which avows "150,000 persons died" from malnutrition, a consequence of the drought. Though the inconsistency between sources may be disconcerting, the variability is understandable and explainable when studying the Grande Seca as a national epidemic rather than a drought. An indication of a national disaster is apparent as the arrival of El Niño and the Great Drought also marked the reappearance of smallpox. In 1878, the midst of the drought, smallpox resurfaced in Ceará, where the thousands of desperate emigrants wedged in refugee camps posed a prime environment for the transmission of disease. With an estimated 95% of Fortaleza's population lacking vaccination, over the next three months over 15,000 lives were claimed by smallpox.Neto, Lira. O poder e a peste: a vida de Rodolfo Teófilo. Fortaleza (Brazil): Edições fundação Demócrito Rocha; 1999. Though smallpox was prevalent throughout Brazil prior to the Grande Seca, it is difficult to ascertain whether the disease would have reappeared so ferociously without the prone to disease, malnourished, condensed population of Ceará. Another cause of discrepancy may be related to Ceará's faulty census in the 19th century, which often omitted the majority of children born pardo because their fathers were unknown, (which is suggestive of masters impregnating their slaves). These unaccounted children skew the population statistics and therefore, the death toll as well. Additionally, since these children were born pardo, it can be assumed if they reached adulthood, they did not hold high socioeconomic status, signifying a higher susceptibility to the disastrous effects of the drought. Furthermore, the children of the unaccounted pardo population were also disadvantaged; with a higher susceptibility to disease, the president of Ceará remarked the "sad truth" of the disproportionate death rate of malnourished children. Another misconstruction is apparent through analyzation of the emigration statistics. Although the vast majority of the population, "an estimated 90 percent," emigrated Ceará during the drought, it is debatable how many citizens survived their journey. Smith's observations of the refugees illustrate their dire means of travel: Overall the roads there came streams of fugitives, men and women and little children, naked, lean, famine-weak, dragging wearily across the plains... They were famished... the children lagged behind in weakness, calling vainly to their panic-wild fathers; then men and women sank and died on the stones. By August 1881, nearly two years post-drought, "50 percent of [refugees] had not returned" home. It may never be possible to verify the survival rate of these displaced citizens. ==Leishmaniasis braziliensis== Leishmania braziliensis is a species of leishmania or leishmaniasis that has emerged in Northeast Brazil. It is an infectious disease that is spread by a parasite in sandflies that use domestic dogs as hosts.Arias, J R et al. “The reemergence of visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil.” Emerging infectious diseases vol. 2,2 (1996): 145-6. The emergence of leishmaniasis in Brazil, specifically the Northeast state of Ceará, is theorized to date back to the Great Drought of the 19th century Brazil. The Grande Seca of 1877 to 1878 led to the mass migration of approximately 55 thousand Brazilians from Ceará to the Amazon for employment on rubber plantations.Smith. “Ceará and the DROUGHT.” BRAZIL, THE AMAZONS AND THE COAST, by HERBERT HUNTINGTON. SCHOLAR SELECT, 2015. The disease is easily and mostly transmitted on plantations in which the people live and work.Schriefer, Albert et al. “Geographic clustering of leishmaniasis in northeastern Brazil.” Emerging infectious diseases vol. 15,6 (2009): 871-6. Direct and primary evidence of Leishmaniasis' existence is extremely minimal as the disease was not known to the Northeast and therefore was not identified and labeled until 1895 in Bahia.Moreira J. Existe na Bahia o Botão de Biskra? Estudo Clinico. Gazeta Médica da Bahia. 1995;254–8 But, even though there was a lack of name- calling evidence, there are still reports of a disease that matches the descriptions of Leishmania braziliensis. In 1827, before the Great Drought, Rabello cites reports from missionaries in the Amazon region seeing people with skin lesions that fit the description of the disease. In 1909, the newly graduated medical student at the time of the drought, Studart, reported a skin condition that has the potential of being Leishmaniasis.Studart G. Climatologia, epidemias e endemias do Ceará. Fortaleza (Brazil): Typographya Minerva; 1909 It is also possible that in combination with a lack of general information and knowledge of the disease to the public plus the mass deaths and burials that occurred from 1877 to 1879, that people were dying of Leishmaniasis without knowing the true cause of their death. On December 10 of 1879, Studart reported seeing more than a thousand people died in one day. It is very possible that a portion of those could have died because of Leishmaniasis. An unknown disease is also mentioned by Herbert Huntington Smith in which he accounts for the causes of deaths for 430 thousand people out of half a million who died and credit the cause of death for the remaining 70 thousand to, "various diseases". Because not many primary sources were preserved, as stated candidly by drought writer João Eudes da Costa, it is very difficult to find sources during this time that directly point to the presence of Leishmaniasis during the Great Drought. Regardless, there is evidence of the disease before and after the drought, so it is highly likely that it was present and exacerbated during the Grande Seca. After contracting and spreading the disease within the plantation, workers then left the Amazon and returned to the Northeast carrying the parasite and introducing the first cases of Leishmania braziliensis to the state. == Aftermath == The Grande Seca not only destroyed the lives and livelihood of Ceará's inhabitants, but the drought dried the economy as well; once a cattle-ranching, agricultural region of Brazil, the Northeast's productions and development were destroyed without precipitation. Various industries and institutions capitalized on the impedimented state of drought survivors, leading this systematic exploitation and manipulation to be coined as the "drought industry", an industry that subsequently profited from "lucrative imperial grants." This issue was most prominent in "agricultural colonies", a government work-relief system which aspired to create "self-supporting" drought migrants. In reality, "fraud on the part of public officials", who were often in cohorts with private contractors, caused the scheme to fail. It was not rare for a colony director to embellish the settlement's population while embezzling supplies necessary to sustain the colony, further incapacitating the sertanejos.Linda Lewin, Politics and Parentela in Paraíba: A Case Study of Family-Based Oligarchy in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), 53-54. After the downfall of "relief schemes", the starving sertanejos fled in desperation to the worker- hunger hands of the rubber barons. In the hot, disease infested Amazon, the emigrants held up the "Amazon elite" and transformed what "would have never been an industry" into an extremely profitable one. According to the Economic History Association, "Brazil sold almost ninety percent of the total rubber commercialized in the world" during the decades following the Great Drought. Though some of this success may be credited to the natural abundance of Hevea trees, the tapping costs became substantially lower as thousands of wretched Cearenses entered the labor force. Though a select few – public officials and rubber barons – profited greatly from the manipulation of cheap labor, the starvation stricken survivors' fortune continued to worsen. An article posted by the Center for Disease Control speculates that the appearance, and eventual spread, of L. braziliensis is credited to immigrants returning from rubber plantations. Though the introduction of the disease was over a century ago, L. braziliensis remains salient: nine Brazilian states report upwards of 1,000 cases per year, with the majority occurring in Ceará.Ministry of Health. Brazil [cited 2007 Jul 29]. http://portal.saude.gov.br/portal/arquivos/pdf/leishmaniose_2006.pdf Additionally, the concurrence of a Leishmaniasis infection with HIV has proven to "shorten the incubation period and increase progression [of HIV]." This is alarming considering the continual increase of HIV in northeastern Brazil, especially in rural areas which experience steep prevalence of L. braziliensis.Ministry of Health. Brazil [cited 2007 Aug 17]. http://www.aids.gov.br/data/documents/storedDocuments/%7BB8EF5DAF-23AE-4891-AD36-1903553A3174%7D/%7B6B12D137-92DF-4CF5-A35A-482AED64CBC0%7D/BOLETIM2006internet.pdf Although the immediate effects of the Grande Seca were detrimental, the country's dismal state persists with the drought's fallout. The Northeast remains an impoverished area, with "77% of the rural population" remaining in moderate poverty and "51% of the rural population in extreme poverty," despite general per capita income increases.OECD: 2005, 'Brazil', OECD Review of Agricultural Policies, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, p. 226. As a whole, the state of Ceará has one of the lowest GDP per capita compared to other Brazilian states, an average of "R$10,473." Considering that "approximately 50% of farmers in Ceará are landless," with many owning "parcels too small to form a viable production unit," these statistics are inevitable.Nelson, D.R.: 2005, The Public and Private Sides of Vulnerability to Drought, an Applied Model of Participatory Planning in Ceará, Brazil, The University of Arizona, Tucson, p. 217. This causes the continuation of victimization of the low-income sertanejos by the government. Many politicians entice Northeasterners through "political clientelism", which fails "to affirm and aid people", but instead "objectifies" sertanejos.Ansell, A. (2018). Clientelism, Elections, and the Dialectic of Numerical People in Northeast Brazil. Current Anthropology, 59(S18). == Analysis of the government's role == === Contemporary === Over a century after the end of the Great Drought, the government's role in the rehabilitation of the people and area still holds importance. It is vital we analyze the policies put forth because "society's approach to drought management is instructive for how it might manage climate change", a predominant issue for the 21st-century global community.Water Supply and Management Drought Preparedness Plans. (2016). Drought and Water Crises Drought in Brazil, 49-65. The first dam—and attempt at implementing a solution to water shortages—was completed in 1906 and was followed by the creation of what is now known as the Departamento Nacional de Obras Contra as Secas (DNOCS) in 1909. The establishment of Federal Inspectorate of Works Against Drought (IFOCS), currently became the National Department of Works Against Drought (DNOCS), aims at providing a technological approach in the water supply infrastructures. In their effort, 275 large dams were constructed between 1909 and 1983. For the duration of the 20th-century, DNOCS primary objective was to "increase water storage infrastructure", which most commonly meant the construction of reservoirs.Brant, Simone. Assessing Vulnerability to Drought in Ceará, Northeast Brazil. (University of Michigan, 2007) Beyond the use of reservoirs – which rarely maintain necessary water storage – a wide array of initiatives have been contrived to minimize the impacts of droughts: "resettlement in the Amazon… integrated rural development programs, credit, education, and health care and promoted non-agricultural income." Though these modern attempts are noteworthy, "the responses are mainly reactive, [and] short-term", causing Ceará to lack "pilot actions with a long-term view."Nelson, D.R.: 2005, The Public and Private Sides of Vulnerability to Drought, an Applied Model of Participatory Planning in Ceará, Brazil (The University of Arizona, Tucson) Although there are currently "public efforts to seek a long-term solution to drought", the afflicted areas still experience environmental issues—lack of agriculture and water shortages—as well as "clientelism" and "widespread corruption and political manipulation."Finan, T.J.; Nelson, D.R. Making rain, making roads, making do: Public and private adaptations to drought in Ceará, Northeast Brazil. Clim. Res. 2001. === Historical === During the 1870s, the Brazilian government's finances were in a "ruinous state."The Wellington Post. (New Zealand), 23 Apr. 1879. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP18790423.2.31.6 With a large budget deficit and defaulting Cabinet, much debate was required to allocate the funds for drought relief in Ceará. Although the Ministry of Empire and the Ministry of Agriculture had each employed 26.9% of its expenditure in drought relief by 1879, the money was not well employed and relief projects failed as the government and the private sector committed fraud and exploitation, respectively.Greenfield, G. M. The Great Drought and Elite Discourse in Imperial Brazil. P. 376Greenfield, G. M. The Great Drought and Elite Discourse in Imperial Brazil. P. 380 Also, when it comes to the formulation of public policies, the provinces in the northeast did not have enough political voice in the National Legislative Assembly, as their seats in the senate were constrained by their small population in comparison to the other southeastern states.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought P. XXLeite, B. W. C. O senado nos finais do imperio (1870-1889) The lack of infrastructure was an obstacle for both the retirantes to escape the drought and the relief to reach the victims, revealing government's abandonment not only during the drought but also before it.Greenfield, G. M. The Great Drought and Elite Discourse in Imperial Brazil. P. 384 The drought was also used as a means to establish lucrative deals in which government benefit their allies or other members of the elite. For example, the president of a national steamship company and a leading commercial association has invested in charity, consequently enhanced his status, as highly government and commercial associations in Rio de Janeiro had strong ties.Greenfield, G. M. The realities of images: Imperial Brazil and the Great Drought p. XXV == See also == *Drought *Agreste *Sertão *Caatinga ==References== ==Further reading== ===Nonfiction=== *Michael H. Glantz; Currents of Change: El Niño's Impact on Climate and Society; published 1996 by Cambridge University Press. *Michael H. Glantz (editor); Drought Follows The Plow: Cultivating Marginal Areas; published 1994 by Cambridge University Press. *Fagan, Brian; Floods, Famines, and Emperors: El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations; published 2000 by Basic Books. *Nicholas G. Arons; Waiting for Rain: The Politics and Poetry of Drought in Northeast Brazil; published 2004 by University of Arizona Press. *Euclides da Cunha, Rebellion in the Backlands ===Fiction=== *Graciliano Ramos, Vidas Secas ("Barren Lives"), novel Category:Northeast Region, Brazil Category:Climate of Brazil Category:1877 in Brazil Category:1877 natural disasters Category:1878 natural disasters Category:1878 in Brazil Category:Droughts in South America Category:Weather events in Brazil Category:19th-century droughts Category:19th-century disasters in Brazil Category:1877 disasters in Brazil Category:1878 disasters in Brazil
|
Liu Zhiyuan () (March 4, 895 – March 10, 948), later changed to Liu Gao (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han (), was the founding emperor of the Shatuo-led Later Han dynasty, the fourth of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the older brother of the Northern Han founder Liu Min. == Background == Liu Zhiyuan was born in 895, during the reign of Emperor Zhaozong of Tang, at Taiyuan. His ancestors were of Shatuo extraction. His father Liu Dian () served as an officer under the major late-Tang warlord Li Keyong the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered at Taiyuan). His mother was a Lady An, likely Liu Dian's wife. He had at least one other brother of the same father (and possibly of the same mother), Liu Chong.New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 18. Lady An — likely after Liu Dian's death — bore a son to a man with the surname of Murong. This half-brother of Liu Zhiyuan's was named Murong Yanchao.Old History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 130. Liu Zhiyuan was said to be serious in his disposition as a young man. He became a guard soldier for Li Keyong's adoptive son Li Siyuan. == During Jin and Later Tang == In 907, Li Keyong's archrival Zhu Quanzhong the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan), who then had the Tang imperial court under his control, seized the throne from Emperor Zhaozong's son and successor Emperor Ai, ending Tang and starting a new dynasty known as Later Liang. Li Keyong and several other warlords refused to recognize him as the new emperor, and Li Keyong, from that on, became effectively the ruler of an independent state of Jin, which, under him and his biological son and successor Li Cunxu, engaged in numerous wars with Later Liang.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 266. In 919, there was a battle at Desheng (德勝, in modern Puyang, Henan), a fortress on the Yellow River that Li Cunxu was trying to enlarge. During the battle, Li Siyuan's son-in-law Shi Jingtang, who served as one of the commanders under him, was stricken by a Later Liang soldier, and his horse's armor was broken. Liu Zhiyuan, who was near Shi at that time, gave Shi his own armored horse, while taking Shi's horse and moving gradually, such that the Later Liang soldiers in pursuit believed that he was leading them into a trap, and broke off the pursuit. From this point on, he became close to Shi.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 271. By 932 — at which point Jin had destroyed Later Liang and taken over its territory as a new state of Later Tang, and Li Siyuan was its emperor — Shi was made the military governor of Hedong. He made Liu and Zhou Gui () the commanders of his guards, entrusting military matters to Liu and financial matters to Zhou.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 278. In 934, by which time Li Siyuan's biological son Li Conghou was emperor, Li Conghou's chiefs of staff Zhu Hongzhao and Feng Yun, suspicious of both Shi and Li Siyuan's adoptive son Li Congke, then the military governor of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), decided to move them to other circuits. They issued a number of orders, moving Li Congke from Fengxiang to Hedong, Shi from Hedong to Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei), and Chengde's military governor Fan Yanguang to Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered in modern Handan, Hebei). Li Congke, fearful of what the consequences might be if he gave up his military command, rebelled. He defeated the first army Li Conghou sent against him, commanded by Wang Sitong, and a second army that Li Conghou sent against him, commanded by Kang Yicheng (), defected and submitted to him. Li Conghou fled the capital Luoyang and headed north, while Shi, hearing of Li Congke's rebellion, was heading toward Luoyang himself, with the intent of bolstering Li Conghou. They encountered each other near Wei Prefecture (衛州, in modern Puyang). Li Conghou was initially pleased at Shi's arrival, but Shi, realizing that it would be difficult to defeat Li Congke at this point, changed his mind and refused to support Li Conghou. Angry at Shi's betrayal, Li Conghou's guards She Shourong () and Ben Hongjin () rebuked Shi and tried to attack him, resulting in a melee in which Sha and Shi's guard Chen Hui () killed each other, and Ben committed suicide. Hearing of the melee, Liu led Shi's guard soldiers in and slaughtered all of Li Conghou's guards. Shi then departed for Luoyang to pay allegiance to Li Congke, while leaving Li Conghou, by himself, at Wei. (Li Congke subsequently declared himself emperor, and ordered Li Conghou's death.) While Li Congke had long disliked and was apprehensive of Shi, he, at the urging of Shi's wife (his sister) the Princess of Wei, and the princess' mother Empress Dowager Cao, returned Shi to Hedong.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 279. In 935, there was an incident where Shi, then with the Hedong army at Xin Prefecture (忻州, in modern Xinzhou, Shanxi) to defend against a potential Khitan incursion, was present with an imperial messenger, who was delivering Li Congke's edict issuing the soldiers summer clothing. As the messenger read the edict, the soldiers instead were chanting, "May you live 10,000 years!" at Shi — a blessing that should have been reserved to the emperor. Shi, in fear that he would be seen as contending to the throne, considered what to do. At the urging of the staff member Duan Xiyao (), Shi had Liu arrest 36 of the leading chanters and execute them. Still, these executions did not calm Li Congke's apprehension of Shi. In 936, believing that Shi might rebel anyway and that he should catch Shi unprepared, Li Congke issued an edict moving Shi from Hedong to Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong) and making the imperial guard general Song Shenqian () the military governor of Hedong. Fearful of the consequences, Shi summoned his key officers and sought their advice. Zhao Ying recommended that he report to Tianping. Xue Rong () was noncommittal. Liu recommended resistance, a recommendation that joined by Sang Weihan, who further suggested that he seek aid from Khitan's Emperor Taizong. Shi agreed, and had Sang draft a petition for him in which he offered to submit to Emperor Taizong as subject and son and to cede Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing) and Hedong's prefectures north of the Yanmen Pass (Yanyun 16 Prefectures) to Khitan. Liu argued against the contents of the petition, finding it too humiliating to submit as a son in addition to be subject, and also finding the cession to be unnecessary, but Shi did not listen to him.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 280. When the Later Tang army, commanded by Zhang Jingda, subsequently arrived at Taiyuan, it put Taiyuan under siege. Shi put Liu in charge of Taiyuan's defenses. It was said that Liu carried out discipline fairly and treated the soldiers equally, such that none resented it and all stayed loyal to Shi. When Shi climbed up the city walls to review its defenses, Liu stated to him, "I see that Zhang Jingda and his ilk built tall fortresses and deep trenches, hoping to make the siege last a long time. They have no other special tactics for us to worry about. May you, Lord, send out messengers to try to manage the external relations. Defending this city is easy, and I, Liu Zhiyuan, can do it myself." Shi held his hand and caressed his back, greatly appreciating him. Later in the year, Emperor Taizong arrived with a Khitan relief army, which engaged the Later Tang army. Shi sent Liu to aid the Khitan army in the engagement, in which the joint Khitan/Hedong forces eventually routed the Later Tang army, killing many. The remnants of the Later Tang army withdrew to Jin'an Base (), near Taiyuan, and the Khitan and Hedong armies then had Jin'an surrounded. Under Liu's suggestion, Shi slaughtered the 1,000 Later Tang soldiers that the Hedong army captured. == During Later Jin == === During Shi Jingtang's reign === In winter 936, Emperor Taizong declared Shi Jingtang the emperor of a new state of Later Jin. As part of Shi's orders establishing an imperial administration, Liu Zhiyuan was made the commander of his guards. Subsequently, after the Later Tang army at Jin'an finally capitulated, and the joint Khitan/Later Jin forces prepared to head south toward the Later Tang capital Luoyang, the former Later Tang general Yang Guangyuan (who had assassinated Zhang Jingda and surrendered) was made the commander of the imperial guards, and Liu made the discipline officer of the guards, but was also given the military governorship of Baoyi Circuit (保義, headquartered in modern Sanmenxia, Henan). Eventually, when the joint army reached Lu Prefecture (潞州, in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), Emperor Taizong decided to head back to Liao with his Khitan army to avoid the Han Chinese from being shocked by the presence of Khitans. As he prepared to leave, he stated to Shi, "Liu Zhiyuan, Zhao Ying, and Sang Weihan are all great contributors to your establishment of the empire. Do not abandon them unless they had major faults." As Shi headed for Luoyang, Li Congke, finding defeat inevitable, committed suicide by immolation with his family and officers closed to him. Shi subsequently entered Luoyang. As part of his initial preparations, he put Liu in charge of the city. It was said that Liu was effective in making sure that the Han soldiers were all properly housed in their camps and that the Khitan support soldiers that Emperor Taizong left for Shi were housed at a temple, with neither the Han nor the Khitan pillaging the people. Within a few days, the city was back in order. In 937, Fan Yanguang, who had initially submitted to Shi, rebelled at Tianxiong. Soon, the general Zhang Congbin () also rebelled near Luoyang and seized control of the city. Shi, who had made Kaifeng his capital, sent Yang to lead the army against Fan and Shi's brother-in-law Du Chongwei against Zhang. At that time, it was said that because of these rebellions (as well as a suppressed mutiny at Hua Prefecture (滑州, in modern Anyang, Henan), the people of the new Later Jin state were in great shock. When Shi asked Liu for his opinions on what to do, Liu responded:Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 281. Liu subsequently imposed strict discipline on the soldiers, such that the imperial guard soldiers did not dare to violate his regulations. Subsequently, Zhang was defeated in battle and died in flight, while Fan surrendered. In fall 937, Liu's military governorship was moved to Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern Xuchang, Henan), and he remained the discipline officer of the imperial guards. In winter 938, he was made the commander of the imperial guards, after Yang was made the military governor of Tianxiong. His military governorship was shortly after moved to Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern Shangqiu, Henan). When, subsequently, Shi bestowed — in the same edict — honorary chancellorships (with the title of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi () on both him and Du, Liu felt insulted that he was named in the same edict as Du, whom he considered to be lacking in achievement and receiving honors only because of his marital relationship with Shi. He therefore initially declined. Knowing that Liu felt insulted, Shi was angered, and considered relieving Liu of his military command. Zhao, however, pointed out Liu's great contribution in defending Taiyuan, urged against Shi's doing so. Shi thereafter had the imperial scholar He Ning visit Liu to deliver the edict again. Liu, realizing the seriousness of the situation, this time accepted with humility.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 282. In 940, Liu was made the defender of Yedu (鄴都, i.e., formerly Tianxiong's capital Wei Prefecture (). In 941, with Shi being apprehensive that An Chongrong the military governor of Chengde, who continuously made an issue of Shi's alliance with Khitan (now known as Liao) would rebel, Liu was moved to Hedong to serve as its military governor. Du, who was Liu's deputy as the commander of the imperial guards at that point, was made the commander of the imperial guards. As this change came at the endorsement of the chancellors Feng Dao and Li Song, Liu became resentful of them. In late 941, as An Chongrong prepared to rebel (in alliance with An Congjin the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangyang, Hubei)), he declared to nearby circuits that he had the support of Tuyuhun, Dada (), and Qibi () tribes. In order to divert the Tuyuhun support from An Chongrong, Liu sent his close associate Guo Wei to meet with the Tuyuhun chieftain Bai Chengfu (), offering to give his people good grazing land (as their prior grazing land, in the northern part of Hedong, had been ceded to Liao) and pointing out that An Chongrong's rebellion was not likely to succeed. Bai was enticed, and left An Chongrong to submit to Liu. Liu settled Bai's Tuyuhun people between Taiyuan and Lan () and Shi () Prefectures (both in modern Lüliang, Shanxi), took Bai's elite soldiers under his own command, and endorsed having Bai be given the military governorship of Datong Circuit (大同, headquartered in modern Datong, Shanxi — but honorary at that time, as Datong had been ceded to Liao). This, as well as the Dada's and Qibi's failure to join An Chongrong, weakened An Chongrong's rebellion, which soon failed.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 283. At this time, Shi Jingtang was very ill. He intended to have his only surviving biological son, Shi Chongrui (), succeed him, and have Feng be the chief chancellor for Shi Chongrui in the coming administration. As part of what he planned, he also drafted an order summoning Liu from Hedong to assist. However, Shi Jingtang's biological nephew and adoptive son Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi suppressed that order and did not have it actually issued. When Shi Jingtang died shortly after, Feng, after consulting the imperial guard discipline officer Jing Yanguang, believed that an older emperor would more appropriate for the state at that time given the frequent rebellions. They thus supported Shi Chonggui as the new emperor. When Liu later found out about this sequence of events, he came to resent the new emperor. === During Shi Chonggui's reign === Under Jing Yanguang's advice, Shi Chonggui took a hard line against Liao, including refusing to submit as a subject (referring to himself only as "grandson," as Shi Jingtang had referred to himself as "son emperor" and honored Liao's Emperor Taizong as "father emperor"), and arresting Liao merchants in Later Jin territory and seizing their assets. It was said that Liu Zhiyuan knew that Jing's advice would eventually bring disaster on the state, but because Jing was the leading chancellor at that point, he did not dare to speak. Instead, he recruited more soldiers to add to the Hedong army, establishing more than 10 corps to defend against the potential Liao attack. In 944, Liao launched a major invasion into Later Jin, anticipating that Yang Guangyuan, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong) and in secret communications with Liao, would rebel and join the Liao operations. As part of the operations, Emperor Taizong, whose main forces headed toward Tianxiong, sent his uncle Yelü Anduan () the Prince of Wei to attack Hedong. As part of the Later Jin defense, Shi Chonggui commissioned Liu as the commander of the operations against You Prefecture (幽州, capital of Lulong) with Du Wei (i.e., Du Chongwei, who changed his name to Du Wei to observe naming taboo for Shi Chonggui), then the military governor of Shunguo Circuit (順國, i.e., Chengde, the name of which was changed to Shunguo after An Chongrong's rebellion) serving as his deputy and Ma Quanjie () the military governor of Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding, Hebei) serving as the disciplinary officer, apparently to try to distract the main Liao operations. However, after Liu, in cooperation with Bai Chengfu, repelled Yelü Anduan's incursion, Liu made no additional action against Liao despite Shi Chonggui's orders to have him join forces with Du and Ma at Xing Prefecture (邢州, in modern Xingtai, Hebei) and to send forces north to attack Liao. Still, after the eventual Liao withdrawal (and Yang's defeat and death), Liu was given the title of the commander of the armies to the north, although he had no actual participation in the overall strategies, as Shi was suspicious of him, stating to close associates, "Given that Taiyuan is not aiding me, he [(i.e., Liu)] must have other plans. If so, it would be good it he carried out soon!" Liu was aware of the alienation, and decided to just be careful and defend Hedong. When Guo Wei saw Liu with worried expressions, he stated to Liu, "Hedong's mountains and rivers are secure to defend. Its people have a military tradition, and it is full of soldiers and horses. When they are at peace, they are diligent in tending the fields. When they are active, they get trained in military matters. This is your asset in becoming the lord of the people. Why do you worry?"Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 284. Shi also created him the title of Prince of Taiyuan, later changed to Prince of Beiping. Meanwhile, due to Bai's contributions in the resistance against Liao, Shi often summoned him to the imperial court and awarded him greatly. As of 946, Bai was defending Hua Prefecture with Zhang Cong'en (), while his Tuyuhun tribespeople were grazing in the Taiyuan-Lan-Shi region. When they violated the law, Liu did not treat them with grace. The tribespeople, knowing that the Later Jin imperial forces were weak and fearing Liu's strictness, considered fleeing back to their former lands (now possessed by Liao). One of the tribal leaders, Bai Kejiu (), whose position in the tribe was only second to Bai Chengfu, first took his own people and fled to Liao. Emperor Taizong commissioned him as the governor of Yun Prefecture (雲州, in modern Datong), to try to entice Bai Chengfu. Liu began to be apprehensive of Bai Chengfu, and he, in consulting with Guo, decided to act against Bai, who, at that point, was said to be so rich that his horses had silver-lined stables. Guo suggested that Liu kill Bai and confiscate his assets for military use. Liu thereafter submitted a secret petition to Shi, stating, "The Tuyuhun keep changing positions, and it is difficult to keep them loyal. Please move them to the interior." Shi ordered that some 1,900 of the Tuyuhun tribespeople be moved to the interior prefectures. Liu then tricked Bai and some of his key followers into the city of Taiyuan, and then falsely accused Bai and four other tribal leaders of planning a rebellion. He had soldiers surround and kill them and their clans, for a total of some 400 people. He seized their assets. Shi issued an edict praising Liu for his actions. It was said that from that point on, the Tuyuhun people were weakened.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 285. Around the same time, Liu's half-brother Murong Yanchao the prefect of Pu Prefecture (濮州, in modern Puyang, Henan), was accused of collecting an unauthorized tax, and making an unauthorized withdrawal from the wheat storage to give to his soldiers. The imperial guard general Li Yantao () long had an adversarial relationship with Murong, and tried to persuade Shi's chief of staff Feng Yu to have Murong executed. Liu submitted a petition to try to save Murong's life. The other chief of staff, Li Song believed that Murong's offenses were shared by many generals throughout the realm, and that if Murong were executed, no one would feel secure. As a result, Murong was spared of his life, but he was stripped of his offices and exiled to Fang Prefecture (房州, in modern Shiyan, Hubei). In 946, Emperor Taizong decided to create a trap for Later Jin. He spread false news that Zhao Yanshou was intending to defect to Later Jin, rumors that were believed by Feng and Li Song. After discussions between Shi Chonggui, Feng, and Li Song, it was agreed that a large army would be launched, commanded by Du, with Li Shouzhen serving as his deputy. Du's army was soon launched, but as it approached Liao territory, was met by a large, highly mobile Liao army commanded by Emperor Taizong himself. It tried to retreat, but became encircled by the Liao army at Zhongdu Bridge (中度橋, in modern Baoding, Hebei). After Emperor Taizong made a promise (which he would eventually repudiate) to have Du made emperor, Du and Li Shouzhen surrendered with their army. As virtually the entire Later Jin imperial army was under Du's command, Kaifeng was left defenseless, and the Liao army advanced quickly toward it. Shi Chonggui, after initially considering summoning Liu but then deciding against it, surrendered, ending Later Jin. == During brief Liao rule of Central Plain == Liao's Emperor Taizong declared himself emperor of China, and most Later Jin military governors submitted to him and went to Kaifeng to pay homage to him; two exceptions were Shi Kuangwei () the military governor of Zhangyi Circuit (彰義, headquartered in modern Pingliang, Gansu), who refused his orders, and He Chongjian () the military governor of Xiongwu Circuit (雄武, headquartered in modern Tianshui, Gansu), who executed his messengers and submitted the circuit to Later Shu. As for Liu Zhiyuan, he firmed up Hedong's defenses and then sent his subordinate Wang Jun to submit three petitions to Emperor Taizong, showing submission. First, he congratulated the Liao emperor on entering Kaifeng. Second, he claimed that he could not leave Taiyuan to come pay homage because Taiyuan was where the Han and the non-Han were mixed and where many soldiers were stationed. Third, he claimed that he was ready to submit tributes to the emperor, but that the Liao general Liu Jiu () was just outside Taiyuan and watching the city, causing the people of the city to be apprehensive, so (he claimed) if Liu Jiu's army were withdrawn, he would submit tributes immediately. In response to Liu's petitions, Emperor Taizong issued an edict praising him, referring to him as "son" in the edict. He also bestowed a wooden cane on Liu — a special award that he had only previously bestowed on Yelü Anduan, as his uncle. Subsequently, Liu sent the deputy defender of Taiyuan, Bai Wenke (), to submit an unusual horse as a tribute. However, Emperor Taizong realized that Liu was still observing the situation and not committing to Liao, and therefore had Bai return and deliver the message from him, stating, "You did not serve the southern dynasty [(i.e., Later Jin)], and now you are not serving the northern dynasty [(i.e., Liao)]. What are you intending?" Guo Wei advised against fully submitting to Liao, stating to Liu, "Barbarians hate us deeply. As Wang Jun opined, the Khitan are greedy and cruel, and they will not have China for long." There were also others who suggested that Liu rise against Liao immediately, but he responded: However, when Zhang Cong'en, then the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in Changzhi, Shanxi), whose territory was close to Luoyang, which Liao controlled, considered going to Kaifeng to pay homage to Emperor Taizong but secretly consulted Liu, Liu stated to him, "I have but a small piece of territory, so how would I dare to oppose the great realm? You, Lord, should go first. I will follow you." Zhang therefore went to Kaifeng. Meanwhile, Gao Conghui, the ruler of the semi-independent realm Jingnan, offered tributes to Emperor Taizong, but also sent messengers to Hedong to encourage Liu to declare himself emperor. When Liu subsequently received the news of He Chongjian's submission to Later Shu and lamented that it was the lack of a Chinese emperor that led to He's submission, his staff members encouraged him to take the throne himself, but he hesitated. Hearing that Emperor Taizong was having Shi Chonggui delivered north to Liao proper, Liu declared that he would launch a campaign and intercept the Later Jin emperor and welcome him back to Taiyuan. Guo Wei and Yang Bin, however, argued to him that right now the people's minds are unsettled, and that if he continued to hesitate, someone else might take advantage of the situation. He agreed, and on March 10 declared himself emperor. (This state would later be known as Later Han, but Liu himself did not declare the name of the state at this point; in fact, stating that he did not want to forget Later Jin, he used Shi Jingtang's era name of Tianfu at this point (while ignoring Shi Chonggui's era name of Kaiyun).) == Reign as emperor of Later Han == === March to Kaifeng === Upon hearing the news that Liu Zhiyuan had declared himself emperor, Liao's Emperor Taizong initially stationed several generals to prepare to impede him. However, the nearby circuits soon began to declare loyalty to Liu. Finding the Han Chinese to be turning against him, Emperor Taizong decided to return to Liao proper, although he left his cousin (his mother Empress Dowager Shulü's nephew) Xiao Han in command at Kaifeng as Xuanwu Circuit's military governor. He fell ill on the way back to Liao proper, and died near Heng Prefecture (恆州, Shunguo's capital). His nephew Yelü Ruan the Prince of Yongkang, after a power struggle with the Han Chinese general Zhao Yanshou, claimed the Liao throne (as Emperor Shizong). Meanwhile, Liu created his wife Empress Li empress. Hearing of Emperor Taizong's departure from Kaifeng, he decided to march toward it, with Shi Hongzhao serving as his forward commander. He marched toward the Luoyang-Kaifeng region. Xiao became fearful and decided that he should withdraw from the region as well, but also believed that if there were no one in command at Kaifeng, the region would fall into turmoil and it would be impossible for him to withdraw. He therefore seized Li Siyuan's youngest son Li Congyi and declared Li Congyi emperor, before departing Kaifeng. Li Congyi's mother Consort Dowager Wang, however, finding the situation hopeless, had Li Congyi demote his own title to Prince of Liang after Xiao left, and submitted a petition welcoming Liu to Kaifeng. Liu subsequently arrived at Luoyang, and sent the general Guo Congyi () to Kaifeng to kill Li Congyi and Consort Dowager Wang, before he headed to Kaifeng himself. === Reign at Kaifeng === Once at Kaifeng, Liu Zhiyuan declared it the eastern capital and Luoyang the western capital. He also declared the name of his state to be Han, but (for the time being) continued to use the era name of Tianfu, stating, "I do not yet have the heart to forget Jin." Meanwhile, the military governors of various circuits continued to submit to him. That included Du Chongwei, who was then the military governor of Tianxiong, but Du was apprehensive because of his prior submission to Liao. When Liu then issued an edict moving him to Guide Circuit and moving Guide's military governor Gao Xingzhou to Tianxiong, Du rebelled and sought aid from the Liao general Yelü Mada (), who had been left in control of Heng by Emperor Shizong. Liu declared a campaign against Du and commissioned Gao as the commander of the army against Du, with Murong Yanchao serving as Gao's deputy. Shortly after, the Han soldiers at Heng rose against Yelü Mada, and he was forced to flee himself, leaving Du supportless. However, Du continued to hold Yedu's defenses, aided by the Liao general Zhang Lian (), who commanded Han Chinese soldiers from You Prefecture and who was particularly against Liu, because Liu had, upon entering Kaifeng, slaughtered the You Prefecture soldiers stationed there. Gao decided to try to surround the city for a long time to force its surrender, rather than force a costly battle. When Liu decided to go to the front himself to oversee the situation (as Du had previously claimed that if Liu came, he would surrender), Du continued to hold the defenses, and an attack advocated by Murong was unsuccessful, so Gao continued his strategy of surrounding the city. By the end of the year, the city was starving, and Du surrendered. Liu, against his own promise that Zhang would be spared, executed Zhang and his officers, although the soldiers were allowed to leave for You. Du was spared, but his assets were confiscated and awarded to the Later Han soldiers. This episode brought a strong criticism from the Song historian Sima Guang, the lead editor of the Zizhi Tongjian: Meanwhile, on Later Han's western border, there was the issue that Zhao Yanshou's son Zhao Kuangzan () the military governor of Jinchang Circuit (晉昌, headquartered in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi) and Hou Yi () the military governor of Fengxiang, both having apprehensions about how they might be received by the Later Han emperor, submitted to Later Shu. In spring 948, Liu sent the imperial guard general Wang Jingchong west to attack Zhao and Hou. As Zhao was preparing to leave his own circuit and head to Later Shi's capital Chengdu, Zhao's staff member Li Su (), however, persuaded Zhao that he should submit to Later Han, pointing out that Later Shu was a smaller state. Zhao therefore sent Li to Kaifeng to pay homage to Liu and to explain his prior actions. After receiving assurances from Liu that he would be accepted, Zhao offered to submit. Hou also changed his mind and resubmitted to Later Han. Liu decided to nevertheless send Wang to the west, under the excuse that the Ganzhou Huigu's emissaries were being intercepted by the Dangxiang (i.e., Dingnan Circuit) and needed escort. He gave Wang secret instructions, "The hearts of Zhao Kuangzan and Hou Yi still cannot be known. When you get there, if they have already departed to come pay homage to me, then do not act further. If they were delaying and observing developments, act as you see fit." When Wang reached the Jinchang capital Chang'an, Zhao had already departed, so Wang took his soldiers as well while trying to decide what to do with Hou, who resisted Later Shu but was also not immediately departing for Kaifeng. While Liu Zhiyuan was on the campaign against Du, his oldest son Liu Chengxun (), who was said to be kind, faithful, gentle, and capable, died. It was said that the people were saddened by Liu Chengxun's passing. Liu Zhiyuan himself was greatly saddened, and it caused him to begin to be ill. By spring 948, he was extremely ill. He entrusted his younger son Liu Chengyou to Su Fengji, Yang Bin, Shi Hongzhao, and Guo Wei, stating, "My remaining breaths are getting short, and I cannot speak much. Chengyou is young and weak, so what happens after my death has to be entrusted to you." He also told them to guard against Du Chongwei. After Liu Zhiyuan died the same day, these officials, without announcing his death, had Du and his sons put to death. Liu Chengyou was created the Prince of Zhou, and shortly after, when Liu Zhiyuan's death was announced, Liu Chengyou succeeded him as emperor. == Family == * Father ** Liu Dian (), posthumously honored Emperor Zhangsheng with the temple name of Xianzu * Mother ** Lady An, Lady Dowager of Wu, posthumously honored Empress Zhangyi * Wife ** Empress Li (created 947), mother of Prince Chengyou * Children ** Liu Chengxùn (劉承訓, note different tone than his brother) (922–948), posthumously created the Prince of Wei ** Liu Chengyou () (931–950), the Prince of Zhou (created 948), later Emperor Yin of Later Han ** Liu Chengxūn (劉承勛, note different tone than his brother) (d. 951), name later changed to Liu Xun (), posthumously created the Prince of Chen by Guo Wei ** Princess Yongning (created 947), posthumously created Princess Qin (created 949) * Adopted Child ** Liu Yun (), biological child of Emperor Gaozu's brother Liu Chong (Emperor Shizu of Northern Han), the Duke of Huaiyin (created 951, executed by Guo Wei 951) ==References== * * Old History of the Five Dynasties, vols. 99, 100. * New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 10. * Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 271, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287. |- |- |- Category:895 births Category:948 deaths Category:Later Han (Five Dynasties) emperors Category:10th-century Turkic people Category:9th-century Turkic people Category:Baoyi jiedushi Category:Later Jin (Five Dynasties) jiedushi Category:Guide jiedushi Category:Hedong jiedushi Category:Zhongwu jiedushi Category:Later Tang people Category:Liao dynasty jiedushi of Hedong Circuit Category:Politicians from Taiyuan Category:Generals from Shanxi Category:Jin (Later Tang precursor) people born during Tang Category:Founding monarchs
|
Jole Richard Hughes (born 17 December 1981), better known by his stage name S3RL (pronounced "Serl"), is an Australian hardcore DJ, record producer, singer and musician from Brisbane. ==Career== S3RL is a UK hardcore musician from Brisbane who performs as "S3RL" (or "DJ S3RL"). The stage name "S3RL" was based on a nickname his cousins gave him when he was little, which derived from his cousins calling him "arsehole". To avoid profanity, they began saying "arserl", and according to S3RL, the word stuck and became his stage name. One of S3RL's most popular tracks is "Pretty Rave Girl" (2006), which uses the melody from "Daddy DJ" (November 1999) by the French dance act of the same name. S3RL has contributed tracks for several UK hardcore compilation series, including the Bonkers series. Some of his other works are "Fantasy Land", "Raver Dimension", "Rainbow Girl", "Friendzoned", "Sek C Raver", "Little Kandi Raver", "Pika Girl", "Keep on Raving Baby", "the Bass and the Melody", "Dopamine", "You Are Mine", "Wont Let You Go", "Bass Slut", "Feel the Melody", "All That I Need" and "MTC" (also known as "Masturbate To Cartoons"). In October 2010, he appeared as a DJ at the inaugural Bam! Festival at Ivory's Rock in southeast Queensland. Many of his songs reference different aspects of Japanese pop culture, such as anime, manga, hentai, and video games. In 2011, he founded his own record label, EMFA Music, through which all of his works are released. In May 2012, the label released "Press Play Walk Away" as a single by S3RL and SynthWulf, a fellow hardcore DJ. As of February 2015, S3RL was ranked 1798 on the "Official Global DJ Rankings" page djrankings.org, which bases its rankings on a number of factors include chart rankings, DJ fees and radio airplay. During mid-2015, his single "Genre Police" (featuring Lexi), which had been issued in Australia in November the previous year, peaked at No. 10 on the Norwegian singles chart. In January 2017, S3RL was announced as a featured artist for the rhythm game, Osu!. In early 2018, S3RL announced that his 2018 tour would be his last, citing a desire to spend more time with his family. Though he advertised it as being his final shows, he clarified that he might be willing to return to the stage after at least two years: "After 2018 I will not do any shows for at least a couple of years, then re-assess the situation to do the occasional show here and there.... For example, if I was booked for a show in 2020 that I could bring my family along to I would consider it, but during the two years off I will not be doing any shows at home or away." He also stated that his music production would be unaffected. In February 2020, S3RL decides to hire contract partners to help him make his new music videos. He notably recruits Aurélien Dacher, a French beatmaker, and they have since created: You Are Mine, Nasty, Dopamine, Wanna Fight Huh, The Bass & The Melody, and S3RL Absolutely Presents. In May 2021, S3RL announced his new label, M4 Music, with the release of "Dance More (Atef Remix)" on 14 May 2021. ==Personal life== S3RL lives in Brisbane, Queensland with his wife Jodie and their two sons. ==Discography== ===Singles=== Year Single Number track NOR Album Catalogue ID ISRC code Product Code BPM Distributor Label 2006 "Transformers" The Nu Breed EP Vol 2 RLNT026 PREEMFA-003 175 Relentless Vinyl 2007 "Keep on Ravin' Baby" Keep on Ravin' Baby EXEDIGI022 GBKQU1159425 175 Executive Digital 2007 "The 2nd Wave" The 2nd Wave EXEDIGI024 GBKQU1159307 175 Executive Digital 2007 "Blast The Noise" Blast The Noise EXEDIGI025 GBKQU1159427 170 Executive Digital 2007 "Weekend has come" Weekend has come EXEDIGI026 GBKQU1159428 175 Executive Digital 2007 "I kiss" I kiss EXEDIGI027 GBTWT0900919 175 Executive Digital 2007 "Neon Genesis" Neon Genesis RLNTDIGI031 GBTWT0900923 175 Relentless Digital 2007 "720 Suicide" 720 Suicide RLNTDIGI038 GBTWT0900930 175 Relentless Digital 2007 "Alternative" Alternative RLNTDIGI039 PREEMFA-015 175 Relentless Digital 2007 "S.L.U.T." S.L.U.T. EXEDIGI029 GBKQU1159308 175 Executive Digital 2007 "Stay" Stay EXE013 GBKQU1159239 175 Executive Records 2007 "God Is Not A DJ" Stay EXE013 GBKQU1159240 175 Executive Records 2007 "Feel The Flow" Feel The Flow EXEDIGI030 GBKQU1159309 175 Executive Digital 2008 "Come on do it" Come on do it EXEDIGI032 GBKQU1159315 175 Executive Digital 2008 "DEVIL" DEVIL EXEDIGI038 GBKQU1159320 175 Executive Digital 2008 "Crank it louder" Crank it louder EXEDIGI039 GBKQU1159275 175 Executive Digital 2008 "What We Do" What We Do EXEDIGI040 GBKQU1159276 175 Executive Digital 2008 "Artificial Energy" Artificial Energy EXEDIGI041 GBKQU1159277 175 Executive Digital 2008 "Come Back Home" Come Back Home EXEDIGI042 GBKQU1159278 175 Executive Digital 2008 "Pretty Rave Girl" Weekend / Into Overdrive / Pretty Rave Girl RLNT037 GBTWT0900865 175 Relentless Vinyl 2008 "Weekend" Weekend / Into Overdrive / Pretty Rave Girl RLNT037 GBTWT0900863 175 Relentless Vinyl 2008 "Into Overdrive" Weekend / Into Overdrive / Pretty Rave Girl RLNT037 GBTWT0900864 175 Relentless Vinyl 2008 "Make you move" Make You Move / Take Me / You'll Never RLNTDIGI046 GBTWT0900938 175 Relentless Digital 2008 "You'll never" Make You Move / Take Me / You'll Never RLNTDIGI046 GBTWT0900939 175 Relentless Digital 2008 "Take me" Make You Move / Take Me / You'll Never RLNTDIGI046 GBTWT0900940 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "Birds & Bees" Birds & Bees EXEDIGI043 GBKQU1159279 175 Executive Digital 2009 "Go Wild" Go Wild EXEDIGI044 GBKQU1159280 175 Executive Digital 2009 "3 to the Floor" 3 to the Floor EXEDIGI045 GBKQU1159281 175 Executive Digital 2009 "I'll Dance With You" I'll Dance With You EXEDIGI046 GBKQU1159282 175 Executive Digital 2009 "Everybody Sing" Everybody Sing AWF002 175 Australia With Force 2009 "Zorba's Dance (Family Guy Mix)" Zorba's Dance (Family Guy Mix) AWF008 175 Australia With Force 2009 "One 2 Tha 3" One 2 Tha 3 AWF021 175 Australia With Force 2009 "Here We Go" Here We Go / Freakshow / It's Time 2 Roll RLNT041 GBTWT0900877 175 Relentless Vinyl 2009 "Freakshow" Here We Go / Freakshow / It's Time 2 Roll RLNT041 GBTWT0900878 175 Relentless Vinyl 2009 "It's Time 2 Roll" Here We Go / Freakshow / It's Time 2 Roll RLNT041 GBTWT0900879 175 Relentless Vinyl 2009 "COH4 Intro" Crush on Hardcore 4 COCD004 175 Crush On 2009 "Keep on Ravin' Baby (VIP Mix)" Crush on Hardcore 4 COCD004 175 Crush On 2009 "Dealer" Little Kandi Raver / Dealer / Le Rock RLNTFREE001 GBTWT0900884 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "Little Kandi Raver" (feat. Tamika) Little Kandi Raver / Dealer / Le Rock GBTWT0900883 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "Le Rock" Little Kandi Raver / Dealer / Le Rock GBTWT0900885 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "The Hardcore Sound" The Hardcore Sound / Seek & Destroy RLNTDIGI054 PREEMFA-046 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "Rave Forever" We All Scream / Rave Forever / Break Em RLNT044 GBTWT0901122 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "We all scream" We All Scream / Rave Forever / Break Em RLNT044 GBTWT0901121 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "Break em" We All Scream / Rave Forever / Break Em RLNT044 GBTWT0901123 175 Relentless Digital 2009 "I Live for the Bass Drum" The S3rl Digital EP 3 EXEDIGI056 GBKQU1159442 175 Executive Digital 2009 "Move With You" The S3rl Digital EP 3 EXEDIGI056 GBKQU1159444 175 Executive Digital 2009 "Remember My Past" The S3rl Digital EP 3 EXEDIGI056 GBKQU1159445 175 Executive Digital 2009 "BeatDrop Music" EFT004 175 EMFA Free 2010 "BeatDrop Music 2010" EFT003 175 EMFA Free 2010 "Pretty Rave Girl (2010 Mix)" RLNTDIGI060 GBTWT0901190 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Welcome To 2morrow" The S3RL Digital EP 4 EXEDIGI063 GBKQU1159272 175 Executive Digital 2010 "My Lucky Star" My Lucky Star RLNTDIGI62 PREEMFA-076 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "How Do You Like Bass" My Lucky Star RLNTDIGI62 PREEMFA-077 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Martini's and Mixed Feelings" My Lucky Star RLNTDIGI62 PREEMFA-078 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Middle of the Night" Middle of the Night AWF037 175 Australia With Force 2010 "Rainbow Girl" (feat. Tamika) The S3RL Digital EP 4 EXEDIGI063 GBKQU1159273 175 Executive Digital 2010 "Stomp Ya Feet" T-T-Techno / Every Single Day / Stomp Ya Feet RLNTDIGI064 GB-TWT0901136 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Every Single Day" T-T-Techno / Every Single Day / Stomp Ya Feet RLNTDIGI064 GB-TWT0901135 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "T-T-Techno" T-T-Techno / Every Single Day / Stomp Ya Feet RLNTDIGI064 GB-TWT0901134 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Line of Blow" In My Life / Line of Blow / Just Fcuk RLNTDIGI067 GBTWT0901138 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "In My Life" In My Life / Line of Blow / Just Fcuk RLNTDIGI067 GBTWT0901137 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Just Fcuk" In My Life / Line of Blow / Just Fcuk RLNTDIGI067 GBTWT0901139 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Every Time I Look at You" Every Time I Look at You / Green Hills / Sek-C Raver RLNTDIGI071 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Green Hills" Every Time I Look at You / Green Hills / Sek-C Raver RLNTDIGI071 175 Relentless Digital 2010 "Sek-C Raver" Every Time I Look at You / Green Hills / Sek-C Raver RLNTDIGI071 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Through the Years" (S3RL & Zero-2) 175 Raven Records 2011 "Mozart on Crack" Hardcore Energy 2 HCNRG002 175 Nu Energy 2011 "Get Stronger" Hardcore Energy 2 HCNRG002 175 Nu Energy 2011 "Good Night" Hardcore Energy 2 HCNRG002 175 Nu Energy 2011 "Can't Bring Me Down" The S3rl Digital EP 5 EXEDIGI64 175 Executive Digital 2011 "Snow White Line" The S3rl Digital EP 5 EXEDIGI64 175 Executive Digital 2011 "Don't Stop" The S3rl Digital EP 5 EXEDIGI64 175 Executive Digital 2011 "It Went" (feat. Jesskah) Bass Slut / It Went / Crazy Ass Bitch RLNTDIGI073 GBTWT0901303 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Bass Slut" (feat. Tamika) Bass Slut / It Went / Crazy Ass Bitch RLNTDIGI073 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Crazy Ass Bitch" (feat. Kato) Bass Slut / It Went / Crazy Ass Bitch RLNTDIGI073 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Let You Go" Let You Go / The Wilhelm Scream / Elf The World / Addict RLNTDIGI076 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "The Wilhelm Scream" Let You Go / The Wilhelm Scream / Elf The World / Addict RLNTDIGI076 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Elf The World" Let You Go / The Wilhelm Scream / Elf The World / Addict RLNTDIGI076 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Addict" Let You Go / The Wilhelm Scream / Elf The World / Addict RLNTDIGI076 175 Relentless Digital 2011 "Finish Him" Finish Him CLOUD002 175 Cloud 9 Recordings 2011 "Pika Girl" EMF001 175 EMFA Music 2011 "Always Picking on Me" EMF002 88 EMFA Music 2011 "SummerBass" EMF003 88 EMFA Music 2011 "Same Never Changes" EMF004 88 EMFA Music 2011 "Happy Hardcore Tonight" EMF005 175 EMFA Music 2011 "Song Without Words" EMF007 88 EMFA Music 2011 "Kamehameha" (feat. Johnny) EMF008 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Want It Harder" EMF009 175 EMFA Music 2012 "MTC" EMF010 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Ready For Love" (feat. Sara) EMF011 87 EMFA Music 2012 "Press Play Walk Away" (feat. SynthWulf) EMF014 88 EMFA Music 2012 "9 Bars of Equador" EMF015 87 EMFA Music 2012 "Shoulder Boulders" EMF016 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Little Kandi Raver 2012" (feat. Sara) EMF017 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Feel The Melody" (feat. Sara) EMF018 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Raver Dimension" (feat. Emcee M) EMF020 87 EMFA Music 2012 "Less Than Three" (feat. Sara) EMF021 88 EMFA Music 2012 "Pump Up The Jams" (feat. Zero2) EMF022 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Request" (feat. MixieMoon) EMF025 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Let The Beat Go" (feat. Johnny) EMF026 175 EMFA Music 2013 "Princess Bubblegum" (feat. Yuki) EMF027 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Doof Doof Untz Untz" EMF029 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Feels Like Heaven" (feat. MoiMinnie) EMF030 88 EMFA Music 2013 "To My Dream" (feat. Sara) EMF031 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Da De Da" (feat. Johnny) EMF032 88 EMFA Music 2013 "I Will Pick You Up" (feat. Tamika) EMF033 88 EMFA Music 2013 "DJ Whore" (feat. Tamika) EMF035 87 EMFA Music 2013 "Forever" (feat. Sara) EMF036 88 EMFA Music 2013 "Friendzoned" (feat. Mixie Moon & MC Offside) EMF037 87 EMFA Music 2014 "Back Track" (feat. Akima.T) EMF038 88 EMFA Music 2014 "Dumbass Statuses" (feat. Filthy Frank) EMF039 88 EMFA Music 2014 "I'll See You Again" (feat. Chi Chi) 1/1 I'll See You Again EMF041 AU8N01100041 175 EMFA Music 2014 "Mr. Vain" (feat. Tamika) EMF042 87 EMFA Music 2014 "Shell Shock" EMF043 88 EMFA Music 2014 "The Legend of Link" (feat. Mixie Moon) EMF044 88 EMFA Music 2014 "Over The Rainbow" (feat. Akima.T) EMF046 160 EMFA Music 2014 "Nightcore This" (feat. Tamika) EMF047 160 EMFA Music 2014 "MTC2" (feat. Sonika) EMF048 160 EMFA Music 2014 "Tell Me What You Want" (feat. Tamika) EMF049 160 EMFA Music 2014 "Public Service Announcement" EMF050 161 EMFA Music 2014 "BFF" EMF053 160 EMFA Music 2014 "Genre Police" (feat. Lexi) 10 EMF052 80 EMFA Music 2015 "Yeah Science" EMF054 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Escape" (feat. Emi) EMF055 87 EMFA Music 2015 "R4V3 B0Y" (feat. Krystal) EMF057 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Old Stuff" (feat. Minto) EMF058 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Hypnotoad" EMF059 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Catchit" EMF60 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Casual Noob" EMF061 88 EMFA Music 2015 "When I Die" (feat. Razor Sharp & Krystal) EMF062 87 EMFA Music 2015 "Candy" (feat. Sara) EMF063 87 EMFA Music 2015 "Next Time" (feat. Zoe VanWest) EMF065 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Intensify" EMF066 88 EMFA Music 2015 "Hentai" EMF067 175 EMFA Music 2015 "Upper Hand 2016" Unknown 175 Unknown 2016 "Starlight Starbright" (feat. Emi & Razor Sharp) EMF068 175 EMFA Music 2016 "Put Your Phones Up" (feat. Minto) EMF069 88 EMFA Music 2016 "Forbidden" (feat. Avanna) EMF071 87 EMFA Music 2016 "Self-Titled" EMF072 88 EMFA Music 2016 "When I'm There" (feat. Nikolett) EMF073 88 EMFA Music 2016 "Chillcore" (feat. Lexi) EMF074 88 EMFA Music 2016 "Nostalgic" (feat. Harri Rush) EMF075 88 EMFA Music 2016 "Click Bait" (feat. Gl!tch) EMF076 87 EMFA Music 2016 "You're My Superhero" (feat. Zoe VanWest) EMF078 88 EMFA Music 2016 "Trillium" (feat. Sara) EMF079 175 EMFA Music 2016 "Space-Time" (feat. Riddle Anne) EMF080 88 EMFA Music 2016 "3 to the Floor (Original Mix)" 1/24 Remastered EXE068 AUVAA1200040 175 Executive Records 2016 "Artificial Energy (Original Mix)" 2/24 Remastered EXE068 Executive Records 2016 "Blast The Noise (Original Mix)" 3/24 Remastered EXE068 175 Executive Records 2016 "Come on Do It (Original Mix)" 4/24 Remastered EXE068 AUVAA1200044 175 Executive Records 2016 "Can't Bring Me Down (Original Mix)" 5/24 Remastered EXE068 175 Executive Records 2016 "Keep on Ravin' Baby (VIP Mix)" 14/24 Remastered EXE068 175 Executive Records 2017 "Inspiration" Inspiration EMF082 AU8N01100082 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Like This" (feat. Krystal) 1/1 Like This EMF083 AU8N01100083 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Where Did You Go" (feat. Charlotte) 1/1 Where Did You Go EMF085 AU8N01100085 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Boomerang" (feat. Lexi) 4/27 Ravestars FSMCD-002 Unknown 175 Future State Music 2017 "Cherry Pop" (feat. Gl!tch) 1/1 Cherry Pop EMF086 AU8N01100086 175 EMFA Music 2017 "All That I Need" (feat. Kayliana & MC Riddle) 1/1 All That I Need EMF087 AU8N01100087 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Well, That Was Awkward" 1/1 Well, That Was Awkward EMF089 AU8N01100088 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Misleading Title" (feat. DEFI BRILATOR) 1/1 Misleading Title EMF090 AU8N01100090 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Music Is My Saviour" (feat. Mixie Moon) 1/1 Music Is My Saviour EMF091 AU8N01100091 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Spoiler Alert" 1/1 Spoiler Alert EMF092 AU8N01100092 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Whirlwind" (feat. Krystal) 1/1 Whirlwind EMF093 AU8N01100093 175 EMFA Music 2017 "Jaded AF" (feat. ChiyoKo MC Riddle) 1/1 Jaded AF EMF094 AU8N01100094 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Through the Years" (S3RL & Zero-2 ft. Yurino) 1/1 Through the Years EMF095 AU8N01100095 175 EMFA Music 2018 "MTC Saga" 1/1 MTC Saga EMF097 AU8N01100097 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Planet Rave" (feat. Renee) 1/1 Planet Rave EMF098 AU8N01100098 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Now That I've Found You" (feat. Déja) 1/1 Now That I've Found You EMF099 AU8N01100099 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Never Let You Go" (feat. Eufeion And Harri Rush) 1/1 Never Let You Go NINJAHCSE002 GBKQU1823075 175 Paul Rodriguez Music Ninja Hardcore 2018 "What is a Dj?" (feat. Jimni Cricket) 1/1 What is a Dj? EMF100 AU8N01100100 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Berserk" (feat. Iceman) 1/1 Berserk EMF102 AU8N01100102 195 EMFA Music 2018 "It's This Again" (feat. Jamie-Rose) 1/1 It's This Again EMF103 AU8N01100103 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Beat All The Odds" (Featuring Kitty amp amp Lovely) 1/1 Beat All The Odds EMF104 AU8N01100104 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Earth B♭" (feat. lexi) 1/1 Earth B♭ EMF105 AU8N01100105 175 EMFA Music 2018 "Scary Movie" 1/1 Scary Movie EMF106 AU8N01100106 175 EMFA Music 2018 "S3RL Remix EP 17" (Technikore, Suae and Fiero Speed) 1/1 S3RL Remix EP 17 EMF107 AU8N01100107 170,175 EMFA Music 2018 "Silicon XX" (feat. Nikolett) 1/1 Silicon XX EMF108 AU8N01100108 175 EMFA Music 2019 "Ravers MashUp" 1/1 Ravers MashUp EMF109 AU8N01100109 EMFA Music 2019 "The Perfect Rave" (feat. Krystal) 1/1 The Perfect Rave EMF110 AU8N01100110 175 EMFA Music 2019 "The Power of Love" (feat. StarStruck) 1/1 The Power of Love EMF112 AU8N01100112 175 EMFA Music 2019 "Avaline" (S3rl & Triple Zero featuring Lindsey Marie) 1/1 Avaline EMF113 AU8N01100113 175 EMFA Music 2019 "And I'm Like" (Outforce & Hartshorn) 1/1 And I'm Like EMF114 AU8N01100114 170 EMFA Music 2019 "My Girlfriend is a Raver" (S3RL x LIDA) 1/1 My Girlfriend is a Raver EMF115 AU8N01100115 175 EMFA Music 2019 "Ghosted DJ" (NeoQor & S3RL feat. Kitty Chan) 1/1 Ghosted DJ 193662672644 QZFYX1995623 175 — Qor Values 2019 "Speechless" 1/1 Speechless EMF116 AU8N01100116 200 Tunecore EMFA Music 2019 "Fan Service" 1/1 Fan Service EMF117 AU8N01100117 175 Tunecore EMFA Music 2019 "I Wanna Stay" (S3RL and Rob IYF (feat. Krystal) 1/1 "I Wanna Stay" EMF118 AU8N01100118 170 EMFA Music 2019 "Again" (S3RL and DK) 1/1 "Again" NEM001 TCAEK1946179 175 Tunecore EMFA Music & DK 2019 "Fire" (Krystal, S3rl, Harri Rush) 1/1 "Fire" EMF119 AU8N01100119 175 Tunecore EMFA Music 2019 "Waifu" (S3RL and Alaguan) 1/1 "Waifu" EMF120 AU8N01100120 175 EMFA Music 2019 "Dance More" (S3RL and Ella) 1/1 "Dance More" EMF121 AU8N01100121 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Sky Rocket" (S3RL and Sara) 1/1 "Sky Rocket" EMF122 AU8N01100122 175 EMFA Music 2020 "You Are Mine" (S3RL feat. Kayliana) 1/1 "You Are Mine" EMF123 AU8N01100123 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Nasty" (S3RL & 5H4RK80Y ft Thylie) 1/1 "Nasty" EMF124 AU8N01100124 175 EMFA Music 2020 "MTC Saga Final Chapter" 1/1 "MTC Saga Final Chapter" EMF125 AU8N01100125 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Dopamine" (S3RL feat. Sara) 1/1 "Dopamine" EMF126 AU8N01100126 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Wanna Fight Huh?" 1/1 "Wanna Fight Huh?" EMF127 AU8N01100127 175 EMFA Music 2020 "The Bass & The Melody" 1/1 "The Bass & The Melody" EMF128 AU8N01100128 EMFA128 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Moonlit Eyes" (Fracus & Darwin vs. S3RL) 2/2 "Moonlit Eyes" MBM07 GBKQU2087118 175 Music Blocks Media 2020 "Predictable Rave Song" (S3RL feat. Tamika) 2/2 "Predictable Rave Song" EMF129 AU8N01100129 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Untouchable" (S3RL feat. Sara & Lida) 1/1 "Untouchable" EMF130 AU8N01100130 175 EMFA Music 2020 "Punch the Gas" (S3RL feat. Brisk) 1/1 "Punch the Gas" EMF131 AU8N01100131 175 EMFA Music 2021 "Party with Us" (S3RL feat. Slen-D) 1/1 EMF132 AU8N01100132 88 EMFA Music 2021 "Won't Let You Go" (S3RL feat. Chi-Chi) 1/1 EMF133 AU8N01100133 175 EMFA Music 2021 "That Feelin" (S3RL and Kayliana) 1/1 EMF134 AU8N01100134 175 EMFA Music 2021 "Schadenfreude" 1/1 "Schadenfreude" EMF135 AU8N01100135 TuneCore EMFA Music 2021 "This One Goes out to You" 1/1 This One Goes out to You EMF136 AU8N01100136 88 EMFA Music 2021 "Endless Summer" (S3RL & DJ Satomi feat. Ukiko) 2/2 "Endless Summer" TRX004 CAHQJ2167739 175 T-Rex 2021 "Tripping on Mushrooms" (S3RL ft Krystal) 1/1 "Tripping on Mushrooms" EMF137 AU8N01100137 175 EMFA Music 2021 "To Your Beat" (S3RL, Hannah Fortune) 1/1 "To Your Beat" EMF139 AU8N01100139 175 EMFA Music 2021 "Otaku Boy" 1/1 "Otaku Boy" EMF140 AU8N01100140 175 TuneCore EMFA Music 2021 "Back of the Macca's" (S3RL, Slen-D) 1/1 "Back of the Macca's" EMF141 AU8N01100141 175 EMFA Music 2022 "Notice Me" (featuring Dorian Electra & Nikolett) 1/1 "Notice Me" EMF142 AU8N01100143 175 EMFA Music 2022 "I Feel Alive" (featuring IgikoPop) 1/1 "I Feel Alive" EMF144 AU8N01100144 175 EMFA Music 2022 "Doki Doki ドキドキ (feat. Kawaiiconic" 1/1 "Doki Doki ドキドキ" EMF145 AU8N01100145 175 EMFA Music 2022 "Random Encounter (feat. NeoQor, IC3MANIA" 1/1 "Random Encounter" EMF146 AU8N01100146 100 EMFA Music 2022 "Let Go (feat. Tamika)" 1/1 "Let Go" EMF147 AU8N01100147 175 EMFA Music === S3RL Remix tracks === Year Artist Title Album Catalog ISRC code Product Code BPM Music Distribution Label 2006 Cascada Everytime We Touch (S3RL Hard Mix) 175 2006 EMF-7 Raver Raver Raver (S3RL Remix) Rippin Up (Kevin Energy Remix) / Raver Raver Raver (S3RL Remix) RLNT033 PREEMFA-007 175 Relentless Vinyl 2007 Cascada Bad Boy (S3RL Remix) Bad Boy (S3rl Remix) RLNTDIGI019 PREEMFA-008 175 Relentless Digital 2007 Perfect Phase Slammer Jammer (S3RL Remix) Slammer Jammer (S3rl Remix) PREEMFA-009 175 Relentless Digital 2007 Alice Deejay Back in my life (S3RL Remix) Back in my life (S3rl Remix) PREEMFA-010 175 Relentless Digital 2007 Smile.DK Butterfly (S3RL Remix) Butterfly (S3rl Remix) PREEMFA-011 175 Relentless Digital 2007 Top Cat 4 & Nex Level Save You (S3RL Remix) Save You (S3rl Remix) EXEDIGI034 GBKQU1159317 175 Executive Digital 2008 The Medic Droid Fer Sure (S3RL Remix) Fer Sure (S3rl Remix) PREEMFA-029 175 EMFA Music 2008 Rampant Rhythm of the Night (S3RL Remix) Rhythm of the Night (S3rl Remix) PREEMFA-031 88 Liquid Hardcore 2009 Starstruck & Lumin8 Feat. JessKah Fantasy Land (S3RL Remix) Fantasy Land (S3RL Remix) AWF015 PREMFA-068 175 Australia With Force 2009 Karaoke Pirates Baby Baby (S3RL Remix) Baby Baby / Get Away RLNTDIGI056 175 Relentless Digital 2009 Haze & Dundlee feat. Rowena Dream Surprise (S3RL Remix) Dream Surprise E.P. RECDIGI001 175 Recycled Digital 2009 Smartyz Close My Eyes (S3RL Remix) Close My Eyes (S3RL Remix) KAN030 175 Kanibalz Digitalz 2009 Audien & Naggy Climax (S3RL Remix) Climax (S3RL Remix) AWF026 PREEMFA-071 175 Australia With Force 2010 Oceania Over The Moon (S3RL Remix) Over The Moon EP AWF029 175 Australia With Force 2010 Matt Luminate feat. MC Whiskey Emcees and Deejays (S3RL Remix) Emcees and Deejays (S3RL Remix) FHC011 175 Fundamental Hardcore 2011 Douglas FM-200 (S3RL Remix) FM-200 / FM-200 (S3RL Remix) / Send Me (Stabilize Remix) NUNRG091 175 NEC Music Nu Energy Records 2012 Breeze & Styles You're Shining (S3RL Bootleg Remix) 7D: The Seven Dimensions of Euphoria 4 (Part 2) 175 bassdrop.ca 2012 X-FIR3 & Jaz EK Safe Sex (S3RL Remix) We R Relentless Presents The Best of X-FIR3 RLNTDIGI084 175 Relentless Digital 2013 Brisk Airhead (S3RL Remix) 7D: The Seven Dimensions of Euphoria 7: Welcome To Hardcore (Part 1) KFA55 GBKQU1314253 175 Incentive Publishing Kniteforce Again (KFA Records) 2014 Project Shadow Calls To Heaven (S3RL Remix) Calls To Heaven (S3RL Remix) JH119 GBLV61400370 175 Copyright Control Justice Hardcore 2014 Project Shadow Feat. Racy The Fix (S3RL Remix) The Fix (S3RL Remix) JH126 GBLV61400423 175 Copyright Control Justice Hardcore 2015 Stephanie Brite Circus Sound (S3RL Remix) The Circus Rave QZFYY1969216 175 — — 2019 Krystal feat. S3RL VS. M-project Heart Attack (Eufeion Remix) Weaponized Soul TFCD013D JPN841900005 175 Terraform Music Terraform Music 2019 S3RL vs M-Project feat. Krystal Time Machine (Eufeion Remix) Weaponized Soul 2 TFCD015D JPN841900016 170 Terraform Music Terraform Music 2019 Outforce, Hartshorn, MC Riddle Keep it Mello (S3RL Remix) The Mello EP TMEP1 GBKQU1955954 175 Copyright Control Justice Hardcore 2019 NeoQor & S3RL Ghosted DJ (feat. Kitty Chan) Ghosted DJ (feat. Kitty Chan) QZHN41919548 175 Qor Values 2019 Disko Warp feat. Fright Ranger Oh Oh Oh Sexy Vampire (S3RL vs JUSTiNB Remix) Oh Oh Oh Sexy Vampire (S3RL vs JUSTiNB Remix) QZHN71958201 175 Disko Warp 2020 DJ Sammy Heaven (S3RL feat Tamika Remix) Heaven (S3RL feat Tamika Remix) EFT011 EFT011 EMFA Free 2021 Little Sis Nora MDMA (S3RL Remix) MDMA (S3RL Remix) SEYOK2100102 175 Universal Music Group Universal Music AB 2021 Dorian Electra ft. Kero Kero Bonito M'Lady (feat. Kero Kero Bonito) (S3RL Remix) M'Lady (feat. Kero Kero Bonito) (S3RL Remix) DORIAN002A 2021 Little Sis Nora Rave in My Garage (S3RL Remix Radio Edit) Rave in My Garage (S3RL Remix Radio Edit) 00602445184026 SEYOK2100402 175 Universal Music Group Universal Music AB === S3RL Mixes === Release Date Title Product code Label 2007-05-12 S3RL Presents EFM001 EMFA Free 2008-05-02 S3RL Now Presents EFM002 EMFA Free 2009-06-10 S3RL Also Presents EFM003 EMFA Free 2010-01-15 S3RL Still Presents EFM004 EMFA Free 2010-04-21 S3RL Continues To Present EFM005 EMFA Free 2010-12-21 S3RL Won't Stop Presenting EFM006 EMFA Free 2011-08-02 S3RL Keeps on Presenting EFM007 EMFA Free 2012-07-05 S3RL F#@%!$ Presents EFM008 EMFA Free 2013-04-12 S3RL Repeatedly Presents EFM009 EMFA Free 2014-05-25 S3RL Chooses To Present EFM010 EMFA Free 2015-07-22 S3RL Presently Presents EFM011 EMFA Free 2016-05-18 S3RL Russe Mix EFM012 EMFA Free 2016-09-23 S3RL 10 Years Mix EFM013 EMFA Free 2017-04-06 S3RL Currently Presents EFM014 EMFA Free 2018-12-06 S3RL Always Presents EFM014 EMFA Free 2019-07-16 3nd of an 3ra EFM015 EMFA Free 2020-09-02 S3RL Absolutely Presents EFM016 EMFA Free 2022-10-20 S3RL Penultimately Presents EFM017 EMFA Free == See also == * List of people from Brisbane * List of record producers * List of turntablists * Music of Brisbane ==References== ==External links== * * * on Myspace * * S3RL on Spotify Category:1981 births Category:20th-century Australian musicians Category:21st-century Australian musicians Category:Australian dance musicians Category:Australian DJs Category:Australian record producers Category:Happy hardcore musicians Category:Hardcore techno musicians Category:Living people Category:Media founders Category:People from Brisbane Category:Electronic dance music DJs
|
thumb|right|250px|The Gillingham team line up before their first ever Football League match in 1920, along with club officials and the local mayor|alt=A football team comprising ten players in striped shirts and one in a shirt of a single colour pose for the camera. Five of the men are standing and the other six seated in front of them. Also posing with them are an elderly man in a bowler hat with a chain of office around his neck, and twelve men in business suits, some of whom are wearing hats. A crowd of spectators is visible behind the group. Gillingham Football Club is an English association football club originally formed in 1893 under the name New Brompton F.C. The club adopted its present name in 1912, and played in the Southern League until 1920, when that league's top division was absorbed into the Football League as its new Division Three. The "Gills" were voted out of the league in favour of Ipswich Town at the end of the 1937–38 season, but returned 12 years later, when that league was expanded from 88 to 92 clubs. Twice in the late 1980s Gillingham came close to winning promotion to the second tier of English football, but a decline then set in and in 1993 the club narrowly avoided relegation to the Football Conference. In 2000, Gillingham reached the second tier of the English league for the first time in the club's history. They went on to spend five seasons at this level, achieving a club record highest league finish of eleventh place in the 2002–03 season before being relegated twice to return to the league's bottom division, known since 2004 as Football League Two. The club has won honours at a professional level namely the Football League Fourth Division championship in the 1963–64 season as well as the Football League Two championship in the 2012–13 season. ==Seasons== Season League League League League League League League League League FA Cup EFL Cup EFL Trophy Other Other Top scorer(s) Top scorer(s) Ref Season Division P W D L GF GA Pts Pos FA Cup EFL Cup EFL Trophy Other Other Top scorer(s) Top scorer(s) Ref 1893–94 New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football New Brompton did not play league football QR1 FA Amateur Cup R3Q Albert Jenner 2 Brown, p. 12. 1894–95 SL Div 2 12 11 0 1 57 10 22 1st QR3 Arthur Rule 22 1895–96 SL Div 1 18 7 4 7 30 37 18 6th QR2 Dave Hutcheson 8 Brown, p. 13, Bradley, Triggs, p. 21. 1895–96 KL Div 1 22 9 3 10 36 42 21 7th QR2 Dave Hutcheson 8 Brown, p. 13, Bradley, Triggs, p. 21. 1896–97 SL Div 1 20 7 2 11 32 42 16 8th QR4 Jack Frettingham 10 Brown, p. 14, Bradley, Triggs, p. 23. 1896–97 TMC 10 2 0 8 21 32 4 5th QR4 Jack Frettingham 10 Brown, p. 14, Bradley, Triggs, p. 23. 1897–98 SL Div 1 22 9 4 9 37 37 22 6th QR5 Jack Frettingham 13 Brown, p. 15, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1897–98 TMC 14 9 2 3 33 15 20 3rd QR5 Jack Frettingham 13 Brown, p. 15, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1898–99 SL Div 1 24 10 5 9 38 30 25 6th R1 Jack Frettingham 14 Brown, p. 16, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1898–99 TMC 16 12 2 2 48 15 26 1st R1 Jack Frettingham 14 Brown, p. 16, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1899–1900 SL Div 1 28 9 6 13 39 49 24 11th QR4 Jack Frettingham 11 Brown, p. 17, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1899–1900 TMC 10 8 1 1 20 6 17 1st QR4 Jack Frettingham 11 Brown, p. 17, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1900–01 SL Div 1 28 7 5 16 34 51 19 12th QR5 Jack Frettingham 14 Brown, p. 18, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1900–01 TMC 6 4 1 1 15 7 9 2nd QR5 Jack Frettingham 14 Brown, p. 18, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1901–02 SL Div 1 30 10 7 13 39 38 27 10th RInt Alf Milward 12 Brown, p. 19, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1901–02 TMC 12 10 1 1 52 7 21 1st RInt Alf Milward 12 Brown, p. 19, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1902–03 SL Div 1 30 11 11 8 37 35 33 6th RInt Charlie Satterthwaite 14 Brown, p. 20, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1902–03 TMC 12 5 1 6 33 42 11 4th RInt Charlie Satterthwaite 14 Brown, p. 20, Bradley, Triggs, p. 406. 1903–04 SL Div 1 34 6 13 15 26 43 25 16th RInt Jim Stevenson 7 Brown, p. 21. 1904–05 SL Div 1 34 11 11 12 40 41 33 9th R1 Walter Leigh 11 Brown, p. 22. 1905–06 SL Div 1 34 7 8 19 20 62 22 17th R2 Bill Marriott 5 Brown, p. 23. 1906–07 SL Div 1 38 12 9 17 47 59 33 16th R2 Dan Cunliffe 15 Brown, p. 24. 1907–08 SL Div 1 38 9 7 22 44 75 25 20th R2 Charlie McGibbon 22 Brown, p. 25. 1908–09 SL Div 1 40 17 7 16 48 59 41 7th QR5 Arthur Pickett 9 Brown, p. 26. 1909–10 SL Div 1 42 19 5 18 76 74 43 12th R1 Albert Court 25 Brown, p. 27. 1910–11 SL Div 1 38 11 8 19 34 65 30 18th R1 John Taylor 15 Brown, p. 28. 1911–12 SL Div 1 38 11 9 18 35 72 31 18th QR4 F.Corbett A.Lee John Taylor 6 Brown, p. 29. 1912–13 SL Div 1 38 12 10 16 36 53 34 15th R1 Arthur Wolstenholme 7 Brown, p. 30. 1913–14 SL Div 1 38 13 9 16 48 49 35 15th R2 Charlie Hafekost 10 Brown, p. 31. 1914–15 SL Div 1 38 6 8 24 43 82 20 20th R1 Sam Gilligan P.Glen 8 Brown, p. 32. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. No competitive football was played between 1915 and 1919 due to the First World War. 1919–20 SL Div 1 42 10 7 25 34 74 27 22nd R1 Arthur Wood 14 Brown, p. 33. 1920–21 Div 3 42 8 12 22 34 74 28 22nd QR6 Tommy Hall 11 Brown, p. 34. 1921–22 Div 3S 42 14 8 20 47 60 36 18th R1 Charlie Freeman 14 Brown, p. 35. 1922–23 Div 3S 42 15 7 20 51 57 37 16th QR6 Tommy Hall Horace Williams 11 Brown, p. 36. 1923–24 Div 3S 42 12 13 17 43 58 37 15th R1 Joe North 17 Brown, p. 37. 1924–25 Div 3S 42 13 14 15 35 44 40 13th QR6 Fred Brown Frank Marshall Tommy Hall 10 Brown, p. 38. 1925–26 Div 3S 42 17 8 17 53 49 42 10th R2 Fred Brown 16 Brown, p. 39. 1926–27 Div 3S 42 11 10 21 54 72 32 20th R2 Bill Arblaster 18 Brown, p. 40. 1927–28 Div 3S 42 13 11 18 62 81 37 16th R3 Jonah Wilcox 28 Brown, p. 41. 1928–29 Div 3S 42 10 9 23 43 83 29 22nd R1 Arthur Dominy 14 Brown, p. 42. 1929–30 Div 3S 42 11 8 23 51 80 30 21st R1 Fred Cheesmur 17 Brown, p. 43. 1930–31 Div 3S 42 14 10 18 61 76 38 16th R2 Harry Loasby 22 Brown, p. 44. 1931–32 Div 3S 42 10 8 24 40 82 28 21st R1 Bill White 9 Brown, p. 45. 1932–33 Div 3S 42 18 8 16 72 61 44 7th R2 George Nicol 28 Brown, p. 46. 1933–34 Div 3S 42 11 11 20 75 96 33 17th R2 Third Division South Cup R1 Sim Raleigh 18 Brown, p. 47. 1934–35 Div 3S 42 11 13 18 55 75 35 20th R1 Third Division South Cup R1 Bill Baldwin 14 Brown, p. 48. 1935–36 Div 3S 42 14 9 19 66 77 37 16th R2 Third Division South Cup R1 George Tadman 18 Brown, p. 49. 1936–37 Div 3S 42 18 8 16 72 61 44 11th R2 Third Division South Cup R2 Jimmy Watson 21 Brown, p. 50. 1937–38 Div 3S 42 10 6 26 36 77 26 22nd R1 Third Division South Cup R2 Jimmy Watson 13 Brown, p. 51. 1938–39 SL 44 29 6 9 104 57 64 3rd QR4 Southern League Cup R2 Harry Rowley 41 Brown, p. 52. 1939–40 SL 3 2 0 1 6 4 4 n/a Southern League Cup R1 Harry Rowley 4 Brown, p. 53. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No further competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. 1945–46 KL 20 18 1 1 111 33 37 1st QR4 Kent League Cup W Vic Hole 29 Brown, p. 55. 1946–47 SL 31 20 6 5 103 45 47 1st R3 Southern League Cup W Hughie Russell 42 Brown, p. 56. 1947–48 SL 34 21 5 8 81 43 47 2nd R3 Southern League Cup GS Hughie Russell 23 Brown, p. 57. 1948–49 SL 42 26 10 6 104 48 62 1st QR4 Southern League Cup SF Hughie Russell 36 Brown, p. 58. 1949–50 SL 46 23 9 14 92 61 55 5th R2 Southern League Cup R2 Harold Williams 18 Brown, p. 59. 1950–51 Div 3S 46 13 9 24 69 101 35 22nd R2 Dave Thomas 21 Brown, p. 60. 1951–52 Div 3S 46 11 13 22 71 81 35 22nd R2 Derek Lewis Dave Thomas 22 Brown, p. 61. 1952–53 Div 3S 46 12 15 19 39 70 40 21st R2 Trevor Long 11 Brown, p. 62. 1953–54 Div 3S 46 19 10 17 61 66 48 10th R1 Ernie Morgan 21 Brown, p. 63. 1954–55 Div 3S 46 20 15 11 77 66 55 4th R2 Ernie Morgan 33 Brown, p. 64. 1955–56 Div 3S 46 19 10 17 61 66 48 10th R1 Ernie Morgan 16 Brown, p. 65. 1956–57 Div 3S 46 12 13 21 54 85 37 22nd R2 Jim Taylor 16 Brown, p. 66. 1957–58 Div 3S 46 13 9 24 52 81 35 22nd R3 Ron Saunders 19 Brown, p. 67. 1958–59 Div 4 46 20 9 17 82 77 49 11th R1 Johnny Edgar 24 Brown, p. 68. 1959–60 Div 4 46 21 10 15 74 69 52 7th R3 Pat Terry 22 Brown, p. 69. 1960–61 Div 4 46 15 13 18 64 66 43 15th R3 R2 Pat Terry 22 Brown, p. 70. 1961–62 Div 4 44 13 11 20 73 94 37 20th R1 R1 Charlie Livesey 15 Brown, p. 71. 1962–63 Div 4 46 22 13 11 71 49 57 5th R3 R1 George Francis 13 Brown, p. 72. 1963–64 Div 4 46 23 14 9 59 30 60 1st R1 R4 Brian Gibbs 18 Brown, p. 73. 1964–65 Div 3 46 23 9 14 70 50 55 7th R2 R1 Brian Gibbs 23 Brown, p. 74. 1965–66 Div 3 46 22 8 16 62 54 52 6th R1 R2 Brian Gibbs 24 Brown, p. 75. 1966–67 Div 3 46 15 16 15 58 62 46 11th R2 R2 Brian Gibbs 17 Brown, p. 76. 1967–68 Div 3 46 18 12 16 59 63 48 11th R1 R2 Brian Gibbs 16 Brown, p. 77. 1968–69 Div 3 46 13 15 18 54 63 41 20th R2 R1 Brian Yeo 18 Brown, p. 78. 1969–70 Div 3 46 13 13 20 52 64 39 20th R5 R2 Mike Green 16 Brown, p. 79. 1970–71 Div 3 46 10 13 23 42 67 33 24th R1 R1 Mike Green 12 Brown, p. 80. 1971–72 Div 4 46 16 13 17 61 67 45 13th R3 R3 Brian Yeo 24 Brown, p. 81. 1972–73 Div 4 46 19 11 16 63 58 49 9th R1 R2 Damien Richardson 14 Brown, p. 82. 1973–74 Div 4 46 25 12 9 90 49 62 2nd R1 R2 Brian Yeo 32 Brown, p. 83. 1974–75 Div 3 46 17 14 15 65 60 48 10th R1 R1 Damien Richardson 21 Brown, p. 84. 1975–76 Div 3 46 12 19 15 58 68 43 15th R2 R2 Damien Richardson Danny Westwood 12 Brown, p. 85. 1976–77 Div 3 46 16 12 18 55 64 44 12th R1 R2 Damien Richardson 18 Brown, p. 86. 1977–78 Div 3 46 15 20 11 67 60 50 7th R2 R1 Ken Price 20 Brown, p. 87. 1978–79 Div 3 46 21 17 8 65 42 59 4th R1 R1 Danny Westwood 19 Brown, p. 88. 1979–80 Div 3 46 14 14 18 49 51 42 16th R1 R2 Ken Price 17 Brown, p. 89. 1980–81 Div 3 46 12 18 16 48 58 42 15th R2 R2 Ken Price 13 Brown, p. 90. 1981–82 Div 3 46 20 11 15 64 56 71 6th R4 R1 Football League Group Cup GS Ken Price Dean White 14 Brown, p. 91. 1982–83 Div 3 46 16 13 17 58 59 61 13th R2 R3 Tony Cascarino 19 Brown, p. 92. 1983–84 Div 3 46 20 10 16 74 69 70 8th R4 R1 R1(S) Dave Mehmet 17 Brown, p. 93. 1984–85 Div 3 46 25 8 13 80 62 83 4th R4 R2 R1(S) Tony Cascarino 20 Brown, p. 94. 1985–86 Div 3 46 22 13 11 81 54 79 5th R3 R2 SF(S) Tony Cascarino 21 Brown, p. 95. 1986–87 Div 3 46 23 9 14 65 48 78 5th R3 R2 SF(S) League play-offs RU Tony Cascarino 30 Brown, p. 96. 1987–88 Div 3 46 14 17 15 77 61 59 13th R3 R2 GS Steve Lovell 27 Brown, p. 97. 1988–89 Div 3 46 12 4 30 47 81 40 23rd R1 R2 R1(S) Steve Lovell 17 Brown, p. 98. 1989–90 Div 4 46 17 11 18 46 48 62 14th R1 R1 R1(S) Steve Lovell 18 Brown, p. 99. 1990–91 Div 4 46 12 11 16 57 60 54 15th R1 R1 R1(S) Steve Lovell 21 Brown, p. 100. 1991–92 Div 4 42 15 12 15 63 53 57 11th R1 R1 R1(S) David Crown 24 Brown, p. 101. 1992–93 Div 3 42 9 13 20 48 64 40 21st R3 R2 GS David Crown 9 Brown, p. 102. 1993–94 Div 3 42 12 15 15 44 51 51 16th R2 R1 GS Nicky Forster 18 Brown, p. 103. 1994–95 Div 3 42 10 11 21 46 64 41 19th R3 R1 R2(S) Chris Pike 18 Brown, p. 104. 1995–96 Div 3 46 22 17 7 49 20 83 2nd R3 R1 GS Leo Fortune-West 15 Brown, p. 105. 1996–97 Div 2 46 19 10 17 60 59 67 11th R3 R4 R1(S) Iffy Onuora 23 Brown, p. 106. 1997–98 Div 2 46 19 13 14 52 47 70 8th R1 R1 R1(S) Ade Akinbiyi 22 Brown, p. 107. 1998–99 Div 2 46 22 14 10 75 44 80 4th R1 R1 SF(S) League play-offs RU Carl Asaba 22 Brown, p. 108. 1999–2000 Div 2 46 25 10 11 79 48 85 3rd QF R2 R1(S) League play-offs W Robert Taylor 18 Brown, p. 109. 2000–01 Div 1 46 13 16 17 47 61 66 13th R4 R2 — Marlon King 15 Brown, p. 110. 2001–02 Div 1 46 18 10 18 64 67 64 12th R5 R3 — Marlon King 20 Brown, p. 111. 2002–03 Div 1 46 16 14 16 56 65 62 11th R4 R3 — Paul Shaw 13 Brown, p. 112. 2003–04 Div 1 46 14 9 23 48 67 51 21st R4 R3 — Patrick Agyemang Paul Shaw Mamady Sidibe Danny Spiller 6 2004–05 Champ 46 12 14 20 45 66 50 22nd R3 R1 — Darius Henderson 9 2005–06 Lge 1 46 16 12 18 50 64 60 14th R1 R3 R2(S) Darren Byfield 14 2006–07 Lge 1 46 17 8 21 56 77 59 16th R2 R1 R1(SE) Michael Flynn 12 2007–08 Lge 1 46 11 13 22 44 73 46 22nd R1 R1 SF(S) Chris Dickson 11 2008–09 Lge 2 46 21 12 13 58 55 75 5th R3 R1 R2(S) League play-offs W Simeon Jackson 21 2009–10 Lge 1 46 12 14 20 48 64 50 21st R3 R2 R2(S) Simeon Jackson 17 2010–11 Lge 2 46 17 17 12 67 57 68 8th R1 R1 R1(S) Cody McDonald 25 2011–12 Lge 2 46 20 10 16 79 62 70 8th R3 R1 R2(SE) Danny Kedwell 14 2012–13 Lge 2 46 23 14 9 66 39 83 1st R2 R2 R1(SE) Danny Kedwell 16 2013–14 Lge 1 46 15 8 23 60 79 53 17th R1 R1 R1(SE) Cody McDonald 17 2014–15 Lge 1 46 16 14 16 65 66 62 12th R1 R2 F(S) Cody McDonald 18 2015–16 Lge 1 46 19 12 15 71 56 69 9th R1 R2 QF(S) Bradley Dack 14 2016–17 Lge 1 46 12 14 20 59 79 50 20th R1 R3 GS Josh Wright 13 2017–18 Lge 1 46 13 17 16 50 55 56 17th R2 R1 R2S Tom Eaves 18 2018–19 Lge 1 46 15 10 21 61 72 55 13th R4 R1 GS Tom Eaves 18 2019–20 Lge 1 35 12 15 8 42 34 51 10th R3 R1 GS Alex Jakubiak 7 2020–21 Lge 1 46 19 10 17 63 60 67 10th R2 R3 R2 Vadaine Oliver 20 2021–22 Lge 1 46 8 16 22 35 69 40 21st R1 R2 GS Vadaine Oliver 11 2022–23 Lge 2 46 14 13 19 36 49 55 17th R3 R4 GS Tom Nichols 6 ==Key== Winners Runners up Promoted Relegated Division shown in bold when it changes due to promotion, relegation or league reorganisation. Top scorer shown in bold when he set or equalled a club record. Key to league record: P – Games played W – Games won D – Games drawn L – Games lost GF – Goals for GA – Goals against Pts – Points Pos – Final position Key to rounds: QR1 – First qualifying round QR2 – Second qualifying round, etc. RInt – Intermediate round R1 – First round R2 – Second round, etc. QF – Quarter-final SF – Semi-final Grp – Group stage GrpS – Group stage (Southern section) R1S – First round (Southern section) R2S – Second round (Southern section), etc. R1SE – First round (South Eastern section) SQF – Quarter-final (Southern section) n/a – Not applicable Key to divisions: Champ – EFL Championship Lge 1 – EFL League One Div 1 – Football League First Division Div 2 – Football League Second Division Div 3 – Football League Third Division Div 3S – Football League Third Division South Div 4 – Football League Fourth Division SL – Southern League KL – Kent League TMC – Thames and Medway Combination ==Notes== ==References== ;General * * ;Specific Seasons Gillingham F.C.
|
The Southeastern Anatolia Project (, GAP) is a multi-sector integrated regional development project based on the concept of sustainable development for the 9 million people (2005) living in the Southeastern Anatolia region of Turkey. According to a governmental source, the aim of the GAP is to eliminate regional development disparities by raising incomes and living standards and to contribute to the national development targets of social stability and economic growth by enhancing the productive and employment generating capacity of the rural sector. The total cost of the project is over 100 billion Turkish lira (TL) (2017 adjusted price), of which 30.6 billion TL of this investment was realized at the end of 2010. The real investment (corrected value) was 72.6% for the end of 2010. (in Turkish) The project area covers nine provinces (Adıyaman, Batman, Diyarbakır, Gaziantep, Kilis, Siirt, Şanlıurfa, Mardin, and Şırnak) which are located in the basins of the Euphrates and Tigris and in Upper Mesopotamia. Current activities under GAP include sectors like agriculture and irrigation, hydroelectric power production, urban and rural infrastructure, forestry, education and health. Water resources development envisages the construction of 22 dams and 19 power plants (nine plants, corresponding to 74% capacity of total projected power output, were completed by 2010) and irrigation schemes on an area extending over 17,000 square kilometres. Seven airports have been built and are currently active. The GAP cargo airport in Şırnak, which is also the biggest in Turkey, has been completed. ==History== thumb|right|180px|Logo of GAP The initial idea and decision to utilize the waters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers came from Atatürk, the founder of the Republic. During the one party era, the need for electrical energy was a priority issue. The Electricity Studies Administration was founded in 1936 to investigate how rivers in the country could be utilized for energy production. The Administration began its detailed studies with the "Keban Dam Project" and established observation stations to assess the flow and other characteristics of the Euphrates. The GAP as it is structured today, was planned in the 1970s consisting of projects for irrigation and hydraulic energy production on the Euphrates and Tigris, but transformed into a multi- sector social and economic development program for the region in the early 80s. The development program encompassed such sectors as irrigation, hydraulic energy, agriculture, rural and urban infrastructure, forestry, education and health. With the development of new GAP Administrative structure in 1988–1989, its basic objectives included the improvement of living standards and income levels of people so as to eliminate regional development disparities (economic inequality) and contributing to national goals such as social stability and economic growth by enhancing productivity and employment opportunities in the rural sector. thumb|right|Location of GAP Tensions between Turkey, Syria and Iraq were raised from time to time due to GAP. Syria and Iraq demanded more water to be released, while Turkey declined so as to form the dam reservoirs. Because of this GAP is one of the world's most well protected dam projects, especially against aircraft. GAP also almost came to a complete halt in the early 1990s due to the high level of Kurdish terrorist (PKK) activities in the region. The PKK is not only blamed for a number of funding cuts as funds were diverted to support the counter-terrorism effort, but is also blamed for damaging several dams and canals, as well as killing engineers working at the dams. A number of economic crises also played a very important part in the delays of GAP. The UN embargo on Iraq (which was lifted after the Second Gulf War) had negative effects on development efforts and region's trade with Middle Eastern countries, which are its natural economic partners. Furthermore, imbalances in public financing delayed the financing needs of the project. Finally, a number of judicial questions needed clearing over the flooding of several historical sites as well as local residences as described in the "Social effect" section. ==Strategic goal== Historically, Southeastern Anatolia was located on the trading route between East and West. The region had been an important source of cultural diversity. However the changes in the trading routes and the agricultural methods ended the old importance of the region. File:The short cut to india (1909). Harran ovasi farmland.png|Irrigation in Harran File:The short cut to india (1909). Harran ovasi well.png|Well and a girl The 1989 Master Plan had aimed to initiate the revitalization of the economic, social and cultural life in the region through an "integrated regional development project". The rise in the income of the region was directly transferred to restoration and revitalization of the cultural activities in the region, instead of moving into the national budget. This master plan did not reach its goals because of the issues stated under the introduction section. However, for this negative perspective, with the international community involvement, project added new dimensions and concepts to the definitions. The concerns and concepts of the environment, sustainability and participation, which were either overlooked or totally absent in the original plan has been added with the UNDP support. The revised "GAP Regional Development Plan" with a new understanding is currently in place. The macro frame of the GAP Regional Development Plan (GAP-RDP) is drawn by 8th Five-Year Development Plan coordinated with the efforts under the "Program for Transition to a Strengthened Economy" prepared as a part of the process for Turkey's accession to the European Union. ==Social effect== The project rests upon the philosophy of sustainable human development, which aims to create an environment in which future generations can benefit and develop. The basic strategies of the project include fairness in development, participation, environmental protection, jobs creation, spatial planning and infrastructure development. In reaching these goals the primary objective of GAP is to normalize levels of development, income, and living standards between the southeastern region and other regions of Turkey. GAP is transforming the region completely by creating economic and social opportunities and promoting business. Critical infrastructure, such as airports and highways, is being constructed to support the development of the region. GAP will provide jobs to an estimated 3.5 million people directly. ==Economic development== ===Irrigation=== GAP is estimated to double Turkey's irrigable farmland. The increase of agricultural activity of GAP in its incomplete state is visible clearly on the USDA graph above. Cotton production increased from 150,000 metric tons to 400,000 metric tons, making the region the top cotton producer. But at the same time other regions declined, which means that Turkey's overall output stayed relatively steady. Image:Turkey- cotton-by-region.png|Cotton production Image:Turkey_cotton_regions.jpg|Cotton regions Image:Dams-GAP.jpg|Locations of Dams Image:Ataturk regions- GAP.jpg|Plains irrigated by the tunnels GAP is supposed to create 17,000 square kilometres (4.2 million acres) of farmland in the Harran plain alone, as visible on two USDA maps above. Reports indicate that, due to irrigation from the Atatürk Dam, harvest yields of cotton, wheat, barley, lentils, and other grains in the Harran plain have tripled. A number of Agriculture Department backed initiatives are encouraging farmers to experiment with new varieties of fruits, vegetables, and nuts that did not exist in the region prior. ===Imports and exports=== The amount of foreign trade of the region is continuously rising since 2002. In 2002, total export from the region was 689 million $ and total imports stood at 773 million $. In 2010, total exports from G.A.P. region reached 4.166 billion $, while imports reached 3.167 billion $. Since 2004 the G.A.P. region is net exporter. ===Fishing=== GAP is being built in a region where water used to be a scarcity. With the vast number of lakes being formed, plans to use them as breeding spaces for commercial fishing are also underway. In the case of the Atatürk Dam the fishing industry in the region is already developing. ===Power=== The GAP also consists of 19 hydroelectric power plants. These will supply the energy equivalent of 22% of the anticipated total nationwide energy consumption in 2010. Providing 8,900 gigawatt hours (32 PJ), it is one of the largest series of hydroelectric power plants in the world. Physical Realization of Energy Projects as of May 2013 Physical Realization of Energy Projects as of May 2013 Physical Realization of Energy Projects as of May 2013 Physical Realization of Energy Projects as of May 2013 Name Inst Capacity (MW) Energy Prod (GWh/yr) Status Karakaya Dam & HEPP 1,800 7,354 In operation since 1987 Atatürk Dam & HEPP 2,400 8,900 In operation since 1992 Birecik Dam & HEPP 672 2,516 In operation since 2000 Karkamış Dam & HEPP 180 652 In operation since 1999 Şanlıurfa HEPP 50 124 In operation since 2005 Büyükçay Dam & HEPP 30 84 Master Plan Koçali Dam & HEPP 39 187 Master Plan Sırımtaş Dam & HEPP 26 87 In operation since 2013 Kahta Dam & HEPP 75 171 Master Plan Fatopaşa HEPP 22 47 Master Plan Erkenek HEPP 12 52 In operation since 2009 Euphrates Basin 5,304 20,098 Dicle Dam & HEPP 110 296 In operation since 1999 Kralkızı Dam & HEPP 94 146 In operation since 1998 Batman Dam & HEPP 198 483 In operation since 2003 Ilısu Dam & HEPP 1,200 3,833 In operation since 2018 Cizre Dam & HEPP 240 1,208 Programmed Silvan Dam & HEPP 160 623 Under construction (70% complete as of June '17) Kayser Dam & HEPP 90 341 Master Plan Garzan Dam & HEPP 90 315 In operation since 2012 Tigris Basin 2,172 7,247 Total 7,476 27,345 ==Infrastructure== ===Dams=== Southeastern Anatolia Project consists of 22 Dams (year of completion): ;Euphrates Basin: #Atatürk Dam (1992) #Birecik Dam (2000) #Büyükçay Dam #Çamgazi Dam (1998) #Çetintepe Dam #Gömikan Dam #Hancağız Dam (1988) #Kahta Dam #Karakaya Dam (1987) #Karkamış Dam (1999) #Kayacık Dam (2005) #Kemlin Dam #Koçali Dam (2016) #Sırımtaş Dam (2013) ; Tigris Basin: #Batman Dam (1998) #Cizre Dam #Dicle Dam (1997) #Garzan Dam (2012) #Kayser Dam #Kralkızı Dam (1997) #Ilısu Dam (2018) #Silvan Dam (2019) ===Maintenance=== The reason for the sheer number of dams in the project, more than would at first appear needed, is maintenance. Dams need to be cleaned from the debris carried with the water flow. After a while the dam becomes obsolete as water flow slows down to inadequate levels. The dams will be shut down every 5 to 10 years for fall maintenance (also called fall cleanup). Water levels are normally lowest in fall. The extra dams are placed in service during this maintenance period. In cases of natural disasters such as floods, the maintenance may be performed earlier. The plan is to have one or two dams spare in case an emergency shutdown of any dam is necessary. While shutting down a dam also shuts down irrigation channels linked to it, it can nevertheless continue providing power. ===Engineering behind the project=== Providing electricity and irrigation is challenging in a region as large as the one targeted by GAP. A constant flow of water is imperative. thumb|right|Energy dissipator After a large body of water is collected behind the dam a constant flow of water is then available. The height of the dam allows the water to go at a high velocity through the turbines thus generating electricity. After the fast flowing water exits the dam it is slowed down by a concrete energy dissipator (pictured). Creation of electricity is only part of the usage of the tons of water collected at the dam. When dealing with tons of water, it has to be distributed evenly and slowly. Occasionally main channels will need maintenance, or may be damaged due to external reasons. In order to even assess the problem, tons of water need to be removed from the main channel. The best way to do this is to slow the overall flow from the main dam and redirect all water flowing originally through the damaged channel to backup channels. Radial gates serve this purpose, they regulate the flow of water. It is imperative to keep water flowing. Lack of the flow will not only compromise all irrigation linked to that channel but also all cities linked will experience a power outage. thumb|right|Harran main channel After leaving the energy dissipator, water flows into a set of main channels, which flow in different directions supplying water to a greater area. They are the most critical part of a dam project aside from the dam itself. This is as critical as high-voltage transmission lines in power grids. thumb|left|Sluice gates Sluice gates regulate the flow of water. If water flows too fast it will overflow and probably damage one or more of the channels, or flood irrigation fields. Multiple sluice gates regulate the speed of the flow on different sections of the channel. They can also be used like radial gates to cut water in channels. Image:Harran canal-GAP.jpg|Harran canal Image:Flow regulator- GAP.jpg|Flow regulator Image:Distribution canals-GAP.jpg|Distribution canals After leaving the radial gates on the main channel, water flows to canals which are smaller and can carry less water. Flow regulators divert water on canals to distribution canals. Just like radial gates and sluice gates, flow generators can stop water flow if necessary. Distribution canals are the last step as far as engineers are concerned. It delivers water to different sections of large fields, pretty much an artificial river. Image:Earth distribution channel-GAP.jpg|Earth distribution channel Image:Furrow- GAP.jpg|Furrow Image:Drip tubes-GAP.jpg|Drip tubes It is up to farmers to get the water from distribution channels to their crops for irrigation. There are different methods to do this; any one or a combination of earth distribution channel, furrow, and drip tubes can be used. ==Sub-projects== The latest design of the project divides the GAP into smaller projects. Each project generates its own annual reports and activity sheets. * Management, Operation and Maintenance of GAP Irrigation Systems (GAP-MOM), * Regulation of Water in Irrigation Canals and Methods and Technologies for Water Saving, * Treatment of Urban Waste Water, * Re-use of Irrigation Discharge Water, * Protection of Biological Diversity, * Environmental Work in the GAP Region, * Environmental Work in the GAP Region — Tigris Basin, * Assessment of Climatic Conditions in the Region for Present Day and Future, * Adıyaman-Kuyulu Region Erosion Control Project, * Adıyaman-Diran Micro-Catchment Rehabilitation Project, * GAP Afforestation Project, * Participation in urban planning and zoning, * Resettlement and employment of people affected by dam lakes, * Atatürk Dam Lake Sub-Regional Development Plan, * Eco-city and eco-village planning and development in pilot localities. * Establishment of Multi-Purpose Community Centers (ÇATOM) for Women, * Improving the Income Level of People in Non- Irrigated Areas, * GAP Entrepreneur Support and Guidance Centers (GAP-GIDEM), * Project for On-Contract Animal Husbandry (GAP Rings Model), * Project for Joint Machinery Use (GAP OMAK), * Sub-Regional Development Plan Comprising Return to Villages and Rehabilitation, * Project for the Rehabilitation of Children Working in Streets. * Institutional Capacity Building, * Training and Extension Services for Farmers, * Land Consolidation, * Social Progress for Youth, * GAP Region Public Health Project. ==Status of GAP== The water resources development component of the program envisages the construction of 22 dams and 19 hydraulic power plants and irrigation of 17,000 square kilometres of land. The total cost of the project is estimated at $32 billion USD. The total installed capacity of power plants is 7454 MW and projected annual energy production reaches 27 billion kWh. Status of the project Status of the project Status of the project Status of the project Completed Ongoing Planned Power capacity as of June 2013 MW 5,548 1,409 497 Power production as of June 2013 GWh/yr 20,479 4,771 1,971 Irrigation area as of December 2005 km² 2,360.19 1,420.90 3,741.18 Number of dams 12 2 8 Number of hydropower plants 6 2 10 Currently the physical realization of the project stands at 72.6%. Government aims to complete major part of the project by the end of 2012. The amount of government investment for 2010 was around 4 billion TL, which corresponds to 14.2% of Turkey's total investment for same year. ==Criticism of the project== ===Ilısu Dam=== Completion of the Ilısu Dam would cause the flooding of the ancient city of Hasankeyf whose history stretches back over 10,000 years. Investigations by the Kurdish Human Rights Project (KHRP) found that: : The town is of particular cultural significance to the Kurdish people: the delegation found a widespread perception that the GAP project, and Ilısu in particular, is motivated primarily by a desire to destroy the Kurds as an ethnic group by destroying their most important cultural sites.The Ilisu Dam – A Human Rights Disaster In The Making on khrp.org Between 50 and 68 hamlets and villages will be flooded affecting approximately 25,000 local people. An additional 57 villages will have their land partially flooded. Construction began on August 5, 2006 after a ceremony led by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. ===Archaeological losses=== Critics of the project say that the dam could effectively destroy the artifacts of ancient Kurdish, Armenian, and Assyrian habitation in the region. ==TRT GAP== TRT GAP, belonging to the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, was established in 1989 to promote the Southeastern Anatolia Project in the region. From 1989 to 2001 TRT GAP was broadcasting on TRT 2 before being revamped as a 24-hour news and culturally-oriented channel. TRT GAP's transmissions are realized through the same channel with the TRT 3 since 2001 (which broadcasts live footage of TBMM TV) on a time-share basis. ==See also== * Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline * Ilısu Dam Campaign * Water politics ==External links== * Official GAP website in English * Official GAP website in Turkish * Southeastern Anatolia Project, USDA * Environmental Impact Assessment Report Introduction PDF * Environmental Impact Assessment Report Project Background and Description PDF * Re-Emergence of Discredited Ilısu Dam Project * The effects and impacts of the Southeastern Anatolian Development project - a thesis by Yilmaz, Mustafa, M.A. *TRT's Official Website *TRT Gap Broadcasting Schedule *Watch TRT GAP/TRT 3 live Online *TRT GAP at LyngSat Address ==References== Category:Water supply and sanitation in Turkey Category:Planned developments Category:Euphrates Category:Tigris River Category:Dams in Turkey Category:Irrigation in Turkey Category:Irrigation projects Category:Hydroelectricity in Turkey Category:Reservoirs in Turkey Category:Turkish Kurdistan Category:Southeastern Anatolia Region Category:Upper Mesopotamia Category:Economic history of Turkey Category:Turkish-language television stations Category:Television channels and stations established in 1989 Category:Television channels and stations disestablished in 2015 Category:1989 establishments in Turkey Category:Mass media in Ankara Category:Turkish Radio and Television Corporation Category:Defunct television channels in Turkey
|
Polhané Sönam Topgyé (; ) (1689 – 12 March 1747) was one of the most important political personalities of Tibet in the first half of the 18th century. Between 1728 and 1747 he was effectively the ruling prince of Tibet and carried royal titles during the period of Qing rule of Tibet. He is known as an excellent administrator, a fearsome warrior and a grand strategist. After the troubled years under the reign of Lhazang Khan, the bloody invasion of Tsering Dhondup and the civil war, his government ushered in a relatively long period of stability and internal and external peace for Tibet. ==Family== Polhané Sönam Topgyé was born in 1689 in Polha (Pho-lha) as the son of the general Pema Gyalpo and his wife Drolma Butri. His father was an experienced warrior who took part in the war against Ladakh in 1679-1684. He later participated in campaigns against Bhutan and Nepal. His forefathers were local officials in Tsang in the 17th century; his grandfather Asum was endowed with the estate Polha, south of Gyangtse, by the Khoshut king Tenzin Dalai Khan for his services.McKay, Vol. II 2003, p. 593. It was here that Sönam Topgyé grew up. In his young years he received teachings in the Mindroling Monastery which belonged to the Nyingma school, and also by the Panchen Lama.Van Schaik 2001, p. 140. While his given name was Sönam Topgyé, he is usually known by the cognomen Polhané (the one from Polha). ==Career under Lhabzang Khan== Shortly after his marriage in 1707, Polhané traveled to Lhasa where he was presented to the ruler Lhabzang Khan. The ruler confirmed him in his possession of the estate that he had inherited from his deceased father. Now he began a typical official career and was educated in the Ministry of Finance (rTsis khang) in Lhasa. After some years he was appointed district judge in Gyangtse.McKay, Vol. II 2003, p. 593. In 1714 he received his first military command. He successfully led an entire detachment against Bhutan, although the war as such was lost by the Tibetans.Shakabpa 1967, p. 134. After the invasion of Tibet by the Dzungars he took part in the organization of the Tibetan defense lines. He was present during the final defense of Lhasa. ==Resistance against the Dzungars 1717 to 1720== Lhasa fell in the hands of the Dzungars because of treason from some defenders, and Lhabzang Khan was killed in the melée.Shakabpa 1967, p. 136. Pholhané managed to take refuge in the Drepung Monastery. In the following months, the Dzungars tried to eliminate followers of Lhabzang Khan. Pholhané was captured and brought naked through the streets of Lhasa. After having been whipped with 15 lashes he was cast in prison. He managed to survive since old friends brought him food. Finally, he was released through the intervention of Tagtsepa, leader of the Tibetan government that was formed under the Dzungars. Pholhané then returned to Tsang. Here he began to collaborate with Khangchenné Sönam Gyalpo who had been appointed governor of Ngari by Lhabzang Khan and continued to rule there in spite of the Dzungars. They organized resistance against the invaders until the grand Chinese army sent by the Kangxi Emperor marched into Lhasa in September 1720. ==Participation in the cabinet 1721 to 1727== Immediately after their arrival to Lhasa, the representatives of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty organized a provisional military government under the general Yansin. After the return of the imperial army, a garrison of 3,000 men stayed in Lhasa. This troop was replaced in 1723. Two officials called zongli and two other termed xieli were placed as representatives of the emperor and advisers to the Tibetan government. The provisional military government was replaced in 1721 by a cabinet under the leadership of Khangchenné, who retained the jurisdiction over Ngari. The other two ministers were Ngaphöpa Dorje Gyalpo (d. 1728) and Lumpané Tashi Gyalpo (d. 1728). Khangchenné appointed Polhané as personal adjutant, and he received the jurisdiction over the Tsang province. He submitted a proposal that the hundreds of Nyingma monasteries and temples which had been ruined by the Dzungars should be restored with government assistance. This was taken up badly by many, especially by the Seventh Dalai Lama and his father who viewed the Nyimgma as heretic.Van Schaik 2011, p. 141. In 1723 he and Charaba Lotro Gyalpo were appointed regular members of the cabinet, which from now on consisted of five members. The basic principle of this new administrative structure of Tibet was, that the members of the cabinet acted as ruling princes over the regions standing under them (Ü, Kongpo, Tsang, and Ngari), having their particular military resources and means of income. This certainly weakened the position of Tibet vis-à-vis its neighbours, but also raised the danger of inner dissent, if the leading politicians could not agree. In fact, there was great disharmony between the cabinet members from the start. The tension eventually exploded in 1727 when Khangchenné died under the knives of his peers. Polhané was luckily absent from Lhasa at the time, since his wife was ill and he had hastened to her sickbed at his estate.Van Schaik 2011, p. 142. ==The civil war of 1727-1728== Immediately after Khangchenné's assassination, Ngaphöpa, Lumpané and Charaba took over power in Lhasa, supported by the father of the Dalai Lama, Sönam Dargye. They mobilized the troops in their respective territories, in particular from Kongpo and Ü. 300 men were sent to catch Polhané but failed to do so. The latter boded up troops from Tsang. He allied with Khangchenné's brother Gashiba Tseten Tashi who had taken over governance in Ngari in 1725.Shakabpa 1967, p. 142. Meanwhile, he sent an express envoy to inform the court in China. After a half year of fighting at Gyangtse, Ngaphöpa was defeated. Polhané marched towards Lhasa with 9,000 troops, occupied the city and laid siege to the Potala Palace where his opponents and the ambans had taken refuge. Dalai Lama was allowed to take sanctuary in the Drepung Monastery, but Polhané's adversaries were taken prisoners on 5 July 1728. Polhané immediately communicated his victory to the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty. As the imperial troops arrived on 4 September 1728 the civil war had already been concluded. One of the main tasks of the arriving Chinese was to find the main culprits behind the eruption of the war. Ngaphöpa and Lumpané were publicly executed by slow slicing, two clerics were hanged, and 13 others were beheaded. In addition, the close kin of the culprits were executed as well, including small children.Shakabpa 1967, p. 144. On 1 November 1728, after the Qing reconquest of Lhasa in Tibet, several Tibetan rebels were sliced to death by Qing Manchu officers and officials. The Qing Manchu President of the Board of Civil Office, Jalangga, Mongol sub-chancellor Sen-ge and brigadier-general Manchu Mala ordered the Tibetan rebels Lum-pa-nas and Na-p'od-pa to be sliced to death. They ordered gZims-dpon C'os-ac'ad (Hsi-mu- pen ch'ui-cha-t'e), son of Lum-pa-nas and rNog Tarqan bsKal-bzajn-c'os-adar and dKon-mc'og-lha-sgrub (Kun-ch'u-k'o-la-ku-pu) and dGa'-ldan-p'un-ts'ogs (K'a-erh-tan-p'en-ch'u-k'o), sons of Na-p'od-pa to be beheaded. Byams-pa (Cha- mu-pa) and his brother Lhag-gsan (La-k'o-sang) and their brothers, daughters, wives and mother were exiled after their father sByar-ra-nas was beheaded. The Manchus wrote that they "set an example" by forcing the Tibetans to publicly watch the executions of Tibetan rebels of slicing like Na-p'od-pa since they said it was the Tibetan's nature to be cruel. The exiled Tibetans were enslaved and given as slaves to soldiers in Ching-chou (Jingzhou), K'ang-zhou (Kangzhou) and Chiang-ning (Jiangning) in the marshall-residences there. The Tibetan rNam-rgyal-grva-ts'an college administrator (gner-adsin) and sKyor'lun Lama were tied together with Lum-pa-nas and Na-p'od-pa on 4 scaffolds (k'rims- sin) to be sliced. The Manchus used muskets to fire 3 salvoes and then the Manchus strangled the 2 Lamas while slicing Lum-pa-nas and Na-p'od-pa to death while they beheaded the 13 other rebel leaders. The Tibetan population was depressed by the scene and the writer continued to feel sad as he described it 5 years later. All relatives of the Tibetan rebels including little children were executed by the Qing Manchus except the exiled and deported family of sByar-ra-ba which was condemned to be slaves. The public executions spectacle worked on the Tibetans since they were "cowed into submission" by the Qing. Polhané, who was a collaborator with the Qing, himself also felt sad at his fellow Tibetans being executed in this manner and he prayed for them. All of this was included in a report by General Yue Zhongqi and sent to the Qing emperor at the time, the Yongzheng Emperor. ==Government 1729-1735== Now Beijing interfered strongly in the organization of the civil and military administration of Tibet. Polhané was once again given the jurisdiction over Tsang. Two other ministers, namely Sicho Tseten and Tsering Wanggyal, were appointed to govern Lhasa and Ü. However, they stood entirely under the direction of Pholhané. Two Manchu representatives or ambans watched over the government of Polhané. The Panchen Lama, Lobsang Yeshe (d. 1737), was given great authority which de facto made him the ruler of western Tsang. The borders in East Tibet (1724, Amdo, 1727, Kham) were much altered, and Lhasa was permanently occupied by imperial troops, plus 2,000 men who supported the ambans. Under the pretext of going on a tour to Beijing, the Seventh Dalai Lama was sent in exile to Garthar near Lithang for six years (1728-1735).Richardson 1984, p. 52. The actual reason was that his father had played a dubious role during the civil war and had to be kept far away from the government. Another reason was supposedly that the Dalai Lama was to be kept safe from the Dzungars. ==Pholhané as administrator and ruling prince 1735-1747== As time passed Polhané became ever more independent and posed as a king or ruling prince of sorts (honorary royal titles bestowed by the emperor in 1731 and 1739). The Tibetans usually knew him by the title , "ruler of men". The protector status of the Manchu rulers was handled more as a formality. Still, he took care to orient his politics so as to take the powers of the imperial court into account.Richardson 1984, p. 53. Since his trustworthiness and loyalty to the imperial dynasty could not be questioned, the troops stationed in Lhasa were reduced to 500 men in 1733. At the same time, Polhané built up a professional army consisting of 15,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. He ordered the borders to be guarded and secured and built military barracks all over the land. In 1729 he organized a postal system that secured the transmission of messages from Ngari to Lhasa and from Lhasa to East Tibet. This postal system was inspired by Chinese model and replaced the system instigated by the Chinese in 1720, especially in East Tibet. In the time of Polhané even the Chinese officials in Lhasa used this postal system for the communications with the imperial court. In the sphere of culture Polhané sponsored the first printed edition of the Buddhist canon.Van Schaik 2011, p. 143. In sum, Polhané's tenure is remembered as being peaceful, stable and welfare oriented. ==Succession== After Polhané's death in 1747, the imperial government confirmed his second son Gyurme Namgyal as his successor. Gyurme Namgyal was murdered in 1750 by the two ambans. The deed provoked some unrest among the population under the leadership of the chief groom of the murdered leader, Lobsang Tashi. Imperial troops intervened anew, after which the government was handed over to the Seventh Dalai Lama.Van Schaik 2011, p. 144. ==See also== * Tibet under Qing rule * History of Tibet ==References== ==Sources== * Roland Barraux (1995), Die Geschichte der Dalai Lamas - Göttliches Mitleid und irdische Politik. Düsseldorf. * Dungkar Lobsang Thrinle, "Tshering Wanggyel and his Pholhane-biography" (Tibetan, in the issue of nationality Sichuan Publishing) * K. Kollmar-Paulenz (2006), Kleine Geschichte Tibets. München. * Alex McKay (ed.) (2003), The history of Tibet, Vols. I-III. London & New York: Routledge. * Dan Martin, Yael Bentor (ed.) (1997), Tibetan Histories: A Bibliography of Tibetan-Language Historical Works. London: Serindia, (Nos. 270, 271) - ( Addenda et Corrigenda ) * Luciano Petech (1972), China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century. History of the Establishment of Chinese Protecturate in Tibet. Leiden. * Luciano Petech (1973), Aristocracy and Government in Tibet. 1728-1959. Roma. * * Hugh Richardson (1984). Tibet & its history. Boston & London: Shambhala. * Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa (1967), Tibet: A political history. New York. * Category:1689 births Category:1747 deaths Category:18th-century Tibetan people
|
In mathematics, the notion of a germ of an object in/on a topological space is an equivalence class of that object and others of the same kind that captures their shared local properties. In particular, the objects in question are mostly functions (or maps) and subsets. In specific implementations of this idea, the functions or subsets in question will have some property, such as being analytic or smooth, but in general this is not needed (the functions in question need not even be continuous); it is however necessary that the space on/in which the object is defined is a topological space, in order that the word local has some meaning. ==Name== The name is derived from cereal germ in a continuation of the sheaf metaphor, as a germ is (locally) the "heart" of a function, as it is for a grain. ==Formal definition== ===Basic definition=== Given a point x of a topological space X, and two maps f, g: X \to Y (where Y is any set), then f and g define the same germ at x if there is a neighbourhood U of x such that restricted to U, f and g are equal; meaning that f(u)=g(u) for all u in U. Similarly, if S and T are any two subsets of X, then they define the same germ at x if there is again a neighbourhood U of x such that :S \cap U = T \cap U. It is straightforward to see that defining the same germ at x is an equivalence relation (be it on maps or sets), and the equivalence classes are called germs (map-germs, or set-germs accordingly). The equivalence relation is usually written :f \sim_x g \quad \text{or} \quad S \sim_x T. Given a map f on X, then its germ at x is usually denoted [f ]x. Similarly, the germ at x of a set S is written [S]x. Thus, :[f]_x = \\{g:X\to Y \mid g \sim_x f\\}. A map germ at x in X that maps the point x in X to the point y in Y is denoted as :f:(X,x) \to (Y,y). When using this notation, f is then intended as an entire equivalence class of maps, using the same letter f for any representative map. Notice that two sets are germ-equivalent at x if and only if their characteristic functions are germ-equivalent at x: :S\sim_x T \Longleftrightarrow \mathbf{1}_S \sim_x \mathbf{1}_T. ===More generally=== Maps need not be defined on all of X, and in particular they don't need to have the same domain. However, if f has domain S and g has domain T, both subsets of X, then f and g are germ equivalent at x in X if first S and T are germ equivalent at x, say S \cap U = T\cap U eq \emptyset, and then moreover f|_{S\cap V} = g|_{T\cap V}, for some smaller neighbourhood V with x\in V \subseteq U. This is particularly relevant in two settings: # f is defined on a subvariety V of X, and # f has a pole of some sort at x, so is not even defined at x, as for example a rational function, which would be defined off a subvariety. ===Basic properties=== If f and g are germ equivalent at x, then they share all local properties, such as continuity, differentiability etc., so it makes sense to talk about a differentiable or analytic germ, etc. Similarly for subsets: if one representative of a germ is an analytic set then so are all representatives, at least on some neighbourhood of x. Algebraic structures on the target Y are inherited by the set of germs with values in Y. For instance, if the target Y is a group, then it makes sense to multiply germs: to define [f]x[g]x, first take representatives f and g, defined on neighbourhoods U and V respectively, and define [f]x[g]x to be the germ at x of the pointwise product map fg (which is defined on U\cap V). In the same way, if Y is an abelian group, vector space, or ring, then so is the set of germs. The set of germs at x of maps from X to Y does not have a useful topology, except for the discrete one. It therefore makes little or no sense to talk of a convergent sequence of germs. However, if X and Y are manifolds, then the spaces of jets J_x^k(X,Y) (finite order Taylor series at x of map(-germs)) do have topologies as they can be identified with finite- dimensional vector spaces. ==Relation with sheaves== The idea of germs is behind the definition of sheaves and presheaves. A presheaf \mathcal{F} of abelian groups on a topological space X assigns an abelian group \mathcal{F}(U) to each open set U in X. Typical examples of abelian groups here are: real valued functions on U, differential forms on U, vector fields on U, holomorphic functions on U (when X is a complex space), constant functions on U and differential operators on U. If V \subseteq U then there is a restriction map \mathrm{res}_{VU}:\mathcal{F}(U)\to \mathcal{F}(V), satisfying certain compatibility conditions. For a fixed x, one says that elements f\in\mathcal{F}(U) and g\in \mathcal{F}(V) are equivalent at x if there is a neighbourhood W\subseteq U\cap V of x with resWU(f) = resWV(g) (both elements of \mathcal{F}(W)). The equivalence classes form the stalk \mathcal{F}_x at x of the presheaf \mathcal{F}. This equivalence relation is an abstraction of the germ equivalence described above. Interpreting germs through sheaves also gives a general explanation for the presence of algebraic structures on sets of germs. The reason is that formation of stalks preserves finite limits. This implies that if T is a Lawvere theory and a sheaf F is a T-algebra, then any stalk Fx is also a T-algebra. == Examples == If X and Y have additional structure, it is possible to define subsets of the set of all maps from X to Y or more generally sub-presheaves of a given presheaf \mathcal{F} and corresponding germs: some notable examples follow. *If X, Y are both topological spaces, the subset ::C^0(X,Y) \subseteq \mbox{Hom}(X,Y) :of continuous functions defines germs of continuous functions. *If both X and Y admit a differentiable structure, the subset ::C^k(X,Y) \subseteq \mbox{Hom}(X,Y) :of k-times continuously differentiable functions, the subset ::C^\infty(X,Y)=\bigcap olimits_k C^k(X,Y)\subseteq \mbox{Hom}(X,Y) :of smooth functions and the subset ::C^\omega(X,Y)\subseteq \mbox{Hom}(X,Y) :of analytic functions can be defined (\omega here is the ordinal for infinity; this is an abuse of notation, by analogy with C^k and C^{\infty}), and then spaces of germs of (finitely) differentiable, smooth, analytic functions can be constructed. *If X,Y have a complex structure (for instance, are subsets of complex vector spaces), holomorphic functions between them can be defined, and therefore spaces of germs of holomorphic functions can be constructed. *If X,Y have an algebraic structure, then regular (and rational) functions between them can be defined, and germs of regular functions (and likewise rational) can be defined. *The germ of f : ℝ → Y at positive infinity (or simply the germ of f) is \\{g: \exists x \forall y > x \, f(y) = g(y)\\}. These germs are used in asymptotic analysis and Hardy fields. === Notation === The stalk of a sheaf \mathcal{F} on a topological space X at a point x of X is commonly denoted by \mathcal{F}_x. As a consequence, germs, constituting stalks of sheaves of various kind of functions, borrow this scheme of notation: *\mathcal{C}_x^0 is the space of germs of continuous functions at x. *\mathcal{C}_x^k for each natural number k is the space of germs of k-times- differentiable functions at x. *\mathcal{C}_x^\infty is the space of germs of infinitely differentiable ("smooth") functions at x. *\mathcal{C}_x^\omega is the space of germs of analytic functions at x. *\mathcal{O}_x is the space of germs of holomorphic functions (in complex geometry), or space of germs of regular functions (in algebraic geometry) at x. For germs of sets and varieties, the notation is not so well established: some notations found in literature include: *\mathfrak{V}_x is the space of germs of analytic varieties at x. When the point x is fixed and known (e.g. when X is a topological vector space and x=0), it can be dropped in each of the above symbols: also, when \dim X=n, a subscript before the symbol can be added. As example *{_n\mathcal{C}^0}, {_n\mathcal{C}^k}, {_n\mathcal{C}^\infty}, {_n\mathcal{C}^\omega}, {_n\mathcal{O}}, {_n\mathfrak{V}} are the spaces of germs shown above when X is a n-dimensional vector space and x=0. == Applications == The key word in the applications of germs is locality: all local properties of a function at a point can be studied by analyzing its germ. They are a generalization of Taylor series, and indeed the Taylor series of a germ (of a differentiable function) is defined: you only need local information to compute derivatives. Germs are useful in determining the properties of dynamical systems near chosen points of their phase space: they are one of the main tools in singularity theory and catastrophe theory. When the topological spaces considered are Riemann surfaces or more generally complex-analytic varieties, germs of holomorphic functions on them can be viewed as power series, and thus the set of germs can be considered to be the analytic continuation of an analytic function. Germs can also be used in the definition of tangent vectors in differential geometry. A tangent vector can be viewed as a point-derivation on the algebra of germs at that point.Tu, L. W. (2007). An introduction to manifolds. New York: Springer. p. 11. == Algebraic properties == As noted earlier, sets of germs may have algebraic structures such as being rings. In many situations, rings of germs are not arbitrary rings but instead have quite specific properties. Suppose that X is a space of some sort. It is often the case that, at each x ∈ X, the ring of germs of functions at x is a local ring. This is the case, for example, for continuous functions on a topological space; for k-times differentiable, smooth, or analytic functions on a real manifold (when such functions are defined); for holomorphic functions on a complex manifold; and for regular functions on an algebraic variety. The property that rings of germs are local rings is axiomatized by the theory of locally ringed spaces. The types of local rings that arise, however, depend closely on the theory under consideration. The Weierstrass preparation theorem implies that rings of germs of holomorphic functions are Noetherian rings. It can also be shown that these are regular rings. On the other hand, let \mathcal{C}_0^\infty(\mathbf{R}) be the ring of germs at the origin of smooth functions on R. This ring is local but not Noetherian. To see why, observe that the maximal ideal m of this ring consists of all germs that vanish at the origin, and the power mk consists of those germs whose first k − 1 derivatives vanish. If this ring were Noetherian, then the Krull intersection theorem would imply that a smooth function whose Taylor series vanished would be the zero function. But this is false, as can be seen by considering :f(x) = \begin{cases} e^{-1/x^2}, &x; eq 0, \\\ 0, &x; = 0. \end{cases} This ring is also not a unique factorization domain. This is because all UFDs satisfy the ascending chain condition on principal ideals, but there is an infinite ascending chain of principal ideals :\cdots \subsetneq (x^{-j+1} f(x)) \subsetneq (x^{-j} f(x)) \subsetneq (x^{-j-1} f(x)) \subsetneq \cdots. The inclusions are strict because x is in the maximal ideal m. The ring \mathcal{C}_0^0(\mathbf{R}) of germs at the origin of continuous functions on R even has the property that its maximal ideal m satisfies m2 = m. Any germ f ∈ m can be written as :f = |f|^{1/2} \cdot \big(\operatorname{sgn}(f)|f|^{1/2}\big), where sgn is the sign function. Since |f| vanishes at the origin, this expresses f as the product of two functions in m, whence the conclusion. This is related to the setup of almost ring theory. == See also == *Analytic variety *Catastrophe theory *Gluing axiom *Riemann surface *Sheaf *Stalk == References == *, chapter I, paragraph 6, subparagraph 10 "Germs at a point". *, chapter 2, paragraph 2.1, "Basic Definitions". *, chapter 2 "Local Rings of Holomorphic Functions", especially paragraph A "The Elementary Properties of the Local Rings" and paragraph E "Germs of Varieties". * Ian R. Porteous (2001) Geometric Differentiation, page 71, Cambridge University Press . *, paragraph 31, "Germi di funzioni differenziabili in un punto P di V_n (Germs of differentiable functions at a point P of V_n)" (in Italian). == External links == * * * A research preprint dealing with germs of analytic varieties in an infinite dimensional setting. Category:Topology Category:Sheaf theory
|
Brett Elias Bodine III (born January 11, 1959) is an American former stock car racing driver, former driver of the pace car in Cup Series events, and current NASCAR employee. Brett is the younger brother of 1986 Daytona 500 winner Geoff Bodine and the older brother of 2006 and 2010 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series champion Todd Bodine. He was born in Chemung, New York. Brett has been named one of the 50 greatest NASCAR modified drivers of all time, was the runner-up for the 1986 Xfinity Series championship, and collected a total of five Xfinity Series wins and sixteen pole positions. Brett made 480 Cup series starts with one win and five pole positions. He has led over 1,000 career laps in both the NASCAR Cup series and the NASCAR Xfinity series. ==Early life== Bodine attended Alfred State College and received an associate's degree in mechanical engineering before he became a professional race car driver. He began in hobby stock races at the Chemung Speedrome (owned by his parents) in 1977. In 1979 Brett started racing a part-time schedule in the NASCAR Modified Nation Championship series, placing 35th in the final standings. In the 1980 Brett moved up to 24th in the final standings with a best finish of third at Stafford Motor speedway, still driving a part time schedule. In 1983 Brett picked up his first national championship win at Stafford Motor Speedway while placing 7th in the final standings. He also placed 5th in the Northeast Region of the NASCAR Winston Weekly Racing series with 6 wins in 54 starts. In 1984 Brett picked up another National Championship win, this time at Oxford Maine. He also placed 12th in the Northeast Region of the NASCAR Winston Weekly Racing series with 3 wins in 37 starts and helped his car-owner secure the Stafford Motor Speedway track championship. At the conclusion of the 1984 season Brett moved south to go to work for Rick Hendrick, whom his brother Geoff was driving for at the time. == NASCAR beginnings == While working for Rick, Brett found time to make a handful of modified starts in 1985 and won the most prestigious event of the season, the Race of Champions at Pocono. The 1985 season also saw Bodine make his debut in the NASCAR Xfinity Series in the #15 Pontiac at Bristol. The small team did not have a pit crew and had to do the whole race on a single set of tires but Brett managed to qualify 7th and finish 12th in his debut race. Brett's breakout race in NASCAR came when rain forced a scheduling conflict between the Xfinity race at Martinsville and the Cup Series race. Geoff Bodine (who was driving full-time for Hendrick in the Cup Series) was scheduled to drive in the Xfinity race and Brett got the chance to drive Rick Hendrick's #5 Pontiac as a last minute fill-in. Brett started second and won the race in only his second career start. This was the first win for Hendrick with the Levi Garrett sponsorship and resulted in Brett getting funding from Levi Garrett to run 11 additional races that season. Brett's under the lights win at Bristol win was the first Xfinity series race to be televised live in prime time. By the end of the 1985 season Brett had made thirteen starts with three poles, three wins, 7 top fives, and 10 top tens. Bodine's success in the part-time Busch series ride in 1985 lead to a full time opportunity in 1986, driving the No. 00 Thomas Brothers Old Country Ham Oldsmobile for Howard Thomas. Rick Hendrick was not interested in fielding a full time Busch series team but helped Brett bring an associate sponsorship from Exxon over to the 00 team. Brett picked up his first pole of 1986 in the second race of the season at Rockingham, leading 18 laps before falling out with mechanical trouble. Brett picked up his second pole of the season at Martinsville and lead the first 21 laps before getting hit by Kyle Petty while working lapped traffic and then taken out in a second incident later in the race. Three DNFs in the season's first 5 races left Brett 14th in points. Brett then recorded 9 straight top 10 finishes and another pole at Dover to move to 2nd in the points standings. This streak was followed by back to back DNFs at IRP and South Boston and dropped Brett to 7th in points after the season's 16th race. Brett rallied to finish the season with 15 straight top 10 finishes including wins at Bristol and the season finale at Martinsville. After Jack Ingram was suspended for two races for driving backwards on track, the championship came down to a battle between Brett and Larry Pearson. Brett briefly lead the standings after the season's 28th race, and with three races to go (Hickory, Rockingham, and Marintsiville) trailed by 12 points. Brett qualified on the pole at Hickory but the race was cancelled because, allegedly, the promoter did not want to pay the purse and intentionally damaged the track which cost Brett the chance to gain ground on Pearson. At the season finale, Brett qualified on pole and won the race but ended up placing 2nd to Larry Pearson by just 7 points in the final standings while totaling 16 top fives and 24 top tens to go along with his series-best 8 pole positions. Brett was voted the series most popular driver at the conclusion of the season. In addition to his full time Xfinity Series schedule, Bodine made four modified starts in 1986, winning two, both of which were NASCAR Modified National Championship events held at Martinsville. Bodine also made his Winston Cup Debut in 1986, driving the No. 2 Exxon Chevy in the Coca-Cola 600. Bodine started 32nd and finished 18th in the Rick Hendrick owned entry, earning the bonus money for being the highest finishing rookie driver. Bodine again drove the full Busch series schedule in the No. 00 Oldsmobile in 1987. Although he failed to find victory lane, he accumulated 5 poles, 8 top fives, 17 top tens, and finished 3rd in the championship. In May for the 7th Cup Series race of the season at North Wilksboro Bodine was chosen to replace the injured Terry Labonte on the pace lap in Junior Johnson's #11 Budweiser Chevy. Despite starting from the rear of the field after the driver change, he managed to finish in 8th place. Brett also replaced Labonte on the pace laps the next week at Bristol. Again starting from the rear of the field, Brett ran as high as 2nd and finished in 9th place. While Terry Labonte is credited with the finishes due to the NASCAR rules regarding driver changes at the time, Bodine's success as a fill-in driver lead to a ride for 14 Cup races in Hoss Ellington's part time No. 1 Bulls-Eye Barbecue Sauce Chevy. In Brett's first event with the Ellington team he qualified on pole for the Winston Open and placed 6th. He returned to Charlotte the next weekend and qualified 9th for the 600 and lead 17 laps (the first cup laps lead of his career) but was collected in a wreck while running in the top 10 and eventually fell out of the race with an engine issue. At Daytona Brett qualified 7th, lead a lap, and finished a season-best 11th, the first lead lap finish of his cup career. For the season he had 5 top 10 qualifying efforts in the #1 car and 5 top 20 finishes. == Moving up == thumb|left|Bodine's 1989 Winston Cup car In 1988, Bodine moved to the Cup series full-time for Bud Moore Engineering driving the No. 15 Crisco Thunderbird. In the 4th race of the season at Atlanta Brett qualified 5th and finished 9th, recording his first top 10 finish. In the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte Brett led the race 5 times for a total of 96 laps collecting both the half way leader bonus and the hard charger bonus money. Brett’s car dropped a cylinder late in the race and he held on to finish 4th (the first top 5 finish of his career). In the Oakwood Homes 500, also at Charlotte, Brett led the race 3 times for a total of 50 laps before getting passed for the lead by race winner Rusty Wallace with 12 laps to go and ultimately finishing 3rd. The team was plagued by engine issues all season, falling out of races 7 times while fighting through engine issues in others. For the season Bodine posted 5 top-10 finishes and finished 20th in points. Brett was not eligible for the Rookie of the Year award in 1988 (which was won by Ken Bouchard who finished 25th in points with 1 top 10) as he had run too many races as a part time driver in 1987. Bodine returned to Budd Moore's team in 1989 driving the No. 15 Motorcraft Ford. Brett recorded a top 5 finish at Michigan and a total of 6 top tens, moving up one spot to finish the season 19th in points. He also placed 2nd in the Winston Open, just missing out on making the All-Star Race. Overall, Brett's performance improved in his sophomore campaign as Brett's average finished improved by three spots. Late in the 1989 season, Brett made the decision to leave Bud Moore's team due to that team's sponsorship uncertainty for the 1990 season. Brett also had disagreements with Bud Moore on the type of chassis that the team was using (rear steer vs. front steer). Bodine's breakout season came in 1990 driving the No. 26 Quaker State Buick Regal for champion drag racer Kenny Bernstein and crew chief Larry McReynolds. Bodine won his first Cup Series race in the 7th race of the season at North Wilkesboro Speedway, which came under some controversy as some felt that Darrell Waltrip was robbed of the win. Brett had led 63 laps in the middle of the race and then re-took the lead on lap 318 after short pitting on a round of green flag pit stops. When the caution came out on lap 321, the pace car mistakenly picked up Dale Earnhardt as the race leader, putting Brett almost a full lap in front of the entire field. During the ensuing confusion of a 17 lap caution flag (NASCAR did not have electronic scoring at the time) Bodine was able to make a pit stop for fresh tires without losing any positions. When NASCAR reset the lineup with Bodine as the leader, he led the final 83 laps of the race (a race-high 146 laps overall) to take the victory. "We messed up," said Chip Williams, NASCAR's public relations director. "By throwing the caution on the second-place car, it kept Bodine in the lead. He slipped into the pits and came out without losing the lead because the pace car was keeping the second-place car back. We messed up by picking up the wrong car. It was a judgment call, and you can't overrule a judgment call." Despite the controversy, the win stood and would prove to be Bodine's only career cup series win, the final cup series win for Buick, the final win for Bernstein's team, the first oval win for Larry McReynolds, and the only oval track victory for Bernstein's team. From Dover in 1989 through Talladega in 1990, Brett was running at the finish of 16 consecutive races, the longest streak in the Cup Series at the time. Brett made his first appearance in the All-Star race in 1990 and won his first pole position at the fall event at Charlotte Motor Speedway. At the conclusion of 1990 Brett was a career-best 12th in the championship standings with 5 top five finishes (both Wilksboro races, Pocono, Watkins Glen, and Martinsville) and a total of 9 top ten finishes. After having improved his average finish in each of his cup seasons to date Brett returned to the King Racing No. 26 car in 1991 with high hopes. Unfortunately, crew chief McReynolds left the team after the season's 4th race at Atlanta to join Davey Alison at Robert Yates Racing. McReynolds was replaced by Clyde Booth. In the season's 7th race, Brett had a strong run in his attempt to win back to back First Union 400s at North Wilksboro. Brett started from the pole position and lead 103 of the race's first 218 laps. On lap 219, as the race leader, Brett was wrecked by the lapped car of Ricky Rudd on a restart, ending his day. Even with the crew chief change and the wreck at Wilksboro, Brett was 15th in points after placing 11th in the 9th race of the season. However, the 26 team struggled with reliability issues for the remainder of 1991, falling out of 10 of the season's final 20 races due to engine failures. Bodine managed a strong run at the fall Martinsville race, leading a total of 59 laps from the 2nd starting position before getting passed for the lead by race winner Harry Gant with 47 laps to go and finishing 2nd. Brett made his 2nd consecutive appearance in the All-Star race in 1991. For the season Brett had 2 top five (both at Martinsville) and six top 10 finishes but the reliability issues pushed the team down to 19th in the championship standings. For 1992 the No. 26 team switched from Buick to Ford and Donnie Richeson, Brett's brother in law at the time, came on as the team's crew chief. Bodine won the poll at Dover and recorded top five finishes at Darlington and Martinsville. In the spring race at Martinsville he qualified 3rd and took the race lead with 36 laps remaining but a broken rear axle with 27 laps remaining dropped Brett to 8th place, two laps down, at the finish. In the fall race at Martinsville Brett led a total of 65 laps before getting passed for the lead by race winner Geoff Bodine with 43 laps to go and finishing 3rd. From Sonoma through Phoenix in 1992, Brett was running at the finish of 17 consecutive races, tied for the longest streak in the Cup Series at the time. Brett also qualified on pole and finished 6th in the Winston Open. For the season Brett totaled a career-best 13 top ten finishes, a career best average start of 8.1 (2nd best in the Cup series for 92), and a career best average finish of 15.4 en route to 15th place in the overall standings. 1993 saw Bodine register pole positions at Wilksboro and Michigan, a runner-up finish in the Southern 500 at Darlington, additional top five finishes at Pocono and Richmond, and a total of 9 top ten finishes. Brett also finished 3rd in the Winston Open to qualify for the All Star Race for the 3rd time and placed a career-best 10th in that race. Brett crashed in qualifying for Dover and was forced to miss the race due to a broken wrist and a small brain bruise. He returned to race again the next week at Martinsville and placed 20th in the championship standings. In 1994 Bodine finished 2nd in the season opening Busch Clash. Brett had his best race of the season in the Inaugural Brickyard 400 running in the top 5 throughout the race, leading 10 laps, and placing 2nd (His 5th career 2nd-place finish) after infamously tangling with brother Geoff while battling for the lead in the second half of the race. For the season Brett recorded a total of 6 top 10 finishes, and ended up 19th in the championship standings. In his 5 seasons driving the No. 26 Quaker State car Bodine posted a total of 5 poles, 1 win, 13 top fives, and 43 top tens while finishing no worse than 20th in the final standings. For 1995 he signed with Junior Johnson piloting the Lowe's Ford Thunderbird with crew chief Mike Beam. The team had been dominate on the restrictor plate tracks in past years and the #11 car was again fast in Daytona 500 practice. Things took a bad turn when the team was found with an illegal engine manifold during pre-qualifying inspection at Daytona, resulting in a then-record $45,100 fine. The revised engine was not nearly as fast and the team needed a provisional to make the race. Amid rumors of Johnson selling his team, Mike Beam left following the 10th race of the season and took all but two crew members with him. Bodine continued on as the driver with Dean Combs coming on as crew chief, managing top ten finishes at Wilksboro and Pocono, and finished twentieth in points. 1995 would be Brett's 8th consecutive top twenty season in the Cup series. Bodine easily bested the performance of his Junior Johnson Racing teammate, the 27 car driven primarily by Elton Sawyer, which placed 37th in points with 5 DNQs and no top 10s in 1995. == Owner/driver == thumb|right|1997 car After the 1995 season, Johnson sold the team to Bodine and his wife Diane to form Brett Bodine Racing. In a unique arrangement, the Lowes sponsorship ($4.2 million) for 1996 was paid directly to Johnson to purchase the team while Brett ran the team out of his pocket for the inaugural season. Bodine was reunited with crew chief Donnie Richeson and scored a top ten finish at Daytona in July, but failed to qualify for a late season race at Martinsville while placing 24th in the standings with 8 top 20 finishes. Bodine's struggles as a first time owner/driver during the 1996 season were documented in the book Wide Open After Lowe's left to become the sponsor for Mike Skinner at Richard Childress Racing, he signed Catalyst Communications as a primary sponsor to a three-year, $15 million deal for 1997 and beyond. The 1997 season started well for the #11 Close Call Ford with top tens at Bristol and Sonoma and a total of 6 top twenties in the first 9 races. This strong start propelled Bodine to 16th in the points standings. Troubles erupted when Catalyst stopped paying its sponsorship fees, leading to a lawsuit, with Bodine eventually removing all sponsorship decals from the car. The lack of funding took its toll on the team as Bodine failed to qualify for a late season race at Rockingham and the team slipped all the way down to 29th in the final standings, although his final position was still better than the new Lowe's team which placed 30th with driver Mike Skinner. For 1998 Bodine found reliable sponsorship from Paychex and his Ford Taurus, although the $3 million per year deal was significantly less than that of top teams. He qualified for every race for the first time as an owner/driver, collected 11 top 20 finishes with a season's best 11th-place finish at Bristol and Talladega, and placed 25th in the final standings. Brett was running at the finish of the first 23 races of the 1998 season, tied for the longest streak to start the season. Paychex returned in 1999 but Bodine was unable to carry the momentum of the previous year and slipped to 35th in the standings with just 3 top 20 finishes, including a season's best 12th at Bristol, while failing to qualify for 2 races. Brett Bodine signed Ralphs Supermarkets to sponsor his car for 2000, and sold half the team to businessman Richard Hilton. The latter deal fell through, but while he was still able to keep Ralphs as a sponsor, the failed buy-out put the team behind in its preparation for the season. Brett struggled and failed to qualify for 5 of the season's first 21 races, falling all the way to 40th in the point standings. Things started to improve after Mike Hillman came on as crew chief mid-season. Bodine qualified for the season's final 13 races with 4 top 20 finishes, including a season's best 14th at Homestead, and finished the season 35th in points. Brett also set the track record at Indianapolis Motor Speedway during second round qualifying for the Brickyard 400. This track record would stand until Tony Stewart went faster during qualifying in 2002. Brett became the first Cup series driver to start wearing the HANS device in 2000. == Sole survivor == By 2001, Brett Bodine was the only remaining owner/driver competing full-time in the NASCAR Cup Series. While common just a few years earlier, single-car owner/driver teams had generally become uncompetitive in NASCAR as the sport became increasingly dependent on engineering, testing data, and sponsorship dollars. Darrell Waltrip's #17 team had fallen from top 10 placings in the 1991, 1992, and 1994 standings to 29th place in 1996; Waltrip would sell his team partway into the 1998 season after his struggles continued in 1997 and 1998. Ricky Rudd's #10 team had fallen from 6th place in the 1996 standings to 31st place in 1999 even with consistent sponsorship from Tide; Rudd sold his team following the 1999 season. Bill Elliott's #94 team had fallen from 8th place in the 1995 and 1997 standings to 21st place in 1999 even with consistent sponsorship from McDonald's; Elliott would sell his team following another disappointing performance in 2000. His older brother, Geoffrey Bodine's #7 team had fallen from 16th place in the 1995 standings to 27th place in 1998; Geoff sold his team following the 1998 season. Ralphs returned as the primary sponsor and Bodine added RedCell Batteries as a major associate for 2001. The #11 Ford with Mike Hillman again serving as crew chief qualified for all of the races, posted top ten finishes at Daytona and Loudon, recorded 9 top 20 finishes, and moved up five positions to 30th in the final standings. RedCell batteries stopped paying their sponsorship bills mid-season and Bodine signed Wells Fargo as a major associate sponsor. From Charlotte in 2000 through Darlington in 2001, Brett was running at the finish of 31 consecutive races, the longest streak in the Cup Series. Brett Bodine Racing also expanded to a two-car team for the first time in its history, fielding the No. 09 Ford for older brother Geoff, who himself was struggling to maintain his Winston Cup career, in two races with a best finish of 27th. Brett also fielded an Xfinity series team in 2 races, qualifying for 1, for nephew Josh Richeson. Ralphs, however, decided not to return as the sponsor of the team following the season. thumb|right|Hooters car With no major sponsors Bodine received sponsorship from minor sponsors such as Wells Fargo, Timberland Pro, and Dura Lube. Three races into the season Hooters was signed to a deal, although at this point Bodine's team was once again well behind in development. Crew chief Mike Hillman and several other team members had left due to worries about not being able to run the full season without primary sponsorship. Brett had four top 20 finishes, including a season's best 13th at Talladega, but failed to qualify for four late season races and finished 36th in the points. Brett also fielded an Xfinity series team in 9 races (qualifying for 7) for nephew Josh Richeson, with a best finish of 28th. Hooters returned in 2003, but with less funding than they had provided the previous season. With no major associate sponsors, Brett planned a limited schedule for 2003, attempting 9 (and qualifying for 6) of the season's first 13 races in his #11 Ford. Brett also drove at Darlington in the #57 CLR Ford for Ted Campbell (a race that Bodine's #11 team did not enter). Bodine's best finish of 24th was achieved at Bristol with a special paint scheme on the #11 car commemorating 10 years since Alan Kulwicki's plane crash. Brett placed 4th in the Winston Open, just missing out on qualifying for the All-Star race. Early in the 2003 season Bodine became involved in a difficult time during a divorce from his wife and team co-owner Diane. The dispute lead Bodine to file a restraining order against his wife, whom he alleges hit and threatened to ruin him financially. Just before the race at Michigan, Hooters withdrew sponsorship from the Bodine racing team. That same weekend, Bodine was seriously injured in a practice accident after running over a piece of debris that cut a right front tire. The impact was violent, knocking Brett unconscious, and he suffered a broken collar bone and damaged teeth. Geoff replaced Brett as the driver in the final race for the #11 Hooters car. He recovered from his injuries and returned with a one race ride with the struggling Morgan-McClure Motorsports, but the car failed to make the field (Mike Skinner, Robert Pressley, Stacy Compton, and Kevin Lepage also had DNQs in the #4 car in 2003). With no major sponsorship for his team and most of his employees laid off, Bodine attempted to run at Indy in a fan sponsored "Brick Car" where, for $500, fans would get their name on the car. The program was a success and Bodine also picked up a sponsorship from US Micro Corporation. Bodine's qualifying lap tied with Dale Earnhardt Jr. for 36th fastest of the 52 cars making attempts but the tie-break went to Dale by virtue of him being higher in points and as a part time team, Bodine did not have any provisionals available (starting positions 37-43), so he failed to make the field. Rumors of a sponsor for 2004 and beyond surfaced, but nothing panned out and the team was sold. Unable to find a sponsor for his team or a ride with another team, Bodine decided to retire from driving. For his 18-year Winston Cup career Bodine started 480 races with 5 poles, 1 win, 16 top fives, and 61 top tens while winning over 13 million dollars in prize money. In the Busch Series Bodine started 77 races with 16 poles, 5 wins, 31 top fives, and 52 top tens. Brett led more than 1,000 laps in both the Busch Series (1,194) and in the Cup Series (1,040). In the modifieds Brett had 5 wins on NASCAR's modified tour in addition to his many modified wins at the regional level, with him being named one of the 50 greatest modified drivers of all time. == To the NASCAR office == Bodine went to work for NASCAR in 2004 as the director of cost research at the R&D; center, working as a liaison between NASCAR and the race teams on cost reduction efforts. Brett also did all of the driving for NASCAR's Car of Tomorrow prototype. While continuing to work in the R&D; center on projects including the Touring Series Spec Engine and the Xfinity Series Composite Body, Brett drove the Cup Series pace car on race day from 2004 to 2018. Currently Brett works as the chairman of the Driver Approval Committee. ==Motorsports career results== ===NASCAR=== (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) ====Winston Cup Series==== NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results NASCAR Winston Cup Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Pts Ref 1986 Hendrick Motorsports 2 Chevy DAY RCH CAR ATL BRI DAR NWS MAR TAL DOV CLT 18 RSD POC MCH DAY POC TAL GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR ATL RSD 92nd 109 1987 Ellington Racing 1 Chevy DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR NWS BRI MAR TAL CLT 21 DOV 14 POC 34 RSD 38 MCH 22 POC 22 TAL 38 GLN MCH 21 BRI DAR 20 RCH DOV 13 MAR NWS CLT 32 CAR 41 RSD ATL 15 32nd 1271 1987 Ellington Racing 1 Buick DAY 11 32nd 1271 1988 Bud Moore Engineering 15 Ford DAY 35 RCH 27 CAR 27 ATL 9 DAR 15 BRI 17 NWS 13 MAR 27 TAL 19 CLT 4 DOV 31 RSD 40 POC 35 MCH 27 DAY 42 POC 20 TAL 28 GLN 23 MCH 6 BRI 25 DAR 17 RCH 11 DOV 22 MAR 10 CLT 3 NWS 17 CAR 29 PHO 43 ATL 27 20th 2828 1989 Bud Moore Engineering 15 Ford DAY 29 CAR 34 ATL 33 RCH 28 DAR 14 BRI 30 NWS 28 MAR 27 TAL 19 CLT 8 DOV 15 SON 27 POC 10 MCH 5 DAY 11 POC 10 TAL 14 GLN 15 MCH 36 BRI 17 DAR 16 RCH 34 DOV 9 MAR 7 CLT 12 NWS 17 CAR 21 PHO 19 ATL 23 19th 3051 1990 King Racing 26 Buick DAY 17 RCH 8 CAR 25 ATL 11 DAR 8 BRI 22 NWS 1* MAR 12 TAL 12 CLT 29 DOV 18 SON 41 POC 4 MCH 14 DAY 22 POC 16 TAL 33 GLN 3 MCH 17 BRI 25 DAR 10 RCH 31 DOV 20 MAR 4 NWS 3 CLT 8 CAR 17 PHO 15 ATL 18 12th 3440 1991 King Racing 26 Buick DAY 22 RCH 24 CAR 13 ATL 15 DAR 16 BRI 22 NWS 30* MAR 4 TAL 11 CLT 28 DOV 33 SON 11 POC 33 MCH 36 DAY 36 POC 8 TAL 32 GLN 25 MCH 37 BRI 10 DAR 14 RCH 18 DOV 32 MAR 2 NWS 7 CLT 8 CAR 30 PHO 14 ATL 29 19th 2980 1992 King Racing 26 Ford DAY 41 CAR 8 RCH 33 ATL 20 DAR 6 BRI 11 NWS 10 MAR 8 TAL 16 CLT 20 DOV 30 SON 15 POC 8 MCH 19 DAY 12 POC 8 TAL 10 GLN 10 MCH 12 BRI 9 DAR 4 RCH 18 DOV 22 MAR 3 NWS 7 CLT 28 CAR 7 PHO 12 ATL 40 15th 3491 1993 King Racing 26 Ford DAY 17 CAR 22 RCH 32 ATL 8 DAR 12 BRI 9 NWS 17 MAR 7 TAL 30 SON 24 CLT 41 DOV 16 POC 29 MCH 39 DAY 19 NHA 13 POC 5 TAL 9 GLN 20 MCH 14 BRI 7 DAR 2 RCH 5 DOV MAR 6 NWS 21 CLT 15 CAR 35 PHO 28 ATL 40 20th 3183 1994 King Racing 26 Ford DAY 32 CAR 6 RCH 8 ATL 31 DAR 36 BRI 13 NWS 23 MAR 24 TAL 17 SON 13 CLT 42 DOV 32 POC 8 MCH 32 DAY 16 NHA 12 POC 35 TAL 17 IND 2 GLN 28 MCH 12 BRI 14 DAR 29 RCH 8 DOV 26 MAR 30 NWS 33 CLT 6 CAR 18 PHO 13 ATL 36 19th 3159 1995 Junior Johnson & Associates 11 Ford DAY 25 CAR 14 RCH 18 ATL 23 DAR 12 BRI 27 NWS 9 MAR 11 TAL 30 SON 29 CLT 35 DOV 21 POC 10 MCH 40 DAY 20 NHA 21 POC 15 TAL 28 IND 24 GLN 16 MCH 36 BRI 28 DAR 31 RCH 16 DOV 17 MAR 22 NWS 22 CLT 27 CAR 27 PHO 17 ATL 20 20th 2988 1996 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 32 CAR 28 RCH 25 ATL 24 DAR 27 BRI 20 NWS 23 MAR 18 TAL 23 SON 20 CLT 24 DOV 24 POC 40 MCH 22 DAY 9 NHA 16 POC 27 TAL 22 IND 22 GLN 14 MCH 28 BRI 14 DAR 28 RCH 25 DOV 27 MAR DNQ NWS 23 CLT 28 CAR 16 PHO 26 ATL 21 24th 2814 1997 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 18 CAR 17 RCH 23 ATL 18 DAR 35 TEX 19 BRI 10 MAR 27 SON 6 TAL 33 CLT 26 DOV 33 POC 25 MCH 19 CAL 26 DAY 23 NHA 42 POC 29 IND 18 GLN 39 MCH 31 BRI 31 DAR 15 RCH 21 NHA 33 DOV 26 MAR 17 CLT 30 TAL 22 CAR DNQ PHO 33 ATL 41 29th 2716 1998 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 24 CAR 16 LVS 26 ATL 26 DAR 22 BRI 11 TEX 16 MAR 13 TAL 11 CAL 28 CLT 22 DOV 16 RCH 20 MCH 33 POC 18 SON 32 NHA 28 POC 38 IND 33 GLN 34 MCH 32 BRI 26 NHA 30 DAR 42 RCH 19 DOV 22 MAR 34 CLT 19 TAL 13 DAY 25 PHO 43 CAR 31 ATL 31 25th 2907 1999 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 22 CAR 33 LVS 20 ATL 33 DAR 30 TEX 18 BRI 22 MAR 14 TAL 43 CAL 28 RCH 38 CLT 22 DOV 37 MCH 30 POC 26 SON 31 DAY 34 NHA 31 POC 26 IND DNQ GLN 40 MCH DNQ BRI 12 DAR 26 RCH 31 NHA 29 DOV 29 MAR 42 CLT 27 TAL 31 CAR 43 PHO 42 HOM 40 ATL 30 35th 2351 2000 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY DNQ CAR 35 LVS DNQ ATL 16 DAR 27 BRI 22 TEX 23 MAR 36 TAL DNQ CAL 41 RCH 38 CLT 30 DOV 28 MCH 36 POC 32 SON 30 DAY DNQ NHA 20 POC 30 IND 39 GLN DNQ MCH 42 BRI 28 DAR 27 RCH 35 NHA 42 DOV 20 MAR 41 CLT 32 TAL 26 CAR 26 PHO 20 HOM 14 ATL 28 35th 2145 2001 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 15 CAR 27 LVS 38 ATL 26 DAR 36 BRI 27 TEX 28 MAR 36 TAL 26 CAL 27 RCH 39 CLT 17 DOV 25 MCH 33 POC 37 SON 13 DAY 9 CHI 19 NHA 13 POC 33 IND 37 GLN 13 MCH 40 BRI 26 DAR 27 RCH 43 DOV 28 KAN 25 CLT 28 MAR 40 TAL 12 PHO 26 CAR 35 HOM 32 ATL 36 NHA 8 30th 2948 2002 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY 16 CAR 30 LVS 35 ATL 38 DAR 38 BRI 36 TEX 38 MAR 26 TAL 13 CAL 23 RCH 19 CLT 27 DOV 34 POC 24 MCH 34 SON 24 DAY 38 CHI 30 NHA 27 POC 33 IND 42 GLN 32 MCH 38 BRI 32 DAR 39 RCH 20 NHA 36 DOV DNQ KAN DNQ TAL 29 CLT 26 MAR 38 ATL 34 CAR 36 PHO DNQ HOM DNQ 36th 2276 2003 Brett Bodine Racing 11 Ford DAY DNQ CAR LVS ATL 41 BRI 24 TEX 31 TAL DNQ MAR CAL RCH 31 CLT DNQ DOV 42 POC MCH INQ† SON DAY CHI NHA IND DNQ GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV TAL KAN CLT MAR ATL PHO CAR HOM 52nd 308 2003 Team CLR 57 Ford DAR 31 52nd 308 2003 Morgan-McClure Motorsports 4 Pontiac POC DNQ 52nd 308 † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine † \- Qualified but replaced by Geoff Bodine =====Daytona 500===== Year Team Manufacturer Start Finish 1988 Bud Moore Engineering Ford 41 35 1989 Bud Moore Engineering Ford 18 29 1990 King Racing Buick 33 17 1991 King Racing Buick 41 22 1992 King Racing Ford 18 41 1993 King Racing Ford 20 17 1994 King Racing Ford 10 32 1995 Junior Johnson & Associates Ford 39 25 1996 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 41 32 1997 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 37 18 1998 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 42 24 1999 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 40 22 2000 Brett Bodine Racing Ford DNQ DNQ 2001 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 43 15 2002 Brett Bodine Racing Ford 27 16 2003 Brett Bodine Racing Ford DNQ DNQ ====Busch Series==== NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Pts Ref 1985 Hendrick Motorsports 15 Pontiac DAY CAR HCY BRI 12 23rd 1438 1985 Hendrick Motorsports 5 Pontiac MAR 1 DAR SBO 4 LGY DOV CLT 4 SBO 3 HCY 2 ROU IRP 25* SBO LGY HCY 9 MLW BRI 1* DAR 8 RCH NWS ROU CLT 9 HCY CAR 1* MAR 27 23rd 1438 1986 Thomas Brothers Racing 00 Olds DAY 23 CAR 24 HCY 8 MAR 20 BRI 19 DAR 3 SBO 8 LGY 10 JFC 6 DOV 3 CLT 2 SBO 5 HCY 3 ROU 6 IRP 26 SBO 22 RAL 6 OXF 7 SBO 2 HCY 2* LGY 2 ROU 3 BRI 1* DAR 3 RCH 19 DOV 3 MAR 4 ROU 3* CLT 7 CAR 5 MAR 1 2nd 4507 1987 Thomas Brothers Racing 00 Olds DAY 4 HCY 5 MAR 19 DAR 3 BRI 10 LGY 6 SBO 2 CLT 30 DOV 23 IRP 4 ROU 24 JFC 8 OXF 11 SBO 4 HCY 6 RAL 10 LGY 8 ROU 24 BRI 13 JFC 7 DAR 16 RCH 29 DOV 6 MAR 5* CLT 10 CAR 25 MAR 3 3rd 3560 1992 H&H; Motorsports 26 Chevy DAY CAR RCH ATL MAR DAR BRI HCY LAN DUB NZH CLT DOV ROU MYB GLN 28 VOL NHA TAL IRP ROU MCH NHA BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT MAR CAR HCY 118th 79 1993 H&H; Motorsports 26 Chevy DAY CAR RCH DAR BRI HCY ROU MAR NZH CLT DOV MYB GLN 28 MLW TAL IRP MCH NHA BRI DAR RCH DOV ROU CLT MAR CAR HCY ATL 98th 79 1999 Keystone Motorsports 54 Chevy DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR TEX 33 NSV BRI TAL CAL DNQ NHA RCH NZH CLT 6 DOV SBO GLN MLW MYB PPR GTY IRP MCH 18 BRI DAR RCH DNQ DOV CLT DNQ CAR 15 MEM PHO HOM 69th 387 2000 Labonte Motorsports 44 Chevy DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR BRI TEX NSV TAL CAL RCH NHA CLT DOV SBO MYB GLN MLW NZH PPR GTY IRP MCH DNQ BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT CAR MEM PHO HOM NA - ====Craftsman Truck Series==== NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pts Ref 1997 Team Racing 11 Chevy WDW TUS HOM PHO POR EVG I70 NHA TEX BRI NZH MLW LVL CNS HPT IRP FLM NSV GLN RCH MAR SON MMR CAL PHO LVS DNQ NA - 1998 Team Racing 11 Chevy WDW 32 HOM PHO POR EVG I70 GLN TEX BRI MLW NZH CAL PPR IRP NHA FLM NSV HPT LVL RCH 32 MEM GTY 66th 192 1998 Team Racing 71 Chevy MAR 35 SON MMR PHO LVS 66th 192 ===ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series=== (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Pts Ref 1985 Hendrick Motorsports 5 Pontiac ATL DAY ATL TAL ATL SSP IRP 25* CSP FRS IRP OEF ISF DSF TOL 75th - 1986 Hendrick Motorsports 15 Pontiac ATL 2 DAY ATL TAL SIR SSP FRS KIL CSP TAL BLN ISF DSF TOL MCS ATL 85th - ==References== *There is life beyond racing, and Brett Bodine is relishing it *Where Are They Now == External links == * * * Category:Living people Category:1959 births Category:People from Chemung, New York Category:Racing drivers from New York (state) Category:NASCAR drivers Category:NASCAR team owners Category:Bodine family Category:Hendrick Motorsports drivers
|
Hyatt Hotels Corporation, commonly known as Hyatt Hotels & Resorts, is an American multinational hospitality company headquartered in the Riverside Plaza area of Chicago that manages and franchises luxury and business hotels, resorts, and vacation properties. Hyatt Hotels & Resorts is one of the businesses managed by the Pritzker family. The Hyatt Corporation came into being upon purchase of the Hyatt House, at Los Angeles International Airport, on September 27, 1957. In 1969, Hyatt began expanding internationally. Hyatt has grown by developing new properties and through acquisitions, with the biggest growth coming from the acquisition of AmeriSuites (later rebranded Hyatt Place) in 2004, Summerfield Suites (later rebranded Hyatt House) in 2005, and Two Roads Hospitality in 2018. In August 2021, Hyatt Hotels Corporation (NYSE: H) acquired Apple Leisure Group (ALG), a luxury resort- management services, travel and hospitality group, from affiliates of KKR and KSL Capital Partners for $2.7 billion in cash. ALG's hotel portfolio consists of over 33,000 rooms operating in 10 countries. The acquisition will extend Hyatt's brand footprint into 11 more European markets. Hyatt has more than 1350 hotels and all-inclusive properties in 69 countries across six continents. == History == The first Hyatt House was opened in 1954 by entrepreneurs Hyatt Robert von Dehn (1904–1973) and Jack Dyer Crouch (1915–1990) as a motel near Los Angeles International Airport. In 1957, the hotel was purchased by entrepreneur Jay Pritzker for $2.2 million. His younger brother, Donald Pritzker, also took on an important role in the company. Considering the growing use of air travel for business, the Pritzker brothers realized that locating a high quality hotel near a major airport was a valuable business strategy. Within two years, they opened Hyatt House Hotels near San Francisco International Airport and Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. The company went public in 1962 as Hyatt Corporation. It had three divisions - Hyatt House Hotels, Hyatt Chalet Motels and Hyatt Lodges. In 1967, the company opened the Hyatt Regency in Atlanta, Georgia (first named Regency Hyatt House). The futuristic hotel was designed by Atlanta architect John Portman, who would go on to design many other hotels for the chain. It featured a massive indoor atrium, which soon became a distinctive feature of many Hyatt properties. In 1968, Hyatt International was formed, to operate hotels outside the United States. It would soon become a separate company. In 1969, Hyatt opened its first international hotel, when it was awarded the management contract for the President Hotel in Hong Kong, which was renamed the Hong Kong Hyatt Hotel (later known as the Hyatt Regency Hong Kong). In 1972, Hyatt formed Elsinore Corporation, a subsidiary to operate the Four Queens Hotel and Casino and the Hyatt Regency Lake Tahoe Resort, Spa & Casino. Donald Pritzker died in 1972 and Jay Pritzker continued to run the company. Hyatt became a private company in 1979, when the Pritzkers bought the outstanding shares. Elsinore was spun off as a public company. The company opened the Playboy Hotel and Casino as a joint venture with Playboy Enterprises. Alongside the Hyatt Regency brand, the company introduced the Grand Hyatt brand in 1980, with the opening of the Grand Hyatt New York. That same year, the boutique Park Hyatt brand was also introduced. The Pritzkers took Hyatt International private as well, in 1982. However, Hyatt and Hyatt International remained two separate companies until June 2004, when substantially all of the hospitality assets owned by the Pritzker family business interests, including Hyatt Corporation and Hyatt International Corporation, were consolidated under a single entity called Global Hyatt Corp. On June 30, 2009, Global Hyatt Corporation changed its name to Hyatt Hotels Corporation.Hyatt Hotels Corporation 2010 annual report, Part 1, Item 1, page 3 In December 2004, Hyatt Hotels Corporation acquired AmeriSuites, an upscale chain of all-suite business class hotels from affiliates of the Blackstone Group, a New York-based private equity investment firm. Blackstone had inherited AmeriSuites from its 2004 acquisition of Prime Hospitality. The AmeriSuites chain was rebranded and called Hyatt Place, a competitor to the limited-service products Marriott International's Courtyard by Marriott and Hilton Worldwide's Hilton Garden Inn. In December 2005, Hyatt acquired limited service company Summerfield Suites from the Blackstone Group. Blackstone had inherited Summerfield Suites from its purchase of Wyndham International. In January 2012, Hyatt Summerfield Suites were rebranded as Hyatt House in 2012 to compete in the "upscale extended stay market" against Residence Inn, Homewood Suites, and Staybridge Suites. Hyatt launched its first lifestyle brand, Andaz, in April 2007. Hindi for the word 'style', Andaz is positioned as a luxury brand, with the first hotel being a rebrand of the Great Eastern Hotel in London, followed by hotels in San Diego, West Hollywood, Shanghai and New York City. In August 2009, it was reported that Hyatt Hotels Corporation filed plans to raise up to $1.15 billion in an initial share sale. That November Hyatt completed an initial public offering and began trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol H. According to the filing Mark S. Hoplamazian was to serve as CEO and Thomas Pritzker as Executive Chairman. The public offering was a result of the acrimonious breakup of the Pritzker family empire. Accused of looting family trusts, Thomas and cousins Penny and Nicholas took control of the family businesses when they and other family members were sued by cousin Liesel Pritzker, claiming fraud and seeking damages of over US$6 billion. On September 1, 2011, Hyatt acquired Hotel Sierra, which had 18 properties in 10 states. Along with Hyatt Summerfield Suites hotels, several of these properties were rebranded as Hyatt house in January 2012. In November 2013, Hyatt introduced their first all-inclusive resort brands, Hyatt Ziva and Hyatt Zilara, with the first resorts being opened in Cancun, Puerto Vallarta, Los Cabos and Rose Hall, Montego Bay, Jamaica. , Hyatt had over 627 hotels worldwide. On October 28, 2015, Hyatt announced that they were in advanced talks to acquire Starwood Hotels in a cash and stock transaction. The transaction was not completed, and Starwood was acquired by Marriott International instead. In 2018, Hyatt saw expansion with the acquisition of Two Roads Hospitality. This added the Joie de Vivre, Destination, Alila, and Thompson hotel brands to the Hyatt portfolio, a growth of 85 hotels in 23 markets. In March 2021, Hyatt announced the official opening of Hyatt's 1,000th hotel worldwide, Alila Napa Valley in St. Helena, California. ==Brands== thumb|Hyatt Place logo thumb|Grand Hyatt logo thumb|The interior atrium at Hyatt Regency New Orleans Hyatt-branded properties have traditionally catered to upscale or business customers; its properties were either full-service or boutique hotels. In 1980, Hyatt added the Grand Hyatt and Park Hyatt brands to its portfolio. In 1995, Hyatt entered the vacation ownership market. Hyatt introduced the Hyatt Place brand, designed as a limited service offering for business travelers, in 2006. Hyatt House was Hyatt's first select-service property, catering primarily to travelers with long-term stays and at a more economical price point. Since then, Hyatt has added a wide range of other brands, especially in the lifestyle and resort segments. Hyatt categorizes its brands under three categories: timeless portfolio (containing Hyatt's classic brands), boundless portfolio (lifestyle brands) and independent collections (soft-branded independent properties). Two additional upscale lifestyle brands, tommie and Caption, have been announced and will be joining the portfolio once the first properties open. Another brand, Hyatt Studios, was unveiled in April 2023 as Hyatt's first upper- midscale lodging segment in the Americas. Plans call for 100 Hyatt Studios hotels to be built starting in 2023 and the first location opening in 2024. === Timeless portfolio === * Park Hyatt – top-tier luxury brand, offering residential-style luxury * Grand Hyatt – large luxury hotels with fine dining and expansive meeting facilities * Hyatt Regency – Hyatt's signature brand * Hyatt – Hyatt's brand of modern hotels * Hyatt Place – mid-tier brand offering large rooms * Hyatt House – extended-stay properties * Hyatt Residence Club – timeshare and vacation rental resorts * UrCove by Hyatt – Hyatt's new brand targeted to Chinese travelers, co-developed with Home Inn. === Boundless portfolio === * Andaz – art-and-design-focused luxury lifestyle hotels * Alila Hotels and Resorts – luxury boutique hotels built around sustainable practices * Thompson Hotels – luxury boutique hotels * Hyatt Centric – upscale lifestyle properties * Caption by Hyatt – select-service lifestyle brand with smaller rooms and lively public spaces * Miraval – luxury wellness resorts === Independent collections === * The Unbound Collection by Hyatt – a collection of independent, upper-upscale and luxury hotels * Destination by Hyatt – formerly Destination Hotels, luxury independent properties * JdV by Hyatt – formerly Joie de Vivre Hotels, a collection of independent properties designed around their immediate neighborhoods === Inclusive Collection === * Hyatt Ziva – all-inclusive family resorts * Hyatt Zilara – all-inclusive adults-only resorts * Zoetry Wellness and Spa Resorts * Secrets Resorts and Spas - All- inclusive adult only beachfront resorts targeted at couples looking for romantic getaways * Breathless Resorts and Spas - Adult only all-inclusive beachfront resorts * Dreams Resorts and Spas - Beachfront all-inclusive resorts targeted at couples and families * Alua Hotels and Resorts - European seaside resorts and hotels * Vivid Hotels and Resorts - Adult only all- inclusive beachfront resorts * Sunscape Resorts and Spas - Beachfront Resorts targeted at families ==Notable properties== *Amman, Jordan : On November 9, 2005, Grand Hyatt Amman was targeted by a series of coordinated terrorist attacks along with a Radisson SAS and a Days Inn hotel. *Atlanta, United States: The Hyatt Regency Atlanta, the first Hyatt Regency hotel, was built in 1967 as the Regency Hyatt House, and was the first contemporary atrium hotel in the world. , it was the only major downtown Atlanta hotel with a front drive on Peachtree Street. Architect John Portman designed the building. *Austin, United States: The Driskill is the oldest operating hotel in Austin, Texas, and a member of Historic Hotels of America. *Baguio, Philippines: The Hyatt Terraces Baguio Hotel collapsed after a July 16, 1990, earthquake. *Bali, Indonesia: Hyatt operates seven hotels on the Indonesian island of Bali: a Grand Hyatt, a Hyatt Regency, an Andaz, and four Alilas. ** Hyatt Regency Bali, formerly Bali Hyatt, opened in 1973 as one of the first foreign- branded hotels on the island, and remains an important landmark in the Sanur area. Following a five-year-long renovation, it was rebranded as a Hyatt Regency in 2018. ** Grand Hyatt Bali, opened in Nusa Dua resort complex in 1991 as the largest hotel in Bali at the time, featuring 630 rooms. ** Alila Manggis and Alila Ubud, were originally known as The Serai Manggis and The Chedi Ubud, both established in the 1990s by GHM, a hotel company founded by Adrian Zecha. They are located near and constitute something of a downscale version of Amankila and Amandari, respectively, part of Zecha's most-famous brainchild, Aman Resorts. The other remaining two are; Alila Villas Uluwatu, opened in 2009, and Alila Seminyak, opened in 2015. ** Andaz Bali, opened in 2021 as a sister hotel of Hyatt Regency Bali in Sanur. Located immediately to its north in an area that was originally planned to be the site of a northern extension of Bali Hyatt in the late 1980s. *Bangkok, Thailand: The Grand Hyatt Erawan opened in 1991, replacing the government-owned Erawan Hotel at the Ratchaprasong Intersection in the modern-day city center. It is home to the Erawan Shrine, which is popular among wish makers. *Beijing, China: The Grand Hyatt Beijing opened in 2001, followed by the Park Hyatt Beijing in 2008. *Birmingham, United Kingdom: The Hyatt Regency Birmingham opened in 1990. *Burlingame, United States: The Burlingame Hyatt House, the first Hyatt built by the Pritzkers, opened in 1959 near San Francisco International Airport; in 1988 it was demolished and replaced with the Hyatt Regency San Francisco Airport. *Carlsbad, United States: The Aviara, opened in 2010, is a Forbes Five Star & AAA Five Diamond resort. *Chicago, United States: With 2,019 rooms, the Hyatt Regency Chicago is the seventh-largest hotel in the world, with the largest freestanding bar in the world. The hotel is known for views of the Chicago River and nearby attractions. *Dallas, United States: The Hyatt Regency Dallas, built in 1978, is most notable for its association with the Dallas landmark Reunion Tower. Originally freestanding, the base of the tower was integrated into the ground floor of the hotel after an expansion project in 1998. *Hong Kong, China: The Grand Hyatt Hong Kong is the Asian flagship of Hyatt International. The Hyatt Regency Hong Kong, Sha Tin and Hyatt Regency Hong Kong are also five-star hotels in Hong Kong. *Jacksonville, United States: The Hyatt Regency Jacksonville opened in 2001 under the Adam's Mark brand. Ownership of the riverfront hotel changed along with the name in 2005. With 966 rooms, it is the largest hotel in North Florida. *Jakarta, Indonesia: ** Grand Hyatt Jakarta, opened in 1991, is adjacent to Plaza Indonesia. It is one of four hotels that surround the landmark Selamat Datang Monument, alongside Hotel Indonesia Kempinski Jakarta, Pullman Jakarta Thamrin CBD, and Mandarin Oriental Jakarta. ** Park Hyatt Jakarta, opened in 2022, is touted as the first "six-star" hotel in Jakarta. It is located in Menteng, a historically affluent district of the city. ** Alila Jakarta, located in Gambir, was opened in 2001 as the inaugural property of Alila Hotels and Resorts, until it rebranded as Sparks Luxe Jakarta in 2019 (the hotel has since closed). Earlier that year, the company opened Alila SCBD in Kebayoran Baru, which remains operational to this day. *Jerusalem, Israel: On October 17, 2001, Israeli tourism minister Rehavam Ze'evi was assassinated in the Hyatt Regency Jerusalem on Mount Scopus. *Johor Bahru, Malaysia: The Hyatt Regency Johor Bahru became a Thistle Hotel in 2009. Hyatt will return to the Southern Gateway of Malaysia when the Hyatt Place Johor Bahru opens in 2023. *Kansas City, United States: The Hyatt Regency Kansas City was the site of one of the worst hotel disasters in U.S. history. On July 17, 1981, two of the three skybridges that traversed the hotel's lobby collapsed during a tea dance. The walkways were packed with people when a structural failure occurred, causing one bridge, which was hung from the bridge above it, to pull both bridges loose from the ceiling and collapse. The accident killed 114 people and injured over 200. The hotel was later renamed the Hyatt Regency Crown Center, and is currently operated by Sheraton. *Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia: **Hyatt Regency Kinabalu, opened in 1979 was Hyatt's first hotel in Malaysia and the oldest international-branded hotel in the city. **Hyatt Centric Kota Kinabalu, opened in 2022 is the first Hyatt Centric brand hotel in Southeast Asia. It was designed by the well-known Japanese based architect Kengo Kuma. **Alila Dalit Bay, which is expected to open on 2023, will be an eco-luxury resort and the first Alila Resort in Borneo island. *Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: **The Grand Hyatt Kuala Lumpur (which is adjacent to Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre) opened in August 2012 and marked the return of the famous chain to the Malaysian capital city. The Hyatt Regency Saujana opened in 1986, but underwent a management change in 2005. **Alila Bangsar Kuala Lumpur opened in 2018 next to the Bangsar LRT Station as Alila Hotels & Resorts’ first property in Malaysia. **Located in the upscale Mont Kiara neighborhood, the Hyatt House Kuala Lumpur Mont Kiara is part of the Arcoris Mont’Kiara development. It is currently the world's largest Hyatt House property, with 298 rooms. **Park Hyatt Kuala Lumpur is planned for the top floors of the Merdeka 118, the world's second tallest building. **In January 2020, Hyatt signed a management contract with KL Midtown (JV between Hap Seng Consolidated and TTDI KL Metropolis) to open a Hyatt Regency Hotel in 2024 at the latter's KL Metropolis development in northern Kuala Lumpur. This marks the return of the iconic Hyatt Regency brand to the capital city of Malaysia since the change of management of the former Hyatt Regency Saujana in 2005. **Hyatt Place Bukit Jalil is expected to be open by 2023, being the first Hyatt Place brand hotel in Malaysia which is located in Malton’s Bukit Jalil City integrated development. **Hyatt Centric Kuala Lumpur is currently under construction, located at the former Wisma KFC building. *Kuantan, Malaysia: Hyatt Regency Kuantan Resort was the only international-branded hotel in Kuantan city proper for many years (since opening in 1980) until a few renowned overseas hoteliers finally step foot here, in the late 2010s (including AC by Marriott and Swiss- Belhotel). *London, United Kingdom: Andaz London Liverpool Street, built in 1884. Formerly known as the Great Eastern Hotel, it was the only hotel in the City of London from 1884 until the 1980s. *Los Angeles, United States: **Hollywood: The Continental Hyatt House (now Andaz West Hollywood) **Century Plaza Hotel, operated by Hyatt from 2006 to 2016, was restored in 2021 as the Fairmont Century Plaza. *Maldives: Park Hyatt Maldives Hadahaa, located in Huvadhu Atoll, has developed a reputation for being one of the most exorbitant and exclusive resorts in the country, on account of its remoteness from the capital Malé (a one and a half hour paid plane and speedboat transfers are required to reach the place). It was rebranded in 2011 from Alila Maldives, which had opened two years prior; in 2022, Alila opened another resort, Alila Kothaifaru Maldives, in the Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll. *Manila, Philippines: The Grand Hyatt Manila is located in the Metrobank Center, the first supertall building in the Philippines (318m) *Mumbai, India: Grand Hyatt Hotel, Mumbai was designed by Chicago's Lohan Associates and opened in 2004. **In June 2021, the Hyatt Regency Mumbai closed, due to nonfunding for salary payment or operational expenses by Asian Hotels (West) Ltd., the owner of Hyatt Regency Mumbai. *Nashville, United States: Grand Hyatt Hotel, Nashville is located downtown on Broadway and features 591 rooms, including 53 suites, 7 restaurants, 84,000 square feet of versatile indoor and outdoor meeting and event space, a rooftop pool, lounge and sundeck with panoramic city views. *New Delhi, India: Hyatt Regency Delhi is a luxury hotel in New Delhi, India, built in 1983. *New Orleans, United States: During Hurricane Katrina (August 23–31, 2005), the Hyatt Regency New Orleans received significant damage as almost all of its windows were blown out and the bottom floor was torn apart by flood damage. The hotel is located in the Central Business District and reopened October 19, 2011. *New York City, United States: The Grand Hyatt New York, opened in 1980, was the first Grand Hyatt hotel opened and was the first major real estate development of Donald Trump, in partnership with Hyatt. The partnership deteriorated into a tangle of lawsuits, and the Pritzkers bought off Trump's share in 1996. The structure, built in 1919, is currently named the Hyatt Grand Central New York and is set for demolition and replacement. *Oyama, Japan: Fuji Speedway Hotel (2022), on the premises of the Fuji Speedway motor racing circuit. *Paris, France: Hyatt Regency Paris (1992), near Paris Charles de Gaulle international airport and Villepinte exhibition center *Philadelphia, United States: Hyatt Centric Center City Philadelphia, in the West Rittenhouse Square area *Phoenix, United States: On Mother's Day, May 9, 2021, a shooting at Hyatt Regency Phoenix left one person dead and seven injured. *San Francisco, United States: The Hyatt Regency San Francisco formerly housed a rooftop revolving restaurant called Equinox, offering 360-degree views of the city and the bay. The restaurant became a club for Hyatt loyalty members only and no longer rotates. The hotel was sold for close to $200 million to Dune Capital Management and DiNapoli Capital Partners in January 2007, about $250,000 per room.San Francisco Regency – Sold *Seattle, United States: Hyatt Regency Seattle is the largest hotel in the Pacific Northwest, with 1,260 rooms. *Singapore: **Grand Hyatt Singapore opened in 1971 as the Hyatt Regency and with over 700 rooms, was also the company's largest hotel at the time. The property will be undergoing a 2-year renovation in late 2021, in celebration of its 50th anniversary. **Andaz Singapore is the second Hyatt property in the Lion City, having opened in 2017 as the first Andaz-branded hotel in South East Asia. *St. Helena, United States: Alila Napa Valley was Hyatt's 1,000th hotel worldwide. *Taipei, Taiwan: Grand Hyatt Taipei opened in 1990 as the "first international luxury hotel" in the country. *Tokyo, Japan: The Park Hyatt Tokyo is the second-tallest building in Shinjuku, Tokyo. *Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Hyatt Regency Yogyakarta, a legendary resort that beautifully resembles the architectural influence of the famous Borobudur Temple, opened in 1995. *Zanzibar, Tanzania: Park Hyatt Zanzibar is the first and currently the only Park Hyatt hotel in Africa. It is located in Stone Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and occupies a historic palace known as the Mambo Msiige. ==Partnerships== Hyatt has a partnership with MGM Resorts International. In 2018, Hyatt began partnering with some properties in the SLH (Small Luxury Hotels of the World) chain, which allows World of Hyatt members to earn and redeem points during their stays at participating SLH properties. In October 2018, Hyatt announced their purchase of Two Roads Hospitality, a lifestyle hotel management company, for a base purchase price of US$480 million, with Hyatt to take the management controls of 85 properties of Two Road's across eight countries. All the hotels had joined the World of Hyatt loyalty programme by 2019. == Loyalty program == Hyatt operates a loyalty program called World of Hyatt, which replaced Gold Passport on March 1, 2017. Hyatt's partnership with MGM Resorts International allows members of both companies' loyalty programs – World of Hyatt and Mlife, respectively – to "status match" (i.e., match their lower status in one of the programs to the higher tier achieved in the other), and then earn points and credits, as well as avail themselves of the perquisites and partnerships associated with the higher, matched status in both programs. == Recognition == Fortune magazine ranked Hyatt #32 on its list of "America's Best Companies to Work For" in 2019, rising to #16 in 2021. The Human Rights Campaign (HRC) has awarded the company 100% in the HRC Equality Index for more than ten years, last in 2020. ==See also== * == References == ==External links== * * Category:Braniff Category:Hospitality companies Category:Hotels established in 1957 Category:Companies based in Chicago Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Companies listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange Category:Hotel chains in the United States Category:1957 establishments in California Category:2009 initial public offerings
|
Natasha Anne Bedingfield (born 26 November 1981) is a British singer and songwriter. Bedingfield released her debut album, Unwritten, in 2004, which contained primarily up-tempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B; music. It enjoyed international success with more than 2.3 million copies sold worldwide.Stuart Clarke. Staggered Plan for Bedingfield Return. Music Week. 10 June 2006. Retrieved 11 March 2007. Bedingfield received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the title track "Unwritten", and at the 2005 and 2006 Brit Awards, she was nominated for Best British Female Artist."Natasha Bedingfield: BRITs Profile" . Brit Awards. Retrieved 21 November 2012"Raaz Reboot (2016) Mp3 Songs" . UrSongsPK. Retrieved 7 July 2016 Unwritten also produced her only UK number one, "These Words". Her second album, N.B. (2007), yielded the UK top 10 singles "I Wanna Have Your Babies" and "Soulmate". N.B. was not released in North America, but six tracks from it were included with seven new ones and released in 2008 under the name Pocketful of Sunshine, with the singles "Love Like This" and "Pocketful of Sunshine" earning success on the charts. In December 2010, Bedingfield released her third album in North America, Strip Me, with the song of the same name charting on the US Billboard Hot 100 at 91. Bedingfield has sold over 10 million albums and 10 million singles worldwide, totalling over 20 million records worldwide. In 2012, VH1 ranked Bedingfield number 66 on the list of 100 Greatest Women in Music. ==Early life== Bedingfield spent time in Auckland, New Zealand during her childhood, and attended Lynfield College. When Bedingfield was a teenager, she and her siblings, Daniel and Nikola, formed the dance/electronic group, The DNA Algorithm.Natasha Bedingfield. BMI. 22 February 2006. Retrieved 8 March 2007. The group provided Bedingfield with the opportunity to explore different musical genres and expand her songwriting abilities.Bill Lamb. Natasha Bedingfield Biography . About.com. Retrieved 10 June 2007. She provided vocals for the group which primarily performed dance- pop music about independence and empowerment, themes that would later be found in her own solo compositions. At age 14, Bedingfield sang vocals on Origins Refined Intricacy (Steelyard Records). Bedingfield attended a year at the University of Greenwich, where she studied psychology,Artist Profile: Natasha Bedingfield . EMI Music Publishing. Retrieved 8 March 2007.John Harlow. Bill Gates Puts Bedingfield in His Xbox. The Sunday Times. 26 March 2006. Retrieved 8 March 2007. then left to concentrate on singing and songwriting. At first, she recorded demos in the garages of friends who had recording studios, which she presented to record companies. In early 2000s, Bedingfield composed, wrote and recorded songs for Hillsong Church UK. Her songs appeared on the live albums Blessed, Shout God's Fame, and the children's album Jesus Is My Superhero by Hillsong Music Australia.Tony Cummings. Hillsong London: Shouting God's Fame and Proclaiming Jesus Is. Cross Rhythms. 12 November 2006. Retrieved 11 March 2007. ==Career== ===2003–2006: Early years and Unwritten=== thumb|left|Bedingfield performing in June 2006 Bedingfield was introduced to Phonogenic founder and A&R; Paul Lisberg by the artist's manager Gary Wilson. Lisberg was initially hesitant, later telling HitQuarters: "[They] were good but weren't right for us ... " However, it was when, at a meeting together, Lisberg heard her singing ability and creative vocal ad-libbing first-hand that he became excited by Bedingfield's potential. Label interest was later confirmed when a trial studio session together with writers Steve Kipner and Andrew Frampton produced songs that were in keeping with Lisberg's vision for Phonogenic. Bedingfield signed a recording contract with BMG UK & Ireland, through its imprint Phonogenic Records, in July 2003.Biography. VH1. Retrieved 7 March 2007. Her debut studio album Unwritten was released in September 2004 and featured collaborations with Steve Kipner, Danielle Brisebois, Nick Lachey, James Reilly, Andrew Frampton, Wayne Wilkins, Kara DioGuardi, Guy Chambers, Patrick Leonard and the rapper Bizarre. The album contained uptempo pop-rock songs and influences from R&B; music. Bedingfield's lyrics focused on independence, opportunism and female empowerment. Reviews of the album were generally positive, and it was described as a "well-made pop album for the new millennium" by Allmusic. The album debuted on the UK Albums Chart at number one and reached the top thirty in the U.S.Unwritten World Charts. acharts.us. Retrieved 10 June 2007. It sold well, reaching multi-platinum status in the UKCertified Awards . The BPI. Retrieved 20 March 2007. and Gold status in the U.S.Searchable Database . The RIAA. Retrieved 20 March 2007. The first single released from the album was "Single", which reached number three on the UK Singles Chart."Single" World Charts . musicsquare.net. Retrieved 11 June 2006. The song's lyrics and accompanying music video depict Bedingfield's single lifestyle.Elle J. Small. "Natasha Bedingfield: Capital Gains" . Blues and Soul Music Magazine. Issue 997. Retrieved 11 June 2006. "These Words" was released as the album's second single. The song became Bedingfield's first UK number one and US top twenty single."These Words" World Charts . musicsquare.net. Retrieved 11 June 2006. "Unwritten" was released as the album's third single in 2004, the song reached number six on the UK Singles Chart and it also became the most played song on US radio in 2006."Nielsen Issues Most Popular Lists for 2006" . nielsenmedia.com. 20 December 2006. Retrieved 15 June 2007. "I Bruise Easily" was released as the album's fourth single, it did not perform as well as its predecessors but was still a moderate success, reaching number twelve on the UK Singles Chart. At the 2005 Brit Awards, Bedingfield was nominated for four awards, though did not win any of her nominated categories. She was also nominated for an award at the 2006 Brit Awards, and in 2007, she was nominated for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" at the 2007 Grammy Awards, though was again unsuccessful in winning in any of her nominated categories. ===2007–2008: N.B. and Pocketful of Sunshine=== Bedingfield's second album, N.B., was released in Europe in April 2007. The album received mixed reviews by critics and peaked at number nine in the UK. "I Wanna Have Your Babies", the album's lead single, was moderately successful, reaching number seven in the UK, number eight in Ireland and the top fifty in various other markets."I Wanna Have Your Babies" Charts . Music Square. Retrieved 22 April 2007. "Soulmate" was released as the album's second single on 2 July 2007 and also peaked at number seven in the UK."New Single – Coming Soon" . natashabedingfield.com. 9 May 2007. Retrieved 10 May 2007. To promote N.B., Bedingfield embarked on the FutureSex/LoveShow tour in May 2007."Bedingfield to tour with JT" . ITV News. 16 May 2007. Retrieved 11 June 2007. On 1 July 2007, Bedingfield performed "Unwritten" at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London, an event which celebrated the life of Princess Diana almost ten years after her death.Diana concert a 'perfect tribute' BBC News. Retrieved 12 April 2012 The North American version of her second album, titled Pocketful of Sunshine, featured six songs from N.B.. The album was released on 22 January 2008, after the lead single, "Love like This", was released in September 2007 and charted at No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. The title track was released as the second single in February 2008 and peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100. On 18 January 2008, Bedingfield's UK tour was cancelled for the second time, one month before it was supposed to start, so she could spend more time promoting her album in the U.S. In August 2008, Bedingfield and other singers including Beyoncé, Rihanna, Melissa Etheridge, Carrie Underwood, Miley Cyrus, Leona Lewis and Mariah Carey recorded the charity single, "Just Stand Up" produced by Babyface and L.A. Reid, to support "Stand Up to Cancer". On 5 September 2008, the singers performed it live on TV. ===2009–2011: Strip Me and Strip Me Away=== thumb|140px|left|upright|Bedingfield at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in December 2009 Bedingfield stated on her blog that she would start work on her new album in early 2009. She was confirmed to be writing for the new album while on holiday in New Zealand; she said "I'm here for a couple of weeks to do a bit of writing. It is such an inspiring place to write music. I love coming here as often as I can, usually once a year to fuel up on ideas for my next album". She also confirmed she was working with Brian Kennedy, who produced/co-wrote Rihanna's hit single "Disturbia" and was writing songs with him while on tour to have the album released by the end of 2009. Bedingfield also stated that Wyclef Jean, Sam Sparro and Mike Elizondo would be working on the record. In an interview with IN:DEMAND Producer, Ryan Tedder said: "I'm gonna try and bring Natasha Bedingfield back here in the UK with some quirky, kinda weird stuff". On 18 March Bedingfield stated on her official site that she was in Los Angeles and she was putting the finishing touches on her album. "Touch", the lead single from the album, was made available as a digital download 18 May 2010. Bedingfield performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on 24 May 2010. "Touch" was officially sent to US radio stations on 29 June 2010. On 15 July Bedingfield announced via Twitter that the title of her new album would be Strip Me. The album was originally scheduled for release on 9 November 2010 but was released on 7 December. The second single, also titled "Strip Me", was sent to US radio on 30 August 2010 and it became available as a digital download on 21 September 2010. It was written by Bedingfield, Ryan Tedder and Wayne Wilkins. The song was selected to head the soundtrack for the 2010 comedy Morning Glory. Bedingfield appeared on rapper Nicki Minaj's debut album, Pink Friday, on a track called "Last Chance", and on Rascal Flatts' album Nothing Like This on a track called "Easy", released as the album's third single. On New Year's Eve 2010–11, Bedingfield appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. In 2010, Bedingfield joined forces with Avon as a celebrity judge for Avon Voices, Avon's first-ever global, online singing talent search for women and songwriting competition for men and women. On 6 April 2011, Bedingfield visited Radio Hamburg and confirmed that the song "Pocketful of Sunshine" (originally the second single from her US album "Pocketful of Sunshine") would be the first European single from the forthcoming European release of Strip Me. The European version of Strip Me will be called Strip Me Away. The lead single "Pocketful of Sunshine" was released on 13 May in Germany. The album "Strip Me Away" will be released in June. Bedingfield was featured on Simple Plan's new single from their new album Get Your Heart On!, released on 21 June 2011. The song, "Jet Lag" was released on 26 April 2011 as the band's first single from their fourth album. On 5 July, Bedingfield performed her song "Weightless" from her "Strip Me" album on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Filipino singer Jake Zyrus confirmed that Bedingfield had written a song for her called "Lighthouse", which is included on her second studio album Infinity. On 9 November 2011, Bedingfield wowed American audiences when she joined Rascal Flatts to perform "Easy," on the Country Music Awards show on ABC. Bedingfield has released a Christmas song 'Shake Up Christmas', which has been confirmed to be on the 2011 Coca- Cola Christmas television advertisements. ===2012–2017: Other projects=== In April 2012, Bedingfield announced that she was working on her fourth studio album, originally titled The Next Chapter, mentioning her plans to release the album worldwide, not just focusing on America. The album was said to feature production from RedOne, Dr. Luke, Benny Blanco, Paul Williams and Marshall Altman. The Next Chapter was presumably scrapped or shelved, given that it never materialized after that. In September 2012, Bedingfield was featured on Lifehouse's single "Between the Raindrops". On 13 May 2013, she appeared as a guest judge on the New Zealand version of The X Factor alongside her brother Daniel Bedingfield. In 2013, Bedingfield composed the music of "Non mi ami", a single by Italian singer-songwriter Giorgia, included on the album Senza Paura. In 2014, Bedingfield contributed to the soundtrack for the Disney animated film, The Pirate Fairy, with a track titled "Who I Am". On 13 January 2015, Bedingfield released a charity single with Philosophy Skin Care titled "Hope". With the release of "Hope", Bedingfield announced via Twitter that she would become more publicly active again, promising "many more music releases to come". The release of the music video for "Hope" followed a day later. Later in 2015, Bedingfield contributed to Band of Merrymakers' album Welcome to Our Christmas Party and toured with the group in 2015 and 2016. Bedingfield also collaborated with Belgian record producer Basto during this time. The duo released a single titled "Unicorn" in March 2016. Bedingfield toured Europe in late 2016 with Night of the Proms. In January 2017 it was announced that Bedingfield would open for Train's 2017 summer concert tour. On 10 March 2017 she appeared on the Soundtrack of Tangled: Before Ever After in the track "More Of Me". ===2018–present: Roll with Me=== Bedingfield released a new record, "Let Go" with Nestea on 17 March 2018. She signed a record deal with Linda Perry's record label We Are Hear in the same year. Bedingfield co-wrote the song "Black Sky" with Kimbra for her 2018 album Primal Heart. In July 2019, Bedingfield announced that her fourth studio album and first studio release in nearly nine years, Roll with Me, is scheduled for release on 30 August 2019. Before the announcement, she had released the song "Roller Skate" as the album's lead single on 19 July and was preceded by its second single "Kick It". ==Philanthropy== Bedingfield has donated time and money to organisations such as the Global Angels, an international children's charity founded by her mother, Molly Bedingfield."Natasha Bedingfield Becomes An Ambassador for 'Global Angels'". Sony BMG UK. 5 April 2006. Retrieved 13 March 2007. She became associated with the organisation in 2006 and said she hoped to help "people around the world, particularly children, who live in conditions that would horrify us".Ambassadors . Global Angels. Retrieved 11 June 2007. Bedingfield is now an ambassador for Global Angels, and in November 2006 she visited India for three weeks in support of the charity. She visited an orphanage in Kolkata and a refugee camp for former child prostitutes in Mumbai to learn more about the situation and the conditions in these areas. Bedingfield later expressed her shock at what she had witnessed.Liz Jones. "Is Natasha Bedingfield God's gift to pop music?" . you.co.uk. 12 May 2007. Retrieved 11 June 2007. Video diaries filmed during her trip were posted on her official website in early 2007.Oh Baby! Natasha Bedingfield Comes Back With Super-Cute New Single + Album . Sony BMG Australia. 20 February 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007. She is also an advocate for Stop the Traffik, a global coalition which works to end human trafficking and a member of the (RED) campaign. In a 2008 rockumentary, Call+Response, headed by Justin Dillon, Bedingfield performed acoustic versions of "Unwritten" and "Soulmate" in support of the film's cause: a movement against modern slavery and human trafficking. == Non-musical projects == In 2004, Bedingfield showed interest in acting and made her debut in the James Bond video game From Russia with Love in November 2005. She voiced the character Elizabeth Stark, the British Prime Minister's daughter who is kidnapped in the opening sequence.Patrick Garratt. Natasha Bedingfield: EA's Latest Bond Girl . Eurogamer. 8 November 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2007. Bedingfield commented that she would like to do more acting, but only if the film "was good enough, and it was a role that [would] fit me." She has made an appearance in the seventh-season finale of the Canadian television series Degrassi: The Next Generation. Bedingfield also guest-starred on Nickelodeon's mockumentary series The Naked Brothers Band "Christmas Special" alongside Whoopi Goldberg and Leon Thomas III. She has made guest appearances on the NBC series Lipstick Jungle. She guest-starred on Nickelodeon's True Jackson, VP in November 2009. She sang the song "These Words". In 2012, Bedingfield made an appearance in three episodes of Web Therapy's fourth season. In December 2012, VH1 announced that Bedingfield would perform at their 2012 VH1 Divas show, a concert benefiting the Save The Music Foundation charity. Bedingfield performed Deee-Lite's "Groove Is in the Heart" with Bootsy Collins and Iggy Azalea. On 22 September 2014, Bedingfield performed a song titled "Love Song to the Earth" at the United Nations 2014 Equator Prize Gala in New York City. The song is a special anthem she and Toby Gad co-wrote for the United Nations Climate Summit 2014. ==Personal life== On 21 March 2009, Bedingfield married American businessman Matt Robinson in Malibu, California, US. In November 2017, their son was born. ==Discography== * Unwritten (2004) * N.B. (2007) * Strip Me (2010) * Roll with Me (2019) ==Tours== ;Headlining *Verizon VIP Tour *Less Is More Tour *Roll With Me Tour ;Co-headlining *Energy Music Tour *Night of the Proms ;Opening act *C'mon C'mon Tour *FutureSex/LoveShow *New Kids on the Block Live *Play That Song Tour ==Filmography== ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 2008 Lipstick Jungle Herself Soundtrack 2008 Degrassi: The Next Generation Herself Seventh season finale 2008 The Naked Brothers Band Herself Christmas special 2009 True Jackson, VP Herself 2012 Web Therapy Gemma Pankhurst-Jones Season four 2014 Hell's Kitchen Herself Attended Season 12's final service as a chef's table guest in Scott Commings' kitchen. 2016 The New Celebrity Apprentice Herself Performed as a part of the final task for Boy George's team 2017 Tangled: The Series Herself Soundtrack 2021 The Masked Singer Pepper Eliminated in eighth episode ===Video games=== Year Title Voice Role Notes 2005 James Bond 007: From Russia with Love Elizabeth Stark Also Likeness ==Awards and nominations== Bedingfield's debut album Unwritten contained primarily uptempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B; music. It enjoyed international success with over three million copies sold worldwide. In 2007, she received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" for the song "Unwritten", the third single from the album of the same name. Bedingfield's second album N.B. yielded the singles "Soulmate"; "Say It Again"; and "I Wanna Have Your Babies", written and produced by Natasha Bedingfield, Wayne Wilkins, Andrew Frampton and Steve Kipner. Bedingfield has received four nominations from the BRIT Awards but has won none. As of July 2008, she has won five awards from eleven nominations. ;Billboard Music Awards The Billboard Music Awards honor artists for commercial performance in the U.S., based on record charts published by Billboard. The awards are based on sales data by Nielsen SoundScan and radio information by Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. The award ceremony was held from 1990 to 2007, until its reintroduction in 2011. |- | 2006 | "Unwritten" | Pop 100 Airplay Song of the Year | |- | rowspan=2|2008 | rowspan=2|Herself | Top Hot Dance Club Play Artist | |- | Top Hot Dance Airplay Artist | ;Billboard Touring Awards Established in 2004, the Billboard Touring Awards is an annual meeting sponsored by Billboard magazine which also honors the top international live entertainment industry artists and professionals. |- | 2011 | Natasha Bedingfield Less Is More Tour Presented By Freschetta | Concert Marketing & Promotion Award | ;BRIT Awards The BRIT Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual pop music awards. Bedingfield has received four nominations. |- |rowspan=4| ||rowspan=3| Natasha Bedingfield || British Female Solo Artist || |- | British Breakthrough Act || |- | British Pop Act || |- | "These Words" || British Single || ;BT Digital Music Awards The BT Digital Music Awards honour music distributed digitally by methods such as mobile devices, online downloads and blogging. Bedingfield has won one award. |- | 2005 | rowspan=3|Natasha Bedingfield | Best Use of Mobile | |- | rowspan=2|2007 || Artist of the Year || |- | Best Pop Artist || ;Glamour Awards !Ref. |- | 2005 | Natasha Bedingfield | UK Solo Artist | | ;Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bedingfield has received one nomination. |- | || "Unwritten" || Best Female Pop Vocal Performance || ;Ivor Novello Awards The Ivor Novello Awards are awarded for songwriting and composing. The awards, named after the Cardiff born entertainer Ivor Novello, are presented annually in London by the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA). |- | 2005 | "These Words" | Best Song Musically And Lyrically | ;MTV Europe Music Awards The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe. Bedingfield has received one nomination. |- | 2004 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best UK and Ireland act || ;Meteor Music Awards Launched in 2001, the Meteor Music Awards are awarded for achievements in the Irish and international record industry. |- | 2005 | Herself | Best International Female | ;Music Video Production Awards The MVPA Awards are annually presented by a Los Angeles-based music trade organization to honor the year's best music videos. |- | rowspan=3 | 2006 | rowspan=3 | "These Words" | Best Pop Video | |- | Best Colorist/Telecine | |- | Best Special Effects | ;New Music Awards The New Music Awards are given for excellence in music to both recording artists and radio stations by New Music Weekly magazine. |- | 2006 | "Unwritten" | AC Single of the Year | |- | 2008 | Natasha Bedingfield | AC Female Artist of the Year | ;People's Choice Awards The People's Choice Awards is an American awards show recognising the people and the work of popular culture. The show has been held annually since 1975 and is voted on by the general public. |- | 2009 | "Love Like This" (feat. Sean Kingston) | Favourite Combined Forces | ;Pop Awards Pop Magazine is an online music magazine created by Hotspot Entertainment and published by A-Z Publishings. The magazine was launched on April 24, 2014. In 2018, Pop Magazine launched the first annual Pop Awards with 25 nominees across 5 categories. |- | 2020 | "Roller Skate" | Song of the Year | ;Radio Disney Music Awards The Radio Disney Music Awards (RDMA) is an annual awards show which is operated and governed by Radio Disney, an American radio network. Beginning in 2013, the ceremony began to be televised on Disney Channel. |- | 2006 | "Unwritten" | Best Song to Listen to While Getting Ready for School | ;Smash Hits Poll Winners Party The Smash Hits Poll Winners Party was an awards ceremony which ran from 1988 to 2005. Each award winner was voted by readers of the Smash Hits magazine. |- |rowspan=2|2004 | Herself | Hot New Talent | |- | "These Words" | Favorite Download | ;TMF Awards The TMF Awards is an annual television awards show broadcast live on The Music Factory. Bedingfield has received one award. |- | 2005 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best International New Artist || ;Teen Choice Awards The Teen Choice Awards were established in 1999 to honor the year's biggest achievements in music, movies, sports and television, being voted by young people aged between 13 and 19. |- | 2006 | Natasha Bedingfield | Choice Music: Breakout Artist - Female | ;Žebřík Music Awards !Ref. |- | 2004 | Natasha Bedingfield | Best International Surprise | | ==See also== *List of songs written by Natasha Bedingfield ==References== ==External links== * * Category:1981 births Category:Living people Category:English people of New Zealand descent Category:Alumni of the University of Greenwich Category:British contemporary R&B; singers Category:English dance musicians Category:English women singer-songwriters Category:English singer-songwriters Category:Hillsong musicians Category:English expatriates in the United States Category:English women pop singers Category:Third British Invasion artists Category:21st-century English women singers Category:21st-century English singers Category:BT Digital Music Awards winners Category:People educated at Lynfield College
|
The aldehyde tag is a short peptide tag that can be further modified to add fluorophores, glycans, PEG (polyethylene glycol) chains, or reactive groups for further synthesis. A short, genetically-encoded peptide with a consensus sequence LCxPxR is introduced into fusion proteins, and by subsequent treatment with the formylglycine-generating enzyme (FGE), the cysteine of the tag is converted to a reactive aldehyde group. This electrophilic group can be targeted by an array of aldehyde-specific reagents, such as aminooxy- or hydrazide-functionalized compounds. == Development == The aldehyde tag is an artificial peptide tag recognized by the formylglycine-generating enzyme (FGE). Formylglycine is a glycine with a formyl group (-CHO) at the α-carbon. The sulfatase motif is the basis for the sequence of the peptide which results in the site-specific conversion of a cysteine to a formylglycine residue. The peptide tag was engineered after studies on FGE recognizable sequences in sulfatases from different organisms. Carrico et al. discovered a high homology in the sulfatase motif in bacteria, archaea as well as eukaryotes.Carrico, I. S., Carlson, B. L. and Bertozzi, C. R. (2007) Introducing genetically encoded aldehydes into proteins. Nat Chem Biol 3, 321–322. Aldehydes and ketones are used as chemical reporters due to their electrophilic properties. This enables a reaction under mild conditions when using a strong nucleophilic coupling partner. Typically, hydrazides and aminooxy probes are used in bioconjugation by forming stabilized addition products with carbonyl groups that are favored under the physiological reaction conditions. At neutral pH, the equilibrium of Schiff base formation lies far to the reactant side. To form stable hydrazones and oximes, compound derivatives are used to yield more product. Since the pH optimum of 4 to 6 cannot be achieved by adding a catalyst due to associated toxicity, the reaction is slow in live cells. A typical reaction constant is 10−4 to 10−3 M−1 s−1.Jencks, W. P. (1959) Studies on the Mechanism of Oxime and Semicarbazone Formation1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 81, 475–481. A carbonyl group is introduced into proteins as a chemical reporter using various techniques, including methods like stop codon suppression and aldehyde tagging.Zhang, Z., Smith, B. A. C., Wang, L., Brock, A., Cho, C. and Schultz, P. G. (2003) A New Strategy for the Site-Specific Modification of Proteins in Vivo†. Biochemistry 42, 6735–6746. Limiting the use of aldehydes and ketones is their restricted bioorthogonality in certain cellular environments. Limitations of aldehydes and ketones as chemical reporters include: * Competition with endogenous aldehydes or ketones in metabolites and cofactors, resulting in low yields and impaired specificity. * Side reactions, such as oxidation or unwanted addition of endogenous nucleophiles. * Restrained set of probes that form sufficiently stable products.Lim, R. K. V. and Lin, Q. (2010) Bioorthogonal Chemistry: Recent Progress and Future Directions. Chem Commun (Camb) 46, 1589–1600.Prescher, J. A. and Bertozzi, C. R. (2005) Chemistry in living systems. Nat Chem Biol 1, 13–21. Aldehydes and ketones are therefore best used in compartments where such unwanted side reactions are decreased. For experiments with live cells, cell surfaces and extracellular space are typical fielding areas. Nevertheless, a feature of carbonyl groups is the vast number of organic reactions that involve them as electrophiles. Some of these reactions are readily convertible to ligations for probing aldehydes. A reaction recently employed for bioconjugation by Agarwal et al. is the adaptation of the Pictet-Spengler reaction as a ligation. The reaction is known from natural product biosynthetic pathways Stöckigt, J., Antonchick, A. P., Wu, F. and Waldmann, H. (2011) Die Pictet-Spengler-Reaktion in der Natur und der organischen Chemie. Angew. Chem. 123, 8692–8719. and has the major advantage of forming a new carbon-carbon bond. This guarantees long-term stability compared to carbon-heteroatom bonds with similar reaction kinetics.Agarwal, P., van der Weijden, J., Sletten, E. M., Rabuka, D. and Bertozzi, C. R. (2013) A Pictet-Spengler ligation for protein chemical modification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110, 46–51. The modification of cysteine or, more rarely, serineMiech, C., Dierks, T., Selmer, T., Figura, K. von and Schmidt, B. (1998) Arylsulfatase from Klebsiella pneumoniae Carries a Formylglycine Generated from a Serine. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 4835–4837. by FGE is an uncommon posttranslational modification that was discovered in the late 1990s.Dierks, T., Lecca, M. R., Schmidt, B. and von Figura, K. (1998) Conversion of cysteine to formylglycine in eukaryotic sulfatases occurs by a common mechanism in the endoplasmic reticulum. FEBS Letters 423, 61–65. The deficiency of FGE leads to an overall deficiency of functional sulfatases due to a lack of α-formylglycine formation vital for the sulfatases to perform their function. FGE is essential for protein modification and need of high specificity and conversion rate is given in the native setting, which makes this reaction applicable in chemical and synthetic biology.Dierks, T., Dickmanns, A., Preusser-Kunze, A., Schmidt, B., Mariappan, M., von Figura, K., Ficner, R. and Rudolph, M. G. (2005) Molecular Basis for Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency and Mechanism for Formylglycine Generation of the Human Formylglycine-Generating Enzyme. Cell 121, 541–552. Carrico et al. pioneered the insertion of the modified sulfatase motif peptide into proteins of interest in 2007.Carrico, I. S., Carlson, B. L. and Bertozzi, C. R. (2007) Introducing genetically encoded aldehydes into proteins. Nat Chem Biol 3, 321–322. Jencks, W. P. (1959) Studies on the Mechanism of Oxime and Semicarbazone Formation. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 81, 475–481. Since then, similar usage of aldehydes and ketones as chemical reporters in bioorthogonal applications has been demonstrated in self-assembly of cell-lysing drugs,Rideout, D. (1994) Self-assembling drugs: a new approach to biochemical modulation in cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Invest. 12, 189–202; discussion 268–269. the targeting of proteins,Chen, I., Howarth, M., Lin, W. and Ting, A. Y. (2005) Site-specific labeling of cell surface proteins with biophysical probes using biotin ligase. Nat Meth 2, 99–104. as well as glycans Mahal, L. K., Yarema, K. J. and Bertozzi, C. R. (1997) Engineering Chemical Reactivity on Cell Surfaces Through Oligosaccharide Biosynthesis. Science 276, 1125–1128. and the preparation of heterobifunctional fusion proteins.Hudak, J. E., Barfield, R. M., de Hart, G. W., Grob, P., Nogales, E., Bertozzi, C. R. and Rabuka, D. (2012) Synthesis of Heterobifunctional Protein Fusions Using Copper-Free Click Chemistry and the Aldehyde Tag. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 4161–4165. == Genetically encoding the aldehyde tag == The formylglycine tag or aldehyde tag is a convenient 6- or 13-amino acids long tag fused to a protein of interest. The 6-mer tag represents the small core consensus sequence and the 13-mer tag the longer full motif. The experiments on the genetically encoded aldehyde tag by Carrico et al. clearly showed the high conversion efficiency with only the core consensus sequence present. Four proteins were produced recombinantly in E.coli with an 86% efficiency of for the full-length motif and >90 % efficiency for the 6-mer determined by mass spectrometry. The size of the sequence is analogous to the commonly used 6x His-TagHochuli, E., Bannwarth, W., Döbeli, H., Gentz, R. and Stüber, D. (1988) Genetic Approach to Facilitate Purification of Recombinant Proteins with a Novel Metal Chelate Adsorbent. Nat Biotech 6, 1321–1325 and has the advantage that it can also be genetically encoded. The sequence is recognized in the ER solely depending on primary sequence and subsequently targeted by FGE. Notably, in the setup of recombinant expression proteins in E. coli a coexpression of exogenous FGE aids full conversion, although E. coli has endogenous FGE-activity.Dierks, T., Miech, C., Hummerjohann, J., Schmidt, B., Kertesz, M. A. and Figura, K. von. (1998) Posttranslational Formation of Formylglycine in Prokaryotic Sulfatases by Modification of Either Cysteine or Serine. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 25560–25564. The introduction of an aldehyde tag as proposed by Carrico et al. has a workflow that consists of three segments: A the expression of the fusion protein, that carries the peptide tag derived from the sulfatase motif, B the enzymatic conversion of Cys to f(Gly) and C the bioorthogonal probing with hydrazides or alkoxy amines (Fig. 1). 650px|thumb|center|Figure 1: Formylglycine aldehyde tag Carrico et al.: A The aldehyde tag is genetically inserted into a protein of interest. In this example, the human growth hormone (hGH, PDB:1HUW), one of the four initially examined proteins, is shown. The N-terminus of the protein is fused to the formylglycine aldehyde tag. B The FGE recognizes the motif and the cysteine (Cys) residue is converted into the formylglycine residue [f(Gly)]. The chemical reporter is formed on location by an enzymatic reaction. C The carbonyl group is probed using typically hydrazide- or alkoxy amine- functionalized dyes or other compounds. As seen in Fig. 1, the engineered aldehyde tag consists of six amino acids. A set of organisms from all domains of life was chosen and the sequence homology of the sulfatase motif was determined. The sequence used is the best consensus for sequences found in bacteria, archaea, worms and higher vertebrates. == FGE-mechanism of cysteine- formylglycine conversion == The catalytic mechanism of FGE is well studied. A multistep redox reaction with a covalent enzyme: substrate intermediate is proposed. The role of the cysteine residue for the occurring conversion was studied by mutating the cysteine to alanine. No conversion was found using mass spectrometry when the mutated peptide tag was used. The mechanism shows the important role of the redox active thiol group of cysteine in the formation of f(Gly), as seen in Fig. 2. The key step of the catalytic cycle is the monooxidation of the cysteine residue of the enzyme, forming a reactive sulfenic acid intermediate. Subsequently, the hydroxyl group is transferred to the cysteine of the substrate and after hetero-analogous β-elimination of H2O, a thioaldehyde is formed. This compound is very reactive and easily hydrolyzed, releasing the aldehyde and a molecule of H2S,Roeser, D., Preusser- Kunze, A., Schmidt, B., Gasow, K., Wittmann, J. G., Dierks, T., Figura, K. von and Rudolph, M. G. (2006) A general binding mechanism for all human sulfatases by the formylglycine-generating enzyme. PNAS 103, 81–86.Sase, S., Kakimoto, R. and Goto, K. (2014) Synthesis of a Stable Selenoaldehyde by Self-Catalyzed Thermal Dehydration of a Primary-Alkyl-Substituted Selenenic Acid. Angew. Chem. n/a–n/a. == Applications == The aldehyde tag is a technique which recently found increased application because of the introduction of bioorthogonal chemical reporters. Bioorthogonal agents contain functional groups such as azides or cyclooctynes for coupling which are not naturally found in the cell. Due to their foreignness, they seem inert and do not disrupt the native metabolism, Fig. 3 gives an overview of possible labeling methods for formylglycine. For example, it can be coupled to probes such as biotin or a protein tag like Flag that are useful for purification and detection.Wu, P., Shui, W., Carlson, B.L., Hu, N., Rabuka, D., Lee, J., and Bertozzi, C.R. (2009) Site-specific chemical modification of recombinant proteins produced in mammalian cells by using the genetically encoded aldehyde tag. Proc. Natl. Acad. Furthermore, fluorophores can be directly conjugated for live cell imaging.Smith, E. L.; Giddens, J. P.; Iavarone, A. T.; Godula, K.; Wang, L. X.; Bertozzi, C. R. Chemoenzymatic Fc Glycosylation via Engineered Aldehyde Tags. Bioconjug. Chem. 2014, 25,788-795. The conjugation of polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains to potential drug candidates extends the stability against proteases in body fluids and at the same time reduces renal clearance and immunogenicity. The first application described here, deals with the formation of protein-protein conjugates through bioorthogonal probes.Hudak, J. E., Barfield, R. M., de Hart, G. W., Grob, P., Nogales, E., Bertozzi, C. R. and Rabuka, D. (2012) Synthesis of Heterobifunctional Protein Fusions Using Copper-Free Click Chemistry and the Aldehyde Tag. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 4161–4165. Since, the aldehyde tag is strictly speaking not a true bioorthogonal agent as it can be found in various metabolites, it can cause cross reactions during protein labeling. However, coupling bioorthogonal probes such as azides or cyclooctynes can be applied to overcome this obstacle. As a second application, the coupling of glycan moieties to proteins is presented here. It can be utilised in the strategy of chemically introduced glycosylation patterns.Beck A, Wurch T, Bailly C, Corvaia N. (2010) Strategies and challenges for the next generation of therapeutic antibodies Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 May;10(5):345-52. 600px|thumbnail|center|Figure 3: Possible conjugations probes for formylglycine === Forming protein-protein conjugates via Cu-free click chemistry === Hudak et al. explored the strategy of producing protein-protein conjugates with the help of the aldehyde tag. Their aim was to connect full length human IgG (hIgG) to the human growth hormone (hGH). These protein-protein conjugates can be superior to monomeric proteins in terms of serum half life in protein therapeutics and, additionally, have appealing dual binding properties. In order to achieve protein fusion, the five-residue aldehyde tag (CxPxR) was incooperated into hIgG and hGH. In hIgG, the aldehyde tag was introduced at the C termini of the two heavy chains, resulting in two possible conjugation sites. FGE then oxidizes the cysteine residue to formylglycine (fGly) during protein expression. For the subsequent conjugation steps, the strategy of the copper-free click chemistry was selected. A strain-promoted 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of a cyclooctynes and an azide was carried out forming a covalent linkage (also termed the Cu-free azide-alkyne cycloaddition). Thus, the aldehyde bearing proteins react under oxime formation with different heterobifunctional linkers which carry an aminooxy residue on one end and either an azide or cyclooctynes on the other. This results in the attachment of hIgG to a linker containing a cyclooctyne (here dibenzoazacyclooctyne (DIBAC)) and hGH to a linker holding an azide function (Fig.: 2A and B). The proteins hGH and hIgG were also treated with DIBAC-488, azide Alexa Fluor 647 and analysed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot to validate oxime formation. Next, the DIBAC-hIgG and azide-hGH derivatives are joined by Cu-free click chemistry (Fig.: 2C). The resulting fusion proteins were purified and analyzed by immunoblot (see Hudak et al. 2012). [[File:IgG conjugate 1.png|600px|thumbnail|center|Figure 4: Protein–protein conjugation of hIgG with hGH A)+B) Aldehyde-tagged proteins are treated with the aminooxy- azide/cyclooctyne bifunctional linkers for oxime formation. C) The DIBAC-hIgG and azide-hGH conjugates are joined by Cu-free click chemistry to protein trimers; X and Y are PEG-based linkers of different length.]] The Western blots were first stained with Ponceau and then incubated with IgG antibodies against hGH and subsequently treated with α-mIgG HRP and α-hIgG 647 for visualisation. In the hIgG-hGH conjugate Western blot (nonreducing conditions), two separate bands with different molecular weights are visible after immunodetection. These can be contributed to the formation of mono- and bi-conjugated hGH to hIgG. === Chemical glycosylation of the IgG Fc fragment === Nature has perfected glycosylation of proteins through a complex interaction of enzymes and carbohydrates over thousands of years. However, chemical glycosylation is still an obstacle due to the difficult synthesis of glycan in general.Yarema K.J., and Bertozzi C.R. (2001) Characterizing glycosylation pathways GenomeBiology 2 r4.1-r4.10. The synthesis of carbohydrate derivatives can be slow and tedious.Seeberger PH, Finney N, Rabuka D, Bertozzi CR.; Chemical and Enzymatic Synthesis of Glycans and Glycoconjugates; Essentials of Glycobiology. 2nd edition. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2009. Chapter 49. Nonetheless, the interest in technologies to structurally mimic protein glycosylation is an appealing application as some protein functions solely depend on the pattern of the attached glycan.Arnold, J. N., Wormald, M. R., Sim, R. B., Rudd, P. M., and Dwek, R. A. (2007) The impact of glycosylation on the biological function and structure of human immunoglobulins. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 25, 21 − 50. The Fc fragment of the IgG antibody, for example, is a homodimer with a highly conserved N-glycosylation site. The attached sugar moieties modulate the binding to specific immunoreceptors, thereby modifying the whole antibody function.Krapp, S., Mimura, Y., Jefferis, R., Huber, R., and Sondermann, P. (2003) Structural analysis of human IgG-Fc glycoforms reveals a correlation between glycosylation and structural integrity. J. Mol. Biol. 325, 979 − 989.Kaneko, Y., Nimmerjahn, F., and Ravetch, J. V. (2006) Anti-inflammatory activity of Immunoglobulin G resulting from Fc sialylation. Science 313, 670 − 673. Smith et al. demonstrate the application of the aldehyde tag as a chemical conjugation site for glycans. The aldehyde tag sequence was incooperated into the Fc construct and introduced into CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells. As controls, gene constructs were used in which the cysteine residue was mutated to an alanine. After expression, the Fc proteins were purified using a protein A/G agarose column. The conversion in CHO cells of cystein to formylglycine was examined using aminooxy AlexaFluor 488 and subsequent SDS-PAGE. However, fluorescence scanning displayed no fluorescence labeling, i.e. no formylglycine formation by endogenous FGE in CHO cells. The unaltered proteins were then treated with recombinant FGE from Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro in which the aldehyde group was successfully installed at the glycosylation site of Fc (Fig. 3A). Next, the introduction of N-acetylglucoseamine (GlcNAc) to the aldehyde tagged proteins via oxime formation was carried out through the treatment with aminooxy GlcNAc (AO- GlcNAc) (Fig. 3B). The conjugation was confirmed by liquid chromatography- electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) and lectin blot with the GlcNAc-binding wheat germ agglutinin attached to AlexaFluor 647. Having successfully introduced GlcNAc, the monomer was extended with a glycan structure containing GlcNAc, mannose (Man) and galactose (Gal) (Fig. 3C). A mutant endoglycosidase EndoS (EndoS-D233Q) was utilised as it is highly specific for IgG Fc N-linked GlcNAc residues and does not elongate Asn-GlcNAc sites on other proteins or on denatured IgGs. Product formation was again monitored by LC-ESI-MS and lectin blot probing, with the sialic acid-binding sambucus nigra agglutinin attached to fluorescein isothiocyanate. A successful chemical glycosylation of the Fc IgG fragment was achieved which resembles the natural occurring glycosylation pattern. The study discussed above focused on the IgG antibody, however, the application of the aldehyde tag for glycan conjugation could potentially be extended to other proteins. 600px|thumbnail|center|Figure 5: Chemical glycosylation of the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/mmdb/mmdbsrv.cgi?uid=48794 IgG Fc fragment] (Chain A and B) the glycosyltion site A) Formylglycine-generating enzyme (FGE) oxidizes the cysteine residue to an aldehyde function B) Aminooxy-N-Acetylglucoseamine (AO-GlcNAc) is coupled to Fc via oxime formation C) GlcNAc is further elongated by different carbohydrate moieties with the help of the endoglycosidase EndoS (EndoS-D233Q) == References == Category:Biochemical separation processes Category:Peptides
|
{{Infobox settlement | name = Newport Beach, California | settlement_type = City | image_skyline = The City of Newport Beach July 2014 photo Don Ramey Logan.jpg | image_caption = Aerial view of Newport Beach in July 2014 | image_flag = Flag of Newport Beach, California.PNG | image_seal = Seal of Newport Beach, California.png | image_map = Orange_County_California_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Newport_Beach_Highlighted.svg | mapsize = 250x200px | map_caption = Location within California and Orange County | pushpin_map = USA California Southern#California#USA | pushpin_label = Newport Beach | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Southern California##Location within California##Location within the United States | coordinates = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = United States | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_name1 = California | subdivision_type2 = County | subdivision_name2 = Orange | established_title = Incorporated | established_date = September 1, 1906 From a portion of that work reproduced on the City's Public Library web site. | government_type = Mayor–council | governing_body = City of Newport Beach City Council | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Noah Blom | leader_title1 = Mayor Pro Tem | leader_name1 = Will O'Neill | leader_title2 = City Council | leader_name2 = Joe Stapleton Brad Avery Erik Weigand Robyn Grant Noah Blom Lauren Kleiman Will O'Neill | leader_title3 = City Manager | leader_name3 = Grace K. Leung | leader_title4 = Assistant City Manager | leader_name4 = Tara Finnigan | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = | area_total_sq_mi = 52.92 | area_total_km2 = 137.07 | area_land_sq_mi = 23.79 | area_land_km2 = 61.62 | area_water_sq_mi = 29.13 | area_water_km2 = 75.45 | area_water_percent = 55.07 | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_ft = 10 | elevation_m = 3 | population_as_of = 2020 | population_footnotes = | population_total = 85239 | pop_est_as_of = | pop_est_footnotes = | population_est = | population_rank = 98th in California | population_density_sq_mi = auto | timezone = Pacific | utc_offset = −8 | timezone_DST = PDT | utc_offset_DST = −7 | postal_code_type = ZIP Codes | postal_code = 92657–92663 | area_code_type = Area code | area_code = 949 | blank_name = FIPS code | blank_info = | blank1_name = GNIS feature IDs | blank1_info = , | website = | module = | population_density_km2 = auto }} Newport Beach is a coastal city of about 85,000 in southern Orange County, California, United States. Newport Beach is known for swimming and sandy beaches. Newport Harbor once supported maritime industries; however today it is used mostly for recreation. Balboa Island draws visitors with a waterfront path and easy access from the ferry to the shops and restaurants. ==History== The Upper Bay of Newport is a canyon carved by a stream in the Pleistocene period. The Lower Bay of Newport was formed much later by sand brought along by ocean currents, which constructed the offshore beach now recognized as the Balboa Peninsula of Newport Beach. For thousands of years, the Tongva people lived on the land in an extensive, thriving community. The Tongva villages of Genga and Moyongna were located in Newport Beach. Throughout the 1800s, Europeans colonized the land and forcibly removed and assimilated the Tongva. Present-day Newport Beach exists upon the unceded homelands of the Tongva people, and they have a historical and continued presence as the traditional caretakers of the land. The State of California sold acre-plots of land for $1 a piece in the Newport area. Anglo-American inhabitation in the area grew substantially following 1870 when a 105-ton steamer named The Vaquero, captained by Captain Samuel S. Dunnells (against warnings posted by surveyors), safely steered through the lower and upper bay of Newport where it unloaded its cargo. James Irvine upon hearing the astonishing news, quickly traveled from his home in San Francisco to the San Joaquin Ranch. Meeting in Irvine's ranch house near current day UC Irvine with his brother, Robert Irvine, and friend James McFadden, they agreed that the newly found port should be simply named "Newport" which is where Newport Beach gets its name. James McFadden built a long McFadden Wharf in 1888. In 1905, city development increased when Pacific Electric Railway established a southern terminus in Newport connecting the beach with downtown Los Angeles. In 1906 (with a population of 206 citizens), the scattered settlements were incorporated as the City of Newport Beach. Settlements were filled in on the Peninsula, West Newport, Newport Island, Balboa Island, and Lido Isle. In 1923, Corona del Mar was annexed and in 2002, Newport Coast, East Santa Ana Heights, and San Joaquin Hills were annexed. In 2008, after a long battle with the city of Costa Mesa, Newport Beach annexed West Santa Ana Heights. thumb|center|900px|Newport Beach California == Geography == thumb|right|Dover and Pacific Coast Hwy in Newport Beach, California Newport Beach extends in elevation from sea level to the summit of Signal Peak in the San Joaquin Hills, but the official elevation is above sea level at a location of (33.616671, −117.897604). The city is bordered on the west by Huntington Beach at the Santa Ana River; on the north by Costa Mesa, John Wayne Airport, the City of Irvine and UC Irvine; and on the east by Crystal Cove State Park. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (55.07%) is water. Areas of Newport Beach include Corona del Mar, Balboa Island, Balboa Peninsula (also known as Balboa), Lido Peninsula, Newport Coast, San Joaquin Hills, Santa Ana Heights, and West Newport. alt=|thumb|Newport Coastal Path ===Newport Harbor and Newport Bay=== Newport Harbor is a semi-artificial harbor that was formed by dredging Newport Bay estuary during the early 1900s. Several artificial islands were built, which are now covered with private homes: Newport Island, Balboa Island, Little Balboa Island, Collins Island, Bay Island, Harbor Island, Lido Isle, and Linda Isle. thumb|The Lido Peninsula Newport Harbor once supported maritime industries such as boatbuilding, shipbuilding, and commercial fishing, but today it is used mostly for recreation. Its shores are occupied mostly by private homes and private docks. Newport Harbor has approximately 9,000 boats and is one of the largest recreational boat harbors on the U.S. west coast. It is a popular destination for all boating activities, including sailing, fishing, rowing, canoeing, kayaking, and paddleboarding. Commercial maritime operations today include the Catalina Flyer ferry to Catalina Island, harbor tours, sport fishing, whale watching day trips, and charters as well as a few small commercial fishing boats. Newport Bay is divided by the Pacific Coast Highway bridge, which is too low for most sailboats and very large boats to pass under. North of the bridge is referred to as Upper Newport Bay, or the Back Bay. South of the bridge is commonly called Lower Newport Bay, or Newport Harbor. However the Back Bay also has harbor facilities, especially the marina and launch ramp at Newport Dunes Marina. The north end of the Newport Harbor channels surrounding Lido Isle has several small business centers and was at one time used as a home by the fishing fleets. On the North East side of the channel, the Lido Marina Village now acts as the local port to many "Newport Party Boats" that can be rented for events, as well as small merchants and local restaurants. It also hosts the area boat show each year, and an organic "Farmers Market" on Sundays, in addition to being the port for the local Gondola Company. In 2014, the center was closed for a renovation. The Lido Village was reopened in 2017 after a complete renovation. In 1927, a home was built at the mouth of the entrance of Newport Harbor that came to be known as the China House of China Cove. The home was built using traditional Chinese architecture. It was a landmark in the Newport Beach Harbor until it was demolished in the 1980s. Some of the original roof can be seen on a home located in the China Cove. Upper Newport Bay is an estuary that was formed by a prehistoric flow of the Santa Ana River. Today it is fed by a small stream from San Diego Creek. Much of Upper Newport Bay is a protected natural area known as the Upper Newport Bay Ecological Reserve, established in 1975. ===Climate=== Newport Beach has a mid-latitude semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk) with characteristics of a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csb). Like many Los Angeles and Orange coastal cities, Newport Beach exhibits weak temperature variation, diurnally and seasonally, compared to inland cities even a few miles from the ocean. The Pacific Ocean greatly moderates Newport Beach's climate by warming winter temperatures and cooling summer temperatures. Diurnal temperature variation is stronger during the winter than during the summer. Newport Beach does not receive enough precipitation to qualify as a true Mediterranean climate. ==Demographics== ===2010=== thumb|Balboa Island, Newport Beach California in January 2013 The 2010 United States Census reported that Newport Beach had a population of 85,186. The population density was . The racial makeup of Newport Beach was 74,357 (87.3%) White (82.3% Non-Hispanic White), 616 (0.7%) African American, 223 (0.3%) Native American, 5,982 (7.0%) Asian, 114 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 1,401 (1.6%) from other races, and 2,493 (2.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6,174 persons (7.2%). The Census reported that 84,784 people (99.5% of the population) lived in households, 151 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 251 (0.3%) were institutionalized. There were 38,751 households, out of which 8,212 (21.2%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 17,273 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 2,608 (6.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,199 (3.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,846 (4.8%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 233 (0.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 12,838 households (33.1%) were individuals, and 4,412 (11.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years or older. The average household size was 2.19. There were 21,080 families (54.4% of all households); the average family size was 2.81. The population was different ages with 14,744 people (17.3%) under the age of 18, 6,659 people (7.8%) aged 18 to 24, 22,299 people (26.2%) aged 25 to 44, 25,322 people (29.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 16,162 people (19.0%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.1 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 95.5 males. There were 44,193 housing units at an average density of , of which 21,224 (54.8%) were owner-occupied, and 17,527 (45.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.8%. 50,511 people (59.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units, and 34,273 people (40.2%) lived in rental housing units. In 2009-2013, Newport Beach had a median household income of $106,333, with 7.9% of the population living below the federal poverty line. ===2000=== thumb|right|West Newport Beach As of the census of 2000, there were 70,032 people, 33,071 households, and 16,965 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 37,288 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 92.22% White, 0.53% African American, 0.26% Native American, 4.00% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 1.13% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.71% of the population. There were 33,071 households, out of which 18.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.5% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.7% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09, and the average family size was 2.71. In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.7% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 27.2% from 45 to 64, and 17.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 96.6 males. According to a 2019 US Census estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $64,423, while the median family income was $126,976. Males had a median income of $73,425 versus $45,409 for females. The per capita income for the city was $63,015. About 2.1% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 3.5% of those age 65 or over. ==Economy== Housing prices in Newport Beach ranked eighth highest in the United States in a 2009 survey. Newport Beach is home to one Fortune 500 company, insurer Pacific Life. Other companies based in Newport Beach include Acacia Research, Galardi Group (Wienerschnitzel), Chipotle Mexican Grill, The Original Hamburger Stand, Tastee-Freez, the Irvine Company, Jazz Semiconductor, PIMCO, and Urban Decay. Fletcher Jones Motor Cars in Newport Beach is the largest Mercedes-Benz dealership in the world. At one time Edwards Theatres had its headquarters in Newport Beach. Before its dissolution Air California was headquartered in Newport Beach. The city's largest law firm is Stradling Yocca Carlson & Rauth, with approximately 75 attorneys at its Fashion Island location. Toyota has a design center, Calty Design Research which is in Newport Beach and responsible for the exterior design of the 2nd, 5th, and 7th generation Celica, as well as some Lexus and Scion models. ===Top employers=== According to the city's 2021 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report here are the top employers in the city. # Employer # of employees 1 Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian 5,292 2 PIMCO 1,258 3 Pacific Life Insurance 1,250 4 Glidewell Dental 1,008 5 Irvine Management Company 895 6 Tower Semiconductor 868 7 Resort at Pelican Hill 798 8 Newport-Mesa Unified School District 780 9 City of Newport Beach 728 10 Fletcher Jones Motor Cars 465 11 Balboa Bay Club 427 12 Newport Beach Marriott Hotel & Tennis Club 371 ==Arts and culture== ===Points of interest=== * Newport Center and Fashion Island * Hoag Hospital * Newport Back Bay or Upper Newport Bay * Newport Pier * Balboa Pier * Balboa Fun Zone * Balboa Island Ferry * Balboa Island * Lido Isle * Lido Marina Village * Inspiration Point * Crystal Cove Shake Shack * Sherman Library and Gardens * Newport Sports Museum * Pacific Coast Highway * Orange County Council BSA Sea Base * The Crab Cooker * Corona del Mar State Beach * Crystal Cove State Park * The Wedge (surfing) * Lovell Beach House * Wooden Boat Festival Image:Fashion_island_Newport_Beach_CA_Photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg| Newport Center Image:Beer Can Races Newport Beach California photo D Ramey Logan.jpg| Beer Can Races in Newport Beach Image:Lovell Beach House photo D Ramey Logan.jpg| Lovell Beach House Image:Body Surfing The Wedge Newport Beach CA photo D Ramey Logan.jpg| The Wedge (surfing) Image:Balboa Bay Club 2013 Photo D Ramey Logan.jpg| Balboa Bay Resort File:Orange County Museum of Art exterior.jpg|Orange County Museum of Art ===Past landmarks=== * The China House of China Cove * Orange County Museum of Art * The Reuben E. Lee * Rendezvous Ballroom * The Banana Stand * Balboa Inn * Hall House ===Attractions=== thumb|Newport Harbor ====Beaches and surfing==== Beachgoers have flocked to Newport Beach since the Pacific Electric Railway began bringing them in 1905. Attractions include the city beaches from the Santa Ana River to the tip of the Balboa Peninsula, Corona del Mar State Beach, and the beaches at Crystal Cove State Park. Newport Beach is known for good surfing, especially between Newport Pier and the Santa Ana River. At the tip of the Balboa Peninsula, The Wedge offers world-class bodyboarding and bodysurfing. Newport Pier and Balboa Pier draw fishermen and sightseers. A boardwalk runs from 36th Street in West Newport, past Newport Pier and Balboa Pier, to between E and F Streets on the Balboa Peninsula for both pedestrians and bikers. ====Harbor and boating==== Newport Harbor is the largest recreational boat harbor on the U.S. west coast, and a popular destination for all boating activities, including sailing, fishing, rowing, kayaking, and paddleboarding. The annual Christmas Boat Parade started in 1908. Competitive sailing, rowing, and paddling events are common. The annual Newport to Ensenada International Yacht Race is the largest sailboat race in the world. Boating activities are organized by five private yacht clubs, along with Orange Coast College, UC Irvine, and the Sea Scouts, all of which have sailing, rowing, and water activity bases on the harbor. The Newport Aquatic Center allows public participation in competitive rowing, canoeing, kayaking, and outrigger canoe racing. The Orange Coast College School of Sailing and Seamanship offers recreational and professional sailing and mariners' courses and certifications, including United States Coast Guard licensing. Weekly races take place during the summer including the Beer Can Races. =====Nautical clubs===== * Newport Harbor Yacht Club * Balboa Yacht Club * Bahia Corinthian Yacht Club * Lido Isle Yacht Club ====Balboa==== The historic Balboa Pavilion and Balboa Island Ferry are on the Balboa Peninsula and Balboa's most famous landmarks. The 500-passenger Catalina Flyer is adjacent to the Pavilion and provides daily transportation to and from Avalon, located on Santa Catalina Island. The Balboa Fun Zone is also home to the Newport Harbor Nautical Museum. Balboa Island village draws many visitors. A waterfront path around the island attracts walkers and joggers and provides easy access from the ferry to the shops and restaurants. ===Media=== * Newport Beach Independent (newspaper) * Newport Beach (magazine) ===Culture and nightlife=== thumb|right|Fashion Island in Newport Center Fashion Island at Newport Center is a regional shopping and entertainment destination. Dining in Newport Beach tends to focus on seafood restaurants. ==Parks and recreation== thumb|Fishing on the Newport Beach Pier Upper Newport Bay, or the Back Bay, is ringed by Back Bay Drive and a network of trails and paths that attract bicyclists, rollerbladers, joggers, and walkers. Bird watchers and nature lovers are drawn to the Upper Newport Bay Ecological Reserve and Peter and Mary Muth Interpretive Center; and Crystal Cove State Park features tide pools at its beach, with backcountry hiking and mountain biking trails. Camping is available at Crystal Cove State Park and at the Newport Dunes Waterfront Resort and Marina. Whale watching is also popular in the area, with both scheduled and charter boats leaving directly from Newport Harbor. Whales and dolphins can often be seen from the Balboa and Newport Piers, as well as the shoreline during migration season. Fishing is also extremely popular in Newport Bay, off the coast of Newport, and along the Newport Bay Jetty. Within the bay, there are multiple locations to purchase bait for dockside or spearfishing convenience. There are about 80 fishable species located in Newport Bay. A few of the most commonly fished species include the Gray Smoothhound Shark, Leopard Shark, Round Stingray, Shovelnose Guitarfish, Pacific Staghorn Sculpin, Silvery Mullet, Top-smelt, California Halibut, Spotted Sand Bass, Yellowfin Croaker, Bat Ray, Thornback Ray, Diamond Turbot, Shiner Surfperch, Corbina, Opaleye, Pile Surfperch, and Red Shiner. Commercial fishing is also prominent in offshore Newport Beach and Newport Bay. Lobsters are commonly fished in the reefs. However, the bright orange Garibaldi fish found offshore is a protected species. On dark nights intense occurrences of bioluminescence can be observed when waves splash into the shore or when marine animals leave glowing traces in their wake. thumb|upright|Newport Beach Boardwalk ===Golf=== The Pelican Hill area has two golf courses that rank among Golf Digest America's 100 Greatest Public Golf Courses. ==Government== ===Municipal=== thumb|Upper Newport Bay The City of Newport Beach was incorporated on September 1, 1906 and adopted its charter on January 7, 1955. The city implements a council–manager form of government, directed by a seven- member council who reside in specific geographic districts, but are elected at-large. Council elections take place in even-numbered years, and council members serve four-year terms. The mayor is chosen annually by the city council. Until 1927 the city's governing body was known as a board of trustees with a president as its head. An act of the Legislature in 1927 changed the board to City Council with a mayor as the head. ===State and federal representation=== In the California State Legislature, Newport Beach is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Newport Beach is in . ===Voting history=== Newport Beach has supported Republican candidates for president and governor consistently since at least 1962. As of February 2020, the California Secretary of State reported that Newport Beach had 57,408 registered voters; of those, 14,097 (24.56% vs. 35.63% in Orange County) are registered Democrats, 27,472 (47.85% vs. 34.16% in Orange County) are registered Republicans, 12,996 (22.64% vs. 25.29% in Orange County) have stated no political party preference, and 2,843 (4.95% vs. 4.92% in Orange County) are registered with a third party. According to a March 2018 report by the Sacramento Bee, Newport Beach has the second highest percentage of conservative voters among large cities in California. The Republican candidate exceeded 70% of the vote in Newport Beach in all seven presidential elections from 1964 to 1988 and seven of the nine gubernatorial elections from 1962 to 1994. Although the politics of California have trended in favor of the Democratic Party, Newport Beach has remained Republican but has become less Republican over time. In 2016, as Donald Trump became the first GOP presidential candidate to lose Orange County since Alf Landon in 1936, Trump won Newport Beach by a margin of 14 points. Trump also won Newport Beach by a margin of nearly ten points in his 2020 re-election bid. ==Education== * Newport Elementary School * Corona del Mar High School * Newport Harbor High School * Sage Hill School * Pacifica Christian High School * Carden Hall * Eastbluff Elementary School * Ensign Intermediate School * Harbor Day School * Harbor View Elementary School * Lincoln Elementary School * Mariners Elementary School * Newport Heights Elementary School * Newport Coast Elementary School * Our Lady Queen of Angels School * Roy O. Andersen Elementary School ==Infrastructure== ===Fire department=== The Newport Beach Fire Department is the agency that provides fire protection, lifeguard coverage, and emergency medical services. Newport Beach has 8 fire stations spread across the city, as well as a Lifeguard Headquarters at the base of the Newport Pier. === Marine operations === The marine division of the NBFD is responsible for lifeguarding the nearly 10 million annual visitors to Newport Beach's of ocean and of bay beaches. In 2013 alone the marine division performed 3,811 water rescues. Newport Beach lifeguards are recognized as the top agency in the nation, considering their relatively small size. They are also recognized as an advanced agency by the United States Lifesaving Association. Newport Beach lifeguards also hold an annual summer Junior Lifeguard program which is one of the nation's largest and oldest. The Junior Lifeguard program works closely with the John Wayne Cancer Foundation to spread skin cancer awareness. Included in their area is The Wedge, a spot located at the extreme east end of the Balboa Peninsula that is known for its large wedge-shaped waves, which make it a popular spot for skimboarding, surfing, bodyboarding, and bodysurfing. During south or south/southwest swells of the right size and aligned in the swell window, the Wedge can produce huge waves up to high. Newport Beach has one of the most diverse coastlines in the world, spanning over 6 miles. For this reason the NBFD Marine Operations Division requires its ocean lifeguards to be in top shape and to have years of local ocean experience. ==Notable people== ==In popular culture== The city has figured into several television shows and movies: * The music video for Childish Gambino's "3005" was filmed on the Ferris Wheel at the Balboa Fun Zone. * The TV show The O.C. was based on the fictional lives of people living in Newport Beach. * MTV replaced its hit teen-reality series Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County with a new show, Newport Harbor: The Real Orange County, on August 15, 2007. Only the cast and location changed in the new series which was based on the lives of high school students living in Newport Beach. * The TV series Arrested Development is set in Orange County and often features scenes at Newport Beach. * Several scenes from the Disney Channel movie The Thirteenth Year were filmed at the Balboa Pavilion in 1999. * The pop rock band Cute Is What We Aim For has a song titled "Newport Living". * The TV series The Real Housewives of Orange County featured scenes of Newport Harbor. * A guest on You Bet Your Life in 1954 was the mayor of Newport Beach noting that Balboa was a congregating point for southern Californian young people over Easter break, with 35,000 visiting the town of 18,000. * The exterior of the Newport Beach Central Library appeared as the reunion venue in the 1997 film Romy and Michele's High School Reunion. * The Devil Inside video by the Australian band INXS was filmed around the Balboa Fun Zone. * The 1917 film Cleopatra by J. Gordon Edwards was filmed in Newport Beach. * The clothing brand Hollister Co. has featured many brands including clothing that says Newport Beach. * The movie All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) was filmed at Fashion Island in Newport Beach before its construction. * The movie The Boatniks (1970) was filmed in Newport Harbor. * The TV series Speechless is set in Newport Beach, Orange County. * The Reckless Moment, a 1949 film noir starring James Mason and Joan Bennett, filmed and set in Newport. ==Sister cities== * Antibes, France * Ensenada, Mexico * Okazaki, Japan ==See also== * Communities of Newport Beach, California * List of cities and towns in California ==References== ==External links== * Archival collections * Guide to the Collection on the Development of Newport Beach, California. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. * Guide to the Lars Labagnino Collection on Newport Beach Real Estate. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. * Guide to the Hugh R. McMillan Photographs. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. Category:1906 establishments in California Category:Cities in Orange County, California Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California Category:Populated coastal places in California Category:Populated places established in 1906 Category:Populated places on the Santa Ana River Category:Surfing locations in California Category:Places with bioluminescence
|
{{Infobox settlement | official_name = Cilicia | native_name = قيليقية Կիլիկիա Κιλικία Kilikya | nickname= | settlement_type = Geographical region | image_map = Roman Empire - Cilicia (125 AD).svg | mapsize = 250px | map_caption = Cilicia in the Roman Empire | coordinates = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = Turkey | parts_type = Provinces | parts_style = para | p1 = Mersin | p2 = Adana | p3 = Osmaniye | p4 = Hatay | subdivision_type1 = Largest city | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name1 = Adana | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_name3 = | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 38585.16 | area_total_sq_mi = | population_as_of = 2021 | population_footnotes = | population_total = 6,378,242 | population_density_km2 = 165 | population_demonym = Cilician | timezone1 = FET | utc_offset1 = +3 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = | blank_name_sec1 = GRP (nominal) | blank_info_sec1 = $43.14 billion (2018) | blank1_name_sec1 = GRP per capita | blank1_info_sec1 = $6,982 (2018) | timezone = EET | utc_offset = +2 | timezone_DST = EEST | utc_offset_DST = +3 | postal_code_type = Postal code prefixes | postal_code = 33xxx, 01xxx, 80xxx, 31xxx | area_code = 324, 322, 328, 326 }} Cilicia (); is a geographical region in southern Anatolia in Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Cilicia has a population ranging over six million, concentrated mostly at the Cilicia plain. The region includes the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, along with parts of Hatay and Antalya. ==Geography== Cilicia extends along the Mediterranean coast east from Pamphylia to the Nur Mountains, which separates it from Syria. North and east of Cilicia lie the rugged Taurus Mountains that separate it from the high central plateau of Anatolia, which are pierced by a narrow gorge called in antiquity the Cilician Gates.Ramsay, William Mitchell (1908) The Cities of St. Paul Their Influence on His Life and Thought: The cities of Eastern Asia Minor A.C. Armstrong, New York, page 112, Baly, Denis and Tushingham, A. D. (1971) Atlas of the Biblical world World Publishing Company, New York, page 148, Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea and Cilicia Pedias by the Limonlu River. Salamis, the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in its administrative jurisdiction. The Greeks invented for Cilicia an eponymous Hellene founder in the purely mythical Cilix, but the historicEdwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 680 , founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias was Mopsus,Fox, Robin Lane (2009) Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer Alfred A. Knopf, New York, pages 211-224 , identifiable in Phoenician sources as Mpš,Fox, Robin Lane (2009) Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer Alfred A. Knopf, New York, page 216 , Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 364 , the founder of MopsuestiaSmith, William (1891) A Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology, and Geography based on the Larger Dictionaries (21st edition) J. Murry, London, page 456, who gave his name to an oracle nearby. Homer mentions the people of Mopsus, identified as Cilices (Κίλικες), as from the Troad in the northwestern-most part of Anatolia. The English spelling Cilicia is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form Κιλικία. The palatalization of c occurring in the west in later Vulgar Latin (c. 500–700) accounts for its modern pronunciation in English. Cilicia Trachea ("rugged Cilicia"—Greek: Κιλικία Τραχεῖα; the Assyrian Hilakku, classical "Cilicia")Sayce, A. H. (October 1922) "The Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphic Texts" The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 4: pp. 537–572, page 554Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 422 , Toynbee, Arnold Joseph and Myers, Edward DeLos (1961) A Study of History, Volume 7 Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, page 668, is a rugged mountain districtIn general see: Bean, George Ewart and Mitford, Terence Bruce (1970) Journeys in Rough Cilicia, 1964–1968 (Volume 102 of Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.Denkschriften) Böhlau in Komm., Vienna, formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbours,Rife, Joseph L. (2002) "Officials of the Roman Provinces in Xenophon's "Ephesiaca"" Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 138: pp. 93–108 , page 96 a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens for piratesSee also the history of Side (Σίδη). and, in the Middle Ages, outposts for Genoese and Venetian traders. The district is watered by the CalycadnusWainwright, G. A. (April 1956) "Caphtor - Cappadocia" Vetus Testamentum 6(2): pp. 199–210, pages 205–206 and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to Phoenicia and Egypt. Cilicia lacked large cities. Cilicia Pedias ("flat Cilicia"—; Assyrian Kue), to the east, included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large coastal plain, with rich loamy soil, known to the Greeks such as Xenophon, who passed through with his mercenary group of the Ten Thousand,Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.22, noted the sesame and millet. for its abundance (euthemia),Remarked by Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:73 and following pages filled with sesame and millet and olivesThe modern plain has added cotton fields and orange groves. and pasturage for the horses imported by Solomon.1 Kings 10:28, noted by Fox 2008:75 note 15. Many of its high places were fortified. The plain is watered by the three great rivers, the Cydnus (Tarsus Çay Berdan River), the Sarus (Seyhan), and the Pyramus (Ceyhan River), each of which brings down much silt from the deforested interior and which fed extensive wetlands. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Through the rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west, on which stood the cities of Tarsus (Tarsa) on the Cydnus, Adana (Adanija) on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus. ===Climate=== The climate of Cilicia shows significant differences between the mountains and the lower plains. At the lower plains, the climate reflects a typical Mediterranean; summers are hot while winters are mild, making the land, particularly, the eastern plains, fertile. In the coldest month (January), the average temperature is 9 °C, and in the warmest month (August), the average temperature is 28 °C. The mountains of Cilicia have an inland climate with snowy winters. The average annual precipitation in the region is 647mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 76. Mersin and surrounding areas have the highest average temperature in Cilicia. Mersin also has high annual precipitation (1096mm) and 85 rainy days in a year. ===Geology=== The Mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones, conglomerate, marlstone, and similar materials. The Taurus Mountains are composed of karstic limestone while its soil is also limestone- derived with pockets of volcanic soil. The lower plain is the largest alluvial plain in Turkey. Expansion of limestone formations and fourth era alluvials brought by the rivers Seyhan and Ceyhan, formed the plains of the region over the course of time. Akyatan, Akyayan, Salt Lake, Seven lakes at Aladağ, and Karstik Dipsiz lake near Karaisalı are the lakes of the region. The reservoirs in the region are Seyhan, Çatalan, Yedigöze, Kozan and Mehmetli. The major rivers in Cilicia are Seyhan, Ceyhan, Berdan (Tarsus), Asi and Göksu. *Seyhan River emerges from the confluence of Zamantı and Göksu rivers which originate from Kayseri Province and flows into the Gulf of Mersin. The river is 560 km long. *Ceyhan River emerges from the confluence of the Aksu and Hurman rivers and flows towards Cape Hürmüz at the Gulf of İskenderun. It is 509 km long and it forms the Akyayan, Akyatan, and Kakarat lakes before flowing into the Mediterranean. *Berdan River originates from the Taurus Mountains and flows into the Mediterranean, south of Tarsus. *Göksu river originates from the Taurus Mountains and flows into the Mediterranean, 16 km southeast of Silifke. It forms the delta of Göksu, including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon. ==History== ===Neolithic to Neo-Assyrian period=== Cilicia was settled from the Neolithic period onwards.Mellink, M.J. 1991. Anatolian Contacts with Chalcolithic Cyprus. Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows: Aceramic/Neolithic: 8th and 7th millennia BC; Early Chalcolithic: 5800 BC; Middle Chalcolithic (correlated with Halaf and Ubaid developments in the east): c. 5400–4500 BC; Late Chalcolithic: 4500 – c. 3400 BC; and Early Bronze Age IA: 3400–3000 BC; EBA IB: 3000–2700 BC; EBA II: 2700–2400 BC; EBA III A-B: 2400–2000 BC. The area had been known as Kizzuwatna in the earlier Hittite era (2nd millennium BC). The region was divided into two parts, Uru Adaniya (flat Cilicia), a well- watered plain, and "rough" Cilicia (Tarza), in the mountainous west. The Cilicians appear as Hilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the early part of the first millennium BC was one of the four chief powers of Western Asia. Homer mentions the plain as the "Aleian plain" in which Bellerophon wandered,Iliad 6.201. but he transferred the Cilicians far to the west and north and made them allies of Troy. The Cilician cities unknown to Homer already bore their pre-Greek names: Tarzu (Tarsus), Ingira (Anchiale), Danuna- Adana, which retains its ancient name, Pahri (perhaps Mopsuestia), Kundu (Kyinda, then Anazarbus) and Azatiwataya (today's Karatepe).Fox 2008:75 notes these city names. There exists evidence that circa 1650 BC both Hittite kings Hattusili I and Mursili I enjoyed the freedom of movement along the Pyramus River (now the Ceyhan River in southern Turkey), proving they exerted strong control over Cilicia in their battles with Syria. After the death of Murshili around 1595 BC, Hurrians wrested control from the Hitties, and Cilicia was free for two centuries. The first king of free Cilicia, Išputahšu, son of Pariyawatri, was recorded as a "great king" in both cuneiform and Hittite hieroglyphs. Another record of Hittite origins, a treaty between Išputahšu and Telipinu, king of the Hittites, is recorded in both Hittite and Akkadian. In the next century, the Cilician king Pilliya finalized treaties with both King Zidanta II of the Hittites and Idrimi of Alalakh, in which Idrimi mentions that he had assaulted several military targets throughout Eastern Cilicia. Niqmepa, who succeeded Idrimi as king of Alalakh, went so far as to ask for help from a Hurrian rival, Shaushtatar of Mitanni, to try and reduce Cilicia's power in the region. It was soon apparent, however, that increased Hittite power would soon prove Niqmepa's efforts to be futile, as the city of Kizzuwatna soon fell to the Hittites, threatening all of Cilicia. Soon after, King Sunassura II was forced to accept vassalization under the Hittites, becoming the last king of ancient Cilicia.Hallo, p. 112. After the death of Mursili I, which led to a power struggle among rival claimants to the throne, eventually leading to the collapse of Hittite supremacy, Cilicia appeared to have regained its independence. In the 13th century BC a major population shift occurred as the Sea Peoples overran Cilicia. The Hurrians that resided there deserted the area and moved northeast towards the Taurus Mountains, where they settled in the area of Cappadocia.Hallo, pp. 119–120. In the 8th century BC, the region was unified under the rule of the dynasty of Mukšuš, whom the Greeks rendered Mopsos and credited as the founder of Mopsuestia, though the capital was Adana. Mopsuestia's multicultural character is reflected in the bilingual inscriptions of the ninth and eighth centuries, written both in Indo-European hieroglyphic Luwian and West Semitic Phoenician. In the ninth century BC, it became part of Assyria and remained so until the late seventh century BC. ====Kingdom of Cilicia and Persian period==== Before the early foundings of the kingdom, Cilicians had to protect themselves from Assyrian domination. After the dissolution of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, they established an independent kingdom from Syria. Given the fact that Cilicia was a strategically significant location, Cilicians were able to expand their kingdom as far north as the Halys River in a short period of time. With these expansions, the Cilician Kingdom became as strong as Babylonia, one of the contemporary powerhouses. The Syennesis dynasty emerged in Cilicia and seemed to have been based in its western part during the reign of Appuašu. The peaceful governance of the Syennesis dynasty sustained the kingdom and prevented the Achaemenid Empire from attacking Lydians after the Achaemenid invasions of Median lands. Appuašu, the son of Syennesis, defended the country against the Babylonian king Neriglissar, whose army reached Cilicia and crossed the Taurus mountain range. The Achaemenids defeated the Lydians, and Appuašu had to recognize the authority of the Persians in 549 BC to keep the local administration with the Cilicians. Cilicia became an autonomous satrapy under the reign of Cyrus II. Cilicians were independent in their internal affairs and kept this autonomy for almost 150 years. In 401, Syennesis III and his wife Epyaxa supported the revolt of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II Mnemon. This was sound policy because otherwise, Cilicia would have been looted by the rebel army. However, after the defeat of Cyrus at Cunaxa, keeping Syennesis' position was difficult. Most scholars assume that this behavior marked the end of the independence of Cilicia. After 400, it became a normal satrapy. Under the Persian empire, Cilicia (in ) was said to be governed by tributary native kings who bore a Hellenized name or the title of "Syennesis", and it was officially included in the fourth satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the takeover of Cyrus the Younger. ===Roads=== The great highway from the west existed before Cyrus conquered Cilicia. On its long rough descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, it ran through the narrow pass between walls of rock called the Cilician Gates. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry (Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran southward through another masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta, and thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, eventually to Antioch and Syria. Another road ran northwards through a masonry (Armenian) gate, south of Toprak Kale, and crossed Mt. Amanus by the Armenian Gate, Baghche Pass, to northern Syria and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather than with Anatolia. ====Hellenistic period==== Alexander forded the Halys River in the summer of 333 BC, ending up on the border of southeastern Phrygia and Cilicia. He knew well the writings of Xenophon, and how the Cilician Gates had been "impassable if obstructed by the enemy". Alexander reasoned that by force alone he could frighten the defenders and break through, and he gathered his men to do so. In the cover of night, they attacked, startling the guards and sending them and their satrap into full flight, setting their crops aflame as they made for Tarsus. This good fortune allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia. After Alexander's death it was long a battleground of the rival Hellenistic monarchs and kingdoms, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic dominion (i.e., Egypt), but finally came to the Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half. During the Hellenistic era, numerous cities were established in Cilicia, which minted coins showing the badges (gods, animals, and objects) associated with each polis.For a full list of ancient cities and their coins see asiaminorcoins.com - ancient coins of Cilicia ===Roman and Byzantine periods=== thumb|200px|The Roman provinces of Asia Minor under Trajan, including Cilicia. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who were subdued by Pompey in 67 BC following a Battle of Korakesion (modern Alanya), and Tarsus was made the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC first conquered by Marcus Antonius Orator in his campaign against pirates, with Sulla acting as its first governor, foiling an invasion of Mithridates, and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64 BC, into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Julius Caesar, 47 BC, and about 27 BC became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. At first, the western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarcondimotus I, was left in the east;WRIGHT, N.L. 2012: "The house of Tarkondimotos: a late Hellenistic dynasty between Rome and the East." Anatolian Studies 62: 69-88. but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian, AD 72.A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. By Matthew Bunson. . See page 90. Containing 47 known cities, it had been deemed important enough to be governed by a proconsul. Under Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy (c. 297), Cilicia was governed by a consularis; with Isauria and the Syrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Libyan provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis (in the late 4th century the African component was split off as Diocese of Egypt), part of the pretorian prefecture also called Oriens ('the East', also including the dioceses of Asiana and Pontica, both in Anatolia, and Thraciae in the Balkans), the rich bulk of the eastern Roman Empire. After the division of the Roman Empire, Cilicia became part of the eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. Cilicia was one of the most important regions of the classical world and can be considered as the birthplace of Christianity. ===Early Islamic period=== In the 7th century Cilicia was invaded by the Muslim Arabs. The area was for some time an embattled no-man's land. The Arabs succeeded in conquering the area in the early 8th century. Under the Abbasid Caliphate, Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone (thughur). Tarsus, re-built in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement in the region and the Arabs' most important base in their raids across the Taurus Mountains into Byzantine-held Anatolia. The Muslims held the country until it was reoccupied by the Emperor Nicephorus II in 965. From this period onward, the area increasingly came to be settled by Armenians, especially as Imperial rule pushed deeper into the Caucasus over the course of the 11th century. ===Armenian Cilicia and the Crusades=== thumb|right|200px|The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199–1375. During the time of the First Crusade, the area was controlled by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. The Seljuk Turkish invasions of Armenia were followed by an exodus of Armenians migrating westward into the Byzantine Empire, and in 1080 Ruben, a relative of the last king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality which gradually expanded into the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. This Christian state, surrounded by Muslim states hostile to its existence, had a stormy history of about 300 years, giving valuable support to the Crusaders, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy. It prospered for three centuries due to the vast network of fortifications which secured all the major roads as well as the three principal harbours at Ayas, Koŕikos, and Mopsuestia. Through their complex alliances with the Crusader states, the Armenian barons and kings often invited Crusaders to maintain castles in and along the borders of the Kingdom, including Bagras, Trapessac, T‛il Hamtun, Harunia, Selefkia, Amouda, and Sarvandikar. Gosdantin (r. 1095 – c. 1100) assisted the Crusaders on their march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I (r. c. 1100 – 1129), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful wars against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks. Levon II (Leo the Great (r. 1187–1219)), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He assisted the Crusaders, was crowned King by the Archbishop of Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of the Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus. ====Mongols==== thumb|200px|Ethnic map of Cilicia and vicinity at the thirteenth century AD Hetoum I (r. 1226–1270) made an alliance with the Mongols, sending his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in person.Peter Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbors and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."Angus Donal Stewart, "Logic of Conquest", p. 8. "The Armenian king saw an alliance with the Mongols – or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them – as the best course of action." The Mongols then assisted with the defence of Cilicia from the Mamluks of Egypt, until the Mongols themselves converted to Islam. ====Turkmens==== The Ilkhanate lost cohesion after the death of Abu Sa'id (r. 1316–1335), and thus could not support the Armenian Kingdom in guarding Cilicia. Internal conflicts within the Armenian Kingdom and the devastation caused by the Black Death that arrived in 1348, led nomadic Türkmens to turn their eyes towards unstable Cilicia. In 1352, Ramazan Beg led Turkmens settled south of Çaldağı and founded their first settlement, Camili. Later that year, Ramazan Beg visited Cairo and was licensed by the Sultan to establish the new frontier Turkmen Emirate in Cilicia. ====Collapse==== When Levon V died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king as Gosdantin IV; but he and his successors alienated the native Armenians by attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honour to Latins, until at last the kingdom, falling prey to internal dissensions, ceded Cilicia Pedias to the Ramadanid-supported Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1375. ===Mamluk and Turkmen rule=== thumb|200px|right|During the Ramadanid era, Cilicia was a buffer state between two Islamic powers. In 1359, Mamluk Sultanate Army marched into Cilicia and took over Adana and Tarsus, two major cities of the plain, leaving few castles to Armenians. In 1375, Mamluks gained the control of the remaining areas of Cilicia, thus ending the three centuries rule of Armenians. Cilicia Pedias became part of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1375. The Karamanid Principality, one of the Turkmen Anatolian beyliks emerged after the collapse of the Anatolian Seljuks, took over the rule of Cilicia Thracea. ===Ottoman period=== In 1516, Selim I incorporated the beylik into the Ottoman Empire after his conquest of the Mamluk state. The beys of Ramadanids held the administration of the Ottoman sanjak of Adana in a hereditary manner until 1608, with the last 92 years as a vassal of the Ottomans. Ottomans ended the Ramadanid administration of Adana sanjak in 1608, and ruled it directly from Constantinople then after. The autonomous sanjak was then split from the Aleppo Eyalet and established as a new province under the name of Adana Eyalet. A governor was appointed to administer the province. In late 1832, Eyalet of Egypt Vali Muhammad Ali Pasha invaded Syria, and reached Cilicia. The Convention of Kütahya that was signed on 14 May 1833, ceded Cilicia to the de facto independent Egypt. After the Oriental crisis, the Convention of Alexandria that was signed on 27 November 1840, required the return of Cilicia to Ottoman sovereignty. The American Civil War that broke out in 1861 disturbed the cotton flow to Europe and directed European cotton traders to fertile Cilicia. The region became the centre of cotton trade and one of the most economically strong regions of the Empire within decades. In 1869, Adana Eyalet was re-established as Adana Vilayet, after the re-structuring in the Ottoman Administration. A thriving regional economy, the doubling of Cilician Armenian population due to flee from Hamidian massacres, and the end of autocratic Abdulhamid rule with the revolution of 1908, empowered the Armenian community and envisioned an autonomous Cilicia. Enraged supporters of Abdulhamid that organized under Cemiyet-i Muhammediye amidst the countercoup, led to a series of anti-Armenian pogroms in 14–27 April 1909. The Adana massacre resulted in the deaths of roughly 25,000 Armenians, orphaned 3500 children and caused heavy destruction of Christian neighbourhoods in the entire Vilayet.See Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 351–353. Cilicia section of the Berlin–Baghdad railway were opened in 1912, connecting the region to Middle East. Over the course of Armenian genocide, Ottoman telegraph was received by the Governor to deport the more than 70,000 Armenians of the Adana Vilayet to Syria. Armenians of Zeitun had organized a successful resistance against the Ottoman onslaught. In order to finally subjugate Zeitun, the Ottomans had to resort to treachery by forcing an Armenian delegation from Marash to ask the Zeituntsis to put down their arms. Both the Armenian delegation, and later, the inhabitants of Zeitun, were left with no choice. ===Modern era=== Armistice of Mudros that was signed on 30 October 1918 to end the World War I, ceded the control of Cilicia to France. French Government sent four battalions of the Armenian Legion in December to take over and oversee the repatriation of more than 170,000 Armenians to Cilicia. On May 4, 1920 Armenian people declared the independence of Cilicia under the French mandate. The French forces were spread too thinly in the region and, as they came under withering attacks by Muslim elements both opposed and loyal to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, eventually reversed their policies in the region. A truce arranged on May 28 between the French and the Kemalists, led to the retreat of the French forces south of the Mersin-Osmaniye railroad. thumb|175px|left|Cilicie palais de gouvernement With the changing political environment and interests, the French further reversed their policy: The repatriation was halted, and the French ultimately abandoned all pretensions to Cilicia, which they had originally hoped to attach to their mandate over Syria.Moumjian, Garabet K. "Cilicia Under French Administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems" in Armenian Cilicia, pp. 457–489. Cilicia Peace Treaty was signed on 9 March 1921 between France and Turkish Grand National Assembly. The treaty did not achieve the intended goals and was replaced with the Treaty of Ankara that was signed on 20 October 1921. Based on the terms of the agreement, France recognized the end of the Cilicia War, and French troops together with the remaining Armenian volunteers withdrew from the region in early January 1922. ===Republic of Turkey=== The region become part of the Republic of Turkey in 1921 with the signing of the Treaty of Ankara. On 15 April 1923, just before the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, the Turkish government enacted the "Law of Abandoned Properties" which confiscated properties of Armenians and Greeks who were not present on their property. Cilicia were one of the regions with the most confiscated property, thus muhacirs (en: immigrants) from Balkans and Crete were relocated in the old Armenian and Greek neighbourhoods and villages of the region. All types of properties, lands, houses and workshops were distributed to them. Also during this period, there was a property rush of Muslims from Kayseri and Darende to Cilicia who were granted the ownership of large farms, factories, stores and mansions. Within a decade, Cilicia had a sharp change demographically, socially and economically and lost its diversity by turning into solely Muslim/Turkish. ==Administrative divisions== The modern Cilicia is split into four administrative provinces: Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye and Hatay. Each province is governed by the Central Government in Ankara through an appointed Provincial governor. Provinces are then divided into districts governed by the District Governors who are under the provincial governors. Province Seat Area (km2) Districts (West to East) Population Map Mersin Mersin 15,853 Anamur, Bozyazı, Aydıncık, Gülnar, Mut, Silifke, Erdemli, Mezitli, Yenişehir Toroslar, Akdeniz, Çamlıyayla, Tarsus 1,891,145 105px Adana Adana 14,030 Seyhan, Çukurova, Yüreğir, Sarıçam, Pozantı, Karaisalı, Karataş, Yumurtalık (Ayas), Ceyhan, İmamoğlu, Aladağ (Karsantı), Kozan(Sis), Feke (Vahka), Saimbeyli (Hadjin), Tufanbeyli 2,263,373 90px Osmaniye Osmaniye 3,767 Sumbas, Kadirli, Toprakkale, Düziçi, Osmaniye, Hasanbeyli, Bahçe 553,012 105px Hatay Antakya 5,524 Erzin, Dörtyol (Chork Marzban), Hassa, İskenderun, Arsuz, Belen, Kırıkhan, Samandağ, Antakya, Defne, Reyhanlı, Kumlu, Yayladağı, Altınözü 1,670,712 90px ==Population== Cilicia is heavily populated due to its abundant resources, climate and plain geography. The population of Cilicia as of December 31, 2021 is 6,378,242. Hatay is the most rural province of Cilicia and also Hatay is the only province that the rural population is rising and the urban population is declining. The major reason is the mountainous geography of Hatay. Significant Christian communities (Antiochian Greek Christians and Armenians) found in Adana, İskenderun, and Mersin. Adana Province is the most urbanized province, with most of the population centred in the city of Adana. Mersin Province has a larger rural population than Adana Province, owing to its long and narrow stretch of flat land in between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean. ==Economy== Cilicia is well known for the vast fertile land and highly productive agriculture. The region is also industrialized; Tarsus, Adana and Ceyhan host numerous plants. Mersin and İskenderun seaports provide transportation of goods manufactured in Central, South and Southeast Anatolia. Ceyhan hosts oil, natural gas terminals as well as refineries and shipbuilders. ===Natural resources=== ====Agriculture==== The Cilicia plain has some of the most fertile soil in the world in which 3 harvests can be taken each year. The region has the second richest flora in the world and it is the producer of all agricultural products of Turkey except hazelnut and tobacco. Cilicia leads Turkey in soy, peanuts and corn harvest and is a major producer of fruits and vegetables. Half of Turkey's citrus export is from Cilicia. Anamur is the only sub-tropical area of Turkey where bananas, mango, kiwi and other sub-tropical produce can be harvested. Cilicia is the second largest honey producer in Turkey after the Muğla-Aydın region. Samandağ, Yumurtalık, Karataş and Bozyazı are some of the towns in the region where fishing is the major source of income. Gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, lagos, calamari and gilt-head bream are some of the most popular fish in the region. There are aquaculture farms in Akyatan, Akyağan, Yumurtalık lakes and at Seyhan Reservoir. While not as common as other forms of agriculture, dairy and livestock are also produced throughout the region. ====Mining==== *Zinc and lead: Kozan-Horzum seam is the major source. *Chrome is found around Aladağlar. *Baryte resources are around Mersin and Adana. *Iron is found around Feke and Saimbeyli. *Asbestos mines are mostly in Hatay Province. *Limestone reserves are very rich in Cilicia. The region is home to four lime manufacturing plants. *Pumice resources are the richest in Turkey. 14% of country's reserves are in Cilicia. ===Manufacturing=== Cilicia is one of the first industrialized regions of Turkey. With the improvements in agriculture and the spike of agricultural yield, agriculture-based industries are built in large numbers. Today, the manufacturing industry is mainly concentrated around Tarsus, Adana and Ceyhan. Textile, leather tanning and food processing plants are plentiful. İsdemir is a large steel plant located in İskenderun. The petrochemical industry is rapidly developing in the region with the investments around the Ceyhan Oil Terminal. Petroleum refineries are being built in the area. Ceyhan is also expected to host the shipbuilding industry. ===Commerce=== Adana is the commercial centre of the region where many of the public and private institutions have their regional offices. Mersin and Antakya are also home to regional offices of public institutions. Many industry fairs and congresses are held in the region at venues such as the TÜYAP Congress and Exhibition Centre in Adana and the Mersin Congress Centre. Mersin Seaport is the third largest seaport in Turkey, after Istanbul and İzmir. There are 45 piers in the port. The total area of the port is 785 square kilometres (194,000 acres), and the capacity is 6,000 ships per year. İskenderun Seaport is used mostly for transfers to Middle East and Southeastern Turkey. Ceyhan Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (the "BTC"), the Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline, the planned Samsun-Ceyhan and the Ceyhan-Red Sea pipelines. Ceyhan will also be a natural gas terminal for a planned pipeline to be constructed parallel to the Kirkuk-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and for a planned extension of the Blue Stream Gas Pipeline from Samsun to Ceyhan. Dörtyol Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for Batman-Dörtyol oil pipeline which started operating in 1967 to market Batman oil. The pipeline is 511 km long and has an annual capacity of 3.5 million tons. ===Tourism=== While the region has a long coastline, international tourism is not at the level of the neighbouring Antalya Province. There are a small number of hotels between Erdemli and Anamur that attracts tourists. Cilicia tourism is mostly cottage tourism serving the Cilicia locals as well as residents of Kayseri, Gaziantep and surrounding areas. Between Silifke and Mersin, high-rise and low-rise cottages line the coast, leaving almost no vacant land. The coastline from Mersin to Karataş is mostly farmland. This area is zoned for resort tourism and is expected to have a rapid development within the next 20 years. Karataş and Yumurtalık coasts are home to cottages with a bird conservatory between the two areas. Arsuz is a seaside resort that is mostly frequented by Antakya and İskenderun residents. Plateaus on the Taurus mountains are cooler escapes for the locals who wants to chill out from hot and humid summers of the lower plains. Gözne and Çamlıyayla (Namrun) in Mersin Province, Tekir, Bürücek and Kızıldağ in Adana Province, Zorkun in Osmaniye Province and Soğukoluk in Hatay Province are the popular high plain resorts of Cilicia which are often crowded in summer. There are a few hotels and camping sites in the Tekir plateau. ====Balneary tourism==== The region is a popular destination for thermal springs. Hamamat Thermal Spring, located on midway from Kırıkhan to Reyhanlı, has a very high sulphur ratio, making it the second in the world after a thermal spring in India. It is the largest spa in the region and attracts many Syrians due to proximity. Haruniye Thermal Spring is located on the banks of the Ceyhan River near Düziçi town and has a serene environment. Thermal springs are a hot spot for people with rheumatism. Kurttepe, Alihocalı and Ilıca mineral springs, all located in Adana Province, are popular for toxic cleansing. Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa in Antakya is one of Turkey's top resorts for revitalization. ====Religious tourism==== Lying at a crossroads of three major religions, namely Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the region is home to numerous landmarks that are important for people of faith. Tarsus is the birthplace of St. Paul, who returned to the city after his conversion. The city was a stronghold of Christians after his death. Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the locations claimed to be the resting place of the legendary Seven Sleepers, holy to Christians and Muslims, is located north of Tarsus. Tarsus was the birthplace of Paul the Apostle. Antakya is another destination for the spiritual world, where the followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians. It is the home of Saint Peter, one of the 12 apostles of Jesus. Antioch was called "the cradle of Christianity" as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of both Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity,"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file. Warning: Takes several minutes to download). The Christian New Testament asserts that the name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch. the Church of Saint Peter near Antakya (Antioch) is one of Christianity's oldest churches.Clyde E. Fant, Mitchell Glenn Reddish, A guide to biblical sites in Greece and Turkey (Oxford University Press US, 2003), pg. 149 ==Places of interest== ===Ancient sites=== thumb|Kızkalesi (Korykos) Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle), a fort on a small island across Kızkalesi township, was built during the early 12th century by Armenian kings of the Rubeniyan dynasty to defend the city of Korykos (prent-day Kızkalesi). Heaven & Hell, situated on a large hill north of Narlıkuyu, consists of the grabens resulting from assoil of furrings for thousands of years. The natural phenomenon of the grabens is named 'Hell & Heaven' because of the exotic effects on people. Visitors can access the cave of the mythological giant Typhon. The ancient Roman town of Soloi-Pompeiopolis, near the city of Mersin. Yılanlı Kale (Castle of Serpents), an 11th-century Crusader castle built on a historical road connecting the Taurus mountains with the city of Antakya. The castle has 8 round towers, a military guardhouse and a church. It is located 5 km. west of Ceyhan. Anazarbus Castle, built in the 3rd century, served as the centre of the ancient metropolis of Anavarza. The city was built on a hill and had strategic importance, controlling the Cilician plain. The main castle and the city walls represent remains of the city. The city wall is 1500m. long and 8-10m. high, with 4 entrances to the city. The castle is located 80 km. northeast of Adana. Şar (Comona), an ancient city located in northernmost Cilicia, some 200 km. north of Adana, near Tufanbeyli. It was an historical centre of the Hittites. Remaining structures today include the amphitheatre built during the Roman period, ruins of a church from the Byzantine era and Hittite rock-works. The Church of St. Peter in Antakya was a cave on the slopes of Habibi Neccar mountain converted into a church. The church is known as the first Christians' traditional meeting place. Pope Paul VI declared the church a "Place of Pilgrimage" for Christians in 1963, and since then a special ceremony takes place on 29 June each year. St. Simeon Monastery, a 6th-century giant structure built on a desolate hill 18 km south of Antakya. The most striking features of this monastery are its cisterns, its storage compartment, and the walls. It is believed that St. Simeon resided here atop a 20-meter stone column for 45 years. ===Parks and conservation areas=== Akyatan Lagoon is a large wildlife refuge which acts as a stopover for migratory birds voyaging from Africa to Europe. The wildlife refuge has a area made up of forests, lagoon, marsh, sandy and reedy lands. Akyatan lake is a natural wonder with endemic plants and endangered bird species living in it together with other species of plants and animals. 250 species of birds are observed during a study in 1990. The conservation area is located 30 km south of Adana, near Tuzla. Yumurtalık Nature Reserve covers an area of 16,430 hectares within the Seyhan-Ceyhan delta, with its lakes, lagoons and wide collection of plant and animal species. The area is an important location for many species of migrating birds, the number gets higher during the winters when the lakes become a shelter when other lakes further north freeze. Aladağlar National Park, located north of Adana, is a huge park of around 55,000 hectares, the summit of Demirkazik at 3756 m is the highest point in the middle Taurus mountain range. There is a huge range of flora and fauna, and visitors may fish in the streams full of trout. Wildlife includes wild goats, bears, lynx and sable. The most common species of plant life is black pine and cluster pine trees, with some cedar dotted between, and fir trees in the northern areas with higher humidity. The Alpine region, from the upper borders of the forest, has pastures with rocky areas and little variety of plant life because of the high altitude and slope. Karatepe-Aslantaş National Park located on the west bank of Ceyhan River in Osmaniye Province. The park includes the Karatepe Hittite fortress and an open-air museum. Tekköz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve, located 30 km north of Dörtyol, is known for having an ecosystem different from the Mediterranean. The main species of trees around Kengerliduz are beech, oak and fir, and around Tekkoz are hornbeam, ash, beach, black pine and silver birch. The main animal species in the area are wild goat, roe deer, bear, hyena, wild cat, wagtail, wolf, jackal and fox. Habibi Neccar Dağı Nature Reserve is famous for its cultural as well as natural value, especially for St Pierre Church, which was carved into the rocks. The Charon monument, 200 m north of the church, is huge sculpture of Haron, known as Boatman of Hell in mythology, carved into the rocks. The main species of tree are cluster pine, oaks and sandalwood. The mountain is also home to foxes, rabbits, partridges and stock doves. Nature reserve is 10 km east of Antakya and can be accessible by public transport. ==Education== There are numerous private primary and high schools besides the state schools in the region. Most popular high school in the region is Tarsus American College, founded as a missionary school in 1888 to serve Armenian community and then became a secular school in 1923. Adana Anatolian High School and Adana Science High School most important high schools in the Cilicia. In other cities, Anatolian High School and School for Science are the most popular high schools of the city. The region is home to five state and two foundation universities. Çukurova University is a state university founded in 1973 with the union of the faculties of Agriculture and Medicine.. Main campus is in the city of Adana, and the College of Tourism Administration is in Karataş. There is an engineering faculty in Ceyhan, and vocational schools in Kozan, Karaisalı, Pozantı and Yumurtalık. The university is one of the well-developed universities of Turkey with many cultural, social and athletic facilities, currently enrolls 40,000 students. Mersin University is a state university founded in 1992, and currently serving with 11 faculties, 6 colleges and 9 vocational schools. The university employs more than 2100 academicians and enrolls 26,980 students. Main campus is in the city of Mersin. In Tarsus, there is Faculty of Technical Education and Applied Technology and Management College. In Silifke and Erdemli, university has colleges and vocational schools. There are also vocational schools in Anamur, Aydıncık, Gülnar, and Mut. Mustafa Kemal University is a state university located in Hatay Province. University was founded in 1992, currently has 9 faculties, 4 colleges and 7 vocational schools. Main campus is in Antakya and Faculty of Engineering is in İskenderun. The university employs 708 academicians and 14,439 students as of 2007. Korkut Ata University was founded in 2007 as a state university with the union of colleges and vocational schools in Osmaniye Province and began enrollment in 2009. The university has 3 faculties and a vocational school at the main campus in the city of Osmaniye and vocational schools in Kadirli, Bahçe, Düziçi and Erzin. University employs 107 academicians and enrolled 4000 students in 2009. Adana Science and Technology University is a recently founded state university that is planned to have ten faculties, two institutions and a college. It will accommodate 1,700 academic, 470 administrative staff, and it is expected to enroll students by 2012. Çağ University is a not-for-profit tuition based university founded in 1997. It is located on midway from Adana to Tarsus. University holds around 2500 students, most of them commuting from Adana, Tarsus and Mersin. Toros University is a not-for-profit tuition based university located in Mersin. The university started enrolling students in 2010. ==Sports== Football is the most popular sport in Cilicia, professionally represented at all levels of the Football in Turkey. Club Sport League Venue (capacity) Founded Hatayspor Football (men) Süper Lig New Hatay Stadium (25000) 1967 Adana Demirspor Football (men) Süper Lig New Adana Stadium (33,543) 1940 Adanaspor Football (men) TFF First League New Adana Stadium (33,543) 1954 Tarsus İdman Yurdu Football (men) TFF Second League Burhanettin Kocamaz (6000) 1923 İskenderun FK Football (men) TFF Second League 5 Temmuz (8217) 1978 Payas Belediyespor 1975 Football (men) TFF Third League 5 Temmuz (8217) 1975 Kırıkhanspor Football (men) TFF Third League Kırıkhan Şehir (6500) 1938 Yeni Mersin İdman Yurdu Football (men) TFF Third League Mersin Arena (25000) 2019 Adana Demirspor Women's Football Football (women) First Football League Gençlik Stadium (2000) 1993 Club Sport League Venue (capacity) Founded Mersin BŞB Basketball (women) Women's Super League Edip Buran Arena (1750) 1993 Hatay BŞB Basketball (women) Women's Super League Antakya Sport Hall (2500) 2009 Adana Basketbol Kulubü Basketball (women) Women's Super League Adana Atatürk Sports Hall (2000) 2000 Mersin Basketbol Kulübü Basketball (women) Women's Super League Edip Buran Arena (1750) Tosyalı Toyo Osmaniye Basketball (women) Women's Super League Tosyalı Sports Hall 2000 ==Transportation== Cilicia has a well-developed transportation system with two airports, two major seaports, motorways and railway lines on the historical route connecting Europe to Middle East. ===Air=== Cilicia is served by two airports. Adana Şakirpaşa Airport is an international airport that have flights to European destinations. There are daily domestic flights to Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Antalya and Trabzon. Adana Şakirpaşa Airport serves the provinces of Mersin, Adana and Osmaniye. upright=1.3|thumb|Railway connections of Cilicia Hatay Airport, opened in 2007, is a domestic airport, and currently has flights to Istanbul, Ankara and Nicosia, TRNC. Hatay Airport mostly serves Hatay Province. Another under construction airport is Çukurova Regional Airport, According to the newspaper Hürriyet, the project's cost will be 357 million Euro. When finished, it will serve to 15 million people, and the capacity will be doubled in the future. ===Sea=== There are daily seabus and vehicle- passenger ferry services from Taşucu to Kyrenia, Northern Cyprus. From Mersin port, there are ferry services to Famagusta. ===Road=== The O50 - O59 motorways crosses Cilicia. Motorways of Cilicia extends to Niğde on the north, Erdemli on the west and Şanlıurfa on the east, and İskenderun on the south. State road D-400 connects Cilicia to Antalya on the west. Adana-Kozan, Adana- Karataş, İskenderun-Antakya-Aleppo double roads are other regional roads. ===Railway=== Parallel to the highway network in Cilicia, there is an extensive railway network. Adana-Mersin train runs as a commuter train between Mersin, Tarsus and Adana. There are also regional trains from Adana to Ceyhan, Osmaniye and İskenderun. ==Society== Cilicia was one of the most important regions for the Ottoman Armenians because it managed very well to preserve Armenian character throughout the years. In fact, the Cilician highlands were densely populated by Armenian peasants in small but prosperous towns and villages such as Hadjin and Zeitun, two mountainous areas where autonomy was maintained until the 19th century.Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283-290. . In ports and cities of the Adana plain, commerce and industry were almost entirely in the hands of the Armenians and they remained so thanks to a constant influx of Armenians from the highlands. Their population was continuously increasing in numbers in Cilicia in contrast to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, where it was, since 1878, decreasing due to repression. == Mythological namesake == Greek mythology mentions another Cilicia, as a small region situated immediately southeast of the Troad in northwestern Anatolia, facing the Gulf of Adramyttium. The connection (if any) between this Cilicia and the better-known and well-defined region mentioned above is unclear. This Trojan Cilicia is mentioned in Homer's Iliad and Strabo's Geography, and contained localities such as Thebe, Lyrnessus and Chryse (home to Chryses and Chryseis). These three cities were all attacked and sacked by Achilles during the Trojan War. In Prometheus Bound (v 353), Aeschylus mentions the Cilician caves (probably Cennet and Cehennem), where the earth-born, hundred-headed monster Typhon dwelt before he withstood the gods and was stricken and charred by Zeus's thunderbolt. == Explanatory notes== == References == == Further reading == *Rutishauser, Susanne. 2020. Siedlungskammer Kilikien. Studien zur Kultur- und Landschaftsgeschichte des Ebenen Kilikien. Schriften zur Vorderasiatischen Archäologie Bd. 16. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. ISBN 978-3-447-11397-7. *Pilhofer, Philipp. 2018. Das frühe Christentum im kilikisch-isaurischen Bergland. Die Christen der Kalykadnos-Region in den ersten fünf Jahrhunderten (PDF; 27,4 MB) (Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, vol. 184). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter (). *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 282/283, Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus. pp. 167–175. *Engels, David. 2008. "Cicéron comme proconsul en Cilicie et la guerre contre les Parthes", Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 86, pp. 23–45. *Pilhofer, Susanne. 2006. Romanisierung in Kilikien? Das Zeugnis der Inschriften (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 46). Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag (). And: 2., erweiterte Auflage, mit einem Nachwort von Philipp Pilhofer (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 60) Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag () ==External links== *Ancient Cilicia - texts, photographs, maps, inscriptions *Jona Lendering, "Ancient Cilicia" *Cilicia *Photographs and Plans of the Churches and Fortifications in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia *Pilgrimages to Historic Armenia and Cilicia *WorldStatesmen- Turkey *Armenian Genocide Map's - Map of Kilikia (1909) Category:Anatolia Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Category:Ancient Greek geography Category:Geography of Adana Province Category:Historical regions of Anatolia Category:History of Adana Province Category:Historical regions Category:Regions of Asia
|
Bernard Mizeki College is an independent boarding school for boys situated in Marondera, Zimbabwe approximately 87 km east of the capital Harare and or 13.5 km north east of Marondera town. It was founded in memory of Bernard Mizeki, an African martyr who died in the Marondera area. The school was established by leading private individuals of the Anglican Church in the then Rhodesia through a deed of trust drafted in 1958 and registered on 29 May 1959 at Harare. The college was established predominantly for African boys however over the years there were girls who attended the college. ==Foundation== The school was founded by a group of prominent individuals of both European and African races and both sexes to be a leading high school for African boys though it had been set up with the view of it becoming a multiracial international school., The founders had seen the winds of change sweeping across Africa and felt they had to provide high quality education, equivalent to what Europeans were receiving, for the future leaders of an independent Rhodesia. The whole idea behind the school was to bring up well-rounded African leaders in areas of finance, industry, business, education, medicine, law, military and politics. Rt. Reverend Cecil Alderson, like his predecessor Bishop Edward Paget, realised the need for a senior college for Africans had become increasingly urgent, and within a few weeks of his translation from the Bloemfontein Diocese, Bishop Alderson began to investigate ways of meeting it. At the same time Canon Robert Grinham had been working to see the existence of schools for Africans whose facilities equaled or approximated to those of Ruzawi, Springvale and Peterhouse. To this end he devoted his energies after his retirement from Springvale. The Rt Rev Cecil Alderson, then Bishop of Mashonaland and Canon Robert Grinham, raised one hundred British pounds with which they formed the Bernard Mizeki Schools Trust which was then mandated to establish schools. The trust deed was prepared at Honey and Blackenberg and registered in 1959 while another trust with the same name was registered in the United Kingdom in July 1962 under trust number 313889. A pledge of forty thousand pounds was then made to Bishop Alderson at the Lambeth Conference in London so that the project could be realized. A significant chunk of that money is believed to have come from the Beit Trust and then anonymous individuals well wishers banks and corporates. It was intended to be a multiracial, elite boys' school, an 'African Eton', and was strongly supported by the Anglican Church and a number of Federation businesses. With the support of the Governor General of The Federation of Rhodesia funding in the early days was not a challenge Architectural designs and a master plan of the school were done by John Vigour in 1959. The actual construction of the college started in 1960 with the arrival Bruce Berrington, together with some artisans who had built Peterhouse. The school was sited amidst brachystegia woodland, a bird-watcher's paradise, and among the baboon and dassie inhabited granite bouldered kopjes that are so typical of Zimbabwe at what is known as the Bovey Tracey Estate. This had been the site of St Bernards School since 1891. The school was intended to appeal to the upper African class and charged fees three to four times higher than ordinary mission schools. The first head to be appointed, Peter Holmes Canham a civil servant, came from British West Africa (Ghana). Canham was described as a passionate and charismatic figure eccentric with a fiery, if short-lived, temper. Canham arrived in September 1960 to take up the headship of the college. Upon the commencement of the construction of the College Canon David Neaum left St Bernards Mission for Chikwaka Mission protesting against the construction of the school due to what he considered as the importation of elitism into an Africa crying out for universal education, especially of girls, was iniquitous. By the time Father Andrew Hunt retired the enrolment had risen to 320 boys, he relocated to Mutare and became board chair for St Davids Bonda in Mutare. Due to the liberation war at that time the expansion of Bernard Mizeki College stalled for a number of years the Ministry was no longer providing funds for the schools expansion. After Father Hunt left, the Rev. Leslie Davies was appointed to the post of Headmaster of Bernard Mizeki College. Unfortunately his term of office did not last long because of the murders of surrounding farmers and a number of priests and nuns at the nearby St. Pauls Musami. After the incident at Musami, the Rev. L. Davies was advised by the local police to leave the school as they could not guarantee his safety and that of the students. The board of governors immediately appointed Mr. Chiadzwa to take over as headmaster of the college avoiding having to completely shutdown the school as other schools like Eagle School in Manicaland which closed in 1976 ==Governance== Bernard Mizeki College is run through the Bernard Mizeki Schools Trust which was founded in 1959 by Canon Robert Grinham and Rt Rev Cecil Alderson. Peter Canham, made Bernard Mizeki College such an exceptionally good school. As a private school, it was his task, along with the governors, to raise the money to build, staff and ensure the future of the school. An ex-colonial civil servant, he ran the place with superb efficiency, leaving the teachers free to get on with their jobs. He had strong views on what an 'education' was. In the days when 'blacks' (the other racial groups were 'whites' and 'coloureds') were only allowed into one of Salisbury, the capital's large hotels, he took the prefects to the Ambassador's and made them sit down to a full evening meal - so they could learn the etiquette of 'public' eating. At the time of founding, there were several committees put in place to ensure the establishment of the college was a success. At the very top there were the Patrons of the college the three patrons were The Governor-General of Southern Rhodesia The Rt. Honourable Earl of Dalhousie, The Governor of Southern Rhodesia Sir Humphrey Gibbs and Sir Ellis Robins. the College Trustees was made up of leading lawyers, business persons, and senior civil servants. one of the trustees was Robert stumbles of Stumbles and Row Law Firm. The Board of Governors consisted of notable business person lawyers and civil servants like Herbert W. Chitepo, Robert Tredgold. In order to ensure standards at Bernard Mizeki College closely approximated those at Peterhouse the founders made sure that whoever is or was Rector of Peterhouse permanently sat on the executive committee of the Bernard Mizeki College board of governors. This arrangement still stands today. ==Association of Trust Schools== On 19 October 1962 Bernard Mizeki College became a founding member of the Association of Trust Schools (ATS) represented by Mr G.C.V. Coppen at the inaugural meeting which also saw the formation of the Conference of Independent Schools Heads (CHISZ). As of July 2016 the college is not a member of the CHISZ ATS, however negotiations are underway to rejoin.Conference of Heads of Independent Schools of Zimbabwe(CHISZ), Association of Trust Schools(ATS) The college is currently a member of the International Boys' Schools Coalition (IBSC). ==The College and the Primary School== The college was under the headmastership of Peter Holmes Canham, whilst the Bernard Mizeki Primary School was under the headmastership of Mr. G.F. Coney. Canham headed Bernard Mizeki College for 4 years and was succeeded by Reverend R. Glazebrook. The two schools (the college for secondary education, the school for primary) were under the same Board of Governors. The schools were heavily aided by the Ministry of African Education of Southern Rhodesia Government. Planned expansion was slowed down for a time by the lack of financial Support, but by 1963 the number of pupils reached 180 in the college and 140 in the school. Boys who had passed through primary school would automatically qualify to attend the college. Under the headmastership of Mr. P. Nheweyembwa the college has embarked on a number of developmental projects thus the college was awarded the Secretary's Bell Merit Award for Best School in Mashonaland East for 2014. Mr Peter H. Canham being a seasoned civil servant from the Gold Coast now Ghana, his career as an administrator in the Gold Coast began in the late 1930s and concluded with the colony's independence as Ghana in 1957. Upon attaining Independence of the Gold Coast Peter Holmes Canham moved to Southern Rhodesia where he took headmastership of Bernard Mizeki College. His most notable influence on the college was how he introduced systems of good governance amongst students. He introduced a Students Senate where the prefect's body was elected officials from the hostels they resided. Elections and campaigns were held every year to select new senators. This led to the college producing an unusually high number of business leaders, lawyers, and politicians. According to one former staff member "It was because of my experiences at the school that I later went into teaching but I never again came across such an inspirational headteacher. Later, it was the lack of true leadership skills which made so many of the schools at which I taught for almost 30 years such disappointing places." Due to the same architect and artisans who had built Peterhouse being contracted in the construction of Bernard Mizeki College a few of the buildings between the two schools began to look a lot similar. This resulted in a heated argument between F.R. Snell, first rector of Peterhouse and Peter Canham. F. R. Snell accused Peter Canham of copying building Plans of Peterhouse. In 1964 Peter Canham Left Bernard Mizeki College after some disagreements with the Board of Governors and went on to head schools in Uganda, took up principalships of teacher training colleges in Western and Northern Nigeria, and finally to teaching Third World Studies in the Institutes of Education at the Universities of London and Cardiff. He retired from Cardiff in June 1981, but his retirement was soon clouded by ill-health, and he died in October 1984. ==Motto and school badge== The college's motto is in and means "I have liberated my mind". The school badge was designed by a Mr Watambwa who was one of the artisans involved in the construction of the college in 1960. The badge depicts a shield with a cross on it with two spears running down across at slanted angle. A martyr's crown sits atop the cross. The college's motto is printed on a ribbon below the shield. ==Academic== The college aims to provide an academic curriculum that provides pupils with a broad-based educational experience. Introduction of more specialised subjects has taken place in the last few years the options available enable pupils to take a combination of academic or commercial or practical subjects. In the 2014 academic year Bernard Mizeki College was ranked 53rd nationally and 7th in Mashonaland East Province attaining a pass rate of 96.97% with a candidature of 33 boys for Advanced Level studies. In the same year the college attained an 86.11% pass rate with 71 boys having sat for the ZIMSEC Ordinary Level examinations and was ranked 29th nationally. These results sparked an outcry among parents and the former students who demanded the school to improve its performance in public examinations. ==Recent Challenges== In November 2015 the cabinet adopted a civil services report which recommended the withdrawal of funding for teacher salaries employed at private schools due to the current Economic meltdown in Zimbabwe. The government grant was used to pay salaries for seventeen teachers stationed at Bernard Mizeki College. The government argued that teachers at private schools alone gobbled about $70 million United States dollars in salaries and allowances. This move has forced the college to engage parents on how best to reach an agreement on this issue. The agreements have to be presented to the ministry of education. The affected teachers last received their salaries from government Salaries Services Bureau in July 2016 ==Notable alumni== *Jameson Timba - Member of Parliament for Mount Pleasant *Chirikure Chirikure ==See also== *List of schools in Zimbabwe *List of boarding schools ==References== ==External links== *Bernard Mizeki College Category:Marondera Category:Private schools in Zimbabwe Category:Anglican schools in Zimbabwe Category:High schools in Zimbabwe Category:Boys' schools in Zimbabwe Category:Boys' high schools in Zimbabwe Category:Buildings and structures in Mashonaland East Province Category:Education in Mashonaland East Province Category:Boarding schools in Zimbabwe Category:Educational institutions established in 1961 Category:1961 establishments in Southern Rhodesia
|
Football for Friendship () is an annual International Children's Social Programme implemented by Gazprom. Within the framework of the programme, football players at the age of 12 from different countries take part in the annual International Football for Friendship Children's Forum, Football for Friendship World Championship, International Day of Football and Friendship The global operator of the programme is AGT Communications Group (Russia). ==History== === Football for Friendship 2013 === The first International Children's Forum Football for Friendship was held on May 25, 2013, in London. 670 children from 8 countries took part in it: from Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, Germany, Greece, Russia, Serbia and Slovenia. Russia was represented by 11 football teams from 11 Russian cities that will host the FIFA World Cup matches in 2018. The junior teams of Zenit, Chelsea, Schalke 04, Crvena Zvezda clubs, winners of the children's sports day of Gazprom, and winners of the Fakel festival also participated in the forum. During the Forum, the children talked with their peers from other countries, and famous footballers, and also attended the UEFA Champions League Final in 2012–2013 at Wembley Stadium. The result of the forum was an open letter in which the children formulated the eight values of the program: friendship, equality, fairness, health, peace, devotion, victory and traditions. Later the letter was sent to the heads of the UEFA, FIFA and IOC. === Football for Friendship 2014 === The second season of the Football for Friendship Programme was held in Lisbon on May 23–25, 2014 and embraced more than 450 teenagers from 16 countries: Belarus, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Turkey, Ukraine, France and Croatia. The young footballers took part in the international International Football for Friendship Forum, a tournament in street football and attended the UEFA Champions League Final in 2013–2014. The winner of the International Street Football Tournament in 2014 was the Benfica junior team (Portugal). === Football for Friendship 2015 === The third season of the International Social Programme Football for Friendship was held in June 2015 in Berlin. Young participants from the Asian continent – children's football teams from Japan, China and Kazakhstan – participated in the programme for the first time. In total, junior teams from 24 football clubs from 24 countries took part in the third season. The young footballers talked with their peers from other countries and stars of world football, including the global ambassador of the program Franz Beckenbauer, and also took part in the International tournament of street football among junior teams. The winner of the International Street Football Tournament in 2015 was the Rapid junior team (Austria). === Football for Friendship 2016 === In the fourth season of the Programme, 8 new junior teams from Azerbaijan, Algeria, Armenia, Argentina, Brazil, Vietnam, Kyrgyzstan, and Syria joined it, so the total number of participating countries reached 32. === Football for Friendship 2017 === In 2017, the number of participating countries increased from 32 to 64. For the first time, the Football for Friendship Programme was attended by children from Mexico and the United States. Thus, the project united young players of four continents — Africa, Eurasia, North America and South America. === Football for Friendship 2018 === In 2018, it was decided that the Sixth season of the Football for Friendship Programme would be held from February 15 to June 15 in Russia. The programme participants include young footballers and journalists representing 211 countries and regions of the world. The official start of the 2018 programme was made by the Open Draw, by the results of which 32 football teams – International Teams of Friendship – were formed. === Football for Friendship 2019 === In 2019, The Seventh Season of the Gazprom International Children's Social Programme Football for Friendship was launched on March 18, 2019. The final events of the F4F were held in Madrid from May 28 to June 2. The International Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated in more than 50 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America on April 25. The Russian Football Union (RFU) also joined the celebration. The Gazprom International Children's Social Programme F4F Forum was held in Madrid on May 30, 2019. It brought together experts from all over the world - football coaches, doctors of children's teams, stars, journalists from leading international media, representatives of international football academies and federations. The world's most multinational football training session took place in Madrid on May 31. As a result of the training session, Football for Friendship received an official GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS® certificate. During the Seventh Season 32 Young Journalists from Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America were part of the Football for Friendship International Children's Press Center, which covered the final events and participated in the preparation of materials together with international and national media. Participants of the Seventh Season presented the Nine Values Cup (an International Children's Social Programme Football for Friendship Award) to the Liverpool Football Club as the most socially responsible team. On June 1, the culmination of the Seventh Season - the final match of the Football for Friendship World Cup - took place on the UEFA Pitch in Madrid. Based on its results, the Antiguan Snake national team tied the Tasmanian Devil 1: 1 in regulation time, and then won the penalty shootout, thereby winning the main prize. === Football for Friendship 2020 === In 2020, the final events of the Eighth Season of Football for Friendship were held online on a digital platform from November 27 to December 9, 2020. More than 10,000 participants from over 100 countries around the world joined the key events. For the programme's eighth season, the Football for Friendship World multiplayer online football simulator was developed, on the basis of which the 2020 Football for Friendship World Championship was held. The game has been available for downloading worldwide since December 10, 2020, the World Football Day. Users got an opportunity to participate in matches according to the rules of the Football for Friendship, uniting in international teams. The multiplayer game is based on the programme's core values, such as friendship, peace, and equality. On November 27, the 2020 Football for Friendship World Championship Open Draw took place. From November 28 to December 6, an Online International Friendship Camp with humanitarian and sports educational programmes for children was held. From November 30 to December 4, sessions of the Online International Football for Friendship Forum were held, at which projects on the development of children's sports were presented. An expert forum evaluated the presentation of projects vying for the International Football for Friendship Award. From December 7–8, the Football for Friendship World Championship was held. This year's Championship was held in an online format on a digital platform, for which the Football for Friendship World multiplayer football simulator was specially developed. The Football for Friendship Grand Final took place on December 9. A series of webinars for children from different countries in support of the 75th anniversary of the UN took place during the Programme's Eighth Season. The Stadium is Where I Am show was launched with the participation of football freestylers from all around the world. In each episode, freestylers taught Young Ambassadors to perform tricks, and at the end of each episode a competition for the best trick was announced. The show concluded with a global online master class, with which the Football for Friendship Programme set a second Guinness World Record, this time for the number of participants involved (December 6, 2020). Good News Editors - a weekly show launched by the Young Journalists of Football for Friendship, in which children shared positive news from around the world with viewers. === Football for Friendship 2021 === In 2021, the ninth season of the Football for Friendship (F4F) program culminated in a series of online events, which were held on the F4F digital platform on 14–29 March 2021 and united kids from over 200 countries. On the International Day of Football and Friendship celebrated on 25 April, an open draw was made for the Football for Friendship world online championship. Another highlight of the season was the Online International Friendship Camp which featured educational programs in humanities and sports for children. At the Online International Football for Friendship Forum, football academies from all over the world came up with their projects for development of children's sports. Having examined the presentations, the expert jury awarded the International Football for Friendship Award to the academies from Afghanistan, India, Sri- Lanka, and Togo. The Online Football for Friendship World Championship was held on the platform of the F4F World multiplayer football simulator which was specially developed for the tournament. The team Argali composed of kids from Aruba, Belize, Guatemala, Costa-Rica, and Mexico won in the final match. For the third time in the F4F program's history, the participants of the ninth season set a Guinness record for the largest number of virtual stadium viewers. The Grand Final of the tournament took place on 29 May. Football for Friendship: International Children's News Bureau at EURO 2020 As part of the Football for Friendship program, an international children's news bureau was formed in the run-up to the 2020 UEFA European Football Championship, with the young journalists covering the events across 11 countries hosting the tournament. The young journalists visited all games of the championship in their countries to cover them through the prism of the Nine Core Values shared by millions of the F4F program participants. The kids received training at the Nine Values School established under the F4F program. Apart from the core values, the training sessions were dedicated to the modern trends in sports journalism and mobile reporting skills. == Football for Friendship World Championship == The International Children's football tournament is held within the framework of the Football for Friendship Programme. Teams participating in the championship – Friendship Teams – are formed during an Open Draw. The teams are organized on the principle of Football for Friendship: athletes of different nationalities, sex and physical abilities play in the same team. ==International Children’s Press Centre== A special feature of the Football for Friendship program is its own International Children's Press Center. It was first organised under the Football for Friendship Programme in 2014. Young journalists in the press center cover the events of the Programme in their countries: they prepare news for national and international sports media, participate in the creation of materials for the Football for Friendship TV channel, the children's Football for Friendship newspaper and the program's official radio station. The International Children's Press Center unites the winners of the Best Young Journalist national contests, young bloggers, photographers and writers. Young journalists from the press center present their view from within the Programme, implementing the format "children about children". ==International Day of Football and Friendship== Under the Football for Friendship Programme, the International Day of Football and Friendship is celebrated on April 25. This holiday was celebrated for the first time in 2014 in 16 countries. On this day, friendly matches, flash mobs, radio marathons, master classes, television shows, open training sessions, etc. took place. More than 50,000 people took part in the celebration. In 2015, Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated in 24 countries. During the festival, there were friendly football matches and other events. In Germany, Schalke 04 footballers held an open training session, Serbia hosted a TV show, Ukraine – a match between the junior team of Volyn FC and children who are registered at the Lutsk city center of social services for families, children and young people. In Russia, the Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated on April 25 in 11 cities. Friendly football matches were held in Vladivostok, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Krasnoyarsk, Barnaul, St. Petersburg and Saransk, to recall the key values of the program. In Krasnoyarsk, Sochi and Rostov-on-Don, a Friendship Relay was held with the participation of torchbearers from the Olympic Torch Relay 2014. In Moscow, with the support of the Sports Federation of the Blind, an Equal Opportunity Tournament was organized. On May 5, the Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated in Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. In 2016, Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated in 32 countries. In Russia, it was celebrated in nine cities: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Barnaul, Birobidzhan, Irkutsk, Krasnodar, Nizhny Novgorod and Rostov-on-Don. Nizhny Novgorod hosted a friendly match for young footballers from Volga FC, and adult players from the club conducted warm-up and training for the children. In a friendly match in Novosibirsk, disabled children took part – the Novosibirsk region team Yermak-Sibir. In 2017, Day of Football and Friendship was celebrated in 64 countries. Famous footballers, including Serbian defender Branislav Ivanovich, and Dutch striker Dirk Kuyt, took part in events around the world. In Greece, the event was attended by Theodoras Zagorakis, a winner of the European Football Championship 2004 with his country's national team. In Russia, Zenit FC hosted a special training session for Zakhar Badyuk, the young Ambassador of the Football for Friendship program in 2017. In training, Zenit FC goalkeeper Yury Lodygin gave a high rating to Zakhar's abilities and shared the secrets of goalkeeping with him. ==Friendship bracelet== All the activities of the Football for Friendship Programme begin with the exchange of Friendship Bracelets, a symbol of equality and a healthy lifestyle. The bracelet consists of two threads of blue and green, and it can be worn by anyone who shares the program's values. According to Franz Beckenbauer: "The symbol of the movement is a two-color bracelet, it is as simple and understandable as the inherent values of the Football for Friendship program". Young participants in the program have tied Friendship Bracelets on the wrists of famous sportsmen and public figures, including Dick Advocaat, Anatoly Timoshchuk and Luis Netu, Franz Beckenbauer, Luis Fernandev, Didier Drogba, Max Meyer, Fatma Samura, Leon Gorecka, Domenico Krishito, Michel Salgado, Alexander Kerzhakov, Dimas Pirros, Miodrag Bozovic, Adelina Sotnikova, Yuri Kamenets. == First Ever NFT Trophy for Best Goal of UEFA EURO 2020 == In May 2021, UEFA announced that Gazprom would be a partner to EURO 2020 and EURO 2024. According to the partnership terms, the company would present the UEFA EURO 2020 best goal prize for the first time ever made in the NFT format. The physical prototype of the prize was created by the Russian caligraffiti artist Pokras Lampas at the Gazprom booth in the fan zone at Konyushennaya Square, St. Petersburg, as an installation artwork featuring 432 footballs ornamented with calligraphic patterns. The digital trophy contained the encrypted names of the 2020 UEFA EURO Championship, Football for Friendship International Children's Social Program and the Nine Core Values it promoted – friendship, equality, fairness, health, peace, devotion, victory, traditions, and honor. On 27 June, the installation ceased to exist as a physical object and was reborn as a digital artwork in the NFT format. All the footballs were distributed across 11 cities that hosted the UEFA EURO 2020. At the official award ceremony on 15 October, the digital trophy was presented to Patrik Schick, the best goal scorer of the 2020 UEFA EURO Championship, and its hologram was handed over as an exhibit to the head offices of the UEFA (Nyon, Switzerland) and Gazprom (St. Petersburg, Russia). == Football for Friendship International Children’s Forum == In 2019, the forum transformed into a platform for knowledge exchange between sports and education experts. In 2020, the forum established the Football for Friendship International Award. == Football for Friendship International Award == The Football for Friendship International Award is meant to identify and globally promote the best ideas for sports coaching, training of young football players, and cooperation in children's football. The goal of the award is to draw public attention to promotion of children's football in the conditions of global digitalization, and form a community of like-minded people developing these areas. == International Football for Friendship Coaches Academy == The International Football for Friendship Coaches Academy is an online and free educational platform available in multiple languages. It features a series of practical upskilling sessions for coaches of children's football teams and physical education teachers. The academy's course is based on knowledge, advice and recommendations on how to organize a training process, promote active and healthy lifestyle, and foster respect for different cultures and ethnicities among young players. The course was developed by the educational process managers and coaches of FC Barcelona Academy and FIFA humanitarian program experts. == International Friendship Camp == The International Friendship Camp is an educational program whereby the F4F participants undergo training and team building sessions under the guidance of professional coaches. It helps children to get on well with each other both on a football pitch and in everyday life, choose the right tactics, and develop a team spirit. As part of the camp, the young participants are trained at the Nine Values School where they learn about the program's values and how to use them during a game and in ordinary life. == Ecological Initiative == Ecological Initiative is an annual event held since 2016 as part of the Football for Friendship program. Its young participants created the Friendship Garden in the Parco di Trenno, Milan, where each of the 32 international teams planted a tree. The 33rd tree was planted by disabled kids fostered by the Don Carlo Gnocchi Foundation. In 2018, the young ambassadors of the program drew public attention to animal species threatened with extinction. Every year since then, the international football teams are named after extinct and rare species. That year, eco-friendly buses running on natural gas were used for transportation of the young participants during the final events in Moscow. In 2020, the young participants of the program held the F4F Speaks for Nature dedicated to environmental protection as part of the World Environment Day established by the UN. In 2021, the young participants shared their views on how everyone could help the planet and launched the online challenge Small Steps to Save the Planet. == F4F World Multiplayer Football Simulator == This digital platform specially developed for the Football for Friendship program brought together players of all ages from over 211 countries and regions and gave rise to an international tournament. Additionally it has become a gaming platform where everyone can train, form international teams and play their favorite game in the F4F format without leaving home. == Awards and prizes == As at 2021, the Football for Friendship program has earned over 60 national and global awards in the areas of social responsibility, sports and communications, including three Guinness World Record titles for the largest ever number of ethnicities represented at a single football training session, largest ever number of participants in an online event, and the largest number of viewers at a virtual stadium. Its other awards include SABRE Awards (USA) in the Corporate Social Responsibility category, Gold Quill Awards (USA) in the Best Social Project of the Planet category, Golden Archer Grand Prix (Russia), IPRA Awards in the Outstanding Campaigns Supporting UN Sustainable Development Goals category (UK), ICCO Global Awards in the Best Cross-Cultural Campaign category (UK), etc. In 2020, the International Football for Friendship Coaches Academy won PRNEWS' Platinum PR Awards (USA). In 2021, the YouTube shows Stadium Is Where I Am and Good News Show, which were organized by children early in the pandemic to support people around the globe, received the awards for the best YouTube channel. ==References== Category:Gazprom Category:Youth football competitions
|
The mathematical expressions for thermodynamic entropy in the statistical thermodynamics formulation established by Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs in the 1870s are similar to the information entropy by Claude Shannon and Ralph Hartley, developed in the 1940s. ==Equivalence of form of the defining expressions== The defining expression for entropy in the theory of statistical mechanics established by Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs in the 1870s, is of the form: : S = - k_\text{B} \sum_i p_i \ln p_i , where p_i is the probability of the microstate i taken from an equilibrium ensemble. The defining expression for entropy in the theory of information established by Claude E. Shannon in 1948 is of the form: : H = - \sum_i p_i \log_b p_i , where p_i is the probability of the message m_i taken from the message space M, and b is the base of the logarithm used. Common values of b are 2, Euler's number , and 10, and the unit of entropy is shannon (or bit) for b = 2, nat for b = , and hartley for b = 10.Schneider, T.D, Information theory primer with an appendix on logarithms, National Cancer Institute, 14 April 2007. Mathematically H may also be seen as an average information, taken over the message space, because when a certain message occurs with probability pi, the information quantity −log(pi) (called information content or self-information) will be obtained. If all the microstates are equiprobable (a microcanonical ensemble), the statistical thermodynamic entropy reduces to the form, as given by Boltzmann, : S = k_\text{B} \ln W , where W is the number of microstates that corresponds to the macroscopic thermodynamic state. Therefore S depends on temperature. If all the messages are equiprobable, the information entropy reduces to the Hartley entropy : H = \log_b |M|\ , where |M| is the cardinality of the message space M. The logarithm in the thermodynamic definition is the natural logarithm. It can be shown that the Gibbs entropy formula, with the natural logarithm, reproduces all of the properties of the macroscopic classical thermodynamics of Rudolf Clausius. (See article: Entropy (statistical views)). The logarithm can also be taken to the natural base in the case of information entropy. This is equivalent to choosing to measure information in nats instead of the usual bits (or more formally, shannons). In practice, information entropy is almost always calculated using base-2 logarithms, but this distinction amounts to nothing other than a change in units. One nat is about 1.44 shannons. For a simple compressible system that can only perform volume work, the first law of thermodynamics becomes : dE = -p dV + T dS . But one can equally well write this equation in terms of what physicists and chemists sometimes call the 'reduced' or dimensionless entropy, , so that : dE = -p dV + k_\text{B} T d\sigma . Just as S is conjugate to T, so σ is conjugate to kBT (the energy that is characteristic of T on a molecular scale). Thus the definitions of entropy in statistical mechanics (The Gibbs entropy formula S = -k_{\mathrm{B}}\sum_i p_i \log p_i) and in classical thermodynamics (d S = \frac{\delta Q_\text{rev}}{T}, and the fundamental thermodynamic relation) are equivalent for microcanonical ensemble, and statistical ensembles describing a thermodynamic system in equilibrium with a reservoir, such as the canonical ensemble, grand canonical ensemble, isothermal–isobaric ensemble. This equivalence is commonly shown in textbooks. However, the equivalence between the thermodynamic definition of entropy and the Gibbs entropy is not general but instead an exclusive property of the generalized Boltzmann distribution. Furthermore, it has been shown that the definitions of entropy in statistical mechanics is the only entropy that is equivalent to the classical thermodynamics entropy under the following postulates: == Theoretical relationship == Despite the foregoing, there is a difference between the two quantities. The information entropy Η can be calculated for any probability distribution (if the "message" is taken to be that the event i which had probability pi occurred, out of the space of the events possible), while the thermodynamic entropy S refers to thermodynamic probabilities pi specifically. The difference is more theoretical than actual, however, because any probability distribution can be approximated arbitrarily closely by some thermodynamic system. Moreover, a direct connection can be made between the two. If the probabilities in question are the thermodynamic probabilities pi: the (reduced) Gibbs entropy σ can then be seen as simply the amount of Shannon information needed to define the detailed microscopic state of the system, given its macroscopic description. Or, in the words of G. N. Lewis writing about chemical entropy in 1930, "Gain in entropy always means loss of information, and nothing more". To be more concrete, in the discrete case using base two logarithms, the reduced Gibbs entropy is equal to the average of the minimum number of yes-no questions needed to be answered in order to fully specify the microstate, given that we know the macrostate. Furthermore, the prescription to find the equilibrium distributions of statistical mechanics—such as the Boltzmann distribution—by maximising the Gibbs entropy subject to appropriate constraints (the Gibbs algorithm) can be seen as something not unique to thermodynamics, but as a principle of general relevance in statistical inference, if it is desired to find a maximally uninformative probability distribution, subject to certain constraints on its averages. (These perspectives are explored further in the article Maximum entropy thermodynamics.) The Shannon entropy in information theory is sometimes expressed in units of bits per symbol. The physical entropy may be on a "per quantity" basis (h) which is called "intensive" entropy instead of the usual total entropy which is called "extensive" entropy. The "shannons" of a message (Η) are its total "extensive" information entropy and is h times the number of bits in the message. A direct and physically real relationship between h and S can be found by assigning a symbol to each microstate that occurs per mole, kilogram, volume, or particle of a homogeneous substance, then calculating the 'h' of these symbols. By theory or by observation, the symbols (microstates) will occur with different probabilities and this will determine h. If there are N moles, kilograms, volumes, or particles of the unit substance, the relationship between h (in bits per unit substance) and physical extensive entropy in nats is: :S = k_\mathrm{B} \ln(2) N h where ln(2) is the conversion factor from base 2 of Shannon entropy to the natural base e of physical entropy. N h is the amount of information in bits needed to describe the state of a physical system with entropy S. Landauer's principle demonstrates the reality of this by stating the minimum energy E required (and therefore heat Q generated) by an ideally efficient memory change or logic operation by irreversibly erasing or merging N h bits of information will be S times the temperature which is :E = Q = T k_\mathrm{B} \ln(2) N h , where h is in informational bits and E and Q are in physical Joules. This has been experimentally confirmed. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy per particle in an ideal gas (kelvins = joules/kB) so the J/K units of kB is dimensionless (joule/joule). kb is the conversion factor from energy in kelvins to joules for an ideal gas. If kinetic energy measurements per particle of an ideal gas were expressed as joules instead of kelvins, kb in the above equations would be replaced by 3/2. This shows that S is a true statistical measure of microstates that does not have a fundamental physical unit other than the units of information, in this case nats, which is just a statement of which logarithm base was chosen by convention. == Information is physical == ===Szilard's engine=== right|thumb|N-atom engine schematic A physical thought experiment demonstrating how just the possession of information might in principle have thermodynamic consequences was established in 1929 by Leó Szilárd, in a refinement of the famous Maxwell's demon scenario. Available on-line in English at Aurellen.org. Consider Maxwell's set-up, but with only a single gas particle in a box. If the supernatural demon knows which half of the box the particle is in (equivalent to a single bit of information), it can close a shutter between the two halves of the box, close a piston unopposed into the empty half of the box, and then extract k_\text{B} T \ln 2 joules of useful work if the shutter is opened again. The particle can then be left to isothermally expand back to its original equilibrium occupied volume. In just the right circumstances therefore, the possession of a single bit of Shannon information (a single bit of negentropy in Brillouin's term) really does correspond to a reduction in the entropy of the physical system. The global entropy is not decreased, but information to free energy conversion is possible. Using a phase-contrast microscope equipped with a high speed camera connected to a computer, as demon, the principle has been actually demonstrated. In this experiment, information to energy conversion is performed on a Brownian particle by means of feedback control; that is, synchronizing the work given to the particle with the information obtained on its position. Computing energy balances for different feedback protocols, has confirmed that the Jarzynski equality requires a generalization that accounts for the amount of information involved in the feedback. ===Landauer's principle=== In fact one can generalise: any information that has a physical representation must somehow be embedded in the statistical mechanical degrees of freedom of a physical system. Thus, Rolf Landauer argued in 1961, if one were to imagine starting with those degrees of freedom in a thermalised state, there would be a real reduction in thermodynamic entropy if they were then re-set to a known state. This can only be achieved under information-preserving microscopically deterministic dynamics if the uncertainty is somehow dumped somewhere else – i.e. if the entropy of the environment (or the non information-bearing degrees of freedom) is increased by at least an equivalent amount, as required by the Second Law, by gaining an appropriate quantity of heat: specifically kT ln 2 of heat for every 1 bit of randomness erased. On the other hand, Landauer argued, there is no thermodynamic objection to a logically reversible operation potentially being achieved in a physically reversible way in the system. It is only logically irreversible operations – for example, the erasing of a bit to a known state, or the merging of two computation paths – which must be accompanied by a corresponding entropy increase. When information is physical, all processing of its representations, i.e. generation, encoding, transmission, decoding and interpretation, are natural processes where entropy increases by consumption of free energy. Applied to the Maxwell's demon/Szilard engine scenario, this suggests that it might be possible to "read" the state of the particle into a computing apparatus with no entropy cost; but only if the apparatus has already been SET into a known state, rather than being in a thermalised state of uncertainty. To SET (or RESET) the apparatus into this state will cost all the entropy that can be saved by knowing the state of Szilard's particle. == Negentropy == Shannon entropy has been related by physicist Léon Brillouin to a concept sometimes called negentropy. In 1953, Brillouin derived a general equation stating that the changing of an information bit value requires at least kT ln(2) energy. This is the same energy as the work Leo Szilard's engine produces in the idealistic case, which in turn equals to the same quantity found by Landauer. In his book,Leon Brillouin, Science and Information theory, Dover, 1956 he further explored this problem concluding that any cause of a bit value change (measurement, decision about a yes/no question, erasure, display, etc.) will require the same amount, kT ln(2), of energy. Consequently, acquiring information about a system's microstates is associated with an entropy production, while erasure yields entropy production only when the bit value is changing. Setting up a bit of information in a sub- system originally in thermal equilibrium results in a local entropy reduction. However, there is no violation of the second law of thermodynamics, according to Brillouin, since a reduction in any local system's thermodynamic entropy results in an increase in thermodynamic entropy elsewhere. In this way, Brillouin clarified the meaning of negentropy which was considered as controversial because its earlier understanding can yield Carnot efficiency higher than one. Additionally, the relationship between energy and information formulated by Brillouin has been proposed as a connection between the amount of bits that the brain processes and the energy it consumes: Collell and Fauquet argued that De Castro analytically found the Landauer limit as the thermodynamic lower bound for brain computations. However, even though evolution is supposed to have "selected" the most energetically efficient processes, the physical lower bounds are not realistic quantities in the brain. Firstly, because the minimum processing unit considered in physics is the atom/molecule, which is distant from the actual way that brain operates; and, secondly, because neural networks incorporate important redundancy and noise factors that greatly reduce their efficiency. Laughlin et al. was the first to provide explicit quantities for the energetic cost of processing sensory information. Their findings in blowflies revealed that for visual sensory data, the cost of transmitting one bit of information is around 5 × 10−14 Joules, or equivalently 104 ATP molecules. Thus, neural processing efficiency is still far from Landauer's limit of kTln(2) J, but as a curious fact, it is still much more efficient than modern computers. In 2009, Mahulikar & Herwig redefined thermodynamic negentropy as the specific entropy deficit of the dynamically ordered sub-system relative to its surroundings. This definition enabled the formulation of the Negentropy Principle, which is mathematically shown to follow from the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, during order existence. ==Quantum theory== Hirschman showed, cf. Hirschman uncertainty, that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a particular lower bound on the sum of the classical distribution entropies of the quantum observable probability distributions of a quantum mechanical state, the square of the wave-function, in coordinate, and also momentum space, when expressed in Planck units. The resulting inequalities provide a tighter bound on the uncertainty relations of Heisenberg. It is meaningful to assign a "joint entropy", because positions and momenta are quantum conjugate variables and are therefore not jointly observable. Mathematically, they have to be treated as joint distribution. Note that this joint entropy is not equivalent to the Von Neumann entropy, −Tr ρ lnρ = −⟨lnρ⟩. Hirschman's entropy is said to account for the full information content of a mixture of quantum states. (Dissatisfaction with the Von Neumann entropy from quantum information points of view has been expressed by Stotland, Pomeransky, Bachmat and Cohen, who have introduced a yet different definition of entropy that reflects the inherent uncertainty of quantum mechanical states. This definition allows distinction between the minimum uncertainty entropy of pure states, and the excess statistical entropy of mixtures.) ==See also== ==References== ==Further reading== * * . [Republication of 1962 original.] * * (A highly technical collection of writings giving an overview of the concept of entropy as it appears in various disciplines.) * . * . * * * * * (as PDF) ==External links== * Information Processing and Thermodynamic Entropy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. *An Intuitive Guide to the Concept of Entropy Arising in Various Sectors of Science — a wikibook on the interpretation of the concept of entropy. Category:Thermodynamic entropy Category:Entropy and information Category:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
|
{{Infobox settlement | name = Nishio | official_name = | native_name = | native_name_lang = ja | settlement_type = City | image_skyline = 300px 300px | imagesize = | image_alt = | image_caption = Upper：Nishio Castle Lower：Skyline of Nishio | image_flag = Flag of Nishio, Aichi.svg | flag_alt = | image_seal = | seal_alt = | image_shield = | shield_alt = | image_blank_emblem = Emblem of Nishio, Aichi.svg | blank_emblem_type = Emblem | nickname = | motto = | image_map = | image_map1 = Nishio in Aichi Prefecture Ja.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = Location of Nishio in Aichi Prefecture | pushpin_map = Japan | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = | coordinates = | coor_pinpoint = | coordinates_footnotes = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = Japan | subdivision_type1 = Region | subdivision_name1 = Chūbu (Tōkai) | subdivision_type2 = Prefecture | subdivision_name2 = Aichi | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | established_title = | established_date = | founder = | named_for = | seat_type = | seat = | government_footnotes = | leader_party = | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Ken Nakamura (since 2017) | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = | total_type = | unit_pref = | area_magnitude = | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 161.22 | area_land_km2 = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_percent = | area_note = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = | population_footnotes = | population_total = 169984 | population_as_of = October 1, 2019 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_demonym = | population_note = | timezone1 = Japan Standard Time | utc_offset1 = +9 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = | postal_code_type = | postal_code = | area_code_type = | area_code = | blank_name_sec1 = City Symbols | blank1_name_sec1 = - Tree | blank1_info_sec1 = Camphor laurel | blank2_name_sec1 = - Flower | blank2_info_sec1 = Rose | blank3_name_sec1 = | blank3_info_sec1 = | blank4_name_sec1 = | blank4_info_sec1 = | blank5_name_sec1 = | blank5_info_sec1 = | blank6_name_sec1 = | blank6_info_sec1 = | blank7_name_sec1 = | blank7_info_sec1 = | blank_name_sec2 = Phone number | blank_info_sec2 = 0563-56-2111 | blank1_name_sec2 = Address | blank1_info_sec2 = 22 Yorizumichō Shimoda, Nishio-shi, Aichi-ken 445-8501 | website = | footnotes = }} is a city located in Aichi Prefecture, in the Chūbu region of Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 169,984 in 65,553 households, with a population density of 1,054 persons per km². The total area of the city was . It is a regional commercial and manufacturing center and the country's leading producer of powdered green tea. ==Geography== Nishio is situated on the northern coast of Mikawa Bay on the Pacific Ocean in southern Aichi Prefecture. The city lies along the eastern bank of the Yahagi River. Sheltered by Chita Peninsula and Atsumi Peninsula, the local climate is mild. Parts of the city lie within the borders of the Mikawa Wan Quasi-National Park ===Climate=== The city has a climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and relatively mild winters (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Nishio is 15.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1596 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.5 °C. Gamagōri, Aichi is the closest point that records statistical climate information. ===Demographics=== Per Japanese census data, the population of Nishio has been increased steadily over the past 70 years. ===Surrounding Municipalities=== ;Aichi prefecture *Anjō *Okazaki *Hekinan *Gamagōri *Kōta ==History== ===Origin=== The Mikawa area has been inhabited since prehistoric times, as attested by finds of pottery shards from the Jōmon period and the megalithic Kofun tomb in Kira, the oldest in the Mikawa Province. ===Ancient history=== The fertile plains along the Yahagi River have been used for rice-farming as well as the production of tea and cotton since ancient times. Shell mounds dating to the late Japanese Paleolithic period which have been found in what is today the town center also point to fish and seafood as important early local produce. In Hazu, a shrine from the Nara period is evidence of an early cultural connection to the Japanese capital at the time. The soil around Nishio is rich in mica deposits, which was already mined in the Nara period. ===Early modern period=== During the 15th century Sengoku period, Nishio was the home territory for the Sakai clan, based at Nishio Castle. The area eventually came under the control of the Tokugawa clan, and during the Edo period, most of the area was ruled as the Nishio Domain, a minor fudai feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate. The area prospered as a fishing port, and due to its location on the Tōkaidō highway connecting Edo with Kyoto, although the town itself suffered heavy damage due to a tsunami in the 1707 Hōei earthquake. ===Late modern period=== Early in the Meiji period, with the establishment of the modern municipalities system, Nishio was proclaimed a village in Hazu District in 1871. Following the 1891 Mino–Owari earthquake, a tsunami killed over 60 people. Nishio was elevated to town status on May 1, 1906. The town suffered damage in the 1944 Tōnankai earthquake, which killed 32 people, and the 1945 Mikawa earthquake, which killed 765. ===Contemporary history=== After the end of World War II, Nishio attracted many workers from the rural south of Japan and its population increased. In 1953, Nishio became a city with the annexation of neighboring Heisaka and Terazu towns and Fukuchi and Muroba villages; followed by Miwa and Meiji villages in 1955. In 1959, Typhoon Vera caused considerable damage to the area, with 20 people killed. On April 1, 2011, the towns of Hazu, Isshiki and Kira (all from Hazu District) were merged into Nishio. Hazu District was dissolved as a result of this merger. ==Government== thumb|200px|Nishio city Hall Nishio has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city legislature of 30 members. The city contributes two members to the Aichi Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Aichi District 12 of the lower house of the Diet of Japan. ==Public Services== ===Administration=== Nishio's City Hall is located in Chodacho, about half a mile to the south-east of Nishio Station. Its foreign residents section offers assistance in Chinese, Korean, Portuguese, Spanish and English. ===Garbage Disposal=== The Clean Center recycling plant in Kenjoda accepts all kinds of garbage, including bulky items and hazardous waste. ===Health Care=== Nishio's main hospital is the Nishio Municipal Hospital in central Nishio, near Yatsuomote-yama. ==External relations== ===Twin towns – Sister cities=== ====International==== ;Sister city *Porirua（Wellington Region, New Zealand） **Since December 15, 1993 ====National==== ;Friendship city *Echizen（Fukui Prefecture, Chūbu region） **Since 2000 *Ena（Gifu Prefecture, Chūbu region） **Since 1998 *Yonezawa（Yamagata Prefecture, Tōhoku region） **Since December 15, 2013 ==Economy== ===Primary sector of the economy=== ====Agriculture==== Nishio is a regional commercial center and fishing port, with a mixed economy of light manufacturing and agriculture. It is also the largest producer of powdered green tea in Japan and one of the leading producers of Unagi eels. There is a public fish market at the fishing port in Isshiki. ===Secondary sector of the economy=== ====Manufacturing==== Numerous suppliers to the Japanese automotive industry such as Denso and Aisin have production plants in and around Nishio. ====Ceramic engineering==== The soil around Nishio is rich in mica deposits, which was already mined in the Nara period. Yatsuomote ware is a type of Japanese pottery made at a kiln at the southern foot of Mount Yatsuomote (八ツ面山). ==Education== ===Schools=== The city has 26 public elementary schools and 10 public junior high schools operated by the city government and five public high schools operated by the Aichi Prefectural Board of Education. Public libraries and community centers are maintained in central Nishio, Hazu, Isshiki, Kira and Terazu. The Nishio International Association offers Japanese language classes as well as instruction in foreign languages; most of these are held at the Fukushi (Welfare) Center in Hananoki-Cho. ==Transportation== ===Railways=== ====Conventional lines==== ;20pxMeitetsu *Meitetsu Nishio Line：- - - - - - - :connects the city with Nagoya to the north, via Shin Anjo. *Meitetsu Gamagōri Line： - - - - - :links Nishio with Gamagōri. Local stations in this direction are ===Roads=== ====Japan National Route==== * * ===Seaways=== ====Seaports==== *Mikawa Issiki Port File:MT-Nishio Station- EastGate.jpg|Nishio Station File:道の駅にしお岡ノ山.jpg|Road Station Nishio Okanoyama (Japan National Route 23) File:Mikawa Isshiki Port ac.jpg|Mikawa Isshiki Port ==Local attractions== Nishio's sightseeing highlight is Ushitora Yagura Castle Keep in the downtown Yamashita-cho area. It features a full reconstruction of the wooden central tower, gates and central compound of Nishio Castle, built by the Matsudaira clan in 1221 and used until 1601. Yatsuomote ware is a type of Japanese pottery started around 1825 by Katō Hachiemon (加藤八右衛門) when he opened his kiln at the southern foot of Mount Yatsuomote (八ツ面山). The soil around Nishio is rich in mica deposits, which was already mined in the Nara period. After an incident at Mount Yatsuomote a small bell was offered to soothe the kami. Katō Kumazō started a local tradition where small ceramic zodiac bells (きらら鈴) were made out of local mica kneaded into the clay, and after burning in the kiln the bell would make a pleasing sound when rung. ===Landmarks=== * Hirahara Waterfall and nature-trail, located in Hirahara-cho * Kira Waikiki Beach: A series of sheltered sandy coves, open for bathing and watersports from June to September * Sakushima: A small inhabited island with many traditional wooden buildings in Mikawa Bay, popular for fishing trips. Can be reached by ferry from Isshiki Harbor * Mount Sangane, a spectacular forested mountain range overlooking Mikawa Bay, suitable for hiking and bird- watching * Mount Yatsuomote, a hillside park in central Nishio, offering a good view of the surrounding cities, mountains and waterfront File:Kirawaikikibeach.jpg|Kira Waikiki Beach File:Sakushima5.jpg|Installation Ohirune House in Sakushima File:Sakushima1.jpg|View of a street in Sakushima File:View from the top of Mt Sangane, Higashi-Hazu-cho Nishio city 2013.JPG|Mount Sangane skyline File:Yatsuomoteyama01.jpg|Aerial view of Mount Yatsuomote ===Tourist attraction=== ;Historic sites *Nishio Castle *Konren-ji *Shōbōji Kofun, a National Historic Site *Iwase Bunko Library ;Parks *Aichi Children Country File:Nishio Castle.jpg|Nishio Castle File:Konrenji.jpg|Konren-ji File:160227 Whole view of Shoboji Kofun.jpg|Shōbōji Kofun File:Iwase Bunko Library old book storage ac.jpg|Iwase Bunko Library File:Aichi-Kodomonokuni Yūhigaoka.JPG|Aichi Children Country === Museums === The Nishio City Museum is located on the grounds of Nishio Castle. It has an extensive collection of items relating to local history and culture, dating from the ancient Jōmon period to the late Edo period. The Iwase Bunko Library, next to the city library, is home to a collection of more than 80.000 rare books and ancient Buddhist manuscripts. It features an exposition hall and rooms for study and reading. The Culture Center in Yamashita-cho provides a venue for concerts, theatre performances, exhibitions and lectures. ==Culture== ===Festivals=== thumb|200px|Isshiki Lantern Festival thumb|200px|Toba Fire Festival A number of popular events and festivals are held in Nishio, most of them during the summer months. *Toba Fire Festival: On the 2nd Sunday in February two teams of local men from Hazu and Kira vie to pull bamboo poles from a huge bonfire, a traditional rite meant to ensure a good harvest. *Nishio Gion Festival：On the third weekend of July, a few days before the beginning of the school's summer holidays, Nishio celebrates a two- day city festival in the downtown Honmachi area, the main attraction of Nishio's festival season. Groups of residents parade through the streets performing choreographed dances called “odorocha” and yatai stalls sell sweets and snacks. *Yonezu River Fireworks Festival: On August 15, more than 3000 fireworks are set off alongside the river near Yonezu Bridge, one of the most extravagant displays of pyrotechnics in the region. :Smaller local fireworks festivals are also held in Kira and Hazu in the month of August. *Isshiki Lantern Festival: On the 26th and 27 August, large paper lanterns are on display amid food stalls selling local Unagi eel and other treats. *Hawaiian Festival: At the end of August, Hawaiian and local groups perform traditional Polynesian dances on a stage at Kira Waikiki Beach. ===Sports=== White Wave sports center in Nishio Hazu Fureai Square features a 25m lap-pool, wave pool, waterslides and outdoor swimming areas. It is open year-round. Public outdoor sporting grounds are found in Nishio Park, Yatsuomote Park, Yahagi River Park, Zenmyo Community Sports Park and Furukawa Green Park. The City, Tsurushiro and Chuo gymnasiums are available for private sport clubs and host a number of minor league teams for baseball, soccer, volleyball, basketball and other sports. The Denso Airybees, a women's volleyball team playing in the V.Premier League are based in Nishio. Sex Name competition League Home Sponsor Since Women Denso Airybees Volleyball V.League（V1） Nishio municipal general gymnasium Aisin 1953 ==Notable Events== In 2006, the city entered the Guinness Book of Records for having the largest simultaneous tea ceremony in the world at any one time with 14,718 participants. This record was later beaten by a tea party in Indore, India in 2008. == Notable People from Nishio == *Jitsuo Inagaki, politician *Toshio Iwai, video game artist and musician *Hitoki Iwase, professional baseball player *Oguri Jukichi, Edo period castaway *Koen Kondo, actor *Mami Koyama, voice actress *Maria Makino, idol singer (Morning Musume) *Tetsuya Makita, actor *Katsuya Takasu, plastic surgeon ==References== == External links == * Category:Cities in Aichi Prefecture Category:Populated coastal places in Japan
|
Alan Desmond Lee (born 21 August 1978) is an Irish former footballer who played as a striker. He scored 119 goals in 547 appearances in a 19-year professional career in the Football League, and won 10 caps for the Republic of Ireland. He started his career with Aston Villa, also playing on loan at Torquay United and Port Vale. Following a season with Burnley, he signed with Rotherham United in 2000. He is considered something of a cult hero at the club, after helping the "Millers" to win promotion out of the Second Division in 2000–01. He was then bought by Cardiff City, and made almost 100 appearances for the Welsh side between 2003 and 2006. Then purchased by Ipswich Town, he made over 100 appearances for the club before earning a big money move to Crystal Palace. After returning from a loan spell at Norwich City, he wrote himself into the club's folklore by scoring in the final game of the 2009–10 season against Sheffield Wednesday, saving the Eagles from relegation and ultimately administration. Following these heroics he moved on to Huddersfield Town, and helped the "Terriers" to win promotion out of League One in 2012. He announced his retirement in 2014, having spent his final season as a player-coach at Ipswich Town. ==Club career== ===Aston Villa=== Born in Galway, County Galway, Ireland, Lee began his career as a trainee with Aston Villa, before turning professional in August 1995. However, he never made his first team debut at Villa Park. He joined Torquay United on loan on 27 November 1998, and made his debut the following day in the Third Division in a 3–1 defeat to Barnet at Underhill; he replaced Tony Bedeau as a substitute at half-time. He made his full debut at Plainmoor on 12 December, in a 2–0 win over Hull City. He scored his first league goal on boxing day, which secured a 1–1 draw with Exeter City at St James Park. He also scored against Southend United and Fulham to take his tally for Wes Saunders's "Gulls" up to three goals in nine appearances. On 2 March 1999, he joined Brian Horton's Port Vale on a two-month loan. Making 11 appearances, he scored in draws with Bradford City and Tranmere Rovers, helping the "Valiants" to avoid relegation out of the First Division on goal difference. ===Burnley=== He left Villa in July 1999 when Burnley manager Stan Ternent signed him for a £150,000 fee. He scored once for Burnley; in a 2–1 Football League Trophy defeat at Wigan Athletic. He played 15 league games as the "Clarets" won promotion out of the Second Division as runners-up in 1999–2000. Though a successful season for the club, Lee never had an extended first team run at Turf Moor, and only had two league starts as Andy Payton and Andy Cooke formed an effective partnership up front. ===Rotherham United=== Lee moved to Rotherham United for £150,000 in November 2000 after a short loan spell. In his first season at the club, 2000–01, he scored 15 goals in 35 games as Ronnie Moore's "Millers" won promotion out of the Second Division as runners- up. Lee scored the late winner against Brentford which sealed promotion. He remained a key fixture at Millmoor in the First Division, scoring ten goals in 41 games in 2001–02, and finding the net 16 times in 44 appearances in 2002–03. ===Cardiff City=== He was sold to Cardiff City in August 2003 for a fee of £850,000, just days after impressing Cardiff manager Lennie Lawrence in a goalless draw on the opening day of the season. Rotherham's manager Ronnie Moore prophesied that "Alan Lee can and will do better than Cardiff". However Lee found himself struggling with injuries at Ninian Park and largely out of first team contention. He scored three goals in only 24 games in 2003–04, though he managed seven goals in 43 appearances in 2004–05. However, he was restricted to just two goals in 25 Championship games in 2005–06. ===Ipswich Town=== In January 2006 joined Ipswich Town for £100,000. He scored his second career hat-trick in a 5–0 win against Luton Town on 29 October 2006. He ended the 2006–07 campaign with 17 goals in 44 games, including a header that relegated Leeds United on the last day of that season. He penned a new deal with the club in August 2007. In January 2008 there was speculation of a move back to Burnley for £900,000 but the Ipswich chairman and Lee himself denied these rumours. He completed his season with a tally of 12 goals, including the winner in Ipswich's 1–0 win against Hull City on the final day of the season. ===Crystal Palace=== On 30 August 2008, Lee moved again, leaving Ipswich for Crystal Palace for a fee of around £640,000. He signed a three-year contract with the club, saying that "I jumped at the chance to go an play for Neil Warnock". In March 2009, he moved out on loan to Norwich City, his spell lasting for the rest of the season. Norwich went close to signing Lee permanently six years previously, but lost out to Cardiff. His performances at Norwich earned him public praise from skipper Gary Doherty. In the summer he came close to a move to Barnsley, but the two clubs could not reach a deal. After returning to Selhurst Park, Lee became a fan's favourite and a cult hero due to the tremendous effort he displayed throughout his second season at Palace, culminating in him scoring a bullet header in Palace's 2–2 draw with Sheffield Wednesday on the last day of the season, saving Palace from relegation. However he fell down the pecking order following the arrivals of Pablo Counago and Jon Obika. ===Huddersfield Town=== In August 2010, Lee transferred to Huddersfield Town for an undisclosed fee, which was later reported to be £350,000. He made his debut for the Terriers in a 3–1 win over Charlton Athletic at the Galpharm Stadium on 28 August 2010. He quickly established a reputation cult hero with the Huddersfield supporters. On 30 October he was sent off in a league match against Walsall at the Galpharm, where Town won 1–0. On 30 January 2011, he scored his first goal for Huddersfield in an FA Cup Fourth Round 2–1 defeat to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. He added to his tally with a brace against Carlisle United in the Football League Trophy, though he remained goalless throughout 28 league games. He was a late substitute in the club's play-off final defeat to Peterborough United at Old Trafford. Lee scored his first league goals for the "Terriers" during a 3–0 win over Wycombe Wanderers on 27 August 2011. The first goal came from his first touch of the game 40 seconds after making it onto the pitch as a second-half substitute, before he finished the game with a brace. He finished the 2011–12 campaign with seven goals in 38 games, and was an extra-time substitute in the play-off final victory over Sheffield United at Wembley Stadium, though missed his penalty in the shoot-out. Lee scored his first goal of the 2012–13 season in a 3–2 home defeat by Watford, after replacing newly signed emergency loanee Jermaine Beckford. After a 1–0 win over Barnsley at Oakwell on 10 November, Lee said that "[the fans] are so supportive of me it just melts my heart." At the end of the season, it was announced that he was to be released along with Scott Arfield and Tom Clarke. ===Return to Ipswich Town=== Lee returned to Ipswich Town in July 2013 as part of the club's academy staff, and later began training with the first team after Mick McCarthy considered handing him a first team contract. He re-signed as a player on non-contract terms on 30 August, allowing him to play in the club's first team whilst retaining his academy coaching position. He made an appearance in the FA Cup, coming on as a late substitute in a 3–2 defeat to Preston North End on 14 January. He remained registered as a player for the 2014–15 season in the event that his services as a player would be required due to an injury crisis. He was forced to retire due to injury in July 2014, having undergone knee surgery over the summer. ==International career== Lee represented the Republic of Ireland at various international levels, and earned five caps for the Irish under-21 side. However many feel he was overlooked by the national team during his time at Rotherham when he scored 37 league goals over three seasons. He was though utilised for his country whilst with Cardiff making ten appearances for the Republic of Ireland between 2003 and 2006. ==Coaching career== In July 2013, Lee began coaching at Ipswich Town's academy. In May 2018, he also began working as the head of Culford School's new football programme. By the end of the year he had left his role at Ipswich Town to coach at Bury Town. ==Style of play== The Rotherham United website stated that Lee was a "strong and very quick striker... with no mean skill." He said that he preferred playing as a lone striker, though was comfortable with any kind of partner. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Season Club Division League FA Cup League Cup Other Total Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Aston Villa 1995–96 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 1996–97 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1997–98 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1998–99 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Torquay United (loan) 1998–99 Third Division 7 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 9 3 Port Vale (loan) 1998–99 First Division 11 2 0 0 0 0 — 11 2 Burnley 1999–2000 Second Division 15 0 2 0 2 0 1 1 20 1 Rotherham United 2000–01 Second Division 31 13 3 1 0 0 1 1 35 15 2001–02 First Division 38 9 1 0 2 1 — 41 10 2002–03 First Division 41 15 1 0 2 1 — 44 16 2003–04 First Division 1 0 0 0 1 0 — 2 0 Total 111 37 5 1 5 2 1 1 122 41 Cardiff City 2003–04 First Division 23 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 24 3 2004–05 Championship 38 5 2 1 3 1 0 0 43 7 2005–06 Championship 25 2 1 0 3 0 0 0 29 2 Total 86 10 4 1 6 1 0 0 96 12 Ipswich Town 2005–06 Championship 14 4 0 0 0 0 — 14 4 2006–07 Championship 41 16 3 1 0 0 — 44 17 2007–08 Championship 45 11 1 0 1 1 — 47 12 2008–09 Championship 3 0 0 0 1 1 — 4 1 Total 103 31 4 1 2 2 0 0 109 34 Crystal Palace 2008–09 Championship 16 3 3 0 0 0 — 19 3 2009–10 Championship 42 6 5 1 1 0 — 48 7 2010–11 Championship 3 1 0 0 1 1 — 4 2 Total 61 10 8 1 2 1 0 0 71 12 Norwich City (loan) 2008–09 Championship 7 2 0 0 0 0 — 7 2 Huddersfield Town 2010–11 League One 28 0 4 1 0 0 6 2 38 3 2011–12 League One 31 7 1 0 2 0 4 0 38 7 2012–13 Championship 21 1 3 0 1 0 — 25 2 Total 80 8 8 1 3 0 10 2 101 12 Ipswich Town 2013–14 Championship 0 0 1 0 0 0 — 1 0 Career total 481 102 32 5 20 6 14 5 547 119 ===International=== :Source: Republic of Ireland national team Republic of Ireland national team Republic of Ireland national team Year Apps Goals 2003 2 0 2004 6 0 2006 2 0 Total 10 0 ==Honours== Burnley *Football League Second Division second-place promotion: 1999–2000 Rotherham United *Football League Second Division second-place promotion: 2000–01 Huddersfield Town *Football League One play-offs: 2012 ==References== ==External links== * Category:1978 births Category:Living people Category:People from Galway (city) Category:Association footballers from County Galway Category:Republic of Ireland association footballers Category:Republic of Ireland men's under-21 international footballers Category:Republic of Ireland men's international footballers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Aston Villa F.C. players Category:Torquay United F.C. players Category:Port Vale F.C. players Category:Rotherham United F.C. players Category:Burnley F.C. players Category:Cardiff City F.C. players Category:Ipswich Town F.C. players Category:Crystal Palace F.C. players Category:Norwich City F.C. players Category:Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:Association football coaches Category:Ipswich Town F.C. non- playing staff
|
The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities. These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases, aerosols and loss of land cover, and biological diversity, causing a rapid loss of biodiversity and extinctions of species and local populations. The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction, with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past. The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity, and the relationship between diversity and community stability. More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive (in terms of biomass production) than are less diverse communities, and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations. Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate. ==Definitions== In order to understand the effects that changes in biodiversity will have on ecosystem functioning, it is important to define some terms. Biodiversity is not easily defined, but may be thought of as the number and/or evenness of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. This definition includes genetic diversity, or the diversity of genes within a species, species diversity, or the diversity of species within a habitat or region, and ecosystem diversity, or the diversity of habitats within a region. Two things commonly measured in relation to changes in diversity are productivity and stability. Productivity is a measure of ecosystem function. It is generally measured by taking the total aboveground biomass of all plants in an area. Many assume that it can be used as a general indicator of ecosystem function and that total resource use and other indicators of ecosystem function are correlated with productivity. Stability is much more difficult to define, but can be generally thought of in two ways. General stability of a population is a measure that assumes stability is higher if there is less of a chance of extinction. This kind of stability is generally measured by measuring the variability of aggregate community properties, like total biomass, over time. The other definition of stability is a measure of resilience and resistance, where an ecosystem that returns quickly to an equilibrium after a perturbation or resists invasion is thought of as more stable than one that does not. ==Productivity and stability as indicators of ecosystem health== The importance of stability in community ecology is clear. An unstable ecosystem will be more likely to lose species. Thus, if there is indeed a link between diversity and stability, it is likely that losses of diversity could feedback on themselves, causing even more losses of species. Productivity, on the other hand, has a less clear importance in community ecology. In managed areas like cropland, and in areas where animals are grown or caught, increasing productivity increases the economic success of the area and implies that the area has become more efficient, leading to possible long term resource sustainability. It is more difficult to find the importance of productivity in natural ecosystems. Beyond the value biodiversity has in regulating and stabilizing ecosystem processes, there are direct economic consequences of losing diversity in certain ecosystems and in the world as a whole. Losing species means losing potential foods, medicines, industrial products, and tourism, all of which have a direct economic effect on peoples lives. ==Effects on community productivity== * Complementarity Plant species coexistence is thought to be the result of niche partitioning, or differences in resource requirements among species. By complementarity, a more diverse plant community should be able to use resources more completely, and thus be more productive. Also called niche differentiation, this mechanism is a central principle in the functional group approach, which breaks species diversity down into functional components. * Facilitation Facilitation is a mechanism whereby certain species help or allow other species to grow by modifying the environment in a way that is favorable to a co-occurring species.Vandermeer, J. H. 1989. The ecology of intercropping. Cambridge Univ. Press., Cambridge, England. Plants can interact through an intermediary like nitrogen, water, temperature, space, or interactions with weeds or herbivores among others. Some examples of facilitation include large desert perennials acting as nurse plants, aiding the establishment of young neighbors of other species by alleviating water and temperature stress,Turner, R.M., Alcorn, S.M., Olin, G. and Booth, J.A. 1966. The influence of shade, soil, and water on saguaro seedling establishment.Bot. Gaz. 127: 95-102. and nutrient enrichment by nitrogen-fixers such as legumes. * The Sampling Effect The sampling effect of diversity can be thought of as having a greater chance of including a species of greatest inherent productivity in a plot that is more diverse. This provides for a composition effect on productivity, rather than diversity being a direct cause. However, the sampling effect may in fact be a compilation of different effects. The sampling effect can be separated into the greater likelihood of selecting a species that is 1) adapted well to particular site conditions, or 2) of a greater inherent productivity. Additionally, one can add to the sampling effect a greater likelihood of including 3) a pair of species that highly complement each other, or 4) a certain species with a large facilitative effect on other members of the community. ===Review of data=== Field experiments to test the degree to which diversity affects community productivity have had variable results, but many long-term studies in grassland ecosystems have found that diversity does indeed enhance the productivity of ecosystems. Additionally, evidence of this relationship has also been found in grassland microcosms. The differing results between studies may partially be attributable to their reliance on samples with equal species diversities rather than species diversities that mirror those observed in the environment. A 2006 experiment utilizing a realistic variation in species composition for its grassland samples found a positive correlation between increased diversity and increased production. However, these studies have come to different conclusions as to whether the cause was due more to diversity or to species composition. Specifically, a diversity in the functional roles of the species may be a more important quality for predicting productivity than the diversity in species number. Recent mathematical models have highlighted the importance of ecological context in unraveling this problem. Some models have indicated the importance of disturbance rates and spatial heterogeneity of the environment, others have indicated that the time since disturbance and the habitat's carrying capacity can cause differing relationships. Each ecological context should yield not only a different relationship, but a different contribution to the relationship due to diversity and to composition. The current consensus holds at least that certain combinations of species provide increased community productivity. ===Future research=== In order to correctly identify the consequences of diversity on productivity and other ecosystem processes, many things must happen. First, it is imperative that scientists stop looking for a single relationship. It is obvious now from the models, the data, and the theory that there is no one overarching effect of diversity on productivity. Scientists must try to quantify the differences between composition effect and diversity effects, as many experiments never quantify the final realized species diversity (instead only counting numbers of species of seeds planted) and confound a sampling effect for facilitators (a compositional factor) with diversity effects. Relative amounts of overyielding (or how much more a species grows when grown with other species than it does in monoculture) should be used rather than absolute amounts as relative overyielding can give clues as to the mechanism by which diversity is influencing productivity, however if experimental protocols are incomplete, one may be able to indicate the existence of a complementary or facilitative effect in the experiment, but not be able to recognize its cause. Experimenters should know what the goal of their experiment is, that is, whether it is meant to inform natural or managed ecosystems, as the sampling effect may only be a real effect of diversity in natural ecosystems (managed ecosystems are composed to maximize complementarity and facilitation regardless of species number). By knowing this, they should be able to choose spatial and temporal scales that are appropriate for their experiment. Lastly, to resolve the diversity-function debate, it is advisable that experiments be done with large amounts of spatial and resource heterogeneity and environmental fluctuation over time, as these types of experiments should be able to demonstrate the diversity-function relationship more easily. ==Effects on community stability== * Averaging Effect If all species have differential responses to changes in the ecosystem over time, then the averaging of these responses will cause a more temporally stable ecosystem if more species are in the ecosystem. This effect is a statistical effect due to summing random variables. * Negative Covariance Effect If some species do better when other species are not doing well, then when there are more species in the ecosystem, their overall variance will be lower than if there were fewer species in the system. This lower variance indicates higher stability. This effect is a consequence of competition as highly competitive species will negatively covary. * Insurance Effect If an ecosystem contains more species then it will have a greater likelihood of having redundant stabilizing species, and it will have a greater number of species that respond to perturbations in different ways. This will enhance an ecosystem's ability to buffer perturbations. * Resistance to Invasion Diverse communities may use resources more completely than simple communities because of a diversity effect for complementarity. Thus invaders may have reduced success in diverse ecosystems, or there may be a reduced likelihood that an invading species will introduce a new property or process to a diverse ecosystem. * Resistance to Disease A decreased number of competing plant species may allow the abundances of other species to increase, facilitating the spread of diseases of those species. ===Review of temporal stability data=== Models have predicted that empirical relationships between temporal variation of community productivity and species diversity are indeed real, and that they almost have to be. Some temporal stability data can be almost completely explained by the averaging effect by constructing null models to test the data against. Competition, which causes negative covariances, only serves to strengthen these relationships. ===Review of resistance and resilience stability data=== This area is more contentious than the area of temporal stability, mostly because some have tried generalizing the findings of the temporal stability models and theory to stability in general. While the relationship between temporal variations in productivity and diversity has a mathematical cause, which will allow the relationship to be seen much more often than not, it is not the case with resistance/resilience stability. Some experimenters have seen a correlation between diversity and reduced invasibility, though many have also seen the opposite. The correlation between diversity and disease is also tenuous, though theory and data do seem to support it. ===Future research=== In order to more fully understand the effects of diversity on the temporal stability of ecosystems it is necessary to recognize that they are bound to occur. By constructing null models to test the data against (as in Doak et al. 1998) it becomes possible to find situations and ecological contexts where ecosystems become more or less stable than they should be. Finding these contexts would allow for mechanistic studies into why these ecosystems are more stable, which may allow for applications in conservation management. More importantly more complete experiments into whether diverse ecosystems actually resist invasion and disease better than their less diverse equivalents as invasion and disease are two important factors that lead to species extinctions in the present day. In order to address these problems specifically, future work should focus on practical methods to increase the successful establishment of the poor performing but desirable species. ==Theory and preliminary effects from examining food webs== One major problem with both the diversity-productivity and diversity-stability debates discussed up to this point is that both focus on interactions at just a single trophic level. That is, they are concerned with only one level of the food web, namely plants. Other research, unconcerned with the effects of diversity, has demonstrated strong top-down forcing of ecosystems (see keystone species). There is very little actual data available regarding the effects of different food webs, but theory helps us in this area. First, if a food web in an ecosystem has a lot of weak interactions between different species, then it should have more stable populations and the community as a whole should be more stable. If upper levels of the web are more diverse, then there will be less biomass in the lower levels and if lower levels are more diverse they will better be able to resist consumption and be more stable in the face of consumption. Also, top-down forcing should be reduced in less diverse ecosystems because of the bias for species in higher trophic levels to go extinct first. Lastly, it has recently been shown that consumers can dramatically change the biodiversity-productivity-stability relationships that are implied by plants alone. Thus, it will be important in the future to incorporate food web theory into the future study of the effects of biodiversity. In addition this complexity will need to be addressed when designing biodiversity management plans. ==See also== *Biodiversity *Ecosystem services *Diversity-function debate *Association (ecology) ==References== Category:Biodiversity Category:Community ecology Category:Disease ecology Category:Ecological restoration Category:Habitat
|
James R. Moriarty (born September 10, 1946) is an American lawyer noted for mass torts against major corporations, including Tenet Healthcare Corporation, Shell Chemicals, DuPont, and Prudential Securities. His legal cases have been described in the books Serpent on the Rock by Kurt Eichenwald, Money-Driven Medicine: The Real Reason Health Care Costs So Much by Maggie Mahar, and Coronary by Stephen Klaidman. Moriarty is a former Marine and Gold Star father. ==Early life== Moriarty was born on September 10, 1946, in Schenectady, New York, shortly after his twin brother Robert James Moriarty, who was born the previous day. He dropped out of high school in January 1965 to enlist in the United States Marine Corps. ==Military experience== === Vietnam combat Marine === Moriarty completed Marine Corps Recruit Depot (MCRD) San Diego with Platoon 212 in May 1965, received meritorious promotion to private first class. He then attended multiple "A" schools at Naval Air Technical Training Command Memphis, receiving meritorious promotion to lance corporal. He was offered his choice of assignment and served three tours in the Vietnam War. He was awarded two single-mission Air Medals for heroic achievement while serving as a door gunner in a Marine Observation Squadron 2 helicopter gunship squadron located at Marble Mountain in South Vietnam. He was released from active duty as a sergeant in January 1969. === Advocate for veterans === ==== Operation Tailwind ==== On June 7, 1998, CNN broadcast a story titled “Valley of Death” that purported to offer new, alarming information about a Vietnam War mission called Operation Tailwind. According to the story, U.S. Special Forces advanced into Laos to kill American defectors, dropping sarin nerve gas and killing women and children. A print version of the story appeared in Time magazine, CNN's news partner in the program, called NewsStand. The story was proven to be false, and on July 2, 1998, the network retracted it in full, issuing a 54-page retraction. An investigation into how the report was allowed to be broadcast concluded that reporters relied too much on information that supported their thesis, failing to properly weigh contrary information. > The CNN broadcast was not fair. Information that was inconsistent with the > underlying conclusions reached by CNN was ignored or minimized. ... > Statements of sources that were vague, ambiguous or qualified were relied > upon as if they were clear, focused and unambiguous. Moriarty represented three of the veterans who had been defamed, underwriting a documentary to tell the story of Tailwind from their point of view and shine a light on the irresponsible actions of the CNN journalists. One veteran recounted turning on the TV with interest after CNN promoted a new program called NewsStand, then realizing the story was about him and his fellow soldiers. “The more I watched it, the worse it got. There was nothing in that entire broadcast that was true,” Army veteran Keith Plancich said. As the veterans explain, they were sent into Laos to cause a diversion and draw the North Vietnamese away from a group of CIA mercenaries. The team “escaped with the largest cache of enemy intelligence documents ever recovered in the war, and only three of their 156 soldiers killed,” according to a summary of the documentary. ==== Medal of Honor recipient Gary M. Rose ==== left|thumb|Retired Army Capt. Gary M. Rose, speaking at the Pentagon, received the Medal of Honor in 2017 for his heroic actions during Operation Tailwind. Moriarty advocated for retired Army Capt. Gary M. Rose to receive the Medal of Honor decades after his name had originally been submitted. Capt. Rose was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1971 for saving lives over four days despite being wounded himself during a Vietnam War mission called Operation Tailwind. As recounted in the New York Times: > By the fourth day, when helicopters came to extract the team, enemy troops > were so close that American planes dropped tear gas on their own men to > drive the enemy back. Sergeant Rose was one of the last on the last > helicopter, firing as he hobbled aboard. When they lifted clear of the > trees, he slumped to the floor of the helicopter, his marathon mission > complete. Then a bullet pierced the neck of a door gunner, and the medic was > up again. Out of bandages, he stopped the bleeding with a spare piece of > cloth. As he worked, enemy fire hit the engines. The crippled aircraft > crashed on a riverbank, spitting out men as it rolled. Sergeant Rose, > bleeding from his head, crawled into the wreckage. Moriarty for years advocated for Capt. Rose's Medal of Honor packet to be reconsidered. Special legislation was required due to the amount of time that had passed since Rose's service. Rose received the nation's highest combat award in 2017. ==== U.S. Army Col. Paris D. Davis ==== Moriarty's team in 2020 successfully convinced the U.S. government to expedite its review of the nomination of U.S. Army Col. Paris D. Davis for the Medal of Honor ― a nomination that had languished since 1969. Col. Davis was one of the first African-Americans to serve as an officer in the Special Forces. Davis retired from the Special Forces in 1985. "Everybody I've talked to that served under him says that he's the best officer they've ever served under," Neil Thorne, a volunteer advocate on the team with Moriarty, told CBS News in April 2021. Then-Capt. Davis distinguished himself 17–18 June 1965 in action against the Viet Cong around Bong Son, Binh Dinh Province, Republic of Vietnam. Davis was left “the last American standing with a ragtag company of 90 South Vietnamese volunteers,” according to a New York Times report on the renewed interest in Davis’ nomination: > Certain that he was as good as dead, [Davis] began fighting without fear of > consequence, pulling his M-16 trigger with his pinkie, sprinting repeatedly > into open ground to rescue teammates, and refusing to leave the fight, ever > after being shot several times. Davis’ team “clobbered the Viet Cong,” according to Maj. Billy Cole, who submitted the original nomination packet in July 1965. As of mid-2021, the nomination packet for Col. Davis was under review by the Army, though the final call rests with the Office of the Secretary of Defense and with President Biden. === Volunteer service === Moriarty served on the board of directors of the United States Marine Corps Combat Helicopter Association from 1998 to 2008 and published that organization's quarterly magazine, Popasmoke. (This is a reference to the phrase "pop a smoke," used by Marines who served in the Vietnam War. Helicopter crews asked ground crews to pop a smoke grenade so they could locate them and find a landing zone.) Moriarty received the association's Arnold W. Barden Award for advancing the reputation of the association for his air show work as well as his contribution as publisher of Popasmoke. He served on the board of directors of the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation, the group that founded the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Virginia. He was the president of the Skyhawk Association from 1998 to 2000. ==Education== He earned Bachelor of Business Administration and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Houston. He was admitted to the State Bar of Texas in 1976 and the Colorado Bar Association in 2006. ==Career== Moriarty founded Moriarty & Associates in 1986. Moriarty and partners have obtained billions of dollars in awards for clients over a career spanning four decades. Moriarty is an expert in mass torts, a type of case in which many similar cases are grouped together but each case is weighed on its own merits. (This is not to be confused with class actions, which also involve many claimants but typically result in smaller awards for the plaintiffs.) Moriarty's work has targeted makers of faulty medical devices, peddlers of shoddy investments, and medical providers that exploit Medicaid patients. Moriarty served as special assistant to the former mayor of Houston, Bill White, throughout White's term in office. Among other duties, Moriarty assisted the city's attorneys on a pro bono basis, on one occasion helping the city enforce billboard laws designed to avoid "visual blight" in the city of Houston. White and Moriarty met while raising money for Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign. == Son's death == Moriarty's son, U.S. Army Staff Sgt. James F. Moriarty, was killed on November 4, 2016, while on a CIA training mission in Jordan for the 5th Special Forces Group at Fort Campbell, Ky. Moriarty and three other Green Berets were entering the King Faisal Air Base when they came under fire from a Jordanian soldier at the gate to the base. Killed in the ambush were Moriarty, 27; Sgt. 1st Class Matthew C. Lewellen, 27, of Kirksville, Mo., and Staff Sgt. Kevin J. McEnroe, 30, of Tucson, Ariz. Initially, the Jordanian government blamed the Green Berets for the incident, saying that an American soldier driving one of the vehicles ignored demands to stop, prompting "an exchange of gunfire." The Jordanian government called the shooting a "chain of unfortunate events." Further details on the incident were scant. Moriarty publicly criticized that explanation and said government officials had failed to tell the truth to the grieving families and the U.S. government. Moriarty told CBS News: "The Jordanian government lied to our government… They know what happened, they know who this guy is. … They owe us an explanation. Who was it that murdered my son and why?" By late November, an investigation and surveillance video showed that the Americans "were shot without provocation" and had not violated security procedures at the gate, as Jordanian officials had suggested. Investigators said they were unsure what had prompted the guard to attack the Americans, having found no links to jihad or terrorist groups. Over several months, Moriarty's family pressed through the media and through political avenues for the Jordanian guard to be held to account. James R. Moriarty and the families of the other slain Green Berets held briefings with national media and members of Congress aimed at putting pressure on Jordan. Moriarty's sister launched a blog to demand more information and honor her brother's memory. "We will not accept the lies that are coming out to protect diplomatic relations," she wrote in the inaugural post, dated three days after her brother's death. By April 2017, the Jordanian government reversed its position, admitting that the shooter, Ma'arik al- Tawayha (last name variants Abu Tayeh, al-Tawaiha), did not follow protocol. Jordan agreed to put al-Tawayha on trial in a military court. Prosecutors accused al-Tawayha "of voluntary manslaughter, violating military orders, and insulting the dignity and reputation of the armed forces." On July 17, 2017, al-Tawayha was convicted and sentenced to life in prison. The soldier who survived the attack went public with his story after the trial, describing the ambush to the New York Times in a piece published July 25, 2017, that stands as the most detailed account of the incident. "We kept yelling in English and Arabic, saying we were friends. And he kept shooting," the soldier told the New York Times. "Eventually, we realized it wasn't an accident." The families of the slain Green Berets in November 2018 sued the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for spreading lies about their sons, suggesting that the Americans failed to follow protocol at the gate or had been drinking alcohol, thereby prompting the shooting. U.S. investigations and video of the shooting disproved these claims. In announcing the legal action, the families voiced a need to understand any motive for the killings. “There’s no amount of money that can take the place of my son, Jimmy,” Moriarty said at a press conference announcing the families’ lawsuit. “But, we want to know if there is anything else out there, any clues as to why that Jordanian soldier targeted our sons that day.” Staff Sgt. Moriarty's family in January 2021 accepted a posthumous Silver Star Medal for his valor in combat. The Silver Star, authorized by the President, was presented to Moriarty's family by U.S. Army Maj. Gen. Miguel A. Correa at a ceremony in Houston. Moriarty, McEnroe, and Lewellen are also memorialized on the Central Intelligence Agency's Memorial Wall in Langley, Va., according to a Wikipedia entry about the Wall. == Legal cases == ===Polybutylene (faulty plumbing)=== Moriarty was instrumental in one of the largest mass action consumer fraud cases in history, with a recovery of approximately $1.1 billion from Shell Chemicals, Hoechst Celanese and DuPont. A 1997 press release from Trial Lawyers for Public Justice described the historic significance of the settlement: In mid-1987, Moriarty filed the first polybutylene lawsuit against General Homes Corporation, U.S. Brass, Shell, Hoechst Celanese and DuPont on behalf of approximately 100 homeowners in a subdivision in La Porte, Texas, alleging that the plumbing system in the subdivision had failed, causing property damage and mental anguish. The homeowners sought damages for negligence, fraud, and violations of the Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act (DTPA). The complaint was that polybutylene pipes and fittings deteriorate over time due to the presence of chlorine compounds in water, resulting in leaks that can lead to property damage and creating the potential for contamination from pesticides and other toxic materials. According to Moriarty: Between 1987 and 1994, Moriarty and his partners litigated approximately 800 individual polybutylene cases, negotiating deals with Shell, Hoechst Celanese, DuPont and a variety of builders. Among the plaintiffs was a Houston-area couple whose leaky plumbing prompted them to replace carpets with cement and shut off their water before leaving home. "We feel like we were sold a bill of goods that wasn't any good," the plaintiff told the local newspaper. In 1993, Moriarty was approached by Michael Caddell, an attorney who had filed a class action suit against Shell (Beeman v Shell Oil), and asked to join the suit. Two years later, attorneys in Cox v. Shell Oil joined with Moriarty and Caddell, and both cases were settled. The team settled with Shell and Hoechst Celanese for a minimum of $950 million, with DuPont settling separately for a minimum of $120 million. Plaintiffs in the case received free re-plumb of their homes, replacing the polybutylene pipes with safer ones made from copper, CPVC or plastic, and were compensated from the settlement, which ultimately totaled approximately $1.1 billion. The case was unique in that Moriarty and his fellow attorneys focused more on bringing relief to clients, rather than focusing on their part of the settlement. According to Moriarty: ===Prudential Bache investment fraud=== Moriarty was involved in the largest mass action filed against Prudential Securities along with Daryl Bristow and Stephen Hackerman, among others. The investigation found that PSI had defrauded investors of close to $8 billion, the largest fraud found by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in United States history to that point. Kurt Eichenwald discussed the case at length in his book on the limited partnership scandal at Prudential, Serpent on the Rock. Bristow brought in Moriarty because of his previous experience managing large numbers of clients in other mass action lawsuits. Hackerman later worked with Moriarty on the NME case in 1994. Moriarty created a computer program that allowed the lawyers to write individualized letters to the 5,800 clients they were managing. He is also credited for suggesting each plaintiff file an individual complaint to state regulators, the SEC, and the National Association of Securities Dealers – a scheme that Eichenwald suggests alerted the SEC to the magnitude of the Prudential fraud. Prudential attempted to get the case settled for five cents on every dollar the plaintiffs had invested, a proposal Moriarty derided as ridiculous. The settlements for Bristow, Hackerman, and Moriarty's clients ultimately recouped the plaintiffs' lost investments entirely: After their case was concluded, Moriarty remained involved with the National Association of Securities Dealers working with the SEC to investigate PSI's suspected fraud. When Nancy Smith, a New Mexico securities regulator, asked him for advice on creating a questionnaire for the investors in PSI, he recommended her to a polling expert from Rice University. When Smith informed him that she could not afford the estimated cost of $5,000-$10,000 for utilizing those resources, Moriarty paid for it himself from his fees from the PSI case. ===National Medical Enterprises/Tenet Healthcare=== ==== Texas psychiatric hospitals ==== Moriarty, in conjunction with several other firms, filed a mass tort against National Medical Enterprises in late 1994 behalf of approximately 600 patients who charged that they had been abused in Texas psychiatric hospitals owned by the company in order to defraud insurance companies and the U.S. Federal Government. The case was discussed in depth in Stephen Klaidman's book Coronary. The lawsuit was settled on July 30, 1997. The New York Times reported a $100 million settlement for all plaintiffs involved in two lawsuits filed in Conroe, TX and Fort Worth, TX. Moriarty was unable to disclose the exact settlement their clients received, but The Times reported that 620 cases were filed in Conroe and settled for $85 million, and approximately 60 cases were settled in Fort Worth for $13 million; also that Moriarty represented "over 600" of the plaintiffs. National Medical Enterprises changed its name to Tenet Healthcare Corporation in March 1995. ==== Unnecessary heart surgeries ==== Again in conjunction with other firms, in 2003 Moriarty filed new lawsuits against the new Tenet Healthcare Corporation's Redding Medical Center on behalf of approximately 450 patients who claimed they had received unnecessary heart surgeries so that the company could bill insurance companies for the procedures. The company settled with 750 plaintiffs for the sum of $395 million in December 2004. In addition to its individual settlements with the plaintiffs, Tenet paid $54 million in fines for its conduct at Redding Medical Center. Tenet also paid $900 million in fines and settlements to the U.S. Federal Government for manipulating the Medicare system in connection with its hospital operations. The settlement remains one of the largest settlements under the False Claims Act. (The largest such settlement was with GlaxoSmithKline, which paid $2 billion in civil penalties in a case stemming from illegal marketing of prescription drugs.) Moriarty's personal opinions on the major players of NME/Tenet Healthcare are quoted in Money-Driven Medicine: ===Beijing and Vancouver Olympics ticket controversy=== Moriarty drew attention to the problem of illegal ticket sales in the 2008 Beijing Olympics after purchasing a reported $12,000 worth of tickets that were never delivered. About 2,500 people around the world were similarly scammed, according to British government investigators. The victims included families of Olympic athletes. Moriarty assisted ticketholders in obtaining fraud protection from their credit card companies, offering this work as a pro-bono service. Through an advocacy and PR campaign, he exposed the perpetrators of the ticketing fraud and drew international attention to the problem of scant ticket access for Olympic families. In 2010, Moriarty spoke out against the International Olympic Committee (IOC), pointing to two "serious problems." First, that the organization had "not curbed ticket reselling abuses that enrich profiteers connected to the IOC and National Olympic Committees (NOCs)." Second, they were "inconsistently policing the use of Olympic trademarks" that often were used on fraudulent ticket sites." He also said that the IOC and United States Olympic Committee (USOC) did not make adequate efforts to shut down ticket sellers illegally operating under the IOC's trade names, which made it difficult for consumers to determine the difference between legitimate and illegitimate sellers. Moriarty defended ticket reseller Gene Hammett against Joseph Bunevacz and his son David Bunevacz, whom Hammett claimed sold him 17,000 tickets to the Vancouver games that never materialized. Hammett alleged that the Bunevaczes led him to believe that the tickets were coming from several National Olympics Committees and their official ticket agents in Europe. The perpetrators of the Beijing ticketing fraud, Terence Shepherd, Alan Scott, and Allan Schaverien, were sentenced to imprisonment in July 2011. Shepherd, the ringleader of the group operating as Xclusive Leisure and Hospitality Ltd, was "convicted of money laundering, two counts of fraudulent trading and two counts of acting as a company director whilst disqualified," according to a summary of the case by the UK's Serious Fraud Office. Shepherd was ordered to pay £1.25 million in penalties and victims' compensation, dubbed a "confiscation order" in the British court system. Scott was ordered to pay £500,000. In January 2018, Shepherd's wife, Margaret Canty-Shepherd, was ordered by a court to sell the couple's £3 million home (about $4 million) to pay the confiscation order. Ticketing access for Olympic families improved. For the 2010 Vancouver Games, the U.S. Olympic Committee pledged to provide athletes with two complimentary tickets for their events, and the Canadian Olympic Committee allocated to each sports federation a block of tickets for athletes to purchase. A similar policy was in place for the 2018 Winter Games held in Pyeongchang. The U.S. Olympic Committee provided athletes with two complimentary tickets for each event in which they competed, and each athlete was guaranteed the chance to purchase two tickets for their events under a program run by the PyeongChang Organizing Committee. === Abusive dentists === ==== ImmediaDent ==== Moriarty represented a dentist whistleblower in a qui tam lawsuit against the corporate chain ImmediaDent, which operates nine dental care practices in Indiana, and a related company called Samson Dental Partners. The whistleblower suit alleged that ImmediaDent submitted fraudulent bills to the government for treating military families and families insured by Medicaid. The chain billed for deep cleanings and surgical extractions that were not medically necessary, and directed dental assistants to administer sedation and apply sealants ― services that for safety reasons only licensed dentists may perform. According to the lawsuit: > Defendants’ business model required dentists to ‘overtreat’ to generate the > revenue required to support the individual clinics’ payments to the > defendants. Moreover, the incentive structure for salary and bonuses for > dentists was based on production. The lawsuit alleged that ImmediaDent engaged in the illegal corporate practice of dentistry. Samson Dental Partners, LLC and ImmediaDent of Indiana, LLC agreed to pay $5.1 million to the federal government, the State of Indiana, and the whistleblower dentist, in a settlement announced by the Department of Justice in November 2018. The dentist whistleblower will receive $925,000 plus expenses, attorneys’ fees and costs. The case was filed in 2013. ====Small Smiles Dental Centers==== Moriarty and his partners represent approximately 550 clients in a case against Small Smiles Dental Centers, a chain of Private Equity owned dental clinics based in Nashville, Tennessee. The chain currently operates 70 centers in 22 states, as well as centers in Washington, D.C. The case alleges that these clinics target children from low-income families who rely on Medicaid for their dental care, and that Small Smiles clinics are performing "assembly line" dentistry, resulting in multiple rushed and unnecessary dental procedures performed on children in order to profit by billing Medicaid. According to a May 2012 article from Bloomberg: The question at the heart of the issue is the legality of Private Equity owned dental clinics. State governments, including Moriarty's home state of Texas, forbid professional practices such as dental offices from being owned by unlicensed professionals. In January 2010, Small Smiles gained national attention when its parent company, FORBA, settled False Claims Act allegations with the United States Department of Justice. The DOJ claimed that Small Smiles was The 2010 settlement with the Department of Justice was for $24 million, plus interest, to be paid over five years. The DOJ's assertion was that the settlement was meant to In the report, Tony West, Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Division of the Department of Justice, stated, "We have zero tolerance for those who break the law to exploit needy children. Illegal conduct like this endangers a child's well-being, distorts the judgments of health care professionals, and puts corporate profits ahead of patient safety." In January 2012, possibly as a result of the settlement with the DOJ, FORBA changed its name to Church Street Health Management, a reference to the street address of the company's corporate headquarters. In February of that year, Church Street Health Management filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. In 2014, Church Street Health Management was barred from the Medicaid program following what federal officials said were breaches of a compliance agreement aimed at ensuring appropriate standards of care. ==== ReachOut Healthcare America ==== On June 1, 2012, Moriarty brought a suit on behalf of Isaac and Joel Gagnon against Big Smiles, a school dental program operated by ReachOut Healthcare America (RHA) in Arizona. RHA is owned and controlled by Morgan Stanley Private Equity company, with four Morgan Stanley members on the RHA board. ReachOut Healthcare America and the Big Smiles program recently gained nationwide attention when the school dental service performed multiple pulpotomies and crowns on a four-year-old medically fragile child without the consent of his mother. Young Isaac Gagnon suffered shaken baby syndrome as an infant and still requires special consideration and care when receiving any sort of medical attention. For this reason, his adoptive mother, Stacey Gagnon, informed Big Smiles that they did not have permission to perform dental procedures on her son. She was surprised and alarmed, therefore, when Isaac arrived home from school having received numerous dental procedures. According to his mother, when she asked him what was wrong he could only reply, "Mommy, the dentist man got me." Moriarty joins the case as part of his overall initiative against private equity-owned dental clinics. ==== Houston dentist Bethaniel S. Jefferson ==== Moriarty represented a family whose 4-year-old suffered brain damage stemming from a botched dental procedure on Jan. 7, 2016 by Houston, Texas-area dentist Bethaniel S. Jefferson, who practiced at Diamond Dental. "Both Jefferson and her staff ignored warning sounds and visual indications which showed that for a period of about five hours (the 4-year-old's) brain suffered from a severe lack of oxygen," according to the plaintiffs' complaint in the family's lawsuit filed July 27, 2016 against Jefferson in Harris County District Court. The civil case was settled on May 18, 2017, with a Special Needs Trust established to benefit the 4-year-old, court records show. Jefferson's Texas dental license was revoked Nov. 18, 2016. Jefferson was also charged criminally, a rarity for cases such as hers. Jefferson was indicted on July 24, 2017, "accused of intentionally and knowingly by omission causing serious bodily injury to a child by failing to seek and provide adequate medical attention, a first degree felony, according to the Texas Penal Code," according to a local media report. > Ms. Jefferson chose to do everything other than provide the care the victim > needed," Stan Clark, Assistant Attorney General, Medicaid Fraud Control > Unit, and Special Prosecutor-Harris County D.A, stated. "As a result, the > victim has suffered permanent brain damage and will never lead a normal > life." The case was spotlighted nationally by NBC News in an investigation into the dangers of dental sedation of young children. Moriarty told NBC that the problem of over-sedation stems from flawed payment incentives: "It's not getting better. It's getting worse. It's another procedure to sell the patient." ==== Children's Dental Group ==== Moriarty represents clients in a case against Children's Dental Group, a California dental chain whose Anaheim location was the source of a bacterial outbreak in 2016. Children who developed infections from the outbreak of Mycobacterium abscessus underwent surgeries and months of antibiotic treatment to counter the bacteria. M. abscessus is difficult to treat because it is resistant to standard drug treatment, a phenomenon known as "multi-drug resistance." The Orange County, Calif., health agency tracked 73 confirmed or probable cases of infection. ==== Corporate and Private Equity-owned dental practices ==== Moriarty has worked to bring public attention to the issue of corporate ownership of dental practices, especially private-equity groups whose intent is to buy and sell dental practices for maximum profit. Such incentives drive overtreatment, and the poor are especially vulnerable to abuse, receiving treatment that is not medically necessary, Moriarty has said. "Unlike (professional limited liability corporations), ownership of a dental practice by a for-profit corporation introduces a fundamental conflict of interest into the business model," Moriarty wrote in a 2011 paper. With a few exceptions, states bar the corporate practice of dentistry. However, corporations have sought to get around this ban by hiring dentists to serve as owners in-name-only while the corporation retains the actual day-to-day control of the dental practice. Moriarty testified at a 2012 Texas state House committee hearing about one such dental company that used an absentee dentist to front the organization. Moriarty said the company's staff restrained young patients with a device called a "papoose board" that binds the head, torso and limbs with Velcro straps. The Texas Tribune reported on the hearing: > They won't let the parents be present because the parents would be tempted > in Texas to pistol-whip them if they knew what they were going to do," > Moriarty said. He's currently suing one company that operates six dental > clinics under various names in Texas and said the dentist who claims to > operate those clinics — but actually works and treats patients in Oklahoma — > bills Texas $12 million a year to treat Medicaid patients. The ban on the corporate ownership of dental practices stems from a legal principle, the "corporate practice of medicine doctrine," aimed at keeping laypeople who have no medical training from interfering with the professional judgments of doctors and dentists, such as what treatments and drugs to recommend and how to hire qualified, caring medical staff. This principle was developed and supported by the American Medical Association. As of 2016 Moriarty had secured settlements worth more than $42 million on behalf of 3,000 children treated at "corporate clinics specializing in Medicaid patients," he told the Houston Chronicle. === Military housing === Moriarty has joined legal and advocacy efforts to fix the nation's crumbling military housing. The issue came to public attention in 2018, when the Reuters news agency launched a series of investigations into the squalid conditions of publicly-funded housing for service members and their families. The news agency found that mold, pests, lead, and structural hazards were pervasive in much of the housing stock, and that landlords—private companies on 50-year contracts with the government—had failed to properly repair and maintain the homes. An independent survey of military families conducted in the wake of the reporting found just 16 percent of respondents had a positive view of their housing, with more than half of respondents reporting a negative view. Congress held hearings beginning in 2019 and approved spending $300 million in the 2020 defense authorization act aimed at deterring fraud by the landlords and protecting service members from retaliation for speaking out on housing problems. The legislative provisions passed by Congress (known as the tenant bill of rights) required landlords to open up maintenance work-order histories to residents and compelled the military to disclose incentive payments to the companies. The housing issues spurred a wave of lawsuits around the country, including by Moriarty and partners: # A 2020 lawsuit against Lendlease on behalf of U.S. Army families who allege they were sickened by mold-infested housing at Fort Hood # A 2019 lawsuit against Hunt Military Communities on behalf of U.S. Air Force families who allege the company under-maintained their housing at Randolph and Laughlin Air Force bases in Texas === Khobar Towers bombing === Moriarty and partners obtained an $879 million judgment in 2020 for U.S. Air Force members (and their families) who were wounded in the 1996 terrorist bombing of Khobar Towers, a housing complex for American military personnel in Saudi Arabia. Nineteen U.S. service members were killed and hundreds were wounded in the attack carried out by Hezbollah. The order for payment (which is distinct from actual collection of the award) is against the Islamic Republic of Iran, which was found to have directed and provided material support for the terrorist attack. The plaintiffs are eligible for partial payment from the United States Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism Fund, which was set up to compensate victims using money from fines and forfeitures paid by companies found to have laundered money in violation of sanctions laws. ==Personal life, associations== thumb|Moriarty, at right, competes in the 2009 Austin Muddy Buddy, a biathlon. Moriarty served on the board of directors for Annunciation Orthodox School in Houston. Moriarty lives in Houston, Texas. He is an avid athlete and frequently competes in races, including 5Ks, marathons, sprints, and half-Ironman triathlons. He completed his first marathon at age 60. His son, Jimmy, died in 2016. Moriarty has four surviving children. ==References and further reading== *Eichenwald, Kurt. Serpent on the Rock (New York: HarperCollins, 1995) *Klaidman, Stephen. Coronary (New York: Scribner, 2007) *Mahar, Maggie. Money-Driven Medicine: The Real Reason Health Care Costs So Much (New York: HarperCollins, 2006) ==External links== * Law Offices of James R. Moriarty ==Notes== Category:1946 births Category:Living people Category:Texas lawyers Category:United States Marines Category:University of Houston alumni Category:Military personnel from Schenectady, New York Category:United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War
|
In mathematics, specifically group theory, a descendant tree is a hierarchical structure that visualizes parent-descendant relations between isomorphism classes of finite groups of prime power order p^n, for a fixed prime number p and varying integer exponents n\ge 0. Such groups are briefly called finite p-groups. The vertices of a descendant tree are isomorphism classes of finite p-groups. Additionally to their order p^n, finite p-groups have two further related invariants, the nilpotency class c and the coclass r=n-c. It turned out that descendant trees of a particular kind, the so-called pruned coclass trees whose infinitely many vertices share a common coclass r, reveal a repeating finite pattern. These two crucial properties of finiteness and periodicity admit a characterization of all members of the tree by finitely many parametrized presentations. Consequently, descendant trees play a fundamental role in the classification of finite p-groups. By means of kernels and targets of Artin transfer homomorphisms, descendant trees can be endowed with additional structure. An important question is how the descendant tree \mathcal{T}(R) can actually be constructed for an assigned starting group which is taken as the root R of the tree. The p-group generation algorithm is a recursive process for constructing the descendant tree of a given finite p-group playing the role of the tree root. This algorithm is implemented in the computational algebra systems GAP and Magma. ==Definitions and terminology== According to M. F. Newman, there exist several distinct definitions of the parent \pi(G) of a finite p-group G. The common principle is to form the quotient \pi(G)=G/N of G by a suitable normal subgroup N\triangleleft G which can be either :# the centre N=\zeta_1(G) of G, whence \pi(G)=G/\zeta_1(G) is called the central quotient of G, or :# the last non- trivial term N=\gamma_c(G) of the lower central series of G, where c denotes the nilpotency class of G, or :# the last non-trivial term N=P_{c-1}(G) of the lower exponent-p central series of G, where c denotes the exponent-p class of G, or :# the last non-trivial term N=G^{(d-1)} of the derived series of G, where d denotes the derived length of G. In each case, G is called an immediate descendant of \pi(G) and a directed edge of the tree is defined either by G\to\pi(G) in the direction of the canonical projection \pi:G\to\pi(G) onto the quotient \pi(G)=G/N or by \pi(G)\to G in the opposite direction, which is more usual for descendant trees. The former convention is adopted by C. R. Leedham-Green and M. F. Newman, by M. du Sautoy and D. Segal, by C. R. Leedham-Green and S. McKay, and by B. Eick, C. R. Leedham-Green, M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien. The latter definition is used by M. F. Newman, by M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien, by M. du Sautoy, and by B. Eick and C. R. Leedham-Green. In the following, the direction of the canonical projections is selected for all edges. Then, more generally, a vertex R is a descendant of a vertex P, and P is an ancestor of R, if either R is equal to P or there is a path :(1)\qquad R=Q_0\to Q_1\to\cdots\to Q_{m-1}\to Q_m=P, with m\ge 1, of directed edges from R to P. The vertices forming the path necessarily coincide with the iterated parents Q_j=\pi^{j}(R) of R, with 0\le j\le m: :(2)\qquad R=\pi^{0}(R)\to\pi^{1}(R)\to\cdots\to\pi^{m-1}(R)\to\pi^{m}(R)=P, with m\ge 1, In the most important special case (P2) of parents defined as last non-trivial lower central quotients, they can also be viewed as the successive quotients R/\gamma_{c+1-j}(R) of class c-j of R when the nilpotency class of R is given by c\ge m: :(3)\qquad R\simeq R/\gamma_{c+1}(R)\to R/\gamma_{c}(R)\to\cdots\to R/\gamma_{c+2-m}(R)\to R/\gamma_{c+1-m}(R)\simeq P, with c\ge m\ge 1. Generally, the descendant tree \mathcal{T}(G) of a vertex G is the subtree of all descendants of G, starting at the root G. The maximal possible descendant tree \mathcal{T}(1) of the trivial group 1 contains all finite p-groups and is somewhat exceptional, since, for any parent definition (P1–P4), the trivial group 1 has infinitely many abelian p-groups as its immediate descendants. The parent definitions (P2–P3) have the advantage that any non-trivial finite p-group (of order divisible by p) possesses only finitely many immediate descendants. ==Pro-p groups and coclass trees== For a sound understanding of coclass trees as a particular instance of descendant trees, it is necessary to summarize some facts concerning infinite topological pro-p groups. The members \gamma_j(S), with j\ge 1, of the lower central series of a pro-p group S are closed (and open) subgroups of finite index, and therefore the corresponding quotients S/\gamma_j(S) are finite p-groups. The pro-p group S is said to be of coclass \mathrm{cc}(S)=r when the limit r=\lim_{j\to\infty}\,\mathrm{cc}(S/\gamma_j(S)) of the coclass of the successive quotients exists and is finite. An infinite pro-p group S of coclass r is a p-adic pre-space group , since it has a normal subgroup T, the translation group, which is a free module over the ring \mathbb{Z}_p of p-adic integers of uniquely determined rank d, the dimension, such that the quotient P=S/T is a finite p-group, the point group, which acts on T uniserially. The dimension is given by (4)\qquad d=(p-1)p^{s}, with some 0\le s. A central finiteness result for infinite pro-p groups of coclass r is provided by the so-called Theorem D, which is one of the five Coclass Theorems proved in 1994 independently by A. Shalev and by C. R. Leedham-Green , and conjectured in 1980 already by C. R. Leedham-Green and M. F. Newman. Theorem D asserts that there are only finitely many isomorphism classes of infinite pro-p groups of coclass r, for any fixed prime p and any fixed non-negative integer r. As a consequence, if S is an infinite pro-p group of coclass r, then there exists a minimal integer i\ge 1 such that the following three conditions are satisfied for any integer j\ge i. :#\mathrm{cc}(S/\gamma_j(S))=r, :#S/\gamma_j(S) is not a lower central quotient of any infinite pro-p group of coclass r which is not isomorphic to S, :#\gamma_j/\gamma_{j+1}(S) is cyclic of order p. The descendant tree \mathcal{T}(R), with respect to the parent definition (P2), of the root R=S/\gamma_i(S) with minimal i is called the coclass tree \mathcal{T}(S) of S and its unique maximal infinite (reverse-directed) path (5)\qquad R=S/\gamma_i(S)\leftarrow S/\gamma_{i+1}(S)\leftarrow S/\gamma_{i+2}(S)\leftarrow\cdots is called the mainline (or trunk) of the tree. thumb|alt=treediagram|Figure 1: A descendant tree. The branches B(2),B(4) have depth 0, and B(5),B(7), resp. B(6),B(8), are isomorphic as trees. ==Tree diagram== Further terminology, used in diagrams visualizing finite parts of descendant trees, is explained in Figure 1 by means of an artificial abstract tree. On the left hand side, a level indicates the basic top-down design of a descendant tree. For concrete trees, such as those in Figure 2, resp. Figure 3, etc., the level is usually replaced by a scale of orders increasing from the top to the bottom. A vertex is capable (or extendable) if it has at least one immediate descendant, otherwise it is terminal (or a leaf). Vertices sharing a common parent are called siblings. If the descendant tree is a coclass tree \mathcal{T}(R) with root R=R_0 and with mainline vertices (R_n)_{n\ge 0} labelled according to the level n, then the finite subtree defined as the difference set (6)\qquad \mathcal{B}(n)=\mathcal{T}(R_n)\setminus\mathcal{T}(R_{n+1}) is called the nth branch (or twig) of the tree or also the branch \mathcal{B}(R_n) with root R_n, for any n\ge 0. The depth of a branch is the maximal length of the paths connecting its vertices with its root. Figure 1 shows an artificial abstract coclass tree whose branches \mathcal{B}(2) and \mathcal{B}(4) both have depth 0, and the branches \mathcal{B}(5)\simeq\mathcal{B}(7) and \mathcal{B}(6)\simeq\mathcal{B}(8) are pairwise isomorphic as graphs. If all vertices of depth bigger than a given integer k\ge 0 are removed from the branch \mathcal{B}(n), then we obtain the depth-k pruned branch \mathcal{B}_k(n). Correspondingly, the depth-k pruned coclass tree \mathcal{T}_k(R), resp. the entire coclass tree \mathcal{T}(R), consists of the infinite sequence of its pruned branches (\mathcal{B}_k(n))_{n\ge 0}, resp. branches (\mathcal{B}(n))_{n\ge 0}, connected by the mainline, whose vertices R_n are called infinitely capable. ==Virtual periodicity== The periodicity of branches of depth-pruned coclass trees has been proved with analytic methods using zeta functions of groups by M. du Sautoy , and with algebraic techniques using cohomology groups by B. Eick and C. R. Leedham- Green . The former methods admit the qualitative insight of ultimate virtual periodicity, the latter techniques determine the quantitative structure. Theorem. For any infinite pro-p group S of coclass r\ge 1 and dimension d, and for any given depth k\ge 1, there exists an effective minimal lower bound f(k)\ge 1, where periodicity of length d of pruned branches of the coclass tree \mathcal{T}(S) sets in, that is, there exist graph isomorphisms (7)\qquad \mathcal{B}_k(n+d)\simeq\mathcal{B}_k(n) for all n\ge f(k). For the proof, click show on the right hand side. The graph isomorphisms of depth-k pruned branches with roots of sufficiently large order n\ge f(k) are derived with cohomological methods in Theorem 6, p. 277 and Theorem 9, p. 278 by Eick and Leedham-Green and the effective lower bound f(k) for the branch root orders is established in Theorem 29, p. 287, of this article. These central results can be expressed ostensively: When we look at a coclass tree through a pair of blinkers and ignore a finite number of pre-periodic branches at the top, then we shall see a repeating finite pattern (ultimate periodicity). However, if we take wider blinkers the pre-periodic initial section may become longer (virtual periodicity). The vertex P=R_{f(k)} is called the periodic root of the pruned coclass tree, for a fixed value of the depth k. See Figure 1. ==Multifurcation and coclass graphs== Assume that parents of finite p-groups are defined as last non-trivial lower central quotients (P2). For a p-group G of coclass \mathrm{cc}(G)=r, we can distinguish its (entire) descendant tree \mathcal{T}(G) and its coclass-r descendant tree \mathcal{T}^r(G), that is the subtree consisting of descendants of coclass r only. The group G is called coclass-settled if \mathcal{T}(G)=\mathcal{T}^r(G), i.e., if there are no descendants of G with bigger coclass than r. The nuclear rank u(G) of G in the theory of the p-group generation algorithm by M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien provides the following criteria. :#G is terminal, and thus trivially coclass-settled, if and only if u(G)=0. :#If u(G)=1, then G is capable, but it remains unknown whether G is coclass-settled. :#If u(G)=m\ge 2, then G is capable and definitely not coclass-settled. In the last case, a more precise assertion is possible: If G has coclass r and nuclear rank u(G)=m\ge 2, then it gives rise to an m-fold multifurcation into a regular coclass-r descendant tree \mathcal{T}^r(G) and m-1 irregular descendant graphs \mathcal{T}^{r+j}(G) of coclass r+j, for 1\le j\le m-1. Consequently, the descendant tree of G is the disjoint union (8)\qquad \mathcal{T}(G)=\dot{\cup}_{j=0}^{m-1}\,\mathcal{T}^{r+j}(G). Multifurcation is correlated with different orders of the last non-trivial lower central of immediate descendants. Since the nilpotency class increases exactly by a unit, c=\mathrm{cl}(Q)=\mathrm{cl}(P)+1, from a parent P=Q/\gamma_c(Q)=\pi(Q) to any immediate descendant Q, the coclass remains stable, r=\mathrm{cc}(Q)=\mathrm{cc}(P), if the last non-trivial lower central is cyclic of order \vert\gamma_c(Q)\vert=p, since then the exponent of the order also increases exactly by a unit, \vert Q\vert=p\cdot\vert P\vert . In this case, Q is a regular immediate descendant with directed edge P\leftarrow Q of step size 1, as usual. However, the coclass increases by m-1, if \vert\gamma_c(Q)\vert=p^m with m\ge 2. Then Q is called an irregular immediate descendant with directed edge P\leftarrow Q of step size m. If the condition of step size 1 is imposed on all directed edges, then the maximal descendant tree \mathcal{T}(1) of the trivial group 1 splits into a countably infinite disjoint union (9)\qquad \mathcal{T}(1)=\dot{\cup}_{r=0}^\infty\,\mathcal{G}(p,r) of directed coclass graphs \mathcal{G}(p,r), which are rather forests than trees. More precisely, the above-mentioned Coclass Theorems imply that (10)\qquad \mathcal{G}(p,r)=\left(\dot{\cup}_i\,\mathcal{T}(S_i)\right)\dot{\cup}\mathcal{G}_0(p,r) is the disjoint union of finitely many coclass trees \mathcal{T}(S_i) of pairwise non-isomorphic infinite pro-p groups S_i of coclass r (Theorem D) and a finite subgraph \mathcal{G}_0(p,r) of sporadic groups lying outside of any coclass tree. ==Identifiers== The SmallGroups Library identifiers of finite groups, in particular of finite p-groups, given in the form \langle\ \text{order},\ \text{counting number}\ \rangle in the following concrete examples of descendant trees, are due to H. U. Besche, B. Eick and E. A. O'Brien . When the group orders are given in a scale on the left hand side, as in Figure 2 and Figure 3, the identifiers are briefly denoted by \langle\ \text{counting number}\ \rangle. Depending on the prime p, there is an upper bound on the order of groups for which a SmallGroup identifier exists, e.g. 512=2^9 for p=2, and 6561=3^8 for p=3. For groups of bigger orders, a notation with generalized identifiers resembling the descendant structure is employed. A regular immediate descendant, connected by an edge of step size 1 with its parent P, is denoted by P-\\#1;\text{counting number}, and an irregular immediate descendant, connected by an edge of step size s\ge 2 with its parent P, is denoted by P-\\#s;\text{counting number}. The implementations of the p-group generation algorithm in the computational algebra systems GAP and Magma use these generalized identifiers, which go back to J. A. Ascione in 1979 . ==Concrete examples of trees== In all examples, the underlying parent definition (P2) corresponds to the usual lower central series. Occasional differences to the parent definition (P3) with respect to the lower exponent-p central series are pointed out. ===Coclass 0=== The coclass graph (11)\qquad \mathcal{G}(p,0)=\mathcal{G}_0(p,0) of finite p-groups of coclass 0 does not contain any coclass tree and thus exclusively consists of sporadic groups, namely the trivial group 1 and the cyclic group C_p of order p, which is a leaf (however, it is capable with respect to the lower exponent-p central series). For p=2 the SmallGroup identifier of C_p is \langle 2,1\rangle, for p=3 it is \langle 3,1\rangle. thumb|alt=2-groups|Figure 2: The coclass graph of finite 2-groups with coclass 1 ===Coclass 1=== The coclass graph (12)\qquad \mathcal{G}(p,1)=\mathcal{T}^1(R)\dot{\cup}\mathcal{G}_0(p,1) of finite p-groups of coclass 1, also called of maximal class, consists of the unique coclass tree \mathcal{T}^1(R) with root R=C_p\times C_p, the elementary abelian p-group of rank 2, and a single isolated vertex (a terminal orphan without proper parent in the same coclass graph, since the directed edge to the trivial group 1 has step size 2), the cyclic group C_{p^2} of order p^2 in the sporadic part \mathcal{G}_0(p,1) (however, this group is capable with respect to the lower exponent-p central series). The tree \mathcal{T}^1(R)=\mathcal{T}^1(S_1) is the coclass tree of the unique infinite pro-p group S_1 of coclass 1. For p=2, resp. p=3, the SmallGroup identifier of the root R is \langle 4,2\rangle, resp. \langle 9,2\rangle, and a tree diagram of the coclass graph from branch \mathcal{B}(2) down to branch \mathcal{B}(7) (counted with respect to the p-logarithm of the order of the branch root) is drawn in Figure 2, resp. Figure 3, where all groups of order at least p^3 are metabelian, that is non-abelian with derived length 2 (vertices represented by black discs in contrast to contour squares indicating abelian groups). In Figure 3, smaller black discs denote metabelian 3-groups where even the maximal subgroups are non-abelian, a feature which does not occur for the metabelian 2-groups in Figure 2, since they all possess an abelian subgroup of index p (usually exactly one). The coclass tree of \mathcal{G}(2,1), resp. \mathcal{G}(3,1), has periodic root \langle 8,3\rangle and periodicity of length 1 starting with branch \mathcal{B}(3), resp. periodic root \langle 81,9\rangle and periodicity of length 2 setting in with branch \mathcal{B}(4). Both trees have branches of bounded depth 1, so their virtual periodicity is in fact a strict periodicity. However, the coclass tree of \mathcal{G}(p,1) with p\ge 5 has unbounded depth and contains non-metabelian groups, and the coclass tree of \mathcal{G}(p,1) with p\ge 7 has even unbounded width, that is, the number of descendants of a fixed order increases indefinitely with growing order . With the aid of kernels and targets of Artin transfers, the diagrams in Figure 2 and Figure 3 can be endowed with additional information and redrawn as structured descendant trees. The concrete examples \mathcal{G}(2,1) and \mathcal{G}(3,1) of coclass graphs provide an opportunity to give a parametrized polycyclic power-commutator presentation for the complete coclass tree \mathcal{T}^1(R)\subset\mathcal{G}(p,1), p\in\lbrace 2,3\rbrace, mentioned in the lead section as a benefit of the descendant tree concept and as a consequence of the periodicity of the entire coclass tree. In both cases, a group G\in\mathcal{T}^1(R) is generated by two elements x,y but the presentation contains the series of higher commutators s_j=\lbrack s_{j-1},x\rbrack, 3\le j\le n-1=\mathrm{cl}(G), starting with the main commutator s_2=\lbrack y,x\rbrack. The nilpotency is formally expressed by the relation s_n=1, when the group is of order \vert G\vert=p^n. thumb|alt=3-groups|Figure 3: The coclass graph of finite 3-groups with coclass 1 For p=2, there are two parameters 0\le w,z\le 1 and the pc-presentation is given by \begin{align}G^n(z,w)= & \langle x,y,s_2,\ldots,s_{n-1}\mid\\\ & x^2=s_{n-1}^w,\ y^2=s_2^{-1}s_{n-1}^z,\ \lbrack s_2,y\rbrack=1,\\\ & s_2=\lbrack y,x\rbrack,\ s_j=\lbrack s_{j-1},x\rbrack\text{ for }3\le j\le n-1\rangle\end{align} The 2-groups of maximal class, that is of coclass 1, form three periodic infinite sequences, :*the dihedral groups, D(2^n)=G^n(0,0), n\ge 3, forming the mainline (with infinitely capable vertices), :*the generalized quaternion groups, Q(2^n)=G^n(0,1), n\ge 3, which are all terminal vertices, :*the semidihedral groups, S(2^n)=G^n(1,0), n\ge 4, which are also leaves. For p=3, there are three parameters 0\le a\le 1 and -1\le w,z\le 1 and the pc-presentation is given by \begin{align}G^n_a(z,w)= & \langle x,y,s_2,\ldots,s_{n-1}\mid\\\ & x^3=s_{n-1}^w,\ y^3=s_2^{-3}s_3^{-1}s_{n-1}^z,\ \lbrack y,s_2\rbrack=s_{n-1}^a,\\\ & s_2=\lbrack y,x\rbrack,\ s_j=\lbrack s_{j-1},x\rbrack\text{ for }3\le j\le n-1\rangle\end{align} 3-groups with parameter a=0 possess an abelian maximal subgroup, those with parameter a=1 do not. More precisely, an existing abelian maximal subgroup is unique, except for the two extra special groups G^3_0(0,0) and G^3_0(0,1), where all four maximal subgroups are abelian. In contrast to any bigger coclass r\ge 2, the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,1) exclusively contains p-groups G with abelianization G/G^\prime of type (p,p), except for its unique isolated vertex C_{p^2}. The case p=2 is distinguished by the truth of the reverse statement: Any 2-group with abelianization of type (2,2) is of coclass 1 (O. Taussky's Theorem ). thumb|alt=interface|Figure 4: The interface between finite 3-groups of coclass 1 and 2 of type (3,3) ===Coclass 2=== The genesis of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,r) with r\ge 2 is not uniform. p-groups with several distinct abelianizations contribute to its constitution. For coclass r=2, there are essential contributions from groups G with abelianizations G/G^\prime of the types (p,p), (p^2,p), (p,p,p), and an isolated contribution by the cyclic group C_{p^3} of order p^3: (15)\qquad \mathcal{G}(p,2)=\mathcal{G}_{(p,p)}(p,2)\dot{\cup}\mathcal{G}_{(p^2,p)}(p,2)\dot{\cup}\mathcal{G}_{(p,p,p)}(p,2)\dot{\cup}\mathcal{G}_{(p^3)}(p,2). ====Abelianization of type (p,p)==== As opposed to p-groups of coclass 2 with abelianization of type (p^2,p) or (p,p,p), which arise as regular descendants of abelian p-groups of the same types, p-groups of coclass 2 with abelianization of type (p,p) arise from irregular descendants of a non-abelian p-group of coclass 1 which is not coclass-settled. For the prime p=2, such groups do not exist at all, since the 2-group \langle 8,3\rangle is coclass settled, which is the deeper reason for Taussky's Theorem. This remarkable fact has been observed by Giuseppe Bagnera in 1898 already. For odd primes p\ge 3, the existence of p-groups of coclass 2 with abelianization of type (p,p) is due to the fact that the group G^3_0(0,0) is not coclass-settled. Its nuclear rank equals 2, which gives rise to a bifurcation of the descendant tree \mathcal{T}(G^3_0(0,0)) into two coclass graphs. The regular component \mathcal{T}^1(G^3_0(0,0)) is a subtree of the unique tree \mathcal{T}^1(C_p\times C_p) in the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,1). The irregular component \mathcal{T}^2(G^3_0(0,0)) becomes a subgraph \mathcal{G}=\mathcal{G}_{(p,p)}(p,2) of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,2) when the connecting edges of step size 2 of the irregular immediate descendants of G^3_0(0,0) are removed. For p=3, this subgraph \mathcal{G} is drawn in Figure 4, which shows the interface between finite 3-groups with coclass 1 and 2 of type (3,3). \mathcal{G} has seven top level vertices of three important kinds, all having order 243=3^5, which have been discovered by G. Bagnera . :*Firstly, there are two terminal Schur σ-groups \langle 243,5\rangle and \langle 243,7\rangle in the sporadic part \mathcal{G}_0(3,2) of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(3,2). :*Secondly, the two groups G=\langle 243,4\rangle and G=\langle 243,9\rangle are roots of finite trees \mathcal{T}^2(G) in the sporadic part \mathcal{G}_0(3,2). However, since they are not coclass-settled, the complete trees \mathcal{T}(G) are infinite . :*Finally, the three groups \langle 243,3\rangle, \langle 243,6\rangle and \langle 243,8\rangle give rise to (infinite) coclass trees, e.g., \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 729,40\rangle), \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 243,6\rangle), \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 243,8\rangle), each having a metabelian mainline, in the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(3,2). None of these three groups is coclass-settled. Displaying additional information on kernels and targets of Artin transfers, we can draw these trees as structured descendant trees. Definition. Generally, a Schur group (called a closed group by I. Schur, who coined the concept) is a pro-p group G whose relation rank d_2(G)=\mathrm{dim}_{\mathbb{F}_p}(\mathrm{H}^2(G,\mathbb{F}_p)) coincides with its generator rank d_1(G)=\mathrm{dim}_{\mathbb{F}_p}(\mathrm{H}^1(G,\mathbb{F}_p)). A σ-group is a pro-p group G which possesses an automorphism \sigma\in\mathrm{Aut}(G) inducing the inversion x\mapsto x^{-1} on its abelianization G/G^\prime. A Schur σ-group is a Schur group G which is also a σ-group and has a finite abelianization G/G^\prime. \langle 243,3\rangle is not root of a coclass tree, since its immediate descendant \langle 729,40\rangle, which is root of a coclass tree with metabelian mainline vertices, has two siblings \langle 729,35\rangle, resp. \langle 729,34\rangle, which give rise to a single, resp. three, coclass tree(s) with non-metabelian mainline vertices having cyclic centres of order 3 and branches of considerable complexity but nevertheless of bounded depth 5. Table 1: Quotients of the groups G=G(f,g,h) Parameters (f,g,h) Abelianization G/G^\prime Class-2 quotient G/\gamma_3(G) Class-3 quotient G/\gamma_4(G) Class-4 quotient G/\gamma_5(G) (0,1,0) (3,3) \langle 27,3\rangle \langle 243,3\rangle \langle 729,40\rangle (0,1,2) (3,3) \langle 27,3\rangle \langle 243,6\rangle \langle 729,49\rangle (1,1,2) (3,3) \langle 27,3\rangle \langle 243,8\rangle \langle 729,54\rangle (1,0,0) (9,3) \langle 81,3\rangle \langle 243,15\rangle \langle 729,79\rangle (0,0,1) (9,3) \langle 81,3\rangle \langle 243,17\rangle \langle 729,84\rangle (0,0,0) (3,3,3) \langle 81,12\rangle \langle 243,53\rangle \langle 729,395\rangle ====Pro-3 groups of coclass 2 with non-trivial centre==== B. Eick, C. R. Leedham-Green, M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien have constructed a family of infinite pro-3 groups with coclass 2 having a non- trivial centre of order 3. The family members are characterized by three parameters (f,g,h). Their finite quotients generate all mainline vertices with bicyclic centres of type (3,3) of six coclass trees in the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(3,2). The association of parameters to the roots of these six trees is given in Table 1, the tree diagrams, except for the abelianization (3,3,3), are indicated in Figure 4 and Figure 5, and the parametrized pro-3 presentation is given by \begin{align}G(f,g,h)= & \langle a,t,z\mid\\\ & a^3=z^f,\ \lbrack t,t^a\rbrack=z^g,\ t^{1+a+a^2}=z^h,\\\ & z^3=1,\ \lbrack z,a\rbrack=1,\ \lbrack z,t\rbrack=1\rangle\end{align} thumb|alt=interface|Figure 5: Finite 3-groups of coclass 2 of type (9,3) ====Abelianization of type (p²,p)==== For p=3, the top levels of the subtree \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 27,2\rangle) of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(3,2) are drawn in Figure 5. The most important vertices of this tree are the eight siblings sharing the common parent \langle 81,3\rangle, which are of three important kinds. :*Firstly, there are three leaves \langle 243,20\rangle, \langle 243,19\rangle, \langle 243,16\rangle having cyclic centre of order 9, and a single leaf \langle 243,18\rangle with bicyclic centre of type (3,3). :*Secondly, the group G=\langle 243,14\rangle is root of a finite tree \mathcal{T}(G)=\mathcal{T}^2(G). :*Finally, the three groups \langle 243,13\rangle, \langle 243,15\rangle and \langle 243,17\rangle give rise to infinite coclass trees, e.g., \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 2187,319\rangle), \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 243,15\rangle), \mathcal{T}^2(\langle 243,17\rangle), each having a metabelian mainline, the first with cyclic centres of order 3, the second and third with bicyclic centres of type (3,3). Here, \langle 243,13\rangle is not root of a coclass tree, since aside from its descendant \langle 2187,319\rangle, which is root of a coclass tree with metabelian mainline vertices, it possesses five further descendants which give rise to coclass trees with non-metabelian mainline vertices having cyclic centres of order 3 and branches of extreme complexity, here partially even with unbounded depth. thumb|alt=interface|Figure 6: Finite 2-groups of coclass 2,3,4 and type (2,2,2) ====Abelianization of type (p,p,p)==== For p=2, resp. p=3, there exists a unique coclass tree with p-groups of type (p,p,p) in the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,2). Its root is the elementary abelian p-group of type (p,p,p), that is, \langle 8,5\rangle, resp. \langle 27,5\rangle. This unique tree corresponds to the pro-2 group of the family \\#59 by M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien, resp. to the pro-3 group given by the parameters (f,g,h)=(0,0,0) in Table 1. For p=2, the tree is indicated in Figure 6, which shows some finite 2-groups with coclass 2,3,4 of type (2,2,2). ===Coclass 3=== Here again, p-groups with several distinct abelianizations contribute to the constitution of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,3). There are regular, resp. irregular, essential contributions from groups G with abelianizations G/G^\prime of the types (p^3,p), (p^2,p^2), (p^2,p,p), (p,p,p,p), resp. (p,p), (p^2,p), (p,p,p), and an isolated contribution by the cyclic group C_{p^4} of order p^4. ====Abelianization of type (p,p,p)==== Since the elementary abelian p-group C_p\times C_p\times C_p of rank 3, that is, \langle 8,5\rangle, resp. \langle 27,5\rangle, for p=2, resp. p=3, is not coclass-settled, it gives rise to a multifurcation. The regular component \mathcal{T}^2(C_p\times C_p\times C_p) has been described in the section about coclass 2. The irregular component \mathcal{T}^3(C_p\times C_p\times C_p) becomes a subgraph \mathcal{G}=\mathcal{G}_{(p,p,p)}(p,3) of the coclass graph \mathcal{G}(p,3) when the connecting edges of step size 2 of the irregular immediate descendants of C_p\times C_p\times C_p are removed. For p=2, this subgraph \mathcal{G} is contained in Figure 6. It has nine top level vertices of order 32=2^5 which can be divided into terminal and capable vertices. :* The two groups \langle 32,32\rangle and \langle 32,33\rangle are leaves. :* The five groups \langle 32,27..31\rangle and the two groups \langle 32,34..35\rangle are infinitely capable. The trees arising from the capable vertices are associated with infinite pro-2 groups by M. F. Newman and E. A. O'Brien in the following manner. \langle 32,28\rangle gives rise to two trees, \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 64,140\rangle) associated with family \\#73, and \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 64,147\rangle) associated with family \\#74. \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 32,29\rangle) is associated with family \\#75. \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 32,30\rangle) is associated with family \\#76. \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 32,31\rangle) is associated with family \\#77. \langle 32,34\rangle gives rise to \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 64,174\rangle) associated with family \\#78. Finally, \mathcal{T}^3(\langle 32,35\rangle) is associated with family \\#79. Table 2: Class-2 quotients Q of certain metabelian 2-groups G of type (2,2,2) SmallGroups identifier of Q Hall Senior classification of Q Schur multiplier \mathcal{M}(Q) 2-rank of G' r_2(G^\prime) 4-rank of G' r_4(G^\prime) Maximum of r_2(H_i/H_i^\prime) \langle 32,32\rangle 32.040 (2) 2 0 2 \langle 32,33\rangle 32.041 (2) 2 0 2 \langle 32,29\rangle 32.037 (2,2) 2 1 3 \langle 32,30\rangle 32.038 (2,2) 2 1 3 \langle 32,35\rangle 32.035 (2,2) 2 1 3 \langle 32,28\rangle 32.036 (2,2,2) 2 2 3 \langle 32,27\rangle 32.033 (2,2,2,2) 3 2 or 3 4 ====Hall-Senior classification of 2-groups==== Seven of these nine top level vertices have been investigated by E. Benjamin, F. Lemmermeyer and C. Snyder with respect to their occurrence as class-2 quotients Q=G/\gamma_3(G) of bigger metabelian 2-groups G of type (2,2,2) and with coclass 3, which are exactly the members of the descendant trees of the seven vertices. These authors use the classification of 2-groups by M. Hall and J. K. Senior which is put in correspondence with the SmallGroups Library in Table 2. The complexity of the descendant trees of these seven vertices increases with the 2-ranks and 4-ranks indicated in Table 2, where the maximal subgroups of index 2 in G are denoted by H_i, for 1\le i\le 7. ==History== Descendant trees with central quotients as parents (P1) are implicit in P. Hall's 1940 paper about isoclinism of groups. Trees with last non-trivial lower central quotients as parents (P2) were first presented by C. R. Leedham-Green at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Vancouver, 1974 . The first extensive tree diagrams have been drawn manually by J. A. Ascione, G. Havas and C. R. Leedham-Green (1977) , by J. A. Ascione (1979) , and by B. Nebelung (1989) . In the former two cases, the parent definition by means of the lower exponent-p central series (P3) was adopted in view of computational advantages, in the latter case, where theoretical aspects were focussed, the parents were taken with respect to the usual lower central series (P2). ==See also== * The kernels and targets of Artin transfers have recently turned out to be compatible with parent-descendant relations between finite p-groups and can favourably be used to endow descendant trees with additional structure. ==References== Category:Group theory Category:P-groups Category:Subgroup series Category:Topological groups Category:Trees (data structures)
|
Giacomo Matteotti (; 22 May 1885 – 10 June 1924) was an Italian socialist politician. On 30 May 1924, he openly spoke in the Italian Parliament alleging the Fascists committed fraud in the 1924 Italian general election, and denounced the violence they used to gain votes. Eleven days later he was kidnapped and killed by Fascists. ==Political career== Matteotti was born into a wealthy family, in Fratta Polesine, Province of Rovigo in Veneto. He graduated in law at the University of Bologna. An atheistAntonio G. Casanova, Matteotti. Una vita per il socialismo, Bompiani, Milan, 1974, p. 90. and from early on an activist in the socialist movement and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), he opposed Italy's entry into World War I (and was interned in Sicily during the conflict for this reason). He was elected deputy three times: in 1919, 1921 and 1924. As a follower of Filippo Turati, Matteotti became the leader of the reformist Unitary Socialist Party (PSU) in the Italian Chamber of Deputies after a split from the more radical Italian Socialist Party. ===Opposition to Fascism=== Matteotti openly spoke out against Fascism and Benito Mussolini, and for a time was leader of the opposition to the National Fascist Party (NFP). From 1921 he denounced fascist violence in a pamphlet titled Inchiesta socialista sulle gesta dei fascisti in Italia (Socialist enquiry on the deeds of the fascists in Italy). In 1924 his book The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination was published and he made two impassioned and lengthy speeches in the Chamber of Deputies denouncing Fascism and declaring that the last election, marked by intimidation and militia violence, was "invalid".Speech of 30 May 1924 the last speech of Matteotti, from it.wikisource In the speech Matteotti gave on 30 May 1924 in Parliament, he strongly contested the violence, said "In Naples in one conference that the head of the constitutional opposition was to hold, he was prevented due to the mobilization of the armed corps, which intervened in the city", as a fraud in the 1924 elections (however won by PNF thanks to the Acerbo Law, which put in place an electoral system that guaranteed a majority to the Fascists). According to some theories, this speech was not the only cause of his murder. In fact, according to Renzo De Felice's essay Breve Storia del Fascismo, Matteotti publicly condemned the alliance of the socialist trade unions and the fascist counterpart. Moreover, he found out evidence of bribes from Sinclair Oil in favour of Mussolini, in order to get permission for Sinclair's exploitation of petroleum reservoirs under Italian control. ==Murder== On 10 June 1924 Matteotti was bundled into a Lancia Lambda and stabbed several times with a carpenter's file as he was struggling to escape. His corpse was found after an extensive search near Riano, 23 kilometers north of Rome, on 16 August 1924. Five men (Amerigo Dumini – a prominent member of the Fascist secret police, the Ceka – Giuseppe Viola, Albino Volpi, Augusto Malacria and Amleto Poveromo) were arrested a few days after the kidnapping. Another suspect, Filippo Panzeri, fled from arrest. ===Consequences of the murder=== The death of Matteotti sparked widespread criticism of Fascism. A general strike was threatened in retaliation, but the opposition preferred to raise a "moral question" that would point to public disapproval in fascism, to bring about its downfall. Then "Fascism fielded an articulated series of misdirections, obstructions of justice and red herrings, to declare the moral question closed".Marilotti: “Arrivare a verità è debito con Storia”, senatoripd, 10 May 2022. Since Mussolini's government did not collapse and the King refused to dismiss him, all the anti-fascists (except for the Communist Party of Italy) started to abandon the Chamber of Deputies. They retired on the "Aventine Mount", like ancient Roman plebeians. They thought to force the Crown to act against Mussolini, but on the contrary this strengthened Mussolini, who tried to defuse the tension with a speech in Montecitorio on 13 June 1924. After a few weeks of confusion, Mussolini gained a favourable vote by the Senate of the Kingdom. Despite pressure from the opposition, Victor Emmanuel III refused to dismiss Mussolini, since the Government was supported by a large majority of the Chamber of Deputies and almost all the Senate of the Kingdom. Moreover, he feared that compelling Mussolini to resign could be considered a coup d'état, that eventually could lead to a civil war between the Army and the Blackshirts.Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il fascista vol. I pp. 636 and foll. But during the summer, the trial against Matteotti's alleged murderers and the discovery of the corpse of Matteotti once again spread rage against Mussolini: newspapers launched fierce attacks against him and the fascist movement. On 13 September, a right-wing fascist deputy, Armando Casalini, was killed on a tramway in retaliation for Matteotti's murder by the anti-fascist Giovanni Corvi. During the autumn of 1924, the extremist wing of the Fascist Party threatened Mussolini with a coup, and dealt with him on the night of San Silvestro of 1924. Mussolini devised a counter-maneuver, and on 3 January 1925 he gave a famous speech both attacking anti-fascists and confirming that he, and only he, was the leader of Fascism. He challenged the anti-fascists to prosecute him, and claimed proudly that Fascism was the "superb passion of the best youth of Italy" and grimly that "all the violence" was his responsibility, because he had created the climate of violence. Admitting that the murderers were Fascists of "high station", as Hitler later did after the Night of the Long Knives, Mussolini rhetorically claimed fault, stating "I assume, I alone, the political, moral, historical responsibility for everything that has happened. If sentences, more or less maimed, are enough to hang a man, out with the noose!" Mussolini concluded with a warning: Italy needs stability and Fascism would assure stability to Italy in any manner necessary.The speech of 3 January 1925 from it.wikisource This speech is considered the very beginning of the dictatorship in Italy. ==Trials against his murderers== Only three men (Dumini, Volpi and Poveromo) were convicted and shortly after released under amnesty by King Victor Emmanuel III. Before the trial against the murderers, the High Court of the Senate started a trial against general Emilio De Bono, commander of the Fascist paramilitary Blackshirts (MVSN), but he was discharged. After the Second World War, in 1947, the trial against Francesco Giunta, Cesare Rossi, Dumini, Viola, Poveromo, Malacria, Filippelli and Panzeri was re-opened. Dumini, Viola and Poveromo were sentenced to life imprisonment. In none of these three trials was evidence declared of Mussolini's involvement,See F. Andriola, Mussolini, prassi politica e rivoluzione sociale, Rome, 1981. due to trial extinction for death of defendant. ===Mussolini's alleged involvement=== thumb|right|200px|Matteotti with fellow supporters during 1920s. The involvement of Mussolini in the assassination is much debated. Historians suggest some different theories. The main biographer of Mussolini, Renzo De Felice, was convinced that the Duce was not innocent. Even Aurelio Lepre and Emilio Gentile thought that Mussolini wanted the death of Matteotti. The former socialist and anti-fascist journalist Carlo Silvestri in 1924 was a harsh accuser of Mussolini; later, when he joined the Italian Social Republic, he affirmed that Mussolini had shown him the papers for the Matteotti case,These papers were captured by partisans with the other documents of Mussolini. The folders with Matteotti's files were sent from Milan to Rome, but they never arrived. R. De Felice, Mussolini il Fascista, Einaudi, p. 601 footnote and eventually he changed his mind.Carlo Silvestri, Matteotti, Mussolini e il dramma italiano, Cavallotti editore 1981, p. XXIII Silvestri became a strong defender of Mussolini's innocence in Matteotti's murder, and suggested that the socialist was killed by a plot, in order both to damage Mussolini's attempt to raise a leftist government (with the participation of Socialists and Popolari) and to cover some scandals in which the Crown (with the American oil company Sinclair Oil) was involved. De Felice argued that maybe Mussolini himself was a political victim of a plot, and almost surely he was damaged by the crisis that followed the murder. Many fascists left the Party, and his government was about to collapse. Moreover, his secret attempt to bring Socialists and Popolari into a new reformist government was ruined. John Gunther wrote in 1940 that "Most critics nowadays do not think that the Duce directly ordered the assassination ... but his moral responsibility is indisputable", perhaps with underlings believing they were carrying out Mussolini's desire performing the kidnapping and murder on their own. Other historians, including Justin Pollard and Denis Mack Smith, thought Mussolini was probably aware of the assassination plot but that it was ordered and organized by someone else. Mauro Canali suggests that Mussolini probably did order the murder, as Matteotti uncovered and wanted to make public incriminating documents proving that Mussolini and his associates sold to Sinclair Oil exclusive rights to all Italian oil reserves.Mauro Canali, "Il delitto Matteotti. Affarismo e politica nel primo governo Mussolini", (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1997) (new edition 2004) ==Family== In 1912 he had met Velia Titta, younger sister of the famous baritone Ruffo Titta, and they married in a civil ceremony in 1916. They had three children: Giancarlo (1918–2006), Matteo (1921–2000) and Isabella (1922–1994). One of Matteotti's sons, Gianmatteo Matteotti (known Matteo), became a Social Democratic parliamentary deputy after World War II, serving as Italy's Minister of Tourism in 1970–72 and Minister of Foreign Trade from 1972–1974. ==Works== * 1924 The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, , (1969) ==Legacy== Numerous monuments to Matteotti have been established, including a Monument in Rome along Lungotevere Arnaldo da Brescia, where the kidnap-murder took place. In the Florestano Vancini's film The Assassination of Matteotti (1973), Matteotti is played by Franco Nero. ==Footnotes== ==Bibliography== * Luigi Cyaheled, Matteotti è vivente, Napoli, Casa Editrice Vedova Ceccoli & Figli, 1924. * Carlo Silvestri, Matteotti, Mussolini e il dramma italiano, Roma, Ruffolo, 1947. * Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il fascista, I, La conquista del potere. 1921–1925, Torino, Einaudi, 1966. * Carlo Rossini, Il delitto Matteotti fra il Viminale e l’Aventino, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1968. * Antonio G. Casanova, Matteotti. Una vita per il socialismo, Milano, Bompiani, 1974. * Adrian Lyttelton, La conquista del potere. Il fascismo dal 1919 al 1929, Roma- Bari, Laterza, 1974. * Ives Bizzi, Da Matteotti a Villamarzana. 30 anni di lotte nel Polesine (1915–1945), Treviso, Giacobino, 1975. * Carlo Silvestri, Matteotti, Mussolini e il dramma italiano, Milano, Cavallotti editore, 1981. * Alexander J. De Grand, Breve storia del fascismo, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1983. * Matteo Matteotti, Quei vent’anni. Dal fascismo all’Italia che cambia, Milano, Rusconi, 1985. * Fabio Andriola, Mussolini. Prassi politica e rivoluzione sociale, S.l., F.U.A.N., 1990. * Mauro Canali, Il delitto Matteotti. Affarismo e politica nel primo governo Mussolini, Camerino, Università degli studi, 1996; Bologna, Il Mulino, 1997, 2004, 2015. ; 2004. * Valentino Zaghi, Giacomo Matteotti, Sommacampagna, Cierre, 2001. * Marcello Staglieno, Arnaldo e Benito. Due fratelli, Milano, Mondadori, 2003. * Mauro Canali, Il delitto Matteotti, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2004. * Nunzio Dell'Erba, Matteotti: azione politica e pensiero giuridico, in "Patria indipendente", 28 maggio 2004, a. LIII, nn. 4–5, pp. 21–23. * Stanislao G. Pugliese, Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. * Enrico Tiozzo, La giacca di Matteotti e il processo Pallavicini. Una rilettura critica del delitto, Roma, Aracne, 2005. * Gianpaolo Romanato, Un italiano diverso. Giacomo Matteotti, Milano, Longanesi, 2010. * Giovanni Borgognone, Come nasce una dittatura. L'Italia del delitto Matteotti, Bari, Laterza, 2012. * Alexander J. De Grand, Italian Fascism: Its Origins & Development, University of Nebraska Press, 2000, * Adrian Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929, Routledge, 2003, * Stanislao G. Pugliese, Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, ==See also== *Il delitto Matteotti by Florestano Vancini (1973). Matteotti is played by Franco Nero. ==External links== * *What a Murder by Mussolini Teaches Us About Khashoggi and M.B.S., By Alexander Stille, Oct. 23, 2018, The New York Times Category:1885 births Category:1924 deaths Category:People from the Province of Rovigo Category:Italian Socialist Party politicians Category:Unitary Socialist Party (Italy, 1922) politicians Category:Deputies of Legislature XXV of the Kingdom of Italy Category:Deputies of Legislature XXVI of the Kingdom of Italy Category:Deputies of Legislature XXVII of the Kingdom of Italy Category:Politicians of Veneto Category:Italian anti-fascists Category:Italian anti-capitalists Category:Italian atheists Category:Kidnapped Italian people Category:Assassinated Italian politicians Category:Deaths by stabbing in Rome Category:People murdered in Italy Category:1924 murders in Italy
|
mTORC1, also known as mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 or mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1, is a protein complex that functions as a nutrient/energy/redox sensor and controls protein synthesis. mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1) is composed of the mTOR protein complex, regulatory-associated protein of mTOR (commonly known as raptor), mammalian lethal with SEC13 protein 8 (MLST8), PRAS40 and DEPTOR. This complex embodies the classic functions of mTOR, namely as a nutrient/energy/redox sensor and controller of protein synthesis. The activity of this complex is regulated by rapamycin, insulin, growth factors, phosphatidic acid, certain amino acids and their derivatives (e.g., -leucine and β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid), mechanical stimuli, and oxidative stress. Recently it has been also demonstrated that cellular bicarbonate metabolism can be regulated by mTORC1 signaling. The role of mTORC1 is to activate translation of proteins. In order for cells to grow and proliferate by manufacturing more proteins, the cells must ensure that they have the resources available for protein production. Thus, for protein production, and therefore mTORC1 activation, cells must have adequate energy resources, nutrient availability, oxygen abundance, and proper growth factors in order for mRNA translation to begin. == Activation at the lysosome == === The TSC complex === Almost all of the variables required for protein synthesis affect mTORC1 activation by interacting with the TSC1/TSC2 protein complex. TSC2 is a GTPase activating protein (GAP). Its GAP activity interacts with a G protein called Rheb by hydrolyzing the GTP of the active Rheb-GTP complex, converting it to the inactive Rheb-GDP complex. The active Rheb-GTP activates mTORC1 through unelucidated pathways. Thus, many of the pathways that influence mTORC1 activation do so through the activation or inactivation of the TSC1/TSC2 heterodimer. This control is usually performed through phosphorylation of the complex. This phosphorylation can cause the dimer to dissociate and lose its GAP activity, or the phosphorylation can cause the heterodimer to have increased GAP activity, depending on which amino acid residue becomes phosphorylated. Thus, the signals that influence mTORC1 activity do so through activation or inactivation of the TSC1/TSC2 complex, upstream of mTORC1. === The Ragulator-Rag complex === mTORC1 interacts at the Ragulator-Rag complex on the surface of the lysosome in response to amino acid levels in the cell. Even if a cell has the proper energy for protein synthesis, if it does not have the amino acid building blocks for proteins, no protein synthesis will occur. Studies have shown that depriving amino acid levels inhibits mTORC1 signaling to the point where both energy abundance and amino acids are necessary for mTORC1 to function. When amino acids are introduced to a deprived cell, the presence of amino acids causes Rag GTPase heterodimers to switch to their active conformation. Active Rag heterodimers interact with raptor, localizing mTORC1 to the surface of late endosomes and lysosomes where the Rheb-GTP is located. This allows mTORC1 to physically interact with Rheb. Thus the amino acid pathway as well as the growth factor/energy pathway converge on endosomes and lysosomes. Thus the Ragulator- Rag complex recruits mTORC1 to lysosomes to interact with Rheb. ==== Regulation of the Ragulator-Rag complex ==== Rag activity is regulated by at least two highly conserved complexes: the "GATOR1" complex containing DEPDC5, NPRL2 and NPRL3 and the ""GATOR2" complex containing Mios, WDR24, WDR59, Seh1L, Sec13. GATOR1 inhibits Rags (it is a GTPase-activating protein for Rag subunits A/B) and GATOR2 activates Rags by inhibiting DEPDC5. == Upstream signaling == thumb|left|150px|The General mTORC1 Pathway. === Receptor tyrosine kinases === ==== Akt/PKB pathway ==== Insulin-like growth factors can activate mTORC1 through the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)-Akt/PKB signaling pathway. Ultimately, Akt phosphorylates TSC2 on serine residue 939, serine residue 981, and threonine residue 1462. These phosphorylated sites will recruit the cytosolic anchoring protein 14-3-3 to TSC2, disrupting the TSC1/TSC2 dimer. When TSC2 is not associated with TSC1, TSC2 loses its GAP activity and can no longer hydrolyze Rheb-GTP. This results in continued activation of mTORC1, allowing for protein synthesis via insulin signaling. Akt will also phosphorylate PRAS40, causing it to fall off of the Raptor protein located on mTORC1. Since PRAS40 prevents Raptor from recruiting mTORC1's substrates 4E-BP1 and S6K1, its removal will allow the two substrates to be recruited to mTORC1 and thereby activated in this way. Furthermore, since insulin is a factor that is secreted by pancreatic beta cells upon glucose elevation in the blood, its signaling ensures that there is energy for protein synthesis to take place. In a negative feedback loop on mTORC1 signaling, S6K1 is able to phosphorylate the insulin receptor and inhibit its sensitivity to insulin. This has great significance in diabetes mellitus, which is due to insulin resistance. ==== MAPK/ERK pathway ==== Mitogens, such as insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1), can activate the MAPK/ERK pathway, which can inhibit the TSC1/TSC2 complex, activating mTORC1. In this pathway, the G protein Ras is tethered to the plasma membrane via a farnesyl group and is in its inactive GDP state. Upon growth factor binding to the adjacent receptor tyrosine kinase, the adaptor protein GRB2 binds with its SH2 domains. This recruits the GEF called Sos, which activates the Ras G protein. Ras activates Raf (MAPKKK), which activates Mek (MAPKK), which activates Erk (MAPK). Erk can go on to activate RSK. Erk will phosphorylate the serine residue 644 on TSC2, while RSK will phosphorylate serine residue 1798 on TSC2. These phosphorylations will cause the heterodimer to fall apart, and prevent it from deactivating Rheb, which keeps mTORC1 active. RSK has also been shown to phosphorylate raptor, which helps it overcome the inhibitory effects of PRAS40. ==== JNK pathway ==== c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling is part of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway essential in stress signaling pathways relating to gene expression, neuronal development, and cell survival. Recent studies have shown there is a direct molecular interaction where JNK phosphorylates Raptor at Ser-696, Thr-706, and Ser-863. Therefore, mTORC1 activity is JNK-dependent. Thus, JNK activation plays a role in protein synthesis via subsequent downstream effectors of mTORC1 such as S6 kinase and eIFs. === Wnt pathway === The Wnt pathway is responsible for cellular growth and proliferation during organismal development; thus, it could be reasoned that activation of this pathway also activates mTORC1. Activation of the Wnt pathway inhibits glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3B). When the Wnt pathway is not active, GSK3B is able to phosphorylate TSC2 on Ser1341 and Ser1337 in conjunction with AMPK phosphorylation of Ser1345. It has been found that the AMPK is required to first phosphorylate Ser1345 before GSK3B can phosphorylate its target serine residues. This phosphorylation of TSC2 would activate this complex, if GSK3B were active. Since the Wnt pathway inhibits GSK3 signaling, the active Wnt pathway is also involved in the mTORC1 pathway. Thus, mTORC1 can activate protein synthesis for the developing organism. === Cytokines === Cytokines like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) can induce mTOR activity through IKK beta, also known as IKK2. IKK beta can phosphorylate TSC1 at serine residue 487 and TSC1 at serine residue 511. This causes the heterodimer TSC complex to fall apart, keeping Rheb in its active GTP-bound state. === Energy and oxygen === ==== Energy status ==== In order for translation to take place, abundant sources of energy, particularly in the form of ATP, need to be present. If these levels of ATP are not present, due to its hydrolysis into other forms like AMP, and the ratio of AMP to ATP molecules gets too high, AMPK will become activated. AMPK will go on to inhibit energy consuming pathways such as protein synthesis. AMPK can phosphorylate TSC2 on serine residue 1387, which activates the GAP activity of this complex, causing Rheb-GTP to be hydrolyzed into Rheb- GDP. This inactivates mTORC1 and blocks protein synthesis through this pathway. AMPK can also phosphorylate Raptor on two serine residues. This phosphorylated Raptor recruits 14-3-3 to bind to it and prevents Raptor from being part of the mTORC1 complex. Since mTORC1 cannot recruit its substrates without Raptor, no protein synthesis via mTORC1 occurs. LKB1, also known as STK11, is a known tumor suppressor that can activate AMPK. More studies on this aspect of mTORC1 may help shed light on its strong link to cancer. ==== Hypoxic stress ==== When oxygen levels in the cell are low, it will limit its energy expenditure through the inhibition of protein synthesis. Under hypoxic conditions, hypoxia inducible factor one alpha (HIF1A) will stabilize and activate transcription of REDD1, also known as DDIT4. After translation, this REDD1 protein will bind to TSC2, which prevents 14-3-3 from inhibiting the TSC complex. Thus, TSC retains its GAP activity towards Rheb, causing Rheb to remain bound to GDP and mTORC1 to be inactive. Due to the lack of synthesis of ATP in the mitochondria under hypoxic stress or hypoxia, AMPK will also become active and thus inhibit mTORC1 through its processes. == Downstream signaling == thumb|left|150px|Receptor Tyrosine Kinases and mTORC1. mTORC1 activates transcription and translation through its interactions with p70-S6 Kinase 1 (S6K1) and 4E-BP1, the eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) binding protein 1, primarily via phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of its downstream targets. S6K1 and 4E-BP1 modulate translation in eukaryotic cells. Their signaling will converge at the translation initiation complex on the 5' end of mRNA, and thus activate translation. === 4E-BP1 === Activated mTORC1 will phosphorylate translation repressor protein 4E-BP1, thereby releasing it from eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E). eIF4E is now free to join the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) and the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). This complex then binds to the 5' cap of mRNA and will recruit the helicase eukaryotic translation initiation factor A (eIF4A) and its cofactor eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4B (eIF4B). The helicase is required to remove hairpin loops that arise in the 5' untranslated regions of mRNA, which prevent premature translation of proteins. Once the initiation complex is assembled at the 5' cap of mRNA, it will recruit the 40S small ribosomal subunit that is now capable of scanning for the AUG start codon start site, because the hairpin loop has been degraded by the eIF4A helicase. Once the ribosome reaches the AUG codon, translation can begin. === S6K === Previous studies suggest that S6K signaling is mediated by mTOR in a rapamycin-dependent manner wherein S6K is displaced from the eIF3 complex upon binding of mTOR with eIF3. Hypophosphorylated S6K is located on the eIF3 scaffold complex. Active mTORC1 gets recruited to the scaffold, and once there, will phosphorylate S6K to make it active. mTORC1 phosphorylates S6K1 on at least two residues, with the most critical modification occurring on a threonine residue (T389). This event stimulates the subsequent phosphorylation of S6K1 by PDPK1. Active S6K1 can in turn stimulate the initiation of protein synthesis through activation of S6 Ribosomal protein (a component of the ribosome) and eIF4B, causing them to be recruited to the pre- initiation complex. Active S6K can bind to the SKAR scaffold protein that can get recruited to exon junction complexes (EJC). Exon junction complexes span the mRNA region where two exons come together after an intron has been spliced out. Once S6K binds to this complex, increased translation on these mRNA regions occurs. S6K1 can also participate in a positive feedback loop with mTORC1 by phosphorylating mTOR's negative regulatory domain at two sites thr-2446 and ser-2448; phosphorylation at these sites appears to stimulate mTOR activity. S6K also can phosphorylate programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4), which marks it for degradation by ubiquitin ligase Beta-TrCP (BTRC). PDCD4 is a tumor suppressor that binds to eIF4A and prevents it from being incorporated into the initiation complex. == Role in disease and aging == mTOR was found to be related to aging in 2001 when the ortholog of S6K, SCH9, was deleted in S. cerevisiae, doubling its lifespan. This greatly increased the interest in upstream signaling and mTORC1. Studies in inhibiting mTORC1 were thus performed on the model organisms of C. elegans, fruitflies, and mice. Inhibition of mTORC1 showed significantly increased lifespans in all model species. Disrupting the gut microbiota of infant mice was found to lead to reduced longevity with signaling of mTORC1 implicated as a potential mechanism. Based on upstream signaling of mTORC1, a clear relationship between food consumption and mTORC1 activity has been observed. Most specifically, carbohydrate consumption activates mTORC1 through the insulin growth factor pathway. In addition, amino acid consumption will stimulate mTORC1 through the branched chain amino acid/Rag pathway. Thus dietary restriction inhibits mTORC1 signaling through both upstream pathways of mTORC that converge on the lysosome. Dietary restriction has been shown to significantly increase lifespan in the human model of Rhesus monkeys as well as protect against their age related decline. More specifically, Rhesus monkeys on a calorie restricted diet had significantly less chance of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and age related cognitive decline than those monkeys who were not placed on the calorie restricted diet. === Autophagy === Autophagy is the major degradation pathway in eukaryotic cells and is essential for the removal of damaged organelles via macroautophagy or proteins and smaller cellular debris via microautophagy from the cytoplasm. Thus, autophagy is a way for the cell to recycle old and damaged materials by breaking them down into their smaller components, allowing for the resynthesis of newer and healthier cellular structures. Autophagy can thus remove protein aggregates and damaged organelles that can lead to cellular dysfunction. Upon activation, mTORC1 will phosphorylate autophagy-related protein 13 (Atg 13), preventing it from entering the ULK1 kinase complex, which consists of Atg1, Atg17, and Atg101. This prevents the structure from being recruited to the preautophagosomal structure at the plasma membrane, inhibiting autophagy. mTORC1's ability to inhibit autophagy while at the same time stimulate protein synthesis and cell growth can result in accumulations of damaged proteins and organelles, contributing to damage at the cellular level. Because autophagy appears to decline with age, activation of autophagy may help promote longevity in humans. Problems in proper autophagy processes have been linked to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. === Lysosomal damage === mTORC1 is positioned on lysosomes and is inhibited when lysosomal membrane is damaged through a protein complex termed GALTOR. GALTOR contains galectin-8, a cytosolic lectin, which recognizes damaged lysosomal membranes by binding to the exposed glycoconjugates normally facing lysosomal lumen. Under homeostatic conditions, Galectin-8 associates with active mTOR. Following membrane damage galectin-8 no longer interacts with mTOR but instead switches to complexes containing SLC38A9, RRAGA/RRAGB, and LAMTOR1 (a component of Ragulator) thus inhibiting mTOR, mTOR inhibition in turn activates autophagy and starts a quality control program that removes damaged lysosomes, referred to as lysophagy, === Reactive oxygen species === Reactive oxygen species can damage the DNA and proteins in cells. A majority of them arise in the mitochondria. Deletion of the TOR1 gene in yeast increases cellular respiration in the mitochondria by enhancing the translation of mitochondrial DNA that encodes for the complexes involved in the electron transport chain. When this electron transport chain is not as efficient, the unreduced oxygen molecules in the mitochondrial cortex may accumulate and begin to produce reactive oxygen species. It is important to note that both cancer cells as well as those cells with greater levels of mTORC1 both rely more on glycolysis in the cytosol for ATP production rather than through oxidative phosphorylation in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Inhibition of mTORC1 has also been shown to increase transcription of the NFE2L2 (NRF2) gene, which is a transcription factor that is able to regulate the expression of electrophilic response elements as well as antioxidants in response to increased levels of reactive oxygen species. Though AMPK induced eNOS has been shown to regulate mTORC1 in endothelium. Unlike the other cell type in endothelium eNOS induced mTORC1 and this pathway is required for mitochondrial biogenesis. === Stem cells === Conservation of stem cells in the body has been shown to help prevent against premature aging. mTORC1 activity plays a critical role in the growth and proliferation of stem cells. Knocking out mTORC1 results in embryonic lethality due to lack of trophoblast development. Treating stem cells with rapamycin will also slow their proliferation, conserving the stem cells in their undifferentiated condition. mTORC1 plays a role in the differentiation and proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells. Its upregulation has been shown to cause premature aging in hematopoietic stem cells. Conversely, inhibiting mTOR restores and regenerates the hematopoietic stem cell line. The mechanisms of mTORC1's inhibition on proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells has yet to be fully elucidated. Rapamycin is used clinically as an immunosuppressant and prevents the proliferation of T cells and B cells. Paradoxically, even though rapamycin is a federally approved immunosuppressant, its inhibition of mTORC1 results in better quantity and quality of functional memory T cells. mTORC1 inhibition with rapamycin improves the ability of naïve T cells to become precursor memory T cells during the expansion phase of T cell development . This inhibition also allows for an increase in quality of these memory T cells that become mature T cells during the contraction phase of their development. mTORC1 inhibition with rapamycin has also been linked to a dramatic increase of B cells in old mice, enhancing their immune systems. This paradox of rapamycin inhibiting the immune system response has been linked to several reasons, including its interaction with regulatory T cells. == As a biomolecular target == ===Activators=== Resistance exercise, the amino acid -leucine, and beta- hydroxy beta-methylbutyric acid (HMB) are known to induce signaling cascades in skeletal muscle cells that result in mTOR phosphorylation, the activation of mTORC1, and subsequently the initiation of myofibrillar protein synthesis (i.e., the production of proteins such as myosin, titin, and actin), thereby facilitating muscle hypertrophy. The NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine has been found to activate the mTORC1 pathway in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of the brain as an essential downstream mechanism in the mediation of its rapid-acting antidepressant effects. NV-5138 is a ligand and modulator of sestrin2, a leucine amino acid sensor and upstream regulatory pathway of mTORC1, and is under development for the treatment of depression. The drug has been found to directly and selectively activate the mTORC1 pathway, including in the mPFC, and to produce rapid-acting antidepressant effects similar to those of ketamine. ===Inhibitors=== There have been several dietary compounds that have been suggested to inhibit mTORC1 signaling including EGCG, resveratrol, curcumin, caffeine, and alcohol. ==== First generation drugs ==== Rapamycin was the first known inhibitor of mTORC1, considering that mTORC1 was discovered as being the target of rapamycin. Rapamycin will bind to cytosolic FKBP12 and act as a scaffold molecule, allowing this protein to dock on the FRB regulatory region (FKBP12-Rapamycin Binding region/domain) on mTORC1. The binding of the FKBP12-rapamycin complex to the FRB regulatory region inhibits mTORC1 through processes not yet known. mTORC2 is also inhibited by rapamycin in some cell culture lines and tissues, particularly those that express high levels of FKBP12 and low levels of FKBP51. Rapamycin itself is not very water soluble and is not very stable, so scientists developed rapamycin analogs, called rapalogs, to overcome these two problems with rapamycin. These drugs are considered the first generation inhibitors of mTOR. These other inhibitors include everolimus and temsirolimus. Compared with the parent compound rapamycin, everolimus is more selective for the mTORC1 protein complex, with little impact on the mTORC2 complex. mTORC1 inhibition by everolimus has been shown to normalize tumor blood vessels, to increase tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and to improve adoptive cell transfer therapy. Sirolimus, which is the drug name for rapamycin, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1999 to prevent against transplant rejection in patients undergoing kidney transplantation. In 2003, it was approved as a stent covering for widening arteries to prevent against future heart attacks. In 2007, mTORC1 inhibitors began being approved for treatments against cancers such as renal cell carcinoma. In 2008 they were approved for treatment of mantle cell lymphoma. mTORC1 inhibitors have recently been approved for treatment of pancreatic cancer. In 2010 they were approved for treatment of tuberous sclerosis. ==== Second generation drugs ==== The second generation of inhibitors were created to overcome problems with upstream signaling upon the introduction of first generation inhibitors to the treated cells. One problem with the first generation inhibitors of mTORC1 is that there is a negative feedback loop from phosphorylated S6K, that can inhibit the insulin RTK via phosphorylation. When this negative feedback loop is no longer there, the upstream regulators of mTORC1 become more active than they would otherwise would have been under normal mTORC1 activity. Another problem is that since mTORC2 is resistant to rapamycin, and it too acts upstream of mTORC1 by activating Akt. Thus signaling upstream of mTORC1 still remains very active upon its inhibition via rapamycin and the rapalogs. Rapamycin and its analogues also have procoagulant side effects caused by off-target binding of the activated immunophilin FKBP12, which are not produced by structurally unrelated inhibitors of mTORC such as gedatolisib, WYE-687 and XL-388. Second generation inhibitors are able to bind to the ATP-binding motif on the kinase domain of the mTOR core protein itself and abolish activity of both mTOR complexes. In addition, since the mTOR and the PI3K proteins are both in the same phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase (PIKK) family of kinases, some second generation inhibitors have dual inhibition towards the mTOR complexes as well as PI3K, which acts upstream of mTORC1. As of 2011, these second generation inhibitors were in phase II of clinical trials. ==== Third generation drugs ==== The third generation of inhibitors were created following the realization that many of the side effects of rapamycin and rapamycin analogs were mediated not as a result of direct inhibition of mTORC1, but as a consequence of off-target inhibition of mTORC2. Rapamycin analogs such as DL001, that are more selective for mTORC1 than sirolimus, have been developed and in mice have reduced side effects. mTORC1 inhibitors that have novel mechanisms of action, for example peptides like PRAS40 and small molecules like HY-124798 (Rheb inhibitor NR1), which inhibit the interaction of mTORC1 with its endogenous activator Rheb, are also being developed. Some glucose transporter inhibitors such as NV-5440 and NV-6297 are also selective inhibitors of mTORC1 There have been over 1,300 clinical trials conducted with mTOR inhibitors since 1970. == References == == External links == * Category:Protein complexes Category:EC 2.7.11 Category:Tor signaling pathway Category:Human proteins
|
Iván Duque Márquez (; born 1 August 1976) is a Colombian politician and lawyer who served as the president of Colombia from 2018 to 2022. He was elected as the candidate from the Democratic Centre Party in the 2018 Colombian presidential election. Backed by his mentor, former president and powerful senator Alvaro Uribe, he was elected despite having been relatively unknown a year before the election. He ran on a platform that included opposing Juan Manuel Santos' peace agreement with the FARC guerilla group. After Duque's term came to an end, he was succeeded by Gustavo Petro on 7 August 2022, after Petro won the runoff round in the 2022 Colombian presidential election. ==Life and career== Duque was born in Bogotá to a wealthy political family originally from the Colombian town of Gómez Plata, Antioquia. He is the son of Juliana Márquez Tono (born 1950), a political scientist and Iván Duque Escobar (1937–2016), a powerful local political leader who was Governor of Antioquia, auditor in the United Nations, Minister of Mines and Energy, and head of the National Registry of Civil Status in the Government of Andrés Pastrana. Duque's siblings are Andrés and María Paula Duque. Duque attended Colegio Rochester but obtained his high-school diploma from Colegio Winston-Salem in Bogota. He then graduated from Sergio Arboleda University in Bogotá in 2000 with a degree in law. He holds a LLM in International economic law from American University and a Masters in Public Policy Management from Georgetown University, Washington D.C.. He began his professional career in 1999 as a consultant in the Andean Development Corporation (CAF) and later served as an advisor at the Colombian Ministry of Finance and Public Credit during the government of Andrés Pastrana (1998–2002). Subsequently, he was appointed by Juan Manuel Santos, future president and then-Minister of Finance, as one of Colombia's representatives at the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), a post he held between 2001 and 2013. There he served as chief of the Division of Culture, Solidarity, and Creativity. Duque also served as international advisor of former President Álvaro Uribe Vélez. Between 2010 and 2011, he was a consultant at the United Nations (UN) in the Panel of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary-General for the Incident of the Gaza Flotilla that occurred on 31 May 2010, between Israel and Turkey, known as Mavi Marmara. ==Political background== Duque returned to Colombia to become a candidate for the Senate in the legislative elections of 2014, for the Partido Centro Democrático (Democratic Center Party) which split away from the ruling governing party after Juan Manuel Santos opened peace negotiations with the FARC. This new party campaigned against the new peace agreement and the Santos Government, and was led by right wing former president Uribe. Uribe created his own political party and presented himself and a list of hand picked political allies as candidates for the office of Congressman in a closed list, which meant that people could not vote for an individual congressman but had to vote for the party as a whole in both the upper and lower chamber elections. Duque was included in the number seven spot of the closed off list for the Senate and thus was elected senator. During his time as a senator, he was the author of four laws: * Law 1822 of 4 January 2017, increasing the maternity leave from 14 to 18 weeks, so mothers could spend more time with their newborn children, a benefit that was also extended to adoptive mothers. * Law 1831 of 2 May 2017, for the availability of defibrillators in public facilities and places of high public influx, to save lives, since heart attacks are the leading cause of death in Colombia. * Law 1809 of 29 September 2016, for the use of advanced severance payments for educational insurance, so that more families can send their children to the university. * Law 1834 of 23 May 2017, the "Orange Law" for the promotion, development and protection of the creative and cultural industries. ==2018 presidential election== On 10 December 2017, Duque was nominated by his party as its candidate for President of Colombia. He won the nomination through a system of surveys conducted by the party, with a 29.47% favorability compared to the other two candidates: Carlos Holmes Trujillo who obtained 20.15%, and Rafael Nieto with 20.06%. In January 2018, it was announced that the center- right coalition would participate in the Grand Primary for Colombia – an interparty consultation – with Duque as its candidate confronting Marta Lucía Ramírez (civil-center right movement) and Alejandro Ordóñez (right wing civil movement). On 11 March 2018, Duque won the primary with more than 4 million votes. Ramírez was second, with just over 1.5 million votes, and Ordóñez came third with 385,000 votes. During his speech, Duque thanked the support of Colombians at the polls and announced Marta Lucía Ramírez as his running mate in the elections. On 27 May 2018, Duque earned the most votes in the first round of the presidential election with over 39% of the vote. Duque was elected President of Colombia on 17 June 2018 after defeating Gustavo Petro 54% to 42% in the second round. ==Presidency (2018–2022)== Duque was sworn in on 7 August 2018 at Bogotá's Bolívar Square. Duque's government main priorities are legality and entrepreunership, among other areas. In 2020, after the drug lord "Ñeñe" Hernandez was murdered in Brazil, some audios of him conspiring to give money to Duque's party in order to buy votes for his election were published in what is known as the "Ñeñepolítica". Duque's term concluded on 7 August 2022 and he was succeeded by Gustavo Petro. === Domestic policy === Opposed to the peace agreement signed in 2016 with the FARC guerrilla group, Duque, nevertheless stated at the time of his election that he had no intention of "smashing it to bits". As president, he tried to eliminate certain points of the agreement. His government sought to weaken the Special Jurisdiction for Peace and cut the budget of the Truth Commission and the Unit for the Search for Disappeared Persons by 30%. The government also promoted generals involved in extrajudicial executions (see : "False positives" scandal), appoints controversial figures to key positions and halts negotiations with the other guerrilla group, the National Liberation Army (ELN). Through its National Development Plan 2018–2022, the Colombian government planned to revive the country's gold and copper markets. In addition, 161 new oil drilling sites were planned for 2022, four times more than the 46 existing in 2018. Hydraulic fracturing was legalised in 2019. The plan was widely criticised by environmentalists, who considered it dangerous for the environment and the climate, and offering the country's non-renewable resources to foreign multinationals. The share of extraction profits paid to the state has dropped to 0.4% for gold and silver, and 3.27% for open-cast coal mines. The plan also threatened indigenous communities, whose territories and resources were under threat. In mid-2019 the Pan-American Highway was blocked for several weeks by the mobilisation of thousands of indigenous people in the department of Cauca. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Colombian government created the "Prevention and Action" television programme, in which Duque communicated with citizens through a national network, with the Colombian public and private media, broadcasting every day at 6pm. The program enjoyed great popularity initially, since it was shown as an effective means to timely communicate the news about the measures used to contain the spread COVID-19. His approval rating increased at the start of the pandemic, as a result. However, the program was extended over time and lost popularity, as there were no constant news about the pandemic; the program mutated to a space where Duque talked to the public, however the program continued during the start of the 2021 protests, Duque continued to present the television program, which generated strong criticism. By May 2021, as protests continue and the unemployment was out of control, the programme ended. In 2020, the defence minister Carlos Holmes Trujillo died of COVID-19, and was replaced by Diego Molano. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, GDP in Colombia decreased by 6.8% in 2020, the worst drop in the country's GDP in history. ==== Public safety ==== Insecurity in Colombia has increased during Iván Duque's presidency. In four years there have been more than 260 massacres that have left more than 1,100 people dead. Violence against social leaders in the territories has increased substantially. As of 4 June 2022, 930 social leaders had been assassinated. In addition, 245 former FARC combatants who took advantage of the Peace Accords have been assassinated during the Duque government. ==== War on drugs ==== Duque made the war on drugs a central issue of his presidency and called his country "a partner for all of the Western Hemisphere in the fight against drugs." Despite his efforts, however, cocaine production reached record highs during his presidency. With a potential output of 1,400 metric tons in 2022 according to the UN, Colombia remained the world's leading producer of the drug. ===Protests=== The 2019–2020 Colombian protests were a collection of protests that have occurred since 21 November 2019. Hundreds of thousands of Colombians demonstrated to support the Colombian peace process and against the Duque government. Demonstrators criticise also the government's desire to make the labour market more flexible, to reduce the public pension fund in favour of private entities and to raise the retirement age . The unions also protested against the tax reform aimed at reducing the taxes paid by companies and against the planned privatisation of public companies such as the oil company Ecopetrol and the electricity company Cenit. The army was deployed in the main cities of the country and a curfew was introduced. The unpopularity rate of Iván Duque reached almost 70%. The 2021 Colombian protests began on 28 April 2021 against increased taxes proposed by the Duque government amid the pandemic. === Venezuelan refugee crisis === The Presidency of Ivan Duque has continued the policies of his predecessor Juan Manuel Santos in regards to immigration and the Venezuelan refugee crisis. Ivan Duque's government has been a vocal supporter for the refugees at the United Nations and has provided aid, schooling and health care for many, and has been a vocal critic of other South American countries closing of doors to Venezuelan refugees. In 2018, Duque dedicated 0.5% of government spending to supporting refugees accounting for about 20% of Colombia's budget short fall, despite opposition. In response to this criticism on a televised address Duque stated: "For those who want to make from xenophobia a political path, we adopt the path of brotherhood, for those who want to outcast or discriminate against migrants, we stand up today ... to say that we are going to take them in and we are going to support them during difficult times." Duque's policies regarding this issue have received repeated praise from international humanitarian organizations for its efforts to legalize, formalize and offer assistance to refugees, and the Atlantic has noted that it has set the bar welcoming refugees. A representative from the International Rescue Committee has noted that: "[she's] never seen a government trying this hard to register people and leave the borders open. Unfortunately," she added "the scale of this crisis, and the speed at which it changes, is more than Colombia can handle." His decision to provide temporary protected legal status to nearly 1.7 million Venezuelan migrants drew praise from leaders around the world. === Foreign policy === Duque pursued very close relations with the Trump administration in the United States and supported its projects in Colombia and Latin America. In return, Columbia benefited from U.S. military support and increased foreign aid funds. Duque described the Venezuelan government of Nicolás Maduro as dictatorial and supported the Trump administration's efforts for regime change, recognizing Juan Guaido as interim president and encouraging the country's military to back the Guaido government. Duque's government welcomed the removal of Bolivian President Evo Morales during the 2019 Bolivian political crisis, and was accused of interference in the Ecuadorian elections of 2021 by accusing the left-wing candidate Andrés Arauz of being financed by the Colombian guerrilla group ELN. Despite his party supporting Donald Trump during the 2020 US presidential election, Duque maintained very good relations under the presidency of Joe Biden. The Biden administration showed signs of favoring right-wing candidates in the Colombian presidential election of 2022: senior US diplomats spoke to the press about alleged Russian, Cuban and Venezuelan interference in the election in favor of leftist candidate Gustavo Petro, while US officials avoided meeting Petro before the election while meeting other candidates. Duque condemned the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and considered the invasion a violation of international law and the United Nations charter. ===Criminal investigation=== Following the publication of alleged evidence in March 2018 that Duque's political party conspired with the drug trafficking organization of Marquitos Figueroa to commit fraud in the presidential election, Congress's Accusations Committee and the National Electoral Council opened an investigation into his alleged role in the fraud. The Supreme Court opened a criminal investigation into his political sponsor, right-wing former President Álvaro Uribe, who is already being investigated for alleged witness fraud and bribery. == After the presidency == Two days after the end of his presidency, he was named a "distinguished fellow" at the influential Woodrow Wilson Center in Washington, D.C., a U.S. government-funded think tank with a monthly salary of $10,000. == Published books == Iván Duque is the author of the books Monetary Sins (2007), Machiavelli in Colombia (2010), Orange Effect (2015), IndignAcción (IndignAction) (2017), The Future is at the Center (2018) Archaeology of My Father (2018), Humanism Matters (2019), The Road to Zero (2021) and is co-author of the book The Orange Economy: An Infinite Opportunity (2013). Duque has also been an Op-Ed contributor to several newspapers: El Colombiano, from Medellín; Portafolio and El Tiempo from Casa Editorial El Tiempo in Bogotá; and El País in Spain. ==Personal life== Duque is Roman Catholic. He is married to María Juliana Ruiz Sandoval, with whom he has three children: Luciana, Matías and Eloísa. ==Awards== *2022: **Woodrow Wilson Award for Global Public Service, by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution. ** Planetary Leadership Award, by the National Geographic Society. ==Honours== ===National honours=== *70px Grand Collar of the Order of Boyacá. *70px Collar of the Order of San Carlos. *70px Grand Cross Extraordinary of the National Order of Merit. *Order of Merit Colonel Guillermo Fergusson. ===Foreign honours=== * **70px Grand Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross (2021). * **70px Grand Cross with Gold Breast Star, Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (2022). * **70px Grand Collar of the Order of the Sun of Peru (2019). **70px Medal of Honor of the Congress of the Republic of Peru (2019). * **70px Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (2022). * **70px Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (2021). * **70px Grand Order of Mugunghwa (2021). ==See also== * ==References== ==External links== * Official website * Biography by CIDOB (in Spanish) Category:1976 births Category:Living people Category:People from Bogotá Category:Presidents of Colombia Category:Right-wing populism in South America Category:Colombian anti-communists Category:Colombian Roman Catholics Category:Members of the Senate of Colombia Category:Colombian economists Category:Harvard University alumni Category:American University alumni Category:McCourt School of Public Policy alumni Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Category:Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella Category:Duque family
|
400px|thumb|March 25, 1911: Fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist factory kills 123 female employees, 23 men The following events occurred in March 1911: ==March 1, 1911 (Wednesday)== *U.S. Senator William Lorimer of Illinois was able to keep his seat after the vote to oust him failed, 40-46. Lorimer's right to a seat in the U.S. Senate had been challenged by Senator Albert J. Beveridge, on grounds that the Illinois Legislature had been bribed to elect Lorimer. "The resulting storm of public outrage", a U.S. Senate historian would later write, combined with newly elected senators, would lead the Senate to finally approve the amendment of the U.S. Constitution to provide for Senators to be elected by popular vote, rather than by the state legislatures. *The U.S. House of Representatives unanimously approved the proposed Constitution of the State of New Mexico. Congress adjourned three days later without the bill being voted on by the Senate. *The Weeks Act was signed into law by U.S. President Taft, authorizing the federal government to acquire "lands within the watersheds of navigable streams". *Ernest Monis accepted the request of President Fallières to form a government as the new Prime Minister of France. *José Batlle y Ordóñez was elected President of Uruguay. *Pend Oreille County, Washington, was established. *Died: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, 59, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate ==March 2, 1911 (Thursday)== *The vote on the second reading of the "Veto Bill", giving the British House of Commons power to override actions of the House of Lords, passed 368 to 243. *Manuel Enrique Araujo was inaugurated as President of El Salvador. *Alexander Scriabin's symphonic work Prometheus: The Poem of Fire was first performed. *The Ottawa Senators clinched the title of the National Hockey Association, forerunner of the NHL, when the Montreal Canadiens lost to the Renfrew Creamery Kings. With 3 games remaining, Ottawa was 11-2 and Montreal 8-6; Ottawa beat the Canadiens 4-3 and 5-0 on March 8 and 10 to finish with a 13-3-0 record. ==March 3, 1911 (Friday)== *The first congressional appropriation was made for what would become the United States Air Force, with $125,000 being allocated for the U.S. Army Signal Corps to purchase airplanes. With the first $25,000 the Corps purchased three Wright Company and two Curtiss Aeroplane Company aircraft.Roger D. Launius, Reconsidering a Century of Flight (UNC Press Books, 2003) p158 *The U.S. Department of Justice filed antitrust proceedings against General Electric and 34 other companies to dissolve the "Electrical Trust".Josephine Young Case and Everett Needham Case, Owen D. Young and American Enterprise: A Biography (David R. Godine Publisher, 1982) p116; "Government Sues Electrical Trust", New York Times, March 4, 1911, p1 *The U.S. Army Dental Corps was created, with sixty dental surgeons in its employ.John M. Hyson, A History of Dentistry in the US Army to World War II, Parts 43-45 (Government Printing Office, 2009) p347 *Adams County and Lewis County, Idaho were established on the same day. *Born: Jean Harlow, American actress, as Harlean Carpenter in Kansas City (d. 1937) ==March 4, 1911 (Saturday)== *With two years left on his term, U.S. Senator J.W. Bailey of Texas resigned, sending a telegram to Governor Oscar Colquitt at 11:00 am. After the Texas State Senate voted 20-5 for a resolution asking Bailey to reconsider, and Governor Colquitt asked likewise, Bailey sent a second telegram at 6:00 pm, withdrawing his resignation. Although there was no legal precedent for a member of the Senate to quit and then return,"Bailey's Status in Doubt", New York Times, March 6, 1911 Bailey served nearly the rest of his term, resigning in January 1913."Senator Bailey Resigns", "New York Times", January 4, 1913 *Francisco Bertrand became the interim President of Honduras as part of an agreement to end the civil war there. Bertrand replaced Miguel R. Dávila until supervised elections could be held in October."Honduran Factions Agree" New York Times, March 5, 1911, p1 *The 50th anniversary of the March 5, 1861 emancipation, by Tsar Alexander II, of 23,000,000 Russian serfs was celebrated nationwide."Russia Celebrates Freedom", New York Times, March 5, 1911 On the same day, a proposal by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin to grant citizens of Poland limited right of local government (zemstvo), was voted down by the State Council, 92-68.Jamie H. Cockfield, White Crow: The Life and Times of the Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich Romanov, 1859-1919 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002) p128 *After the outgoing Congress ended without voting on the statehood for New Mexico and Arizona, reapportionment of the House, or the Canadian reciprocity agreement, President Taft called a special session of the 61st United States Congress to begin on April 4."President Calls a Special Session", New York Times, March 5, 1911, p1 ==March 5, 1911 (Sunday)== *A stampede in a movie theater at the Russian city of Bologoye killed 120 people, mostly children. The panic began after a movie projector caught fire."100 Die in Russian Theatre", New York Times, March 6, 1911 *Carl Bosch redesigned equipment to make feasible the Fritz Haber process for commercial production of ammonia (invented July 2, 1909).Laylin K. James, Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992 (Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1993) p200 ==March 6, 1911 (Monday)== *Samuel J. Battle, a former train porter, was sworn in as the first African-American police officer in the New York Police Department after passing the NYPD's civil service exam.Lloyd A. Williams and Voza Rivers, Forever Harlem: Celebrating America's Most Diverse Community (Sports Publishing LLC, 2006) p249 *"Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description", was read to the Aristotelian Society by Bertrand Russell. *Born: Nikolai Baibakov, Soviet statesman, Chairman of Gosplan 1965-85, in Sabunchu, Russian Empire (d. 2008) *Died: William Worrall Mayo, M.D., 91, co-founder of the Mayo Clinic ==March 7, 1911 (Tuesday)== *In an event whose significance was little noticed at the time, British physicist Ernest Rutherford first described his discovery of the nature of subatomic structure. The paper, The Scattering of the Alpha and Beta Rays and the Structure of the Atom, was presented before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Rutherford's experiments showed that all but 1/4000th of the mass of an atom lay within a core one-billionth of the space in the atom, and published in May in the Society's scientific journal, Philosophical Magazine.Richard Reeves, A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford (W. W. Norton & Company, 2008) p80 *At 11:00 am, the United States Department of War issued a statement that "a large number of troops" was being moved to points in Texas and southern California, and that the Department of the Navy had ordered 15 ships from the Atlantic Fleet to the Texas coast, including four armoured cruisers. In addition, 2,000 U.S. Marines had been ordered to assemble at the Guantanamo Bay base. The operation, which had been taking place in secret since the day before, was limited to "manouevres". With almost one-fourth of the U.S. Army (20,000 troops) having been dispatched secretly by the President the day before, and the greatest move of soldiers since the American Civil War, the press was skeptical about the explanation. The New York Times observed "The United States is making a move as to Mexico that looks like a potential interference in the affairs of that country, though it wears the official aspect of a military mobilization". U.S. President Taft told reporters later in the day that he had reassured Mexican President Díaz that there were no plans to cross the border."20,000 TROOPS AND TWO NAVAL DIVISIONS TO MOBILIZE NEAR MEXICAN BORDER", New York Times, March 8, 1911, p1; Roger Possner, The Rise of Militarism in the Progressive Era, 1900-1914 (McFarland, 2009) p123 ==March 8, 1911 (Wednesday)== *Ford Motor Company, Ltd., more popularly known as Ford of Britain, was incorporated as a subsidiary of the American Ford Motor Company, Inc. In October, the factory at Trafford Park, near Manchester, began building the first British-assembled Model T automobiles. Initially, the cars were made by four man teams, until the assembly line was set up in 1913."Ford Of Britain Counts Down To 100th Anniversary", TheAutoChannel.com *The honorary fraternity for educators, Kappa Delta Pi, was founded at the University of Illinois, and now has 606 chapters.Kappa Delta Pi website *The city of Waldport, Oregon, was incorporated. *The first observation of International Women's Day did not take place on March 8, 1911, although the day was first observed in 1911, and although it is now observed annually on the 8th of March. The first IWD was on March 19, 1911."About International Women's Day", www.internationalwomensday.com *Born: **Alan Hovhaness, American composer, as Alan Vaness Chakmakjian in Somerville, Massachusetts (d. 2000) **Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr., American civil rights lobbyist, in Baltimore (d. 1984). ==March 9, 1911 (Thursday)== *Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin, the company town for the Laffin Rand Powder Company, was leveled by a powder explosion, killing 40 people. *The greatest depth of snowfall ever recorded in the United States was measured at Tamarack Flat in California's Yosemite National Park. A snowfall in January totaling 390 inches contributed to snow at a depth of 454 in. (37 feet, 10 inches).James D. Hart, A companion to California (University of California Press, 1987) p482 *The last American and British forces were withdrawn from Honduras, departing from San Pedro."Peace in Honduras", New York Times, March 10, 1911 ==March 10, 1911 (Friday)== *The Kansas legislature enacted House Bill Number 906, the first blue sky law in the United States, culminating an effort by Joseph Norman Dolley, Kansas' banking commissioner. The law, which became effective on March 15, subjected any person or entity, selling securities or other investments within Kansas, to state regulation.Ethan G. Sribnick, A Legacy of Innovation: Governors and Public Policy (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008) p153 *Culberson County, Texas, was established. * The greatest snow-depth in U.S. and North American history was recorded, when 451 inches of snow was measured in Tamarack, California. (1,145.5 cm).Christopher C. Burt, Extreme Weather: A Guide & Record Book, page 77: "...the deepest snow depth ever recorded in North America, belongs to Tamarack, California. Here, near Yosemite's Tuolumne Meadows, 390ʺ fell in January 1911. This led to a level snow depth of 451ʺ (37.5 feet) by March of that year. Tamarack also holds California's greatest seasonal catch on 884ʺ in the notoriously wet winter of 1906-1907." ==March 11, 1911 (Saturday)== left|100px|thumb|Flexner *Dr. Simon Flexner announced, at a meeting of the Rockefeller Institute, the discovery of the cause of infantile paralysis, also known as poliomyelitis or polio. The "germ" (later determined to be a virus) was isolated from the blood of persons in Boston and New York who had fallen victim in the pandemic of 1908."Cause of Infantile Paralysis a Germ", New York Times, March 12, 1911 *Brooks County, Texas was established after being separated from Starr County, and the county seat was established at Falfurrias. The county was named for Texas state legislator John Abijah Brooks, who had worked toward its creation and was the county's leader from 1911 to 1939. Texas State Historical Association; Joseph Nathan Kane, The American Counties (4th Ed.) (The Scarecrow Press, 1983) Willacy County, Texas was established on the same day. *Two weeks before the Triangle Shirtwaist factory fire, two men, Nathan Schefflin and Isadore Margolis saved the lives of 50 people who were trapped on the fifth floor of a building in New York City. The two were in an adjoining building eight feet away, and used a cutting table as a bridge to safety."Saved from Factory Fire" New York Times, March 12, 1911 ==March 12, 1911 (Sunday)== *Mexican federal troops defeated revolutionists at Agua Prieta *Part of the crater of Mt. Vesuvius fell after a severe earthquake."Landslide on Vesuvius", New York Times, March 13, 1911 *Born: Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, 29th President of Mexico (1964–70), in San Andres, Puebla (d. 1979) ==March 13, 1911 (Monday)== * The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the federal tax on corporate income as constitutional"Corporations Must Pay Federal Tax", New York Times, March 14, 1911 *Born: **L. Ron Hubbard (Lafayette Ronald Hubbard), founder of Scientology and science fiction author and (d. 1986), in Tilden, Nebraska. **Marie Rudisill, American author who achieved fame in her 90s as the Fruitcake Lady; as Edna Marie Faulk in Monroeville, Alabama (d. 2006) ==March 14, 1911 (Tuesday)== *California Governor Hiram Johnson signed into law a bill providing for referendums, initiatives, and recall. The next day, he approved a bill for the Australian ballot. *The Japanese Antarctic Expedition reached its limit as the Kainan Maru arrived at Coulman Island and could proceed no further.David McGonigal, Antarctica: Secrets of the Southern Continent (Frances Lincoln Ltd. 2009) p321 ==March 15, 1911 (Wednesday)== *The final trial to determine which firearms manufacturer, Savage Arms Company or Colt's Manufacturing Company, would receive the big contract to supply the U.S. Army with the standard .45 caliber pistol to be used by every soldier, came down to a 6,000 shot test at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. The Colt Special Army Model 1910 had fewer malfunctions than the Savage Model H, and was accepted as the Army's standard sidearm."The M1911 Trials", by Donald Bady *The city of Tropico, California was incorporated and existed for almost eight years. In 1918, residents voted in favor of being annexed into Glendale, where it is now part of the Adams Hill neighborhood. *Born: **Ursula Vaughan Williams, British author (d. 2007), in Valletta, Malta **Wilhelm Mohnke, German Nazi general, in Lübeck (d. 2001) ==March 16, 1911 (Thursday)== *With a population of more than 800 people, Las Vegas, was incorporated as a city in the Nevada desert. Fifty years later, its population was over 64,000. In 2011, over 550,000 people lived within city limits and the metro area was 1.9 million.City of Las Vegas, Nevada: History , lasvegasnevada.gov *Born: **Dr. Josef Mengele, German Nazi physician who oversaw human medical experimentation at the Auschwitz concentration camp, then eluded capture; in Günzburg (d. 1979) **Pierre Harmel, Belgian Prime Minister, 1965–66, in Uccle (d. 2009) **Sybille Bedford, German-born British novelist, in Charlottenburg (d. 2006) *Died: John B. McDonald, 66, builder of New York City Subway ==March 17, 1911 (Friday)== *A fire, caused by a plumber's blowtorch, destroyed Boundary Field, the baseball stadium used by the Washington Nationals, less than a month before Opening Day. Nevertheless, a new stadium was erected in time for the April 12 season opener.David M. Jordan, Closing Em Down: Final Games at Thirteen Classic Ballparks (McFarland, 2010) p48; "Washington Park Fire", New York Times, March 18, 1911 *Anna Rogstad took office as the first woman to ever serve in the Storting, the Parliament of Norway."Woman Speaks in Storthing", New York Times, March 18, 1911 *The State of Nevada enacted a law permitting the easiest divorce in the United States, available on proof of little more than irreconcilable differences and proof of at least six months residency in the state."Easier Divorce in Nevada", New York Times, March 18, 1911 *Died: Friedrich Haase, 85, German actor and director nicknamed "Dean of the German Stage" ==March 18, 1911 (Saturday)== 200px|left|thumb|Dedication of Roosevelt Dam *Alexander's Ragtime Band, which would prove to be Irving Berlin's first hit song, was published for the first time, in the form of sheet music. On May 23, the first recording of the song would be issued.Tim Gracyk and Frank W. Hoffmann, Popular American Recording Pioneers, 1895-1925 (Psychology Press, 2000) p78 *At 5:48 pm, former president Theodore Roosevelt formally dedicated the Roosevelt Storage Dam in the Arizona Territory. At 248 feet, it was the second largest dam in the world (after the Aswan Dam in Egypt), and provided the necessary water supply and electric power for the city of Phoenix to grow, from roughly 11,000 in 1911 to more than 1.5 million a century later.Kathleen Garcia, Roosevelt Dam (Arcadia Publishing, 2009) p8; "Roosevelt Opens Gates of Great Dam", New York Times, March 19, 1911 *Italy's Prime Minister Luigi Luzzatti resigned. He was replaced on March 29 by Giovanni Giolitti. *Philadelphia won the National Billiard League Championship in a 50-47 victory over host Chicago, clinching the best of five series, 3 games to 0."Philadelphia Billiardist Wins", New York Times, March 19, 1911 *The results of the 1910 German census were released, showing that as of December 1, 1910, Germany had a population of 64,903,423 an increase of 7.03% since 1905."Germans Number 65,000,000", New York Times, March 19, 1911 *Abraham Lincoln's funeral car was destroyed in a grassfire at Columbia Heights, Minnesota, six years after the late Thomas Lowry had bought it and worked on its restoration. The only item that was salvaged was a coupling link.Jack El- Hai, Lost Minnesota: Stories of Vanished Places (University of Minnesota Press, 2000) p102; "Lincoln Funeral Car Burns", New York Times, March 20, 1911, p1 ==March 19, 1911 (Sunday)== *International Women's Day was celebrated for the first time, with rallies and observances in Austria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland. Since 1913, the day has been observed annually on March 8. *Booker T. Washington, at the time the best-known African-American and acknowledged spokesman for the Negro race, was beaten up by a white carpenter while on business in New York City."White Man Assaults Booker Washington", New York Times, March 20, 1911 Washington had been in Manhattan to meet with D.C. Smith, the auditor for Tuskegee Institute and was mistakenly directed to an apartment building at West 63rd Street. Albert Ulrich, a resident of the building, came into the hallway and chased Washington out of the building, then beat and kicked the 54-year-old Negro educator. Ulrich would be tried for assault and acquitted on November 6."Acquit Assailant of Dr. Washington", New York Times, November 7, 1911 ==March 20, 1911 (Monday)== *Pyotr Stolypin resigned as Prime Minister of Russia. At the end of the week, he was persuaded by Tsar Nicholas II to return in view of deteriorating relations with China, and problems with his proposed successor, Vladimir Kokovtsov."Stolypin Resigns as Russian Premier", New York Times, March 21, 1911; "China Issue Acute; Stolypin Will Stay", March 25, 1911 *The Winter Garden Theatre opened on Broadway in New York. Its first production was a double bill, Bow Sing followed by La Belle Paree, which was also Al Jolson's Broadway debutCecil Smith, Musical comedy in America (Psychology Press, 1981) p104 *Born: Alfonso García Robles, Mexican diplomat and politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, 1982; in Zamora (d. 1991) ==March 21, 1911 (Tuesday)== *The tercentary (300th anniversary) of the introduction of the King James Version of the Bible was observed. After being presented with a specially bound copy by the Reverend Randall Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury, King George V remarked, "During 300 years, multiplying millions of English-speaking races, spreading ever more widely over the surface of the globe, have turned in their need to the grand simplicity of the authorized version, and drawn upon its inexhaustible springs of wisdom for their courage and joys." *Canada's Department of Immigration turned away 165 African-Americans who were attempting to move there from Oklahoma."Record of Current Events", The American Monthly Review of Reviews (May 1911), pp548–552 *Born: W. Lincoln Hawkins, African-American inventor, including antioxidant that made inexpensive telephone wire insulation possible, in Washington, DC (d. 1992) ==March 22, 1911 (Wednesday)== *The University of Porto was founded in the Portuguese city of the same name."Brief History of the University of Porto" *The , Germany's first turbine powered battleship, was launched from the shipyard in Kiel, on the birthday of the late Kaiser Wilhelm I (1797–1888). *Born: Bienvenido Santos, Philippine poet, in Manila (d. 1996) ==March 23, 1911 (Thursday)== *The Australian ship sank in a cyclone, with 122 persons on board. After leaving the Queensland port of Mackay at 1:30 pm en route to Townsville, the ship never arrived. The undersea wreckage was rediscovered in 1958, and is now a popular attraction for scuba divers."Tribute to mark Yongala 100th anniversary", Townsville (Queensland) Bulletin, January 13, 2011; "Scuba Dive the Wreck of SS Yongala" , SydneyUnderworld.com ==March 24, 1911 (Friday)== *For the first time in history, more than 10 people flew in an airplane at the same time. Roger Sommer and 13 passengers went aloft from Mouzon, France and then landed there again.Thomas C. Parramore, First to Fly: North Carolina and the Beginnings of Aviation (UNC Press Books, 2003) p142 *The New York's highest court unanimously ruled that the state workers' compensation law, one of the first in the nation, was an unconstitutional deprivation of property (the right for an employee to sue an employer in court) without due process."Court Invalidates New Liability Law", New York Times, March 25, 1911, p3 The objection was fixed by a new law giving workers the option to reject the act.Philip Dray, There Is Power in a Union: The Epic Story of Labor in America (Random House, Inc., 2010) *Born: Joseph Barbera, American cartoonist and co-founder of Hanna-Barbera, in Los Angeles (d. 2006) *Died: Stanley Robison, 54, owner of baseball's St. Louis Cardinals, died two weeks before the start of the season. His sudden death paved the way for his niece, Helene Britton, to become the first woman to own a major league sports team. ==March 25, 1911 (Saturday)== *Five minutes before the work week was scheduled to end, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire broke out on the 8th floor of the Asch Building at 23 Washington Place in New York City. The 8th, 9th and 10th floors of the building housed a company that made women's blouses, at that time referred to as shirtwaists. Although the building was fireproof (and still stands), the cotton material used in the factory was flammable, and investigations concluded that the fire started when a cigarette ignited a rag bin. Around 500 employees, mostly women and girls, worked at the factory, and many escaped through a rear exit. Another exit was locked from the outside, and those persons who were trapped, trampled, burned, or jumped to their deaths over the next thirty minutes. A total of 123 female employees died, along with 23 men."Remembering The Triangle Factory Fire"], Cornell University; Leon Stein and William Greider, The Triangle Fire (Cornell University Press, 2001) p11; "141 MEN AND GIRLS DIE IN WAIST FACTORY FIRE; TRAPPED HIGH UP IN WASHINGTON PLACE BUILDING; STREET STREWN WITH BODIES; PILES OF DEAD INSIDE", New York Times, March 26, 1911, p1 list of victims . The tragedy horrified the nation, and led to fire code and labor law reforms. *Jim Wells County, Texas, was established. *Born: Jack Ruby, American nightclub owner, and killer of Lee Harvey Oswald; as Jack Rubenstein in Chicago (d. 1967) ==March 26, 1911 (Sunday)== *The first 19 United States Postal Savings System banks were established, and 25 more the following day, with the intent of opening one in each of the 46 states in the United States. Locations were determined, not by geography, but by merit to the most efficient post office of each state. Thus, the central depository for the state of New York was in Cohoes, while the post offices in Pekin, Illinois and Oroville, California received deposits in those states."Postal Savings Stamps of U.S.", by H.L. Wiley, "Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News", May 2, 1914, p1 *Born: **Tennessee Williams, American playwright (A Streetcar Named Desire, The Glass Menagerie, etc.) as Thomas Lanier Williams, in Columbus, Mississippi (d. 1983) **J.L. Austin, British author and philosopher, in Lancaster (d. 1960) **Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in Leipzig (d. 2003) *Died: Henry Sylvester Williams, 42, founder of the African Association and Pan-Africanism activist. ==March 27, 1911 (Monday)== *The City of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, was founded when voters in the small village of 143 inhabitants voted to incorporate. The state legislature approved the town charter on June 2.Susan Gillis, Fort Lauderdale: The Venice of America (Arcadia Publishing, 2004), p22 The city, which in 2011 had nearly 180,000 residents, observed March 27, 2011 as its centennial date.City of Fort Lauderdale, Florida website *William Henry Lewis was sworn in as United States Assistant Attorney General, making him the highest ranking African-American federal official. Lewis had been appointed by President Taft in October, but the U.S. Senate had adjourned before voting on whether to confirm him, allowing Lewis to assume the post pending confirmation."William H. Lewis Takes Oath of Federal Position", Boston Morning Journal, March 28, 1911 ==March 28, 1911 (Tuesday)== *The four men of the "Lost Patrol" were laid to rest by the Royal North-West Mounted Police (forerunner of the R.C.M.P.) at Fort McPherson in the Canada's North-West Territories. The four—Inspector Francis J. Fitzgerald, Constables Richard O. Taylor and George F. Kinney, and their guide, Special Constable Sam Carter had departed on the Police's traditional mid-winter 620 mile endurance trip from Fort McPherson to Dawson City. The group lost its way and ran out of its 30-day rations in January, and died while trying to get back to the Fort. The annual patrol was discontinued after 1921."The Lost Patrol", Royal Canadian Mounted Police website ==March 29, 1911 (Wednesday)== thumb|right|March 29, 1911: The New York State Capitol fire *The United States Army formally adopted the .45 caliber M1911 pistol as its standard sidearm. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Marines followed suit in 1913. Originally manufactured by Colt, the gun was used by generations of soldiers worldwide, retaining the M1911 name from the year of its first widespread use. *A fire broke out at the library of the New York State Capitol in Albany at 2:00 am, hours after legislators had adjourned for the night. The blaze destroyed more than 600,000 books, and manuscripts, many of them irreplaceable. Night watchman Samuel Abbott was the sole casualty. ==March 30, 1911 (Thursday)== *The University of Hong Kong was incorporated.Growing With Hong Kong: The University and its Graduates (Hong Kong University Press, 2002) p25 *Died: Ellen Swallow Richards, 68, American chemist and environmental engineer. She was the first female student at MIT and its first woman instructor. ==March 31, 1911 (Friday)== *Jerusalem's Mayor, Raghib al- Nashashibi and 150 prominent Arabs in Palestine sent a cable to the Turkish parliament, urging the Ottoman nation to stop further sales of land in Palestine to Jewish immigrants.Aryeh L. Avneri, The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-settlement and the Arabs, 1878-1948 (Transaction Publishers, 1984) p114 *Born: **Elisabeth Grümmer, German Alsatian soprano, in Diedenhofen, Elsass–Lothringen, Germany (now Thionville, Moselle, France) (d. 1986) **Dong Kingman, American artist, in Oakland, California (d. 2000) **Freddie Green, jazz guitarist, in Charleston, South Carolina (d. 1987) ==References== 1911 *1911-03 *1911-03
|
Verbal overshadowing is a phenomenon where giving a verbal description of sensory input impairs formation of memories of that input. This was first reported by Schooler and Engstler-Schooler (1990) where it was shown that the effects can be observed across multiple domains of cognition which are known to rely on non-verbal knowledge and perceptual expertise. One example of this is memory, which has been known to be influenced by language. Seminal work by Carmichael and collaborators (1932) demonstrated that when verbal labels are connected to non-verbal forms during an individual's encoding process, it could potentially bias the way those forms are reproduced. Because of this, memory performance relying on reportable aspects of memory that encode visual forms should be vulnerable to the effects of verbalization. ==Initial findings== Schooler and Engstler-Schooler (1990) were the first to report findings of verbal overshadowing. In their study, participants watched a video of a simulated robbery and were instructed to either verbally describe the robber or engage in a control task. Those who engaged in giving a verbal description were less likely to correctly identify the robber from a test lineup, compared to those who engaged in the control task. A larger effect was detected when the verbal description was provided 20, rather than 5, minutes after the video, and immediately before the test lineup. A meta-analysis by Meissner and Brigham (2008) supported the effects of verbal overshadowing, showing a small but reliably negative effect. ==General effects of verbal overshadowing== thumb|Example of experiment by Carmichael et al. (1932) The effects of verbal overshadowing have been generalized across multiple domains of cognition that are known to rely on non-verbal knowledge and perceptual expertise, such as memory. Memory has been known to be influenced by language. Seminal work by Carmichael and collaborators (1932) demonstrated that labels attached to, or associated with, non-verbal forms during memory encoding can affect the way the forms were subsequently reproduced. Because of this, memory performance that relies on reportable aspects of memory that encode visual forms should be vulnerable to the effects of verbalization. Pelizzon, Brandimonte, and Luccio (2002) found that visual memory representations appear to incorporate visual, spatial, and temporal characteristics. It is explained as follows: Hatano, Ueno, Kitagami, and Kawaguchi found that verbal overshadowing is likely to occur when participants verbally described targets in detail. Detailed verbal descriptions resulted in more frequently inaccurate descriptions that in turn created inaccurate representations in the memories of participants. Inaccuracies are also likely to occur when face recognition comes immediately after verbalization. Other forms of non-verbal knowledge affected by verbal overshadowing include the following: Verbalization of stimuli leads to the disruption of non-reportable processes that are necessary for achieving insight solutions, which are distinct from language processes. Schooler, Ohlsson, and Brooks (1993) found that face recognition requires information that cannot be adequately verbalized, giving rise to difficulty in describing factors in recognition judgments. Subjects were less effective in solving insight problems when compelled to put their thoughts in words, which suggests that language may interfere with thought. The verbal overshadowing effect was not seen when participants engaged in articulatory suppression. Performance was reduced in both the verbal and non-verbal description conditions. This is evidence that verbal encoding plays a role in face recognition. By testing with distracting faces presented between study and test, Lloyd-Jones and Brown (2008) suggested a dual-process approach to recognition memory took place, that verbalization influenced familiarity-based processes at first, but its effects were later seen on recollection, when discrimination between items became more difficult. ==Verbal overshadowing in facial recognition== The verbal overshadowing effect can be found for facial recognition because faces are predominately processed in a holistic or configurable manner. (Tanaka & Farah, 1993; Tanaka & Sengco, 1997) Verbalizing one's memory for a face is done using a featural or analytic strategy, leading to a drift from the configurable information about the face and to impaired recognition performance. However, Fallshore & Schooler (1995) found that the verbal overshadowing effect was not found when participants described faces of races different from their own. A study by Brown and Lloyd-Jones (2003) found that there was no verbal overshadowing effect found in car descriptions; it was only seen in facial descriptions. The authors noted that descriptions were no different on any measure including accuracy. It is suggested that less expertise in verbalizing faces rather than cars invokes a stronger shift in verbal and featural processing. This supports the concept of a transfer inappropriate retrieval framework and addresses some limitations of the effect. Wickham and Swift (2006) suggested that the verbal overshadowing effect is not seen in describing all faces, and one aspect that determines this is distinctiveness. Results showed that typical faces produce verbal overshadowing, while distinctive faces did not. In studies of eyewitness reports, variation in response criteria given by participants influenced the quality of the descriptions generated and accuracy on identification task, known as the retrieval-based effect. Face recognition was also impaired when subjects described a familiar face, such as a parent, or when describing a previously seen but novel face. Dodson, Johnson, and Schooler (1997) found that recognition was also impaired when participants were provided with a description of a previously seen face, and they were able to ignore provided versus self-generated descriptions more easily. This finding of verbal overshadowing suggested that eyewitness recognition is not only affected by their own descriptions, but of descriptions heard from others, such other eyewitness testimonies. ==Voice recognition== The verbal overshadowing effect has also been found to affect voice identification. Research shows that describing a non-verbal stimuli leads to a decrease in recognition accuracy. In an unpublished study by Schooler, Fiore, Melcher, and Ambadar (1996), participants listened to a tape-recorded voice, after which they were asked either to verbally describe it or to not do so, and then asked to distinguish the voice from 3 similar distractor voices. The results showed that verbal overshadowing impaired accuracy of recognition based on gut feeling, suggesting an overall verbal overshadowing for voice recognition. Due to the forensic relevance of voices heard over the telephone and harassing phone calls that are often a problem for police, Perfect, Hunt, and Harris (2002) examined the influence of three factors on accuracy and confidence in voice recognition from a line-up. They expected to find an effect, because voice represents a class of stimuli that is difficult to describe verbally. This meets Schooler et al.'s (1997) modality mismatch criterion, meaning that describing the speakers age, gender, or accent is difficult, making voice recognition susceptible to the verbal overshadowing phenomenon. It was found that the method of memory encoding had no impact on performance, and that hearing a telephone voice reduced confidence but did not affect accuracy. They also found that providing a verbal description impaired accuracy but had no effect on confidence. The data showed an effect of verbal overshadowing in voice recognition and provided yet another disassociation between confidence and performance. Although there was a difference in confidence level, witnesses were able to identify voices over the telephone as accurately as voices heard directly. The authors stated, "This effect is useful in the respect that it demonstrates that the lack of a confidence effect with verbal overshadowing is not due to low sensitivity of the confidence measure". (p. 979) The data from the study suggested that the main effect of verbal overshadowing was seen mainly in the telephone voices. They also stated, "However, because of the statistical limitations, it is perhaps best not to over-interpret this finding until it is replicated in a larger sample". (P.979) Perfect, Hunt, and Harris (2002) did a small-scale study that showed a reliable verbal overshadowing effect on voice identification, thus confirming previous research that showed verbally describing a to-be-recognized (non- verbal) stimulus leads to decrease in recognition accuracy without reducing confidence. This disassociation between performance and confidence offers scope to test theoretical accounts of the verbal overshadowing phenomena, and it is an issue that has been neglected so far. A more recent study by Wilson, Seale-Carlisle, and Mickes (2017) found that confidence is predictive of accuracy in verbal overshadowing. They found that high confidence identifications are lower in accuracy compared to what was observed in the lineups. Other results from their study concluded that police should encourage reporting crimes immediately and take down descriptions of perpetrators as soon as possible in order to reduce the effects of verbal overshadowing. ==Recognition criteria== The verbal overshadowing effect may effect changes in recognition criteria rather than in processing style or underlying memory. One explanation for the effect is based on a shift in a person's recognition criteria, or increased hesitancy in choosing someone from a lineup. Verbalization leads witnesses to use more precise or exact recognition criteria, therefore lowering identification rates, the phenomena can be captured by a shift in recognition criteria. Placement of recognition criteria affects performance. With conservative criteria, people are unwilling to identify anyone in a lineup, but with liberal criteria, identification rates are greater. The criterion effect is persistent and known to play a large part in recognition paradigms that allow voluntary responses, moreso when there is a tradeoff between quantity and accuracy. However, with the criterion effect controlled, confidence and perceived difficulty cannot account for the effects of verbalization. The verbal overshadowing effect is caused by strict recognition criteria that only affect identification rates when a "not present" response is possible. Clare and Lewandowsky (2004) found that verbalization can have a positive effect on identification. Although resulting in fewer correct identifications from lineups, it also reduced the number of false identification rates within lineups. Because of this, verbalization may protect innocent suspects from being falsely identified as perpetrators, suggesting that not all effects of verbalization on eyewitnesses are bad. With the standard description instructions in place, verbal overshadowing occurs because people have become more reluctant to identify someone from a lineup after they provide a description of the perpetrator. The criterion-effect explanation is one that accounts for a large verbal overshadowing effect in optional lineups, the absence of a verbal overshadowing effect with forced choice identification, and the advantageous effect of verbalization with optional-choice lineups. ==Retrieval-based interference theory== Some researchers (e.g. Hunt and Carroll, Clare and Lewandowsky) hypothesize that verbal overshadowing is caused by retrieval-based interference, which is a change to the original memory trace made during verbalization of the given memory. Verbalizing of a non-verbal stimulus brings a verbal memory representation of that stimulus. When tested, this interferes with the original perceptual memory representation on which accurate recognition performance depends. The content of verbalization influences the outcome of identification by retroactively interfering with the original memory trace. Studies have found that when participants were forced to provide detailed descriptions of perpetrators, even if this involved guessing, a larger verbal overshadowing effect resulted than when they were discouraged from guessing. The inaccuracy is thought to be caused by descriptions interfering with the earlier memory. Finger and Pezdek (1999) took this as a retroactive interference effect on memory, caused by higher verbalization when participants completed a complicated rather than an easy task. Meissner and Brigham (2001) showed that when participants were allowed to guess when forced to provide a detailed description of a robber, the size of the verbal overshadowing effect was greater than when they were discouraged from guessing. Verbalization interfered with performance on new and familiar faces, but it did not interfere with priming. They argued that verbalization encouraged a long-lasting shift toward greater visual processing of individual facial features at the expense of more global visual processing (which is, for the most part, beneficial in recognition of faces and important for discriminating faces from non-faces in the face-decision task. Verbally describing a visual memory of a face can interfere with subsequent visual recognition of that face. Retrieval-based interference has been challenged by several findings and by the fact that verbal overshadowing can have an effect on description beyond a specific face, to other, undescribed faces. ==Recoding interference hypothesis== According to the recoding interference hypothesis, verbalizing non-verbal memory makes the visual representations less accurate. The recoding interference hypothesis predicts that verbal overshadowing will occur more readily if participants generate less accurate verbal descriptions. A computational model detected core processing principles of the recoding interference hypothesis to simulate facial recognition, and it reproduced these behavioral phenomena as well as verbal overshadowing, providing an account as to why target description accuracy does not linearly predict recognition accuracy. The study addressed the replicability issues in verbal overshadowing. Hatano et al. (2015) stated: The study found that verbalization changed the nature of representations, rather than shifting the types of processing. Then, this recoded representation was used for (or affected) subsequent visual recognition and resulted in a failure in computing item- specific information. The phenomena from the study are predictable from the recoding interference hypothesis. It is explained as follows by the authors: The researchers found that generated verbal descriptions affected not just the polarity (familiarity) values of "old" items but also those of "new" items, as a function of how accurately the descriptions captured the distractor faces. This was the reason why target-description accuracy in isolation does not necessarily predict the effect of verbal overshadowing in a linear fashion. The model links verbal and visual code as in the face-recognition model. Verbal descriptions predicted recognition impairment and indicated that theory about interference in the memory domain is potentially useful when discussing the verbalization effect on non-verbal recognition. The study also noted that it did not consider whether this account can be extended to the visual-imagery domain beyond facial recognition. Brandimonte and Collina (2008) conducted three experiments that support a retrieval based, recording-interference explanation of verbal overshadowing. They found that the effects of verbal overshadowing can be attenuated by reactivating featural aspects of a stimulus, with any cues that trigger the activation of featural representations. ==Transfer inappropriate retrieval hypothesis== The transfer inappropriate retrieval (TIR) hypothesis states that activation of the verbal processes needed for a description stops the following application of nonverbal face recognition processes without changing the memory of the perpetrator. TIR theory does not expect the accuracy of verbalization to be related to accuracy of identification. All that is required for verbal overshadowing to happen is the act of verbalizing, to put a description into words, which produces an expected processing shift to an inappropriate style. This explains the generalization of interference to non-described faces as well as to described ones. The TIR hypothesis assumes the original memory trace of the target remains and becomes temporarily inaccessible, rather than being permanently changed by verbalization. Verbalization leads cognitive processing to an inappropriate style, which stops retrieval of the non-verbal information needed for facial recognition. Verbal overshadowing comes solely because "verbalization indices inappropriate processing operations which area incommensurate with the processes required for successful recognition performance, that is, there is a transfer inappropriate processing shift". A shift is not tied to a particular item that has been previously coded, but rather generalizes to new stimuli that have not been encountered before. It is proposed that verbalization requires a shift to verbal processing, and this shift obstructs the application of non-verbal (face-specific) processing in the following face recognition test. The key difference from other hypotheses is whether an operation-specific representation is postulated or not. Also referred to as the processing shift account, TIR proposes that verbal overshadowing does not comes from conflicting representations, but from the effect that verbal description has in leading participants to switch from an appropriate to an inappropriate mode of processing, which carries over to the recognition test. Hunt and Carroll (2008) reported results supporting this interpretation. They found that, According to this hypothesis, participants in the proximal imagining condition were more impaired because they encoded the target face at first using a holistic, non-verbal, and non-analytic process. After, a switch was made to explicit, analytic processing, to write or verbalize their description. They then failed to revert to critical non- verbal, holistic mode, which is more effective in making a recognition decision. Contrary to that, participants in the distal imagining condition experienced less disruption from having verbalized the faces prior to the recognition test, adopting instead a distal time perspective, which is known to facilitate abstract or holistic thinking. (Forster et al., 2004) The study found a verbal overshadowing effect when participants were forced to engage in extensive verbalization by making them fill out a blank, lined page with a description of the previously seen face. This effect was not observed when participants were not forced to engage in this extensive verbalization. This suggested that prevention of verbal overshadowing in real life situations can be effected with a manipulation, such as encouraging global thinking. Consistent with TIR, a study by Dehon, Vanootighem, and Bredart (2013) showed the absence of correlation between descriptor accuracy, vocabulary performance, and correct identification. Neither quality nor quantity of descriptors affected identification accuracy, which was only impacted by the act of verbally describing a face. The results held for the immediate test condition, "post-encoding delay", consistent with the hypothesis. This suggested that the content of description is irrelevant and that the verbal overshadowing effect occurred due to a shift in featural processing caused by the verbalization, thus supporting the TIR. Westerman and Larsen (1997) suggested that verbal overshadowing effects are more pervasive that initially believed. They showed that verbal description can impair face recognition when the described object is not the recognition target. This extends findings from Dodson et al. (1997) to a situation where face recognition is impaired by the description of a non-face object. Consistent with TIR, this points to a general shift in face-recognition processing as a result of producing a description of any object. Some problems with this theory are that identification accuracy can be affected even if no retrieval operations are involved and that unrelated nonverbal processes can alleviate the effect of verbalization on identification. ==Signal detection theory== Signal detection theory views impaired recognition as caused by a reduced ability to discriminate, that reduced discriminability in test suspects is a consequence of describing the robber or perpetrator. ==Who is susceptible?== The verbal overshadowing effect on face identification was found in children as well as adults, with neither accuracy of description, delay, nor target presence in lineup being found to be associated with accuracy. Age increased the number of accurate descriptors produced but not incorrect ones, suggesting that children produce less detailed but not less accurate descriptions than adults. This study holds for 7-8, 10-11, and 13-14 year olds. Further research is needed to detect under which conditions this phenomenon may hold, even in more "ecologically valid" situations. Older adults have been found to be less affected than young adults by the verbal overshadowing effect. In a study similar to Schooler et al. (1990), Kinlen, Adams-Price, and Henley (2007) showed the following: The findings suggested that verbal expertise, as seen in older adults, may decrease effects of verbal overshadowing in a face recognition task. ==See also== * Articulatory suppression * Cognitive interview * Decline effect ==References== Category:Cognitive psychology Category:Face perception Category:Memory Category:Speech recognition
|
Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683), personal name Li Zhi, was the third emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the future Wu Zetian), and her decrees were carried out with greater force than the decrees of Emperor Gaozong's. Emperor Gaozong was the youngest son of Emperor Taizong and Empress Zhangsun; his elder brothers were Li Chengqian and Li Tai. Emperor Gaozong's reign saw the primacy of Empress Wu, who became the effective power behind the Tang rule. Emperor Gaozong was aided in his rule by Empress Wu during the later years of his reign after a series of strokes left him incapacitated. Emperor Gaozong effectively after January 665 delegated all matters of state to his strong wife; After that Empress Wu acted as the power behind the emperor, "hanging the curtain and listening to politics" (Chuílián tīngzhèng 垂簾聼政). Gaozong's personal illness, over-affection and trust of Wu and led to her wielding a great deal of power in affairs of state until the end of his reign and exert her influence on him. Empress Wu was partially in control of power since November 660 and then totally since January 665 to December 683; There was an equality of power between Gaozong and Wu, which caused them to be called "two saints" (二聖, Er Sheng, literally two emperors) both inside and outside. After Emperor Gaozong died in December 683, power fell completely and solely into the hands of Empress Wu, act as Empress Dowager-regent, "presiding over court and issuing edicts" (lin chao chengzhi 臨朝稱制); Who subsequently became the only empress regnant in Chinese history. After his death, he was interred at the Qianling Mausoleum along with Wu Zetian. During the first part of his reign, Tang territorial gains, which started with his father Emperor Taizong, continued, including the conquest of Baekje, Goguryeo, and the Western Turkic Khaganate, but throughout the 670s, much of those gains were lost to the Tibetan Empire, Silla, Khitan, and Balhae. Further, territory previously conquered that belonged to both the Göktürks and the Western Turkic Khaganate were subjected to repeated rebellions. ==Background and life as Prince of Jin== Li Zhi was born in 628. He was the ninth son of his father, Emperor Taizong, and the third son of his mother, Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun. In 631, he was created the Prince of Jin. In 633, he was made commandant of Bing Prefecture (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), but remained at the capital Chang'an rather than reporting to Bing Prefecture. When Empress Zhangsun died in 636, Emperor Taizong was particularly touched by the grief that Li Zhi displayed, and from that point on particularly favored him. Sometime while he was the Prince of Jin, at the recommendation of his grand aunt Princess Tong'an, he married the grandniece of Princess Tong'an's husband Wang Yu () as his wife and princess. Meanwhile, Li Zhi's two older brothers by Empress Zhangsun, Li Chengqian the Crown Prince and Li Tai the Prince of Wei, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Tai was favored by Emperor Taizong for his talent and was trying to displace Li Chengqian. Li Chengqian, in fear, entered into a conspiracy with the general Hou Junji, his uncle Li Yuanchang () the Prince of Han, the imperial guard commander Li Anyan (), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節, who was also his cousin) and Du He () to overthrow Emperor Taizong. The plot was discovered in 643, and Emperor Taizong deposed Li Chengqian. He was initially going to make Li Tai the new crown prince, but later began to believe that Li Tai's machinations were responsible for Li Chengqian's downfall. The powerful chancellor Zhangsun Wuji – Empress Zhangsun's brother—suggested that he make Li Zhi crown prince, a possibility that Li Tai was apprehensive about. Li Tai tried to intimidate Li Zhi, who had been friendly with Li Yuanchang, by pointing out to Li Zhi that Li Yuanchang had been part of the plot and that he should be concerned for himself. When Emperor Taizong noticed Li Zhi worrying about this and was told by Li Zhi of Li Tai's intimidation, Emperor Taizong's mind became set. He exiled Li Tai, and on 30 April 643,According to Taizong's biography in the Old Book of Tang, Li Zhi was made crown prince on the bingxu day of the 4th month of the 17th year of the Zhenguan era of Taizong's reign. This date corresponds to 30 Apr 643 on the Gregorian calendar. [(貞觀十七年四月)丙戌，立晉王治為皇太子,...] Old Book of Tang, vol. 3 he created Li Zhi the new crown prince. He made Zhangsun and two other senior chancellors, Fang Xuanling and Xiao Yu, senior advisors to Li Zhi, and made another chancellor, Li Shiji, the head of Li Zhi's household. At the advice of another key official, Liu Ji, who pointed out that the crown prince needed to have a group of well-learned scholars that he was close to, Emperor Taizong appointed Liu, as well as Cen Wenben, Chu Suiliang, and Ma Zhou, to serve as Li Zhi's friends and advisors. ==As Crown Prince== Late in 643, Emperor Taizong issued an edict to select beautiful women among good households to serve as Li Zhi's concubines. However, after Li Zhi declined such treatment, Emperor Taizong cancelled the edict. However, during his years as crown prince, he was said to have favored his concubine Consort Xiao, having two daughters (the later Princesses Yiyang and Xuan Cheng) and one son (Li Sujie) with her, much to the chagrin of his wife Crown Princess Wang, who was childless and jealous of Consort Xiao. Three other concubines of his bore his other sons Li Zhong, Li Xiao (), and Li Shangjin (). Around the same time, however, Emperor Taizong also became concerned that Li Zhi, who was considered kind but weak in character, would not be strong enough to be an emperor, and secretly discussed with Zhangsun Wuji the possibility of making another son by his concubine Consort Yang (daughter of Emperor Yang of Sui), Li Ke the Prince of Wu, crown prince. Zhangsun repeatedly opposed the idea, and Emperor Taizong did not carry this out.(帝初以晉王為太子，又欲立恪，長孫無忌固爭，帝曰：“公豈以非己甥邪？且兒英果類我，若保護舅氏，未可知。”無忌曰：“晉王仁厚，守文之良主，且舉棋不定則敗，況儲位乎？”帝乃止。) New Book of Tang, vol.80 In 645, when Emperor Taizong launched a campaign against Goguryeo, he took Li Zhi with him to Ding Prefecture (定州, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei) and then left Li Zhi there to be in charge of logistics, before heading to the front himself. He also left senior officials Gao Shilian, Liu Ji, Ma Zhou, Zhang Xingcheng, and Gao Jifu to assist Li Zhi. After the campaign ended in failure later that year, as Emperor Taizong was leading the army back from the front, Li Zhi went to meet him at Linyu Pass (臨渝關, now Shanhai Pass). Emperor Taizong suffered an injury during the campaign, and Li Zhi was said to have, as Emperor Taizong's conditions were getting worse, sucked the pus out of his wound, until Emperor Taizong recovered somewhat. In 646, with Emperor Taizong still recovering, he transferred some of the imperial authorities to Li Zhi. Li Zhi stayed at the imperial palace and attended to Emperor Taizong in his illness. That year, when Emperor Taizong was due to visit Ling Prefecture (靈州, roughly modern Yinchuan, Ningxia) to meet with a number of tribal chiefs who were formerly vassals of Xueyantuo—which had collapsed under Tang and Huige attacks earlier that year—he was set to take Li Zhi with him, but at Zhang's suggestion left Li Zhi in charge at Chang'an instead, to allow Li Zhi to become more familiar with the important affairs of state in his absence. After Emperor Taizong returned from Ling Prefecture, he retained for himself the authorities over imperial worship, state guests, military, the commissioning of officers of higher than the fifth rank, and executions, and transferred all other authorities to Li Zhi. In 647, a commoner named Duan Zhichong () submitted a petition to Emperor Taizong, asking him to pass the throne to Li Zhi. Li Zhi, concerned that Emperor Taizong might be offended, was worried and grieving, and Zhangsun suggested that Duan be executed. Emperor Taizong did not take offense and did not punish Duan or Li Zhi. Meanwhile, Li Zhi began to build a Buddhist temple named Daci'en Temple () in commemoration of his mother Empress Zhangsun, and the temple was completed in 648. In 649, while at the summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮, in the Qin Mountains), Emperor Taizong was gravely ill, and he, while impressed with Li Shiji's abilities, was concerned that Li Shiji was too able and would not submit to Li Zhi. He stated to Li Zhi: He then demoted Li Shiji to the post of the commandant of Die Prefecture (疊州, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu). Li Shiji, realizing what was happening, after receiving the order, departed without hesitation. As Emperor Taizong's illness was getting more serious, Li Zhi continuously attended to him and wept constantly, often going without food, which touched Emperor Taizong greatly. Emperor Taizong entrusted Li Zhi to Zhangsun and Chu Suiliang, and then died on 10 July 649.According to Taizong's and Gaozong's biographies in the Old Book of Tang, Taizong died on the jisi day in the 5th month of the 23rd year of the Zhenguan era of his reign. This date corresponds to 10 Jul 649 on the Gregorian calendar. [(貞觀)二十三年五月己巳，太宗崩。] Old Book of Tang, vol.4. Initially, Li Zhi was so mournful that he could not carry out any actions other than holding onto the necks of Zhangsun and Chu. Zhangsun, while mourning himself, reminded Li Zhi that he was now in charge of the empire and must act accordingly. Zhangsun also ordered that Emperor Taizong's death not be announced for the time being, and then, the next day, accompanied Li Zhi back to Chang'an. Zhangsun issued several edicts in Emperor Taizong's name—including making Yu Zhining, Zhang, and Gao Jifu chancellors. Two days later, Emperor Taizong's death was officially announced. On 15 July,According to Gaozong's biography in the Old Book of Tang, he ascended the throne on the jiaxu day in the 6th month of the 23rd year of the Zhenguan era of Taizong's reign. This date corresponds to 15 Jul 649 on the Gregorian calendar. [(貞觀二十三年)六月甲戌朔，皇太子即皇帝位。] Old Book of Tang, vol.4.， Li Zhi took the throne (as Emperor Gaozong). ==Reign as Emperor== thumb|Tang shieldbearer During his 34-year reign, he was unable to exercise power alone and was under the control of several of his great ministers and his wife, Empress Wu. The order of the regents were: *Zhangsun Wuji and Yu Zhining (649-659) *Han Yuan, Lai Ji and Liu Shi (649-658) *Li Ji and Chu Suiliang (649-658) *Empress Wu (660-683) ===Early reign: Political struggles=== ====Yonghui era (650–656)==== Emperor Gaozong's first move as emperor was to cancel a second campaign against Goguryeo that Emperor Taizong had planned for later 649. While Li Tai was disallowed from attending Emperor Taizong's funeral, Emperor Gaozong permitted him to again have a staff and be allowed to use wagons, clothes, and foods of high quality. Emperor Gaozong created his wife Crown Princess Wang empress and made her father Wang Renyou () the Duke of Wei. It was said that early in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he greatly respected both his uncle Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang and followed their advice, and that therefore, during this part of his reign, the government was organized well and the people were comforted, much like during the reign of Emperor Taizong, although in winter 650, Chu was accused of forcibly purchasing private land and paying below- market price, and was demoted to be a prefectural prefect. (Chu eventually returned to power in 653.) Also in 650, the general Gao Kan () – whose army had been launched by Emperor Taizong against the newly reconstituted Göktürk state under Chebi Khan Ashina Hubo prior to Emperor Taizong's death—captured Ashina Hubo and brought him back to Chang'an. Emperor Gaozong spared Ashina Hubo and made him a general, putting his people directly under Tang rule. Meanwhile, with two of the states of the Western Regions previously conquered by Tang and governed by Tang-installed kings, Kucha and Karasahr in disturbance, Emperor Taizong returned their previously captured kings, Bai Helibushibi () and Long Tuqizhi () respectively, to their thrones. In 651, the Western Turkic Khaganate prince Ashina Helu, who had sought and received protection from Emperor Taizong, broke away from Tang and defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate's Yipishekui Khan, taking over the Western Turkic Khaganate himself and no longer subordinate under Tang. In fall 651, Ashina Helu attacked Tang's Ting Prefecture (庭州, roughly Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang), and Emperor Gaozong responded by commissioning the generals Liang Jianfang () and Qibi Heli () to attack Ashina Helu. Liang and Qibi achieved some victories against Ashina Helu's general Zhuxie Guzhu (), but then withdrew without engaging Ashina Helu. Meanwhile, as Empress Wang was sonless, her uncle, the chancellor Liu Shi, suggested to her that she ask Emperor Gaozong to create his oldest son Li Zhong, whose mother Consort Liu was of low birth and therefore considered nonthreatening, crown prince so that Li Zhong would be grateful of her in the future. Liu also persuaded Zhangsun to suggest the idea as well, and in fall 652, Emperor Gaozong created Li Zhong crown prince. By this point, however, Empress Wang was facing a major threat from another romantic rival. When Emperor Gaozong was crown prince, he had an affair with one of Emperor Taizong's concubines, Consort Wu. After Emperor Taizong's death, all of his concubines who did not bear sons, which included Wu, were housed at Ganye Temple () to be Buddhist nuns. In either 650 or 651,The modern historian Bo Yang, based on the fact that Empress Wu's oldest son Li Hong was born in 652, fixed the date of this incident as 650, but 651 is also a possibility. See Bo Yang Edition of Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 47. Emperor Gaozong was visiting Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha when he saw Consort Wu. Both of them wept. When Empress Wang heard this, she, wanting to divert Emperor Gaozong's favor from Consort Xiao, secretly instructed Consort Wu to grow her hair back, while suggesting to Emperor Gaozong that he take her as a concubine. Consort Wu was intelligent and full of machinations, and therefore, when she first returned to the palace, she acted humbly and flattered Empress Wang, who trusted her greatly and recommended her to Emperor Gaozong. Soon, Emperor Gaozong became enamored with Consort Wu. Meanwhile, Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Gaoyang and her husband Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛, Fang Xuanling's son), were implicated in 652 of conspiring with another brother-in-law Chai Lingwu (), the general Xue Wanche () and Emperor Gaozong's uncle Li Yuanjing () the Prince of Jing to make Li Yuanjing emperor. Fang, knowing that Zhangsun had long been apprehensive of Li Ke, falsely implicated Li Ke in the plot as well, hoping to ingratiate Zhangsun sufficiently that he would be spared. nevertheless, in spring 653, at the suggestion of Zhangsun and Cui Dunli – despite Emperor Gaozong's initial inclination to spare Li Yuanjing and Li Ke—Emperor Gaozong ordered that Fang, Xue, and Chai be executed, and that Li Yuanjing, Li Ke, and the Princesses Gaoyang and Baling (Chai's wife) be forced to commit suicide. Zhangsun took this opportunity to accuse several other officials friendly with Fang or hostile to him—the chancellor Yuwen Jie, Li Daozong the Prince of Jiangxia, and the general Zhishi Sili () – of being friendly with Fang and had them exiled. He also deposed and exiled Li Ke's mother Consort Yang and Consort Yang's other son Li Yin () the Prince of Shu, as well as Fang's brother Fang Yizhi () and Xue's brother Xue Wanbei (). By 654, both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao had lost favor with Emperor Gaozong, and the former romantic rivals joined forces against Consort Wu, but to no avail, and as a sign of his love to Consort Wu, in 654 he conferred posthumous honors on her father Wu Shihuo (). Later that year, Consort Wu gave birth to a daughter that died shortly after birth. Evidence implicated Empress Wang as the killer, although some historians believe Consort Wu killed her own daughter in order to frame Empress Wang, but no concrete evidence of this exists. In anger, Emperor Gaozong considered deposing Empress Wang and replacing her with Consort Wu, but wanted to make sure that the chancellors would support this, and so visited Zhangsun's house with Consort Wu, awarding him with much treasure, but when he brought up the topic that Empress Wang was sonless (as an excuse for deposing her), Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation, and subsequent visits by Consort Wu's mother Lady Yang and the official Xu Jingzong, who was allied with Consort Wu, to seek support from Zhangsun were also to no avail. In summer 655, Consort Wu accused Empress Wang and her mother Lady Liu of using witchcraft. In response, Emperor Gaozong barred Lady Liu from the palace and demoted Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Consort Wu, including Li Yifu, Xu, Cui Yixuan (), and Yuan Gongyu (). On an occasion in fall 655, Emperor Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Shiji (who by now was using the name Li Ji to observe naming taboo for Emperor Taizong's name Li Shimin), Yu Zhining, and Chu to the palace—which Chu deduced to be regarding the matter of changing the empress. Li Ji claimed an illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Empress Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Meanwhile, other chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move, but when Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji again, Li Ji's response was, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong therefore became resolved. He demoted Chu to be a commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha, Hunan), and then deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, putting them under arrest and creating Consort Wu, as empress (皇后, huánghòu) and the most powerful woman in the empire (天下母, Tiānxià Mǔ) instead to replace Empress Wang. (Later that year, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release.) Then, at Xu's suggestion, in spring 656, Emperor Gaozong demoted Li Zhong to be the Prince of Liang and created Empress Wu's oldest son Li Hong the Prince of Dai crown prince instead. In 655 as well, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Cheng Zhijie () to attack Ashina Helu, but while the campaign saw some victories over Western Turkic Khaganate's substituent tribes Geluolu () and Chuyue (), it was hindered by Cheng's inability to restrain his assistant Wang Wendu () from pillaging and inappropriately halting the army. After the campaign ended in early 657, both Cheng and Wang were deposed from their offices. ====Xianqing era (656–661)==== In 657, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Su Dingfang, who had served under Cheng Zhijie in the earlier failed campaign, to command a campaign against Ashina Helu, assisted by Ren Yaxiang and Xiao Siye (). They were joined by the Western Turkic Khaganate's leaders Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen, who had submitted to Tang during Emperor Taizong's reign. The campaign caught Ashina Helu by surprise, and Su defeated him in several battles, causing him to flee to the kingdom Shi (石國, centering modern Tashkent, Uzbekistan), which arrested him and delivered him to Su, thus largely ending the Western Turkic Khaganate as an organized state. (Emperor Gaozong would try to continue the Western Turkic Khaganate's existence as a vassal stage by dividing it in half and creating Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen as khans of the two halves.) Meanwhile, Xu Jingzong and Li Yifu, aligned with Empress Wu, and became strong enough to fight for power, began to carry out a campaign of reprisal on her behalf. Empress Wu, on the other hand, persuaded Emperor Gaozong to work with the removal of the chancellors appointed by Emperor Taizong to consolidate the emperor's power. In 657, they accused Han Yuan and Lai Ji of plotting treason with Chu Suiliang, who was then serving as the commandant at Gui Prefecture (桂州, roughly modern Guilin, Guangxi). Emperor Gaozong demoted Han and Lai to be prefects of distant prefectures, and demoted Chu and Liu Shi to even more distant prefectures—in Chu's case, to the extremely distant Ai Prefecture (愛州, roughly modern Thanh Hóa Province, Vietnam), and Chu's subsequent petition, sent from Ai Prefecture, pleading with Emperor Gaozong, fell on deaf ears. Empress Wu's reprisals did not end there. In 659, Zhangsun Wuji became the next target. At that time, two low level officials, Wei Jifang () and Li Chao () had been accused of improper associations, and when Emperor Gaozong put Xu and Xin Maojiang of investigating, Xu falsely accused Wei and Li to be part of a treasonous plot by Zhangsun. Emperor Gaozong, without meeting with Zhangsun, believed Xu, and put Zhangsun under house arrest in exile at Qian Prefecture (黔州, roughly modern southeastern Chongqing). Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Yu was removed from his post. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of all titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu () and Chu Yanchong () were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before the execution order reached his location. Meanwhile, Zhangsun, once he reached his place of exile, was forced to commit suicide. It was said that after Han's and Lai's deaths, no official dared to criticize the emperor any further. Also in 659, a vassal of Western Turkic Khaganate (Pin. Tujue), Duman (), the commander of the Esegels (aka Izgil, , Ch. Asijie, Sijie 思結) Tribe, rebelled against Tang occupation, along with the Western Turkic Khaganate's subject kingdoms Shule (), Zhujupo (), and Yebantuo () (all in modern Kashgar, Xinjiang). The joint forces commanded by Duman quickly defeated the Tang vassal Yutian (于田, in modern Hotan, Xinjiang). In winter 659, Emperor Gaozong sent Su Dingfang against Duman, and once he arrived in the vicinity of Duman's army, he selected 10,000 infantry soldiers and 3,000 cavalry soldiers and made a surprise attack on Duman. When he arrived at Duman's headquarters, Duman was surprised, and after Su initially defeated Duman, Duman was forced to withdraw within the city. Su put the city under siege, and Duman surrendered. In spring 660, Su took Duman back to the eastern capital Luoyang, where Emperor Gaozong was at the time, to present Duman to him. Some officials requested that Duman be executed, but Su made a plea on Duman's behalf—that he had promised Duman life before Duman surrendered—and Emperor Gaozong stated that while under the law, Duman should die, he would honor Su's promise, and so he spared Duman. On the other end of the Tang atmosphere of influence, on the Korean Peninsula, Baekje had been attacking the Tang ally Silla. Once Su returned from the Esegel campaign, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to head over the sea to attack Baekje, in conjunction with Silla. Su quickly captured the Baekje capital Sabi, forcing Baekje's King Uija and his crown prince Buyeo Yung to surrender. Emperor Gaozong ordered that Baekje be annexed as Tang territory. Emperor Gaozong then followed up by commissioning Su, along with Qibi Heli, Liu Boying (), and Cheng Mingzhen (), to attack Goguryeo. In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had the opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches, persistent dizziness, occasional seizures and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related or stroke,See, Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 40, p 683. and Emperor Gaozong began to have Empress Wu make rulings on petitions and suggestions made by officials. It was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she was making correct and error-free rulings. Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened over time, and lasted until his death. If he was well, he also would accept Empress Wu's help, asking her to read the documents to him, he consulted with her on important matters and write down the rulings he had issued. Even until midnight, when he was exploring the memorials, he had Empress Wu by his side to decide if anything went wrong, and he became very dependent on her advice over time, and, as usual, because of his illness, he allowed Empress Wu to act in his name. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's, after this point on, Empress Wu became the undisputed power behind the throne until the death of Emperor Gaozong. ===Middle reign: Empress Wu's aggrandization of power=== ====Longshuo and Linde eras (661–666)==== Meanwhile, just after Su Dingfang left Baekje territory to attack Goguryeo, the Buddhist monk Dochim () and the former Baekje general Gwisil Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince Buyeo Pung back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, now Seocheon County, South Chungcheong) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan () under siege in Sabi. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Liu Rengui, who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with a relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate. Meanwhile, Su advanced on the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang and put it under siege, but was unable to capture it quickly. In spring 662, after the general Pang Xiaotai () was defeated by Goguryeo forces at Sasu River (蛇水, probably Botong River) and was killed along with his 13 sons, Su ran into harsh snowstorms and withdrew. Around the same time, after the death of the Huige chief Yaoluoge Porun (), who had been obedient to Tang, Yaoluoge Porun's nephew Yaoluoge Bisudu () rose in rebellion with the Tongluo () and Pugu () tribes in conjunction with other Tiele Confederation tribes. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Zheng Rentai () to attack the Tiele, but while Zheng was initially victorious, his officers became bogged down in pillaging and eventually suffered great losses after being caught in poor weather. Emperor Gaozong instead sent Qibi, who was ethnically Tiele, assisted by Jiang Ke, to Tiele to try to persuade them to surrender. Qibi was able to do so, and rebel leaders were arrested and turned over to Tang. Qibi executed them and ended the rebellion. Meanwhile, for reasons unknown, also in 662 Emperor Gaozong sent the general Su Haizheng () to attack Qiuzi and ordered Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen to assist him. Ashina Buzhen, who had a rivalry with Ashina Mishe, falsely informed Su that Ashina Mishe was set to rebel and would attack the Tang army, and Su responded by ambushing Ashina Mishe, killing him and his chief assistants. The Western Turkic Khaganate tribes, angry over Ashina Mishe's death, largely turned away from Tang and submitted to the Tibetan Empire instead, and when Ashina Buzhen died later that year, Tang influence in the region was greatly reduced. During these years, Li Yifu had been, due to favors from Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, exceedingly powerful, and he grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate, finding Li Yifu guilty. Li Yifu was removed from his post and exiled, and would never return to Chang'an. During the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly, in her dreams, seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, in the states they were after their terrible deaths, and she came to believe that their spirits were after her. For that reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace (), into Penglai Palace (), and when Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall (), was completed in 663, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu moved to the newly remodeled palace (which was itself later renamed to Hanyuan Palace). (However, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he and Empress Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang, not at Chang'an.) Also in 663, the Tibetan Empire attacked a Tang vassal state, the Tuyuhun. Tuyuhun's Ledou Khan Murong Nuohebo, unable to withstand the Tibetan attack, took his people and fled into Tang territory to seek protection, thus ending Tuyuhun's existence as a state. Meanwhile, also in 663, Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan, in conjunction with Munmu of Silla and the former Baekje crown prince Buyeo Yung, defeated Buyeo Pung and Japanese forces sent to assist him, at the Battle of Baekgang. Buyeo Pung fled to Goguryeo, ending the Baekje resistance movement. Emperor Gaozong recalled Liu Renyuan, leading Liu Rengui in charge of former Baekje territory, but in 664 sent Liu Renyuan back to Baekje and tried to recall Liu Rengui. Liu Rengui petitioned to remain to prepare for another attack on Goguryeo, and Emperor Gaozong agreed to let him remain. By 664, Empress Wu, who felt that her power was well established, was extending her influence further in the political arena and increases her controlling behavior over Emperor Gaozong and arbitrarily makes many government decisions. According to Song dynasty historian Sima Guang in the Zizhi Tongjian: In the same year when the eunuch Wang Fusheng () reported to Emperor Gaozong that she had engaged the sorcerer Guo Xingzhen () – an act that was strictly forbidden—Emperor Gaozong, in anger, summoned the chancellor Shangguan Yi to consult Shangguan. Shangguan suggested that he depose Empress Wu. He agreed, and had Shangguan draft an edict to that effect. However, Empress Wu had received information that that was happening, and she emerged to defend herself, when she reached the main palace, she saw the emperor holding a decree and asked seriously: "What is this?" And when Empress Wu found out, she cried, which prompted Emperor Gaozong to stop. Emperor Gaozong could not carry out the removal, and instead blamed Shangguan, and Emperor Gaozong said to Empress Wu: As both Shangguan and Wang had previously served the former crown prince Li Zhong, Empress Wu had Xu Jingzong falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of conspiring against Emperor Gaozong's life. Around the new year 665, Shangguan and Wang were executed, and Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. After the events ended, Empress Wu told Emperor Gaozong: Therefore, after this step, every day that Emperor Gaozong presided over imperial meetings, Empress Wu would sit behind a pearl screen behind him to hear the reports, and before the emperor can decide, he must ask the empress: therefore she got involved in everything pertaining to the empire and discussed and helped decide all "great and small" military and state affairs; her power is no different from that of the emperor. Since Empress Wu began to listen to politics in court, she established herself and Gaozong in the same position in front of the civil and military ministers of the Tang dynasty. In fact, if anyone with a request to make at Court obtains an audience or is allowed to speak, the emperor hears him indeed, but will give no definite answer of "Yes or No", referring him promptly to empress. frequently Emperor Gaozong was unable to go to the court because of a headache, and Empress Wu was "obliged" to go to the court alone and decide. As a result, she increasingly took control of great and small decisions made throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. She and Emperor Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints." The extent of Empress Wu's authority from 665 until the end of Emperor Gaozong, all historians and historical yearbooks state: The first book: the Later Jin historian Liu Xu, in Old Book of Tang, commented: The second book: according to Song dynasty historians Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi, in the New Book of Tang: The third book: according to Song dynasty historian Sima Guang in the Zizhi Tongjian: In 665, Emperor Gaozong and his powerful wife Empress Wu went to Luoyang and began preparation in earnest to make sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai – a traditional ceremony for emperors that were rarely carried out in history due to the large expenses associated with them. At Empress Wu's request—as she reasoned that the sacrifice to earth also included sacrifices to past empresses (Emperor Gaozong's mother Empress Zhangsun and grandmother Duchess Dou, posthumously honored as an empress), she believed that it would be more appropriate to have females offer the sacrifices rather than male officials, as had been tradition in the past. Emperor Gaozong decreed that the male ministers would offer sacrifices first, but Empress Wu would next offer sacrifices, followed by Princess Dowager Yan, the mother of Emperor Gaozong's younger brother Li Zhen the Prince of Yue. In winter 665, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu and headed for Mount Tai. On the lunar new year (10 February 666According to Gaozong's biography in the Old Book of Tang, the fengshan ceremony was initiated on the 1st day of the 1st month of the 3rd year of the Linde era of his reign. This date corresponds to 10 Feb 666 on the Gregorian calendar. (麟德三年春正月戊辰朔，車駕至泰山頓。是日親祀昊天上帝於封祀壇，...。) Old Book of Tang, vol.5), he and she initiated the sacrifices to heaven, which were not completed until the next day. On 12 February, sacrifices were made to earth. He and she gave general promotions to the imperial officials, and it was said that starting from this time, promotions of imperial officials, which were strict and slow during the reigns of Emperors Gaozu and Taizong, began to become more relaxed and often excessive. He and Empress Wu also declared a general pardon, except for long-term exiles. Japan, India, the Persian court in exile, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, the Turks, Khotan, the Khmer, and the Umayyad Caliphate all had representatives attending the Feng and Shan sacrifices held by Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu in 666 at Mount Tai.Skaff 2012, pp. 146–147. ====Qianfeng and Zhongzhang eras (666–670)==== thumb|Estimated territorial extent of Emperor Gaozong's empire. In summer 666, Yeon Gaesomun died and was initially succeeded as Dae Mangniji by his oldest son Yeon Namsaeng. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan, whom he had left in charge at Pyongyang, and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan were planning to rebel against Yeon Namsaeng. When Yeon Namsaeng subsequently sent officials close to him back to Pyongyang to try to spy on the situation, Yeon Namgeon arrested them and declared himself Dae Mangniji, attacking his brother. Yeon Namsaeng sent his son (later known as Cheon Heonseong/Quan Xiancheng (), as Yeon Namsaeng changed his family name from Yeon () to observe naming taboo for Emperor Gaozu, whose personal name was the same character) to Tang to seek aid. Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu saw this as the opportunity to destroy Goguryeo, and he initially commissioned Qibi Heli to aid Yeon Namsaeng, and also sent the generals Pang Tongshan () and Gao Kan () to attack Goguryeo. Meanwhile, Empress Wu's sister, the Lady of Han (who had married the low-level official Helan Yueshi ()), and her daughter Lady Helan had both been frequently visiting the palace and were said to be "favored" by Emperor Gaozong. When Lady of Han died in 666, Emperor Gaozong created Lady Helan the Lady of Wei, and wanted to let her live in the palace, but hesitated because he thought Empress Wu would be jealous. When Empress Wu heard this, she was indeed jealous, and therefore she poisoned meat offered by her nephews Wu Weiliang () and Wu Huaiyun (), who had been on poor relations with her and whose grandmother were not her mother Lady Yang; she then gave the poisonous meat to Lady Helan, who ate it and died. Empress Wu then implicated Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun in Lady Helan's death and executed them. Around the new year 667, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu further commissioned Li Ji to be the overall commander of the attack on Goguryeo, assisted by Hao Chujun. In fall 667, Li Ji crossed the Liao River and captured Sinseong (新城, in modern Fushun, Liaoning). The Tang forces thereafter fought off counterattacks by Yeon Namgeon and joined forces with Yeon Namsaeng, although they were initially unable to cross the Yalu River. In spring 668, Li Ji turned his attention to Goguryeo's northern cities, capturing the important city Buyeo (扶餘, in modern Siping, Jilin). In fall 668, he crossed the Yalu and put Pyongyang under siege. Yeon Namsan and King Bojang surrendered, and while Yeon Namgeon continued to resist in the inner city, his general, the Buddhist monk Shin Seong () turned against him and surrendered the inner city to Tang forces. Yeon Namgeon tried to commit suicide, but was seized and treated. This was the end of Goguryeo, and Tang annexed Goguryeo into its territory, with Xue Rengui being put initially in charge of former Goguryeo territory as protector general. Furthermore, Emperor Gaozong was much ailing, so Empress Wu took a pacifist policy, and the Tang Empire was diverting resources towards other priorities. This situation favored Silla, because soon Silla would have to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, and there was much resistance to Tang rule (fanned by Silla, which was displeased that Tang did not give the Goguryeo territory to it), and in 669, following Emperor Gaozong's and Empress Wu order, a part of the Goguryeo people were forced to move to the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River, as well as the regions south of the Qin Mountains and west of Chang'an, only leaving old and weak inhabitants in the original land. In 670, Wu's mother, Lady Yang, died and by Emperor Gaozong's and Empress Wu orders, all of the imperial officials and their wives attended her wake and mourned her. Later that year, with the realm suffering from a major drought, Empress Wu offered to be deposed which Emperor Gaozong rejected, so she remained his empress and continued to exercise power by "speaking to him" (like a co-ruler) or "on his behalf" (de facto regent). At her request, He further posthumously honored Wu Shiyue (who had previously been posthumously honored as the Duke of Zhou) and Lady Yang by giving them the titles of the Prince and Princess of Taiyuan. ====Xianheng era (670–674)==== In summer 670, the Tibetan Empire captured the 18 prefectures that Tang had established over the Western Regions (Xiyu), and Emperor Gaozong, in response, commissioned Xue Rengui, assisted by Ashina Daozhen () and Guo Daifeng (), to attack the Qinghai Lake area, to try to open a second front against the Tibetan Empire as well as to try to restore the territory previously held by Tuyuhun. However, Guo, who felt himself to be Xue's equal as a general, was displeased at serving as an assistant, and their discord eventually led to a major defeat at the hands of the Tibetan Empire's prime minister Gar Trinring Tsendro. For the time being, the Xiyu territory was lost. By 672, Emperor Gaozong gave up the hopes of reestablishing Tuyuhun and moved Murong Nuohebo and his people deep into Tang territory. By 674, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu was displeased at King Munmu of Silla encouragement of Goguryeo revival movements who continued to resist Tang rule over the region and he stripped King Munmu of all Tang-bestowed titles, including the title of King of Silla, and arbitrarily conferred them on King Munmu's brother Kim Immun () instead, commissioning Liu Rengui, assisted by Li Bi (李弼, Li Ji's brother) and the ethnically Mohe general Li Jinxing (), to escort Kim Immun back to Silla territory. However, King Munmu formally apologized and offered tribute, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu drawal and recalled Kim Immun. The Sassanian prince Peroz III fled to China during this time around 670. The Chinese Emperor, who allowed Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to settle in China. ===Late reign: Problems of succession=== ====Shangyuan and Yifeng eras (674–679)==== In 674, one of Empress Wu claims concerned the title and power of empress; arguing that the Emperor was called Son of Heaven (天子, Tiānzǐ), his wife should logically be called Empress of Heaven (天后, Tiānhòu). As a result, she linked her co-rule with divine right. Around the new year 675, Empress Wu submitted twelve suggestions. One was that the work of Laozi (whose family name was Li and to whom the Tang imperial clan traced its ancestry), Tao Te Ching, should be added to the required reading for imperial university students. Another was that a three-year mourning period should be observed for a mother's death in all cases, not only in those cases when the father was no longer alive. Moreover, degradation and rejection of flattering officials, allowing all officials to speak to the level of chancellors, promotion of competent mid- level officials, military expenses were reduced, taxes cut, salaries of deserving officials raised, retirees given a viable pension, and vast royal lands near the capital turned over to husbandry. Emperor Gaozong praised her for her suggestions and adopted them. In 675, Li Jinxing reached Silla territory with Mohe forces that submitted to Tang. However, Tang forces were repelled by Silla army at Maeso fortress. The emperor over the years suffered much more severe headaches from consuming many of the dangerous substances that Empress Wu ordered. Because he could not run the empire, power in the imperial court gradually passed to Empress Wu. Meanwhile, by this time, even more Emperor Gaozong was continuously suffering from a persistent headache, and he considered making Empress Wu regent, to gain all power. Both Hao Chujun and Li Yiyan objected strenuously, and Emperor Gaozong did not make her regent, but until the end of his reign, she has decision-making power on most events in the governmental and border matters. Toward the end of Gaozong's life, Wu began engaging a number of mid-level officials who had literary talent, including Yuan Wanqing (), Liu Yizhi, Fan Lübing, Miao Chuke (苗楚客), Zhou Simao (周思茂), and Han Chubin (韓楚賓), to write a number of works on her behalf, including the Biographies of Notable Women (列女傳), Guidelines for Imperial Subjects (臣軌), and New Teachings for Official Staff Members (百僚新誡). Collectively, they became known as the "North Gate Scholars" (北門學士), because they served inside the palace, which was to the north of the imperial government buildings, and Empress Wu sought advice from them to divert the powers of the chancellors: They thus act as a secret secretariat, "to process for the empress memorials addressed to the throne, and to make decisions on the policy which were properly the functions of the chancellors". (The modern Chinese historian Bo Yang suggested that Emperor Gaozong's illnesses may be the result of long-term poisoning by Empress Wu, because of his long and debilitating illness, he often left his responsibilities to Empress Wu, or had to rely on her when himself wanted to address political issues,Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 48. but did not provide evidence of how the poisoning took place.) Also in 675, Li Hong the Crown Prince died suddenly—with traditional historians largely attributing his death to poisoning by Empress Wu, due to her anger that he tried to curb her power grab and had shown sympathy to his two older sisters born of Consort Xiao—Princesses Yiyang and Gao'an. Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, in grief, posthumously honored Li Hong as an emperor, and he created Empress Wu's second son, Li Xian the Prince of Yong, crown prince. Along with the war with Silla, some resistance of Goguryeo people continued to plague Tang rule there. In 676, Xue Rengui crossed the Yellow Sea to fight against Silla. However, Silla navy expelled Tang forces on the coast of western Silla. Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu order withdrawal of Tang forces from the Korean Peninsula entirely and moved the Protectorate General to Pacify the East to Liaodong (遼東, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning) and the commandant of Xiongjin (), who governed the former Baekje territory at Sabi, to Geonan (建安, in modern Yingkou, Liaoning), allowing Silla eventually to expel Tang out of the Korean Peninsula and unified the parts of the peninsula south of the Taedong River. In 677, he bestowed on Goguryeo's former King Bojang, Go Jang, the titles of Prince of Chaoxian and commandant of Liaodong, giving him the forcibly removed Goguryeo people. He also bestowed on Buyeo Yung the title of Prince of Daifang and commandant of Xiongjin—with the intent of letting Go Jang and Buyeo Yung to rebuild Goguryeo and Baekje as loyal vassals to counteract Silla. To accommodate these movements, the Protectorate General was further moved to Xincheng. (Buyeo Yung was not able to make any headway in leading his people back to Baekje territory, while Go Jang tried to break away from Tang rule in alliance with the Mohe; when this was discovered, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu recalled him to Chang'an and exiled him to Qiong Prefecture.) Meanwhile, Tang had to endure multiple attacks from the Tibetan Empire, and in 677, he commissioned Liu Rengui, then a chancellor, to take up defense position at Taohe Base (洮河軍, in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai), to prepare a counterattack against the Tibetan Empire. However, Liu's proposals were repeatedly blocked by another chancellor, Li Jingxuan. In order to retaliate against Li Jingxuan, even though Liu knew that Li Jingxuan was not capable in military matters, he nevertheless recommended that Li Jingxuan take over for himself, and despite Li Jingxuan's attempt to decline, Emperor Gaozong commissioned Li Jingxuan to command the army against the Tibetan Empire. In fall 678, Li Jingxuan's forces engaged Tibetan forces commanded by Lun Qinling, and was soundly defeated, with Li Jingxuan's assistant Liu Shenli () captured by the Tibetan Empire. Li Jingxuan was only able to escape after being protected by the ethnically Baekje general Heichi Changzhi. ====Tiaolu, Yonglong, Kaiyao, Yongchun, and Hongdao eras (679–683)==== Meanwhile, the Western Turkic Khaganate chieftain Ashina Duzhi had claimed the title of Shixing Khan and was allied with another chieftain, Li Zhefu (), and they pillaged Anxi (i.e., Suyab). Emperor Gaozong was ready to commission an army against Ashina Duzhi and Li Zhefu, but the official Pei Xingjian (), who had previously served as secretary general at Xi Prefecture (西州, roughly modern Turfan Prefecture, Xinjiang), opposed—instead proposing that a small detachment be announced to escort the Persian prince Narsieh back to Persia to contend for regal title. Emperor Gaozong agreed and put Pei in charge of the detachment. When Pei arrived at Xi Prefecture, he, under the guise of a hunting party, summoned a number of tribal chiefs loyal to Tang in the area, and once they arrived, launched a surprise attack on Ashina Duzhi, who, caught by surprise, was forced to surrender; Li Zhefu then surrendered as well. (Narsieh, having been used in this manner, was left in the region to fend for himself.) Meanwhile, though, another trouble was flaring up for Tang. The former Göktürk territory, over which Tang had established 24 prefectures with the tribal chiefs serving as prefects, rebelled, and, under the leadership of Ashide Wenfu () and Ashide Fengzhi (), supported Ashina Nishoufu as khan. Emperor Gaozong sent Xiao Siye to attack Ashina Nishoufu, but after Xiao achieved a few victories, he became careless, and a counterattack by Ashina Nishoufu crushed him, advancing as far as Ding Prefecture. Ashina Nishoufu also encouraged the Xi and the Khitan to attack Ying Prefecture (營州, roughly modern Zhaoyang, Liaoning), although those attacks were fought off. Around the new year 680, after Pei returned from the Western Turkic Khaganate front, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to attack the Göktürks. Pei defeated and captured Ashide Fengzhi, and Ashina Nishoufu's subordinates killed him and surrendered, ending the rebellion. Meanwhile, Li Xian's relationship with Empress Wu was deteriorating, as Li Xian heard rumors that he was not born of Empress Wu but her sister Lady of Han, and was fearful. Meanwhile, earlier, Ming Chongyan (), a sorcerer trusted by Empress Wu and Emperor Gaozong, had repeatedly stated that he believed Li Xian did not have the abilities to be emperor, that his younger brother Li Zhe the Prince of Ying had an appearance like Emperor Taizong, and that another younger brother, Li Dan the Prince of Xiang, had the most honored appearance of all. Knowing that Li Xian was fearful of her, Empress Wu had the North Gate Scholars author teachings on filial piety to give to Li Xian, and also personally rebuked him, further causing him to be alarmed. When Ming was assassinated in 679, Empress Wu suspected Li Xian of carrying out the assassination. She had a report made to Emperor Gaozong that accused Li Xian of assassinating Ming. When the officials Xue Yuanchao, Pei Yan, and Gao Zhizhou were put in charge of investigations, they discovered a number of armors in Li Xian's palace. Empress Wu thus accused Li Xian of treason, and while Emperor Gaozong initially wanted to take no actions against Li Xian, at Empress Wu's insistence he relented. In fall 680, he with her advice reduced Li Xian to commoner rank, and created Li Zhe as the new crown prince. In 681, the Göktürk territory flared up again, as the chieftain Ashina Fu'nian claimed khan title and allied with Ashide Wenfu to attack Chinese territory. Emperor Gaozong again commissioned Pei to attack Göktürk forces. Pei's assistant Cao Huaishun () was initially defeated by Ashina Fu'nian, but after Pei sent spies to spread rumors, the rumors led to discord between Ashina Fu'nian and Ashide Wenfu. When Pei's forces approached Ashina Fu'nian's position, Ashina Fu'nian arrested Ashide Wenfu and surrendered. (Against Pei's recommendation to spare Ashina Fu'nian, Emperor Gaozong executed him.) In 682, the Western Turkic Khaganate chieftain Ashina Chebo () rebelled against Tang rule, and Emperor Gaozong initially was to commission Pei again, but before the army could depart, Pei died. However, the commandant at Anxi, Wang Fangyi (王方翼, Empress Wang's cousin) was able to defeat Ashina Chebo and crush the rebellion. Also in 682, the Göktürk chief Ashina Gudulu rose, in alliance with Ashide Yuanzhen (), to claim khan title. This, unlike the several earlier rebellions, actually saw the Göktürk khanate being permanently reestablished to Tang's north and persisting for decades, and would plague the last two years of Emperor Gaozong's reign as well as the reigns of his successors. Late in 683, Emperor Gaozong was seriously ill, and he, who was then at Luoyang, and only the Empress Wu were allowed to see her; the chancellors were not, and she attending to his; and at his direction (of course, she was in ruling power for many years), handling the all major affairs of state, and he at her request, summoned Li Zhe, then in charge of Chang'an, to Luoyang to meeted to him, so that at the time of his death he might sit on the throne. In November his illness led him to blindness. Imperial physician Qin Minghe (秦鳴鶴), hailing from the West/Daqin (now believed to be from Syria/Eastern Roman Empire) offered a cure of acupuncture and bloodletting, which was applied (and healed the blindness) despite Empress Wu's protests. Of course, he quickly became ill again, and his condition worsened. On 27 December 683, he died. At the time of his death, Empress Wu issued orders forbidding anyone from visiting him, which is why her enemies, and especially later historians, thought that she had killed the emperor. thumb|Qianling Mausoleum, Tomb of Emperor Tang Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian Li Zhe succeeded him (as Emperor Zhongzong), but all actual power still would be in the still hands of Empress Wu, who became empress dowager; Emperor Gaozong wrote a will that the Crown Prince Li Zhe should immediately seize the throne and that Empress Wu should act as regent (, linchao tingzheng Zhì: Came to the court to listen and rule over the government): ==Hui Islamic legends== Known in Hui Islamic legends as Yung Wei, which was in fact the name of the first era in his reign (Yonghui era from February 650 to February 656; see era name), Islamic sources credit him with building the first mosque in China, the Huaisheng Mosque that still stands in Guangzhou.Lan Xu, Tianfang zheng xue (The true learning of Arabia), Beijing: Niujie Mosque, 1925 edition (first edition 1852), juan 7; quoted in Zhang Xinglang, op. cit., p.744. ==Era names== * Yonghui (永徽 yǒng huī) 649–656 * Xianqing (顯慶 xiǎn qìng) 656–661 * Longshuo (龍朔 lóng shuò) 661–663 * Linde (麟德 lín dé) 664–666 * Qianfeng (乾封 qián fēng) 666–668 * Zongzhang (總章 zǒng zhāng) 668–670 * Xianheng (咸亨 xián hēng) 670–674 * Shangyuan (上元 shàng yuán) 674–676 * Yifeng (儀鳳 yí fèng) 676–679 * Tiaolu (調露 tiáo lù) 679–680 * Yonglong (永隆 yǒng lóng) 680–681 * Kaiyao (開耀 kāi yào) 681–682 * Yongchun (永淳 yǒng chún) 682–683 * Hongdao (弘道 hóng dào) 683 ==Chancellors during reign== * Zhangsun Wuji (649–659) * Chu Suiliang (649–650, 652–655) * Xu Jingzong (649–670) * Gao Jifu (649–653) * Zhang Xingcheng (649–653) * Yu Zhining (649–659) * Li Ji (649–669) * Yuwen Jie (651–653) * Liu Shi (651–654) * Han Yuan (652–657) * Lai Ji (652–657) * Cui Dunli (653–656) * Li Yifu (655–658, 662–663) * Du Zhenglun (656–658) * Xin Maojiang (658–659) * Xu Yushi (659–662) * Ren Yaxiang (659–662) * Lu Chengqing (659–660) * Shangguan Yi (662–664) * Liu Xiangdao (664) * Dou Dexuan (664–666) * Le Yanwei (664–665) * Sun Chuyue (664–665) * Jiang Ke (665–672) * Lu Dunxin (665–666) * Liu Rengui (665–670, 672–683) * Yang Hongwu (667–668) * Dai Zhide (667–679) * Li Anqi (667) * Zhao Renben (667–670) * Zhang Wenguan (667–678) * Yan Liben (668–673) * Li Jingxuan (669–670, 670–680) * Hao Chujun (669–681) * Lai Heng (676–678) * Xue Yuanchao (676–683) * Li Yiyan (676–683) * Gao Zhizhou (676–679) * Zhang Da'an (677–680) * Wang Dezhen (680) * Pei Yan (680–683) * Cui Zhiwen (680–683) * Guo Daiju (682–683) * Cen Changqian (682–683) * Guo Zhengyi (682–683) * Wei Xuantong (682–683) * Liu Jingxian (682–683) ==Family== Consorts and Issue: * Empress, of the Wang clan of Taiyuan (; 628–655) * Empress Zetian, of the Wu clan (; 624–705), personal name Zhao () ** Li Hong, Emperor Xiaojing (; 652–675), fifth son ** Princess Andingsi (; 654), third daughter ** Li Xian, Crown Prince Zhanghuai (; 655–684), sixth son ** Li Xian, Zhongzong (; 656–710), seventh son ** Li Dan, Ruizong (; 662–716), eighth son ** Princess Taiping (; 665–713), personal name Lingyue (), fourth daughter *** Married Xue Shao of Hedong, Viscount Pingyang (; d. 688) in 681, and had issue (two sons, two daughters) *** Married Wu Youji, Prince Ding (d. 712) in 690, and had issue (two sons, one daughter) * Pure Consort Xiao, of the Xiao clan of Lanling (; d. 27 November 655) ** Princess Jincheng (; d. 691), personal name Xiayu (), first daughter *** Married Quan Yi (; 647–691) in 671 ** Li Sujie, Prince Xu (; 648–690), fourth son ** Princess Gao'an (; 649–714), second daughter *** Married Wang Xu (; d. 691) in 671, and had issue (three sons) * Lady, of the Liu clan (; d. 665) ** Li Zhong, Prince Yan (; 643–665), first son * Lady, of the Zheng clan () ** Li Xiao, Prince Yuandao (; d. 664), second son * Lady, of the Yang clan (; d. 667) ** Li Shangjin, Prince Ze (; 645–690), third son * Lovers ** Wu Shun, Lady of Han (韓國夫人), older sister of Empress Wu ** Lady Helan, Lady of Wei (魏國夫人), niece of Empress Wu ==Ancestry== ==Popular culture== * Portrayed by Zhao Lei in the 1963 Hong-Kong movie Empress Wu Tse-Tien. *Portrayed by Lo Chun Shun in the 1984 ATV TV series Empress Wu. *Portrayed by Fan Jih Hsing in the 1985 CTV TV series The Empress of the Dynasty. *Portrayed by Chen Baoguo in the 1995 CCTV TV series Wu Zetian. *Portrayed by Li Zhi Xing in the 2000 CCTV TV series Palace of Desire. *Portrayed by Bao Jianfeng in the 2003 CTS TV series Lady Wu: The First Empress. *Portrayed by Zhang Tielin in the 2006 TV series Wu Zi Bei Ge. *Portrayed by Ma Xiao Wei in the 2007 CCTV TV series The Shadow of Empress Wu. *Portrayed by Yu Shao Qun and Winston Chao in the 2011 Hunan TV TV series Secret History of Empress Wu. *Portrayed by Patrick Tam in the 2011 Hunan TV TV series Meng Hui Tang Chao. *Portrayed by Zheng Guo Lin in the 2011 Guangzhou Zonghe Channel TV series Beauty World. *Portrayed by Gao Zi in the 2012 Hunan TV TV series Secret History of Princess Taiping. *Portrayed by Seo Dong-soo in the 2012-2013 KBS1 TV series Dream of the Emperor. *Portrayed by Aarif Rahman in the 2014 Hunan TV TV series The Empress of China. *Portrayed by Yuan Hong in the 2014 ZJTV TV series Young Sherlock. *Portrayed by Yu Rongguang in the 2015 TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties 5. *Portrayed by Qu Ao Hui in the 2017 Anhui TV TV series Legendary Di Renjie. == See also == *Chinese emperors family tree (middle) ==References== ==Sources== * Old Book of Tang, vols. 4, 5. * New Book of Tang, vol. 3. * Category:628 births Category:683 deaths Category:Tang dynasty emperors Category:7th-century Chinese monarchs Category:Emperor Taizong of Tang Category:People from Xi'an
|
The discovery of human antiquity was a major achievement of science in the middle of the 19th century, and the foundation of scientific paleoanthropology. The antiquity of man, human antiquity, or in simpler language the age of the human race, are names given to the series of scientific debates it involved, which with modifications continue in the 21st century. These debates have clarified and given scientific evidence, from a number of disciplines, towards solving the basic question of dating the first human being. Controversy was very active in this area in parts of the 19th century, with some dormant periods also. A key date was the 1859 re-evaluation of archaeological evidence that had been published 12 years earlier by Boucher de Perthes. It was then widely accepted, as validating the suggestion that man was much older than had previously been believed, for example than the 6,000 years implied by some traditional chronologies. In 1863 T. H. Huxley argued that man was an evolved species; and in 1864 Alfred Russel Wallace combined natural selection with the issue of antiquity. The arguments from science for what was then called the "great antiquity of man" became convincing to most scientists, over the following decade. The separate debate on the antiquity of man had in effect merged into the larger one on evolution, being simply a chronological aspect. It has not ended as a discussion, however, since the current science of human antiquity is still in flux. ==Contemporary formulations== Modern science has no single answer to the question of how old humanity is. What the question now means indeed depends on choosing genus or species in the required answer. It is thought that the genus of man has been around for ten times as long as our species. Currently, fresh examples of (extinct) species of the genus Homo are still being discovered, so that definitive answers are not available. The consensus view is that human beings are one species, the only existing species of the genus. With the rejection of polygenism for human origins, it is asserted that this species had a definite and single origin in the past. (That assertion leaves aside the point whether the origin meant is of the current species, however. The multiregional hypothesis allows the origin to be otherwise.) The hypothesis of recent African origin of modern humans is now widely accepted, and states that anatomically modern humans had a single origin, in Africa. The genus Homo is now estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old, with the appearance of H. habilis;James C. Kaufman, Robert J. Sternberg, The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (2010), p. 280; Google Books. meaning that the existence of all types of humans has been within the Quaternary. Once the question is reformulated as dating the transition of the evolution of H. sapiens from a precursor species, the issue can be refined into two further questions. These are: the analysis and dating of the evolution of Archaic Homo sapiens, and of the evolution from "archaic" forms of the species H. sapiens sapiens. The second question is given an answer in two parts: anatomically modern humans are thought to be about 300,000 years old, with behavioral modernity dating back to 40,000"'Modern' Behavior Began 40,000 Years Ago In Africa", Science Daily, July 1998 or 50,000 years ago. The first question is still subject to debates on its definition. ==Historical debates== Discovering the age of the first human is one facet of anthropogeny, the study of human origins, and a term dated by the Oxford English Dictionary to 1839 and the Medical Dictionary of Robert Hooper. Given the history of evolutionary thought, and the history of paleontology, the question of the antiquity of man became quite natural to ask at around this period. It was by no means a new question, but it was being asked in a new context of knowledge, particularly in comparative anatomy and palaeontology. The development of relative dating as a principled method allowed deductions of chronology relative to events tied to fossils and strata. This meant, though, that the issue of the antiquity of man was not separable from other debates of the period, on geology and foundations of scientific archaeology. The first strong scientific arguments for the antiquity of man as very different from accepted biblical chronology were certainly also strongly controverted. Those who found the conclusion unacceptable could be expected to examine the whole train of reasoning for weak points. This can be seen, for example, in the Systematic Theology of Charles Hodge (1871–3).Systematic Theology, vol. 2 § 3. Antiquity of Man. For a period, once the scale of geological time had become clear in the 19th century, the "antiquity of man" stood for a theory opposed to the "modern origin of man", for which arguments of other kinds were put forward. The choice was logically independent of monogenism versus polygenism; but monogenism with the modern origin implied time scales on the basis of the geographical spread, physical differences and cultural diversity of humans. The choice was also logically independent of the notion of transmutation of species, but that was considered to be a slow process. William Benjamin Carpenter wrote in 1872 of a fixed conviction of the "modern origin" as the only reason for resisting the human creation of flint implements. Henry Williamson Haynes writing in 1880 could call the antiquity of man "an established fact". ===Theological debates=== The Biblical account included *the story of the Garden of Eden and the descent of humans from a single couple; *the story of the universal biblical Flood, after which all humans descended from Noah and his wife, and all animals from those saved in the Ark; *genealogies providing in theory a way of dating events in the Old Testament (see Genealogy of the Bible). These points were debated by scholars as well as theologians. Biblical literalism was not a given in the medieval and early modern periods, for Christians or Jews. ====Human origins and the "universal deluge" debated==== The Flood could explain extinctions of species at that date, on the hypothesis that the Ark had not contained all species of animal. A Flood that was not universal, on the other hand, had implications for the biblical theory of races and Noah's sons. The theory of catastrophism, which was as much secular as theological in attitude, could be used in analogous ways. There was interest in matters arising from modification of the biblical narrative, therefore, and it was fuelled by the new knowledge of the world in early modern Europe, and then by the growth of the sciences. One hypothesis was of people not descended from Adam. This hypothesis of polygenism (no unique origin of humans) implied nothing on the antiquity of man, but the issue was implicated in counter-arguments, for monogenism. ====La Peyrère and the completeness of the Biblical account==== Isaac La Peyrère appealed in formulating his Preadamite theory of polygenism to Jewish tradition; it was intended to be compatible with the biblical creation of man. It was rejected by many contemporary theologians.Such as the Catholic Hebraist Richard Simon, the Calvinists Samuel Maresius, Johannes Hoornbeek, and Gisbertus Voetius, and the Lutherans Abraham Calovius, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, and David Hollazius. This idea of humans before Adam had been current in earlier Christian scholars and those of unorthodox and heretical beliefs; La Peyrère's significance was his synthesis of the dissent.Giordano Bruno, Jacob Palaeologus, Paracelsus, Gabriel de Foigny, and possibly Thomas Harriot and Christopher Marlowe; with some Familists, Ranters and Diggers. Philip C. Almond, Adam and Eve in Seventeenth-century Thought (1999), pp. 49–52; Google Books. Influentially, he revived the classical idea of Marcus Terentius Varro, preserved in Censorinus, of a three-fold division of historical time into "uncertain" (to a universal flood), "mythical", and "historical" (with certain chronology).William Poole, The World Makers: Scientists of the Restoration and the Search for the Origins of the Earth (2009), p. 29; Google Books. ====Debate on race==== The biblical narrative had implications for ethnology (division into Hamitic, Japhetic and Semitic peoples), and had its defenders, as well as those who felt it made significant omissions. Matthew Hale wrote his Primitive Origination of Mankind (1677) against La Peyrère, it has been suggested, in order to defend the propositions of a young human race and universal Flood, and the Native Americans as descended from Noah.Philip C. Almond, Adam and Eve in Seventeenth-century Thought (1999), p. 58; Google Books. Anthony John Maas writing in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia commented that pro-slavery sentiment indirectly supported the Preadamite theories of the middle of the 19th century. The antiquity of man found support in the opposed theories of monogenism of this time that justified abolitionism by discrediting scientific racism. Already in the 18th century polygenism was applied as a theory of race (see Scientific racism#Blumenbach and Buffon). A variant racist Preadamism was introduced, in particular by Reginald Stuart Poole (The Genesis of the Earth and of Man, London, 1860) and Dominic M'Causland (Adam and the Adamite, or the Harmony of Scripture and Ethnology, London, 1864). They followed the views of Samuel George Morton, Josiah C. Nott, George Gliddon, and Louis Agassiz; and maintained that Adam was the progenitor of the Caucasian race, while the other races descended from Preadamite ancestry. right|250px|thumb|James Cowles Prichard, English Quaker ethnologist and defender of biblical monogenism. James Cowles Prichard argued against polygenism, wishing to support the account drawn from the Book of Genesis of a single human origin. In particular he argued that humans were one species, using the interfertility criterion of hybridity. By his use of a form of natural selection to argue for change of human skin colour as a historical process, he also implied a time scale long enough for such a process to have produced the observed differences. ====Incompatible views of chronology==== The Early Christian Church contested claims that pagan traditions were older than that of the Bible. Theophilus of Antioch and Augustine of Hippo both argued against Egyptian views that the world was at least 100,000 years old. This figure was too high to be compatible with biblical chronology.Edward P. Mahoney, Philosophy and Humanism: Renaissance essays in honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller (1976), p. 51; Google Books. One of La Peyrère's propositions, that China was at least 10,000 years old, gained wider currency;Richard Henry Popkin, Isaac La Peyrère (1596-1676): his life, work, and influence (1987), p. 85; Google Books. Martino Martini had provided details of traditional Chinese chronology, from which it was deduced by Isaac Vossius that Noah's Flood was local rather than universal.Richard Henry Popkin (editor), The Columbia History of Western Philosophy (2005), p. 413; Google Books. One of the considerations detected in La Peyrère by Otto Zöckler was concern with the Antipodes and their people: were they pre-Adamites, or indeed had there been a second "Adam of the Antipodes"?Richard Henry Popkin, Isaac La Peyrère (1596-1676): his life, work, and influence (1987), p. 30; Google Books. In a 19th-century sequel, Alfred Russel Wallace in an 1867 book review pointed to the Pacific Islanders as posing a problem for those holding both to monogenism and a recent date for human origins. In other words, he took migration from an original location to remote islands that are now populated to imply a long time scale.The Polynesians and Their Migrations A significant consequence of the recognition of the antiquity of man was the greater scope for conjectural history, in particular for all aspects of diffusionism and social evolutionism. ====Creation of man in a world not ready==== While extinction of species came with the development of geology to be widely accepted in the early 19th century, there was resistance on theological grounds to extinctions after the creation of man. It was argued, in particular in the 1820s and 1830s, that man would not be created into an "imperfect" world as far as design of its collection of species was concerned. This reasoning cut across that which was conclusive for the science of the antiquity of man, a generation later.A. Bowdoin Van Riper, Men among the Mammoths: Victorian science and the discovery of human prehistory (1993), p. 174; Google Books. ===Archaeological context=== The late 18th century was a period in which French and German caves were explored, and remains taken for study:Nicholas A. Rupke, Caves, Fossils, and the History of the Earth, p. 242, in Andrew Cunningham and Nicholas Jardine, Romanticism and the Sciences (2009). caving was in fashion, if speleology was only in its infancy, and the St. Beatus Caves, for example, attracted many visitors. Caves were a theme of the art of the time, also.Theodore Ziolkowski, German Romanticism and Its Institutions (1992), p. 23; Google Books. Cave remains proved of great importance to the science of the antiquity of man. Stalagmite formation was a clearcut mechanism of formation of fossils, and its stratigraphy could be understood. Other sites of importance were associated with alluvial deposits of gravel and clay, or peat. The early example of the Gray's Inn Lane Hand Axe was from gravel in a bed of a tributary of the River Thames, but remained isolated for about a century. The three-age system was in place from about 1820, in the form given to it by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in his work on the collections that became the National Museum of Denmark. He published his ideas in 1836.Grahame Clark, The Identity of Man: as seen by an archaeologist (1983), p. 48; Internet Archive. Postulating cultural change, in itself and without explaining a rate of change, did not generate reasons to revise traditional chronology.Grahame Clark, Archaeology and Society: reconstructing the prehistoric past (1967), p. 32; Google Books. But the concept of Stone Age artifacts became current. Thomsen's book in Danish, Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed, was translated into German (Leitfaden zur Nordischen Alterthumskunde, 1837), and English (Guide to Northern Archæology, 1848).Dermot Anthony Nestor, Cognitive Perspectives on Israelite Identity (2010), p. 48; Google Books.Bruce G. Trigger, A History of Archaeological Thought (2000), pp. 78. John Frere's 1797 discovery of the Hoxne handaxeFrere, John, , in Archaeologia, v. 13 (London, 1800): 204–205 helped to initiate the 19th century debate,Richard B. Lee, Richard Heywood Daly, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers (1999), p. 7; Google Books. but it started in earnest around 1810. Donald K. Grayson, The Establishment of Human Antiquity (1983), p. 3. There were then a number of false starts relating to different European sites. William Buckland misjudged what he had found in 1823 with the misnamed Red Lady of Paviland, and explained away the mammoth remains with the find.John G. Evans, The Environment of Early Man in the British Isles (1975), p. 68; Google Books. He also was dismissive of the Kent's Cavern findings of John MacEnery in the later 1820s. In 1829 Philippe-Charles Schmerling discovered a Neanderthal fossil skull (at Engis). At that point, however, its significance was not recognised, and Rudolf Virchow consistently opposed the theory that it was very old. The 1847 book Antiquités Celtiques et Antediluviennes by Boucher de Perthes about Saint-Acheul was found unconvincing in its presentation, until it was reconsidered about a decade later. The debate moved on only in the context of *further stone tools that were admitted to be made by Stone Age man, found *on sites where the stratigraphy could be argued to be clear and undisturbed, with *remains of animals that were (in the consensus of palaeontologists) now extinct. It was this combination, "extinct faunal remains" + "human artifacts", that provided the evidence that came to be seen as crucial. A sudden acceleration of research was seen from mid-1858, when the Geological Society set up a "cave committee". Besides Hugh Falconer who had pressed for it, the committee comprised Charles Lyell, Richard Owen, William Pengelly, Joseph Prestwich, and Andrew Ramsay.A. Bowdoin Van Riper, Men among the Mammoths: Victorian science and the discovery of human prehistory (1993), pp. 82–3; Google Books. ===Debate on uniformity and change=== On the one hand, lack of uniformity in prehistory is what gave science traction on the question of the antiquity of man; and, on the other hand, there were at the time theories that tended to rule out certain types of lack of regularity. John Lubbock outlined in 1890 the way the antiquity of man had in his time been established as derived from change in prehistory: in fauna, geography and climate.John Lubbock, Pre- historic times, as illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages (1890), p. 420; Google Books. The hypotheses required to establish that these changes were facts of prehistory were themselves in tension with the uniformitarianism that was held to by some scientists; therefore the protean concept "uniformitarianism" was adjusted to accommodate the past changes that could be established. Zoological uniformity on earth was debated already in the early eighteenth century. George Berkeley argued in Alciphron that the lack of human artifacts in deeper excavations suggested a recent origin of man.Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, Volume 2 (1991 reprint), p. 270; Google Books. Evidence of absence was, of course, seen as problematic to establish. Gottfried Leibniz in his Protogaea produced arguments against identification of a species via morphology, without evidence of descent (having in mind a characterisation of humans by possession of reason); and against the discreteness of species and their extinction.Justin E. H. Smith, Divine Machines: Leibniz and the Sciences of Life (2011), p. 257; Google Books. Uniformitarianism held the field against the competitor theories of Neptunism and catastrophism, which partook of Romantic science and theological cosmogony; it established itself as the successor of Plutonism, and became the foundation of modern geology. Its tenets were correspondingly firmly held. Charles Lyell put forward at one point views on what were called "uniformity of kind" and "uniformity of degree" that were incompatible with what was argued later. Lyell's theory, in fact, was of a "steady state" geology, which he deduced from his principles. This went too far in restricting actual geological processes, to a predictable closed system, if it ruled out ice ages (see ice ages#Causes of ice ages), as became clearer not long after Lyell's Principles of Geology appeared (1830–3).Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, Volume 1 (1990 reprint), p. xiv; Google Books.Joe D. Burchfield, Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth (1990), p. 191; Google Books. Of Lubbock's three types of change, the geographical included the theory of migration over land bridges in biogeography, which in general acted as an explanatory stopgap, rather than in most cases being one supported by science. Sea level changes were easier to justify. ===Glacial conditions=== The identification of ice ages was important context for the antiquity of man because it was accepted that certain mammals had died out with the last of the ice ages; and the ice ages were clearly marked in the geological record. Georges Cuvier's Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes (1812) had made accepted facts of the extinctions of mammals that were to be relevant to human antiquity. The concept of an ice age was proposed in 1837 by Louis Agassiz, and it opened the way to the study of glacial history of the Quaternary. William Buckland came to see evidence of glaciers in what he had taken to be remains of the biblical Flood. It seemed adequately proved that the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were mammals of the ice ages, and had ceased to exist with the ice ages: they inhabited Europe when it was tundra, and not afterwards. In fact such extinct mammals were typically found in diluvium as it was then called (distinctive gravel or boulder clay). Given that the animals were associated with these strata, establishing the date of the strata could be by geological arguments, based on uniformity of stratigraphy; and so the animals' extinction was dated. An extinction can still strictly only be dated on assumptions, as evidence of absence; for a particular site, however, the argument can be from local extinction. Neither Agassiz nor Buckland adopted the new views on the antiquity of man. ===Acceptance of human association with extinct animal species=== Boucher de Perthes had written up discoveries in the Somme valley in 1847. Joseph Prestwich and John Evans in April 1859, and Charles Lyell with others also in 1859, made field trips to the sites, and returned convinced that humans had coexisted with extinct mammals. In general and qualitative terms, Lyell felt the evidence established the "antiquity of man": that humans were much older than the traditional assumptions had made them.Jack Morrell, John Phillips and the Business of Victorian Science, p. 361; Google Books. His conclusions were shared by the Royal Society and other British learned institutions, as well as in France. It was this recognition of the early date of Acheulean handaxes that first established the scientific credibility of the deep antiquity of humans.Henrika Kuklick, New History of Anthropology (2009), p. 263; Google Books. This debate was concurrent with that over the book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, and was evidently related; but was not one in which Charles Darwin initially made his own views public. Consolidation of the "antiquity of man" required more work, with stricter methods; and this proved possible over the next two decades. The discoveries of Boucher de Perthes therefore motivated further researches to try to repeat and confirm the findings at other sites. Significant in this were excavations by William Pengelly at Brixham Cavern, and with a systematic approach at Kents Cavern (1865–1880). Another major project, which produced quicker findings, was that of Henry Christy and Édouard Lartet. Lartet in 1860 had published results from a cave near Massat (Ariège) claiming stone tool cuts on bones of extinct mammals, made when the bones were fresh.Winfried Henke, Thorolf Hardt, Handbook of Paleoanthropology, Volume 1 (2007), p. 20; Google Books. ==List of key sites for the 19th century debate== Site Date(s) Investigators Findings and contemporary view Image Kingsbridge, London, England 1671 John Conyers Gray's Inn Lane Hand Axe, mammoth teeth; theories about Roman elephants, not accepted by Conyers center Hoxne, Suffolk, England 1797 John Frere Handaxes. Published by the Society of Antiquaries, but the bones and shells remained unidentified.Bruce G. Trigger, A History of Archaeological Thought (2000), pp. 88–9. Goat's Hole Cave, Gower Peninsula, Wales 1823 William Buckland "Red Lady of Paviland", mammoth remains center Kents Cavern, Devon, England 1824 Thomas Northmore; John MacEnery; William Pengelly center Bize-Minervois, France 1827 Paul Tournal Paul Tournal (1805–1872), who became a pharmacist, investigated cave deposits in the Narbonne area. He used the neologism anté- historique.Peter Bogucki, The Origins of Human Society (1999), p. 3; Google Books. He found human remains with those of extinct animals, communicated with Georges Cuvier, and was met with incomprehension. Eric Dellong, Narbonne et le narbonnais (2003), p. 62; Google Books. center Pondres, Gard, France 1828 Jules de ChristolChristol, Jules de - La France savante XVIIe-XXe Jules de Christol (1802–1861) found caves filled with mud and gravel, containing bones of hyaena, rhinoceros and humans. The contemporary deposition of bones was not accepted, by a commission under Cuvier; and pottery was found lower.Marianne Sommer, Bones and Ochre: the curious afterlife of the Red Lady of Paviland (2007), p. 88; Google Books. Engis, Belgium 1829 Philippe-Charles Schmerling Saint-Acheul, Amiens, France 1847 Boucher de Perthes Acheulean handaxes center Brixham Cave, Devon, England 1858 William Pengelly Aurignac, France 1860 Édouard Lartet center Vézère valley, Dordogne, France 1863 Édouard Lartet, Henry Christy center ==Further issues== ===Antiquity of man in the New World=== ===Tertiary Man=== When the science was considered reasonably settled as to the existence of "Quaternary Man" (humans of the Pleistocene), there remained the issue as to whether man had existed in the Tertiary, a now obsolete term used for the preceding geological period. The debate on the antiquity of man resonated in the later debate over eoliths, which were supposed proof of the existence of man in the Pliocene (during the Neogene). In this case the sceptical view won out.Marianne Sommer, Bones and Ochre: the curious afterlife of the Red Lady of Paviland (2007), p. 202; Google Books. ==Publications== ===Publications of the central years of the debate=== *Édouard Lartet, The Antiquity of Man in Western Europe (1860) *——, New Researches on the Coexistence of Man and of the Great Fossil Mammifers characteristic of the Last Geological Period (1861) *Charles Lyell, Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man (1863). It was a major synthesis that discussed the issue of human antiquity, in parallel with the further issues of the Ice Ages and human evolution that promised to throw light on the origins of man. *T. H. Huxley, Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863) *Alfred Russel Wallace, The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection' (1864) *James Geikie, The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man (1874). ===Publications of the latter stages of the debate=== *John Patterson MacLean, A Manual of the Antiquity of Man (1877) *James Cocke Southall,Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography The Epoch of the Mammoth and the Apparition of man upon the Earth (1878) *William Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period (1880) *Richard Owen, Antiquity of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton during Excavations of the Docks at Tilbury (1884) *George Frederick Wright, The Ice Age in North America, and its Bearings upon the Antiquity of Man (1889) *George Grant MacCurdy, Recent Discoveries Bearing on the Antiquity of Man in Europe (1910) *George Frederick Wright, Origin and Antiquity of Man (1912) *Arthur Keith, The Antiquity of Man (1915) ==See also== *Tool use by animals *List of first human settlements ==References and sources== ;References ;Sources * Category:Paleoanthropology Category:History of science
|
Colnago Ernesto & C. S.r.l. or Colnago is a manufacturer of high quality road- racing bicycles founded by Ernesto Colnago near Milano in Cambiago, Italy. It remained a family-controlled firm until May 4, 2020, when it was announced that the UAE-based investment company, Chimera Investments LLC, had acquired a majority of the Colnago shares from Ernesto Colnago, although the headquarters will remain located in Italy after the acquisition. Instead of following his family's farming business, Ernesto Colnago chose to work in the cycle trade, and was apprenticed first to Gloria Bicycles at the age of 13, and subsequently taking up road racing. After a bad crash ended his racing career, he began subcontracting for Gloria, and opened his own shop in 1954, building his first frames the same year.See www.colnago.com\history. While building frames, he remained much in demand as a racing mechanic. He was second mechanic on the Nivea team Giro d'Italia under Faliero Masi in 1955, eventually being employed as head mechanic for the Molteni team of Belgian cycling legend Eddy Merckx in 1963. The company first became known for high quality steel framed bicycles suitable for the demanding environment of professional racing, and later as one of the more creative cycling manufacturers responsible for innovations in design and experimentation with new and diverse materials including carbon fiber, now a mainstay of modern bicycle construction. == History == One of the first big victories on a Colnago frame was in 1957, when Gastone Nencini won the 1957 edition of the Giro d’Italia bicycle race on a Colnago bicycle. In 1960, Colnago achieved more recognition as Luigi Arienti rode to a gold medal at the Rome Olympics on a Colnago bicycle. By the late 1960s, Colnago was generally regarded as one of the builders of the world's best steel road race frames. While Ernesto was the head mechanic of the Molteni team riders such as Gianni Motta raced on Colnago cycles. A win on a Colnago in the 1970 Milan-San Remo race by Michele Dancelli for the Molteni team inspired Colnago to change his logo to the now-famous 'Asso di Fiori' or Ace of Clubs. After the demise of the Faema team, Eddy Merckx joined the Molteni team, and what ensued was mutual innovation—as Colnago describes it: "Merckx was an up and coming champion, and I was an up and coming bike builder. So it was a real honour to work for a great champion like Merckx. It helped us to grow... when we made special forks, and special bikes." This included the super-light steel frame used by Merckx in 1972 to break the world one-hour record. With a growing reputation from their racing wins, Colnago entered the market for production bikes. In the U.S., the early seventies saw another bike boom, and Colnago "pumped out bikes as though the future of humankind was at stake." The mainstay of the Colnago line in the 1970s was the Super, followed by the Mexico, named in honor of the successful hour attempt. Other models were added including the Superissimo and Esa Mexico. While the finish on these early Colnagos could be variable, they were great riding bikes and developed a cult-like following. In 1979, Ernesto Colnago presented Pope John Paul II with a custom gold-plated steel bicycle. In response to criticism that his frames were not stiff enough, next Colnago experimented with ways to change the behavior of frame components. In 1983, he introduced the Oval CX with an oval section top tube to add stiffness. He then experimented with various crimped-tube frames which became production models as their top of the range frames, beginning with the "Super Profil" and "Master." Later "Master-Light", Master Olympic and Master Più extended the range. Colnago built a frame from Columbus tubing used by Giuseppe Saronni to win the world professional road race championship in 1982, and afterwards a short-lived collection of bikes were badged with the Saronni name. In 1983, Giuseppe Saronni would go on to win the Giro d'Italia stage race on a Colnago bicycle. Steel frames winning races made Colnago's reputation: "Between them, Eddy Merckx and Giuseppe Saronni won 719 races from 1965 to 1988, and the bulk of those victories were aboard a steel Colnago. Ernesto Colnago first designed the Master frame in 1982 as a replacement for the Mexico, which was named after Eddy Merckx’s successful Hour record in Mexico city. Over the course of 17 years in the pro peloton, the Master was ridden to hundreds of wins, and there are few bikes that have such a palmarès.": Since the 1980s, while Colnago continued to produce high-end steel bikes, they began to produce cycle frames using material other than steel, including titanium, aluminum, carbon fiber and mixed materials. One unique frame from this period, the Bititan, has a dual titanium down tube. Crimped and oversize tubes were used on the Tecnosone of the lightest production steel bikes produced. Similarly crimped oversized aluminum tubes were used on the Dream frame. In 1981 Colnago prototyped the CX Pistaa full monocoque carbon fiber cycle with disc wheels, which was shown at the Milan bike show. Subsequently, Colnago worked with Ferrari to develop new carbon fiber technology, and Ernesto also credits their engineers for challenging him regarding fork design, which led to Colnago's innovative Precisa straight-bladed steel fork (1987). Colnago also experimented with multi-material frames, including the CT-1 and CT-2 constructed with titanium main tubes, carbon fiber forks and rear stays, and a similarly constructed (although short-lived) Master frame constructed with steel main tubes, carbon forks and stays. Colnago's early attempts at carbon fiber frames were not commercially successful, but the lessons learned were embodied in their flagship frames, such as the C-40, the most sought after bicycle (1994), and its successor, the C-50 (2004)respectively named for Colnago's 40th and 50th years in bike building. These carbon fiber frames set new standards of excellence. They were built using a modified form of traditional cycle frame construction, substituting carbon fiber lugs for microinfusion cast steel, and carbon fiber "tubes" for the complex steel tubes used for steel frame construction. Similar building techniques are used in the latest design, the C59, named (as before) for its year of production. While we take for granted the spread of carbon frames, their success was not a foregone conclusion: “When we built the C40 we were the only ones to build carbon frames and all the mechanics and competitor technicians were saying that they would be too dangerous to use on cobbled roads, especially with the straight carbon forks. There was a company that wanted to fit suspension forks on the bicycle, but I wasn't going to have suspension forks on the C40. The night before Paris- Roubaix I had Mr. Squinzi, the Mapei boss, on the phone to me raising his concerns about using such a delicate-looking thing. I told him that we'd done all of the tests that we could on the frame and the fork and we were certain there would be no problem. I had to take personal responsibility for what was going to happen and I spent all night worrying about it, barely able to sleep. But when I heard that there were 4 Mapei riders in the break, I knew I could relax.” The C40 went on to win 5 editions of Paris-Roubaix in 6 years. Surpringly, the victory of Tadej Pogačar in the 2020 edition of the Tour de France marked the first time a Colnago-branded bicycle was ridden by the overall classification winner, since Merckx's victories were aboard re- branded bikes. An interview with Ernesto Colnago in which he describes various iconic Colnagos (filmed in the factory museum) is available on YouTube. Colnago family launch La Collezione , 25/11/22 in Milan, 18/12/22 La Collezione Cambiago guest pre opening . ==Trademark== Colnago uses a black symbol similar to the ♣ ("Clubs") symbol used on playing cards. Colnago frames' graphics evolved from a font with gravitas to elaborate and/or creative paint. ==Colnago sponsored bicycle racing teams since 1968== thumb|upright|Colnago jersey Colnago has sponsored at least one professional team every year since 1974, often sponsoring more than one. In addition, other teams in the peloton have competed on Colnago bikes. Probably the most famous was the Molteni team which included Eddy Merckx, but the world champion, Giuseppe Saronni also rode Colnago bikes throughout his career, from 1977 with Scic, later with Gis Gelati and with Colnago-Del Tongo. In 2021 Colnago confirmed that Saronni used Super at Goodwood 1982 and 1983 Giro D’ Italia. Colnago was well known as a sponsor of the legendary Mapei cycling team throughout the 1990s. For 2005, Colnago sponsored the professional cycling team Rabobank. Colnago has also been the bike sponsor for the American domestic team, Navigators for whom the Australian sprinter Hilton Clarke was a member 2005–2008. For 2006, Team Milram joined their list of professionally sponsored teams featuring well-known Alessandro Petacchi and Erik Zabel. In addition, Colnago serves as a co-title sponsor of the Landbouwkrediet-Colnago professional cycling team that competes on the UCI Europe Tour and was the official frame supplier to Team Tinkoff in 2007. Starting in the 2011 Tour de France, Team Europcar has ridden Colnago frames. For 2012, Colnago is sponsoring Colnago-CSF Bardiani. A full list of teams is provided below. All years are inclusive. * 1968 - 1973: Molteni * 1969 - 1978: SCIC * 1975 - 1976: Zonca-Santini * 1975 - 1979: Kas Campagnolo * 1977: Ijsboerke-Colnago * 1977: Kanel-Colnago * 1978: Mecap-Selle Italia * 1978 - 1979: Miniflat-ys-vdb- Colnago * 1978: Intercontinentale * 1979: Sapa * 1979: Inoxpran * 1979 - 1983: Lano-Boul d'Or * 1980 - 1981: Gis Gelati * 1980 - 1981: Sunair Sport 80 Colnago * 1980: Splendor * 1982 - 1988: Del Tongo-Colnago * 1984 - 2008: * 1984: Safir Colnago * 1985: Safir van den Ven Colnago * 1985: Tonissteiner Saxon * 1986: Miko Tonissteiner Fevrier * 1986 - 1988: Roland Colnago * 1988 - 1989: Panasonic-Isostar * 1989: Malvor-Sidi * 1989 - 1990: Alfalum * 1989 - 1993: CLAS–Cajastur * 1990: La William * 1990 - 1996: Diana-Colnago * 1991 - 1993: Ariostea * 1993 - 1999: Tonissteiner Colnago Saxon * 1994 - 2002: Mapei * 1996 - 1997: Casino * 1999: Lampre Daikin * 2001: Coast * 2001 - 2006: Landbouwkrediet Colnago * 2001 - 2007: Navigators * 2005: Domina Vacanze * 2005: Action * 2005: Skil Shimano * 2005 - 2012: Ceramica Panaria-Navigare * 2006 - 2008: Team Milram * 2007 - 2008: Tinkoff Credit Systems * 2007 - 2010: Landbouwkrediet-Tonissteiner * 2010 - 2015: BBox-Bouyges Telecom * 2010: Pendragon-Colnago * 2010 - 2013: Team Type 1 * 2013 - onwards: Gazprom–RusVelo * 2014: Dubai Classic Bike * 2016 - onwards: Team Novo Nordisk * 2017: Colnago Owners Group - UAE * 2017 - onwards: UAE Team Emirates * 2018: FFR Dubai ==Current production overview== Until early 2006, Colnago produced virtually all of their entire frameset range at their Cambiago factory, although persistent rumors of subcontracting out the more basic frames go all the way back to the 1970s. Alan produced some aluminum frames for Colnago in the 1980s, including single and dual downtube road and cyclocross models. In March, 2005, Colnago announced that they were joining the Taiwanese-based A-Team, whose members include Giant, Merida and SRAM—the first Italian manufacturer to do so, to produce mid-ranged bicycle models for the Japanese and European markets. Beginning in 2006, Colnago sourced the Primavera and the Arte from Giant Bicycles of Taiwan. Both received favorable reviews, although some thought the shift of manufacturing out of Italy was a matter of some regret. There was some controversy in 2006 over whether Giant would be producing additional models, including carbon frame models, for Colnago. According to statements by Ernesto Colnago this was not the case: : "For the 2006 model year, Colnago will be sourcing two entry-level aluminum road bike models from Giant, made to Colnago's spec and frame geometry and for sales in Europe and Asia only. All other Colnago bicycles are assembled in Italy. No Colnago carbon fiber frames are made at Giant and none will be, as Mr. Colnago has a long-term sourcing agreement in place with ATR for carbon fiber bicycle frames."John Crenshaw, "Colnago Rebutts Sourcing Reports," Bicycle Retailer and Industry News, August 15, 2005 Despite this denial, since 2007 Colnago's carbon monocoque CLX frame has been manufactured in Taiwan. In 2008, a second Colnago carbon fiber model, the CX-1 was also sourced in Taiwan. The top-of- the-line Colnago frame, the C64, as well as the Master, and the now discontinued C60, C59, C50, Extreme Power, Extreme C are (or were) manufactured and painted in Italy. In a series of public statements, Colnago has insisted that all designs originate with the Italian design team, claiming that the essence of what makes a Colnago is design. The mid-range carbon offerings are currently being sourced from Taiwan, (as are many bicycle manufacturers' offerings), and as of 2011, the M10 (which stands second in the model lineup) is made in Taiwan and assembled and painted in Italy, while the CX-1 is completely made in Taiwan. The current top-of-the-line frame, the C64 is the only carbon frame still made fully in Italy. ==Frames== ===Steel === thumb|1975 Colnago Super. Restored and repainted professionally. Driveside Chainstay and dropouts chromed, 3 top tube brazed cable guides added. Size 52cm * Super Version 1 (1968-1978)--Columbus SL tubing, circular tubing (top tube, downtube, seat tube) crimped chainstays, cable routing above bottom bracket. * Mexico (1975-1977)--Columbus Record tubing, no crimping on chainstays and variant Esa Mexico *Super Profil (1982-83/84) two versions-- with fluted stamp stay cap, 1984 with flat stamp stay cap. * Super Version 2 (1978-late 1980's)--Columbus SL tubing, circular tubing (top tube, downtube, seat tube) colnago lettering embossed on the seat stay caps, machined chainstay bridge. * Nuevo Mexico , two models, (1983 version and 1985), Columbus Record tubing, crimped top tube and downtube. *Tecnos (1995–2000)--Colnago's lightest production steel racing frame made with custom Tecnos tubeset (proprietary Columbus Nivachrom steel), oversize top and down tubes with five-rib-clover shaping. Chromed three point crown-tip lugs on head tube and Precisa steel fork (when not shipped with a carbon fork). Last iteration was labeled 'Tecnos 2000' including the tubing label. * Master (1983-Present)--Top of the line steel frame with Precisa steel fork. Columbus Gilco fluted tubes on main triangle. There are a number of known variations. Master Olympic, Master Light, Master Più. *Other steel models include the Superissimo, the Super Più, the Export (1982-3), the C-94 (1994), the C-97 (Thron tubing Decor era), the Elegant (Tange in 1994, later EL-OS tubing) and the Classic (~2000); a descendant of the Super/Superissimo made with Zona tubing. ===Aluminum=== * Duall—(1988) Double downtube aluminum tubes bonded to aluminum lugs manufactured by Alan for Colnago, lug design from the single downtube version. * MegaMaster—welded Columbus Altec aluminium alloy profiled tubes with mega downtube and a "master" profile top tube. * Asso—(2000s) Altec Zonal triple butted tubing; master profile top tube. * VIP 2000—Altec Zonal Columbus 7005 * Dream—(2000s) Welded Columbus Airplane aluminum tubing; shaped Tecnos-style top and down tube. Later incarnation added the HP carbon rear stays. * Active—(2004-2005) Columbus Altec2 aluminum teardrop shape tubing with carbon B-stay and carbon fork, Italian threaded bottom bracket * Active Plus—(2006-) * Colnago Mix—(2004-2006?) Aluminum with oversize aluminum chain stays and carbon fiber seat stays; Master shaped top tube and a Dream shaped down tube. * Rapid—Tig welded oversize proprietary Columbus "Custom" 7003 aluminum alloy tubing ===Titanium=== * Master Titan—Welded 6AL/4V titanium alloy tubing with profiled top tube and down tubes * Oval Titan—oversized ovalized top and down tube welded titanium * Bi-Titan—Welded dual titanium down tube * Titanio—(mid-1990s) Single downtube standard profile (1"), all titanium welded frame, steel fork * CT-1--Welded titanium main tubes, monostay rear with bonded carbon fiber stays, 1" carbon fork * CT-2--Like CT-1, but with HP stays and 1.125 carbon fork ===Carbon=== thumb|A Colnago 2006 Extreme C Model * Volo—(1988) Carbon fiber reinforced with Kevlar monocoque frame * C35—(1989) Full carbon monocoque frame. * Carbitubo—(1988-1991) Shipped as a single ‘mono’ carbon downtube tubes bonded with aluminum lugs, later a double downtube was tried. Produced in conjunction with Alan. See pictures here. * C40—(1993/4-) Full carbon first shipped with Precisa steel fork, later with carbon fork. First generation shipped with round tubes; later with Master profile carbon tubes bonded to carbon lugs. * CF1—(2000) Colnago-Ferrari collaboration, Carbon monocoque. Several iterations of the Ferrari CF frames followed. * Cristallo (2004). An all-carbon monocoque frame weighing 1,100g which is rare in production and information. * C50—(2004) Similar construction to C40 with 1.125 fork. * C50 CX Limited edition, special version built for cyclocross, with cantilever brake bosses front/rear. * Prestige CX Monocoque (lugless) carbon frame for cyclocross, first version had canti bosses, second version has disc brake fittings. *Extreme C—(2006) Lightweight full carbon climbing bike, carbon lug and round carbon tube construction with shorter lugs. * Extreme Power—(2007) Similar construction to C40/C50 but stiffer construction also using round carbon tubes. * CX1—(2007) Carbon monocoque front end bonded to carbon stays. It is also the first Colnago to feature an integrated headset * CLX—(2008) Carbon monocoque; rear triangle is molded separately from the front, and attached via bonded lugs * EPS—(2009) Lug and tube construction with integrated headset and new fork design * EPQ— (2011) Redone Extreme Power (EP) tube and lug construction with more square profile rear stays ('Q-Stay') that adds stiffness, shared with the M10 and C59. Semi- integrated headset. * C59—(2011) Carbon tube and lug bonded frame like C40/C50 (2011) with profiled tubes similar to the Master. * M10—(2011) Monocoque construction with similar geometry to the C59 but with a slightly shorter top tube and longer head tube. * CX-Zero—(2013) Full monocoque frameset, integrated headset, first Colnago to feature press fit 86.5 bottom bracket, designed for cobbled classics races. * V1-r—(2014) Replaces the M10 as the top Taiwan-made monocoque carbon frame. Developed in collaboration with Ferrari Engineering. * AC-R—(2014-) Entry level carbon monocoque compatible with electronic and mechanical groupsets * C60—(2014) carbon tube and lug bonded frame like C40/C50 but extends Colnago's signature faceted star shape the full length of the tube and through the lugs, also using larger tubing diameters and slightly thinner walls for a frame that is slightly lighter than the C59 *C64—(2018) carbon tube and lug bonded frame similar to the C59 and C60 *C68—(2022) ===Special Purpose Frames=== ====Cyclocross==== Over the years, Ernesto Colnago built steel cyclocross frames for individual professional riders and did not sell any steel frames to the public. A handful have been identified, an early one based on the Colnago Super and built for Roger de Vlaeminck. Photos are available here. This frame sold in November 2012 on eBay for approximately $1200 US. A second 1985 Colnago Super Cyclocross Team Kwantum Decosol Team ex bike Adrie Van Der Poel, not listed in catalog or generally retail distributed, can be seen here. Another frame surfaced a couple of years ago, and appears to have been built in the mid to late 90s, loosely based on the Colnago Crystal, specifically labeled "Master" on the rear brake hanger. Lugs and seat stays are similar to those on the Crystal, slightly beefier tubing than other road models (32mm OD downtube, 29mm seat tube), relaxed wheelbase, top tube routing for rear brake and derailleur, traditional routing for front derailleur but no braze-on for front derailleur. Colnago bottom bracket shell. Straight mtb style threadless fork (no formal crown). No serial number stamped on dropout. Colnago factory contact unable to identify year or provide further information. Photos are available. Colnago built a couple of bikes for the Italian cyclocross and MTB champion Luca Bramati. Bramati rode a yellow steel, lugless Colnago cyclocross bike in the '96 Worlds in Munich, considered to be one of the most exciting races ever, where he placed third. His bike had a front fork with a traditional brazed fork crown, and full front/rear gear cable brazings. The tubing looks just slightly oversized, and overall the bike looks quite similar to Bramati's Colnago MTB that he raced in Atlanta in the '96 Olympics. Another may have been built for Bert Hiemstra in 1998/1999, Rabobank rider. This was a lugless steel frame, badged "Colnago Competition" in Rabobank colors, 59 cm CtT, set up with 9 speed Dura Ace and a unicrown fork. * Cyclocross (c 1980s) Manufactured by Alan, stamped "Colnago" name on bottom of headtube. Aluminum tubing screwed and glued to lugs. Sizing stamped in bottom bracket, no serial number on rear dropouts. Top tube ovalized for shouldering bike on transitions. * Dual Cyclocross * Dream CX—Production aluminum like the Dream Road with unicrown MTB style front fork and additional bracing at headtube/downtube union. * World Cup— * Prestige—Early Prestige frames, all monocoque construction, had an added brace between top and seat tube for carrying the bike during cyclocross races. They also have water bottle bosses. Later frames lost this brace and gained brackets for disc brakes. * C50 CX Rabobank Team ====Mountain Bikes==== Although not very common or widely available in the American market, Colnago did produce a number of mountain bikes. Some featured the Master profile tubing found on the Colnago road bikes. * Master—Gilco shaped tubing like the Master road bike, unicrown fork hard tail mountain bike * Maxim-- * CF series CF12 Ferrari collaboration ==See also== * List of bicycle parts * List of Italian companies ==Bibliography== * Rino Negri- Quando la bici è arte, ed. Landoni, Legnano, pag. 216, (The story of Ernesto Colnago) ==References== ==External links== * * *Ernesto Colnago: Fortune in Fracture and Ferrari *Cycling News, Historical Colnago Bikes *Classic Rendezvous: Timeline for 1970s Colnago Super frames *TheWashingMachinePost Colnago tribute page *Colnago Lugged Carbon Family Tree Category:Cycle manufacturers of Italy Category:Mountain bike manufacturers Category:Electric bicycles Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1952 Category:Italian companies established in 1952 Category:Italian brands Category:Companies based in Lombardy Category:Sporting goods manufacturers of Italy
|
Fever of unknown origin (FUO) refers to a condition in which the patient has an elevated temperature (fever) but, despite investigations by a physician, no explanation is found. Mandell's Principles and Practices of Infection Diseases 6th Edition (2004) by Gerald L. Mandell MD, MACP, John E. Bennett MD, Raphael Dolin MD, · Hardback · 4016 Pages Churchill LivingstoneHarrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 16th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, The Oxford Textbook of Medicine Edited by David A. Warrell, Timothy M. Cox and John D. Firth with Edward J. Benz, Fourth Edition (2003), Oxford University Press, If the cause is found it is usually a diagnosis of exclusion, eliminating all possibilities until only the correct explanation remains. ==Causes== Worldwide, infection is the leading cause of FUO with prevalence varying by country and geographic region. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis is the most frequent cause of FUO. Drug-induced hyperthermia, as the sole symptom of an adverse drug reaction, should always be considered. Disseminated granulomatoses such as tuberculosis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis and sarcoidosis are associated with FUO. Lymphomas are the most common cause of FUO in adults. Thromboembolic disease (i.e. pulmonary embolism, deep venous thrombosis) occasionally shows fever. Although infrequent, its potentially lethal consequences warrant evaluation of this cause. Endocarditis, although uncommon, is possible. Bartonella infections are also known to cause fever of unknown origin. Human herpes viruses are a common cause of fever of unknown origin with one study showing Cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7) being present in 15%, 10%, 14% and 4.8% respectively with 10% of people presenting with co-infection (infection with two or more human herpes viruses). Infectious mononucleosis, most commonly caused by EBV, may present as a fever of unknown origin. Other symptoms of infectious mononucleosis vary with age with middle aged adults and the elderly more likely to have a longer duration of fever and leukopenia, and younger adults and adolescents more likely to have splenomegaly, pharyngitis and lymphadenopathy. Endemic mycoses such as histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, coccidiomycosis and paracoccidioidomycosis can cause a fever of unknown origin in immunocompromised as well as immunocompetent people. These endemic mycoses may also present with pulmonary symptoms or extra-pulmonary symptoms such as B symptoms (such as fevers, chills, night sweats, unexplained weight loss). The endemic mycotic infection talaromycosis primarily affects those who are immunocompromised. Invasive opportunistic mycoses may also occur in immunocompromised people; these include aspergillosis, mucormycosis, Cryptococcus neoformans. Cancer can also cause fever of unknown origin. This is thought to be due to release of pyrogenic cytokines from cancer cells as well as due to spontaneous tumor necrosis (sometimes with secondary infections). The cancer types most associated with fever of unknown origin include renal cell carcinoma, lymphoma, liver cancer, ovarian cancer atrial myxoma and Castleman disease. In those with HIV currently being treated with antiretroviral therapy and with a low or undetectable viral load; causes of fever of unknown origin are usually not associated with HIV infection. But in those with AIDS, with high viral loads, viral replication and immune- compromise; cancers and opportunistic infection are the most common cause of FUO. Approximately 2 weeks after initial HIV infection, with viral loads being high, an acute retroviral syndrome can present with fevers, rash and mono-like symptoms. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome is a common cause of FUO when a previously suppressed immune system is re-activated. The newly active immune system often has an exaggerated response against opportunistic pathogens leading to a fever and other inflammatory symptoms. Immune reconstitution syndrome commonly presents as after microbiological control of infection (in cases of immune suppressing pathogens such as HIV) but the syndrome may also present after organ transplant, in the post-partum state, with formerly neutropenic hosts or withdrawing anti-TNF therapy. Auto- inflammatory and auto-immune disorders account for approximately 5-32% of fevers of unknown origin. These can be classified as purely auto-inflammatory disorders (disorders of innate immunity, with dysregulated interleukin 1 beta and/or IL-18 responses), purely auto-immune disorders (in which the adaptive immunity is dysregulated, with a dysregulated type 1 interferon response) or disorders with mixed features. Rheumatoid arthritis or adult-onset Still's disease have mixed features and are common causes of FUO. ===Infection=== Infection cause Localized pyogenic infections * Appendicitis * Cat-scratch disease * Cholangitis * Cholecystitis * Dental abscess * Diverticulitis/abscess * Lesser sac abscess * Liver abscess * Mesenteric lymphadenitis * Osteomyelitis * Pancreatic abscess * Pelvic inflammatory disease * Perinephric/intrarenal abscess * Prostatic abscess * Renal malakoplakia * Sinusitis * Subphrenic abscess * Suppurative Thrombophlebitis * Tubo-ovarian abscess Intravascular infections * Bacterial aortitis * Bacterial endocarditis * Vascular catheter infection Systemic bacterial infections * Bartonellosis * Brucellosis * Campylobacter infection * Cat-scratch disease/bacillary angiomatosis (B. henselae) * Gonococcemia * Legionnaires' disease * Leptospirosis * Listeriosis * Lyme disease * Melioidosis * Meningococcemia * Rat-bite fever * Relapsing fever * Salmonellosis * Syphilis * Tularemia * Typhoid fever * Vibriosis * Yersinia infection Mycobacterial infections * M. avium/M. intracellulare infections * Other atypical mycobacterial infections * Tuberculosis Other bacterial infections * Actinomycosis * Bacillary angiomatosis * Nocardiosis * Whipple's disease Rickettsial infections * Anaplasmosis * Ehrlichiosis * Murine typhus * Q fever * Rickettsialpox * Rocky Mountain spotted fever * Scrub typhus Chlamydial infections * Lymphogranuloma venereum * Psittacosis * TWAR (C. pneumoniae) infection Viral infections * Chikungunya fever * Colorado tick fever * Coxsackie B virus infection * Cytomegalovirus infection * Dengue * Epstein–Barr virus infection * Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E * HIV infection * Human herpesvirus 6 infection * Lymphocytic choriomeningitis * Parvovirus B19 infection * Picornavirus Fungal infections * Aspergillosis * Blastomycosis * Candidiasis * Coccidioidomycosis * Cryptococcosis * Histoplasmosis * Mucormycosis * Paracoccidioidomycosis * Pneumocystis pneumonia * Sporotrichosis Parasitic infections * Amebiasis * Babesiosis * Chagas' disease * Leishmaniasis * Malaria * Strongyloidiasis * Toxocariasis * Toxoplasmosis * Trichinellosis ===Neoplasm=== Although most neoplasms can present with fever, malignant lymphoma is by far the most common diagnosis of FUO among the neoplasms. In some cases the fever even precedes lymphadenopathy detectable by physical examination. Neoplasm cause Disease name Hematologic malignancies * Amyloidosis * Immunoblastic T-cell lymphoma * Castleman's disease * Hodgkin's lymphoma * Hypereosinophilic syndrome * Leukemia * Lymphomatoid granulomatosis * Malignant histiocytosis * Multiple myeloma * Myelodysplastic syndrome * Myelofibrosis * Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma * Plasmacytoma * Systemic mastocytosis * Vaso-occlusive crisis in sickle cell disease Solid tumors * Colon cancer * Renal cell carcinoma * Pancreatic cancer * Hepatoma * Sarcoma * Gall bladder carcinoma * Most of solid tumors and metastases can cause fever. Benign * Atrial myxoma * Renal Angiomyolipoma * Cavernous hemangioma of the liver * Craniopharyngioma * Necrosis of dermoid tumor in Gardner syndrome ===Noninfectious inflammatory diseases=== Noninfectious inflammatory diseases Disease name Systemic rheumatic and autoimmune diseases Vasculitis * Allergic vasculitis * Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg–Strauss syndrome) * Giant-cell arteritis/polymyalgia rheumatica * Granulomatosis with polyangiitis * Kawasaki disease * Hypersensitivity vasculitis * Polyarteritis nodosa * Takayasu's arteritis * Urticarial vasculitis Granulomatous diseases * Granulomatous hepatitis * Sarcoidosis * Midline granuloma Autoinflammatory syndromes * Adult-onset Still's disease * Blau syndrome * CAPS (Cryopyrin- associated periodic syndrome) * Crohn's disease * DIRA (Deficiency of the interleukin-1–receptor antagonist) * Erythema multiforme * Erythema nodosum * Hemophagocytic syndrome * Hypersensitivity pneumonitis * Juvenile idiopathic arthritis * PAPA syndrome (pyogenic sterile arthritis, pyoderma gangrenosum, and acne) * PFAPA syndrome: periodic fever, adenitis, pharyngitis, aphthae * Recurrent idiopathic Pericarditis * SAPHO syndrome (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteomyelitis) * Schnitzler syndrome * Takayasu's arteritis * Weber–Christian disease ===Miscellaneous conditions=== * ADEM (acute disseminated encephalomyelitis) * Adrenal insufficiency * Aneurysm * Anomalous thoracic duct * Aortic dissection * Aortic-enteral fistula * Aseptic meningitis (Mollaret’s syndrome) * Atrial myxoma * Brewer’s yeast ingestion * Caroli disease * Cholesterol emboli * Complex partial status epilepticus * Cyclic neutropenia * Drug fever * Erdheim–Chester disease * Extrinsic allergic alveolitis * Factitious disease * Fire-eater’s lung * Fraudulent fever * Gaucher’s disease * Hamman–Rich syndrome (acute interstitial pneumonia) * Hashimoto’s encephalopathy * Hematomas * Hemoglobinopathies * Hypersensitivity pneumonitis * Hypertriglyceridemia * Hypothalamic hypopituitarism * Idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus * Inflammatory pseudotumor * Kikuchi’s disease * Linear IgA dermatosis * Laennec's cirrhosis * Mesenteric fibromatosis * Metal fume fever * Milk protein allergy * Myotonic dystrophy * Nonbacterial osteitis * Organic dust toxic syndrome * Panniculitis * POEMS (polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy, monoclonal protein, skin changes) * Polymer fume fever * Post–cardiac injury syndrome * Postmyocardial infarction syndrome * Primary biliary cirrhosis * Primary hyperparathyroidism * Recurrent pulmonary emboli * Pyoderma gangrenosum * Retroperitoneal fibrosis * Rosai-Dorfman disease * Sclerosing mesenteritis * Silicone embolization * Subacute thyroiditis (de Quervain's) * Sweet syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis) * Thrombosis * Tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis syndrome (TINU) * Tissue infarction/necrosis * Ulcerative colitis ===Inherited and metabolic diseases=== * Adrenal insufficiency * Cyclic neutropenia * Deafness, urticaria, and amyloidosis * Fabry disease * Familial cold urticaria * Familial Mediterranean fever * Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever * Muckle–Wells syndrome * Tumor necrosis factor receptor–associated periodic syndrome (familial Hibernian fever) * Type V Hypertriglyceridemia ===Thermoregulatory disorders=== Thermoregulatory disorders Location Central * Brain tumor * Cerebrovascular accident * Encephalitis * Hypothalamic dysfunction Peripheral * Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia * Exercise-induced hyperthermia * Hyperthyroidism * Pheochromocytoma ===Habitual hyperthermia=== * Exaggerated circadian rhythm ===Other=== * “Afebrile” FUO [<38.3 °C (100.9 °F)] ==Diagnosis== A comprehensive and meticulous history (i.e. illness of family members, recent visit to the tropics, medication), repeated physical examination (i.e. skin rash, eschar, lymphadenopathy, heart murmur) and myriad laboratory tests (serological, blood culture, immunological) are the cornerstone of finding the cause. Other investigations may be needed. Ultrasound may show cholelithiasis, echocardiography may be needed in suspected endocarditis and a CT-scan may show infection or malignancy of internal organs. Another technique is Gallium-67 scanning which seems to visualize chronic infections more effectively. Invasive techniques (biopsy and laparotomy for pathological and bacteriological examination) may be required before a definite diagnosis is possible. Positron emission tomography using radioactively labelled fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) has been reported to have a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 86% for localizing the source of fever of unknown origin. Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed. ===Definition=== There is no universal agreement with regards to time criteria or other diagnostic criteria to diagnose a fever of unknown origin and various definitions have been used. In 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria: * Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions * Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks * At least 1 week's investigation in hospital A new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating: * 3 outpatient visits or * 3 days in the hospital without elucidation of a cause or * 1 week of "intelligent and invasive" ambulatory investigation. Presently FUO cases are codified in four subclasses. ====Classic==== This refers to the original classification by Petersdorf and Beeson. Studies show there are five categories of conditions: * infections (e.g. abscesses, endocarditis, tuberculosis, and complicated urinary tract infections), * neoplasms (e.g. lymphomas, leukaemias), * connective tissue diseases (e.g. temporal arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica, Still's disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis), * miscellaneous disorders (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis, granulomatous conditions), and * undiagnosed conditions. ====Nosocomial==== Nosocomial FUO refers to pyrexia in patients that have been admitted to hospital for at least 24 hours. This is commonly related to hospital-associated factors such as surgery, use of a urinary catheter, intravascular devices (i.e. "drip", pulmonary artery catheter), drugs (antibiotic-induced Clostridium difficile colitis, drug fever), and/or immobilization (decubitus ulcers). Sinusitis in the intensive care unit is associated with nasogastric and orotracheal tubes. Other conditions that should be considered are deep-vein thrombophlebitis, pulmonary embolism, transfusion reactions, acalculous cholecystitis, thyroiditis, alcohol/drug withdrawal, adrenal insufficiency, and pancreatitis. ====Immune-deficient==== Immunodeficiency can be seen in patients receiving chemotherapy or in hematologic malignancies. Fever is concomitant with neutropenia (neutrophil <500/uL) or impaired cell-mediated immunity. The lack of immune response masks a potentially dangerous course. Infection is the most common cause. ====Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated==== HIV- infected patients are a subgroup of the immunodeficient FUO, and frequently have fever. The primary phase shows fever since it has a mononucleosis-like illness. In advanced stages of infection fever mostly is the result of a superimposed infections. ==Treatment== Unless the patient is acutely ill, no therapy should be started before the cause has been found. This is because non-specific therapy is rarely effective and may delay the diagnosis. An exception is made for neutropenic (low white blood cell count) patients or patients who are severely immunocompromised in which delay could lead to serious complications. After blood cultures are taken this condition is aggressively treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics are adjusted according to the results of the cultures taken. HIV-infected people with pyrexia and hypoxia will be started on medication for possible Pneumocystis jirovecii infection. Therapy is adjusted after a diagnosis is made. ==Prognosis== Since there is a wide range of conditions associated with FUO, prognosis depends on the particular cause. If after six to twelve months no diagnosis is found, the chances of ever finding a specific cause diminish. Under those circumstances, the prognosis is good. ==References== == External links == Category:Infectious diseases Category:Fever Category:Ailments of unknown cause
|
Heterodontosaurus is a genus of heterodontosaurid dinosaur that lived during the Early Jurassic, 200–190 million years ago. Its only known member species, Heterodontosaurus tucki, was named in 1962 based on a skull discovered in South Africa. The genus name means "different toothed lizard", in reference to its unusual, heterodont dentition; the specific name honours G. C. Tuck, who supported the discoverers. Further specimens have since been found, including an almost complete skeleton in 1966. Though it was a small dinosaur, Heterodontosaurus was one of the largest members of its family, reaching between and possibly in length, and weighing between . The skull was elongated, narrow, and triangular when viewed from the side. The front of the jaws were covered in a horny beak. It had three types of teeth; in the upper jaw, small, incisor-like teeth were followed by long, canine-like tusks. A gap divided the tusks from the chisel-like cheek-teeth. The body was short with a long tail. The five-fingered forelimbs were long and relatively robust, whereas the hind-limbs were long, slender, and had four toes. Heterodontosaurus is the eponymous and best-known member of the family Heterodontosauridae. This family is considered a basal (or "primitive") group within the order of ornithischian dinosaurs, while their closest affinities within the group are debated. In spite of the large tusks, Heterodontosaurus is thought to have been herbivorous, or at least omnivorous. Though it was formerly thought to have been capable of quadrupedal locomotion, it is now thought to have been bipedal. Tooth replacement was sporadic and not continuous, unlike its relatives. At least four other heterodontosaurid genera are known from the same geological formations as Heterodontosaurus. ==History of discovery== The holotype specimen of Heterodontosaurus tucki (SAM-PK-K337) was discovered during the British–South African expedition to South Africa and Basutoland (former name of Lesotho) in 1961–1962. Today, it is housed in the Iziko South African Museum. It was excavated on a mountain at an altitude of about , at a locality called Tyinindini, in the district of Transkei (sometimes referred to as Herschel) in the Cape Province of South Africa. The specimen consists of a crushed but nearly complete skull; associated postcranial remains mentioned in the original description could not be located in 2011. The animal was scientifically described and named in 1962 by palaeontologists Alfred Walter Crompton and Alan J. Charig. The genus name refers to the different-shaped teeth, and the specific name honors George C. Tuck, a director of Austin Motor Company, who supported the expedition. The specimen was not fully prepared by the time of publication, so only the front parts of the skull and lower jaw were described, and the authors conceded that their description was preliminary, serving mainly to name the animal. It was considered an important discovery, as few early ornithischian dinosaurs were known at the time. The preparation of the specimen, i.e. the freeing of the bones from the rock matrix, was very time consuming, since they were covered in a thin, very hard, ferruginous layer containing haematite. This could only be removed by a diamond saw, which damaged the specimen.Sereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 4–17. thumb|Skeletal diagram of SAM-PK-K1332 In 1966, a second specimen of Heterodontosaurus (SAM-PK-K1332) was discovered at the Voyizane locality, in the Elliot Formation of the Stormberg Group of rock formations, above sea level, on Krommespruit Mountain. This specimen included both the skull and skeleton, preserved in articulation (i.e. the bones being preserved in their natural position in relation to each other), with little displacement and distortion of the bones. The postcranial skeleton was briefly described by palaeontologists Albert Santa Luca, Crompton and Charig in 1976. Its forelimb bones had previously been discussed and figured in an article by the palaeontologists Peter Galton and Robert T. Bakker in 1974, as the specimen was considered significant in establishing that Dinosauria was a monophyletic natural group, whereas most scientists at the time, including the scientists who described Heterodontosaurus, thought that the two main orders Saurischia and Ornithischia were not directly related. The skeleton was fully described in 1980. SAM-PK-K1332 is the most complete heterodontosaurid skeleton described to date. Though a more detailed description of the skull of Heterodontosaurus was long promised, it remained unpublished upon the death of Charig in 1997. It was not until 2011 that the skull was fully described by the palaeontologist David B. Norman and colleagues. Other specimens referred to Heterodontosaurus include the front part of a juvenile skull (SAM- PK-K10487), a fragmentary maxilla (SAM-PK-K1326), a left maxilla with teeth and adjacent bones (SAM-PK-K1334), all of which were collected at the Voyizane locality during expeditions in 1966–1967, although the first was only identified as belonging to this genus in 2008. A partial snout (NM QR 1788) found in 1975 on Tushielaw Farm south of Voyizane was thought to belong to Massospondylus until 2011, when it was reclassified as Heterodontosaurus. The palaeontologist Robert Broom discovered a partial skull, possibly in the Clarens Formation of South Africa, which was sold to the American Museum of Natural History in 1913, as part of a collection that consisted almost entirely of synapsid fossils. This specimen (AMNH 24000) was first identified as belonging to a sub-adult Heterodontosaurus by Sereno, who reported it in a 2012 monograph about the Heterodontosauridae, the first comprehensive review article about the family. This review also classified a partial postcranial skeleton (SAM-PK-K1328) from Voyizane as Heterodontosaurus. However, in 2014, Galton suggested it might belong to the related genus Pegomastax instead, which was named by Sereno based on a partial skull from the same locality. In 2005, a new Heterodontosaurus specimen (AM 4766) was found in a streambed near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province; it was very complete, but the rocks around it were too hard to fully remove. The specimen was therefore scanned at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in 2016, to help reveal the skeleton, and aid in research of its anatomy and lifestyle, some of which was published in 2021. In 1970, palaeontologist Richard A. Thulborn suggested that Heterodontosaurus was a junior synonym of the genus Lycorhinus, which was named in 1924 with the species L. angustidens, also from a specimen discovered in South Africa. He reclassified the type species as a member of the older genus, as the new combination Lycorhinus tucki, which he considered distinct due to slight differences in its teeth and its stratigraphy. He reiterated this claim in 1974, in the description of a third Lycorhinus species, Lycorhinus consors, after criticism of the synonymy by Galton in 1973. In 1974, Charig and Crompton agreed that Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus belonged in the same family, Heterodontosauridae, but disagreed that they were similar enough to be considered congeneric. They also pointed out that the fragmentary nature and poor preservation of the Lycorhinus angustidens holotype specimen made it impossible to fully compare it properly to H. tucki. In spite of the controversy, neither party had examined the L. angustidens holotype first hand, but after doing so, palaeontologist James A. Hopson also defended generic separation of Heterodontosaurus in 1975, and moved L. consors to its own genus, Abrictosaurus. ==Description== thumb|Size compared to a human Heterodontosaurus was a small dinosaur. The most complete skeleton, SAM- PK-K1332, belonged to an animal measuring about in length. Its weight was variously estimated at , , and in separate studies. The closure of vertebral sutures on the skeleton indicates that the specimen was an adult, and probably fully grown. A second specimen, consisting of an incomplete skull, indicates that Heterodontosaurus could have grown substantially larger – up to a length of and with a body mass of nearly . The reason for the size difference between the two specimens is unclear, and might reflect variability within a single species, sexual dimorphism, or the presence of two separate species. The size of this dinosaur has been compared to that of a turkey. Heterodontosaurus was amongst the largest known members of the family Heterodontosauridae.Sereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 161–162. The family contains some of the smallest known ornithischian dinosaurs – the North American Fruitadens, for example, reached a length of only . Following the description of the related Tianyulong in 2009, which was preserved with hundreds of long, filamentous integuments (sometimes compared to bristles) from neck to tail, Heterodontosaurus has also been depicted with such structures, for example in publications by the palaeontologists Gregory S. Paul and Paul Sereno. Sereno has stated that a heterodontosaur may have looked like a "nimble two-legged porcupine" in life. The restoration published by Sereno also featured a hypothetical display structure located on the snout, above the nasal fossa (depression).Sereno, P.C. (2012). p. 219. ===Skull and dentition=== thumb|Skull cast of SAM- PK-K1332 and skull diagram reconstruction The skull of Heterodontosaurus was small but robustly built. The two most complete skulls measured (holotype specimen SAM-PK-K337) and (specimen SAM-PK-K1332) in length. The skull was elongated, narrow, and triangular when viewed from the side, with the highest point being the sagittal crest, from where the skull sloped down towards the snout tip. The back of the skull ended in a hook-like shape, which was offset to the quadrate bone. The orbit (eye opening) was large and circular, and a large spur-like bone, the palpebral, protruded backwards into the upper part of the opening. Below the eye socket, the jugal bone gave rise to a sideways projecting boss, or horn-like structure. The jugal bone also formed a "blade" that created a slot together with a flange on the pterygoid bone, for guiding the motion of the lower jaw. Ventrally, the antorbital fossa was bounded by a prominent bony ridge, to which the animal's fleshy cheek would have been attached. It has also been suggested that heterodontosaurs and other basal (or "primitive") orhithischians had lip-like structures like lizards do (based on similarities in their jaws), rather than bridging skin between the upper and lower jaws (such as cheeks). The proportionally large lower temporal fenestra was egg-shaped and tilted back, and located behind the eye opening. The elliptical upper temporal fenestra was visible only looking at the top of the skull. The left and right upper temporal fenestrae were separated by the sagittal crest, which would have provided lateral attachment surfaces for the jaw musculature in the living animal. The lower jaw tapered towards the front, and the dentary bone (the main part of the lower jaw) was robust. The front of the jaws were covered by a toothless keratinous beak (or rhamphotheca). The upper beak covered the front of the premaxilla bone and the lower beak covered the predentary, which are, respectively, the foremost bones of the upper and lower jaw in ornithischians. This is evidenced by the rough surfaces on these structures. The palate was narrow, and tapered towards the front. The external nostril openings were small, and the upper border of this opening does not seem to have been completely bridged by bone. If not due to breakage, the gap may have been formed by connective tissue instead of bone. The antorbital fossa, a large depression between the eye and nostril openings, contained two smaller openings. A depression above the snout has been termed the "nasal fossa" or "sulcus". A similar fossa is also seen in Tianyulong, Agilisaurus, and Eoraptor, but its function is unknown. thumb|Diagrams showing the dentition of the upper and lower jaw An unusual feature of the skull was the different-shaped teeth (heterodonty) for which the genus is named, which is otherwise mainly known from mammals. Most dinosaurs (and indeed most reptiles) have a single type of tooth in their jaws, but Heterodontosaurus had three. The beaked tip of the snout was toothless, whereas the hind part of the premaxilla in the upper jaw had three teeth on each side. The first two upper teeth were small and cone-shaped (comparable to incisors), while the third on each side was much enlarged, forming prominent, canine-like tusks. These first teeth were probably partially encased by the upper beak. The first two teeth in the lower jaw also formed canines, but were much bigger than the upper equivalents. The canines had fine serrations along the back edge, but only the lower ones were serrated at the front. Eleven tall and chisel-like cheek-teeth lined each side of the posterior parts of the upper jaw, which were separated from the canines by a large diastema (gap). The cheek-teeth increased gradually in size, with the middle teeth being largest, and decreased in size after this point. These teeth had a heavy coat of enamel on the inwards side, and were adapted for wear (hypsodonty), and they had long roots, firmly embedded in their sockets. The tusks in the lower jaw fit into an indentation within the diastema of the upper jaw. The cheek-teeth in the lower jaw generally matched those in the upper jaw, though the enamel surface of these were on the outwards side. The upper and lower teeth rows were inset, which created a "cheek-recess" also seen in other ornithischians. ===Postcranial skeleton=== thumb|left|Reconstructed skeleton in Japan The neck consisted of nine cervical vertebrae, which would have formed an S-shaped curve, as indicated by the shape of the vertebral bodies in the side view of the skeleton. The vertebral bodies of the anterior cervical vertebrae are shaped like a parallelogram, those of the middle are rectangular and those of the posterior show a trapezoid shape. The trunk was short, consisting of 12 dorsal and 6 fused sacral vertebrae. The tail was long compared to the body; although incompletely known, it probably consisted of 34 to 37 caudal vertebrae. The dorsal spine was stiffened by ossified tendons, beginning with the fourth dorsal vertebra. This feature is present in many other ornithischian dinosaurs and probably countered stress caused by bending forces acting on the spine during bipedal locomotion. In contrast to many other ornithischians, the tail of Heterodontosaurus lacked ossified tendons, and was therefore probably flexible. The shoulder blade was capped by an additional element, the suprascapula, which is, among dinosaurs, otherwise only known from Parksosaurus. In the chest region, Heterodontosaurus possessed a well- developed pair of sternal plates that resembled those of theropods, but was different from the much simpler sternal plates of other ornithischians. The sternal plates were connected to the rib cage by elements known as sternal ribs. In contrast to other ornithischians, this connection was moveable, allowing the body to expand during breathing. Heterodontosaurus is the only known ornithischian that possessed gastralia (bony elements within the skin between the sternal plates and the pubis of the pelvis). The gastralia were arranged in two lengthwise rows, each containing around nine elements. The pelvis was long and narrow, with a pubis that resembled those possessed by more advanced ornithischians. The forelimbs were robustly builtSereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 114–132. and proportionally long, measuring 70% of the length of the hind limbs. The radius of the forearm measured 70% of the length of the humerus (forearm bone). The hand was large, approaching the humerus in length, and possessed five fingers equipped for grasping. The second finger was the longest, followed by the third and the first finger (the thumb). The first three fingers ended in large and strong claws. The fourth and fifth fingers were strongly reduced, and possibly vestigial. The phalangeal formula, which states the number of finger bones in each finger starting from the first, was 2-3-4-3-2. The hindlimbs were long, slender, and ended in four toes, the first of which (the hallux) did not contact the ground. Uniquely for ornithischians, several bones of the leg and foot were fused: the tibia and fibula were fused with upper tarsal bones (astragalus and calcaneus), forming a tibiotarsus, while the lower tarsal bones were fused with the metatarsal bones, forming a tarsometatarsus. This constellation can also be found in modern birds, where it has evolved independently. The tibiotarsus was about 30% longer than the femur. The ungual bones of the toes were claw-like, and not hoof-like as in more advanced ornithischians. ==Classification== When it was described in 1962, Heterodontosaurus was classified as a primitive member of Ornithischia, one of the two main orders of Dinosauria (the other being Saurischia). The authors found it most similar to the poorly known genera Geranosaurus and Lycorhinus, the second of which had been considered a therapsid stem-mammal until then due to its dentition. They noted some similarities with ornithopods, and provisionally placed the new genus in that group. The palaeontologists Alfred Romer and Oskar Kuhn independently named the family Heterodontosauridae in 1966 as a family of ornithischian dinosaurs including Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus.Sereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 29–30.Kuhn, O. (1966) Die Reptilien. Verlag Oeben, Krailling near Munich, 154 p. Thulborn instead considered these animals as hypsilophodontids, and not a distinct family. Bakker and Galton recognised Heterodontosaurus as important to the evolution of ornithischian dinosaurs, as its hand pattern was shared with primitive saurischians, and therefore was primitive or basal to both groups. This was disputed by some scientists who believed the two groups had instead evolved independently from "thecodontian" archosaur ancestors, and that their similarities were due to convergent evolution. Some authors also suggested a relationship, such as descendant/ancestor, between heterodontosaurids and fabrosaurids, both being primitive ornithischians, as well as to primitive ceratopsians, such as Psittacosaurus, though the nature of these relations was debated. thumb|Evolution of key masticatory specialisations in heterodontosaurids, according to Sereno, 2012 By the 1980s, most researchers considered the heterodontosaurids as a distinct family of primitive ornithischian dinosaurs, but with an uncertain position with respect to other groups within the order. By the early 21st century, the prevailing theories were that the family was the sister group of either the Marginocephalia (which includes pachycephalosaurids and ceratopsians), or the Cerapoda (the former group plus ornithopods), or as one of the most basal radiations of ornithischians, before the split of the Genasauria (which includes the derived ornithischians). Heterodontosauridae was defined as a clade by Sereno in 1998 and 2005, and the group shares skull features such as three or fewer teeth in each premaxilla, caniniform teeth followed by a diastema, and a jugal horn below the eye. In 2006, palaeontologist Xu Xing and colleagues named the clade Heterodontosauriformes, which included Heterodontosauridae and Marginocephalia, since some features earlier only known from heterodontosaurs were also seen in the basal ceratopsian genus Yinlong. Many genera have been referred to Heterodontosauridae since the family was erected, yet Heterodontosaurus remains the most completely known genus, and has functioned as the primary reference point for the group in the palaeontological literature. The cladogram below shows the interrelationships within Heterodontosauridae, and follows the analysis by Sereno, 2012:Sereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 193–206. Heterodontosaurids persisted from the Late Triassic until the Early Cretaceous period, and existed for at least a 100 million years. They are known from Africa, Eurasia, and the Americas, but the majority have been found in southern Africa. Heterodontosaurids appear to have split into two main lineages by the Early Jurassic; one with low-crowned teeth, and one with high-crowned teeth (including Heterodontosaurus). The members of these groups are divided biogeographically, with the low-crowned group having been discovered in areas that were once part of Laurasia (northern landmass), and the high-crowned group from areas that were part of Gondwana (southern landmass). In 2012, Sereno labelled members of the latter grouping a distinct subfamily, Heterodontosaurinae. Heterodontosaurus appears to be the most derived heterodontosaurine, due to details in its teeth, such as very thin enamel, arranged in an asymmetrical pattern. The unique tooth and jaw features of heterodontosaurines appear to be specialisations for effectively processing plant material, and their level of sophistication is comparable to that of later ornithischians. In 2017, similarities between the skeletons of Heterodontosaurus and the early theropod Eoraptor were used by palaeontologist Matthew G. Baron and colleagues to suggest that ornithischians should be grouped with theropods in a group called Ornithoscelida. Traditionally, theropods have been grouped with sauropodomorphs in the group Saurischia. In 2020, palaeontologist Paul-Emile Dieudonné and colleagues suggested that members of Heterodontosauridae were basal marginocephalians not forming their own natural group, instead progressively leading to Pachycephalosauria, and were therefore basal members of that group. This hypothesis would reduce the ghost lineage of pachycephalosaurs and pull back the origins of ornithopods back to the Early Jurassic. The subfamily Heterodontosaurinae was considered a valid clade within Pachycephalosauria, containing Heterodontosaurus, Abrictosaurus, and Lycorhinus. ==Palaeobiology== ===Diet and tusk function=== Heterodontosaurus is commonly regarded as a herbivorous dinosaur.Sereno, P.C. (2012). pp. 162–193. In 1974, Thulborn proposed that the tusks of the dinosaur played no important role in feeding; rather, that they would have been used in combat with conspecifics, for display, as a visual threat, or for active defence. Similar functions are seen in the enlarged tusks of modern muntjacs and chevrotains, but the curved tusks of warthogs (used for digging) are dissimilar. Several more recent studies have raised the possibility that the dinosaur was omnivorous and used its tusks for prey killing during an occasional hunt. In 2000, Paul Barrett suggested that the shape of the premaxillary teeth and the fine serration of the tusks are reminiscent of carnivorous animals, hinting at facultative carnivory. In contrast, the muntjac lacks serration on its tusks. In 2008, Butler and colleagues argued that the enlarged tusks formed early in the development of the individual, and therefore could not constitute sexual dimorphism. Combat with conspecifics thus is an unlikely function, as enlarged tusks would be expected only in males if they were a tool for combat. Instead, feeding or defence functions are more likely. It has also been suggested that Heterodontosaurus could have used its jugal bosses to deliver blows during combat, and that the palpebral bone could have protected the eyes against such attacks. In 2011, Norman and colleagues drew attention to the arms and hands, which are relatively long and equipped with large, recurved claws. These features, in combination with the long hindlimbs that allowed for fast running, would have made the animal capable of seizing small prey. As an omnivore, Heterodontosaurus would have had a significant selection advantage during the dry season when vegetation was scarce. In 2012, Sereno pointed out several skull and dentition features that suggest a purely or at least preponderantly herbivorous diet. These include the horny beak and the specialised cheek teeth (suitable for cutting off vegetation), as well as fleshy cheeks which would have helped keeping food within the mouth during mastication. The jaw muscles were enlarged, and the jaw joint was set below the level of the teeth. This deep position of the jaw joint would have allowed an evenly spread bite along the tooth row, in contrast to the scissor-like bite seen in carnivorous dinosaurs. Finally, size and position of the tusks are very different in separate members of the Heterodontosauridae; a specific function in feeding thus appears unlikely. Sereno surmised that heterodontosaurids were comparable to today's peccaries, which possess similar tusks and feed on a variety of plant material such as roots, tubers, fruits, seeds and grass. Butler and colleagues suggested that the feeding apparatus of Heterodontosaurus was specialised to process tough plant material, and that late-surviving members of the family (Fruitadens, Tianyulong and Echinodon) probably showed a more generalised diet including both plants and invertebrates. Heterodontosaurus was characterised by a strong bite at small gape angles, but the later members were adapted to a more rapid bite and wider gapes. A 2016 study of ornithischian jaw mechanics found that the relative bite forces of Heterodontosaurus was comparable to that of the more derived Scelidosaurus. The study suggested that the tusks could have played a role in feeding by grazing against the lower beak while cropping vegetation. ===Tooth replacement and aestivation=== Much controversy has surrounded the question of whether or not, and to what degree, Heterodontosaurus showed the continuous tooth replacement that is typical for other dinosaurs and reptiles. In 1974 and 1978, Thulborn found that the skulls known at that time lacked any indications of continuous tooth replacement: The cheek teeth of the known skulls are worn uniformly, indicating that they formed simultaneously. Newly erupted teeth are absent. Further evidence was derived from the wear facets of the teeth, which were formed by tooth-to-tooth contact of the lower with the upper dentition. The wear facets were merged into one another, forming a continuous surface along the complete tooth row. This surface indicates that food procession was achieved by back and forth movements of the jaws, not by simple vertical movements which was the case in related dinosaurs such as Fabrosaurus. Back and forth movements are only possible if the teeth are worn uniformly, again strengthening the case for the lack of a continuous tooth replacement. Simultaneously, Thulborn stressed that a regular tooth replacement was essential for these animals, as the supposed diet consisting of tough plant material would have led to quick abrasion of the teeth. These observations led Thulborn to conclude that Heterodontosaurus must have replaced its entire set of teeth at once on a regular basis. Such a complete replacement could only have been possible within phases of aestivation, when the animal did not feed. Aestivation also complies with the supposed habitat of the animals, which would have been desert-like, including hot dry seasons when food was scarce. A comprehensive analysis conducted in 1980 by Hopson questioned Thulborn's ideas. Hopson showed that the wear facet patterns on the teeth in fact indicate vertical and lateral rather than back and forth jaw movements. Furthermore, Hopson demonstrated variability in the degree of tooth wear, indicating continuous tooth replacement. He did acknowledge that X-ray images of the most complete specimen showed that this individual indeed lacked unerupted replacement teeth. According to Hopson, this indicated that only juveniles continuously replaced their teeth, and that this process ceased when reaching adulthood. Thulborn's aestivation hypothesis was rejected by Hopson due to lack of evidence. In 2006, Butler and colleagues conducted computer tomography scans of the juvenile skull SAM-PK-K10487. To the surprise of these researchers, replacement teeth yet to erupt were present even in this early ontogenetic stage. Despite these findings, the authors argued that tooth replacement must have occurred since the juvenile displayed the same tooth morphology as adult individuals – this morphology would have changed if the tooth simply grew continuously. In conclusion, Butler and colleagues suggested that tooth replacement in Heterodontosaurus must have been more sporadic than in related dinosaurs. Unerupted replacement teeth in Heterodontosaurus were not discovered until 2011, when Norman and colleagues described the upper jaw of specimen SAM-PK-K1334. Another juvenile skull (AMNH 24000) described by Sereno in 2012 also yielded unerupted replacement teeth. As shown by these discoveries, tooth replacement in Heterodontosaurus was episodical and not continuous as in other heterodontosaurids. The unerupted teeth are triangular in lateral view, which is the typical tooth morphology in basal ornithischians. The characteristic chisel-like shape of the fully erupted teeth therefore resulted from tooth-to-tooth contact between the dentition of the upper and lower jaws. ===Locomotion, metabolism and breathing=== Although most researchers now consider Heterodontosaurus a bipedal runner, some earlier studies proposed a partial or fully quadrupedal locomotion. In 1980, Santa Luca described several features of the forelimb that are also present in recent quadrupedal animals and imply a strong arm musculature: These include a large olecranon (a bony eminence forming the uppermost part of the ulna), enlarging the lever arm of the forearm. The medial epicondyle of the humerus was enlarged, providing attachment sites for strong flexor muscles of the forearm. Furthermore, projections on the claws might have increased the forward thrust of the hand during walking. According to Santa Luca, Heterodontosaurus was quadrupedal when moving slowly but was able to switch to a much faster, bipedal run. The palaeontologists Teresa Maryańska and Halszka Osmólska supported Santa Luca's hypothesis in 1985; furthermore, they noted that the dorsal spine was strongly flexed downwards in the most completely known specimen. In 1987, Gregory S. Paul suggested that Heterodontosaurus might have been obligatorily quadrupedal, and that these animals would have galloped for fast locomotion. David Weishampel and Lawrence Witmer in 1990 as well as Norman and colleagues in 2004 argued in favour of exclusively bipedal locomotion, based on the morphology of the claws and shoulder girdle. The anatomical evidence suggested by Santa Luca was identified as adaptations for foraging; the robust and strong arms might have been used for digging up roots and breaking open insect nests. Most studies consider dinosaurs as endothermic (warm-blooded) animals, with an elevated metabolism comparable to that of today's mammals and birds. In a 2009 study, Herman Pontzer and colleagues calculated the aerobic endurance of various dinosaurs. Even at moderate running speeds, Heterodontosaurus would have exceeded the maximum aerobic capabilities possible for an ectotherm (cold- blooded) animal, indicating endothermy in this genus. Dinosaurs likely possessed an air sac system as found in modern birds, which ventilated an immobile lung. Air flow was generated by contraction of the chest, which was allowed by mobile sternal ribs and the presence of gastralia. Extensions of the air sacs also invaded bones, forming excavations and chambers, a condition known as postcranial skeletal pneumaticity. Ornithischians, with the exception of Heterodontosaurus, lacked mobile sternal ribs and gastralia, and all ornithischians (including Heterodontosaurus) lacked postcranial skeletal pneumaticity. Instead, ornithischians had a prominent anterior extension of the pubis, the anterior pubic process (APP), which was absent in other dinosaurs. Based on synchrotron data of a well-preserved Heterodontosaurus specimen (AM 4766), Viktor Radermacher and colleagues, in 2021, argued that the breathing system of ornithischians drastically differed from that of other dinosaurs, and that Heterodontosaurus represents an intermediate stage. According to these authors, ornithischians lost the ability to contract the chest for breathing, and instead relied on a muscle that ventilated the lung directly, which they termed the puberoperitoneal muscle. The APP of the pelvis would have provided the attachment site for this muscle. Heterodontosaurus had an incipient APP, and its gastralia were reduced compared to non-ornithischian dinosaurs, suggesting that the pelvis was already involved in breathing while chest contraction became less important. ===Growth and proposed sexual dimorphism=== left|thumb|SAM-PK-K10487, a juvenile skull The ontogeny, or the development of the individual from juvenile to adult, is poorly known for Heterodontosaurus, as juvenile specimens are scarce. As shown by the juvenile skull SAM-PK-K10487, the eye sockets became proportionally smaller as the animal grew, and the snout became longer and contained additional teeth. Similar changes have been reported for several other dinosaurs. The morphology of the teeth, however, did not change with age, indicating that the diet of juveniles was the same as that of adults. The length of the juvenile skull was suggested to be . Assuming similar body proportions as adult individuals, the body length of this juvenile would have been . Indeed, the individual probably would have been smaller, since juvenile animals in general show proportionally larger heads. In 1974, Thulborn suggested that the large tusks of heterodontosaurids represented a secondary sex characteristic. According to this theory, only adult male individuals would have possessed fully developed tusks; the holotype specimen of the related Abrictosaurus, which lacked tusks altogether, would have represented a female. This hypothesis was questioned by palaeontologist Richard Butler and colleagues in 2006, who argued that the juvenile skull SAM-PK-K10487 possessed tusks despite its early developmental state. At this state, secondary sex characteristics are not expected. Furthermore, tusks are present in almost all known Heterodontosaurus skulls; the presence of sexual dimorphism however would suggest a 50:50 ratio between individuals bearing tusks and those lacking tusks. The only exception is the holotype specimen of Abrictosaurus; the lack of tusks in this individual is interpreted as a specialisation of this particular genus. ==Palaeoenvironment== Heterodontosaurus is known from fossils found in formations of the Karoo Supergroup, including the Upper Elliot Formation and the Clarens Formation, which date to the Hettangian and Sinemurian ages of the Lower Jurassic, around 200–190 million years ago. Originally, Heterodontosaurus was thought to be from the Upper Triassic period. The Upper Elliot Formation consists of red/purple mudstone and red/white sandstone, whereas the slightly younger Clarens Formation consists of white/cream- coloured sandstone. The Clarens Formation is less rich in fossils than the Upper Elliot Formation; its sediments also often form cliffs, restricting accessibility for fossil hunters. The Upper Elliot Formation is characterised by animals that appear to be more lightly built than those of the Lower Elliot Formation, which may have been an adaptation to the drier climate at this time in southern Africa. Both formations are famous for their abundant vertebrate fossils, including temnospondyl amphibians, turtles, lepidosaurs, aetosaurs, crocodylomorphs, and non-mammal cynodonts. Other dinosaurs from these formations include the genasaur Lesothosaurus, the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus, and the theropod Megapnosaurus. The Upper Elliot Formation shows the largest known heterodontosaurid diversity of any rock unit; besides Heterodontosaurus, it contained Lycorhinus, Abrictosaurus, and Pegomastax. Yet another member of the family, Geranosaurus, is known from the Clarens Formation. The high heterodontosaurid diversity have led researchers to conclude that different species might have fed on separate food sources in order to avoid competition (niche partitioning). With its highly specialised dentition, Heterodontosaurus might have been specialised for tough plant material, while the less specialised Abrictosaurus might have predominantly consumed softer vegetation. The position of the individual heterodontosaurid specimens within the rock succession is poorly known, making it difficult to determine how many of these species really were coeval, and which species existed at separate times. ==References== ==Works cited== * ==External links== * * Category:Heterodontosaurids Category:Hettangian life Category:Pliensbachian life Category:Sinemurian life Category:Early Jurassic dinosaurs of Africa Category:Jurassic South Africa Category:Fossils of South Africa Category:Fossil taxa described in 1962 Category:Taxa named by Alfred W. Crompton Category:Taxa named by Alan J. Charig Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Ornithischian genera
|
Jianguo "Jingle" Wu (邬建国) is a Dean's Distinguished Professor of Sustainability Science at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. He is also known internationally for his research in landscape ecology and urban ecology. His areas of expertise include landscape ecology, biodiversity, sustainability science, ecosystem functioning and urban ecology. He is the author of over 300 publications, 14 books and has translated 1 book from English to Chinese. He has been awarded multiple awards and honors, including being elected as a Fellow for the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 2007 and an Ecological Society of America fellow in 2019. In 2019 and 2020, Wu was chosen as one of the most influential researchers in the world by Web of Science in the fields of Environment and Ecology (2019) and Cross-Field (2020) due to his collective published works being in the top 1% most cited over the last decade. Since 2005, Jianguo Wu has also served as the editor-in-chief of the international publication Landscape Ecology. == Education == Jianguo Wu was born in 1957. He received his B.S. in biology in 1981 from Inner Mongolia University. He then went on to study ecology at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, where he earned his M.S. in 1987. His master's thesis was titled "A simulation model of energy exchange processes and microenvironment of plant communities".Wu, Jianguao (1987). A Simulation Model of Energy Exchange Processes and Microenvironment of Plant Communities. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260407942_A_Simulation_Model_of_Energy_Exchange_Processes_and_Microenvironment_of_Plant_Communities. Accessed December 20, 2020 From there, Wu earned his PhD in ecology in 1991 from the same university. For his PhD, he wrote his thesis "Dynamics of landscape islands: A systems simulation modeling approach" under his dissertation director, John L. Vankat.Wu, J. 1991, Dynamics of landscape islands: A systems simulation modeling approach, Miami University. During this time, he also worked with Orie L. Loucks, who is described as being a role model to him. After completing his PhD, Jianguo Wu was a National Science Foundation postdoctoral fellow at Cornell University and Princeton University from 1991 to 1993. During his postdoc, he worked in the Levin Lab and was mentored by Simon A. Levin. == Career and research == After receiving his B.S. in biology in 1981 from Inner Mongolia University, China, Jianguo Wu began teaching plant ecology there until he started his M.S. in 1985 at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. During his time in college, Wu reports that he became concerned with the sustainability of ecosystems at multiple scales. Over time, his understanding of sustainability and its complexity increased. He credits reading the book "Our Common Journey: A Transition Toward Sustainability" by the National Research Council, published in 1999, and the article "Sustainability Science" in Science Magazine, published in 2001, with widening his understanding of the different dimensions of sustainability. In 2003, he became involved with Arizona State University (ASU)'s sustainability initiatives. He cites this involvement along with his experience as editor-in- chief at the journal Landscape Ecology with focusing his teaching and research on sustainability. Much of Wu's research has focused on landscape ecology. Based on this research, Wu highlights the importance of different contexts and multiple scales in tackling sustainability issues. "Sustainability science has to be done on multiple scales," says Wu. "Global scale is important. Local scale is important. Regional scale in the middle is very important and operational." Jianguo Wu argues that more research needs to focus on regional analysis as it is the missing link between narrow, local studies and global studies that could help us institute broad changes in the world we live in. Recently, Wu has been studying two major research topics. First, Wu and his team have been studying biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the grasslands of Mongolia. Second, he has been researching urban landscapes, particularly focusing on China. According to Wu, a main goal of this research is "to integrate urban ecology and landscape ecology so as to produce actionable knowledge for urban sustainability." In his future research, Wu is interested in addressing landscape ecology from many different angles, including how society can create cities that are planned better as the world becomes more urbanized. Today, Jianguo Wu teaches courses on landscape ecology, ecological modeling, and sustainability science. His areas of expertise include landscape ecology, biodiversity, sustainability science, ecosystem functioning and urban ecology. Currently, Wu is a Dean's Distinguished professor of Sustainability Science in the School of Sustainability, College of Global Futures and in the School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Arizona State University(ASU) in Tempe, Arizona. He is also an affiliated faculty member of the Center for Biodiversity Outcomes and the Global Institute of Sustainability and Innovation at ASU. Jianguo Wu is also a guest professor at various Chinese institutions, including the Institute of Botany at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, and Beijing Normal University. Jianguo Wu has held many different positions during his career. From 1999 to 2000 he was the chair of the Asian Ecology Section for the Ecological Society of America (ESA). According to the ESA, the Asian Ecology Section was founded in 1994 in order to promote ecology research, communication, collaboration and education in Asia. In 2001, Wu served as the program chair for the US chapter of the International Association for Landscape Ecology, now known as the North American Regional Association of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE – North America). Then, from 2001 to 2003 Jianguo Wu served as the Councillor-at-large for the North American Regional Association of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE – North America), formerly the US-IALE. Subsequently, from 2005 to 2006 Wu served on the Board of Scientific Counselors for Ecological Research for the Office of Research and Development, which is part of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). From 2005 to the present, Jianguo Wu has served as the editor-in-chief for the international journal, Landscape Ecology. From 2007 to 2012, he served as the founding director of the Sino-US Center of Conservation, Energy and Sustainability Science (SUCCESS) at Inner Mongolia University. The goal of this center was "to provide a platform for international collaborations, particularly on use-inspired, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research relevant to sustainability issues that occur during the socioeconomic development in Inner Mongolia and its neighboring regions." From 2012 to the present, Wu has served as the founding director of the Center for Human- Environment System Sustainability (CHESS) at Beijing Normal University. The goal of CHESS is to provide a platform for young and graduate level scientists as well as to promote research in the fields of landscape ecology, urban ecology, and sustainability science. Jianguo Wu also serves on the editorial board for the international journal Acta Ecologica Sinca an associate advisor. This journal is a monthly journal sponsored by the Ecological Society of China. This journal's purpose is to promote "the development of and foster research talents for ecological studies in China, so as to contribute to the knowledge innovation, sustainable development and the revitalization of the nation through science and education." At Arizona State University, Jianguo Wu also serves as an advisor to Arizona State University President's Office on China affairs. == Awards and honors == Jianguo Wu has received multiple awards and honors over his career including: * 1991–1993 Wu was a National Science Foundation postdoctoral fellow at Cornell University and Princeton University . * 2001: His book, Landscape Ecology: Pattern, Process, Scale, and Hierarchy won the Award of Outstanding Books in Science and Technology in China * 2006: Jianguo Wu received the Award for Science Diplomacy, formerly the Award for International Scientific Cooperation, from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). He was chosen for due to his "pioneering efforts and outstanding contributions to international initiatives in support of sustainability science, specifically his conceptual modeling activities, commitment to landscape ecological research, and mentoring of young scholars." * 2007: Wu was elected a Fellow for the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) * 2009: Jianguo Wu was named a Leopold Leadership Fellow under the Leopold Leadership Program, run by the Woods Institute for the Environment at Stanford University. This program has since been renamed the Earth Leadership Program. * 2010: Wu was chosen to receive the Distinguished Landscape Ecologist Award from the North American Regional Association of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE – North America). According to the IALE, "the intent of this award is to specifically recognize those unique individuals whose thinking and writing have helped to shape the field of landscape ecology. This award highlights those scholars whose scientific endeavors pervade our discipline and its continuing development. This award is ordinarily given for outstanding scientific achievement over a period of a decade or more, and it is the most prestigious honor bestowed by our Chapter." * 2011: Jianguo Wu received the Outstanding Scientific Achievements Award from the International Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE) * 2012: Wu received the Distinguished Service Award from the North American Regional Association of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE – North America). According to the IALE, "the award for Distinguished Service recognizes individuals who have contributed exceptionally to IALE – North America." * 2012: Wu was chosen to receive the Outstanding International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Award from the Government of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region * 2019: Wu was elected as an Ecological Society of America (ESA) fellow. According to the ESA, Wu was elected for "outstanding contributions to landscape ecology, urban ecology, and sustainability science, particularly in the areas of hierarchical patch dynamics, spatial scaling, habitat fragmentation and biodiversity, ecological impacts of urbanization, and landscape sustainability." * 2019: Jianguo Wu received the Highly Cited Researchers Award by the Web of Science™ in the category of Environment and Ecology. To receive this award, researchers must rank within the top 1% of their field for number of citations in the last decade. * 2020: Wu was awarded the Highly Cited Researchers Award by the Clarivate™ Web of Science™ in the category of Cross-Field. According to the Web of Science, this award is given to "the true pioneers in their fields over the last decade, demonstrated by the production of multiple highly-cited papers that rank in the top 1% by citations for field and year in the Web of Science™. === Grants === Wu has been awarded multiple grants to fund his research including an EPA grant as a principal investigator for "A Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Approach to Regional Modeling and Scaling" in partnership with Douglas Green. As a NSF postdoctoral fellow, Wu received a National Science Foundation grant to fund his postdoctoral research under the mentorship of Simon A. Levin in 1991. Since, then, Wu has received at least four National Science Foundation grants as both principal investigator and co- principal investigator to study biodiversity and urban ecology. == Publications == === Articles === Jianguo Wu has authored over 300 publications during his career. While working on his postdoc, he published multiple works including a project titled "Grasslands and Grassland Sciences in Northern China" alongside Orie L. Loucks, which was published in two parts in 1992. While finishing his postdoc, he also began working on the topic of hierarchical patch dynamics paradigm with Loucks, which Wu would continue after finishing his postdoc, publishing in 1992 and 1995. In 1995, Wu and Loucks published what Loucks described as "the most important paper I've written" on hierarchical patch dynamics for the journal The Quarterly Review in Biology, titled "From Balance of Nature to Hierarchical Patch Dynamics: A Paradigm Shift in Ecology." This remains one of Wu's most cited works. Today, he is considered to be a highly influential researcher in his field; in 2019 and 2020 he won Web of Science's Highly Influential Researcher Award in the fields of Environment and Ecology (2019) and Cross-Field (2020). This award is given to researchers who are in the top 1% of their field by number of citations in the last decade. Some of his works include: * Wu, Jianguo, & Loucks, Orie L. (1995). From Balance of Nature to Hierarchical Patch Dynamics: A Paradigm Shift in Ecology. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 70(4), 439–466. From Balance of Nature to Hierarchical Patch Dynamics: A Paradigm Shift in Ecology * Wu, Jianguo, & Hobbs, Richard. (2002). Key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology: An idiosyncratic synthesis. Landscape Ecology, 17(4), 355–365. Key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology: An idiosyncratic synthesis * Wu, Jianguo, et al. (2003). Three-Gorges Dam: Experiment in Habitat Fragmentation? Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 300(5623), 1239–1240. * Wu, J. (2004). Effects of changing scale on landscape pattern analysis: scaling relations. Landscape Ecology, 19(2), 125–138. Effects of changing scale on landscape pattern analysis: scaling relations * Wu, J. (2013). Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 28(6), 999–1023. Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes * Wu, J. (2014). Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 209–221. Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of- the-science and future directions * Bai, Yongfei, Han, Xingguo, Wu, Jianguo, Chen, Zuozhong, & Li, Linghao. (2004). Ecosystem stability and compensatory effects in the Inner Mongolia grassland. Nature (London), 431(7005), 181–184. Ecosystem stability and compensatory effects in the Inner Mongolia grassland * Grimm, N. B, Faeth, S. H, Golubiewski, N. E, Redman, C. L, Wu, J, Bai, X, & Briggs, J. M. (2008). Global Change and the Ecology of Cities. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 319(5864), 756–760. Global Change and the Ecology of Cities * Forman, Richard T. T, & Wu, Jianguo. (2016). Where to put the next billion people. Nature (London), 537(7622), 608–611. Where to put the next billion people === Books === Jianguo Wu has authored 14 books in both Chinese and English on the topics of ecology and landscape ecology. # Y. Gao and J. Wu (eds). 2017. Lectures in Modern Ecology (VIII): Advances in Community, Ecosystem and Landscape Ecology. Higher Education Press, Beijing. # Barrett, G.W., T.L. Barrett, and J.G. Wu (eds). 2015. History of Landscape Ecology in the United States. Springer, New York. # Wu, J.G. and S.Q. An (eds). 2013. Lectures in Modern Ecology (VI): Global Climate Change and Ecological Patterns and Processes. Higher Education Press, Beijing. # Hong, S.K., J. Wu, J.E. Kim, and N. Nakagoshi (eds). 2011. Landscape Ecology in Asian Cultures. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 334 pp. # Wu, J. G. and F.M. Li (eds). 2011. Lectures in Modern Ecology (V): Large-Scale Ecology and Sustainability Science. Higher Education Press, Beijing. 381 pp. # Wu, J. and J. Yang (eds). 2009. Lectures in Modern Ecology (IV): Theory and Applications. Higher Education Press, Beijing. 392 pp. # Carriero, M., Y. Song, and J. Wu (eds). 2008. Ecology, Planning, and Management of Urban Forests: International Perspectives. Springer, New York. 467 pp. # Gu, B., J. Wu, J. Chen, and Y. Wu (eds). 2008. Green Careers. Higher Education Press, Beijing. # Wu, J. and R. Hobbs (eds). 2007. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 297 pp. # Wu, J. 2007. Landscape Ecology: Pattern, Process, Scale and Hierarchy. 2nd Edition. Higher Education Press, Beijing. 266 pp. # Wu, J., J. Ge, X. Han, Z. Yu, and D. Zhang (eds). 2007. Lectures in Modern Ecology (III): Advances and Key Topics. Higher Education Press, Beijing. 383 pp. # Wu, J., B. Jones, H. Li, and O. L. Loucks (Eds). 2006. Scaling and Uncertainty Analysis in Ecology. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 351 pp. # Wu, J., X. Han, and J. Huang (eds). 2002. Lectures in Modern Ecology (II): From Basic Science to Environmental Issues. Science and Technology Press, Beijing. 229 pp. # Wu, J. 2000. Landscape Ecology: Pattern, Process, Scale and Hierarchy. 1st Edition. Higher Education Press, Beijing. In addition, Wu has translated one book to Chinese from English. * Forman, R.T.T. 2014. Urban Ecology: Science of Cities. Cambridge University Press. [Chinese edition translated by J. Wu et al. 2017, Higher Education Press, Beijing. == References == == External links == * Link to ASU School of Sustainability Faculty Bio Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Living people Category:Arizona State University faculty
|
Winston Wiremu Reid (born 3 July 1988) is a New Zealand professional footballer who last played as a defender for club West Ham United. He captained the New Zealand national team. He has also played for Midtjylland with loan periods at Sporting Kansas City and Brentford. ==Early life== Both Reid's parents have Māori ancestry. He affiliates to Tainui through his father and to Te Rarawa through his mother. He was born in North Shore, Auckland, and started playing football at the age of four at local club Takapuna. Reid moved from New Zealand to Denmark at the age of 10 with his mother and Danish stepfather, but always maintained contact with his father and his family in New Zealand. ==Club career== ===FC Midtjylland=== Reid signed a youth contract with SUB Sønderborg. In 2004, the then 16-year-old Reid joined the academy of Danish Superliga club FC Midtjylland on a three-year youth contract. He was one of the first players to graduate from FCM's football academy, the first of its kind in Denmark, coming through the system alongside Midtjylland teammates Jesper Weinkouff, Christian Sivebæk and former teammate, Simon Kjær. While coming through the system, Reid helped the U19 win their first U19 Danish championship. In November 2005, Reid signed a professional contract with FC Midtjylland. At the same month at aged 17, he made his FC Midtjylland debut in the Royal League tournament against Norwegian side Vålerenga in a 4–0 win. Reid made his league debut for FC Midtjylland, making his first start and played 60 minutes before being substituted in the 60th minute, in a 2–2 draw against SønderjyskE on 27 November 2005. It was not until on 19 March 2006 when he made another appearance for the side, coming on as an 88th-minute substitute, in a 2–0 win against Aarhus GF. Reid then received a handful of first team football towards the end of the 2005–06 season, which lead him to make nine appearances for the side. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Reid appeared in the first three league matches before being sidelined with an injury. After missing three matches, he made his return from injury, coming on as a 76th-minute substitute, in a 2–0 win against Silkeborg on 10 September 2006. However, his return was short–lived when Reid suffered another injury, resulting him out for two months. Reid later featured in and out of the first team towards the end of the season. By the end of the season, he went on to make 11 appearances in all competitions. Ahead of the 2007–08 season, Reid signed a contract extension with Midtjylland, keeping him until 2012. Shortly after, he made his first appearance of the season against AaB and helping the side win 2–1 on 8 August 2007. Reid continued to be featured in and out of the first team for the next three months. However, he was plagued with injuries and was out of the starting line–up for most of the season. By the end of the season, Reid went on to make nine appearances in all competitions. At the start of the 2008–09 season, Reid became a first team regular and established himself in the starting eleven. He scored his first goal for Midtjylland in a 6–1 win against Bangor City in the first round of the UEFA Cup on 17 July 2008. Against Manchester City in the second leg of the UEFA Cup second round on 28 August, Reid successfully converted his penalty in the shootout, though Midtjylland lost 4–2 in the penalty shootout. Shortly after, he was linked with a move to City. On 29 September, Reid was sent–off for a straight red card in a 1–0 loss against Akademisk Boldklub in the third round of the Danish Cup. By the end of the year, he had been demoted to the substitute bench amid injury concerns. Reid was able to regain his first team place for the rest of the season. On 23 March 2009, he scored his first league goal in a 3–2 loss against Aab. This was followed up by scoring his second goal and setting up the club's second goal of the game, in a 3–1 win against AC Horsens. But during the match, Reid injured his right foot after clashing with Besart Berisha. After the match, he publicity criticised Berisha, calling him an "idiot" and rejected his apology. Despite missing two more matches later in the season, Reid went on to make 29 appearances and scoring three times in all competitions. Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Reid continued to be linked a move away from the club, as Serie A clubs were interested in signing him. But Reid responded to the transfer speculation, saying that he was not in a rush to leave the club. At the start of the season, Reid continued to establish himself in the starting eleven, playing in the centre–back position. and started the first 17 league matches until he missed one match against FC Nordsjælland on 6 December. Reid then returned to the starting line–up, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Odense BK on 6 March 2010. He then followed up by keeping three consecutive clean sheets between 14 March and 25 March. During a 3–2 win against Copenhagen on 17 April, Reid suffered a shoulder injury that saw him miss two matches. On 13 May 2010, Reid started in the Danish Cup Final against Nordsjælland, and played 120 minutes after the game went extra time, as FC Midtjylland lost 2–0. Overall, he made 32 appearances during the season. Following his performance at the World Cup, Reid was linked a move away from Midtjylland, with clubs from Europe interested in signing him. However, at the start of the 2010–11 season, he suffered a groin injury that kept him out for the first two league matches. But Reid made his return to the starting line–up, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 loss against Brøndby on 1 August 2010, which turns out to be his last appearance for the club. After leaving Midtjylland, Reid was named the club's Best Eleven by the fans. ===West Ham United=== Reid signed for West Ham United on 5 August 2010, on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee. His transfer fee was the subject of a dispute between West Ham and Midtjylland, as West Ham withheld the fee to bring to UEFA's attention fees owing to them from the sale of Alessandro Diamanti to Brescia. Reid made his Premier League debut on 14 August, playing the whole game in a 3–0 loss to Aston Villa in the opening game of the season. After making another appearance in a follow–up match, he was dropped and found himself on the substitute bench, as well as playing in the reserve side for the next three months. It was not until on 27 November when Reid made his first team return, coming on as a 50th-minute substitute in a 3–1 win against Wigan Athletic. Between January and February, he made six starts for the side. Reid played an important role against Nottingham Forest in the fourth round of the FA Cup, assisting a goal for Victor Obinna, who scored a hat–trick, in a 3–2 win on 30 January 2011. He then scored his first goal for the club in a 5–1 win against Burnley in the fifth round of the FA Cup on 21 February. After the match, Reid said he dedicated to the victims and his families following an earthquake in Christchurch. Once again, however, Reid spent the rest of the 2010–11 season sidelined from the starting eleven, which saw him placed on the substitute bench, as well as, his own injury concern. In his first season at West Ham, which saw them relegated to the Championship, he made 12 appearances in all competitions. Ahead of the 2011–2012 season, Reid stayed at West Ham despite being linked with a move away from the club. At the start of the season, he regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position after the arrival of Sam Allardyce. Reid then scored his first league goal for West Ham in a 4–1 away win over Nottingham Forest on 28 August. Since the start of the season, Reid started in the first eight league matches until he suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for two matches. Reid suffered a shoulder injury in the first half during a 0–0 draw against Bristol City on 2 November, resulting in him being sidelined for a month. It was not until on 31 December 2011 when Reid returned to the starting line–up, in a 2–1 loss against Derby County. He regained his first team place following his return from a shoulder injury. Reid scored the winning goal against arch-rivals Millwall in a 2–1 home win on 4 February 2012. However at the beginning of March, he suffered ankle injury that kept him out for a month. It was not until on 6 April when Reid returned to the starting line–up, in a 4–0 win against Barnsley. Two weeks later on 23 April, he scored his third goal of the season, in a 2–1 win against Leicester City. Reid played all three matches in the Championship Play–offs, as West Ham finished the season by winning the Football League play-offs against Blackpool at Wembley Stadium, and gaining promotion back to the Premier League at the first attempt. In his second season, he made 33 appearances and scoring three times in all competitions. Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Reid opted to stay and train with his West Ham teammates ahead of the new Premier League season rather than represent New Zealand at the London Olympics. Reid started the season well when he helped West Ham United keep a clean sheet in a 1–0 win against Aston Villa in the opening game of the season. On 1 September, Reid scored his first Premier League goal in West Ham's 3–0 victory against Fulham. Despite helping the club collect four points throughout December, Reid's performance was a standout that he was named December's SBOBET Player of the Month by the club's supporters. Reid captained West Ham for the first time in his career against Manchester United in the third round replay of FA Cup and helped the side lose 1–0. Two months later, he became a stand in captain once again following injuries to Kevin Nolan and Mark Noble, coming against Stoke City and Chelsea. However, by April, he suffered a thigh injury that saw him miss two matches. Reid returned to the starting line–up against Manchester United on 17 April 2013, helping the side draw 2–2. It was announced on 1 May that Reid signed a two-year extension to his contract until the end of the 2014–15 season. Arguably his best season since joining the club, Reid was rewarded for his form on 8 May when he was named Hammer of the Year, as West Ham went on to finish the season in 10th. In his third season, he made 37 appearances and scoring once in all competitions. At the start of the 2013–14 season, Reid started the season well when he helped the side keep two clean sheets in the first two league matches. Reid scored the opening goal in a 3–0 away win against rivals Tottenham Hotspur on 6 October 2013, ending the club's five league match losing streak. However, a month later, he suffered an ankle injury in training which required surgery. By late–January, Reid made a return to full training. It was not until on 1 February 2014 when he made his return from injury, starting the whole game, in a 2–0 home win against Swansea City. Following his return, Reid regained back his first team place for the closing months of the season and helped the club retain their status in the league, finishing thirteenth place. He made his 100th appearance for West Hamin all competitions on 15 April in a 1–3 defeat away to Arsenal. In his fourth season at the club, Reid made 22 appearances and scored once in all competitions. On 20 September 2014, Reid scored the first goal after just two minutes in a 3–1 win against Liverpool at Upton Park. Reid started the first twelve matches of the season until he was sidelined for one game in late–November for his fifth booking of the season. He regained his first team place for the next 11 matches between December and February. This lasted until Reid sustained a hamstring injury during a 2–0 loss against Liverpool on 31 January 2015 and was sidelined for weeks. It was announced on 1 March that Reid signed a new six-and-a-half-year contract with West Ham, after much speculation over his future at the club, after being linked with London rivals Arsenal and Tottenham. Over the closing months of the season, Reid continued to be in and out of the first team, as he was plagued from injuries. In his fifth season at West Ham United, Reid made 33 appearances and scored once in all competitions. At the start of the 2015–16 season, Reid made his UEFA Europa League debut against Birkirkara in the first leg of the second round. In mid–October, Reid suffered a hip injury while on international duty and was sidelined for weeks, making his return on 7 November in a 1–1 draw against Everton. Reid captained the side for the first time in the season against West Brom on 29 November, but scored an own goal in a 1–1 draw. In a follow–up match against Manchester United, his performance was praised by ESPN. However, he was sidelined with a hamstring injury that kept him out for a month. It was not until on 9 January 2016 when Reid made his return from injury, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the third round of the FA Cup. He, once again, became a captain for the second time this season, as West Ham drew 0–0 against Liverpool in the fourth round of the FA Cup. But Reid suffered another hamstring injury that kept him out for a month. It was not until on 19 March when Reid made his return from injury, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Chelsea. He later regained his first team place over the closing months of the season despite suffering from injuries. On 10 May, Reid wrote his name into West Ham folklore when he scored the last ever goal at Upton Park in a 3–2 win against Manchester United. In his sixth season at West Ham, Reid made 30 appearances and scored once in all competitions. At the start of the 2016–17 season, Reid played all three matches of the Europa League Qualifying match, as they did not progress to the Group Stage after losing 2–1 on aggregate against Astra Giurgiu. Reid scored his first goal of the season in a 1–0 win against Sunderland on 22 October. After serving a one match suspension for picking up five yellow cards, he returned to the starting line–up against Tottenham Hotspur on 19 November and set up two goals, but was later–off for second bookable offence, in a 3–2 loss. On 26 December, Reid scored his second goal of the season, in a 4–1 win against Swansea City. Reid regained his first team place for the next three months. He also became a stand in captain following Noble's absence for a number of matches towards the end of the season. Despite suffering from abductor problems later in the season, in his seventh season at West Ham, Reid made 36 appearances and scored two times in all competitions. Ahead of the 2017–18 season, Reid returned to full training following a knee injury. He also signed a contract extension with the club, keeping him until 2023. In early January 2018, Reid suffered a groin injury, keeping him out until 3 March when he played against Swansea, only to be taken off on a stretcher with an oxygen mask over his face after being knocked unconscious and twisting a knee, resulting in him being substituted in the 27th minute. After the match, it was announced that Reid was sidelined for the rest of the season. In his eighth season at West Ham, he made 20 appearances in all competitions. However, Reid did not play for the 2018–19 season, as he continued to recover from a knee injury. Ahead of the 2019–20 season, Reid made his first appearance in a friendly match against SCR Altach and helped them win 3–2 on 11 July 2019. After the match, he said: "You sometimes forget what it's like to play, so I was really looking forward to it. " However, Reid suffered a knee injury that kept him out for further three months. It was not until on 30 October when he returned from injury, playing 64 minutes for the reserve side, in a 3–2 loss against VfL Wolfsburg II. Reid made another appearance for the reserve side, in a 4–0 win against Aston Villa U23 on 22 November. On 21 September 2021 West Ham announced that Reid had departed the club by mutual consent. ====Sporting Kansas City (loan)==== On 14 February 2020, Reid went to Sporting Kansas City on loan. Upon joining the club, he said: "The last 19 months hasn't been the easiest time in my career, but hopefully we’ve crossed that bridge now. I'm just looking forward to a new challenge. Whatever happened back in the UK happened, so I'm just happy to be here and I'm really excited for it.". In December 2020, Sporting Kansas City announced that they would not be signing Reid on a permanent transfer at the end of his loan and that he would return to West Ham. ====Brentford (loan)==== On 1 February 2021, Reid joined EFL Championship club Brentford on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season. On 3 February, Reid made his debut for Brentford in a 3–2 win against Bristol City, coming on late in the game as a substitute. It was his first senior game in English football since 2018. He played in the play-off final, helping Brentford gain promotion to the Premier League for the 2021–22 season. Reid was hailed as "a giant" by Brentford manager Thomas Frank for helping to get their promotion push back on track following his arrival at the club in February. ==International career== ===Denmark=== Reid received Danish citizenship in 2006 and was subsequently called up for the under-19 national team. He played for various Danish age-grade representative teams, in particular the under-19s and under-21s, and played in the 2009 European Under-21 Championship qualification tournament. During a match against Serbia U21 on 11 October 2008, Reid was subjected to racism by the opposition supporters. ===New Zealand=== On 11 March 2010, Reid stated that he wanted to play for New Zealand's senior team, and on 13 March 2010 he made himself available for New Zealand's 2010 World Cup selection. On 10 May 2010, Reid was included in New Zealand's 2010 World Cup squad even though New Zealand national coach Ricki Herbert had never seen him play. He made his international debut in a friendly against Australia in Melbourne two weeks later. His second appearance came in the All Whites' shock 1–0 victory over Serbia, leaving Ricki Herbert "suitably impressed" with Reid's performance, supplanting Ben Sigmund on the right side of Herbert's three-man defence. On 15 June 2010, Reid scored an equalising goal in stoppage time against Slovakia in their opening game of the 2010 World Cup, thus securing a draw as well as his first ever international goal and New Zealand's first ever point in a World Cup finals match.New Zealand 1–1 Slovakia BBC Sport, 15 June 2010 He later made two more appearances in the tournament, as New Zealand was eliminated in the Group Stage. Despite the elimination, Reid later reflected on the tournament, saying it has changed his life. On 12 October 2010, Winston picked up his first international red card against Paraguay in Wellington for a "vicious" studs-up tackle on striker Federico Santander in the 90th minute of the All Whites' 2–0 defeat. Following the retirement of Ryan Nelsen from international football in 2013, Reid was named captain of the All Whites. His first match as captain came on 22 March 2013 against New Caledonia and set up a goal for Tommy Smith, who scored the winning goal, in a 2–1 win. Later in the same year on 7 November 2013, Reid was ruled out of the All Whites' FIFA World Cup playoff against Mexico, not only leaving a void on defence, but also with his successor as captain uncertain. It was not until on 9 September 2014 when he made his first appearance for the national side in almost a year, as they lost 3–1 against Uzbekistan. Reid made his only national side appearance a year later on 7 September 2015 against Myanmar, helping the side draw 1–1. It was not until on 9 October 2016 when Reid made another national side appearance a year later against Mexico, which saw them lose 2–1. However, he missed a year from the national side once again, including missing out in the FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia. It was not until October 2017 when Reid was called up to the national side. He started the whole game against Japan on 6 October 2017, as they lost 2–1. The following month, Reid played in both legs against Peru, the world's 10th ranked team at the time, for a place at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, as New Zealand lost 2–0 on aggregate. After a two-year absence from the national side, he was called up to the national side in November. Reid made his first national side appearance in two years, coming against Republic of Ireland, where he captained and played 45 minutes before being substituted, as they lost 3–1. In July 2021, Reid was confirmed as a member of the New Zealand team at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In August 2022, Reid announced his international retirement with the home-and away series against Australia being his final games. He played his final match on 25 September at Eden Park. ==Personal life== In addition to speaking English, Reid is fluent in Danish. In July 2015, Reid became a first time father when his wife, Yana, gave birth to twins, Ariana and Damien. In August 2015, Reid launched a footballing scholarship at Scots College, which were won by Sarpreet Singh and Max Mata. As of August 2022, Reid and his family are based in Dubai. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National Cup League Cup Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals FC Midtjylland 2005–06 Danish Superliga 9 0 0 0 — — — 9 0 2006–07 Danish Superliga 11 0 0 0 — — — 11 0 2007–08 Danish Superliga 9 0 2 0 — — — 11 0 2008–09 Danish Superliga 25 2 1 0 — 3 1 — 29 3 2009–10 Danish Superliga 29 0 2 0 — — — 31 0 2010–11 Danish Superliga 1 0 0 0 — — — 1 0 Total 84 2 5 0 — 3 1 — 92 3 West Ham United 2010–11 Premier League 7 0 3 1 2 0 — — 12 1 2011–12 Championship 28 3 2 0 0 0 — 3 0 33 3 2012–13 Premier League 36 1 1 0 0 0 — — 37 1 2013–14 Premier League 22 1 0 0 0 0 — — 22 1 2014–15 Premier League 30 1 2 0 1 0 — — 33 1 2015–16 Premier League 24 1 4 0 1 0 1 0 — 30 1 2016–17 Premier League 30 2 1 0 2 0 3 0 — 36 2 2017–18 Premier League 17 0 1 0 1 0 — — 19 0 2018–19 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 2019–20 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 2020–21 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 2021–22 Premier League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 Total 194 9 14 1 7 0 4 0 3 0 222 10 Sporting Kansas City (loan) 2020 Major League Soccer 10 1 0 0 — — 2 0 12 1 Brentford (loan) 2020–21 Championship 11 0 0 0 0 0 — — 1 0 12 0 Career total 299 12 19 1 7 0 7 1 6 0 338 14 ===International=== Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals New Zealand 2010 8 1 New Zealand 2011 1 0 New Zealand 2012 2 0 New Zealand 2013 3 0 New Zealand 2014 4 0 New Zealand 2015 1 0 New Zealand 2016 2 0 New Zealand 2017 1 0 New Zealand 2018 2 0 New Zealand 2019 1 0 Total Total 25 1 :Scores and results list New Zealand's goal tally first. No. Date Venue Opponent Score Result Competition 1 15 June 2010 Royal Bafokeng Stadium, Phokeng, South Africa 1–1 1–1 2010 FIFA World Cup ==Honours== West Ham United *Football League Championship play-offs: 2012 Sporting Kansas City *MLS Western Conference: 2020 Brentford *EFL Championship play-offs: 2021 Individual *Hammer of the Year: 2012–13 *NZF Footballer of the Year: 2011 *NZPFA Players' Player of the Year: 2011 *New Zealand Footballer of the Year: 2014 *IFFHS OFC Men's Team of the Decade 2011–2020 *IFFHS Oceania Men's Team of All Time: 2021 ==See also== *List of sportspeople who competed for more than one nation ==References== ==External links== * *Career statistics Danmarks Radio * Category:1988 births Category:Living people Category:Te Rarawa people Category:Tainui people Category:Danish people of New Zealand descent Category:People from North Shore, New Zealand Category:Association footballers from Auckland Category:New Zealand Māori sportspeople Category:New Zealand association footballers Category:Danish men's footballers Category:FC Midtjylland players Category:West Ham United F.C. players Category:Sporting Kansas City players Category:Danish Superliga players Category:Premier League players Category:English Football League players Category:Denmark men's youth international footballers Category:Denmark men's under-21 international footballers Category:New Zealand men's international footballers Category:2010 FIFA World Cup players Category:New Zealand emigrants Category:Immigrants to Denmark Category:Naturalised citizens of Denmark Category:Danish expatriate men's footballers Category:Danish expatriate sportspeople in England Category:Expatriate footballers in England Category:Men's association football defenders Category:Expatriate soccer players in the United States Category:Major League Soccer players Category:FC Sønderborg players Category:Brentford F.C. players Category:Footballers at the 2020 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic association footballers for New Zealand Category:Danish expatriate sportspeople in the United States
|
The Charing Cross and Strand Electricity Supply Corporation Limited was a British electricity undertaking. It was incorporated as a public company in 1889 to generate and supply electricity to parts of the City of Westminster, Holborn and later the City of London. From 1925 it worked jointly with other companies as part of the London Power Company. The company was abolished on 31 March 1948 when the British electricity industry was nationalised, and its assets were transferred to the British Electricity Authority and the London Electricity Board. The Charing Cross Corporation's Bow power station continued in operation until 1969. == History == The entrepreneurs Sir John Maria Emilio Gatti and his brother Rocco Joseph Stefano Gatti owned the Royal Adelphi theatre and the Adelaide restaurant in the Strand in the West End. From September 1883 they provided electric lighting for the restaurant from a small generating plant in the basement of the building. The plant comprised two multi-tubular Field boilers providing steam to two Armington and Sims engines each driving two 150-lamp Edison bipolar dynamos. The system was capable of operating 330 lamps. By 1886 the plant was supplying lighting at the Adelphi theatre. With growing electricity demand a new generating station was built in 1888 at Bull Inn Court, between Maiden Lane and The Strand. The station had three Babcock and Wilcox boilers providing steam at 140 psi (9.6 bar) to four compound Willans engines coupled to two 84 kW and two 50 kW Edison-Hopkinson dynamos. These machines generated direct current at 105 V. === Public electricity supplies === To extend supplies more widely in the area the Electric Supply Corporation was registered as an electricity undertaking on 12 June 1889 with statutory authority to supply electricity to parts of Holborn and Westminster. These areas were: the southern part of Holborn Metropolitan Borough except Lincoln's Inn and Staple Inn; the Strand district and the parish of St. Martin in the Fields in the City of Westminster. The Metropolitan Electric Supply Company Limited objected to the new undertaking as it already supplied the Strand district with electricity. The Charing Cross Company argued that it would provide low-tension current that would be an advantage for motive power over the high-tension supply from the Metropolitan Electric Supply Company. The Gatti brothers were directors and shareholders of the new company. The Electric Supply Corporation took over the ownership and operation of the Maiden Lane station, and soon after changed the company name to the Charing Cross and Strand Electricity Supply Corporation Limited. Further increases in demand were met by several extensions to the Maiden Lane station from 1892. To supplement electricity supplies the Charing Cross Company built a new power station in 1896 at 85 Commercial Road, Lambeth on the south of the River Thames. Electricity was transferred across the river through ducts in Hungerford and Waterloo Bridges. The plant at Commercial Road had a capacity of 3,600 kW and operated at 1,000 V. The voltage was reduced to 200 V for distribution to customers by motor–generator sets located in local substations on the north side of the river. These substations were located at Maiden Lane; Short's Gardens, Drury Lane; and St. Martins Lane. In 1897 the plant had a generating capacity of 2,575 kW and the maximum load was 1,377 kW. A total of 2615.51 MWh of electricity was sold to 719 customers which powered 107,542 lamps, this provided an income to the company of £48,026-16-6d. The growth of the undertaking is demonstrated in the table. Growth of the Charing Cross undertaking Year No. of 8 candle power lamps Gross revenue Net revenue 1892 29,000 £20,658 13 8 £9,997 13 3 1893 34,570 £22,303 19 2 £8,654 8 4 1894 41,216 £26,532 0 5 £10,395 12 9 1895 51,302 £28,571 0 1 £12,587 3 11 1896 73,464 £38,804 13 4 £15,288 15 1 1897 107,542 £48,880 17 9 £18,907 2 11 In 1899 the company sought and received authority under The City of London Electric Lighting Act 1900 to supply electricity to the City of London. This supply was in competition with City of London Electric Lighting Company. One of the conditions of the Act was that the company would provide, within two years, a power station to supply the City with electricity. Such an arrangement would allow the City Corporation to purchase a complete electricity supply system. Accordingly, a new station was constructed at Bow in the Borough of West Ham, about 4 miles north east of Charing Cross. A separate operating undertaking within the Charing Cross Company was established to manage this supply. === Bow power station === Bow power station (51°32'03"N 0°00'43"W) was built on a 7½ acre (3.04 ha) site in Marshgate Road, Bow, and was first commissioned in 1902. It generated 3-phase alternating current at 10 kV and 50 Hz. It was the first 3-phase plant in the UK. Initially the equipment comprised two 800 kW and two 1600 kW Lahmeyer generating sets. The 800 kW sets were driven by Bellis and Morcom high speed engines, and the 1600 kW sets by Sulzer Bros. engines. The boilers were manufactured by Richard Hornsby. In 1904–5 a pair of 4 MW generators were added, these were then the largest generating machines in the country. They were driven by Sulzer three cylinder compound engines. Steam was from a pair of Hornsby vertical boilers with an output capacity of 140,000 lb/h (17.6 kg/s) at 160 psi (11.0 bar) for each 4 MW set. Steam from the engines discharged into jet-condensers and cooling was by 16 fan driven circular steel cooling towers, 30 ft (11 m) in diameter and 85 ft (26 m) high. Coal was delivered to the power station by the River Lea and its channels. The station transmitted electricity at 10 kV through underground cables through the districts of Poplar, Mile End and Whitechapel to four substations in the City and West End each with an 8.4 MW motor-generator. These were at Fenchurch Street, Upper Thames Street, Ludgate Hill and Beech Street. The 350 kW synchronous generators giving 400–440 V across the outer wires, supply was eventually 2 × 200 V on a three-wire system. Following the First World War the reciprocating engines at Bow were gradually replaced with more efficient steam turbines. New Babcock and Wilcox boilers supplied steam at 270 psi (18.6 bar) and 650 °F (343 °C). === Operations === The company changed its name in February 1905 to the Charing Cross, West End and City Electricity Supply Company Limited to reflect its enlarged supply area in the City. As new generating plant was commissioned so older and less efficient plant was retired: the advent of Bow power station led to the eventual closure of the Lambeth station by 1909. It was reported in 1910 that the City of Westminster had transferred electric street lighting, comprising 66 arc lamps run by the St. James Electric Light Company, to a gas company for conversion back to gas lighting. The usual pattern at this period was the substitution of electricity in place of gas for street lighting. The Charing Cross Company confirmed they continued to operate 165 arc lamps in the City of Westminster. A summary of operating data for the Charing Cross Company from 1903 to 1936 is as follows: Charing Cross Electricity Company summary of operating data, 1903–36 Year Undertaking Generating capacity, MW Maximum load, MW No. of Customers Electricity generated, GWh Electricity sold, GWh 1903 West End 4.4 4.28 ? 10.32 7.19 City 8.0 5.71 ? 5.80 3.56 1912–13 West End 3.76 6.33 3464 39.00 12.23 City 19.72 7.38 4466 15.43 1919 West End 2.6 7.19 ? 41.90 12.65 City 20.9 9.4 ? 17.54 1923–24 West End 2.60 10.92 4602 2.70 + 21.41 purchased 18.98 City 30.5 24.93 5696 52.13 45.02 1931 West End ? ? ? 3.72 + 46.57 purchased 39.27 City ? ? ? 0 + 52.24 purchased 43.50 1936 West End 6.4 48.99 5394 55.08 + 133.8 purchased 54.35 City 6220 62.11 From the early 1920s interconnections between electricity undertakings enabled bulk supplies of electricity to be sold and purchased. For example, in 1923 the West End undertaking, in addition to its 2.6 MW generating capacity, had 10.7 MW of transformer capability enabling electricity to be imported. In 1923 the generating plant comprised the following. At Bow there were 2 × 3.0 MW, 2 × 5.0 MW and 1 × 2.5 MW turbo generators, plus 2 × 4.0 MW reciprocating generators giving a total capacity of 36.52 MW. The maximum load on the system was 23,164 MW. These machines were supplied by boilers with a total steam output capacity of 575,000 lb/hr (72.45 kg/s). At St. Martins Lane there were 2 × 450 kV oil driven generators providing a DC supply, and at Shorts Gardens there were 4 × 450 kW and 2 × 530 kW oil driven generators also providing a DC supply. In 1928 the company installed new substations in Soho Square (1500 kW) and Aldwych (3000 kW), and a new 1200 kW diesel engine at Shorts Gardens. The substation at Shorts Gardens was housed in a 3-storey red brick building (extant 2020) numbered 62–72 Shorts Gardens at the northeast end of Shorts Gardens near Drury Lane. It was noted in 1931 that major rebuilding work in the City and the West End particularly the construction of substantially larger buildings provided with ‘lavish’ lighting had increased the demand for electricity from the company. In 1935 the Charing Cross Company distributed electricity from 14 substations, these were located at: 12 Maiden Lane, Short's Gardens, St. Martins Lane, Chancery Lane, Soho Square, Aldwych, Trafalgar Buildings, 85 Fenchurch Street, 86 Upper Thames Street, 68/70 Ludgate Hill, Seacoal Lane, 9 Beech Street, Broad Street, and Smithfield Market. By 1936–7 the substation in St. Martin's Lane was equipped with three generator sets of 575 kW, 750 kW and 1200 kW, in that year they generated 2.38 MWh of power. The substation was severely damaged during the war. === Financial === In 1903 the Charing Cross Company charged 3.78 d./kWh for a private electricity supply and 1.77 d./kWh for public lighting. These were both less than that charged by the City of London Company: 3.87 and 1.98 d./kWh respectively. By 1912–3 a more complex charging system was used. For the West End area the company charged 2.02 d./kWh for street lighting and 3.18 d./kWh for ‘other’ public lighting, it charged 3.15 d./kWh for private lighting, 1.22 d./kWh for power and heat to the Borough Council and 1.51 d./kWh for power and heat to private customers. For the City area the charges were 2.37 d./kWh other public lighting, 3.14 d./kWh for private lighting, 0.93 d./kWh for power and heat to the borough council, and 1.51 d./kWh for power and heat to private customers. For 1918 the charging system was less complex, for the West End the company charged 3.47 d./kWh for public lighting, 6.26 d./kWh for private light, 2.45 d./kWh for power and heat; for the City undertaking the charges were 6.64 d./kWh for private lighting and 2.31 d./kWh for power and heat. The financial revenue, expenditure and surplus over the period 1912–36 was as follows: Charing Cross Electricity Company financial summary, 1912–36 Year Undertaking Revenue Expenditure Gross surplus 1912–13 West End £146,265 £57,564 £79,801 City £148,513 £72,697 £66,673 1919 West End £262,950 £152,911 £96,789 City £330,981 £258,250 £60,327 1921 West End £312,500 £212,116 City £438,772 1922 West End £333,000 £187,000 City £437,002 1936 West End £410,674 £296,735 £190,740 City £388,618 £265,286 £184,449 The increase in expenditure between 1913 and 1919 is partly due to the rise in commodity prices during this period. The company noted that the bill for coal in 1914 was less than £40,000 but by 1918 it was £108,000 and in 1919 was £157,000. Dividends to shareholders were paid throughout the operational life of the company. Dividends as a percentage of the total capital raised in a given year were as shown, together with the average dividends paid by the London company electricity undertakings. Charing Cross company shareholder dividends, 1892–1919 Year 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 West End dividend % 4.75 4.62 4.66 5.01 5.47 6.19 6.25 7.43 6.95 6.66 5.78 5.66 5.37 4.52 City dividend % – – – – – – – – – 3.65 3.80 3.17 3.26 3.30 London average dividend % 2.10 2.68 3.40 4.01 4.66 5.54 5.10 5.15 4.60 5.29 5.55 5.51 5.79 5.65 Year 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 West End dividend % 4.50 4.48 4.48 4.48 4.48 4.48 4.48 4.80 4.48 4.48 4.48 4.16 4.16 5.12 City dividend % 3.46 3.38 3.66 3.27 3.34 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 London average dividend % 5.40 5.14 5.12 5.07 5.07 5.11 5.18 5.33 5.10 4.87 4.68 5.32 4.96 5.76 === Amalgamation and joint working === In 1920 the company was one of nine electricity undertakings which formed the London Electricity Joint Committee to oppose schemes proposed by the Electricity Commissioners for reorganisation of electricity supplies in London. The Joint Committee acquired Bow generating station and the transmission system. In 1924 the company changed its name to the Charing Cross Electricity Supply Company Limited and was an authorised distribution supplying an electricity supply in bulk to Smithfield Markets Electric Supply Company. In 1925 the Charing Cross Company and other undertakings formed, under the provisions of the London Electricity (No.2) Act 1925, the London Power Company. The LPC amalgamated the ownership and management of the generating stations, but left the supply of electricity to customers with the constituent companies. From 1 January 1937 the Charing Cross Company acquired five other undertakings to coordinate the distribution of electricity in their areas of London. The other undertakings were: Brompton and Kensington Electricity Supply Company Limited; Chelsea Electricity Supply Company Limited; Kensington and Knightsbridge Electric Lighting Company Limited; St. James and Pall Mall Electric Light Company Limited; and Westminster Electric Supply Corporation Limited. The Charing Cross Company changed its name again to Central London Electricity Limited. All the shares of Central London Electricity were held by a non-statutory company known as London Associated Electricity Undertakings Limited. The company's supply area now included Chelsea, City of London, Holborn (south), Kensington (south), Westminster (east). However, the company failed to attract a wider range of London companies to the merger and therefore planning of London's electricity remained un-integrated. Upon nationalisation of the electricity industry in 1948 the Central London Electricity Limited undertaking was abolished and its generation and main transmission assets, including Bow power station, was transferred to the British Electricity Authority (1948–55), then to the Central Electricity Authority (1955–57), and finally to the Central Electricity Generating Board (1958–69). The electricity distribution and sales to customer assets of the Central London Electricity Limited were vested in the London Electricity Board. === Post-nationalisation === In 1954 the working capacity of the generators at Bow power station was 51.5 MW. The steam capacity of the chain gate stoked boilers was 785,000 lb/hr (98.9 kg/s) and the steam conditions at the turbine stop-valves was 250 psi (17.2 bar) and 343 °C. In 1954 the station burned 23,600 tons of coal. In 1954 the overall thermal efficiency of the station was 13.6 per cent, this had fallen to 9.84 percent in the final year of operation. The electricity output of the station, in GWh, over the period 1946–68 was:CEGB Statistical Yearbook (1964–67), CEGB, London.GEGB Annual report and accounts, various yearsElectricity Commission, Generation of Electricity in Great Britain year ended 31st December 1946. London: HMSO, 1947.{ "version": 2, "width": 600, "height": 250, "data": [ { "name": "table", "values": [ { "x": 1954, "y": 23 }, { "x": 1955, "y": 17 }, { "x": 1956, "y": 6 }, { "x": 1957, "y": 8 }, { "x": 1958, "y": 13 }, { "x": 1959, "y": 7 }, { "x": 1961, "y": 11 }, { "x": 1964, "y": 11 }, { "x": 1965, "y": 23 }, { "x": 1966, "y": 18 }, { "x": 1967, "y": 18 }, { "x": 1968, "y": 8 }, { "x": 1962, "y": 14 }, { "x": 1963, "y": 20 }, { "x": 1946, "y": 35 } ] } ], "scales": [ { "name": "x", "type": "ordinal", "range": "width", "zero": false, "domain": { "data": "table", "field": "x" } }, { "name": "y", "type": "linear", "range": "height", "nice": true, "domain": { "data": "table", "field": "y" } } ], "axes": [ { "type": "x", "scale": "x" }, { "type": "y", "scale": "y" } ], "marks": [ { "type": "rect", "from": { "data": "table" }, "properties": { "enter": { "x": { "scale": "x", "field": "x" }, "y": { "scale": "y", "field": "y" }, "y2": { "scale": "y", "value": 0 }, "fill": { "value": "steelblue" }, "width": { "scale": "x", "band": "true", "offset": -1 } } } } ] } Bow power station ceased generating electricity in 1969 and was subsequently demolished. The Shorts Gardens substation continued to generate electricity until the early 1960s, using internal combustion engines. There was one 550 kW and two 1,125 kW oil engines. It was used as a peak shaving plant: in 1954 it had a capacity 2.8 MW, was run for 604 hours and delivered 287 MWh. In 1961 the station had a capacity of 2.8 MW, it was run for 170 hours and delivered 62 MWh. In 1961/2 it generated 118 MWh, and in 1962/3 it delivered 252 MWh.CEGB Annual Report and Accounts, various years The building is used (in 2020) by UK Power Networks. == Key people == The Directors of the Charing Cross Company in 1903 were: * Sir William Francis Fladgate (1853–1937) (Chairman) * G.H. Brougham Glasier (Vice-Chairman) *Sir John M. Gatti (1872–1929) (Managing Director until at least 1928) * Stefano Gatti * Richard Chadwick The Company Secretary was Edward Wilmot Seale, later Cecil G. Stanesby The Engineer-in-Chief was W.H. Patchell. The company office was at 60 St. Martin's Lane, London, WC. The Gatti family, and their role in electricity supply, are commemorated on a Green Plaque in the Strand. == Company names == In summary the various names of the company were: * Electric Supply Corporation (12 June 1889 – 1889) * Charing Cross and Strand Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (1889–1905) * Charing Cross, West End and City Electricity Supply Company Limited (February 1905 – 1924) * Charing Cross Electricity Supply Company Limited (1924–1937) * Central London Electricity Limited (1937–1948) == See also == * List of pre-nationalisation UK electric power companies * Timeline of the UK electricity supply industry * County of London Electric Supply Company * London Power Company * London Electricity Board * National Grid == References == Category:Defunct electric power companies of the United Kingdom Category:Electric power companies of England Category:Electric power infrastructure in England Category:Energy companies disestablished in 1948 Category:Former power stations in London
|
"Different Colors" is a song written and recorded by American rock band Walk the Moon for their second studio album, Talking Is Hard (2014). The song was released to US alternative radio stations by RCA Records as the album's second single on May 5, 2015. Described as an alternative rock, electropop, indie rock, and pop song, it is lyrically about celebrating and embracing each other's differences by speaking out against discrimination of any kind. Some music critics gave "Different Colors" praise for its chorus and production; others felt it was a step down from the band's earlier singles. The song peaked at number seven on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart, becoming Walk the Moon's third top ten track on the chart. A music video for the song was released on June 11, 2015, featuring footage of the band touring with colorful visuals. The song was performed live by Walk the Moon at award shows, including the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. It was included on the setlist for the band's Talking Is Hard Tour (2015) and was used in campaigns of Pepsi, AT&T; & Apple. ==Background and composition== "Different Colors" was written by all four members of Walk the Moon, while recorded at Rancho Pagzilla in North Hollywood, California. The song was produced by Tim Pagnotta and mixed by Neal Avron at The Casita in Hollywood, California. Mastering was handled by Joe LaPorta at Sterling Sound, New York City. The track has been referred to as an alternative rock, electropop, indie rock, and pop song by music journalists. The song is composed of numerous ebullient synths, layered, upbeat guitars, and distant-sounding vocals. It features multiple "oooh-e- oooh-e-ooohs" in the intro and throughout its chorus. Guitarist Eil Maiman used a tape delay for the intro and pre-chorus that is set faster than the song's tempo because he wanted to "create a weird, kind of off-balance effect". In his explanation for using the delay, Maiman said: "As wonderful and delicious as tempo-locked delays are, I've found that occasionally out of time repeats can sound really hip and fresh." As he tracked guitars for the song, the band "tr[ied] com[ing] up with weird noises" to add something bombastic to the last chorus when Pagnotta shouted at them to "just kick the amp over". Maiman complied with the suggestion, causing a "bizarre roar" that the band loved and kept in the recording. Lead vocalist Nicholas Petricca stated that the song addresses "any part of this world that is diverse and sometimes struggles to be treated with a sense of normalcy". In an interview with Time magazine, Petricca commented on how "Different Colors" differed from their previous single "Shut Up and Dance" by saying that "it shows a different side of [the band] that's equally important", which is "taking this platform [they]'ve got as [the band] get[s] more popular to say something that's meaningful to [them]". He went on to say that the song "is all about not just tolerating each other's differences but celebrating them and embracing them". Maiman also added that it was "a chance for [Walk the Moon] to sort of empower people, especially kids, to have the courage to be themselves and to stand out". When talking about the inspiration for "Different Colors", Petricca mentioned that while the song "speaks out against discrimination of all kinds, it was the fight for marriage equality that initially inspired the song". He mentioned being frustrated that news segments were still arguing about same- sex marriage and whether people should have equal rights in 2013. Petricca said "it should be second nature at this point" and that the band wanted "to write a victory march and a call to arms for everyone" that is "about equality and love in every way". ==Release and reception== "Different Colors" was released as the opening track of Walk the Moon's sophomore album Talking Is Hard. It was first made available as an instant gratification track for pre- orders of Talking Is Hard via iTunes and Amazon on November 17, 2014. Simultaneously, the song was made available for steaming on SoundCloud. It impacted US alternative radio stations on May 5, 2015, through RCA Records as the second single from Talking Is Hard. On September 4, 2015, an acoustic version of "Different Colors" was included for the acoustic single release of "Shut Up and Dance". An extended play was released digitally on December 4 of that year, which includes two remixes of "Different Colors", done by Lost Kings and The Griswolds, respectively. The EP also features a cover of "It's Your Thing" by the Isley Brothers, and the song "Boyfriend" that was previously only available on the UK and Japanese editions of Talking Is Hard. Proceeds from the sales of the Different Colors EP were set to be donated to the Human Rights Campaign (HRC). On June 30, 2022, a new version of the song featuring Jake Wesley Rogers, titled "Different Colors x Pride", was made available via digital outlets in honor of the last day of Pride Month. Proceeds from the updated recording were to be donated to Cyndi Lauper's True Colors United charity, which supports homeless LGBTQ+ youth. James Grebey of Spin magazine stated that while the track "doesn't reach the high-highs" of the band's 2012 hit "Anna Sun", it "achieves a similar feel-good vibe" and praised the catchiness of the song's chorus. James Christopher Monger of AllMusic said that "Different Colors" offers "a nice mix of Bastille- influenced, swirly electro-pop atmosphere and dense, heavily arpeggiated retro-fitted indie rock". Vulture's Lauretta Charlton noted that its use of synths and "oooh-e-oooh-e-ooohs" made the song "sound like it was written about 30 years ago", but commented that it was "not a bad thing". Chris DeVille, writing for Stereogum, was less enthusiastic towards the song, writing that it "marks a steep decline" from "Shut Up and Dance", but called the chorus "probably strong enough to save Walk the Moon from one-hit wonder status". Mitchell Bozzetto of Renowned for Sound also did not think the song lived up to the band's previous singles from Walk the Moon (2012) due to its "somewhat cheesy vibe". Alternative Addiction gave three out of five stars in a positive review of the Different Colors EP, calling Walk the Moon's cover of "It's Your Thing" a "cool rendition" and the new song "Boyfriend" a "decent listen", despite not "stand[ing] out as anything too amazing". The staff of the publication noted that the two "Different Colors" remixes were the highlights of the EP and concluded the review by saying: "If you're a fan of the band, you'll find something you want to listen to here." Alternative Addiction later included "Different Colors" on their "Top 200 of the 2010s" list at number 180. ==Commercial performance== "Different Colors" debuted at number 36 on the US Billboard Alternative Songs chart dated July 4, 2015, becoming Walk the Moon's fourth entry on the chart. The song eventually peaked at number seven on the week ending October 9, 2015, making it the band's third top ten hit on the Alternative Songs chart. The song spent a total of 20 weeks on the chart and ranked at number 34 on the US Alternative Songs year-end chart for 2015. It performed similarly on the Rock Airplay chart, peaking at number 12 for the issue date of October 30, 2015, and spending 20 weeks on the chart. On the US Hot Rock Songs chart, "Different Colors" reached number 26 on the week ending October 23, 2015, and also logged 20 weeks on the chart. For the issue dated December 25, 2015, the song charted on the Hot Singles Sales chart for one week at number three, following the release of the Different Colors EP. Outside of the United States, "Different Colors" achieved minor success in Canada, peaking at number 38 on the Canada Rock airplay chart. ==Promotional videos== A lyric video for "Different Colors" was filmed in Walk the Moon's hometown of Cincinnati, Ohio and was uploaded to their Vevo account on June 3, 2015. City landmarks featured in the video include Eden Park, the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge, the Ohio River, Cincinnati Union Terminal, and Sawyer Point Park & Yeatman's Cove. The visual stood as the band's second video to be filmed in Cincinnati, after "Anna Sun" in 2010. Over 15,000 long exposure photographs went into making the clip. An accompanying music video, featuring scenes and footage from the band's spring tour, was released on June 11, 2015. It was directed by Nathan Crooker and Patrick Nichols and filmed at Susquehanna Bank Center for WRFF's Birthday Show in May. The video visually includes the bright colors of the band's tattoos, bright sneakers, and neon face paint. Petricca elaborated on the deal with the face paint, which was picked up from the "Anna Sun" video, saying: "We've heard time and time again that people make friends out there because they don't have face paint, so they've got to meet the person [next to them]. For us, it's just a fun expression of that inner child." Referencing the creation of the music video, Walk the Moon tweeted that they "get to experience such vibrant creativity and diversity in the people and places [they meet and] visit," so the video is built out of "some of [the band's] favorite moments from [their] journey across North America this past spring". ==Live performances and use in other media== "Different Colors" was first performed live at the Observatory in Santa Ana on October 16, 2013 by Walk the Moon. The song was included on the setlist of their Talking Is Hard Tour (2015). That same year, the band played "Different Colors", "Shut Up and Dance", and "Anna Sun" in an acoustic set at KROQ's Red Bull Sound Space. It was performed live by them from the iHeartRadio Theater for the ALT987fm Carl's Jr. All-Natural Concert Series. Walk the Moon performed "Different Colors" along with "Shut Up and Dance" at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards pre-show on August 30, 2015. The song was performed by the band for The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on September 25 of that year. They also performed it at the Austin City Limits Music Festival on October 3, 2015. Walk the Moon performed a six-song set that included "Different Colors" at the Nickelodeon HALO Awards on November 7 of that year. The song was played on the second day of the Shaky Knees Music Festival in 2016. It was set to be performed live at Rock in Rio the following year on September 17, 2017. On the evening of July 14, 2018, the band performed "Different Colors" as part of a 10-song set at the USANA Amphitheatre. They later performed the song at SumTur Amphitheater on July 30 of that year. It was performed by them at the Firefly Music Festival on June 23, 2019. "Different Colors" was used in the trailer for Paper Towns (2015), an adaptation of John Green's novel of the same name. Beginning in June 2015, the song was featured in several television commercials for Pop Open Music, the summer music program of Pepsi. Walk the Moon had signed on as one of the first bands to partner with Pepsi on the project. Additionally, "Different Colors" was also featured in a short video titled "Subway Serenade" for AT&T;'s Feel the Music campaign, a social project designed to improve music access to the Deaf and Hard of Hearing community. AT&T; worked with the Deaf Professional Arts Network to create the video using American Sign Language (ASL). The video features performers in a subway dancing, while rhythmically signing the lyrics of the song to enable those that are deaf and hard of hearing to appreciate the clip. Though AT&T; initially wanted to use "Shut Up and Dance" for the video, the band felt that "the lyrics of 'Different Colors' were a better fit". ==Track listings== *Digital download #"Different Colors" – 3:42 *Digital download – EPDigital releases for Different Colors EP: * * * #"Different Colors" – 3:41 #"It's Your Thing" – 2:47 #"Boyfriend" – 2:57 #"Different Colors" (Lost Kings Remix) – 3:05 #"Different Colors" (The Griswolds Remix) – 3:56 *Digital download and streaming #"Different Colors x Pride" (featuring Jake Wesley Rogers) – 3:30 ==Credits and personnel== Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talking Is Hard. ;Locations *Recorded at Rancho Pagzilla, North Hollywood, California *Mixed at The Casita, Hollywood, California *Mastered at Sterling Sound, New York City ;Personnel *Nick Petricca vocals, keyboards, percussion, programming, songwriting *Kevin Ray bass, vocals, songwriting *Sean Waugaman percussion, vocals, songwriting *Eli Maiman guitar, vocals, programming, songwriting *Ben Berger vocal production *Ryan McMahon vocal production *Jarett Holmes programming, recording, digital editing *Tim Pagnotta production, recording *Brian Phillips digital editing *Allen Casillas digital editing *Ryan Gillmore digital editing *Mauro Rubbi drum technician *Blake Mares assistant engineer *Robert Cohen assistant engineer *Neal Avron mixing *Scott Skrzynski mixing assistant *Joe LaPorta mastering ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Weekly chart performance for "Different Colors" Chart (2015) Peak position US Hot Singles Sales (Billboard) 3 ===Year-end charts=== 2015 year- end chart performance for "Different Colors" Chart (2015) Position US Hot Rock & Alternative Songs (Billboard) 75 US Rock Airplay (Billboard) 48 ==Release history== Release dates and formats for "Different Colors" Region Date Format Label(s) Various November 17, 2014 United States May 5, 2015 Various December 4, 2015 June 30, 2022 Moon ==References== ==External links== * Category:2014 songs Category:2015 singles Category:American alternative rock songs Category:American indie rock songs Category:American pop songs Category:Electropop songs Category:LGBT-related songs Category:RCA Records singles Category:Walk the Moon songs
|
Nick J. Mosby (born 1978) is an American politician from Baltimore, Maryland. He is the current President of the Baltimore City Council. First elected to serve on the City Council from 2011 to 2016, Mosby was subsequently appointed in 2017 to the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Baltimore City's 40th District. He was elected as Baltimore City Council in November 2020, assuming the role in December of that year. ==Early life== Mosby was born in the Northwood neighborhood of Baltimore. He attended Baltimore Polytechnic Institute where he participated in debate team and served as the student council president. According to classmates, Mosby aspired to be mayor while still in high school. Mosby then attended Tuskegee University, where he received his Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering in 2001. Mosby was inducted as a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity within the Pi Omega chapter in Baltimore. Mosby then worked as a network engineer and project manager with Verizon. Prior to his political career, Mosby served as a Senior Project Manager with Baltimore Gas and Electric. ==Political career== ===Baltimore City Council=== Mosby's first attempt for office was as one of seven competitors in the 2007 Democratic primary for the open seat in Baltimore's District 11 City Council seat, vacated by Keiffer Mitchell Jr. In this race, competitor William H. Cole IV received the endorsement of the Baltimore Sun, Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley and Congressman Elijah Cummings, and Mosby went on to place 4th in the election with 10.45% of the vote. In 2011, Mosby ran again for City Council, this time for the city's 7th district seat (his home neighborhood of Reservoir Hill having since been transferred to that district). The district's incumbent, Belinda Conaway, was facing scrutiny for allegations including that her primary residence was outside the city, in violation of city law. Mosby cited this negative media coverage, and Conaway's $21 million libel suit against a blogger as an impetus for him to run against her. In the intervening years, Mosby had served as a member of the Baltimore City Democratic Central Committee from 2008-2010. Indeed, despite being the challenger, the Baltimore Messenger described the "politically-connected" Mosby as the establishment-backed candidate in the race, citing endorsements of him by Governor (and former Baltimore Mayor) O'Malley, prominent union groups, the editors of the Baltimore Sun, and the sitting Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake. Mosby ultimately defeated Conaway and the other challengers in the Democratic primary with a 51% share of the vote. His defeat of the incumbent Conaway was characterized as an "upset" in city media. Despite losing the primary nomination, Conaway launched a write-in campaign for the general election later that year. In a formal complaint to Maryland United States Attorney Rod Rosenstein, Conaway alleged illegal conduct on the part of Mosby's campaign in the primary relating to the use of the IRS logo on a mailer and allegations that she had lied on her tax returns, but Mosby's campaign denied any wrongdoing. In November, Conaway further alleged "major fraud" in absentee ballots sent for the wrong council district, writing a formal appeal to Attorney General of the United States Eric Holder, although local officials stated they had received no complaints about the process. In spite of the write-in challenge, Mosby still won "decisively" in the general election, winning 76.13% of the vote. ====Tenure==== In his first year as councilmember, Mosby initially emerged as one of several council allies of Mayor Rawlings-Blake, helping that summer to approve her budget cut proposal, against the amendments of Council President Jack Young. Mosby voted against a proposal to amend the city charter to require biannual audits of city agencies, a stance which also aligned with the Rawlings-Blake administration. Instead, later that year Mosby put forward a separate bill, proposing a city wide commission "to provide input on city audits and how they are conducted," whose members would all be appointed by the mayor. The city's auditor opposed the move, saying the mayoral appointments would "jeopardize [their] independence." In the summer of 2012, Mosby questioned Mayor Rawlings-Blake's appointment of Anthony Batts, a city outsider, to head the Baltimore Police Department, although he ultimately deferred to her judgment in approving his appointment. In July 2013, when 20 city recreation centers were shut down as part of Mayor Rawlings-Blake's budget, Mosby spoke in favor of their continued operation under privatized administration, including one in Easterwood re- opened by his fraternity, Omega Psi Phi. In 2014, Mosby started the "Get Fit with Councilman Mosby" Challenge, partnering with close to 30 personal trainers, fitness organizations and chefs, the American Heart Association and Y of Central MD to provide free access to fitness and cooking classes. Mosby called for hearings on the effects of sweetened beverages on children, and proposed legislation that to require warning labels on all advertisements for sugary drinks. With the aim to support the phase-out of lightweight plastic bags, Mosby supported unsuccessful 2014 legislation that sought to reduce littering by imposing a fee on disposable plastic bags used in stores. In September 2014, following the contentious appointment of a replacement for another seat on the council (that of Eric Costello to the 11th district), Mosby supported a special election to replace any further empty seats. Mosby opposed proposed 2015 state budget cuts to the Baltimore City Public Schools, arguing the cuts would be "devastating." In 2016, Mosby was the sole "No" vote to limit the influence of the Mayor on the city's powerful Board of Estimates. In August 2016, Mosby voted to raise the city's minimum wage to $15, though the bill failed to pass the full city council. ====Development and housing==== In 2013, Mosby, along with fellow councilmember Carl Stokes, initially opposed the $107 million tax increment financing deal proposed by the Rawlings-Blake administration meant as incentive for the construction of Exelon's regional headquarters in the Harbor Point section of the city. However, in September, Mosby ultimately voted for the measure. In February 2014, Mosby supported Mayor Rawlings-Blakes' proposal for expansion of tax breaks for developers of apartment projects within the city. While praising support for new housing construction across his district and the city, Mosby recognized that investment in jobs and schools would be necessary in addition to development. He criticized Baltimore's affordable housing law as too weak, and sought to place more responsibility on developers to set aside units for low-income renters. As Baltimore overhauled its zoning regulations for the first time in decades, Mosby proposed "more stringent" requirements on liquor stores within residential neighborhoods, including a Public Nuisance Prevention Board that would have allowed community members to provide input on when to limit certain kinds of alcohol sales. Mosby criticized his fellow council members, who stripped his proposed amendment by an 11 to 3 vote, as "cocky" and "arrogant." ====Ban the Box==== In 2013, Mosby sponsored Ban the Box legislation, which passed the City Council the next year over the opposition of business groups like the Maryland Chamber of Commerce and the Greater Baltimore Committee. The bill, which Mosby characterized the act as the "most progressive" iteration in the country, expanded the city's existing prohibition on asking about criminal history on public job applications to private employers as well. Baltimore's business community proposed replacing the prohibition with voluntary commitments like "a pledge to hire a certain number of ex-offenders each year" During the spring of 2014, Mosby attempted to reach an agreement with the GBC and business interests, but reported that they were unable to come to a consensus, and so the legislation continued. In an attempt to assuage business critics, Mosby drafted an amendment to exclude job postings where a criminal record would be automatically disqualifying. In multiple editorials, the editors of The Baltimore Sun urged Mosby to accept the GBC's further proposed changes to the law, claiming it would improve Baltimore's perception as "business-friendly." Despite the opposition, the City Council passed the bill 10 to 4 at its April 29 meeting. The final passed legislation applied to private employers with 10 or more employees, where a criminal history would not otherwise bar the candidate (such as in child care). In passing the legislation, Baltimore joined 10 states and about 60 local governments nationwide with similar legislation. Mayor Rawlings-Blake signed the bill into law at the end of May. ====Crime and violence==== In 2012, Mosby proposed a city law, subsequently passed, banning the sale of items to minors by stores where more than 20% of sales were for alcohol. Mosby proposed further restrictions on liquor stores in 2016, requiring that they not “adversely affect, jeopardize or endanger public health,” but was unable to gain majority support on the council, who voted to remove his amendment from the final zoning package. Mosby also lobbied to shut down operators of illegal after- hours clubs in his district, which he cited as a source of violence. In the hopes of diverting young men from work in the drug trade, Mosby encouraged urban farm projects within his district as an alternative way of making a living. He wrote in support of neighborhood farm activists in their fight to keep plots from being sold by the city for redevelopment. Mosby also worked with local activists in opposition to anti-LGBT violence. In August 2013, Mosby worked with fellow councilmember Mary Pat Clarke to close a methadone clinic in the Hampden neighborhood, following complaints from local merchants about associated crime. The two councilmembers supported increasing police foot patrols in the neighborhood. Following the 2013 killing of Trayvon Martin, Mosby proposed a non-binding resolution calling on the city of Baltimore to boycott Florida-based businesses in protest. In 2013, Mosby's wife, Marilyn, launched her campaign for Baltimore's State Attorney. The two made the city's increasing homicide rate a central part of their program. Beginning in April, the couple organized weekly "Enough is Enough" marches, working with police and community groups to reduce crime and violence in West Baltimore. Mosby noted the impact of increased police on suppressing crime in his district in June of that year. The Baltimore Sun reported Mosby as supporting a "criminal justice system that is tough on violent offenders and keeps them off the street." Following the death of Tyrone West in July of that year, Mosby criticized the State's Attorney's level of transparency and communication regarding the investigation. In January 2014, Mosby worked with fellow councilman Brandon Scott and community activists to call for greater citizen intervention against rising homicides in the city, in particular a proposal for a "mobilized street force" of city residents to patrol the Sandtown-Winchester and Belair-Edison neighborhoods. Mosby and Scott also collaborated in proposing a comprehensive security review of city buildings following a January 2015 security breach at a police station. In February 2015, Mosby was a supporter of requiring body cameras for police officers "as quickly as possible". ====Freddie Gray and the 2015 uprising==== During the 2015 Baltimore protests following the death of Freddie Gray, Mosby's council district included Gray's residence in the Gilmor Homes project. Mosby received national coverage for his visible presence during the unrest, and for his calling attention to the roots of the violence. Mosby argued that fundamentally "folks in West Baltimore [...] don't feel they are part of the process." He drew both praise and criticism for his willingness, along with others on the City Council, to work with community members including members of gangs in order to bring an end to the unrest. Mosby agreed that the unrest was "unproductive" but also the result of decades old of lack of investment and socio-economic decline. Mosby also criticized the Baltimore Police Department's early handling of the unrest as "incendiary," "not factual" and "problematic at best." Following the violence, Mosby advocated for the city to expand its "Safe Streets" anti-violence program to the Sandtown-Winchester neighborhood. He also praised Mayor Rawlings-Blake's decision to fire police commissioner Anthony Batts, saying he hoped it would allow for a "reset" of community-police relations. ===Mayoral bid=== Several months after the Freddie Gray unrest, Mosby was reported among those considering a run for mayor of Baltimore. City residents began receiving phone calls polling their potential support for a run in August. Mosby published an op-ed in the Sun calling for "political will" to use data analysis, like the CitiStat program, to modernize the administration of the city. Finally, on October 26, Mosby formally announced his candidacy. When he announced his bid for the mayoral election, Mosby decided to forego a bid for re-election to his seat on the City Council. Mosby proposed reforming Baltimore City's Civilian Review Board to include elected seats. Similarly, he (along with several other candidates) proposed the city transition to a partially-elected school board. Recognizing the limits on the city's ability to reform city schools legislatively (as the system is controlled in part by the state of Maryland directly), Mosby promised to provide extra-legislative support for the system, such as increasing use of City Year members to find recent college graduates to teach in city schools. As a candidate, Mosby called for the creation of a city task force "to help provide free expungements of criminal records, pay fees for Baltimore residents to seek GEDs, cover the cost of vocational training at Baltimore City Community College in certain high-demand job sectors, subsidize apprenticeship programs and refund the income taxes for unemployed ex- offenders to the business that hire them." During his candidacy, Mosby opposed granting tax breaks to the operators of the Royal Farms Arena, citing the potential loss of millions in tax revenue without prior study. He also called for the city to sue lead paint manufacturers, and to use the proceeds to remove lead from houses in the city. He also claimed he would eliminate the city's gag order on police brutality lawsuit settlements. Mosby proposed cutting the city's property taxes and introducing a separate fee for trash pickup. Along with most of the candidates, Mosby supported the city's tax increment-financed support of the Port Covington redevelopment proposed by Under Armour CEO Kevin Plank. In the televised Democratic Primary debates, opponents implied Mosby would have a potential conflict of interest if elected mayor, as his wife remained the city's state's attorney. Respondents to a non- scientific poll in The Baltimore Sun said 57% to 41% that they did think it would pose a conflict of interest. In its editorial, the Sun rejected the idea, arguing Mosby "deserve[d] the chance to make his case." In November 2015, 58% of poll respondents said his marriage would not impact their vote one way or the other (38% said it made them less likely to support him). In a November poll, Mosby registered 10% support among likely primary voters. In January, he was reported to have 7% support among primary voters. By mid- March, Mosby was reported to have 6% support. Polling in April showed his support at 4%. Mosby dropped out of the race the week before the primary, though his name remained on the ballot. In dropping out, Mosby endorsed one of the two frontrunners, Catherine E. Pugh, which fueled speculation that he may have been seeking a position with a future Pugh administration, speculation which Mosby denied. Upon Pugh's victory in the primary later in April, speculation then focused on whether Mosby would seek to replace Pugh in the Maryland Senate's 40th district. Mosby ultimately applied for the seat, but the district's central committee selected Delegate Barbara A. Robinson instead. ===Maryland House of Delegates=== In January 2017, Mosby applied to the Democratic Central Committee of Maryland's 40th district to replace the outgoing Robinson in her seat in Maryland House of Delegates. Mosby was selected after the committee's original choice, Pugh aide Gary Brown Jr., was indicted for campaign finance violations. On taking office, Mosby cited lead abatement, property values and school performance as legislative focuses for him. Three months after his appointment, Mosby made an unsuccessful attempt to become the head of Baltimore's delegation to the House of Delegates. ====Tenure==== In March 2017, Mosby sponsored legislation to assist people affected by gambling addiction. In January 2018, Mosby supported plans to demolish and redevelop the Gilmor Homes project in his former city council district. In March 2018, Mosby put forward legislation to use state funds to research the effect of Maryland's gun laws. Mosby was a 2019 co-sponsor of legislation to allow lawsuits to be filed in Baltimore courts against manufacturers of lead paint The legislation failed to pass during the 2019 session. In January 2019, Mosby joined State Senator Mary Washington to introduce bills prohibiting Baltimore city from placing liens on homes and churches due to unpaid water bills. While serving on the House's marijuana legalization task force in 2019, Mosby suggested eliminating caps on the number of licensed producers in the state in order to avoid excluding racial minority owners from participating in the growing market. Mosby was lead sponsor of a statewide "Ban the Box" bill, which was passed but vetoed by Maryland Governor Larry Hogan In March 2020, Mosby was the lead sponsor of several among a package of ethics, anti-corruption and campaign finance bills that passed the House of Delegates. Mosby supported reforms to Maryland's child support system in March 2020, which required courts to consider parent's extenuating circumstances and actual income before assigning the amount of support to be paid, calling them "definitely incremental steps in the right direction," and called for a commission to look into the situation further. A graduate and supporter of historically black colleges and universities, Mosby sponsored an unsuccessful 2018 House bill to increase Maryland HBCUs funding to compensate for historical losses due to unfair treatment by the state. In May 2019, another Mosby-sponsored bill was successfully signed into law, this one providing up to $240,000 in annual tax credits to historically-black Maryland colleges and universities. Mosby was a critic of proposals in 2019 to move the Preakness Stakes from Northwest Baltimore's Pimlico Race Course to Laurel Park in neighboring Anne Arundel County. ====Criminal justice==== As a delegate, Mosby was involved in several bills involving criminal justice and policing. Mosby criticized Governor Larry Hogan's removal of judicial discretion in applying mandatory minimum sentencing laws, arguing they have "never been an effective way of reducing violence." In 2020, he sponsored a bill allowing parole without governor approval for inmates who had served more than 30 years. In 2019, Mosby voted against allowing school police to be armed. He was also skeptical of the Johns Hopkins University proposal for a private police force and voted against the legislation authorizing it. Mosby supported moving Baltimore's police academy at Coppin State University. ===Baltimore City Council President=== Late in the summer of 2019, Mosby was reported to be considering a second run for mayor of Baltimore. By October 2019, it was instead reported that Mosby was considering a run for the Presidency of the Baltimore City Council. Mosby announced his candidacy in December. Mosby entered into what The Baltimore Sun called "the first competitive race for the position in nearly a decade." Mosby was considered an early frontrunner in the race, with a February poll showing him receiving 26% of support, with his closest competitor, former council member Carl Stokes, receiving 10% support. He received the endorsement of Mayor Jack Young in March. In May, Mosby received the endorsement of The Baltimore Sun in the Democratic primary election. In the primary, held June 2, Mosby was the victor, winning with 40.2% of the vote. Prior to the general election, Mosby received the endorsement of the Baltimore Afro-American on November 2. He easily won election in November, defeating his Republican opponent with 79.5% of the vote. In March 2021, The Baltimore Sun reported that federal prosecutors had opened a criminal investigation into Mosby and his wife, State’s Attorney Marilyn Mosby, subpoenaing her campaign and the couple’s business records. ==Personal life== === Marriage and family === In 2005, Mosby married Marilyn Mosby (née James), who subsequently became the state's attorney of Baltimore City. The two are often referred to as a "power couple" in Maryland politics. Shortly after his wife's election, Mosby stated he would recuse himself from any prosecutor-related matters in the city council, following speculation that the two might influence each other's actions in office. === Financial issues === In October 2020, a $45,000 tax lien was filed against the property of Nick Mosby and his wife, Baltimore State's Attorney Marilyn Mosby, for three years of unpaid federal taxes (2014, 2015, and 2016). Nick Mosby stated that he has been “in ongoing conversations with the IRS” about resolving this issue. That same month, it was reported that Mosby's consulting company, Monumental Squared LLC, was listed as sharing its address with a developer who was also a major campaign donor to Mosby. Later in October, Mosby received scrutiny over his joint ownership of a rental property that was reported to be unregistered with the city, and not listed as lead- certified. Mosby's co-signator on the mortgage argued that Mosby had no direct involvement in the renting of the home, nor in evictions from it. Mosby stated the debt was a result of an early withdrawal from his retirement savings that he used to cover “family tragedies.” Mosby subsequently reported the tax lien was paid off in full. === Religion === Mosby is a lifelong Catholic. ==Electoral history== ==References== Category:1978 births Category:African- American state legislators in Maryland Category:Baltimore City Council members Category:Baltimore Polytechnic Institute alumni Category:Living people Category:Democratic Party members of the Maryland House of Delegates Category:Tuskegee University alumni Category:21st-century American politicians Category:21st-century African-American politicians Category:20th-century African-American people Category:African-American Catholics
|
, , was a Japanese feminist activist. She was educated at a young age and pursued socialist and feminist goals for most of her adult life. She was a participant in the Osaka Incident of 1885, where approximately 130 liberal activists were arrested on their way to attempt to incite revolution and liberate Korea. The group had planned to provide guns, bombs, and manpower to support reformist movements in Korea before the police intercepted them. After being freed, Fukuda continued to pursue social and gender reforms in Japan, playing an active role in the Freedom and People's Rights Movement which pushed for democratic changes to the government. She eventually established the magazine Sekai Fujin (Women of the World), which aimed at empowering women in Japan and getting them involved in international affairs. Throughout her life, Fukuda was involved in Japanese reform movements as they transitioned from aiming on increasing citizen's political rights to the more socialist- focused waves which attempted to exact nationwide social and economic revisions. == Early life == Fukuda Hideko, born Kageyama Hideko, was the child of samurai Kageyama Katashi and his wife Umeko. Her mother was a teacher and often brought Fukuda along with her to school. Like some other prominent women in the reform movement, Fukuda's family found her resistant to conforming to "proper" feminine behavior. Fukuda even described herself as a tomboy during her childhood. By fifteen, the bright Fukuda was exposed to Japanese, Chinese, and Western thought. Fukuda first began her political activities after encouragement from her friend and future fiancé Kobayashi Kusuo. It was Kobayashi who loaned her a translated biography of Joan of Arc, who Fukuda then aspired to emulate. In 1882 she was inspired by a speech from Toshiko Kishida, a prominent women's right activist at the time, to join the Freedom and People's Rights Movement. The People's Rights Movement was a group quickly garnering support that pushed for democracy and more egalitarian laws in the country. One year later, Fukuda and her mother founded an all-girls private school, at which they both taught. The school was founded on the ideals of the popular rights movement, and aimed at teaching children of working mothers. However, the school was shut down in 1884 on order of the government, which was worried about the spreading popularity of the People's Rights Movement and the growing political ambitions of women. Angry and wishing to provide more significant support, Fukuda moved to Tokyo. == The Osaka Incident == ===Incident=== Soon after arriving in Tokyo she met Oi Kentaro, the leader of a radical wing of the Liberal Party. The group was an offshoot of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement that was sweeping across the nation. Fukuda joined the group in attempting to transport weapons and money to Korea. Their goal was to create a disturbance large enough to undo the Sino-Japanese accord signed in 1885. Both Fukuda and Kentaro were angered at the government's perceived lack of action in Korea. They hoped that inciting reform movements there would either push the Japanese government into following suit or initiate a war, giving the liberals an opportunity to make domestic reforms.Jansen, M. (1952). II. Oi Kentaro: Radicalism and Chauvinism. The Far Eastern Quarterly, 11(3), pg. 305-316. Fukuda helped raise funds for the Korean Revolutionary Movement, but she was frustrated by the lack of discipline and habit of many of the male members to go visit brothels, which delayed the group's acquisition of supplies. However, eventually they succeeded in raising enough money and gathering weaponry, including guns and bombs. The party then traveled to Nagasaki on November 20, 1885, from where they planned to depart for Korea. However, the police had already been investigating the large number of robberies in the Osaka area caused by the group, and before the party could travel to Seoul, on November 23, 1885, the roughly 130 members were arrested and charged with the illegal possession of weapons and encouraging riots.Ushioda, S. C. (1977). Women and War in Meiji Japan: The Case of Fukuda Hideko (1865-1927). Peace & Change, 4(3), 9-12. Fukuda, the only female included in the trial, was given a sentence of eighteen months, but was released after ten months. ===Aftermath=== Although Fukuda wrote that she regretted her involvement in the incident, her trial was widely publicized and served to bring her national attention. The media popularized her as "Japan's Joan of Arc", and she was met with enthusiasm after her release. Afterwards, she and Oi Kentaro became involved in a relationship that produced one son. The partnership was short-lived, and within a year Oi had left her for another woman. Fukuda's family came to Tokyo to support her, and together they opened a women's vocational school. Shortly afterwards, however, her father, aunt, and brother died and Fukuda was unable to maintain running the school. In 1892 Fukuda married Fukuda Yusaku, another liberal intellectual, with whom she had three sons. Yusaku had studied in America and was influenced by the labor movement there. He became ill and died in 1900, leaving Fukuda the single mother to four children. == Heiminsha == Fukuda went on to establish a women's technological school one year later, relying on philanthropist support to teach impoverished women trade skills. Here she met Ishikawa Sanshiro, a reformist collaborator and eventual lover. She was introduced to socialism via her neighbor, Sakai Toshihiko. This was at the same time as Japan's first socialist party-the Social Democratic party- was being created. Sakai was anti-war and promoted equal rights between men and women. In 1903 he and a group of collaborators called the Heiminsha started the Heimin Shimbun, a newspaper dedicated to spreading the socialist message. The paper, focusing on both domestic and foreign affairs, attracted worldwide attention and achieved wide circulation. Fukuda often socialized with members of the Heiminsha and attended their meetings. It was around this time that she published her autobiography Half my Life, which proved to be highly successful. Half my Life was the first autobiography written by a woman in Japan, and included references to the works of Benjamin Franklin, Joan of Arc, and Russian nihilists, among others. With the introduction of socialist thought, Fukuda's views on reform began to solidify. She disagreed with Japan's imperialist policies and the excesses of the upper class, but also found issue with the Liberal Party's "insincerity" and disreputable behavior, which had led her to break off with the group responsible for the Osaka incident. The government eventually suppressed the Heimin Shimbun in 1905 due to the articles protesting the Russo-Japanese War. == Later life and Sekai Fujin == ===Sekai Fujin=== On January 1, 1907, the first issue of Sekai Fujin (Women of the World) was published. It was the first Japanese socialist women's newspaper.Matsugu, M. (2012). An Age of Melodrama: Family, Gender, and Social Hierarchy in the Turn-of-the-Century Japanese Novel. By Ito Ken K.. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008. pg. 805 The Journal of Asian Studies, 71(3), Established by Fukuda, who was also its chief editor, and Ishikawa Sanshiro, the newspaper focused on women and reform interests. Fukuda declared the intention of the newspaper to be to “find women’s talent and vocation and to inspire women to join a reform movement based on their natural talent." While it included articles about domestic women's interest, such as sewing or poetry, Sekai Fujin had an international emphasis and attempted to bring global ideas to women in Japan. Aside from extended discussion of socialist figures such as Karl Marx and Peter Kropotkin, Sekai Fujin also published translations of foreign fiction, such as Maxim Gorky's Chelkash (as ) and Guy de Maupassant's Le Diable (as ). Fukuda hoped the newspaper would advance the cause of women's emancipation. Two major campaigns supported by the newspaper were the repeal of a law banning women from being a part of political meetings and the Yanaka Village Relief Campaign. The law, Article Five of the Police Security Regulations, specifically forbade women from joining political parties or taking a public role in policy or debates. Fukuda organized petitions to the Senate and helped the bill reach the House of Representatives, where it passed, but it repeatedly failed in the House of Peers. ===Yanaka Village=== Yanaka village was a small town near Tokyo that was the proposed site of a reservoir for the Watarase River. When some families refused to leave their homes, government officials began a series of attempts to force them off the land. Sekai Fujin backed the efforts of local villagers who refused to move out. Fukuda and her supporters provided funds and aid after the government officials destroyed the villagers houses and left the dike protecting the village from flood unrepaired. Following the end of the post-war economic boom, the government began to go after socialist groups with increased vigor. The Heimin Shimbun was shut down, labor revolts were violently repressed, the socialist party was banned, and Sakai Toshihiko was imprisoned. The government began a process of heavy suppression against Sekai Fujin, usually through heavy fines and censorship. The newspaper was eventually banned from discussing current events, and co-founder Ishikawa Sanshiro was arrested. This eventually forced Sekai Fujin to close down in 1909. ===Seito article=== Fukuda's last years were spent in poverty and hardship. Ishikawa moved to Belgium and shortly afterwards Fukuda contracted beriberi. Nevertheless, she continued writing and had her article "The Solution to the Woman Question" printed in Seito, a popular women's rights magazine. Inclusion of Fukuda's article caused the entire issue to be banned. The government was especially sensitive to Fukuda's article because it not only focused on women, but brought in issues of class. Fukuda saw the difficulties faced by women as intrinsically tied to the exploitative capitalist system in place, and yearned for a return to an agrarian-modeled society. The article also spurred intense debate within the Seito group, composed primarily of educated young women. Fukuda moved beyond the goals of many other prominent feminists by discussing the plight of the labor class and impoverished in Japan. Fukuda saw the issue of gender inequality as intrinsically tied in with class inequality, saying "along with the liberation of women, the liberation of men, too, must be accomplished." Fukuda's article pushed for an encompassing discussion of equality as a societal issue over the more personal approach taken by other leading feminists of the day. She was one of the pioneers of reform movements in Japan, and pursued reforms in the Meiji period longer than any other woman. ===Death=== Fukuda died on May 2, 1927, aged 61. While her role in helping trail blaze the feminist movement in Japan was not fully acknowledged until after her death, a group of activists celebrated her achievements 100 years after her birth by erecting a memorial in her honor in Okayama. The memorial includes a quotation from her autobiography: “My life has been one adversity upon another. But I always fought back. Not once, not even once, did I flinch from adversity.”Raichō, H., & Craig, T. (2006). In the Beginning, Woman Was the Sun: The Autobiography of a Japanese Feminist. Columbia University Press. pg. 210. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/raic13812 ==See also== * Socialist thought in Imperial Japan * Feminism in Japan * Japanese literature * List of Japanese authors ==References == ==Notes== * Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). "Fukuda Hideko" in Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 * ==Further reading == * Berenice, Caroll. “The Outsiders: Comments on Fukuda Hideko, Catherine Marshall and Dorothy Detzer.” Peace and Change 4 (Fall 1977): 23–26. * Conroy, H. The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868–1910: a study of realism and idealism in international relations. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960. * Fukuda, Hideko. Warawa No Hanseigai. Tokyo: Iwanami Bunko, 1985. * Hane, Misiko. Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: Rebel Women in Prewar Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. * Hunter, Janet. Concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. * Hunter, Janet. The emergence of modern Japan: an introductory history since 1853. London; New York: Longman, 1989. * Jansen, Marius B. "Oi Kentaro: Radicalism and Chauvinism," Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. 11 (May 1952): 305–316. * Keene, Donald. (2002). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 46731178 * Murata Shizuko and Ōki Motoko, eds. Fukuda Hideko shū. Fuji shuppan, 1998. * Ōki Motoko. Jiyū minken undō to josei. Domesu shuppan, 2003. * Sievers, Sharon L. Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Modern Japan. California: Stanford University Press, 1983. * Tsuzuki, Chushichi. The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. * Ushioda, Sharlie. “Women and War in Meiji Japan: The Case of Fukuda Hideko (1865–1927).” Peace and Change 4 (Fall 1977): 9–12. Category:1865 births Category:1927 deaths Category:19th-century Japanese women writers Category:20th-century Japanese women writers Category:19th-century Japanese educators Category:20th-century Japanese educators Category:Japanese women activists Category:Japanese feminists Category:Japanese newspaper editors
|
The article contains a list of main characters in Rebelde Way (2002–2003), an Argentine telenovela, which was popular during its broadcast. It was produced by Cris Morena. The band Erreway was formed during the development of this telenovela. == Girls == ===Marizza Pía Spirito=== Marizza Pía Spirito, later Andrade, is a main character of Rebelde Way and one of the four band members of Erreway. Born in Buenos Aires, November 22, 1987. She is portrayed by Camila Bordonaba. She is a rebellious, extroverted, and sensitive teenager because her mother Sonia, a popular Argentinian celebrity, never set any boundaries for her. To change this, Fabricio Spirito, Marizza's father, forces her to attend the Elite Way School, a boarding school for privileged adolescents. She quickly becomes fond of her roommates Luján and Luna and as time passes she makes good friends with Manuel, Marcos, and Nico. Marizza forms a band with Manuel, Mía and Pablo. She falls in love with Pablo and they start an on-off relationship. Marizza dates other boys to make Pablo jealous or get over him. She also befriends Mía and they become stepsisters when Sonia marries Franco, the father of her former enemy. Marizza loves her mother hates the fact that she is always overshadowed by Sonia's beauty and fame. Most of the time the two of them are fighting, especially when Marizza finds out that her real father is Martín/Octavio Andrade, a new teacher at school. ====4 Caminos==== At the beginning of the film 4 Caminos, Marizza and Pablo are not together. While Pablo tries to get Marizza's attention, she ignores him or gets mad at him. They become a couple again when Benito shows up at the hotel room they are staying in and presents tickets to Brazil. The two of them are the godfather and godmother of Candela, Mía and Manuel's daughter. Candela also says that Marizza became a famous singer. ===Mía Colucci=== Mía Colucci Cacéres is one of the main characters and a member of Erreway. Born in Buenos Aires, July 24, 1987. She is friends with Pablo and Marizza. she falls in love with Manuel in the first season, in season 2 she his girlfriend, She is the only child of famous fashion businessman Franco Colucci and his wife Marina. Mía was told that Marina died when she was just a baby, though she later finds out that her mother is alive and that she left Mía and Franco because she did drugs. She is portrayed by Luisana Lopilato. Mía is the most popular and beautiful girl in Elite Way School. Because her father is a famous fashion businessman, she has many designer clothes. She is also the only girl, which she and her roommates use as a closet. Her best friends are Vico and Feli. She falls in love with Manuel at first sight, but she pretends to hate him. In the beginning of the first season she and Pablo thought about dating so they can be the popular couple of the school. She is beautiful and mean, but she does not the latter. She is a very talented dancer; before Marizza came, she was the only choreographer in the school. She always tries to look good all the time by never eating sweets or food with high calories, exercising in her spare time, and wearing new clothes. In some episodes she gives some of her dresses to Luna or Vico because she had already worn them twice. Every year after the summer vacation she does an American fair in which she gives her old clothes away and presents her new projects for the new year in school. Mía was originally Marizza's enemy, but they become friends and stepsisters when Franco marries Marizza's mother Sonia. She is in love with Manuel, but does not want to show it. At the end of season 1, Mía confesses her love to Manuel. In season 2, Mía and Manuel are happy together, almost a perfect couple. However, Manuel drunkenly sleeps with Sabrina, and she breaks up with him. When Manuel loses his memory, Mía does everything to get his memory back. He remembers Pablo, but no one else. He eventually leaves for Mexico to see his family. In the final episode, Manuel returns and begs Mía to forgive him and asks her to be together again. The two of them become a couple again. ====4 Caminos==== In the film 4 Caminos (2004), Mía and Manuel are a couple that had parents that didn't approve their relationship. During the film, they have a baby, a girl named Candela. Mía discovers she has leukemia. The band returns to Buenos Aires because of Mía's therapy, but a short time later she dies. ===Pilar Dunoff=== Pilar Dunoff is the daughter of Principal Marcel Dunoff, the headmaster of Elite Way School. Her mother Claudia is also the professor of English language in Elite Way School. Because of that, she is disliked by most of the students. She is portrayed by Micaela Vázquez. At the beginning of the series she writes an anonymous newspaper filled with gossip about her classmates (Marizza reveals that at the end of the first season, but she promises Pilar that she will not tell anyone). Guido also suspected her to be the writer of the newspaper, but could never prove it. At the beginning, she writes secret letters to Tomás, but later Guido finds out that Pilar was Tomás' secret admirer. At the beginning of season one, Pilar pretends to date Tomás to help cover for him while he secretly dates Vico, who is in a relationship with Pablo. Pilar dates Joaquín after he is dumped by Mía and Marizza. Her father supports her relationship with Joaquín and becomes their matchmaker, but they break up later. In season two, Pilar dates Tomás. The divorce of their parents and relationship with Tomás makes her socialize a bit more, and she makes some friends in her class. === Luna Fernández === Luna Fernández received a scholarship as a very good student. She is calm, smart, romantic, quiet, always follow the rules, and also can do many things. She is portrayed by Georgina Mollo. Mía once said that she was a very good manicurist and did better than her manicurist. She also fixes Marina's old frame. She has excellent grades and is liked by mostly everyone. Her aunt Sandra gets a job in Elite Way School's café. Luna concerns about her younger sister, Flor, who is sick – she cannot speak and hardly moves. Luna's friends are Marizza, Luján, Mía, Manuel and almost everyone. She is a friend of Mía and Marizza, and because of this she sometimes became the victim of their fight because she cannot choose a side. She dates Tomás, but her true love is Nico. Their relationships has some problems, as Nico is a Jew and Luna is a Catholic. The two of them decide to marry in the end of the first season. They leave Elite Way School and go to the country with Luna's sister and aunt. ===Luján Linares=== Luján Linares is a skilled athletic tomboy. She was raised in foster care and her anonymous tutor pays for her scholarship. Luján tries to find out who he is. Her best friends are Marizza and Luna, later Laura. Marizza and Luján are almost the same: both are explosive and impulsive. She is portrayed by Jazmín Beccar Varela. Luján is tormented by Blas, the school prefect. Luján hates him because of it, but Blas just wanted to make her a stronger person who can take care of herself. Luján finds out that he is her tutor and brother. Blas became her tutor after their father died. Blas dies in a car crash. Luján is in love with Marcos. They become a couple in season one and break up in season two. In the final episode, she admits her feelings for him and they reconcile. Sonia and Franco adopt Luján, making her Marizza and Mía's sister. ===Victoria Paz=== Victoria "Vico" Paz received a scholarship for Elite Way School and is known there as the "ultimate playgirl". She was the target of Logia who destroyed all her clothes. Vico is friends with Mía and Feli, even they have fights. She is portrayed by Victoria Maurette. Mía likes to say that Vico is her "most successful project". In season two she dates Rocco. She has many problems with her troubled father, who demanded money from her for a long time. At one point he was being hunted by the police; Vico and Rocco help him escape to the Argentinean mountains. Vico and Rocco partner together, writing and singing songs. In the end they leave together in order to live their musical dreams. ===Felicitas Mitre=== Felicitas "Feli" Mitre is a rich girl. Her mother is an ex-fashion model, and does not like her because she is fat. Because of her body shape, she has problems with dating. She suffers from bulimia. She is portrayed by Ángeles Balbiani. At the end, she becomes pregnant with Lalo's child. ===Laura Arregui=== Laura Arregui is as same as Luna: calm, smart, quiet, and always follow the rules. She has excellent grades and is liked by mostly everyone. She is portrayed by Mariana Seligmann. Her best friends are Marizza and Luján and she cares for her sister Lola. At the end, Laura dates Guido. ===Dolores Arregui=== Dolores "Lola" Arregui is Laura's younger sister. They later find out that Lola was adopted. At the end, she leaves to find her real mother. She tries to be a rebel, like Marizza, to become attractive to Pablo. She is portrayed by Lis Moreno. ===Sol Rivarola=== Sol Rivarola is a rich beautiful girl. She is portrayed by Inés Palombo. When she enters Elite Way School she thinks that is the most beautiful girl. She is the leader of Top Group, a group she made with Pilar, Fernanda, and Belén to rule the school and compete Mía's group (with Feli and Vico). Her dream is to be a fashion model, which her parents think is not a good career. She dates Blas. ===Augustina Laumann=== Agustina Laumann is a younger girl than the main characters. She is portrayed by Paola Salustro. At the end, she dates Francisco. ===Fernanda Peralta Ramos=== Fernanda Peralta Ramos is a wealthy side character portrayed by María Fernanda Neil. In the second season she becomes part of England's nobility because her mother married an aristocrat. She dates Tomás, Guido, Marcos and flirts with Manuel. ===Belén Menéndez Pacheco=== Belén Menéndez Pacheco is a wealthy side character portrayed by Belén Scalella. Sol says she is a little bit popular. ===Sabrina Guzmán=== Sabrina Guzmán is the band's manager in season two. She is portrayed by Gimena Accardi. She falls in love with Manuel and does everything to split up Mía and Manuel. After Mía and Manuel break up, Sabrina temporarily becomes Manuel's girlfriend. == Boys == ===Pablo Bustamante=== Pablo Bustamante is the youngest son of Sergio and Mora Bustamante. Born in Buenos Aires, March 22, 1987. He is portrayed by Benjamín Rojas. His father Sergio is the mayor of Buenos Aires and abuses him mentally and physically. In addition, Sergio always compares him to his older brothers who are living abroad, and does not approve of Pablo being in a band because he is worried that it will affect his political image. Pablo is the most popular boy in Elite Way School. His best friends are Guido, Tomás, and later Manuel. He is also a rebel in his own way due to the fact that he plays music. At the beginning of the series Pablo cannot stand Marizza as they are too different and keep arguing all the time. They eventually help each other in many situations and they start to develop feelings for one another. Pablo plays the guitar and writes some songs for the band Erreway. He writes the love song "Dos Segundos" which is inspired by Marizza. Marizza and Pablo pretend to be a couple for a short while so that Pablo can play in the band without his father's knowledge. In one episode, after Nacho was discovered, Marizza told the school's café waitress Cata to play Pablo's song "Mi Vida". She finds out that Pilar told her friend, the writer of the newspaper, about Nacho. She tells Sergio that Tomás sang the song, not Pablo. Pablo gets angry at her because he thinks that Marizza forced Tomás to lie. When Tomás tells Pablo that Marizza did it to help him, Pablo is touched and a little confused because Marizza helped him. Near the end, Pablo shows Marizza that he does not want to be his father's puppet and she begins to realize and accept that she is in love with him. In the last episode they reconcile when Pablo finally stands up to his father. ====4 Caminos==== In the film 4 Caminos, Marizza and Pablo are not together because, according to Marizza, he is womanizer. During the movie, they have many fights but become a couple towards the end. Pablo wants to get Marizza's attention, but Marizza always ignores him or gets mad because she thinks he only wants to get her in bed and or wants to be with other girls. They kissed when Benito showed up in the hotel room with tickets to Brazil. Pablo and Marizza are the godparents of Mía and Manuel's daughter Candela. In the end, Candela says that Pablo becomes a famous producer. ===Manuel Aguirre=== Manuel Aguirre is a Mexican boy. Born in Mexico, January 8, 1985. He is portrayed by Felipe Colombo. He wants to avenge his father's suicide, which he believes was Franco Colucci's fault, but falls in love with Franco's daughter, Mía. His best friends are Nico, Marcos, Marizza, and later Pablo. He has problems with Logia (elite group of students who try to expel students with scholarships) and he tries to expose Logia. He was the first student that tries to face Logia, instead of running away by dropping out of school. Manuel finds out that his father's death is not Franco's fault and he gives up his revenge. He becomes Mía's boyfriend, and they go to the Galapagos Islands. Mía wants to preserve her virginity. After a lot of drinking, Manuel cheats on her with the new manager of Erreway, Sabrina. Mía and Manuel break up, but Manuel tries to win her love back. Manuel finds out he is ill, and he must undergo an operation. He loses his memory afterwards. He remembers Pablo, Marizza, his family, and Sabrina, but not Mía. He goes home to Mexico and gets all his memories back. In the end, Manuel comes back to Elite Way School. He asks Mía to forgive him and if she wants to be his girlfriend again. She says "yes", and they reconcile. Manuel plays the electric guitar in public, usually at the club. ====4 Caminos==== In 2004 film 4 Caminos, Mía and Manuel are a couple. During the film, they have a baby girl and name her Candela. Candela, narrating this story, says that Manuel works in films. ===Guido Lassen=== Guido Lassen is one of Pablo's best friends, along with Tomás. He is portrayed by Diego Mesaglio. He is one of the rowdiest boys in Elite Way but a supportive friend. Pablo and Guido were not close at first, but because Pablo had a huge fight with Tomás (who was secretly dating Vico), Guido becomes his best friend. After Pablo reconciles with Tomás, Guido becomes best friends with him, too. During the second half of season one it was revealed that Guido, who values other people's opinions a lot, was a member of the Logia because they threatened to tell everyone that his family was not always wealthy. Even though he helped his classmates stop the Logia in the end, he was temporarily expelled from school. He once pretended to like Feli as a favor to Mía and in return he thought that Mía would become his girlfriend. ===Tomás Ezcurra=== Tomás Ezcurra is Pablo's best friend and a close friend to Guido. He is portrayed by Jorge Maggio. He is very supportive to his friends. In some episodes, Tomás willingly takes the blame so that Pablo does not get punished. Tomas is somewhat shy, and admits to having trouble making friends because of it. He is the son of a rich business man in Buenos Aires. In the end, he dates Pilar, the daughter of the school principal. ===Marcos Aguilar=== Marcos Soria Aguilar is a close friend of Manuel and Nico. He is portrayed by Diego García. He secretly admires Marizza but is too shy to admit it to her. Marizza dates him temporarily to make someone else jealous and to make him more confident. He almost always listens to Marizza advice. Because of her advice he went on a total makeover that turned him from a nerd to a cool guy. His parents are rich, but he feels his parents do not care for him. His brother, who was murdered, was once a member of Logia. He tried to enter Logia, to find out things about them. Those of the Logia realized Marcos's intentions and hurt him. In the end he dates Luján. ===Nicolás Provenza=== Nicolás "Nico" Provenza is a friend of Manuel and Marcos. He is portrayed by Guillermo Santa Cruz. He is a scholar of Elite Way School and one of the targets of the Logia. He is the only Jewish student in the school and hides his identity to avoid being discriminated by the Catholic student body; his identity is eventually revealed. He is one of the first persons to know about the band Erreway and he once managed the band. He loves Luna but has trouble maintaining their relationship due to their religious differences. At the end of the first season, they marry and leave Elite Way School and go to the country with Luna's sister and aunt. ===Rocco Fuentes Echagüe=== Rocco Fuentes Echagüe came in 2003 as the new fourth year student. He is portrayed by Piru Sáez. He always carries his camera. He loves punk music and fashion, which his classmates find strange. During his high school year he is confused about his sexuality. Rocco is in love with Vico and by the end of the series they are a couple. In the final episode, he toasts to the planet Earth, animals, and plants. He loves to help his friends and considers himself as a pacifist. ===Francisco Blanco=== Francisco Blanco appeared in the second season of the series and is portrayed by Francisco Bass. He came to Elite Way School with a scholarship as an athlete even if he did not pass his test because Dunoff wanted him for his athletic abilities. He pretends to go out with Lola as a favor to Laura. He ends up with Augustina at the end of the series. ===Diego Urcola=== Diego Urcola is a rich student of Elite Way School and belongs to a family of famous lawyers and judges. He is portrayed by Diego Child. In season one, he pretended to be Luján's boyfriend to make confuse Marcos. In season two, he has a relationship with Marizza, but they break up. After that, Diego always wants to help Marizza when she is confused or when she needs help. ===Joaquín Arias Parrondo=== Joaquin Arias Parrondo is the new student in Elite Way School in season one and is portrayed by Gastón Grande. He later becomes friends with other students in the school and has a relationship with Marizza and Mía at the same time. He also dates Pilar. He has a rich family background and is good in sports especially hang gliding. He was disliked by many of the students due to his boastful acts, and is eventually expelled after being involved in a drug incident. ===Nachito=== Nacho is the younger brother of the guy who stabbed and robbed Pablo in the community area. He is portrayed by Agustín Sierra. He serves as a witness with the letter sent by the journalist Néstor Montero as evidence to Mayor Bustamante's plot against the land of the community people. In later episodes of season one he becomes close to Marizza, Luján, and Luna because they took care of him while they hide his existence from the school. ===Javier Alanis=== Javier Alanis is the son of Sergio's girlfriend, Pablo's step brother, and is portrayed by Mariano Bertolini. He is in love with Marizza and stops at nothing to become her boyfriend; because of this he and Pablo become enemies. Javier frequently interferes in Pablo and Marizza's relationship. He is an antagonist in season 2. == Adults == ===Sonia Rey=== Sonia Rey is Marizza's mother and one of the most popular celebs in Argentina. She is portrayed by Catherine Fulop. She is very beautiful, charismatic, and easily gets attention, which makes her daughter Marizza somewhat jealous because her mother gets more attention than her. Sonia overprotects her daughter, although unlike Mía, Marizza is not very fond of her mom always getting cuddly around her and tends to shun her off. Sonia falls in love with Franco, and the two of them adopt Luján, Marizza's best friend. ===Santiago Mansilla=== Santiago Mansilla is the new professor of ethics and philosophy. He is portrayed by Fernán Mirás. He thinks that morals are more important than math, history, or science. When he was younger, he had a wife and child, but they died in a car accident in the USA. Mansilla was judged for this crime and had to return in Argentina. At the end of season one, he proposes to Renata and the two of them leave the school to open their own school for poor kids. ===Franco Colucci=== Franco Colucci is one of the most famous fashion businessmen in Latin America. He is portrayed by Martín Seefeld. He has no time for his only child, Mía, and sends her to Elite Way School to get good education. Manuel works for him, who Franco feels is the son he never had. Franco feels some remorse for overprotecting Mía and spoiling her in the process. Franco had problems with the rest of the Colucci family because of his marriage to Marina Cacéres, a rock musician. Marina did drugs, so she left Franco and Mía. Franco falls in love with Sonia and the two of them get married. When Marina returns, Franco tells Mía the truth. In the end, Sonia and Franco adopt Luján, one of Marizza's best friends. ===Sergio Bustamante=== Sergio Bustamante, Pablo's father, is the mayor of Buenos Aires. He is portrayed by Boy Olmi. Bustamante is the antagonist of the story. He does not like Marizza for dating Pablo because he thinks she is beneath him. He kicks Mora out of Pablo's life when Mora stood up for her son and tells Pablo that she left them. He takes joy in torturing Pablo and embarrasses him in any given chance. He owns exactly 51% of Elite Way School. He always gets what he wants at any cost: for example, he pays a prostitute, Paola, to sleep with Pablo so he could lose his virginity and fall in love with her. The relationship is short-lived after he finds out why she met him. Pablo develops a hatred for his dad and eventually, with the help of Matias (the art teacher), he cuts loose. In the end, Bustamante is arrested for corruption. ===Marcel Dunoff=== Marcel Dunoff is the long-suffering school principal and father of Pilar, and is portrayed by Arturo Bonin. Although he portrays a model of disciplined and honest person, he can be bribed by someone as powerful as Mayor Bustamante. He is very strict when it comes to Pilar. He used to have a relationship with Marizza's mother Sonia Rey, which is why he allows Marizza to attend Elite Way School. ===Matías Miranda=== Matías Miranda is the new art professor in Elite Way School and is portrayed by Federico D'Elia. He appears in season two after Martin Andrade leaves. He spent many years teaching in Spain. At first, the kids (especially Marizza and Pablo) do not like him because they were used to Andrade and Miranda is very strict. He becomes the students' guardian: he helps Luján face Blas' death, Felicitas with her pregnancy, Laura with her sister Lola and the situation with Lola's two mothers, and help and encourages Pablo to confront his father. In the final episode, he gives a job for the class – to prepare for the ceremony for the end of the school year. He is named special education worker and gains acceptance from all the kids. ===Martin Andrade=== Martin Andrade is the real father of Marizza and is portrayed by Miguel Ángel Cherutti. Marizza was told that her father is Fabrizio Spirito. In season two, he comes back as Octavio the art professor in Elite Way school and Marizza finds out the truth. After some time she accepts her father. He is a lot like Marizza, a rebel and a free spirit. He supports Marizza's relationship with Pablo. ===Blas Heredia === Blas Heredia (real name Juan Fara) is the new school prefect and is portrayed by Pablo Heredia. He was hired so he can take a look at Luján. He was her secret tutor. Luján helped his father Ricardo Fara hide from the police when she was little. He is very rich and he decides to be a financial supporter for the girl. Blas has a huge crush on Mía and does not like Manuel. Mía and Blas date, but she breaks up because of Manuel. Blas wants to take revenge on both of them. Blas' first care is Luján. He wants to make her a strong and responsible person who can take care of herself. Luján hates him because she believes he just likes to torture her. In the end, he is involved in a heavy car accident. Luján visits him in hospital and Blas tells her that he loves her like a sister before he dies. ===Sandra Fernández=== Sandra Fernández is Luna's aunt and is portrayed by Susana Ortiz. When Luna becomes a student of Elite Way School, Sandra gets a job in the school's café. She leaves her job and goes to the country with Luna, Nico, and Luna's sister Flor. ===Marina Cacéres Colucci === Marina Cacéres Colucci is Mia's mother and is portrayed by Patricia Viggiano. When she was young, she was a musician but left show business when she met Franco and married him. After giving birth to Mía, she leaves Mía and Franco to enter drug rehabilitation. Mía was told that Marina died. Marina returns and wants to tell Mía the truth. Franco tells Mía the truth and she wants to meet her mother no matter what Franco says. Mía and Marina meet and become closer and Mía forgives Franco. At one point, Mía wants to live with her mother, but Marina refuses because she is still insecure about the drugs. Rebelde Way Rebelde Way
|
The following table displays, by color, the parties of elected officials in the U.S. state of Alabama from 1817 to the current year. As such, it may indicate the political party strength at any given time. The officers listed include: * Governor * Lieutenant governor * Secretary of State * Attorney general * Comptroller of Public Accounts/State Auditor * State treasurer * Commissioner of Agriculture and Industries The table also indicates the historical party composition in the: * State Senate * State House of Representatives * State delegation to the U.S. Senate * State delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives For years in which a presidential election was held, the table indicates which party's nominees received the state's electoral votes. ==1817–1882== Year Executive offices General Assembly General Assembly United States Congress United States Congress United States Congress Electoral votes Year Governor Lt. Governor Secretary of State Attorney General Auditor Treasurer Electoral votes State Senate State House U.S. Senate (Class II) U.S. Senate (Class III) U.S. House 1817 William Wyatt Bibb (NP) no such office no such office no such office no such office Jack Ross no such bodies no such bodies no such offices no such offices John Crowell (DR) no electoral votes 1818 William Wyatt Bibb (NP) no such office Henry Hitchcock (DR) no such office no such office Jack Ross D majority no such offices no such offices John Crowell (DR) no electoral votes 1819 William Wyatt Bibb (DR) no such office Thomas A. Rodgers Henry Hitchcock (DR) Samuel Pickens Jack Ross W majority William R. King (DR) John Williams Walker (DR) John Crowell (DR) no electoral votes 1820 William Wyatt Bibb (DR) no such office Thomas A. Rodgers Henry Hitchcock (DR) Samuel Pickens Jack Ross D majority Monroe/ Tompkins (DR) John Williams Walker (DR) John Crowell (DR) 1820 Thomas Bibb (DR) no such office Thomas A. Rodgers Henry Hitchcock (DR) Samuel Pickens Jack Ross D majority Monroe/ Tompkins (DR) John Williams Walker (DR) John Crowell (DR) 1821 Thomas Bibb (DR) no such office James J. Pleasants (W) Henry Hitchcock (DR) Samuel Pickens Jack Ross W majority Monroe/ Tompkins (DR) John Williams Walker (DR) Gabriel Moore (DR) 1822 Israel Pickens (DR) no such office James J. Pleasants (W) Henry Hitchcock (DR) Samuel Pickens John C. Perry W majority Monroe/ Tompkins (DR) William Kelly (DR) Gabriel Moore (DR) 1823 Israel Pickens (DR) no such office James J. Pleasants (W) Thomas White Samuel Pickens John C. Perry D majority Monroe/ Tompkins (DR) William Kelly (DR) 3DR 1824 Israel Pickens (DR) no such office James Innes Thornton Thomas White Samuel Pickens John C. Perry Jackson/ Calhoun (DR) William Kelly (DR) 1825 Israel Pickens (DR) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins Samuel Pickens John C. Perry Jackson/ Calhoun (DR) William R. King (J) Henry H. Chambers (J) 3J 1826 John Murphy (J) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins Samuel Pickens John C. Perry Jackson/ Calhoun (DR) Israel Pickens (J) 1827 John Murphy (J) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins Samuel Pickens John C. Perry Jackson/ Calhoun (DR) John McKinley (J) 1828 John Murphy (J) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins Samuel Pickens John C. Perry Jackson/ Calhoun (D) John McKinley (J) 1829 John Murphy (J) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins Jackson/ Calhoun (D) John McKinley (J) 3J 1830 Gabriel Moore (J) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins Jackson/ Calhoun (D) John McKinley (J) 3J 1831 Samuel B. Moore (D) no such office James Innes Thornton Constantine Perkins George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins Jackson/ Calhoun (D) Gabriel Moore (J) 3J 1832 John Gayle (D) no such office James Innes Thornton Peter Martin George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins Jackson/ Van Buren (D) 3J 1833 John Gayle (D) no such office James Innes Thornton Peter Martin George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins Jackson/ Van Buren (D) Gabriel Moore (NR) 4J, 1N 1834 John Gayle (D) no such office Edmund A. Webster Peter Martin George Whitfield Crabb (W) William Hawn Jackson/ Van Buren (D) 4J, 1N 1835 John Gayle (D) no such office Edmund A. Webster Peter Martin George Whitfield Crabb (W) William Hawn Jackson/ Van Buren (D) 3J, 1N, 1NR 1836 Clement Comer Clay (D) no such office Thomas B. Tunstall Alexander Beaufort Meek (D) Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Hawn Van Buren/ Johnson (D) 1837 Clement Comer Clay (D) no such office Thomas B. Tunstall John Dennis Phelan (D) Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Hawn 18W, 12D, 3? Van Buren/ Johnson (D) 46W, 44D, 10? William R. King (D) John McKinley (D) 3D, 2W 1837 Hugh McVay (D) no such office Thomas B. Tunstall John Dennis Phelan (D) Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Hawn 18W, 12D, 3? Van Buren/ Johnson (D) 46W, 44D, 10? Clement Comer Clay (D) 1838 Arthur P. Bagby (D) no such office Thomas B. Tunstall Lincoln Clarke Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Hawn Van Buren/ Johnson (D) 45D, 33W, 22? Clement Comer Clay (D) 1839 Arthur P. Bagby (D) no such office Thomas B. Tunstall Matthew W. Lindsay (W) Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Hawn 19D, 9W, 5? Van Buren/ Johnson (D) 66D, 31W, 3? Clement Comer Clay (D) 1840 Arthur P. Bagby (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Matthew W. Lindsay (W) Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson 23D, 10W 67D, 33W Van Buren/ Johnson (D) Clement Comer Clay (D) 1841 Arthur P. Bagby (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Matthew W. Lindsay (W) Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson 20D, 13W 54D, 46W Van Buren/ Johnson (D) Clement Comer Clay (D) 5D 1842 Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Matthew W. Lindsay (W) Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson 20D, 13W 52D, 48W Van Buren/ Johnson (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 5D 1843 Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Thomas D. Clarke Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson 21D, 12W 67D, 33W Van Buren/ Johnson (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 6D, 1W 1844 Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Thomas D. Clarke Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson 19D, 14W 62D, 38W Dixon Hall Lewis (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 6D, 1W Polk/ Dallas (D) 1845 Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Thomas D. Clarke Jefferson C. Van Dyke Samuel Frierson D majority D majority Dixon Hall Lewis (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 6D, 1W Polk/ Dallas (D) 1846 Joshua L. Martin (ID) no such office William Garrett (D) Thomas D. Clarke Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Graham 20D, 13W 61D, 37W, 2? Dixon Hall Lewis (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 6D, 1W Polk/ Dallas (D) 1847 Joshua L. Martin (ID) no such office William Garrett (D) William H. Martin Jefferson C. Van Dyke William Graham 20D, 13W 61D, 37W, 2? Dixon Hall Lewis (D) Arthur P. Bagby (D) 5D, 2W Polk/ Dallas (D) 1848 Reuben Chapman (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 17D, 16W 65D, 35W Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) William R. King (D) 5D, 2W Cass/ Butler (D) 1849 Reuben Chapman (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 17D, 16W 65D, 35W Jeremiah Clemens (D) William R. King (D) 5D, 2W Cass/ Butler (D) 1850 Henry W. Collier (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 17W, 16D 57D, 43W Jeremiah Clemens (D) William R. King (D) 5D, 2W Cass/ Butler (D) 1851 Henry W. Collier (D) no such office William Garrett (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 17W, 16D 57D, 43W Jeremiah Clemens (D) William R. King (D) 4D, 2W, 1U Cass/ Butler (D) 1852 Henry W. Collier (D) no such office Vincent M. Benham (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 22U, 11 62U, 38 Jeremiah Clemens (D) William R. King (D) 4D, 2W, 1U Pierce/ King (D) 1853 Henry W. Collier (D) no such office Vincent M. Benham (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 22U, 11 62U, 38 Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 6D, 1W Pierce/ King (D) 1854 John A. Winston (D) no such office Vincent M. Benham (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs William Graham 20D, 13W 59D, 41W Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 6D, 1W Pierce/ King (D) 1855 John A. Winston (D) no such office Vincent M. Benham (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene William Graham 20D, 13W 59D, 41W Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 5D, 2KN Pierce/ King (D) 1856 John A. Winston (D) no such office James H. Weaver Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene William Graham 20D, 13KN 61D, 39KN Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 5D, 2KN Buchanan/ Breckinridge (D) 1857 John A. Winston (D) no such office James H. Weaver Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene William Graham 20D, 13KN 61D, 39KN Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 7D Buchanan/ Breckinridge (D) 1858 Andrew B. Moore (D) no such office James H. Weaver Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene William Graham 27D, 6KN 84D, 16KN Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 7D Buchanan/ Breckinridge (D) 1859 Andrew B. Moore (D) no such office James H. Weaver Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene William Graham 27D, 6KN 84D, 16KN Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 7D Buchanan/ Breckinridge (D) 1860 Andrew B. Moore (D) no such office Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene Duncan Graham (D) 27D, 6O 85D, 15O Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 7D Breckinridge/ Lane () 1861 Andrew B. Moore (D) no such office Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene Duncan Graham (D) 27D, 6O 85D, 15O vacant vacant vacant Breckinridge/ Lane () 1862 John Gill Shorter (D) no such office Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene Duncan Graham (D) American Civil War vacant vacant vacant Breckinridge/ Lane () 1863 John Gill Shorter (D) no such office Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene Duncan Graham (D) vacant vacant vacant Breckinridge/ Lane () 1864 Thomas H. Watts (W) no such office Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Marion A. Baldwin William J. Greene Duncan Graham (D) no electoral votes vacant vacant vacant 1865 Thomas H. Watts (W) no such office Albert Stanhope Elmore John W. A. Sanford (D) Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D) no electoral votes vacant vacant vacant 1865 Lewis E. Parsons (R) no such office Albert Stanhope Elmore John W. A. Sanford (D) Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D) no electoral votes vacant vacant vacant 1866 Robert M. Patton (W) no such office David L. Dalton (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D) no electoral votes 33NP vacant vacant vacant 100NP 1867 Robert M. Patton (W) no such office Micah Taul (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D) no electoral votes 33NP vacant vacant 6R 100NP 1867 Wager Swayne (M) no such office Micah Taul (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D) no electoral votes 33NP vacant vacant 6R 100NP 1868 Charles A. Miller (R) no such office Joshua Morse (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Malcolm A. Chisholm Grant/ Colfax (R) 33NP vacant vacant 6R 100NP 1868 Charles A. Miller (R) no such office Joshua Morse (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Malcolm A. Chisholm Grant/ Colfax (R) William Hugh Smith (R) 33NP Willard Warner (R) George E. Spencer (R) 6R 100NP 1868 Charles A. Miller (R) Andrew J. Applegate (R) Joshua Morse (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Malcolm A. Chisholm Grant/ Colfax (R) William Hugh Smith (R) 33NP Willard Warner (R) George E. Spencer (R) 6R 100NP 1869 Charles A. Miller (R) Andrew J. Applegate (R) Joshua Morse (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Robert M. Reynolds (R) Grant/ Colfax (R) William Hugh Smith (R) 32R, 1D Willard Warner (R) George E. Spencer (R) 97R, 3D 4R, 2D 1870 Jabez J. Parker (D) Andrew J. Applegate (R) John W. A. Sanford (D) James Grant Robert M. Reynolds (R) Grant/ Colfax (R) William Hugh Smith (R) 32R, 1D Willard Warner (R) George E. Spencer (R) 97R, 3D 4R, 2D 1871 Jabez J. Parker (D) Robert B. Lindsay (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) James Grant Robert M. Reynolds (R) Grant/ Colfax (R) Edward H. Moren (D) 32R, 1D 65D, 35R George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 3R, 3D 1872 Patrick Ragland (R) Robert B. Lindsay (D) Benjamin Gardner (R) Robert T. Smith (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Grant/ Wilson (R) Edward H. Moren (D) 32R, 1D 65D, 35R George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 3R, 3D 1873 David P. Lewis (R) Alexander McKinstry (R) Benjamin Gardner (R) Robert T. Smith (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Grant/ Wilson (R) Neander H. Rice (R) 17R, 16D 51R, 49D George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 6R, 2D 1874 David P. Lewis (R) Alexander McKinstry (R) Rufus K. Boyd (D) Robert T. Smith (R) John W. A. Sanford (D) Grant/ Wilson (R) Daniel Crawford 17R, 16D 51R, 49D George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 6R, 2D 1875 George S. Houston (D) Robert F. Ligon (D) Rufus K. Boyd (D) Robert T. Smith (R) John W. A. Sanford (D) Grant/ Wilson (R) Daniel Crawford 20D, 13R 60D, 40R George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 6D, 2R 1876 George S. Houston (D) Robert F. Ligon (D) Rufus K. Boyd (D) Willis Brewer (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) Tilden/ Hendricks (D) Daniel Crawford 20D, 13R 60D, 40R George E. Spencer (R) George Goldthwaite (D) 6D, 2R 1877 George S. Houston (D) no such office Rufus K. Boyd (D) Willis Brewer (D) John W. A. Sanford (D) Tilden/ Hendricks (D) Daniel Crawford 33D 80D, 20R George E. Spencer (R) John Tyler Morgan (D) 8D 1878 George S. Houston (D) William W. Screws (D) Henry Tompkins (D) Willis Brewer (D) Isaac Vincent (D) Tilden/ Hendricks (D) 33D 80D, 20R George E. Spencer (R) 8D 1879 Rufus W. Cobb (D) William W. Screws (D) 31D, 2R Willis Brewer (D) Isaac Vincent (D) Tilden/ Hendricks (D) 91D, 4ID, 3R, 2GB George S. Houston (D) 7D, 1GB 1880 Rufus W. Cobb (D) William W. Screws (D) 31D, 2R J. Malcolm Carmichael Isaac Vincent (D) Luke Pryor (D) 91D, 4ID, 3R, 2GB Hancock/ English (D) 7D, 1GB 1881 Rufus W. Cobb (D) William W. Screws (D) 33D 94D, 4ID, 1R, 1GB Isaac Vincent (D) James L. Pugh (D) 8D 1882 Rufus W. Cobb (D) Ellis Phelan (D) 33D 94D, 4ID, 1R, 1GB Isaac Vincent (D) 7D, 1GB Year Governor Lt. Governor Secretary of State Attorney general Auditor Treasurer State Senate State House U.S. Senate (Class II) U.S. Senate (Class III) U.S. House Electoral votes Year Executive offices General Assembly General Assembly United States Congress United States Congress United States Congress ==1883–present== Year Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices State Legislature State Legislature United States Congress United States Congress United States Congress Electoral votes Year Governor Lt. Governor Secretary of State Attorney General Auditor Treasurer Ag. Comm. State Senate State House U.S. Senate (Class II) U.S. Senate (Class III) U.S. House Electoral votes 1883 Edward A. O'Neal (D) no such office Ellis Phelan (D) Henry Tompkins (D) J. Malcolm Carmichael Frederick Smith Edward C. Betts (D) 31D, 2R 77D, 17I, 5R, 1GB John Tyler Morgan (D) James L. Pugh (D) 8D 1884 Edward A. O'Neal (D) Thomas McClellan (D) Malcolm C. Burke 7D, 1R Cleveland/ Hendricks (D) Frederick Smith Edward C. Betts (D) 31D, 2R 77D, 17I, 5R, 1GB 1885 Edward A. O'Neal (D) Thomas McClellan (D) Malcolm C. Burke Charles C. Langdon (D) Cleveland/ Hendricks (D) Frederick Smith Edward C. Betts (D) 30D, 3R 93D, 7R 8D 1886 Edward A. O'Neal (D) Thomas McClellan (D) Malcolm C. Burke Charles C. Langdon (D) Cleveland/ Hendricks (D) Frederick Smith Edward C. Betts (D) 30D, 3R 93D, 7R 8D 1887 Thomas Seay (D) Thomas McClellan (D) Malcolm C. Burke Charles C. Langdon (D) Cleveland/ Hendricks (D) Frederick Smith Reuben Kolb (D) 32D, 1R 83D, 17R 8D 1888 Thomas Seay (D) Thomas McClellan (D) Cyrus D. Hogue Charles C. Langdon (D) John Cobbs (D) Cleveland/ Thurman (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 32D, 1R 83D, 17R 8D 1889 Thomas Seay (D) William L. Martin (D) Cyrus D. Hogue Charles C. Langdon (D) John Cobbs (D) Cleveland/ Thurman (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 32D, 1R 92D, 8R 8D 1890 Thomas Seay (D) William L. Martin (D) Cyrus D. Hogue Joseph D. Barron (D) John Cobbs (D) Cleveland/ Thurman (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 32D, 1R 92D, 8R 7D, 1R 1891 Thomas G. Jones (D) William L. Martin (D) Cyrus D. Hogue Joseph D. Barron (D) John Cobbs (D) Cleveland/ Thurman (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 33D 97D, 3R 8D 1892 Thomas G. Jones (D) William L. Martin (D) John Purifoy (D) Joseph D. Barron (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Cleveland/ Stevenson (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 33D 97D, 3R 8D 1893 Thomas G. Jones (D) William L. Martin (D) John Purifoy (D) Joseph D. Barron (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Cleveland/ Stevenson (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 26D, 7Pop 61D, 38Pop, 1R 9D 1894 Thomas G. Jones (D) James K. Jackson (D) John Purifoy (D) William C. Fitts (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Cleveland/ Stevenson (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 26D, 7Pop 61D, 38Pop, 1R 9D 1895 William C. Oates (D) James K. Jackson (D) John Purifoy (D) William C. Fitts (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Cleveland/ Stevenson (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 24D, 8Pop, 1R 65D, 34Pop, 1R 8D, 1Pop 1896 William C. Oates (D) James K. Jackson (D) Walter S. White William C. Fitts (D) George Ellis (D) Issac F. Culver (D) 5D, 2Pop, 2R 24D, 8Pop, 1R 65D, 34Pop, 1R Bryan/ Sewall (D) 1897 Joseph F. Johnston (D) James K. Jackson (D) Walter S. White William C. Fitts (D) George Ellis (D) Issac F. Culver (D) 22D, 9Pop, 2R 74D, 23Pop, 3R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Sewall (D) 8D, 1Pop 1898 Joseph F. Johnston (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Walter S. White Charles G. Brown George Ellis (D) Issac F. Culver (D) 22D, 9Pop, 2R 74D, 23Pop, 3R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Sewall (D) 7D, 1Pop, 1R 1899 Joseph F. Johnston (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Walter S. White Charles G. Brown George Ellis (D) Issac F. Culver (D) 28D, 5Pop 89D, 10Pop, 1R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Sewall (D) 9D 1900 Joseph F. Johnston (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Charles G. Brown J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) 28D, 5Pop 89D, 10Pop, 1R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 9D 1900 William D. Jelks (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Charles G. Brown J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) 28D, 5Pop 89D, 10Pop, 1R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 8D, 1R 1901 William J. Samford (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Charles G. Brown J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) 32D, 1Pop 92D, 6Pop, 2R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 9D 1901 William D. Jelks (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Charles G. Brown J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) 32D, 1Pop 92D, 6Pop, 2R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 9D 1902 William D. Jelks (D) Robert P. McDavid (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Charles G. Brown J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) 32D, 1Pop 92D, 6Pop, 2R Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 9D 1903 William D. Jelks (D) Russell McWhortor Cunningham (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) James Thomas Heflin (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) Massey Wilson (D) 35D Edmund Pettus (D) Bryan/ Stevenson (D) 9D 103D, 2R 1904 William D. Jelks (D) Russell McWhortor Cunningham (D) Thomas L. Sowell (D) Edmund R. McDavid (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) Massey Wilson (D) 35D Edmund Pettus (D) Parker/ Davis (D) 9D 103D, 2R 1905 William D. Jelks (D) Russell McWhortor Cunningham (D) J. Malcolm Carmichael Edmund R. McDavid (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) Massey Wilson (D) 35D Edmund Pettus (D) Parker/ Davis (D) 9D 103D, 2R 1906 William D. Jelks (D) Russell McWhortor Cunningham (D) J. Malcolm Carmichael Edmund R. McDavid (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) Massey Wilson (D) 35D Edmund Pettus (D) Parker/ Davis (D) 9D 103D, 2R 1907 B. B. Comer (D) Henry B. Gray (D) Frank N. Julian (D) Alexander M. Garber (D) William W. Brandon (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Joseph A. Wilkinson (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Parker/ Davis (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1908 B. B. Comer (D) Henry B. Gray (D) Frank N. Julian (D) Alexander M. Garber (D) William W. Brandon (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Joseph A. Wilkinson (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Bryan/ Kern (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1909 B. B. Comer (D) Henry B. Gray (D) Frank N. Julian (D) Alexander M. Garber (D) William W. Brandon (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Joseph A. Wilkinson (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Bryan/ Kern (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1910 B. B. Comer (D) Henry B. Gray (D) Cyrus B. Brown (D) Alexander M. Garber (D) William W. Brandon (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Joseph A. Wilkinson (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Bryan/ Kern (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1911 Emmet O'Neal (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Cyrus B. Brown (D) Robert Brickell (D) Charles Brooks Smith (D) John Purifoy (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 34D, 1R 103D, 3R Bryan/ Kern (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1912 Emmet O'Neal (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Cyrus B. Brown (D) Robert Brickell (D) Charles Brooks Smith (D) John Purifoy (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 34D, 1R 103D, 3R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 9D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1913 Emmet O'Neal (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Cyrus B. Brown (D) Robert Brickell (D) Charles Brooks Smith (D) John Purifoy (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 34D, 1R 103D, 3R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D) 1914 Emmet O'Neal (D) Walter D. Seed Sr. (D) Cyrus B. Brown (D) Robert Brickell (D) Charles Brooks Smith (D) John Purifoy (D) Reuben Kolb (D) 34D, 1R 103D, 3R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Francis S. White (D) 1915 Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) William Logan Martin (D) Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1916 Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) William Logan Martin (D) Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1917 Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) William Logan Martin (D) Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1918 Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) F. Lloyd Tate Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1918 Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) Emmet S. Thigpen Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1919 Thomas Kilby (D) Nathan Lee Miller (D) William Peyton Cobb (D) J. Q. Smith (D) Henry F. Lee (D) Robert Bradley Miles C. Allgood (D) 34D, 1R 100D, 5R, 1? Wilson/ Marshall (D) 10D John H. Bankhead (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1920 Thomas Kilby (D) Nathan Lee Miller (D) William Peyton Cobb (D) J. Q. Smith (D) Henry F. Lee (D) Robert Bradley Miles C. Allgood (D) 34D, 1R 100D, 5R, 1? B. B. Comer (D) 10D Cox/ Roosevelt (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1921 Thomas Kilby (D) Nathan Lee Miller (D) William Peyton Cobb (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) Henry F. Lee (D) Robert Bradley Miles C. Allgood (D) 34D, 1R 100D, 5R, 1? James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Cox/ Roosevelt (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1922 Thomas Kilby (D) Nathan Lee Miller (D) William Peyton Cobb (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) Henry F. Lee (D) Robert Bradley Miles C. Allgood (D) 34D, 1R 100D, 5R, 1? James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Cox/ Roosevelt (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1923 William W. Brandon (D) Charles S. McDowell (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) William B. Allgood (D) George Ellis (D) James Monroe Moore (D) 35D 105D, 1R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Cox/ Roosevelt (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1924 William W. Brandon (D) Charles S. McDowell (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) William B. Allgood (D) George Ellis (D) James Monroe Moore (D) 35D 105D, 1R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Davis/ Bryan (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1925 William W. Brandon (D) Charles S. McDowell (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) William B. Allgood (D) George Ellis (D) James Monroe Moore (D) 35D 105D, 1R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Davis/ Bryan (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1926 William W. Brandon (D) Charles S. McDowell (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Harwell Goodwin Davis (D) William B. Allgood (D) George Ellis (D) James Monroe Moore (D) 35D 105D, 1R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Davis/ Bryan (D) Oscar Underwood (D) 1927 Bibb Graves (D) William C. Davis (D) John M. Brandon (D) Charlie C. McCall (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) William B. Allgood (D) Samuel Dunwoody (D) 35D 104D, 2R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Davis/ Bryan (D) Hugo Black (D) 1928 Bibb Graves (D) William C. Davis (D) John M. Brandon (D) Charlie C. McCall (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) William B. Allgood (D) Samuel Dunwoody (D) 35D 104D, 2R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Smith/ Robinson (D) Hugo Black (D) 1929 Bibb Graves (D) William C. Davis (D) John M. Brandon (D) Charlie C. McCall (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) William B. Allgood (D) Samuel Dunwoody (D) 35D 104D, 2R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Smith/ Robinson (D) Hugo Black (D) 1930 Bibb Graves (D) William C. Davis (D) John M. Brandon (D) Charlie C. McCall (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) William B. Allgood (D) Samuel Dunwoody (D) 35D 104D, 2R James Thomas Heflin (D) 10D Smith/ Robinson (D) Hugo Black (D) 1931 Benjamin M. Miller (D) Hugh Davis Merrill (D) Pete Bryant Jarman Jr. (D) Thomas E. Knight Jr. (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Seth Paddock Storrs (D) 35D 103D, 3R John H. Bankhead II (D) 10D Smith/ Robinson (D) Hugo Black (D) 1932 Benjamin M. Miller (D) Hugh Davis Merrill (D) Pete Bryant Jarman Jr. (D) Thomas E. Knight Jr. (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Seth Paddock Storrs (D) 35D 103D, 3R John H. Bankhead II (D) 10D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Hugo Black (D) 1933 Benjamin M. Miller (D) Hugh Davis Merrill (D) Pete Bryant Jarman Jr. (D) Thomas E. Knight Jr. (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Seth Paddock Storrs (D) 35D 103D, 3R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Hugo Black (D) 1934 Benjamin M. Miller (D) Hugh Davis Merrill (D) Pete Bryant Jarman Jr. (D) Thomas E. Knight Jr. (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Seth Paddock Storrs (D) 35D 103D, 3R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Hugo Black (D) 1935 Bibb Graves (D) Thomas E. Knight David Howell Turner (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Charles E. McCall (D) John M. Brandon (D) Robert James Goode (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Hugo Black (D) 1936 Bibb Graves (D) Thomas E. Knight David Howell Turner (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Charles E. McCall (D) John M. Brandon (D) Robert James Goode (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Hugo Black (D) 1937 Bibb Graves (D) Thomas E. Knight David Howell Turner (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Charles E. McCall (D) John M. Brandon (D) Robert James Goode (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) Dixie Bibb Graves (D) 1938 Bibb Graves (D) Thomas E. Knight David Howell Turner (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Charles E. McCall (D) John M. Brandon (D) Robert James Goode (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1939 Frank M. Dixon (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) John M. Brandon (D) Thomas S. Lawson (D) David Howell Turner (D) Charles E. McCall (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Garner (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1940 Frank M. Dixon (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) John M. Brandon (D) Thomas S. Lawson (D) David Howell Turner (D) Charles E. McCall (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Wallace (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1941 Frank M. Dixon (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) John M. Brandon (D) Thomas S. Lawson (D) David Howell Turner (D) Walter Lusk Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Wallace (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1942 Frank M. Dixon (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) John M. Brandon (D) Thomas S. Lawson (D) David Howell Turner (D) Walter Lusk Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Wallace (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1943 Chauncey Sparks (D) Leven H. Ellis (D) David Howell Turner (D) William N. McQueen (D) John M. Brandon (D) Walter Lusk Joseph N. Poole 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Wallace (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1944 Chauncey Sparks (D) Leven H. Ellis (D) Sibyl Pool (D) William N. McQueen (D) John M. Brandon (D) Walter Lusk Joseph N. Poole 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Truman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1945 Chauncey Sparks (D) Leven H. Ellis (D) Sibyl Pool (D) William N. McQueen (D) John M. Brandon (D) Walter Lusk Joseph N. Poole 35D 105D, 1R John H. Bankhead II (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Truman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1946 Chauncey Sparks (D) Leven H. Ellis (D) Sibyl Pool (D) William N. McQueen (D) John M. Brandon (D) Walter Lusk Joseph N. Poole 35D 105D, 1R George R. Swift (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Truman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1947 Jim Folsom (D) James C. Inzer (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Daniel H. Thomas Sr. John M. Brandon (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Roosevelt/ Truman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1948 Jim Folsom (D) James C. Inzer (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Daniel H. Thomas Sr. John M. Brandon (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Thurmond/ Wright (Dix) J. Lister Hill (D) 1949 Jim Folsom (D) James C. Inzer (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Daniel H. Thomas Sr. John M. Brandon (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Thurmond/ Wright (Dix) J. Lister Hill (D) 1950 Jim Folsom (D) James C. Inzer (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Daniel H. Thomas Sr. John M. Brandon (D) Haygood Paterson (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Thurmond/ Wright (Dix) J. Lister Hill (D) 1951 Gordon Persons (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Si Garrett (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Frank M. Stewart (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Thurmond/ Wright (Dix) J. Lister Hill (D) 1952 Gordon Persons (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Si Garrett (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Frank M. Stewart (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Sparkman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1953 Gordon Persons (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Si Garrett (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Frank M. Stewart (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Sparkman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1954 Gordon Persons (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Si Garrett (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Frank M. Stewart (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Sparkman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1955 Jim Folsom (D) William G. Hardwick (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) John M. Patterson (D) Agnes Baggett (D) John M. Brandon (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Sparkman (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1956 Jim Folsom (D) William G. Hardwick (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) John M. Patterson (D) Agnes Baggett (D) John M. Brandon (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Kefauver (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1957 Jim Folsom (D) William G. Hardwick (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) John M. Patterson (D) Agnes Baggett (D) John M. Brandon (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Kefauver (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1958 Jim Folsom (D) William G. Hardwick (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) John M. Patterson (D) Agnes Baggett (D) John M. Brandon (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 105D, 1R John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Kefauver (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1959 John M. Patterson (D) Albert Boutwell (D) Bettye Frink (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Robert Bamberg (D) 35D 106D John Sparkman (D) 9D Stevenson/ Kefauver (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1960 John M. Patterson (D) Albert Boutwell (D) Bettye Frink (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Robert Bamberg (D) 35D 106D John Sparkman (D) 9D 6 – Byrd/ Thurmond (Dix) 5 – Kennedy/ Johnson (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1961 John M. Patterson (D) Albert Boutwell (D) Bettye Frink (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Robert Bamberg (D) 35D 106D John Sparkman (D) 9D 6 – Byrd/ Thurmond (Dix) 5 – Kennedy/ Johnson (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1962 John M. Patterson (D) Albert Boutwell (D) Bettye Frink (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Robert Bamberg (D) 35D 106D John Sparkman (D) 9D 6 – Byrd/ Thurmond (Dix) 5 – Kennedy/ Johnson (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1963 George Wallace (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richmond Flowers Sr. (D) Bettye Frink (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 8D 6 – Byrd/ Thurmond (Dix) 5 – Kennedy/ Johnson (D) J. Lister Hill (D) 1964 George Wallace (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richmond Flowers Sr. (D) Bettye Frink (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 8D Goldwater/ Miller (R) J. Lister Hill (D) 1965 George Wallace (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richmond Flowers Sr. (D) Bettye Frink (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 5R, 3D Goldwater/ Miller (R) J. Lister Hill (D) 1966 George Wallace (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richmond Flowers Sr. (D) Bettye Frink (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) A. W. Todd (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 5R, 3D Goldwater/ Miller (R) J. Lister Hill (D) 1967 Lurleen Wallace (D) Albert Brewer (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Goldwater/ Miller (R) J. Lister Hill (D) 1968 Lurleen Wallace (D) Albert Brewer (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Wallace/ LeMay (AI) J. Lister Hill (D) 1968 Albert Brewer (D) vacant Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Wallace/ LeMay (AI) J. Lister Hill (D) 1969 Albert Brewer (D) vacant Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Wallace/ LeMay (AI) James Allen (D) 1970 Albert Brewer (D) vacant Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Wallace/ LeMay (AI) James Allen (D) 1971 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) Bill Baxley (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Wallace/ LeMay (AI) James Allen (D) 1972 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) Bill Baxley (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Marion Gilmer (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 5D, 3R Nixon/ Agnew (R) James Allen (D) 1973 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) Bill Baxley (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Marion Gilmer (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Nixon/ Agnew (R) James Allen (D) 1974 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Mabel Sanders Amos (D) Bill Baxley (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 104D, 2R John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Nixon/ Agnew (R) James Allen (D) 1975 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Bill Baxley (D) Bettye Frink (D) Melba Till Allen (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 105D John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Nixon/ Agnew (R) James Allen (D) 1976 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Bill Baxley (D) Bettye Frink (D) Melba Till Allen (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 105D John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Carter/ Mondale (D) James Allen (D) 1977 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Bill Baxley (D) Bettye Frink (D) Melba Till Allen (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 105D John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Carter/ Mondale (D) James Allen (D) 1978 George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Bill Baxley (D) Bettye Frink (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 105D John Sparkman (D) 4D, 3R Carter/ Mondale (D) Maryon Pittman Allen (D) 1979 Fob James (D) George McMillan (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Bettye Frink (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 101D, 4R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Carter/ Mondale (D) Donald Stewart (D) 1980 Fob James (D) George McMillan (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Bettye Frink (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 101D, 4R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Reagan/ Bush (R) Donald Stewart (D) 1981 Fob James (D) George McMillan (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Bettye Frink (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 101D, 4R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1982 Fob James (D) George McMillan (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Bettye Frink (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) McMillan Lane (D) 35D 101D, 4R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1983 George Wallace (D) Bill Baxley (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Jan Cook (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) Albert McDonald (D) 32D, 3R 97D, 8R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1984 George Wallace (D) Bill Baxley (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Jan Cook (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) Albert McDonald (D) 29D, 3R, 3I 87D, 18R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1985 George Wallace (D) Bill Baxley (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Jan Cook (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) Albert McDonald (D) 29D, 3R, 3I 87D, 18R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1986 George Wallace (D) Bill Baxley (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) Jan Cook (D) Annie Laurie Gunter (D) Albert McDonald (D) 29D, 3R, 3I 87D, 18R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Reagan/ Bush (R) Jeremiah Denton (R) 1987 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Glen Browder (D) Don Siegelman (D) Jan Cook (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) Albert McDonald (D) 30D, 5R 89D, 16R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Reagan/ Bush (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1988 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Glen Browder (D) Don Siegelman (D) Jan Cook (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) Albert McDonald (D) 30D, 5R 89D, 16R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1989 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Fred Crawford (R) Don Siegelman (D) Jan Cook (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) Albert McDonald (D) 27D, 8R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1990 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Perry A. Hand (R) Don Siegelman (D) Jan Cook (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) Albert McDonald (D) 27D, 8R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1991 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Billy Joe Camp (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) A. W. Todd (D) 28D, 7R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1992 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Billy Joe Camp (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) A. W. Todd (D) 28D, 7R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 5D, 2R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1993 H. Guy Hunt (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Billy Joe Camp (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) A. W. Todd (D) 27D, 8R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1993 Jim Folsom Jr. (D) vacant James R. Bennett (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) A. W. Todd (D) 27D, 8R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1994 Jim Folsom Jr. (D) vacant James R. Bennett (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) George Wallace Jr. (D) A. W. Todd (D) 27D, 8R 82D, 23R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (D) 1995 Fob James (R) Don Siegelman (D) James R. Bennett (D) Jeff Sessions (R) Pat Duncan (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Jack Thompson (R) 23D, 12R 73D, 32R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Bush/ Quayle (R) Richard Shelby (R) 1996 Fob James (R) Don Siegelman (D) James R. Bennett (D) Jeff Sessions (R) Pat Duncan (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Jack Thompson (R) 23D, 12R 73D, 32R Howell Heflin (D) 4D, 3R Dole/ Kemp (R) Richard Shelby (R) 1997 Fob James (R) Don Siegelman (D) James R. Bennett (D) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Pat Duncan (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Jack Thompson (R) 23D, 12R 71D, 34R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Dole/ Kemp (R) Richard Shelby (R) 1998 Fob James (R) Don Siegelman (D) James R. Bennett (D) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Pat Duncan (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Jack Thompson (R) 21D, 14R 68D, 37R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Dole/ Kemp (R) Richard Shelby (R) 1999 Don Siegelman (D) Steve Windom (R) James R. Bennett (R) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Susan Parker (D) Lucy Baxley (D) Charles Bishop (D) 23D, 12R 69D, 36R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Dole/ Kemp (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2000 Don Siegelman (D) Steve Windom (R) James R. Bennett (R) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Susan Parker (D) Lucy Baxley (D) Charles Bishop (D) 24D, 11R 69D, 36R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2001 Don Siegelman (D) Steve Windom (R) James R. Bennett (R) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Susan Parker (D) Lucy Baxley (D) Charles Bishop (D) 24D, 11R 68D, 37R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2002 Don Siegelman (D) Steve Windom (R) James R. Bennett (R) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Susan Parker (D) Lucy Baxley (D) Charles Bishop (D) 24D, 11R 67D, 38R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2003 Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 63D, 42R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2004 Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) William H. Pryor Jr. (R) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 63D, 42R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2004 Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) Troy King (R) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 63D, 42R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2005 Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) Troy King (R) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 63D, 42R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2006 Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) Troy King (R) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 62D, 43R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2007 Bob Riley (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Beth Chapman (R) Troy King (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 23D, 12R 62D, 43R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D Bush/ Cheney (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2008 Bob Riley (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Beth Chapman (R) Troy King (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 22D, 13R 62D, 43R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D McCain/ Palin (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2009 Bob Riley (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Beth Chapman (R) Troy King (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 21D, 13R, 1I 62D, 43R Jeff Sessions (R) 4R, 3D McCain/ Palin (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2010 Bob Riley (R) Jim Folsom Jr. (D) Beth Chapman (R) Troy King (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 20D, 14R, 1I 60D, 45R Jeff Sessions (R) 5R, 2D McCain/ Palin (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2011 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) Beth Chapman (R) Luther Strange (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 22R, 12D, 1I 66R, 39D Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D McCain/ Palin (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2012 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) Beth Chapman (R) Luther Strange (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 22R, 12D, 1I 66R, 39D Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Romney/ Ryan (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2013 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) Beth Chapman (R) Luther Strange (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 23R, 11D, 1I 66R, 38D, 1I Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Romney/ Ryan (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2013 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) James R. Bennett (R) Luther Strange (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 23R, 11D, 1I 66R, 38D, 1I Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Romney/ Ryan (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2014 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) James R. Bennett (R) Luther Strange (R) Samantha Shaw (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 23R, 11D, 1I 67R, 37D, 1I Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Romney/ Ryan (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2015 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) John Merrill (R) Luther Strange (R) Jim Zeigler (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Romney/ Ryan (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2016 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) John Merrill (R) Luther Strange (R) Jim Zeigler (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D Jeff Sessions (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2017 Robert J. Bentley (R) Kay Ivey (R) John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D Luther Strange (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2017 Kay Ivey (R) vacant John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D Luther Strange (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2018 Kay Ivey (R) vacant John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D Doug Jones (D) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2019 Kay Ivey (R) Will Ainsworth (R) John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) John McMillan (R) Rick Pate (R) 27R, 8D 77R, 28D Doug Jones (D) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2020 Kay Ivey (R) Will Ainsworth (R) John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) John McMillan (R) Rick Pate (R) 27R, 8D 77R, 28D Doug Jones (D) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2021 Kay Ivey (R) Will Ainsworth (R) John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) John McMillan (R) Rick Pate (R) 27R, 8D 77R, 28D Tommy Tuberville (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2022 Kay Ivey (R) Will Ainsworth (R) John Merrill (R) Steve Marshall (R) Jim Zeigler (R) John McMillan (R) Rick Pate (R) 27R, 8D 77R, 28D Tommy Tuberville (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Richard Shelby (R) 2023 Kay Ivey (R) Will Ainsworth (R) Wes Allen (R) Steve Marshall (R) Andrew Sorrell (R) John McMillan (R) Rick Pate (R) 27R, 8D 77R, 28D Tommy Tuberville (R) 6R, 1D Trump/ Pence (R) Katie Britt (R) Year Governor Lt. Governor Secretary of State Attorney general Auditor Treasurer Ag. Comm. State Senate State House U.S. Senate (Class II) U.S. Senate (Class III) U.S. House Electoral votes Year Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices Executive offices State Legislature State Legislature United States Congress United States Congress United States Congress ==References== Category:Politics of Alabama Alabama
|
Parasite () is a 2019 South Korean black comedy thriller film directed by Bong Joon-ho. The screenplay was co-written by Bong and Han Jin-won. The film stars Song Kang-ho, Lee Sun-kyun, Cho Yeo-jeong, Choi Woo-shik, Park So-dam and Jang Hye-jin. It won the Palme d'Or at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, becoming the first Korean film to receive the award as well as the first film to do so with a unanimous vote since 2013's Blue Is the Warmest Colour. It was selected as the South Korean entry for Best International Feature Film at the 92nd Academy Awards, Bong's second selection after 2009's Mother. Parasite premiered at the 72nd Cannes Film Festival on 21 May 2019. It was released in South Korea by CJ Entertainment on 30 May 2019, and in the rest of the world by Neon in late-2019. The film had a limited release on 11 October 2019 in Los Angeles and New York City, before expanding wider starting 18 October. It has grossed $257 million worldwide including $53.3 million in the United States and Canada, becoming Bong's highest-grossing release; it is currently the nineteenth highest-grossing domestic film in South Korea history. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator surveyed 467 reviews and judged 99% to be positive. Parasite received widespread critical acclaim, with particular praise for Bong's screenplay and direction, editing, and production values, as well as the performances of the actors, especially Song. Among its numerous accolades, Parasite won four awards at the 92nd Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay and Best International Feature Film. It became the first South Korean film to receive Academy Award recognition, as well as the first non-English-language film to win Best Picture. At the 77th Golden Globe Awards, the film had three nominations, winning Best Foreign Language Film. At the 73rd British Academy Film Awards, the film received four nominations including, Best Film and Best Direction and won for Best Original Screenplay and Best Film Not in the English Language. At the Screen Actors Guild Awards, it became the first non-English language film to win for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. ==Accolades== Award Date of ceremony Category Recipient(s) Result AACTA Awards 4 December 2019 Best Asian Film Bong Joon-ho 3 January 2020 Best International Film Kwak Sin-ae and Bong Joon-ho Best International Direction Bong Joon-ho Best International Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best International Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards 11 January 2020 Best Intergenerational Film Parasite Best Foreign Language Film Academy Awards 9 February 2020 Best Picture Kwak Sin-ae and Bong Joon-ho Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best International Feature Film South Korea Best Film Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun and Cho Won-woo African- American Film Critics Association 10 December 2019 Top Ten Films Parasite Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Film Parasite Alliance of Women Film Journalists 10 January 2020 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Ensemble Parasite Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Non-English Language Film Parasite Amanda Awards 14 August 2020 Best Foreign Feature Film American Cinema Editors 17 January 2020 Best Edited Feature Film – Dramatic Yang Jin-mo American Film Institute Awards 3 January 2020 AFI Special Award Parasite Art Directors Guild Awards 1 February 2020 Excellence in Production Design for a Contemporary Feature Film Lee Ha-jun Asia Pacific Screen Awards 21 November 2019 Best Feature Film Kwak Sin-ae and Bong Joon-ho Asian Film Awards 28 October 2020 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Choi Woo-shik Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Original Music Jung Jae-il Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Sound Choi Tae-young Best Visual Effects Hong Jeong-ho Atlanta Film Critics Circle 2 December 2019 Top 10 Films Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Austin Film Critics Association 6 January 2020 Top Ten Films of the Decade Top Ten Films of the Year Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Ensemble Parasite Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Australian Film Critics Association 7 February 2020 Best International Film (Foreign Language) Bandung Film Festival 22 November 2019 Honorable Imported Films Belgian Cinematographic Press Union 30 January 2020 Grand Prix Bong Joon-ho Belgian Film Critics Association 4 January 2020 Grand Prix Parasite Baeksang Arts Awards 5 June 2020 Grand Prize (Daesang) Bong Joon-ho Parasite Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Song Kang-ho Best Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Supporting Actor Park Myung-hoon Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Park So-dam Best New Actor Park Myung-hoon Best New Actress Jang Hye-jin Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Technical Award Hong Kyung-pyo Lee Ha-jun BFE Cut Above Awards 5 March 2021 Best Edited Single Drama Yang Jin-mo Black Film Critics Circle Awards 19 December 2019 Best Picture Parasite Best Foreign Film Blue Dragon Film Awards 21 November 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Song Kang-ho Best Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Supporting Actor Park Myung-hoon Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Park So-dam Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography and Lighting Hong Kyung-pyo, Kim Chang-ho Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Music Jung Jae-il Best Art Direction Lee Ha-jun Blue Ribbon Awards 24 February 2021 Best Foreign Film Parasite Bodil Awards 29 February 2020 Best Non-American Film Parasite Boston Online Film Critics Association 14 December 2019 Best Picture Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Top 10 Best Films of the Year Parasite Boston Society of Film Critics 15 December 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Best Ensemble Cast British Academy Film Awards 2 February 2020 Best Film Kwak Sin-ae and Bong Joon-ho Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Film Not in the English Language Bong Joon-ho British Independent Film Awards 1 December 2019 Best International Independent Film Parasite Buil Film Awards 4 October 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Choi Woo-shik Best Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Supporting Actor Park Myung-hoon Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Jang Hye-jin Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Music Jung Jae-il Best Art Direction Lee Ha-jun Busan Film Critics Awards 26 November 2019 Best Actress Lee Jung-eun Cahiers du Cinéma 6 January 2020 Top 10 Lists Parasite Calgary International Film Festival 3 October 2019 Fan Favourite Award Cannes Film Festival 25 May 2019 Palme d'Or Bong Joon-ho César Awards 28 February 2020 Best Foreign Film Parasite Chicago Film Critics Association 14 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Art Direction Lee Ha-jun Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Chlotrudis Awards 25 March 2020 Best Movie Best Director Bong Joon-ho Performance by an Ensemble Cast Parasite Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Chunsa Film Art Awards 18 July 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Choi Woo-shik Song Kang-ho Best Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Supporting Actor Park Myung-hoon Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won 19 June 2020 White Crane Award Bong Joon-ho Cine 21 Awards 24 December 2019 Best Film of The Year Parasite Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Best Director of The Year 24 December 2019 Bong Joon-ho Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Best Actor of The Year 24 December 2019 Song Kang-ho Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Best Actress of The Year 24 December 2019 Lee Jung-eun Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Best Screenplay of The Year 24 December 2019 Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Best Cinematographer of The Year 24 December 2019 Hong Kyung-pyo Cine 21 Awards: * * * * * * Cinema Writers Circle Awards 20 January 2020 Best Foreign Film Parasite Clio Awards 21 November 2019 Theatrical: Trailers Columbus Film Critics Association Awards 2 January 2020 Best Film Best Foreign Language Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Film Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Ensemble Parasite Crested Butte Film Festival 29 September 2019 Best Narrative Film Critics' Choice Movie Awards 12 January 2020 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Acting Ensemble Parasite Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association 16 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite David di Donatello Awards 3 April 2020 Best Foreign Film Denver Film Critics Society 14 January 2020 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Detroit Film Critics Society 9 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Ensemble Parasite Días de Cine Awards 14 January 2020 Best Foreign Film Director's Cut Awards 12 December 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Choi Woo-shik Song Kang-ho Best Actress Lee Jung-eun Cho Yeo-jeong Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best New Actor Park Myung-hoon Best New Actress Jang Hye-jin Directors Guild of America Awards 25 January 2020 Outstanding Directing – Feature Film Bong Joon-ho Dorian Awards 8 January 2020 Film of the Year Parasite Director of the Year Bong Joon-ho Supporting Film Performance of the Year — Actor Song Kang-ho Foreign Language Film of the Year Parasite Screenplay of the Year Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Visually Striking Film of the Year Parasite Eurasia International Film Festival 6 July 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Fantastic Fest 26 September 2019 Audience Award Parasite Film from the South 16 November 2019 Festival SESC Melhores Filmes 19 August 2020 Best International Film Best International Director Bong Joon-ho Florida Film Critics Circle 23 December 2019 Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Ensemble Parasite Best Foreign Language Film Fotogramas de Plata 12 November 2019 Best Foreign Film Georgia Film Critics Association 10 January 2020 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Original Score Jung Jae-il Best Original Song "A Glass of Soju" by Jung Jae-il and Bong Joon-ho Best Ensemble Parasite Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Globes de Cristal Awards 14 March 2020 Best Foreign Film Parasite Golden Globe Awards 5 January 2020 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Golden Schmoes Awards 7 February 2020 Favorite Movie of the Year Parasite Best Director of the Year Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay of the Year Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Trippiest Movie of the Year Parasite Biggest Surprise of the Year Parasite Grand Bell Awards 3 June 2020 Best Film Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Song Kang-ho Best Supporting Actor Park Myung-hoon Best Supporting Actress Lee Jung-eun Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Film Editing Yang Jin- mo Best Lighting Kim Chang-ho Best Music Jung Jae-il Best Art Direction Lee Ha-jun Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro 11 October 2020 Best Foreign Long Film Parasite Guldbagge Awards 20 January 2020 Best Foreign Film Hochi Film Awards 2 December 2020 Best International Picture Hollywood Critics Association Awards 9 January 2020 Best Picture Best Male Director Bong Joon- ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Filmmaker Achievement Award Bong Joon-ho Hollywood Film Awards 3 November 2019 Hollywood Filmmaker Award Hollywood Music in Media Awards 20 November 2019 Best Original Score in a Feature Film Jung Jae-il Hollywood Professional Association 19 November 2020 Outstanding Editing – Theatrical Feature Yang Jin-mo Houston Film Critics Society 2 January 2020 Best Picture Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Best Movie Poster Art Huading Awards 29 October 2020 Best Global Motion Picture Best Global Director for a Motion Picture Bong Joon-ho Best Global Writing for a Motion Picture Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Global Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture Park So-dam IGN Awards 21 December 2019 Best Movie of the Year Parasite IGN Awards: * * * * * Best Comedy Movie of the Year Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Performer Song Kang-ho Best Movie Ensemble Parasite Independent Spirit Awards 8 February 2020 Best International Film Indiana Film Journalists Association 16 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Original Vision Award Best Foreign Language Film Parasite IndieWire Critics Poll 16 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Actor Song Kang-ho Best Supporting Actor Best Supporting Actress Park So-dam Cho Yeo-jeong Lee Jung-eun Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Foreign Film Parasite International Cinephile Society Awards 25 May 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho 5 February 2020 Best Picture Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Supporting Actress Cho Yeo-jeong Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Ensemble Parasite Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Production Design Lee Ha- jun International Film Festival Awards Macao 8 October 2019 Asian Blockbuster Film 2019 Parasite International Film Festival Cinematik 15 September 2019 Audience Award Parasite International Film Festival Rotterdam 31 January 2020 BankGiro Loterij Audience Award Parasite (B&W; Version) Japan Academy Film Prize 19 March 2021 Outstanding Foreign Language Film Parasite Jecheon International Music & Film Festival 9 August 2019 Person of the Year in Film Industry Award Bong Joon-ho Kansas City Film Critics Circle 15 December 2019 Best Film Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Kinema Junpo Awards Parasite 10 February 2021 Best Foreign Language Film Best Foreign Language Film Director Bong Joon-ho Readers’ Choice Best Foreign Language Film Director Bong Joon-ho Korean Association of Film Critics Awards 13 November 2019 Best Film Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Top 10 Films of the Year Parasite Korean Film Producers Association Awards 17 December 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Lighting Kim Chang-ho Best Art Direction Lee Ha-joon Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards 13 December 2019 Best Picture Parasite Best Foreign Film LVFCS Top 10 Films of 2019 Locarno International Film Festival 12 August 2019 Excellence Award Song Kang-ho London Critics' Circle Film Awards 30 January 2020 Film of the Year Parasite Director of the Year Bong Joon-ho Screenwriter of the Year Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Technical Achievement of the Year Lee Ha-jun Foreign Language Film of the Year Parasite Los Angeles Film Critics Association 11 January 2020 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Mainichi Film Awards 17 February 2021 Best Foreign Film Parasite Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Awards 19 January 2020 Feature - Foreign Language Choi Tae-young (Supervising Sound Editor) Kang Hye-young (Sound Designer, Sound Effects Editor) Kim Byung-in (Supervising ADR Editor) Park Sung-gyun (Foley Artist) Lee Chung-gyu (Foley Artist) Shin I-na (Foley Editor) Munich International Film Festival 6 July 2019 The ARRI/OSRAM Award Parasite National Board of Review 3 December 2019 Best Foreign Language Film National Society of Film Critics 4 January 2020 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won New York Film Critics Circle 7 January 2020 Best Foreign Language Film Parasite New York Film Critics Online 7 December 2019 Top 10 Films Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Nikkan Sports Film Awards 28 December 2020 Best Foreign Film Parasite Oklahoma Film Critics Circle Awards 15 December 2019 Top 10 Films Best Foreign Language Film Online Film Critics Society 6 January 2020 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Film Not in the English Language Parasite Technical Achievement Award - Best Production Design Palm Springs International Film Festival 13 January 2020 FIPRESCI Prize for Best International Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards 17 December 2019 PFCS TOP TEN Parasite Best Foreign Language Film Producers Guild of America Awards 18 January 2020 Best Theatrical Motion Picture Kwak Sin-ae and Bong Joon-ho Robert Awards 26 January 2020 Best Non- English Language Film Parasite Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards 6 April 2020 Best Film of 2019 San Diego Film Critics Society 9 December 2019 Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle 16 December 2019 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite San Sebastián International Film Festival 20 September 2019 FIPRESCI Grand Prix Sant Jordi Awards 20 April 2020 Best Foreign Film Santa Barbara International Film Festival 23 January 2020 Outstanding Director of the Year Award Bong Joon-ho São Paulo International Film Festival 30 October 2019 Audience Award ― Best International Fiction Film Parasite Satellite Awards 21 January 2020 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin- won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Saturn Awards Parasite 26 October 2021 Best International Film Best Writing Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Music Jung Jae-il Screen Actors Guild Awards 19 January 2020 Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Cho Yeo- jeong, Choi Woo-shik, Jang Hye-jin, Jung Hyeon-jun, Jung Ziso, Lee Jung-eun, Lee Sun-kyun, Park Myung-hoon, Park So-dam, and Song Kang-ho Seattle Film Critics Society 16 December 2019 Best Picture Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Supporting Actor Song Kang-ho Best Ensemble Parasite Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Cinematography Hong Kyung-pyo Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards 9 December 2019 Best Picture Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite St. Louis Film Critics Association 15 December 2019 Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Horror Film Parasite Best Foreign Film Sydney Film Festival 16 June 2019 Best Film Tallgrass Film Festival 20 October 2019 Excellence in the Art of Filmmaking Bong Joon-ho Toronto Film Critics Association 8 December 2019 Best Film Parasite Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Toronto International Film Festival 15 September 2019 Grolsch People's Choice Award Tromsø International Film Festival 19 January 2020 The Tromsø Audience Award Turkish Film Critics Association 7 January 2020 Best Foreign Film Utah Film Critics Association Awards 23 December 2019 Best Picture Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Non- English Language Film Parasite Vancouver Film Critics Circle Parasite 16 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Screenplay Bong Joon- ho and Han Jin-won Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Vancouver International Film Festival 11 October 2019 Super Channel People's Choice Award ] Village Voice Film Poll 14 January 2020 Best Picture Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association 8 December 2019 Best Film Best Director Bong Joon-ho Best Ensemble Parasite Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won Best Production Design Lee Ha-jun Best Editing Yang Jin-mo Best Foreign Language Film Parasite Women In Film Korea Festival 11 December 2019 Best Producer Kwak Sin-ae Writers Guild of America Awards 1 February 2020 Best Original Screenplay Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won === World records === Publication Year World record Record holder Guinness World Records 2020 First film to win both the Best International Feature Film and Best Picture Oscar Parasite Most Oscar wins for an international feature film ==Top-ten lists== Parasite appeared on many critics' year-end top-ten lists, among them: * 1st Alissa Wilkinson, Vox * 1st Angie Han, Mashable * 1st Barry Hertz, The Globe and Mail * 1st Ben Travers, IndieWire * 1st Candice Frederick, Harper's Bazaar * 1st Cary Darling, Houston Chronicle * 1st Christy Lemire, RogerEbert.com * 1st Dan Jackson, Thrillist * 1st David Crow, Den of Geek * 1st Don Kaye, Den of Geek * 1st Film Comment * 1st Film School Rejects * 1st Flood Magazine * 1st Godfrey Cheshire, RogerEbert.com * 1st Guy Lodge, The Guardian * 1st Hyperallergic * 1st IGN * 1st IndieWire (300+ Critics Survey) * 1st Jessica Kiang and The Playlist Staff, The Playlist * 1st Justin Chang, Los Angeles Times * 1st Karen Han, Polygon * 1st Katie Rife, The A.V. Club * 1st Keith Watson, Slant Magazine * 1st Laura Di Girolamo, Exclaim! * 1st Leah Greenblatt, Entertainment Weekly * 1st Matt Goldberg, Collider * 1st Matt Neglia, Next Best Picture * 1st Matthew Jacobs, Huffington Post * 1st Michael Phillips, Chicago Tribune * 1st Monica Castillo, RogerEbert.com * 1st Nick Allen, RogerEbert.com * 1st Noel Murray, The A.V. Club * 1st Online Film Critics Society * 1st Richard Lawson, Vanity Fair * 1st Rotten Tomatoes * 1st Sara Stewart, New York Post * 1st Sarah Ward, Screen Daily * 1st Sean P. Means, Salt Lake Tribune * 1st Seongyong Cho, RogerEbert.com * 1st Sydney Morning Herald * 1st Tasha Robinson, Polygon * 1st Tom Reimann, Collider * 1st Valerie Ettenhofer, Film School Rejects * 1st Vinnie Mancuso, Collider * 1st - WatchMojo.Com * 2nd Alex Biese, Asbury Park Press * 2nd Anne Thompson, IndieWire * 2nd Bob Strauss, Los Angeles Daily News * 2nd David Ehrlich, IndieWire * 2nd David Rooney The Hollywood Reporter * 2nd Jonathan Sim, Vocal * 2nd Kate Erbland, IndieWire * 2nd Mark Hughes, Forbes * 2nd Matt Zoller Seitz, RogerEbert.com * 2nd Sean Fennessey and Adam Nayman, The Ringer * 2nd Sight & Sound * 3rd A. O. Scott, The New York Times * 3rd Alison Willmore, New York magazine * 3rd Amy Taubin, Artforum * 3rd Bilge Ebiri, New York magazine * 3rd Complex * 3rd Consequence of Sound * 3rd David Sims, The Atlantic * 3rd Good Morning America * 3rd Lawrence Toppman, The Charlotte Observer * 3rd Manohla Dargis, The New York Times * 3rd Mark Dujsik, RogerEbert.com * 3rd Matt Singer, ScreenCrush * 3rd Max Weiss, Baltimore * 3rd Natalie Zutter, Den of Geek * 3rd Peter Sobczynski, RogerEbert.com * 3rd Peter Travers, Rolling Stone * 3rd Samuel R. Murian, Parade * 3rd Ty Burr, Boston Globe * 3rd Yahoo! Entertainment * 4th Adam Chitwood, Collider * 4th Allison Shoemaker, RogerEbert.com * 4th Alonso Duralde, The Wrap * 4th Brian Tallerico, RogerEbert.com * 4th Jake Coyle, Associated Press * 4th Johnny Oleksinski, New York Post * 4th Kristy Puchko, RogerEbert.com * 4th Mara Reinstein, Us Weekly * 4th Matt Patches, Polygon * 4th Michal Oleszczyk, RogerEbert.com * 4th Odie Henderson, RogerEbert.com * 4th Sheila O'Malley, RogerEbert.com * 4th Sheri Linden, The Hollywood Reporter * 4th Tom Brook, Talking Movies * 5th David Edelstein, Vulture * 5th Derek Smith, Slant Magazine * 5th Justin Kroll, Variety * 6th Scott Feinberg, The Hollywood Reporter * 5th Tomris Laffly, RogerEbert.com * 6th Caroline Siede, The A.V. Club * 6th Collin Souter, RogerEbert.com * 6th Eli Glasner, CBC * 6th Eric Kohn, IndieWire * 6th Jon Frosch. The Hollywood Reporter * 6th Joshua Rothkopf, Time Out New York * 6th Stephanie Zacharek, Time * 6th Kyle Smith, National Review * 7th Marlow Stern, The Daily Beast * 8th Lindsey Bahr, Associated Press * 9th Brian Truitt, USA Today * 9th Eugene Hernandez, Film at Lincoln Center * 9th Max O'Connell, RogerEbert.com * 9th Peter Rainer, The Christian Science Monitor * 9th Richard Roeper, Chicago Sun-Times * 10th Ben Kenigsberg, RogerEbert.com * 10th Tom Gliatto, People magazine Top 10 (not ranked) * Amy Kaufman, Los Angeles Times * Cameron Bailey, Toronto International Film Festival * James Verniere, Boston Herald * Joe Morgenstern, The Wall Street Journal * Dana Stevens, Slate * Sheila Nevins, MTV Documentary Films * Stephen Rebello, Playboy Parasite also appeared on many critics' Best-of-the-decade top 10 lists, among them: * 1st Den of Geek * 1st Karen Han, Polygon * 2nd Kevin O'Connor, The Ringer * 3rd Amanda Dobbins, The Ringer * 3rd Film School Rejects * 4th Norman Wilner, Now Magazine * 4th Sean P. Means, Salt Lake Tribune * 5th /Film * 5th Richard Lawson, Vanity Fair * 7th Gregory Ellwood, The Playlist * 8th Los Angeles Film Critics Association * 10th Chris Plante, Polygon On Metacritic, Parasite was rated as the best film of 2019 and ranked 7th among the films with the highest scores of the decade. it is the 41st highest rated film of all time on the website. ==See also== * 2019 in film ==Notes== ==References== == External links == * Category:Lists of accolades by film
|
The Tanat Valley Light Railway (TVLR) was a long standard gauge light railway. It ran westwards from Llanyblodwel in Shropshire, about 5 miles or 8 km south- west of Oswestry. It crossed the Wales–England border and continued up the Tanat valley, terminating at Llangynog in Powys. It opened in 1904, providing access to a fairly remote area, and transport facilities for slate production and agriculture. Its promoters were unable to raise the capital to construct the line, but a number of government grants and considerable generosity by the Cambrian Railways company enabled the building of the line. The company was always in debt and in 1921 was obliged to sell the line to the Cambrian Railways. Rural passenger use collapsed and the railway closed to passengers in 1951, and completely in 1964. A new Tanat Valley Light Railway Company was established, and in 2009 opened a heritage railway centre at Nantmawr, close to the earlier Tanat Valley line. ==History== ===Proposals=== thumb|The Tanat Valley Light Railway systemThere were many populous villages in the area between the Great Western Railway route through Llangollen, to the north and the Cambrian Railways line through Welshpool to the south. The Berwyn and Aran mountains (with steep gradients and sparse population) together formed a barrier for a through railway line westwards towards the coast. Slate quarrying and agriculture were the area's dominant industries, and both suffered in the mid 19th century from transport difficulties. Several schemes were put forward over the years, but they failed due to lack of interest from subscribers. One ambitious scheme was to extend the West Midland Railway through the region, passing through Montgomery and Bala, penetrating the Berwyns by a long tunnel. If this scheme had been successful, it would perhaps have given the Great Western Railway a trunk line to Holyhead; as it was, the Chester and Holyhead Railway was adopted instead. In 1866 the Potteries, Shrewsbury and North Wales Railway opened from Shrewsbury to the quarries and Nantmawr. That railway was intended to continue through the Tanat Valley to Porthmadog, but it failed to raise the necessary capital.T. R. Perkins and F. E. Fox-Davies, The Tanat Valley Light Railway, in the Railway Magazine, May 1904 In 1882 an Oswestry and Llangynog Railway had been authorised by Act of Parliament, but it failed to raise the necessary capital and was formally abandoned in 1889.E. F. Carter, An Historical Geography of the Railways of the British Isles, Cassell, London, 1959 ===A definite scheme=== The Light Railways Act was passed in 1896 to enable the construction of low-cost railways. This encouraged renewed consideration of a railway in the Tanat Valley, and two alternative schemes were developed. One was for a narrow gauge line from the Llanfyllin terminus of the Cambrian Railways branch. The other was for a standard gauge line from Porthywaen, four miles south of Oswestry. After deliberation, the latter was adopted.C. P. Gasquoine, The Story of the Cambrian: Biography of a Railway, Woodhall, Minshall, Thomas and Co., Oswestry, 1922 The Cambrian Railways agreed to work the line for 60% of gross receipts, and a Treasury grant of £22,000 was agreed, as well as an interest- free loan of £6,000. Financial assistance was also made available from local councils; the share capital of the Company was £15,000. The General Manager of the Cambrian Railways, Mr C. S. Denniss, estimated the capital cost of the line at £46,000. Receipts would be £2,950 per annum. After interest and fixed charges, this would enable a dividend of 4% to be paid. "The margin is admittedly small", he commented. The same newspaper report asserted different figures provided by the Town Clerk of Oswestry, Mr J. Parry-Jones. The total capital of the Company was to be £65,500. Local authorities had promised £18,500 in loans or share subscriptions; £18,000 had been promised as a free grant (though with conditions) by the Treasury; £20,000 had been promised by the Trustees of the Llangedwyn Estate, probably as a share subscription; £1,500 in shares by the Earl of Powis, and about £4,000 by other local investors. "The company's borrowing powers are £12,000, so that towards the £65,500 capital required, they are sure of over £55,900."Wrexham Advertiser: 16 September 1899 On this extremely shaky basis the company was founded. thumb|Cambrian Railways train on Tanat Valley Light Railway in 1904 The Light Railway Order was granted on 12 September 1899,Peter E. Baughan, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: Volume 11: North and Mid Wales, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1980, although modifying Orders were needed in 1904 and 1908 to assist in raising capital. J. Strachan of Cardiff was selected as the contractor: he had been the contractor for the construction of the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway. The first sod was cut at Porthywaen on 12 September 1899 by the Countess of Powis, but construction did not start until July 1901. During the construction period, Strachan arranged to convey passengers free of charge on market days over part of the line. Some goods traffic probably also passed at this time. Contemporary travellers reported: "The little six-wheeled engine ... was spinning along a quite a rate, considering its small wheel diameter; the carriage was a four-wheeled one, painted a dull red, and probably used at other times to convey the navvies to and from their work." The line was inspected by the Board of Trade Inspecting Officer on 21 December 1903; the line was formally opened on 5 January 1904, and the public passenger service started the following day. When in 1906 Tyer and Company claimed £2,480 for signalling and lighting equipment supplied for the line, the Tanat Valley Company claimed that they had only ordered the apparatus "on behalf of the Cambrian Railways".Lancashire Evening Post, 8 February 1906 ===Description of the line=== Perkins and Fox-Davies described the line in 1905. thumb|left|Llanrhaiadr Mochnant station, with a railway enthusiasts' special train in 1958 The passenger trains ran from Oswestry, southwards over the Cambrian Railways line as far as Llynclys, then turning west on the Cambrian Railways Porthywaen branch, leaving that at Porthywaen passenger station, a very small building, and now entering on the Tanat Valley line itself. The track was of much lighter construction now, consisting of Vignoles pattern (flat-bottom) rails dogged direct to the sleepers. The Nantmawr branch of the Cambrian Railways converged from the north. The first TVR station was Blodwel Junction, a single platform station. Blodwel station had been opened in 1866, the terminus of the Potteries line, and known then as Llanyblodwel, part of the mineral branch crossing the path of the TVR. A road crosses the railway by a bridge at Blodwel; this is the only place where there is a bridge crossing of a road.The Welsh spelling Blodwel is taken from the account of Perkins and Fox-Davies; however the official station names used in Bradshaw timetables anglicised this to Blodwell and Llanyblodwell. The next station stop was at Llanyblodwel; a short distance after the station the train stopped for the engine to take water. Glanyrafon was next geographically, but was not yet open when Perkins and Fox-Davies visited, and it was not referred to by them. This section was followed by a crossing into Wales, climbing at 1 in 64. Llansilin Road is the next station, serving Penybont. Llangedwyn station is next, where there was provision for crossing trains on the single line, followed by the small station of Pentrefelin, and then Llanrhaiadr Mochnant, also built as a passing station. A reservoir for Liverpool Corporation Waterworks was built at a location five miles away, and the railway was used for importing some construction materials. The line continues, calling at Pedair Ffordd and terminates at Llangynog. The journey time from Oswestry was 70 to 75 minutes. The gradients on the line generally rose to Llangynog. It fell with a short section at 1 in 72 to Blodwel Junction, and then rose with a half mile at 1 in 64 but generally more moderate gradients all the way to the terminus. Porthywaen was at 132 feet above Ordnance Datum and Llangynog at 320 feet. ===Operations=== Baughan says that passenger carriages ran with the mineral trains from 1904, but this ended on the first day of 1917. Mineral revenue was about twenty times the value of passenger receipts, and the latter declined further in the 1920s and 1930s as reliable road transport was developed. While railways had an inherent advantage in transporting heavy minerals, the line's viability was dependent on the commercial success of local quarries, and when this declined the finances of the line became irretrievable. Glanyrafon station opened soon after the opening of the line.According to Baughan. Cobb gives 1928 as the date of opening, but this must be wrong as the stop appears in the 1922 Bradshaw.Col. M. H. Cobb, The Railways of Great Britain—A Historical Atlas, Ian Allan Publishing Limited, Shepperton, 2003, The passenger train service in 1922 consisted of three trains each way between Oswestry and Llangynog, with an extra train on the first Wednesday of the month. The Glanyrafon stop was by request only.Bradshaw's July 1922 Railway Guide, Guild Publishing, London, 1985 In July 1938 the service was more complicated: successive trains ran from Oswestry to Llangynog respectively on Wednesdays; daily except Wednesday and Sunday; Monday, Tuesday and Friday; Wednesday Thursday and Saturday; daily except Saturday and Sunday; on Saturday only; and on the first Wednesday of every month, but also on 30 July. The return service was a little simpler, running respectively on Wednesday; weekdays only; weekdays only; Monday to Friday; and Saturdays only. By this time the Glanyrafon stop had become definite.Bradshaws July 1938 Railway Guide, David and Charles Reprints, Newton Abbot, 1969, 0 7153 4686 5 ===Absorbed by the Cambrian Railways=== Opening its line in 1904, the Tanat Valley Light Railway Company was in the hands of the receiver continuously from that year,Preamble to the Cambrian Railways (Tanat Valley Light Railway Transfer) Order, 1921 as its income did not enable it to pay the interest on loans. The Cambrian Railways subsidised it, but by 1921 it was obvious that improvements to the track and bridges were required, and this was beyond the financial resources of the bankrupt company. Takeover by the Cambrian was the only way out, and this was authorised by Order of the Light Railway Commissioners.Cambrian Railways (Tanat Valley Light Railway Transfer) Order, 1921 The Cambrian Railways were themselves taken over by the Great Western Railway the following year. ===Closure=== Passenger services were discontinued on 15 January 1951. The line west of Llanrhaiadr was closed completely in July 1952, a residual goods service continuing as far as that point for the time being. The line closed completely in December 1960. ==Station list== Opened 6 January 1904; closed 15 January 1951; * Porthywaen; Cambrian Railways station; * Blodwell Junction; * Llanyblodwell; * Glanyrafon; * Llansilin Road; * Llangedwyn; * Pentrefelin; * Llanrhaiadr Mochnant; * Pedair Ffordd; * Penybontfawr; * Llangynog. ==Heritage railway== ===T&WA; order=== The Cambrian Heritage Railway (CHR) applied for a Transport & Works Act Order for transfer of NR's residual rights to itself and this was granted on 28 February 2017. This permits the CHR to reopen the route from Gobowen to Blodwel Quarry subject to level crossings of the A5 and A483 being replaced by a tunnel and overbridge respectively.CHR T&WA; Order Decision letter ===Trains=== A new Tanat Valley Light Railway Company (TVLR) is based by the former lime kilns in Nantmawr, on the old Cambrian Railways branch. The TVLR plans to operate trains from Nantmawr to Llanddu by Blodwell Quarry. The TVLR operated its first trains over a section of the track in November 2009. In May 2018 the railway acquired a Ruston & Hornsby 88 diesel shunter, nicknamed "Crabtree", and a Class 309 EMU from the closed Electric Railway Museum in Warwickshire. In July 2021 the railway took delivery of two recently withdrawn Class 143 Pacers from Transport for Wales. In August 2022 a third Class 143 Pacer was delivered to the railway. ===Stock List=== *Diesel multiple unit vehicles **BR Class 143 Pacer unit no. 143601 (55642+55667) **BR Class 143 Pacer unit no. 143616 (55657+55682) **BR Class 143 Pacer unit no. 143619 (55660+55685) *Diesel locomotives **Ruston & Hornsby 4wd Diesel Mechanical 88DS b. 1953 Wks. No. 338416 "Crabtree" **Ruston & Hornsby 4wd Diesel Mechanical 88DS No 416568 **Ruston & Hornsby 4wd Diesel Mechanical 165DS No 390772 "Francis Baily Of Thatcham" *Static electric multiple unit **960101 Class 309 serving as a museum and buffet train at Nantmawr ===Monorail=== thumb|Portable industrial monorail designed in the 1940s by Road Machines (Drayton) Ltd. Around 2016 the railway acquired a portable industrial monorail, designed by Road Machines (Drayton) Ltd. and used for construction projects in the mid 20th century, along with several diesel locomotives and an 0-2-0 steam locomotive from its last permanent storage at Blaenau Ffestiniog. ===Nant Mawr visitor centre=== The Nant Mawr visitor centre includes a nature trail, various picnic spots and a small museum. ===Public access=== The railway typically opens around seven weekends per year from June to November and participates in Heritage Open Days in early to mid September. ==Heritage railway gallery== File:Old museum block, Nantmawr in September 2018.jpg|Previous museum and visitor centre by the car park at Nantmawr in Shropshire in September 2018. File:"Crabtree" at the temporary platform in Nantmawr, September 2018.jpg|Ruston & Hornsby 4wd Diesel Mechanical 88 shunter "Crabtree" at the temporary wooden platform at Nantmawr. File:Permanent platform, Nantmawr in September 2018.jpg|The new permanent platform at Nantmawr. File:Road Machines (Drayton) Ltd monorail locomotives.jpg|Diesel locomotives for the monorail at Nantmawr. File:Static Class 309 EMU in Nantmawr, September 2018.jpg|960101 Class 309 static electric multiple unit at Nantmawr on the Heritage Open Days in September 2018. ==Expansions== Tanat Valley Light Railway currently have right of passage to run from Nantmawr to Blodwell Junction around the same time that the Cambrian Heritage Railways complete expansion of their Gobowen to Llynclys line via Oswestry. From there north, they plan to reinstate part of the former Tanat Valley Light Railway from Blodwell Junction to Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant as the trackbed is heavily intact and the locals are willing allow them to re-run into the Tanat Valley. North to Llangynog is mostly impassible due to housing at Penybontfawr station site and Llangynog now being a caravan site. This is a long term ambition of the companies. For now, they are focused on reaching Blodwell Junction. ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * Mike E. M. Lloyd, The Tanat Valley Light Railway, Wild Swan Publications, Didcot, 1990, * Vic Mitchell and Keith Smith, Branch Lines Around Oswestry: Gobowen, Tanat Valley, Llanfyllin and Welshpool, Middleton Press, Midhurst, 2009, * Wilfred J. Wren, The Tanat Valley: Its Railways and Industrial Archaeology, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1968, * Wilfred J. Wren, The Tanat Valley Railway, Oakwood Press, Blandford, 1979, ==External links== * Official website * Nant Mawr Visitor Centre website (not updated since 2016) * Tanat Valley Light Railway Facebook group * RAILSCOT on Tanat Valley Railway * Osrail – Oswestry railway news. Category:Cambrian Railways Category:Railway lines opened in 1903 Category:Standard gauge railways in Wales Category:Heritage railways in Shropshire Category:Light railways
|
Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to some or all forms of feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educational opportunities, property rights, and access to birth control. In the mid and late 20th century, antifeminists often opposed the abortion- rights movement and, in the United States, the Equal Rights Amendment. In the early 21st century, some antifeminists in the United States see their ideology as a response to one rooted in hostility towards men, holding feminism responsible for several social problems, including lower college entrance rates of young men, gender differences in suicide and a perceived decline in manliness in American culture. 21st century antifeminism has sometimes been an element of violent, far-right extremist acts. == Definition == Canadian sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri write that antifeminist thought has primarily taken the form of masculinism, in which "men are in crisis because of the feminization of society". The term antifeminist is also used to describe public female figures, some of whom (such as Naomi Wolf, Camille Paglia, and Katie Roiphe) define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements. Other feminists label writers such as Roiphe, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese as antifeminist because of their positions regarding oppression and lines of thought within feminism. (Foreword by Margaret Cho.) The meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures, and antifeminism attracts both men and women. Some women, like those in the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, campaigned against women's suffrage. Men's studies scholar Michael Kimmel defines antifeminism as "the opposition to women's equality". He says that antifeminists oppose "women's entry into the public sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, women's control of their bodies, and women's rights generally." Kimmel further writes that antifeminist argumentation relies on "religious and cultural norms" while proponents of antifeminism advance their cause as a means of "'saving' masculinity from pollution and invasion". He argues that antifeminists consider the "traditional gender division of labor as natural and inevitable, perhaps also divinely sanctioned." == Viewpoints == Antifeminist ideology rejects at least one of the following general principles of feminism: #That social arrangements among men and women are neither natural nor divinely determined. #That social arrangements among men and women favor men. #That there are collective actions that can and should be taken to transform these arrangements into more just and equitable arrangements Some antifeminists argue that feminism, despite claiming to advocate for equality, ignores rights issues unique to men. They believe that the feminist movement has achieved its aims and now seeks higher status for women than for men via special rights and exemptions, such as female-only scholarships, affirmative action, and gender quotas. Antifeminism might be motivated by the belief that feminist theories of patriarchy and disadvantages suffered by women in society are incorrect or exaggerated; that feminism as a movement encourages misandry and results in harm or oppression of men; or driven by general opposition towards women's rights.Blee, Kathleen M. (1998), "Antifeminism", in * "The two major waves of antifeminist activity coincide with the two waves of the women's rights movement: the campaign to secure female suffrage in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the feminist movement of the late twentieth century. In both periods, those holding a traditional view of women's place in the home and family tried to advance their cause by joining with other conservative groups to forestall efforts to extend women's rights."Mertz, Thomas J. (2005), "Antifeminism", in * "Antifeminism, then, repudiates critiques of male supremacy and resists efforts to eliminate it (often accompanied by dismissal of the idea that change is possible). Note that this definition of antifeminism limits its reference to reactions against critiques of gender-based hierarchies and efforts to relieve the oppression of women."Howard, Angela Marie (2008), "Antifeminism", in * "Reform activity that challenged either the subordination of women to men or the patriarchal limitation of women's status provoked an antifeminist response that included an intellectual and political campaign to halt progress toward women's rights and equality." Furthermore, antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate psychological sex differences and an attempt to reprogram people against their biological tendencies.Hampton, Jean (1996), "The case for feminism ", in They have argued that feminism has resulted in changes to society's previous norms relating to sexuality, which they see as detrimental to traditional values or conservative religious beliefs.Desai, Murli (2014), "Feminism and policy approaches for gender aware development ", in Barthalow Koch, Patricia (2004), "Feminism and sexuality in the United States ", in Jaggar, Alison (1983), "Traditional Marxism and human nature ", in For example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned as negative consequences of feminism. In a report from anti-extremism charity HOPE not Hate, half of young men from UK believe that feminism has "gone too far and makes it harder for men to succeed". Moreover, other antifeminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, or the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families. They argue that a change of women's roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. For example, Paul Gottfried maintains that the change of women's roles "has been a social disaster that continues to take its toll on the family" and contributed to a "descent by increasingly disconnected individuals into social chaos". == History == === United States === thumb|American antisuffragists in the early 20th century ==== 19th century ==== The "women's movement" began in 1848, most famously articulated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton demanding voting rights, joined by Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony and others who also pushed for other rights such as education, job freedom, marital and property rights, and the right to choose when or whether to become a mother.Faludi, Susan (1992), "Backlashes then and now ", in However, by the end of the century, a cultural counter movement had begun. Janet Chafetz identified in a study 32 first-wave antifeminist movements, including those in the 19th century and early 20th century movements. These countermovements were in response to some women's growing demands, which were perceived as threatening to the standard way of life. Though men were not the only antifeminists, men experienced what some have called a "crisis of masculinity" in response to traditional gender roles being challenged. Men's responses to increased feminism varied. Some men subscribed to feminist ideals, and others became decidedly antifeminist. Antifeminist men cited religious models and natural law to emphasize women's need to return to the private sphere, in order to preserve the current social order. In the 19th century, one of the major focal points of antifeminism was opposition to women's suffrage, which began as a grassroots movement in 1848 and spanned for 72 years. Opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. In Sex in Education: or, a Fair Chance for the Girls (1873), Harvard professor Edward Clarke predicted that if women went to college, their brains would grow bigger and heavier, and their wombs would atrophy. Preview. Other antifeminists opposed women's entry into the labor force, their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality. The pro- family movement appeared in the late 19th century, by about 1870. This movement was intended to halt the rising divorce rate and reinforce traditional family values. The National League for the Protection of the Family, formerly known as the Divorce Reform League, took over the movement in 1881. Samuel Dike was one of the founders of the League, and was considered an early expert on divorce. Through his efforts, the League garnered attention from pro-family advocates. It underwent a shift from fighting against divorce to promoting marriage and traditional family. Speaking on behalf of the League in an 1887 address to the Evangelical Alliance Conference, Samuel Dike described the ideal family as having "one man and one woman, united in wedlock, together with their children". This movement built the foundation for many pro-family arguments in contemporary antifeminism. ==== Early 20th century ==== Women's suffrage was achieved in the US in 1920, and early 20th- century antifeminism was primarily focused on fighting this. Suffragists scoffed at antisuffragists. Anna Howard Shaw, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) from 1904 to 1915, presumed that the antisuffragists were merely working under the influence of male forces. Later historians tended to dismiss antisuffragists as subscribing to the model of domestic idealism, that a woman's place is in the home. This undermines and belittles the true power and numbers behind the antisuffrage movement, which was primarily led by women themselves. Arguments employed by antisuffragists at the turn of the century had less to do with a woman's place in the home as much as it had to do with a woman's proper place in the public realm. In fact, leaders of the movement often encouraged other women to leave the home and participate in society. What they opposed was women participating in the political sphere. There were two reasons antisuffragists opposed women participating in the political realm. Some argued that women were already overburdened. The majority of them, however, argued that a woman's participation in the political realm would hinder her participation in social and civic duties. If they won the right to vote, women would consequently have to align with a particular party, which would destroy their ability to be politically neutral. Antisuffragists feared this would, in fact, hinder their influence with legislative authorities. ==== Mid 20th century ==== In 1951, two journalists published Washington Confidential. The novel claimed that Communist leaders used their men and women to recruit a variety of minorities in the nation's capital, such as females, colored males, and homosexual males. The popularity of the book led the Civil Service Commission to create a "publicity campaign to improve the image of federal employees" in hopes to save their federal employees from losing their jobs. This ploy failed once the journalists linked feminism to communism in their novel and ultimately reinforced antifeminism by implying that defending the "white, Christian, heterosexual, patriarchal family" was the only way to oppose communism. ==== Late 20th century ==== ===== Equal Rights Amendment ===== The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a perennially proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would grant equal rights and opportunities to every citizen of the United States, regardless of their sex. In 1950 and 1953, ERA was passed by the Senate with a provision known as "the Hayden rider", making it unacceptable to ERA supporters. The Hayden rider was included to keep special protections for women. A new section to the ERA was added, stating: "The provisions of this article shall not be construed to impair any rights, benefits, or exemptions now or hereafter conferred by law upon persons of the female sex." That is, women could keep their existing and future special protections that men did not have. By 1972, the amendment was supported by both major parties and was immensely popular. However, it was defeated in Congress when it failed to get the vote of 38 legislatures by 1982. Supporters of an unaltered ERA rejected the Hayden rider, believing an ERA containing the rider did not provide for equality.Harrison, Cynthia Ellen (1989), ""Reasonable distinctions": an alternative to the ERA", in Jerome Himmelstein identified two main theories about the appeal of antifeminism and its role in opposition to the ERA. One theory is that it was a clash between upper-class liberal voters and the older, more conservative lower-class rural voters who often serve as the center for right-wing movements; in other words, this theory identifies particular social classes as more inherently friendly to antifeminism. Another theory holds that women who feel vulnerable and dependent on men are likely to oppose anything that threatens that tenuous stability; under this view, while educated, independent career women may support feminism, housewives who lack such resources are more drawn to antifeminism. Himmelstein, however, says both views are at least partially wrong, arguing that the primary dividing line between feminists and antifeminists is cultural rather than stemming from differences in economic and social status. There are, in fact, similarities between income between activists on both sides of the ERA debate. As it turned out, the most indicative factors when predicting ERA position, especially among women, were race, marital status, age, and education. ERA opposition was much higher among white, married, older, and less educated citizens. Women who opposed the ERA tended to fit characteristics consistent with the Religious Right. Val Burris, meanwhile, says that high-income men opposed the amendment because they would gain the least with it being passed; that those men had the most to lose, since the ratification of the ERA would mean more competition for their jobs and possibly a lowered self-esteem. Because of the support of antifeminism from conservatives and the constant "conservative reactions to liberal social politics", such as the New Deal attacks, the attack on the ERA has been called a "right-wing backlash". Their methods include actions such as "insults proffered in emails or on the telephone, systematic denigration of feminism in the media, Internet disclosure of confidential information (e.g. addresses) on resources for battered women" and more. ===== Abortion ===== Abortion remains one of the most controversial topics in the United States. Roe v. Wade was decided in 1973, and abortion was utilized by many antifeminists to rally supporters. Antiabortion views helped further several right-wing movements, including explicit antifeminism, and helped right-wing politicians rise to power. Antiabortion writings and conservative commentary in the late 20th century criticized the feminist movement's embrace of the right to abortion as selfish and self-centered. ==== 21st century ==== Some current antifeminist practices can be traced back to the rise of the religious right in the late 1970s. BBC and Time, among others, have covered the 2014 social media trend #WomenAgainstFeminism. These antifeminists contend that feminism demonizes men (misandry) and that women are not oppressed in 21st century Western countries. British newspaper The Guardian and the website Jezebel have also reported on an increasing number of women and female celebrities rejecting feminism and instead subscribing to humanism. As a response to a pro-feminism speech by Australian Labor Senator Penny Wong, several women who identify as being humanist and antifeminist argued in an article for the Guardian that feminism is a discriminatory ideology and continues to portray women as victims. In response to the social media trend, modern day feminists also began to upload similar pictures to websites such as Twitter and Tumblr. Most used the same hashtag, "womenagainstfeminism", but instead made satirical and bluntly parodic comments. In November 2014, Time magazine included "feminist" on its annual list of proposed banished words. After initially receiving the majority of votes (51%), a Time editor apologized for including the word in the poll and removed it from the results. === Germany === In March 2019, the German Language Association organized a petition proclaiming that billions of Euros are being wasted on women's studies, gender work equality and gender studies in Germany. This is money the organization believes can be better used to fund hospitals, natural science faculties and virus research institutes. === Serbia === In April 2022, far-right political party Leviathan, with a significant public profile of almost 300,000 Facebook followers, missed out on a seat in parliament in Serbia's 2022 election. The Leviathan party portrays migrants as criminals, and themselves as the defenders of Serbian women. The group has been praised by some in Serbia for defending 'traditional family values' and hierarchical gender roles, while opposing the empowerment of women and feminist ideologies. === South Korea === Social improvements by women have sparked an anti-feminist backlash, in which disgruntled young men have become vocal critics of feminism and feminist women who speak out in public. Yoon Suk-yeol narrowly won South Korea's 2022 presidential election. During his run for presidency, he called for the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family to be abolished, and accused its officials of treating men like “potential sex criminals.” Yoon also said that he doesn't think systemic structural discrimination based on gender exists in South Korea, despite Korean women being near the bottom of the developed world according to several economic and social indicators. == Organizations == thumb|Symbol used for signs and buttons by ERA opponents Founded in the U.S. by Phyllis Schlafly in 1972, Stop ERA, now known as "Eagle Forum", lobbied successfully to block the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in the U.S.Tierney, Helen (1999), "Antifeminist movements ", in It was also Schlafly who forged links between Stop ERA and other conservative organizations, as well as single-issue groups against abortion, pornography, gun control, and unions. By integrating Stop ERA with the thus-dubbed "New Right", she was able to leverage a wider range of technological, organizational and political resources, successfully targeting pro-feminist candidates for defeat. In India, the Save Indian Family Foundation is an antifeminist organization opposed to a number of laws that they claim to have been used against men.Kulkarni, Mangesh (2014), "Critical masculinity studies in India ", in The Concerned Women of America (CWA) are also an antifeminist organization. Like other conservative women's groups, they oppose abortion and same-sex marriage and make appeals for maternalism and biological differences between women and men. The Independent Women's Forum (IWF) is another antifeminist, conservative, women-oriented group. It's younger and less established than the CWA, though the two organizations are often discussed in relation to each other. It was founded to take on the "old feminist establishment". Both of these organizations pride themselves on rallying women who do not identify with feminist rhetoric together. These organizations frame themselves as being by women, for women, in order to fight the idea that feminism is the only women-oriented ideology. These organizations chastise feminists for presuming to universally speak for all women. The IWF claims to be "the voice of reasonable women with important ideas who embrace common sense over divisive ideology". ==Explanatory theories== According to Amherst College sociology professor Jerome L. Himmelstein, antifeminism is rooted in social stigmas against feminism and is thus a purely reactionary movement. Himmelstein identifies two prevailing theories that seek to explain the origins of antifeminism: the first theory, proposed by Himmelstein, is that conservative opposition in the abortion and Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) debates has created a climate of hostility toward the entire feminist movement. The second theory Himmelstein identifies states that the female antifeminists who lead the movement are largely married, low education, and low personal income women who embody the "insecure housewife scenario" and seek to perpetuate their own situation in which women depend on men for fiscal support. However, numerous studies have failed to correlate the aforementioned demographic factors with support for antifeminism, and only religiosity correlates positively with antifeminist alignment. Authors Janet Saltzman Chafetz and Anthony Gary Dworkin, writing for Gender and Society, argue that the organizations most likely to formally organize against feminism are religious. This is because women's movements may demand access to male- dominated positions within the religious sector, like the clergy, and women's movements threaten male-oriented values of some religions. The more successful a feminist movement is in challenging the authority of male-dominated groups, the more these groups will organize a countermovement. ==Implicit feminism== University of Illinois at Chicago sociology professor Danielle Giffort argues that the stigma against feminism created by antifeminists has resulted in organizations that practice "implicit feminism", which she defines as the "strategy practiced by feminist activists within organizations that are operating in an anti- and post-feminist environment in which they conceal feminist identities and ideas while emphasizing the more socially acceptable angles of their efforts". Due to the stigma against feminism, some activists, such as those involved with Girls Rock, may take the principles of feminism as a foundation of thought and teach girls and women independence and self- reliance without explicitly labeling it with the stigmatized brand of feminism. Thus, most women continue to practice feminism in terms of seeking equality and independence for women, yet avoid the label. ==Connections to far-right extremism== Antifeminism has been identified as an underlying motivation in far-right extremism. For example, the perpetrators of the Christchurch massacre and the El Paso shooting appear to have been motivated by the conspiracy theory that white people are being replaced by non-whites largely as a result of feminist stances in Western societies. Many who affiliate with the white nationalist alt-right movement are antifeminist, with antifeminism and resentment of women being a common recruitment gateway into the movement. Media researcher Michele White argues that contemporary antifeminism often supports antisemitism and white supremacy, citing the example of the Neo-Nazi websites Stormfront and The Daily Stormer, which often claim that feminism represents a Jewish plot to destroy Western civilization. According to Helen Lewis, the far-right ideology considers it vital to control female reproduction and sexuality: "Misogyny is used predominantly as the first outreach mechanism", where "You were owed something, or your life should have been X, but because of the ridiculous things feminists are doing, you can't access them." Similar strands of thought are found in the incel subculture, which centers around misogynist fantasies about punishing women for not having sex with them. == See also == * Backlash (sociology) * École Polytechnique massacre * Feminazi * Incel * The Manipulated Man * Manosphere * Men's rights movement * Sexism * Social justice warrior == References == == Further reading == * * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * * * Category:Social movements Category:Opposition to feminism Category:Criticism of feminism
|
Poisonous material is a material, other than a gas, known to be so toxic to humans that it presents a health hazard during transportation. ==Divisions== Division 6.1: Poisonous material is a material, other than a gas, which is known to be so toxic to humans as to afford a hazard to health during transportation, or which, in the absence of adequate data on human toxicity: *Is presumed to be toxic to humans because it falls within any one of the following categories when tested on laboratory animals (whenever possible, animal test data that has been reported in the chemical literature should be used): :#Oral Toxicity: A liquid or solid with an LD50 for acute oral toxicity of not more than 300 mg/kg. :#Dermal Toxicity. A material with an LD50 for acute dermal toxicity of not more than 1000 mg/kg. :#Inhalation Toxicity: A dust or mist with an LC50 for acute toxicity on inhalation of not more than 4 mg/L; or a material with a saturated vapor concentration in air at 20 °C (68 °F) of more than one-fifth of the LC50 for acute toxicity on inhalation of vapors and with an LC50 for acute toxicity on inhalation of vapors of not more than 5000 mL/m3; or *Is an irritating material, with properties similar to tear gas, which causes extreme irritation, especially in confined spaces. Division 6.2: Biohazards. ==Placards== *Poison: 454 kg (1001 lb) or more gross weight of poisonous materials that are not in Hazard Zone A or B (see Assignment of packing groups and hazard zones below). For U.S. Domestic Use only. *Inhalation Hazard: Any quantity of a material that is in Hazard Zone A or B (see Assignment of packing groups and hazard zones below). *Toxic: May be used instead of POISON placard on 454 kg (1001 lb) or more gross weight of poisonous materials that are not in Hazard Zone A or B (see Assignment of packing groups and hazard zones below). For international shipments the label must say Toxic if it will be worded. *PG III (Packing Group III): May be used instead of POISON placard on 454 kg (1001 lb) or more gross weight of Poison PG III materials (see Assignment of packing groups and hazard zones below). ==Lethality== ===Lethal Dose 50=== #Oral Toxicity: LD50 for acute oral toxicity means that dose of the material administered to both male and female young adult albino rats which causes death within 14 days in half the animals tested. The number of animals tested must be sufficient to give statistically valid results and be in conformity with good pharmacological practices. The result is expressed in mg/kg body mass. #Dermal Toxicity: LD50 for acute dermal toxicity means that dose of the material which, administered by continuous contact for 24 hours with the shaved intact skin (avoiding abrading) of an albino rabbit, causes death within 14 days in half of the animals tested. The number of animals tested must be sufficient to give statistically valid results and be in conformity with good pharmacological practices. The result is expressed in mg/kg body mass. Determining Acute LD50 For purposes of classifying and assigning packing groups to mixtures possessing oral or dermal toxicity hazards according to the criteria in 49CFR 173.133(a)(1), it is necessary to determine the acute LD50 of the mixture. If a mixture contains more than one active constituent, one of the following methods may be used to determine the oral or dermal LD50 of the mixture: #Obtain reliable acute oral and dermal toxicity data on the actual mixture to be transported; #If reliable, accurate data is not available, classify the formulation according to the most hazardous constituent of the mixture as if that constituent were present in the same concentration as the total concentration of all active constituents; or #If reliable, accurate data is not available, apply the formula: \+ \tfrac{C_{B}}{T_{B}} + \tfrac{C_{Z}}{T_{Z}} = \tfrac{100}{T_{M}} }} where: C = the percent concentration of constituent A, B ... Z in the mixture; T = the oral LD50 values of constituent A, B ... Z; T_{M} = the oral LD50 value of the mixture. }} ===Lethal Concentration 50=== LC50 for acute toxicity on inhalation means that concentration of vapor, mist, or dust which, administered by continuous inhalation for one hour to both male and female young adult albino rats, causes death within 14 days in half of the animals tested. If the material is administered to the animals as a dust or mist, more than 90 percent of the particles available for inhalation in the test must have a diameter of 10 micrometres or less if it is reasonably foreseeable that such concentrations could be encountered by a human during transport. The result is expressed in mg/L of air for dusts and mists or in mL/m3 of air (parts per million) for vapors. See 49CFR 173.133(b) for LC50 determination for mixtures and for limit tests. ==Compatibility table== Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Load and Segregation Chart Weight Weight 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 3 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 6.1 7 8 Weight Weight 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.2 A B 3 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 A 7 8 6.1A Any Quantity E O O Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key Key The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. The absence of any hazard class or division or a blank space in the table indicates that no restrictions apply. *X: These materials may not be loaded, transported, or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation. *O: Indicates that these materials may not be loaded, transported or stored together in the same transport vehicle or storage facility during the course of transportation, unless separated in a manner that, in the event of leakage from packages under conditions normally incident to transportation, commingling of hazardous materials would not occur. *E: Packages with "Poison" or "Poison Inhalation Hazard" markings, or a "Poison" marking with "PG III" or "PG III" beside a "Poison" label, may not be transported with foodstuffs, feed, or any other edible material, intended for consumption by humans or animals. For exceptions see §177.841(e) Source: United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49 CFR §177.848 - Segregation of hazardous materials. ==Packing groups== Class 6 Packing Groups and Hazard Zones The packing group of Division 6.1 materials shall be as assigned in Column 5 of the 49CFR 172.101 Table. When the 49CFR 172.101 Table provides more than one packing group or hazard zone for a hazardous material, the packing group and hazard zone shall be determined by applying the following criteria: 1\. The packing group assignment for routes of administration other than inhalation of vapors shall be in accordance with the following table: {| class=wikitable width=90% align=center Group Oral Toxicity LD50 \tfrac {mg}{kg} Dermal Toxicity LD50 \tfrac {mg}{kg} Inhalation Toxicity (Dust/Mist) LC50 \tfrac {mg}{L} I \le 5 \le 50 \le 0.2 II > 5 but \le 50 > 50 but \le 200 > 0.2 but \le 2 III > 50 but \le 300 > 200 but \le 1000 > 2 but \le 4 ==References== *49 CFR 173.132 Toxic and Infectious Substances
|
The Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (BMS) is an American multinational pharmaceutical company. Headquartered in New York City, BMS is one of the world's largest pharmaceutical companies and consistently ranks on the Fortune 500 list of the largest U.S. corporations. For fiscal 2022, it had a total revenue of $46.2 billion. Bristol Myers Squibb manufactures prescription pharmaceuticals and biologics in several therapeutic areas, including cancer, HIV/AIDS, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hepatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and psychiatric disorders. BMS's primary research and development (R&D;) sites are located in Lawrence, New Jersey (formerly Squibb, near Princeton), Summit, New Jersey, formerly HQ of Celgene, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Redwood City, California, and Seville in Spain, with other sites in Devens and Cambridge, Massachusetts, East Syracuse, New York, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium, Tokyo, Japan, Bangalore, India, and Wirral, United Kingdom. BMS previously had an R&D; site in Wallingford, Connecticut (formerly Bristol-Myers). ==History== ===Squibb=== thumb|left|E.R. Squibb & Son facility in Long Island City, New York, in 1948 The Squibb corporation was founded in 1858 by Edward Robinson Squibb in Brooklyn, New York. Squibb was known as an advocate of quality control and high purity standards early within the pharmaceutical industry. He went on to self-publish an alternative to the U.S. Pharmacopeia titled Squibb's Ephemeris of Materia Medica, after failing to convince the American Medical Association to incorporate higher purity standards. Materia Medica, Squibb products, and Edward Squibb's opinion on the fundamentals of pharmacy are found in many medical papers of the late 1800s. The American Journal of Pharmacy published more than one hundred papers of Squibb's research surrounding the industry. The sons of Edward Squibb sold the company to Lowell M. Palmer and Theodore Weicker in 1905, who incorporated the company. Around this time, the Squibb logo was developed, which represented the company's products of "uniformity, purity, efficacy, and reliability based on research." Squibb Corporation served as a major supplier of medical goods to the Union Army during the American Civil War, providing portable medical kits containing morphine, surgical anesthetics, and quinine for the treatment of malaria (which was endemic in most of the Eastern United States at that time). Accessed 2014-11-25. In 1944, Squibb opened the world's largest penicillin plant in New Brunswick, New Jersey. ===Bristol-Myers=== thumb|right|100px|Sal Hepatica (1909) In 1887, Hamilton College graduates William McLaren Bristol and John Ripley Myers purchased the Clinton Pharmaceutical company of Clinton, New York. In May 1898, they decided to rename it Bristol, Myers and Company. Following Myers' death in 1899, Bristol changed the name to the Bristol-Myers Corporation. During the 1890s, the company introduced its first nationally recognized product Sal Hepatica, a laxative mineral salt, followed by Ipana toothpaste in 1901.Bert Rosenbloom, Marketing Channels, Bristol-Myers Squibb , 2011, page 609 Other divisions were Clairol (hair colors and haircare) and Drackett (household products such as Windex and Drano). In 1943, Bristol-Myers acquired Cheplin Biological Laboratories, a producer of acidophilus milk in East Syracuse, New York, and converted the plant to produce penicillin for the World War II Allied forces. After the war, the company renamed the plant Bristol Laboratories in 1945 and entered the civilian antibiotics market, where it faced competition from Squibb. Penicillin production at the East Syracuse plant ended in 2005, when it became less expensive to produce overseas. As of 2010, the facility was used for the manufacturing process development and production of other biologic medicines for clinical trials and commercial use. ===Merger=== In 1989, Bristol-Myers and Squibb merged and became Bristol-Myers Squibb. In 1999, then-U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Bristol-Myers Squibb the National Medal of Technology, the nation's highest recognition for technological achievement, "for extending, and enhancing human life through innovative pharmaceutical research and development and for redefining the science of clinical study through groundbreaking and hugely complex clinical trials that are recognized models in the industry." ===2000 to 2010=== right|thumb|Bristol-Myers Squibb logo from 1989 to 2020 thumb|left|The company has a number of facilities in New Jersey; this one is on the border between West Windsor and Princeton. In 2002, the company was involved in a lawsuit of illegally maintaining a monopoly on Taxol, its cancer treatment, and it was again sued for the antitrust lawsuit 5 years later, which cost the company $125 million for settlement. Also in 2002, Bristol- Myers Squibb was involved in an accounting scandal that resulted in a significant restatement of revenues from 1999 to 2001. The restatement was the result of an improper booking of sales related to "channel stuffing" as the practice of offering excess inventory to customers to create higher sales numbers. The company has since settled with the United States Department of Justice and Securities and Exchange Commission, agreeing to pay $150 million, while neither admitting nor denying guilt. On October 24, 2002, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. restated earnings downward for parts of 2000 and 2001, while revising 2002 earnings upward because of its massive inventory backlog imbroglio that spurred two government investigations. On March 15, 2004, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. adjusted upward its fourth-quarter and full-year 2003 results after reversing an earlier decision about how to deal with accounting errors made in prior years. As part of a deferred prosecution agreement, the company was placed under the oversight of a monitor appointed by the U.S. attorney in New Jersey. In addition, the former head of the Pharma group, Richard Lane, and the ex-CFO, Fred Schiff, were indicted for federal securities violations. thumb|right|upright=0.75 In July 2006, an investigation of the company was made public, and the FBI raided the company's corporate offices. The investigation centered on the distribution of Plavix and charges of collusion.Business Report , July 31, 2006. Retrieved September 7, 2006. Archived at On September 12, 2006, the monitor, former Federal Judge Frederick B. Lacey, urged the company to remove then-CEO Peter Dolan over the Plavix dispute. Later that day, BMS announced that Dolan would indeed step down.CNN.com , September 12, 2006. Retrieved September 12, 2006 The deferred prosecution agreement expired in June 2007 and the Department of Justice did not take any further legal action against the company for matters covered by the DPA. Under CEO Jim Cornelius, who was CEO following Dolan until May 2010, all executives involved in the "channel-stuffing" and generic competition scandals have since left the company. In 2009, the company began a major restructuring focusing on the pharmaceutical business and biologic products, along with productivity initiatives and cost-cutting and streamlining business operations through a multiyear program of on-going layoffs. This was part of a business strategy launched in 2007 to transform the company from a large, diversified pharmaceutical company to a specialty biopharma company, which also included the closure of half of their manufacturing facilities. As another cost-cutting measure, Bristol-Myers Squibb also reduced health-care subsidies for retirees and planned to freeze their pension plan at the end of 2009. BMS is a Fortune 500 Company (#114 in 2010 list). Newsweek's 2009 Green Ranking recognized Bristol-Myers Squibb as eighth among 500 of the largest United States corporations. Also, BMS was included in the 2009 Dow Jones Sustainability North America Index of leading sustainability-driven companies. Lamberto Andreotti was named CEO in 2010; he had previously served as "president and COO responsible for all pharmaceutical operations worldwide." ===2010 onward=== thumb|left|Bristol-Myers Squibb facility in Wirral, England In 2010, Lou Schmukler joined Bristol-Myers Squibb as the president of global product development and design. Schmukler led the team that completed the company's strategic transformation to a specialty biopharmaceutical company that had begun in 2007. As of 2011, the company had a dozen manufacturing facilities and six product development sites. Citing major developments and a market capitalization of US$87 billion and stock appreciation of 61.4%, Bristol-Myers Squibb was ranked as the best drug company of 2013 by Forbes magazine. In December 2014, the company received FDA approval for the use of the PD-1 inhibitor nivolumab (Opdivo) in treating patients whose skin cancer cannot be removed or have not responded to previous drug therapies. In February 2015, the company initiated a research partnership with Rigel Pharmaceuticals which could generate more than $339 million. In March, the company obtained an exclusive opportunity to both licence and commercialise PROSTVAC, Bavarian Nordic's phase III prostate-specific antigen targeting cancer immunotherapy. Bavarian Nordic would receive an upfront payment of $60 million and incremental payments up to $230 million, if the overall survival of test patients exceeds that seen in Phase II tests. Bavarian could also receive milestone payments of between $110 million and $495 million, dependent on regulatory authorization, and these payments have the potential to total up to $975 million. In May 2015, Dr. Giovanni Caforio became CEO of the company; Caforio was formerly the company's COO and succeeded Andreotti upon his retirement. Andreotti subsequently succeeded James Cornelius as executive chairman upon his retirement. In late February 2017, The Wall Street Journal and Fortune, among others, reported that activist investor Carl Icahn had taken a stake in the company, signaling a potential future takeover from the likes of Gilead Sciences. In April 2018, the company reported net income of $1.5 billion, or 91 cents per share, for the first quarter of the year, thanks to the increased sales of their cancer drug Opdivo. === Corporate acquisitions and divestments as Bristol Myers Squibb === thumb|right|upright=0.75 In August 2009, during a major restructuring activity, BMS acquired the biotechnology firm Medarex as part of the company's "String of Pearls" strategy of alliances, partnerships, and acquisitions.https://finance.yahoo.com/news/BristolMyers-Squibb-to- bw-571310065.html?x=0&.v=1 In November 2009, Bristol Myers Squibb announced that it was "splitting off" Mead Johnson Nutrition by offering BMY shareholders the opportunity to exchange their stock for shares in Mead Johnson. According to Bristol Myers Squibb, this move was expected to further sharpen the company's focus on biopharmaceuticals. In October 2010, the company acquired ZymoGenetics, securing an existing product, as well as pipeline assets in hepatitis C, cancer, and other therapeutic areas. Bristol Myers Squibb agreed to pay around $2.5 billion in cash to buy Inhibitex Inc. in attempt to compete with Gilead/Pharmasset to produce hepatitis C drugs. The settlement will be finished in 2 months for its Inhibitex's shareholders acceptance of 126% premium price of its price over the previous 20 trading days ended on January 6. On June 29, BMS extended its portfolio of diabetes treatments when it agreed to buy Amylin Pharmaceuticals for around in cash and pay to Eli Lilly to cover Amylin's debt and its outstanding collaboration- related obligations. AstraZeneca, which already collaborated on several diabetes treatments with BMS, agreed to pay US$3.4 billion in cash for the right to continue development of Amylin's products. Two years later, the company divested Amylin to AstraZeneca. In April 2014, BMS announced its acquisition of iPierian for up to $725 million. In February 2015, the company acquired Flexus Biosciences for $1.25 billion. As part of this deal, BMS will gain full rights to Flexus' lead small molecule IDO1-inhibitor, F001287. In November, the company acquired the cardiovascular disease drug developer Cardioxyl for up to $2.075 billion. The deal strengthens the BMS' critical pipelines with the phase II candidate for acute decompensated heart failure, CXL-1427. In March 2016, the company announced it would acquire Padlock Therapeutics for up to $600 million. In early July, the company announced it would acquire Cormorant Pharmaceuticals for $520 million, boosting BMS' oncology offering through Cormorants monoclonal antibody targeted against interleukin-8. In August 2017 the company acquired IFM Therapeutics for $300 million upfront, with contingency payments of $1.01 billion due on certain milestones – allowing BMS to better compete against Merck & Co's cancer rival treatment, Keytruda. In early January 2019, the company announced it would acquire Celgene (NASDAQ:CELG) for $74 billion ($95 billion including debt), in a deal that would become the largest pharmaceutical-company acquisition ever. The Celgene acquisition aimed to be a refresher to the company's pipeline, helping to overcome from declining sales of Opdivo relative to competitor Keytruda. Under the terms of the deal, Celgene shareholders would receive one BMS share as well as $50 in cash for each Celgene share held, valuing Celgene at $102.43 a share; representing a 54% premium to the previous days closing price. Investor opposition to this acquisition, leading into an April 12 shareholder vote, appeared when BMS's second-largest investor, Wellington Management, voiced its opposition, followed by investor Starboard Value. In April 2019 BMS announced that 75% of its shareholders voted to approve the pending merger with Celgene. Transaction to close in the third quarter of 2019, subject to regulatory approvals.Bristol-Myers Squibb Shareholders Approve Celgene Acquisition , PM BMS April 12, 2019, retrieved May 13, 2019 Newly issued BMS shares and CVRs will commence trading on the New York Stock Exchange, with the CVRs trading under the symbol 'BMYRT'. The strategic divestment of the company's consumer health business, UPSA, to Taisho completed in 2019. UPSA focused product delivery on France and the rest of Europe. As early as 2005, the company had divested individual consumer products, and its US- and Canada-focused consumer products business. In August, the Amgen announced it would acquire the Otezla drug programme from Celgene for $13.4 billion, as part of Celgene and BMS's merger deal. In February 2020, BMS and partner Biomotiv launched a new company called Anteros Pharmaceuticals, which focuses on creating inflammation and fibrosis medicines. In August, the business announced it would acquire Forbius and its TGF-beta 1 & TGF-beta 3 inhibitors. In October, BMS announced it would acquire cardiology company MyoKardia for $13.1 billion ($225 per share) gaining control of mavacamten, a cardiovascular drug for obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), and the development of two key treatments: danicamtiv (MYK-491) and MYK-224. In June 2022, BMS announced it would acquire Turning Point Therapeutics Inc for $4.1 billion in cash ($76 per share, a 122.5% premium to its last closing price), helping to boost its complement of cancer drugs, specifically repotrectinib. ===List of mergers and acquisitions === The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors: *Bristol-Myers Squibb (Formed by the merger of Squibb Corporation (Est 1858) and Bristol-Myers (Est 1887)) ** Adnexus Therapeutics ** ConvaTec ** Kosan Biosciences ** Medarex (Acq 2009) ** ZymoGenetics (Acq 2010) ** Amira Pharmaceuticals ** Inhibitex Inc (Acq 2012) ** Amylin Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2012 jointly with AstraZeneca) ** iPierian (Acq 2014) ** Flexus Biosciences (Acq 2015) ** Cardioxyl (Acq 2015) ** Padlock Therapeutics (Acq 2016) ** Cormorant Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2016) ** IFM Therapeutics (Acq 2017) ** Celgene (Acq 2019) *** Signal Pharmaceuticals, Inc (Acq 2000) *** Anthrogenesis (Acq 2002) *** Pharmion Corporation (Acq 2008) *** Gloucester Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2009) *** Abraxis BioScience Inc (Acq 2010) *** Avila Therapeutics, Inc (Acq 2012) *** Quanticel (Acq 2015) *** Receptos (Acq 2015) *** EngMab AG (Acq 2016) *** Delinia (Acq 2017) *** Impact Biomedicines (Acq 2018) *** Juno Therapeutics (Acq 2018) **** AbVitro (Acq 2016) **** RedoxTherapies (Acq 2016) ** Forbius (Acq 2020) ** MyoKardia (Acq 2020) ** Turning Point Therapeutics (Acq 2022) == Finances == For the fiscal year 2018,Bristol Myers Squibb reported earnings of US$1.007 billion, with an annual revenue of US$20.776 billion, an increase of 6.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Bristol-Myers Squibb's shares traded at over $55 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$81.6 billion in October 2018. In 2018, 85% of the company's revenues came from just five products. In 2018, Bristol-Myers Squibb spent 36% of its total revenue on R&D; expenses. Bristol- Myers Squibb ranked 145th on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue in 2018. Year Revenue in bil. US$ Net income in bil. US$ Total assets in bil. US$ Price per share in US$ Employees 2005 18.60 3.00 28.14 14.60 2006 16.20 1.59 25.58 15.24 2007 15.62 2.17 25.93 18.98 2008 17.72 5.25 29.49 14.95 2009 18.81 10.60 31.00 15.90 2010 19.48 3.09 31.08 19.76 2011 21.24 3.70 32.97 23.41 2012 17.62 1.96 35.90 28.04 2013 16.39 2.56 38.60 38.39 28,000 2014 15.88 2.00 33.75 47.03 25,000 2015 16.56 1.57 31.75 59.63 25,000 2016 19.43 4.45 33.71 59.73 25,000 2017 20.78 1.00 33.55 55.88 23,700 2018 22.56 4.92 34.99 51.98 23,300 2019 26.15 3.44 129.44 52.23 30,000 2020 42.52 −9.02 118.48 62.03 30,250 2021 46.39 6.99 109.31 62.35 32,200 2022 46.16 6.33 96.82 71.95 34,300 ==Carbon footprint== Bristol Myers Squibb reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 278 Kt (-6 /-2.1% y-o-y). Alt URL The company aims to become net neutral carbon by 2040. Bristol Myers Squibb's annual Total CO2e Emissions - Location-Based Scope 1 + Scope 2 (in kilotonnes) Dec 2016 Dec 2017 Dec 2018 Dec 2019 Dec 2020 328 323 316 284 278 ==Pharmaceuticals== thumb|right|upright=0.75|Hydrea (hydroxycarbamide) thumb|right|upright=0.50|Reyataz (atazanavir) The following is a list of key pharmaceutical products: Cardiovascular diseases *Avalide (irbesartan/hydrochlorothiazide) – comarketed with Sanofi *Avapro (irbesartan) – comarketed with Sanofi *Coumadin (warfarin) *Eliquis (apixaban) – comarketed with Pfizer *Plavix (clopidogrel) – comarketed with Sanofi *Pravachol (pravastatin) Diabetes mellitus *Bydureon (exenatide extended-release) – marketed by BMS only in some countries *Byetta (exenatide) – marketed by BMS only in some countries, such as Russian Federation *Farxiga/Forxiga (dapagliflozin) *Glucophage (metformin) – marketed by BMS only in USA *Glucophage XR (metformin extended release) – marketed by BMS only in USA *Glucovance (Glyburide/metformin) – marketed by BMS only in USA *Kombiglyze XR/Komboglyze (saxagliptin/metformin extended release) – comarketed with AstraZeneca *Onglyza (saxagliptin) – comarketed with AstraZeneca Infectious diseases, including HIV infection and associated conditions *Atripla (efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate) – comarketed with Gilead Sciences *Azactam (aztreonam) *Baraclude (entecavir) *Daklinza (daclatasvir) *Evotaz (atazanavir/cobicistat) *Megace (megestrol acetate) *Reyataz (atazanavir) *Sustiva/Stocrin (efavirenz) *Videx (didanosine) *Videx EC (didanosine delayed-release) *Zerit (stavudine) Inflammatory disorders *Kenalog-10 (triamcinolone acetonide) *Kenalog-40 (triamcinolone acetonide) Oncology *Abecma (idecabtagene vicleucel) *BiCNU (carmustine) *Breyanzi (lisocabtagene maraleucel) *CeeNU (lomustine) *Droxia/Hydrea (hydroxycarbamide) *Empliciti (Elotuzumab) *Erbitux (cetuximab) *Etopophos (etoposide) *Ixempra (ixabepilone) *Lysodren (mitotane) *Megace (megestrol acetate) *Opdivo (nivolumab) is a programmed death receptor blocking antibody used for the treatment of unresectable or metastatic melanoma and metastatic squamous non-small-cell lung carcinoma. In contrast to traditional chemotherapies and targeted anti-cancer therapies, which exert their effects by direct cytotoxic or tumor growth inhibition, nivolumab acts by inducing the immune system to attack the tumor. *Sprycel (dasatinib) *Taxol (paclitaxel). At one time, BMS held the solitary contract to harvest the bark of endangered yew trees on United States territory for the manufacture of chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (Taxol). Current paclitaxel production comes from renewable sources. BMS also held the original paclitaxel license, but there are now multiple generic producers. *Vumon (teniposide) *Yervoy (ipilimumab) Psychiatry *Abilify (aripiprazole comarketed with Otsuka Pharmaceutical) Rheumatic disorders *Orencia (abatacept) Transplant rejection *Nulojix (belatacept) === Out of production === *Sal Hepatica *Ipana ===Divested brands=== (Former Bristol-Myers brands, now divested) *Bufferin *Excedrin *Ban Deodorant *Vitalis (hair tonic) *Ammens (medicated powder) *Final Net (hair spray) *Comtrex (cold relief capsules) *Keri (lotion) ==Products under development== thumb|right|upright=0.75|Beclabuvir The following is a selective list of investigational products under development, as of 2015: * Beclabuvir (BMS-791325) – phase III * BMS-906024 – phase I * BMS-955176 – phase II * Brivanib alaninate (BMS-582664) – development terminated * Elotuzumab (BMS-901608) – phase III * Fostemsavir (BMS-663068) – approved in the United States in July 2020 * Lirilumab (BMS-986015) * Lulizumab pegol (BMS-931699) – phase II == Public-private engagement == Bristol-Myers Squibb engages with the public and private sectors through the promotion of research and development, academic funding, event sponsorship, philanthropy, and political lobbying. === Academia and education === * Institute for Advanced Study - Gift matching and direct donor. * Mentoring in IBD - Sponsor. * Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) - Donor. * Population Health Research Institute (PHRI) at McMaster University Medical School - Partner. * University of Toronto - Donor. * University of Washington - Donor. === Conferences and events === * Women in Medicine Summit - Sponsor. * World Neuroscience Innovation Forum - Sponsor. === Healthcare === * Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH) - Donor. * Princess Margaret Cancer Centre (PMCC) - Foundation donor and sponsor for the PMCC Conference. * Scarborough Health Network (SHN) - Donor to the Scarborough Health Foundation. * SickKids - Donor to the SickKids Foundation. * Sinai Health System - Donor to the Sinai Health Foundation. * Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre - Donor. === Media === * National Geographic Society - Donor. * National Press Foundation - Funder. === Medical societies === * American Society of Hematology (ASH) - Corporate supporter. * Arthritis Society - National corporate partner. * Canadian Society of Internal Medicine - Sponsor. * European Society of Cardiology - Sponsor. * Spanish Cardiac Society - Partner. === Political lobbying === * BIOTECanada - Member company. BIOTECanada lobbies the Canadian government for policies favorable to the pharmaceutical industry. * Innovative Medicines Canada - Member. * International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers & Associations (IFPMA) - Member. * National Health Council - Member. * National Pharmaceutical Council - Member. * Personalized Medicine Coalition - Member. * Pharmaceutical Advertising Advisory Board - Client. * Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America - Member. * Research!America - Member. === Professional associations === * Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians (CAEP) - Corporate partner. * Canadian Rheumatology Association (CRA) - Corporate sponsor. * CARE Faculty - Sponsor. CARE is a Canadian coalition of medical specialists based in Oakville, Ontario. BMS was a sponsor for their 2021 Winter Hematology Update event. * Colorectal Cancer Canada (CRC) - Sponsor. * Health Products Stewardship Association - Member. === Research and development === * Lung Health Foundation - Partner. * Multiple Sclerosis International Federation - Partner. * Pinnacle Research Group - Sponsor. * Radcliffe Cardiology - Industry partner. ==Scandals== Bristol-Myers Squibb, Johns Hopkins University and the Rockefeller Foundation are currently the subject of a $1 billion lawsuit from Guatemala for "roles in a 1940s U.S. government experiment that infected hundreds of Guatemalans with syphilis". A previous suit against the United States government was dismissed in 2011 for the Guatemala syphilis experiments when a judge determined that the U.S. government could not be held liable for actions committed outside of the U.S. ==See also== * List of biotech and pharmaceutical companies in the New York metropolitan area == Notes and references == ==External links== * * Bristol- Myers Squibb worldwide locations *Bristol-Myers Squibb Influence and Lobbying Summary – Opensecrets.org Category:1920s initial public offerings Category:American companies established in 1887 Category:Manufacturing companies based in New York City Category:Multinational companies based in New York City Category:Biotechnology companies of the United States Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Pharmaceutical companies established in 1887 Category:Pharmaceutical companies of the United States Category:Publicly traded companies based in New York City Category:1887 establishments in New York (state) Category:National Medal of Technology recipients Category:Orphan drug companies Category:Life sciences industry
|
Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States, in the context of the early twenty-first century War on Terrorism, refers to foreign nationals the United States detains outside of the legal process required within United States legal jurisdiction. In this context, the U.S. government is maintaining torture centers, called black sites, operated by both known and secret intelligence agencies.http://assembly.coe.int/CommitteeDocs/2007/EMarty_20070608_NoEmbargo.pdf Such black sites were later confirmed by reports from journalists, investigations, and from men who had been imprisoned and tortured there, and later released after being tortured until the CIA was comfortable they had done nothing wrong, and had nothing to hide. Of these prisoners being held by the U.S., some were suspected of being from the senior ranks of al Qaeda, referred to in U.S. military terms as "high value detainees." According to the Swiss senator Dick Marty's reports on Secret Detentions and Illegal Transfers of Detainees involving Council of Europe Member States, about a hundred persons had been kidnapped by the CIA on European territory and subsequently rendered to countries where they were tortured. Former Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, had described the men detained in Camp Delta at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, as "the worst of the worst.", despite concerns about the mental capacity of several of the detainees. But, before September 2006, many of those detainees suspected of having the highest intelligence value were not detained at Guantanamo, but were held at CIA's black sites in Eastern Europe and other countries, including Afghanistan. In August 2010, it was reported that four high-value detainees: Abu Zubaydah, Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Mustafa al-Hawsawi, had first been transferred to Guantanamo on September 24, 2003. They were held at "Strawberry Fields", a secret camp in the facility constructed for their detention. Worried that a pending Supreme Court decision on habeas corpus rights might go against the Bush administration and compel releasing the men's names and other details, the CIA took back custody of the four men and moved them out of Guantanamo on March 27, 2004. The United States Supreme Court ruled in Rasul v. Bush (2004) that detainees at Guantanamo Bay detention camp had the habeas corpus right to challenge their detentions before an impartial tribunal. As a result, the US allegedly continued to hold many ghost detainees outside Guantanamo Bay and the United States in order to avoid any review of their cases. These four men and other high-value CIA detainees were not transferred again to military custody at Guantanamo until September 2006. At that time, the Bush administration was assured of passage by Congress of the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which included provisions preventing detainees from using habeas corpus petitions outside the newly authorized system of military tribunals. ==Ghost detainees== Ghost detainees are extrajudicial prisoners whose identities have not been revealed and whose families (and frequently, governments) have not been informed of their status. They are deprived of all legal rights. Ghost detainees' identities, and capture, have been kept secret. As such they are a subset of extrajudicial prisoners, which includes all the detainees who were held in Guantanamo, etc.. ==Suspects held by US civilian intelligence agencies== ===High-value detainees=== On September 6, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush confirmed, for the first time, that the CIA had held "high-value detainees" in secret CIA prisons. He also announced that 14 senior captives were being transferred from CIA custody to military custody at Guantanamo Bay. He said that these 14 captives could expect to face charges before Guantanamo military commissions. Critics, and elements of the FBI, had long speculated that the captives held in the secret facilities had been subjected to actual torture. They said that evidence derived from such interrogation techniques was not admissible in court and could not be used to prosecute the men. The fourteen "high-value detainees" transferred on September 6, 2006 JTF-GTMO ISN Name Notes 10011 Mustafa al-Hawsawi * believed to have arranged large wire transfers of funds to finance terrorist operations. * captured in Pakistan in March 2003 * transferred from CIA custody to Guantanamo in September 2003; withdrawn and transferred back to CIA custody in March 2004 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006.Bush confirms existence of secret CIA prisons for high-value terror detainees , The Jurist, September 6, 2006 10012 Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani * helped plan the 1998 embassy bombings. * captured July 25, 2004 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. * convicted of conspiracy and sentenced to life in prison without parole * held at ADX Supermax in Florence, Colorado. 10013 Ramzi bin al-Shibh * believed to be another planner of the 9-11 attacks. * shared a Hamburg apartment with Mohamed Atta, the ringleader of the 9-11 hijackers. * transferred from CIA custody to Guantanamo in September 2003; withdrawn and transferred back to CIA custody in March 2004 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006.Bush Acknowledges Existence of Secret CIA Prisons , Voice of America, September 6, 2006 10014 Waleed Muhammad bin Attash * allegedly tied to both the USS Cole bombing and 9-11 * captured on April 29, 2003 * Human Rights Watch reports he is said to have described ties between Iran and al Qaeda during his interrogation * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10015 Abd al- Rahim al-Nashiri * believed to be the mastermind of the USS Cole bombing. * believed to have organized the Limburg tanker bombing * captured in November 2002 * transferred from CIA custody to Guantanamo in September 2003; withdrawn and transferred back to CIA custody in March 2004 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10016 Abu Zubaydah * believed to have run a military training camp associated with al Qaeda. * believed to have played a role in the 2000 millennium attack plots * transferred from CIA custody to Guantanamo in September 2003; withdrawn and transferred back to CIA custody in March 2004 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. * Later revealed to have been a low-level player and not significantPeter Finn and Julie Tate, "CIA Says It Misjudged Role of High-Value Detainee Abu Zubaidah, Transcript Shows", The Washington Post, 16 June 2009, accessed 21 January 2013 * Because of having suffered torture, he has never been charged 10017 Abu Faraj al-Libi * described as the new number three in al Qaeda, succeeding his mentor Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. * captured in Pakistan on May 2, 2005 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10018 Ali Abdul Aziz Ali * helped transfer funds to the 9-11 hijackers. * arrested on April 29, 2003 * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10019 Hambali * captured on August 11, 2003. * a planner of the Bali nightclub bombings * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10020 Majid Khan * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. * An accomplice of Uzair ParachaFBI NY announces conviction of Uzair Paracha , November 25, 2005 10021 Mohamad Farik Amin * reported arrested in June 2003. * helped scout the sites of terror bombings in Thailand 10022 Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep * President Bush announced his transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, on September 6, 2006. 10023 Gouled Hassan Dourad * Transferred to Guantanamo on September 6, 2006. 10024 Khalid Sheikh Mohammed * Allegedly played a role in the WTC bombing 1993. * Allegedly worked on Operation Bojinka * Allegedly one of the architects of 9-11. * Allegedly detained at various CIA black sites for about 3 years. * Allegedly waterboarded 183 times while in CIA custody. * Transfer to the Guantanamo Bay detention camps in September 2006. ===Other captives in custody=== American intelligence officials have made public the names of some of the suspects the CIA has reported to have been held. The capture of other detainees is not acknowledged. According to the US military, this is in order to spread disorder among their opponents, and fear among those who might be considering supporting them. Other captives reported to have been held in CIA custody Name Notes Jamil al-Banna * told his lawyers he was detained in "the dark prison" in Kabul * arrested in Gambia with Bisher al-Rawi * claims the CIA offered him $10 million to serve as a mole against Abu Qatada * He was transferred to military custody at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp in March 2003 and held there until December 19, 2007. Muhammed al-Darbi * Claimed by administration to have been captured due to information derived from enhanced interrogation techniques of captives in secret interrogation centres.U.S. Decries Abuse but Defends Interrogations: 'Stress and Duress' Tactics Used on Terrorism Suspects Held in Secret Overseas Facilities, The Washington Post, December 26, 2002 * A Yemeni, captured in August 2002. Omar al-Faruq * alleged to have been a liaison with Southeast Asian Islamic militants * arrested June 5, 2002 * escaped from Bagram prison in July 2005 * killed by British troops in Iraq on September 25, 2006. Abd al- Salam Ali al-Hila * currently detained in Camp Delta * told his lawyers he was detained in "the dark prison" in Kabul Abd al-Hadi al-Iraqi * currently detained in Guantanamo Adil al-Jazeeri * said to have been a liaison between al Qaeda and the Taliban * believed to have been involved in transferring funds for terrorist activities. * captured on June 17, 2003; transferred to US custody on July 13, 2003 * US State department confirmed custody in December 2003, location unknown Yassir al-Jazeeri Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi * may have been the first detainee to have been subjected to coercive interrogation techniques. * reported Iraq had an arsenal of WMD, and provided al Qaeda with WMD training, cited in Powell's UN speech * Recanted the WMD claim after the invasion * extradited to Libya and died in prison Bisher al-Rawi * currently detained in Camp Delta * told his lawyers he was detained in "the dark prison" in Kabul * arrested in Gambia with Jamil al-Banna * now claims he was already co-operating with MI5 in their surveillance of Abu Qatada Abdul Rahim al- Sharqawi * One of the 25 top al Qaeda leadership members.Al-Qaida killed/captured , MSNBC * al-Sharqawi is called "Riyadh the Facilitator," * al-Sharqawi is said to have been captured before April 2002. Mohammed Omar Abdel-Rahman * extradited to Egypt and released in 2010 Musaad Aruchi Hassin Bin Attash * currently detained in Camp Delta * told his lawyers he was detained in "the dark prison" in Kabul * claims he was tortured in the black sites * 17 years old when captured * brother of Waleed Muhammad bin Attash Abdul Aziz Abu Faisal Hassan Ghul * He was held at a CIA black site for two years, before being turned over to a Pakistani prison system and released. Killed in a CIA drone strike in Pakistan in October 2012.Documents reveal NSA's extensive involvement in targeted killing program Mohammed Naeem Noor Khan * alleged Al-Qaeda operative and computer expert. * agreed to be a mole after his capture on July 13, 2004 * mole status outed by Condoleezza Rice on August 2, 2004 * released on 20 August 2007, without charge. Tariq Mahmood Binyam Mohammed * * told his lawyers he was detained in "the dark prison" in Kabul * claims he was tortured in the black sites * On 23 February 2009, almost seven years after his arrest, Mohamed was repatriated from Guantánamo to the UK, where he was released after questioning. Khalid El-Masri * * German citizen wrongfully labelled terror-suspect, became a high-value detainee. * Abducted at behest of CIA by Macedonian police, based on "hunch" of CIA officer. * Raped in Skopje, rendered to Afghanistan, held in CIA Salt Pit; tortured by CIA. * Released (flown to Albania, "dumped in a forest, blindfolded") after CIA realized mistake.CIA 'tortured and sodomised' terror suspect, human rights court rules The Gurdian, December 13 2012, Retrieved on March 3, 2023 * US government warned German government to not press charges against CIA.Wikileaks cable, SUBJECT: AL-MASRI CASE -- CHANCELLERY AWARE OF USG CONCERNS, February 2007 * US courts refused to hear El-Masri's case; he was represented by the ACLU. * European Court of Human Rights ruled in El- Masri's favor, stating that it was "beyond a reasonable doubt" that he had been tortured in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights. ==Legal status of detainees== Shortly after the Invasion of Afghanistan, the Bush administration announced a policy that combatants captured "on the battlefield" in Afghanistan would not be afforded the protections of POW status as described in the Geneva Conventions. This policy triggered debate both within and outside of the US government. The Bush administration claimed that the Geneva Conventions signed by the US protected only the fighters of recognized states, thus disqualifying al Qaeda fighters from these privileges as per the Bush administration's views. They argued that, since the Taliban was not a legitimate government either, their combatants did not qualify either. They saw Afghanistan as a "failed state," one without a legitimate government. ===Classifying captives as illegal combatants=== The Bush administration categorized such captives as "illegal combatants." These terms are not explicitly used in the Geneva Conventions, but the Third Geneva Convention of 1949 defines the term "lawful combatant", from which the term 'unlawful combatant' is derived. The Convention obliges signatories to afford captured lawful combatants significant rights and protections. Such captives are entitled to be classified as prisoners of war (POW). Internal critics within the US military and US government argue that failing to afford POW protections to combatants captured in the global war on terror would endanger American military personnel when they were captured in current and future conflicts. Other critics argue that classifying all combatants as illegal combatants is in violation of Article 5 of the Third Geneva Convention, which describes how a captor should treat combatants who are suspected of violating the Geneva Conventions such that they strip themselves of its protections. Article 5 says that combatants suspected of violations of the Conventions are to be afforded POW protection until the captors have convened a "competent tribunal." However, the Conventions never explicitly impose a limitation regarding the detention of detainees without trial during and after an armed conflict. The Bush administration expanded the criteria for classifying captives as illegal combatants. Individuals captured around the world are now classified as such if US intelligence officials believe they have sufficient evidence to tie the individual to Islamic terrorism. In Rasul v. Bush (2004), the US Supreme Court ruled that detainees held by the United States did have the habeas corpus right to challenge their detentions before a competent tribunal. This decision led the Bush administration to bolster the prevalence of black sites overseas. ===Use of interrogation techniques=== The US intelligence community has debated what techniques should be used on the detainees. The debate was triggered over the interrogation of Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, described as the first senior al Qaeda captive. It was reported that initially his interrogation was being conducted by the FBI because they had the most experience interrogating criminal suspects. Their interrogation approach was based on building rapport with suspects and they did not use coercive techniques. They argued that coercive techniques produced unreliable false confessions, and that using coercive techniques would mean that the evidence they gathered could not be used by the prosecution in a trial in the US judicial system. Fear and desire for actionable intelligence led the administration to legal opinions (the Torture Memos, including the Bybee memo) by the Office of Legal Counsel, United States Department of Justice, issued to the CIA in August 2002 authorizing the use of 12 enhanced interrogation techniques (since 2009, these have been legally defined as torture and prohibited from use) with detained suspects. Similarly, on March 14, 2003, five days before the US started its 2003 invasion of Iraq, the OLC issued a memo to William J. Haynes, General Counsel of the United States Department of Defense, concluding that federal laws against the use of torture and other coercion did not apply to interrogations overseas. In reaction to the release of the abuse pictures from Abu Ghraib in Iraq in April and May 2004, and the leak that summer of the Bybee memo, the administration advised agencies to suspend actions based on those memos. CIA suspended the use of enhanced interrogation techniques. ===Legal justification for the use of "enhanced interrogation techniques"=== Secretary Rumsfeld assured the world that the detainees held at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were going to be treated in a manner consistent with the treatment of Geneva Convention POWs. In 2004, confidential memos surfaced that discussed the limits to how much pain, discomfort and fear could be used in the interrogation of detainees in the global war on terror. The memos showed that debate within the Bush administration had been resolved in favor of what was later legally determined to be torture. ===Legislative challenges to interrogation policy=== In 2005, US Senator John McCain, a former POW from the Vietnam War, attached a passage to a military spending bill that would proscribe inhumane treatment of detainees and restrict US officials to use only the interrogation techniques in the US Army's field manual on interrogation. Ninety of the one hundred Senators supported this amendment. On Thursday, October 20, 2005, Vice President Dick Cheney proposed a change to McCain. Cheney tried to get McCain to limit the proscription to just military personnel, thus allowing CIA personnel the freedom to use harsher techniques. McCain declined to accept Cheney's suggestion. ===U.S. Government denial of allegations of mistreatment=== The United States government, through the State Department, makes periodic reports to the United Nations Committee Against Torture. In October 2005, the report focused on pretrial detention of suspects in the war on terrorism, including those held in Guantanamo Bay and Afghanistan. This was the first official response of the U.S. government to allegations that prisoners were mistreated at Guantanamo Bay detention camp. The report denies the allegations. However, the report does not address detainees held elsewhere by the CIA. Recently, the Director of the CIA, Michael Hayden has acknowledged that some detainees had been subject to waterboarding, in accordance with several OLC (Office of Legal Counsel) memos. General Hayden states that in February 2008, waterboarding was not part of the authorized interrogation techniques for U.S. agents. The CIA's Inspector General investigated cases in which men were captured and transported through "erroneous renditions." There were said to be 3,000 individuals who were held in CIA custody. ===Geneva Conventions compliance=== On July 20, 2007, President Bush issued an executive order officially banning torture of POWs by intelligence officials. Amnesty International points out that the Bush administration has narrowly defined torture under the Bybee memo, at the time, the only known one of the Torture Memos. While the US is a signatory to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, it has failed to ratify that portion of the Geneva Convention, Protocol I, which would grant such persons POW status as the detainees at Guantanamo. The US is one of only six countries that have not. ===Individuals identified as being tortured by the CIA without authorization=== The Senate Intelligence Committee identified these men as being the victims of unauthorized torture ISN Name Current location Allegations Notes 10024 Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Guantanamo Various * various 892 Rafiq Bashir al-Hami Transferred to Slovakia in 2010 Suspicious acquaintances * subjected to sleep deprivation at the salt pit 893 Tawfiq Nasir Awad al-Bihandi Guantanamo Unknown * subjected to sleep deprivation at the salt pit Hikmat Nafi Shaukat Unknown Suspicious acquainces * subjected to sleep deprivation at the salt pit 1209 Lufti al-Arabi al-Gharisi Unknown Unknown * subjected to sleep deprivation at the salt pit 1461 Muhammad Ahmad Ghulam Rabbani Guantanamo Alleged KSM lieutenant * stress positions, beatings, hypothermia Gul Rahman Murdered in custody * short shackling, water dousing, beatings, sleep deprivation, auditory overload, total darkness, hypothermia 10015 Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri Guantanamo USS Cole bombing * waterboarding, death threats, threats to rape and kill his family in front of him, faked execution, rectal feeding 10013 Ramzi Bin al-Shibh Guantanamo Alleged KSM lieutenant Asadallah aka Muhammad Umar 'Abd al-Rahman Unknown Unknown * water dousing, forced nudity, solitary confinement 10011 Mustafa al-Hawsawi Guantanamo Suspected "finacier" * rectal feeding Abu Khalid Unknown Unknown * sleep deprivation Laid Ben Dohman Saidi aka Abu Hudhaifa unknown Mistaken identity * ice water baths, forced standing, sleep deprivation, forced nudity, dietary manipulation Abd al-Karim aka Al-Shara'iya Unknown Unknown * crippled by torture Abu Hazim Unknown Unknown * water dousing Sayyid Ibrahim Unknown Unknown * sleep deprivation Suleiman Abdullah Unknown Unknown * subjected to "water-dousing" without authorization ==Location of the suspects held by US civilian intelligence agencies== thumb|150px|Orthographic projection centred over Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. Location Details USS Bataan John Walker Lindh, a United States citizen, was held for two months in a secure facility aboard the USS Bataan. The Salt Pit * a clandestine, remote, CIA detention facility in Afghanistan * German national Khalid El-Masri, whose name was similar to that of a suspected senior al Qaeda cadre who was still at large, was arrested in Macedonia and transferred by their police to the CIA, who took him to this location. Agents detained and interrogated him for five months in the winter of 2004."CIA accused of detaining innocent man: If the agency knew he was the wrong man, why was he held?", NBC News, April 21, 2005 The agency found it was mistaken and released him in Albania in late 2004. In 2012 El- Masri's account was held valid "beyond a reasonable doubt," and he was awarded compensation for his torture and suffering by the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights, which held Macedonia responsible for knowingly transferring him to the CIA and possible torture. ==See also== *Arbitrary arrest and detention *Command responsibility *Detainees in Iraq *Khalid El- Masri, a German citizen wrongly detained by the CIA *Maher Arar ==References== ==External links== *"Outsourcing torture", Jane Mayer, The New Yorker, February 14, 2005 *"A Tortured Debate", Newsweek, June 21, 2005 *"We Don't Want a Hanoi Hilton", The Washington Post, October 27, 2005 *"CIA Holds Terror Suspects in Secret Prisons", The Washington Post, November 2, 2005 *"European Commission to Investigate Reports of Secret CIA Jails", The Washington Post, November 3, 2005 * "Sources Tell ABC News Top Al Qaeda Figures Held in Secret CIA Prisons", ABC News December 5, 2005 * "A list of 12 high-value targets housed by the CIA", ABC News, December 5, 2005 * "CIA 'closes terror prisons'", news.com.au, December 6, 2005 * "Victims Could Sue for Human Rights in European Court of Justice", Der Spiegel December 6, 2005 *Center for Constitutional Rights website, representing detainees and working against other injustices *"Tortured Justice: Using Coerced Evidence to Prosecute Terrorist Suspects" (2008), Human Rights First *"In Pursuit of Justice; Prosecuting Terrorism Cases in the Federal Courts" (2009), Human Rights First *"Undue Process: An Examination of Detention and Trials of Bagram Detainees in Afghanistan in April 2009" (2009), Human Rights First Category:Counterterrorism in the United States
|
Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (; ; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French scholar and polymath whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique céleste (Celestial Mechanics) (1799–1825). This work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace.Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Harvard University Press, Chapter 3. Laplace formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is also named after him. He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the Solar System and was one of the first scientists to suggest an idea similar to that of a black hole. Laplace is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of almost all of his contemporaries. He was Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended the École Militaire in Paris in 1784. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817, after the Bourbon Restoration. ==Early years== Some details of Laplace's life are not known, as records of it were burned in 1925 with the family château in Saint Julien de Mailloc, near Lisieux, the home of his great-great-grandson the Comte de Colbert-Laplace. Others had been destroyed earlier, when his house at Arcueil near Paris was looted in 1871."Laplace, being Extracts from Lectures delivered by Karl Pearson", Biometrika, vol. 21, December 1929, pp. 202–216. Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont l'Évêque. According to W. W. Rouse Ball,W.W. Rouse Ball A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th edition, 1908. his father, Pierre de Laplace, owned and farmed the small estates of Maarquis. His great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont; but, having procured a letter of introduction to d'Alembert, he went to Paris to advance his fortune. However, Karl Pearson is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Ball's account and states: His parents, Pierre Laplace and Marie-Anne Sochon, were from comfortable families. The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, but Pierre Laplace senior was also a cider merchant and syndic of the town of Beaumont. Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory, his father intending that he be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church. At sixteen, to further his father's intention, he was sent to the University of Caen to read theology.*. Retrieved 25 August 2007 At the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplace's brilliance as a mathematician was quickly recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies. This provided the first intercourse between Laplace and Lagrange. Lagrange was the senior by thirteen years, and had recently founded in his native city Turin a journal named Miscellanea Taurinensia, in which many of his early works were printed and it was in the fourth volume of this series that Laplace's paper appeared. About this time, recognising that he had no vocation for the priesthood, he resolved to become a professional mathematician. Some sources state that he then broke with the church and became an atheist. Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond d'Alembert who at that time was supreme in scientific circles.Edmund Whittaker (Vol. 33, No. 303 (Feb. 1949), pp. 1–12), "Laplace", The Mathematical Gazette. According to his great-great-grandson, d'Alembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a thick mathematics book, saying to come back when he had read it. When Laplace came back a few days later, d'Alembert was even less friendly and did not hide his opinion that it was impossible that Laplace could have read and understood the book. But upon questioning him, he realised that it was true, and from that time he took Laplace under his care. Another account is that Laplace solved overnight a problem that d'Alembert set him for submission the following week, then solved a harder problem the following night. D'Alembert was impressed and recommended him for a teaching place in the École Militaire.Gillispie (1997), pp. 3–4 With a secure income and undemanding teaching, Laplace now threw himself into original research and for the next seventeen years, 1771–1787, he produced much of his original work in astronomy.Rouse Ball (1908). thumb|right|The Calorimeter of Lavoisier and La Place, Encyclopaedia Londinensis, 1801 From 1780 to 1784, Laplace and French chemist Antoine Lavoisier collaborated on several experimental investigations, designing their own equipment for the task. In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir on Heat, in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion. In their experiments they measured the specific heat of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured the boiling points of ethanol and ether under pressure. Laplace further impressed the Marquis de Condorcet, and already by 1771 Laplace felt entitled to membership in the French Academy of Sciences. However, that year admission went to Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde and in 1772 to Jacques Antoine Joseph Cousin. Laplace was disgruntled, and early in 1773 d'Alembert wrote to Lagrange in Berlin to ask if a position could be found for Laplace there. However, Condorcet became permanent secretary of the Académie in February and Laplace was elected associate member on 31 March, at age 24.Gillispie (1997), p. 5 In 1773 Laplace read his paper on the invariability of planetary motion in front of the Academy des Sciences. That March he was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science."Effects of the Scientific Community on Laplace" Retrieved on 10 January 2018 On 15 March 1788,Hahn (2005), p. 99. However, Gillispie (1997), p. 67, gives the month of the marriage as May. at the age of thirty-nine, Laplace married Marie-Charlotte de Courty de Romanges, an eighteen-year-old girl from a "good" family in Besançon.Hahn (2005), pp. 99–100 The wedding was celebrated at Saint-Sulpice, Paris. The couple had a son, Charles-Émile (1789–1874), and a daughter, Sophie-Suzanne (1792–1813).Gillispie (1997), p. 67Hahn (2005), p. 101 ==Analysis, probability, and astronomical stability== Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with differential equations and finite differences but he was already starting to think about the mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics.Gillispie (1989), pp. 7–12 However, before his election to the Académie in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that would establish his reputation. The first, Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements was ultimately published in 1774 while the second paper, published in 1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work on celestial mechanics and the stability of the Solar System. The two disciplines would always be interlinked in his mind. "Laplace took probability as an instrument for repairing defects in knowledge."Gillispie (1989). pp. 14–15 Laplace's work on probability and statistics is discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities. ===Stability of the Solar System=== Sir Isaac Newton had published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 in which he gave a derivation of Kepler's laws, which describe the motion of the planets, from his laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. However, though Newton had privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published work used cumbersome geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a mathematical solution to the whole, even concluding that periodic divine intervention was necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar System. Dispensing with the hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific life.Whitrow (2001) It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to the development of the theory, are not sufficiently precise to demonstrate the stability of the Solar System, and indeed, the Solar System is understood to be chaotic, although it happens to be fairly stable. One particular problem from observational astronomy was the apparent instability whereby Jupiter's orbit appeared to be shrinking while that of Saturn was expanding. The problem had been tackled by Leonhard Euler in 1748 and Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1763 but without success.Whittaker (1949b) In 1776, Laplace published a memoir in which he first explored the possible influences of a purported luminiferous ether or of a law of gravitation that did not act instantaneously. He ultimately returned to an intellectual investment in Newtonian gravity.Gillispie (1989). pp. 29–35 Euler and Lagrange had made a practical approximation by ignoring small terms in the equations of motion. Laplace noted that though the terms themselves were small, when integrated over time they could become important. Laplace carried his analysis into the higher-order terms, up to and including the cubic. Using this more exact analysis, Laplace concluded that any two planets and the Sun must be in mutual equilibrium and thereby launched his work on the stability of the Solar System.Gillispie (1989), pp. 35–36 Gerald James Whitrow described the achievement as "the most important advance in physical astronomy since Newton". Laplace had a wide knowledge of all sciences and dominated all discussions in the Académie.School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Laplace seems to have regarded analysis merely as a means of attacking physical problems, though the ability with which he invented the necessary analysis is almost phenomenal. As long as his results were true he took but little trouble to explain the steps by which he arrived at them; he never studied elegance or symmetry in his processes, and it was sufficient for him if he could by any means solve the particular question he was discussing. ==Tidal dynamics== ===Dynamic theory of tides=== While Newton explained the tides by describing the tide-generating forces and Bernoulli gave a description of the static reaction of the waters on Earth to the tidal potential, the dynamic theory of tides, developed by Laplace in 1775, describes the ocean's real reaction to tidal forces. Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into account friction, resonance and natural periods of ocean basins. It predicted the large amphidromic systems in the world's ocean basins and explains the oceanic tides that are actually observed. The equilibrium theory, based on the gravitational gradient from the Sun and Moon but ignoring the Earth's rotation, the effects of continents, and other important effects, could not explain the real ocean tides.Tidal theory website South African Navy Hydrographic Office 400px|right|Newton's three-body model Since measurements have confirmed the theory, many things have possible explanations now, like how the tides interact with deep sea ridges and chains of seamounts give rise to deep eddies that transport nutrients from the deep to the surface. The equilibrium tide theory calculates the height of the tide wave of less than half a meter, while the dynamic theory explains why tides are up to 15 meters. Satellite observations confirm the accuracy of the dynamic theory, and the tides worldwide are now measured to within a few centimeters. Measurements from the CHAMP satellite closely match the models based on the TOPEX data.TOPEX data used to model actual tides for 15 days from the year 2000 TOPEX/Poseidon Flat Earth Tide Height Modelhttp://www.geomag.us/info/Ocean/m2_CHAMP+longwave_SSH.swf Accurate models of tides worldwide are essential for research since the variations due to tides must be removed from measurements when calculating gravity and changes in sea levels. ===Laplace's tidal equations=== 150px| A. Lunar gravitational potential: this depicts the Moon directly over 30° N (or 30° S) viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere. 150px| B. This view shows same potential from 180° from view A. Viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere. Red up, blue down. In 1776, Laplace formulated a single set of linear partial differential equations, for tidal flow described as a barotropic two- dimensional sheet flow. Coriolis effects are introduced as well as lateral forcing by gravity. Laplace obtained these equations by simplifying the fluid dynamic equations. But they can also be derived from energy integrals via Lagrange's equation. For a fluid sheet of average thickness D, the vertical tidal elevation ζ, as well as the horizontal velocity components u and v (in the latitude φ and longitude λ directions, respectively) satisfy Laplace's tidal equations: : \begin{align} \frac{\partial \zeta}{\partial t} &\+ \frac{1}{a \cos( \varphi )} \left[ \frac{\partial}{\partial \lambda} (uD) \+ \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi} \left(vD \cos( \varphi )\right) \right] = 0, \\\\[2ex] \frac{\partial u}{\partial t} &\- v \left( 2 \Omega \sin( \varphi ) \right) \+ \frac{1}{a \cos( \varphi )} \frac{\partial}{\partial \lambda} \left( g \zeta + U \right) =0 \qquad \text{and} \\\\[2ex] \frac{\partial v}{\partial t} &\+ u \left( 2 \Omega \sin( \varphi ) \right) \+ \frac{1}{a} \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi} \left( g \zeta + U \right) =0, \end{align} where Ω is the angular frequency of the planet's rotation, g is the planet's gravitational acceleration at the mean ocean surface, a is the planetary radius, and U is the external gravitational tidal-forcing potential. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) rewrote Laplace's momentum terms using the curl to find an equation for vorticity. Under certain conditions this can be further rewritten as a conservation of vorticity. ==On the figure of the Earth== During the years 1784–1787 he published some memoirs of exceptional power. Prominent among these is one read in 1783, reprinted as Part II of Théorie du Mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes in 1784, and in the third volume of the Mécanique céleste. In this work, Laplace completely determined the attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is memorable for the introduction into analysis of spherical harmonics or Laplace's coefficients, and also for the development of the use of what we would now call the gravitational potential in celestial mechanics. ===Spherical harmonics=== frame|right|Spherical harmonics. In 1783, in a paper sent to the Académie, Adrien-Marie Legendre had introduced what are now known as associated Legendre functions. If two points in a plane have polar coordinates (r, θ) and (r ', θ'), where r ' ≥ r, then, by elementary manipulation, the reciprocal of the distance between the points, d, can be written as: :\frac{1}{d} = \frac{1}{r'} \left [ 1 - 2 \cos (\theta' - \theta) \frac{r}{r'} + \left ( \frac{r}{r'} \right ) ^2 \right ] ^{- \tfrac{1}{2}}. This expression can be expanded in powers of r/r ' using Newton's generalised binomial theorem to give: :\frac{1}{d} = \frac{1}{r'} \sum_{k=0}^\infty P^0_k ( \cos ( \theta' - \theta ) ) \left ( \frac{r}{r'} \right ) ^k. The sequence of functions P0k(cos φ) is the set of so-called "associated Legendre functions" and their usefulness arises from the fact that every function of the points on a circle can be expanded as a series of them. Laplace, with scant regard for credit to Legendre, made the non-trivial extension of the result to three dimensions to yield a more general set of functions, the spherical harmonics or Laplace coefficients. The latter term is not in common use now. ===Potential theory=== This paper is also remarkable for the development of the idea of the scalar potential. The gravitational force acting on a body is, in modern language, a vector, having magnitude and direction. A potential function is a scalar function that defines how the vectors will behave. A scalar function is computationally and conceptually easier to deal with than a vector function. Alexis Clairaut had first suggested the idea in 1743 while working on a similar problem though he was using Newtonian-type geometric reasoning. Laplace described Clairaut's work as being "in the class of the most beautiful mathematical productions". However, Rouse Ball alleges that the idea "was appropriated from Joseph Louis Lagrange, who had used it in his memoirs of 1773, 1777 and 1780". The term "potential" itself was due to Daniel Bernoulli, who introduced it in his 1738 memoire Hydrodynamica. However, according to Rouse Ball, the term "potential function" was not actually used (to refer to a function V of the coordinates of space in Laplace's sense) until George Green's 1828 An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism.W.W. Rouse Ball A Short Account of the History of Mathematics (4th edition, 1908) Laplace applied the language of calculus to the potential function and showed that it always satisfies the differential equation: : abla^2V={\partial^2V\over \partial x^2 } + {\partial^2V\over \partial y^2 } + {\partial^2V\over \partial z^2 } = 0. An analogous result for the velocity potential of a fluid had been obtained some years previously by Leonhard Euler. Laplace's subsequent work on gravitational attraction was based on this result. The quantity ∇2V has been termed the concentration of V and its value at any point indicates the "excess" of the value of V there over its mean value in the neighbourhood of the point. Laplace's equation, a special case of Poisson's equation, appears ubiquitously in mathematical physics. The concept of a potential occurs in fluid dynamics, electromagnetism and other areas. Rouse Ball speculated that it might be seen as "the outward sign" of one of the a priori forms in Kant's theory of perception. The spherical harmonics turn out to be critical to practical solutions of Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates, such as are used for mapping the sky, can be simplified, using the method of separation of variables into a radial part, depending solely on distance from the centre point, and an angular or spherical part. The solution to the spherical part of the equation can be expressed as a series of Laplace's spherical harmonics, simplifying practical computation. ==Planetary and lunar inequalities== ===Jupiter–Saturn great inequality=== Laplace presented a memoir on planetary inequalities in three sections, in 1784, 1785, and 1786. This dealt mainly with the identification and explanation of the perturbations now known as the "great Jupiter–Saturn inequality". Laplace solved a longstanding problem in the study and prediction of the movements of these planets. He showed by general considerations, first, that the mutual action of two planets could never cause large changes in the eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits; but then, even more importantly, that peculiarities arose in the Jupiter–Saturn system because of the near approach to commensurability of the mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn. In this context commensurability means that the ratio of the two planets' mean motions is very nearly equal to a ratio between a pair of small whole numbers. Two periods of Saturn's orbit around the Sun almost equal five of Jupiter's. The corresponding difference between multiples of the mean motions, , corresponds to a period of nearly 900 years, and it occurs as a small divisor in the integration of a very small perturbing force with this same period. As a result, the integrated perturbations with this period are disproportionately large, about 0.8° degrees of arc in orbital longitude for Saturn and about 0.3° for Jupiter. Further developments of these theorems on planetary motion were given in his two memoirs of 1788 and 1789, but with the aid of Laplace's discoveries, the tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn could at last be made much more accurate. It was on the basis of Laplace's theory that Delambre computed his astronomical tables. ===Books=== Laplace now set himself the task to write a work which should "offer a complete solution of the great mechanical problem presented by the Solar System, and bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical equations should no longer find a place in astronomical tables." The result is embodied in the Exposition du système du monde and the Mécanique céleste. The former was published in 1796, and gives a general explanation of the phenomena, but omits all details. It contains a summary of the history of astronomy. This summary procured for its author the honour of admission to the forty of the French Academy and is commonly esteemed one of the masterpieces of French literature, though it is not altogether reliable for the later periods of which it treats. Laplace developed the nebular hypothesis of the formation of the Solar System, first suggested by Emanuel Swedenborg and expanded by Immanuel Kant, a hypothesis that continues to dominate accounts of the origin of planetary systems. According to Laplace's description of the hypothesis, the Solar System had evolved from a globular mass of incandescent gas rotating around an axis through its centre of mass. As it cooled, this mass contracted, and successive rings broke off from its outer edge. These rings in their turn cooled, and finally condensed into the planets, while the Sun represented the central core which was still left. On this view, Laplace predicted that the more distant planets would be older than those nearer the Sun.Owen, T. C. (2001) "Solar system: origin of the solar system", Encyclopædia Britannica, Deluxe CDROM edition As mentioned, the idea of the nebular hypothesis had been outlined by Immanuel Kant in 1755, and he had also suggested "meteoric aggregations" and tidal friction as causes affecting the formation of the Solar System. Laplace was probably aware of this, but, like many writers of his time, he generally did not reference the work of others. Laplace's analytical discussion of the Solar System is given in his Mécanique céleste published in five volumes. The first two volumes, published in 1799, contain methods for calculating the motions of the planets, determining their figures, and resolving tidal problems. The third and fourth volumes, published in 1802 and 1805, contain applications of these methods, and several astronomical tables. The fifth volume, published in 1825, is mainly historical, but it gives as appendices the results of Laplace's latest researches. Laplace's own investigations embodied in it are so numerous and valuable that it is regrettable to have to add that many results are appropriated from other writers with scanty or no acknowledgement, and the conclusions — which have been described as the organised result of a century of patient toil — are frequently mentioned as if they were due to Laplace. alt=First pages to Exposition du Système du Monde (1799)|thumb|150x150px|First pages to Exposition du Système du Monde (1799) Jean-Baptiste Biot, who assisted Laplace in revising it for the press, says that Laplace himself was frequently unable to recover the details in the chain of reasoning, and, if satisfied that the conclusions were correct, he was content to insert the constantly recurring formula, "Il est aisé à voir que ... " ("It is easy to see that ..."). The Mécanique céleste is not only the translation of Newton's Principia into the language of the differential calculus, but it completes parts of which Newton had been unable to fill in the details. The work was carried forward in a more finely tuned form in Félix Tisserand's Traité de mécanique céleste (1889–1896), but Laplace's treatise will always remain a standard authority. In the years 1784–1787, Laplace produced some memoirs of exceptional power. The significant among these was one issued in 1784, and reprinted in the third volume of the Méchanique céleste. In this work he completely determined the attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is known for the introduction into analysis of the potential, a useful mathematical concept of broad applicability to the physical sciences. ==Black holes== Laplace also came close to propounding the concept of the black hole. He suggested that there could be massive stars whose gravity is so great that not even light could escape from their surface (see escape velocity).Laplace, P.-S. (1799). Allgemeine geographische Ephemeriden herausgegeben von F. von Zach. IV. Band, I. Stück, I. Abhandlung, Weimar; translation in English: Colin Montgomery, Wayne Orchiston and Ian Whittingham, "Michell, Laplace and the origin of the Black Hole Concept" , Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 12(2), 90–96 (2009).See Israel (1987), sec. 7.2. However, this insight was so far ahead of its time that it played no role in the history of scientific development.Gribbin, 299 ==Arcueil== In 1806, Laplace bought a house in Arcueil, then a village and not yet absorbed into the Paris conurbation. The chemist Claude Louis Berthollet was a neighbour – their gardens were not separatedFourier (1829). – and the pair formed the nucleus of an informal scientific circle, latterly known as the Society of Arcueil. Because of their closeness to Napoleon, Laplace and Berthollet effectively controlled advancement in the scientific establishment and admission to the more prestigious offices. The Society built up a complex pyramid of patronage.Crosland (1967), p. 1 In 1806, Laplace was also elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. ==Analytic theory of probabilities== In 1812, Laplace issued his Théorie analytique des probabilités in which he laid down many fundamental results in statistics. The first half of this treatise was concerned with probability methods and problems, the second half with statistical methods and applications. Laplace's proofs are not always rigorous according to the standards of a later day, and his perspective slides back and forth between the Bayesian and non-Bayesian views with an ease that makes some of his investigations difficult to follow, but his conclusions remain basically sound even in those few situations where his analysis goes astray. In 1819, he published a popular account of his work on probability. This book bears the same relation to the Théorie des probabilités that the Système du monde does to the Méchanique céleste. In its emphasis on the analytical importance of probabilistic problems, especially in the context of the "approximation of formula functions of large numbers," Laplace's work goes beyond the contemporary view which almost exclusively considered aspects of practical applicability. Laplace's Théorie analytique remained the most influential book of mathematical probability theory to the end of the 19th century. The general relevance for statistics of Laplacian error theory was appreciated only by the end of the 19th century. However, it influenced the further development of a largely analytically oriented probability theory. ===Inductive probability=== In his Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (1814), Laplace set out a mathematical system of inductive reasoning based on probability, which we would today recognise as Bayesian. He begins the text with a series of principles of probability, the first six being: # Probability is the ratio of the "favored events" to the total possible events. # The first principle assumes equal probabilities for all events. When this is not true, we must first determine the probabilities of each event. Then, the probability is the sum of the probabilities of all possible favoured events. # For independent events, the probability of the occurrence of all is the probability of each multiplied together. # For events not independent, the probability of event B following event A (or event A causing B) is the probability of A multiplied by the probability that, given A, B will occur. # The probability that A will occur, given that B has occurred, is the probability of A and B occurring divided by the probability of B. # Three corollaries are given for the sixth principle, which amount to Bayesian probability. Where event } exhausts the list of possible causes for event B, . Then ::: \Pr(A_i \mid B) = \Pr(A_i)\frac{\Pr(B\mid A_i)}{\sum_j \Pr(A_j)\Pr(B\mid A_j)}. One well-known formula arising from his system is the rule of succession, given as principle seven. Suppose that some trial has only two possible outcomes, labelled "success" and "failure". Under the assumption that little or nothing is known a priori about the relative plausibilities of the outcomes, Laplace derived a formula for the probability that the next trial will be a success. :\Pr(\text{next outcome is success}) = \frac{s+1}{n+2} where s is the number of previously observed successes and n is the total number of observed trials. It is still used as an estimator for the probability of an event if we know the event space, but have only a small number of samples. The rule of succession has been subject to much criticism, partly due to the example which Laplace chose to illustrate it. He calculated that the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow, given that it has never failed to in the past, was :\Pr(\text{sun will rise tomorrow}) = \frac{d+1}{d+2} where d is the number of times the sun has risen in the past. This result has been derided as absurd, and some authors have concluded that all applications of the Rule of Succession are absurd by extension. However, Laplace was fully aware of the absurdity of the result; immediately following the example, he wrote, "But this number [i.e., the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at the present moment can arrest the course of it."Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and Frederick Lincoln Emory. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1902, p. 19. Dover Publications edition (New York, 1951) has same pagination. ===Probability-generating function=== The method of estimating the ratio of the number of favourable cases to the whole number of possible cases had been previously indicated by Laplace in a paper written in 1779. It consists of treating the successive values of any function as the coefficients in the expansion of another function, with reference to a different variable. The latter is therefore called the probability-generating function of the former. Laplace then shows how, by means of interpolation, these coefficients may be determined from the generating function. Next he attacks the converse problem, and from the coefficients he finds the generating function; this is effected by the solution of a finite difference equation. ===Least squares and central limit theorem=== The fourth chapter of this treatise includes an exposition of the method of least squares, a remarkable testimony to Laplace's command over the processes of analysis. In 1805 Legendre had published the method of least squares, making no attempt to tie it to the theory of probability. In 1809 Gauss had derived the normal distribution from the principle that the arithmetic mean of observations gives the most probable value for the quantity measured; then, turning this argument back upon itself, he showed that, if the errors of observation are normally distributed, the least squares estimates give the most probable values for the coefficients in regression situations. These two works seem to have spurred Laplace to complete work toward a treatise on probability he had contemplated as early as 1783.Stigler, 1975 In two important papers in 1810 and 1811, Laplace first developed the characteristic function as a tool for large-sample theory and proved the first general central limit theorem. Then in a supplement to his 1810 paper written after he had seen Gauss's work, he showed that the central limit theorem provided a Bayesian justification for least squares: if one were combining observations, each one of which was itself the mean of a large number of independent observations, then the least squares estimates would not only maximise the likelihood function, considered as a posterior distribution, but also minimise the expected posterior error, all this without any assumption as to the error distribution or a circular appeal to the principle of the arithmetic mean. In 1811 Laplace took a different non-Bayesian tack. Considering a linear regression problem, he restricted his attention to linear unbiased estimators of the linear coefficients. After showing that members of this class were approximately normally distributed if the number of observations was large, he argued that least squares provided the "best" linear estimators. Here it is "best" in the sense that it minimised the asymptotic variance and thus both minimised the expected absolute value of the error, and maximised the probability that the estimate would lie in any symmetric interval about the unknown coefficient, no matter what the error distribution. His derivation included the joint limiting distribution of the least squares estimators of two parameters. ==Laplace's demon== In 1814, Laplace published what may have been the first scientific articulation of causal determinism: This intellect is often referred to as Laplace's demon (in the same vein as Maxwell's demon) and sometimes Laplace's Superman (after Hans Reichenbach). Laplace, himself, did not use the word "demon", which was a later embellishment. As translated into English above, he simply referred to: "Une intelligence ... Rien ne serait incertain pour elle, et l'avenir comme le passé, serait présent à ses yeux." Even though Laplace is generally credited with having first formulated the concept of causal determinism, in a philosophical context the idea was actually widespread at the time, and can be found as early as 1756 in Maupertuis' 'Sur la Divination'. As well, Jesuit scientist Boscovich first proposed a version of scientific determinism very similar to Laplace's in his 1758 book Theoria philosophiae naturalis. ==Laplace transforms== As early as 1744, Euler, followed by Lagrange, had started looking for solutions of differential equations in the form:Grattan- Guinness, in Gillispie (1997), p. 260 : z = \int X(x) e^{ax} \,dx\text{ and }z = \int X(x) x^a \,dx. The Laplace transform has the form: : F(s) = \int f(t) e^{-st}\,dt This integral operator transforms a function of time (t) into a function of a complex variable (s), usually interpreted as complex frequency. ==Other discoveries and accomplishments== ===Mathematics=== Among the other discoveries of Laplace in pure and applied mathematics are: * Discussion, contemporaneously with Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde, of the general theory of determinants, (1772); * Proof that every equation of an odd degree must have at least one real quadratic factor; * Laplace's method for approximating integrals * Solution of the linear partial differential equation of the second order; * He was the first to consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that the solution of an equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order might always be obtained in the form of a continued fraction; * In his theory of probabilities: ** de Moivre–Laplace theorem that approximates binomial distribution with a normal distribution ** Evaluation of several common definite integrals; ** General proof of the Lagrange reversion theorem. ===Surface tension=== Laplace built upon the qualitative work of Thomas Young to develop the theory of capillary action and the Young–Laplace equation. ===Speed of sound=== Laplace in 1816 was the first to point out that the speed of sound in air depends on the heat capacity ratio. Newton's original theory gave too low a value, because it does not take account of the adiabatic compression of the air which results in a local rise in temperature and pressure. Laplace's investigations in practical physics were confined to those carried on by him jointly with Lavoisier in the years 1782 to 1784 on the specific heat of various bodies. ==Politics== ===Minister of the Interior=== In his early years Laplace was careful never to become involved in politics, or indeed in life outside the Académie des sciences. He prudently withdrew from Paris during the most violent part of the Revolution.Crosland (2006), p. 30 In November 1799, immediately after seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon appointed Laplace to the post of Minister of the Interior. The appointment, however, lasted only six weeks, after which Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was given the post. Evidently, once Napoleon's grip on power was secure, there was no need for a prestigious but inexperienced scientist in the government.Grattan-Guinness (2005), p. 333 Napoleon later (in his Mémoires de Sainte Hélène) wrote of Laplace's dismissal as follows: Grattan-Guinness, however, describes these remarks as "tendentious", since there seems to be no doubt that Laplace "was only appointed as a short-term figurehead, a place-holder while Napoleon consolidated power". ===From Bonaparte to the Bourbons=== thumb|left|upright|Laplace. Although Laplace was removed from office, it was desirable to retain his allegiance. He was accordingly raised to the senate, and to the third volume of the Mécanique céleste he prefixed a note that of all the truths therein contained the most precious to the author was the declaration he thus made of his devotion towards the peacemaker of Europe. In copies sold after the Bourbon Restoration this was struck out. (Pearson points out that the censor would not have allowed it anyway.) In 1814 it was evident that the empire was falling; Laplace hastened to tender his services to the Bourbons, and in 1817 during the Restoration he was rewarded with the title of marquis. According to Rouse Ball, the contempt that his more honest colleagues felt for his conduct in the matter may be read in the pages of Paul Louis Courier. His knowledge was useful on the numerous scientific commissions on which he served, and, says Rouse Ball, probably accounts for the manner in which his political insincerity was overlooked. Roger Hahn in his 2005 biography disputes this portrayal of Laplace as an opportunist and turncoat, pointing out that, like many in France, he had followed the debacle of Napoleon's Russian campaign with serious misgivings. The Laplaces, whose only daughter Sophie had died in childbirth in September 1813, were in fear for the safety of their son Émile, who was on the eastern front with the emperor. Napoleon had originally come to power promising stability, but it was clear that he had overextended himself, putting the nation at peril. It was at this point that Laplace's loyalty began to weaken. Although he still had easy access to Napoleon, his personal relations with the emperor cooled considerably. As a grieving father, he was particularly cut to the quick by Napoleon's insensitivity in an exchange related by Jean-Antoine Chaptal: "On his return from the rout in Leipzig, he [Napoleon] accosted Mr Laplace: 'Oh! I see that you have grown thin—Sire, I have lost my daughter—Oh! that's not a reason for losing weight. You are a mathematician; put this event in an equation, and you will find that it adds up to zero.'"Hahn (2005), p. 191 ===Political philosophy=== In the second edition (1814) of the Essai philosophique, Laplace added some revealing comments on politics and governance. Since it is, he says, "the practice of the eternal principles of reason, justice and humanity that produce and preserve societies, there is a great advantage to adhere to these principles, and a great inadvisability to deviate from them".Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, p. 62. (Translation in this paragraph of article is from Hahn.)Hahn (2005), p. 184 Noting "the depths of misery into which peoples have been cast" when ambitious leaders disregard these principles, Laplace makes a veiled criticism of Napoleon's conduct: "Every time a great power intoxicated by the love of conquest aspires to universal domination, the sense of liberty among the unjustly threatened nations breeds a coalition to which it always succumbs." Laplace argues that "in the midst of the multiple causes that direct and restrain various states, natural limits" operate, within which it is "important for the stability as well as the prosperity of empires to remain". States that transgress these limits cannot avoid being "reverted" to them, "just as is the case when the waters of the seas whose floor has been lifted by violent tempests sink back to their level by the action of gravity".Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, p. 63. (Translation in this paragraph of article is from Hahn.)Hahn (2005), p. 185 About the political upheavals he had witnessed, Laplace formulated a set of principles derived from physics to favour evolutionary over revolutionary change: In these lines, Laplace expressed the views he had arrived at after experiencing the Revolution and the Empire. He believed that the stability of nature, as revealed through scientific findings, provided the model that best helped to preserve the human species. "Such views," Hahn comments, "were also of a piece with his steadfast character." In the Essai philosophique, Laplace also illustrates the potential of probabilities in political studies by applying the law of large numbers to justify the candidates’ integer-valued ranks used in the Borda method of voting, with which the new members of the Academy of Sciences were elected. Laplace’s verbal argument is so rigorous that it can easily be converted into a formal proof. ==Death== thumb|right|Tomb of Pierre- Simon Laplace Laplace died in Paris on 5 March 1827, which was the same day Alessandro Volta died. His brain was removed by his physician, François Magendie, and kept for many years, eventually being displayed in a roving anatomical museum in Britain. It was reportedly smaller than the average brain. Laplace was buried at Père Lachaise in Paris but in 1888 his remains were moved to Saint Julien de Mailloc in the canton of Orbec and reinterred on the family estate.Gillispie (1997), p. 278 The tomb is situated on a hill overlooking the village of St Julien de Mailloc, Normandy, France. ==Religious opinions== ===I had no need of that hypothesis=== A frequently cited but potentially apocryphal interaction between Laplace and Napoleon purportedly concerns the existence of God. Although the conversation in question did occur, the exact words Laplace used and his intended meaning are not known. A typical version is provided by Rouse Ball: An earlier report, although without the mention of Laplace's name, is found in Antommarchi's The Last Moments of Napoleon (1825):p. 282, Mémoires du docteur F. Antommarchi, ou les derniers momens de Napoléon, vol. 1, 1825, Paris: Barrois L'Ainé In 1884, however, the astronomer Hervé FayeFaye, Hervé (1884), Sur l'origine du monde: théories cosmogoniques des anciens et des modernes. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, pp. 109–111Pasquier, Ernest (1898). "Les hypothèses cosmogoniques (suite)". Revue néo-scholastique, 5o année, No 18, pp. 124–125, footnote 1. affirmed that this account of Laplace's exchange with Napoleon presented a "strangely transformed" (étrangement transformée) or garbled version of what had actually happened. It was not God that Laplace had treated as a hypothesis, but merely his intervention at a determinate point: Laplace's younger colleague, the astronomer François Arago, who gave his eulogy before the French Academy in 1827,Arago, François (1827), Laplace: Eulogy before the French Academy, translated by Prof. Baden Powell, Smithsonian Report, 1874 told Faye of an attempt by Laplace to keep the garbled version of his interaction with Napoleon out of circulation. Faye writes: The Swiss-American historian of mathematics Florian Cajori appears to have been unaware of Faye's research, but in 1893 he came to a similar conclusion.Cajori, Florian (1893), A History of Mathematics. Fifth edition (1991), reprinted by the American Mathematical Society, 1999, p. 262. Stephen Hawking said in 1999, "I don't think that Laplace was claiming that God does not exist. It's just that he doesn't intervene, to break the laws of Science." The only eyewitness account of Laplace's interaction with Napoleon is from the entry for 8 August 1802 in the diary of the British astronomer Sir William Herschel:William Herschel's diary of his trip to Paris, as quoted on p. 310 of The Herschel Chronicle, Constance A. Lubbock, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, . Since this makes no mention of Laplace's saying, "I had no need of that hypothesis," Daniel JohnsonJohnson, Daniel (18 June 2007), "The Hypothetical Atheist", Commentary. argues that "Laplace never used the words attributed to him." Arago's testimony, however, appears to imply that he did, only not in reference to the existence of God. ===Views on God=== Raised a Catholic, Laplace appears in adult life to have inclined to deism (presumably his considered position, since it is the only one found in his writings). However, some of his contemporaries thought he was an atheist, while a number of recent scholars have described him as agnostic. Faye thought that Laplace "did not profess atheism", but Napoleon, on Saint Helena, told General Gaspard Gourgaud, "I often asked Laplace what he thought of God. He owned that he was an atheist."Talks of Napoleon at St. Helena with General Baron Gourgaud, translated by Elizabeth Wormely Latimer. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1903, p. 276. Roger Hahn, in his biography of Laplace, mentions a dinner party at which "the geologist Jean-Étienne Guettard was staggered by Laplace's bold denunciation of the existence of God". It appeared to Guettard that Laplace's atheism "was supported by a thoroughgoing materialism".Hahn (2005), p. 67. But the chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, who knew Laplace well in the 1820s, wrote that Laplace "provided materialists with their specious arguments, without sharing their convictions".Dumas, Jean-Baptiste (1885). Discours et éloges académiques, Vol. II. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, p. 255.Kneller, Karl Alois. Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science: A Contribution to the History of Culture in the Nineteenth Century, translated from the second German edition by T.M. Kettle. London: B. Herder, 1911, pp. 73–74. Hahn states: "Nowhere in his writings, either public or private, does Laplace deny God's existence."Hahn (1981), p. 95. Expressions occur in his private letters that appear inconsistent with atheism. On 17 June 1809, for instance, he wrote to his son, "Je prie Dieu qu'il veille sur tes jours. Aie-Le toujours présent à ta pensée, ainsi que ton père et ta mère [I pray that God watches over your days. Let Him be always present to your mind, as also your father and your mother]."Œuvres de Laplace. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1878, Vol. I, pp. v–vi. Ian S. Glass, quoting Herschel's account of the celebrated exchange with Napoleon, writes that Laplace was "evidently a deist like Herschel".Glass, Ian S. (2006). Revolutionaries of the Cosmos: The Astrophysicists. Cambridge University Press, p. 108. . In Exposition du système du monde, Laplace quotes Newton's assertion that "the wondrous disposition of the Sun, the planets and the comets, can only be the work of an all-powerful and intelligent Being".General Scholium, from the end of Book III of the Principia; first appeared in the second edition, 1713. This, says Laplace, is a "thought in which he [Newton] would be even more confirmed, if he had known what we have shown, namely that the conditions of the arrangement of the planets and their satellites are precisely those which ensure its stability".Laplace, Exposition du système du monde, 6th edition. Brussels, 1827, pp. 522–523. By showing that the "remarkable" arrangement of the planets could be entirely explained by the laws of motion, Laplace had eliminated the need for the "supreme intelligence" to intervene, as Newton had "made" it do.Laplace, Exposition, 1827, p. 523. Laplace cites with approval Leibniz's criticism of Newton's invocation of divine intervention to restore order to the Solar System: "This is to have very narrow ideas about the wisdom and the power of God."Leibniz to Conti, Nov. or Dec. 1715, in H.G. Alexander, ed., The Leibniz–Clarke Correspondence (Manchester University Press, 1956), Appendix B. 1: "Leibniz and Newton to Conti", p. 185 ; cited in Laplace, Exposition, 1827, p. 524. He evidently shared Leibniz's astonishment at Newton's belief "that God has made his machine so badly that unless he affects it by some extraordinary means, the watch will very soon cease to go".Leibniz to Conti, 1715, in Alexander, ed., 1956, p. 185. In a group of manuscripts, preserved in relative secrecy in a black envelope in the library of the Académie des sciences and published for the first time by Hahn, Laplace mounted a deist critique of Christianity. It is, he writes, the "first and most infallible of principles ... to reject miraculous facts as untrue".Hahn (2005), p. 220. As for the doctrine of transubstantiation, it "offends at the same time reason, experience, the testimony of all our senses, the eternal laws of nature, and the sublime ideas that we ought to form of the Supreme Being". It is the sheerest absurdity to suppose that "the sovereign lawgiver of the universe would suspend the laws that he has established, and which he seems to have maintained invariably".Hahn (2005), p. 223. Laplace also ridiculed the use of probability in theology. Even following Pascal's reasoning presented in Pascal's wager, it is not worth making a bet, for the hope of profit – equal to the product of the value of the testimonies (infinitely small) and the value of the happiness they promise (which is significant but finite) – must necessarily be infinitely small. In old age, Laplace remained curious about the question of GodHahn (2005), p. 202. and frequently discussed Christianity with the Swiss astronomer Jean-Frédéric-Théodore Maurice.Hahn (2005), pp. 202, 233. He told Maurice that "Christianity is quite a beautiful thing" and praised its civilising influence. Maurice thought that the basis of Laplace's beliefs was, little by little, being modified, but that he held fast to his conviction that the invariability of the laws of nature did not permit of supernatural events. After Laplace's death, Poisson told Maurice, "You know that I do not share your [religious] opinions, but my conscience forces me to recount something that will surely please you." When Poisson had complimented Laplace about his "brilliant discoveries", the dying man had fixed him with a pensive look and replied, "Ah! We chase after phantoms [chimères]."De Morgan, Augustus (1872). A budget of paradoxes, Longmans, Green, and co, London, p. 3. Compare Edmund Burke's famous remark, occasioned by a parliamentary candidate's sudden death, about "what shadows we are, and what shadows we pursue". These were his last words, interpreted by Maurice as a realisation of the ultimate "vanity" of earthly pursuits.Hahn (2005), p. 204. Laplace received the last rites from the curé of the Missions Étrangères (in whose parish he was to be buried) and the curé of Arcueil. According to his biographer, Roger Hahn, it is "not credible" that Laplace "had a proper Catholic end", and he "remained a skeptic" to the very end of his life. Laplace in his last years has been described as an agnostic. ===Excommunication of a comet=== In 1470 the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote that Pope Callixtus III had asked for prayers for deliverance from the Turks during a 1456 appearance of Halley's Comet. Platina's account does not accord with Church records, which do not mention the comet. Laplace is alleged to have embellished the story by claiming the Pope had "excommunicated" Halley's comet. What Laplace actually said, in Exposition du système du monde (1796), was that the Pope had ordered the comet to be "exorcised" (conjuré). It was Arago, in Des Comètes en général (1832), who first spoke of an excommunication.Rigge, William F. (04/1910), "An Historical Examination of the Connection of Calixtus III with Halley's Comet", Popular Astronomy, Vol. 18, pp. 214–219 ==Honors== * Correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1809. * Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. * The asteroid 4628 Laplace is named for Laplace. * A spur of the Montes Jura on the Moon is known as Promontorium Laplace. * His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. * The tentative working name of the European Space Agency Europa Jupiter System Mission is the "Laplace" space probe. * A train station in the RER B in Arcueil bears his name. * A street in Verkhnetemernitsky (near Rostov-on-Don, Russia). ==Quotations== * I had no need of that hypothesis. ("Je n'avais pas besoin de cette hypothèse-là", allegedly as a reply to Napoleon, who had asked why he hadn't mentioned God in his book on astronomy.) * It is therefore obvious that ... (Frequently used in the Celestial Mechanics when he had proved something and mislaid the proof, or found it clumsy. Notorious as a signal for something true, but hard to prove.) * "We are so far from knowing all the agents of nature and their diverse modes of action that it would not be philosophical to deny phenomena solely because they are inexplicable in the actual state of our knowledge. But we ought to examine them with an attention all the more scrupulous as it appears more difficult to admit them." ** This is restated in Theodore Flournoy's work From India to the Planet Mars as the Principle of Laplace or, "The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts."* ** Most often repeated as "The weight of evidence for an extraordinary claim must be proportioned to its strangeness." (see also: Sagan standard) * This simplicity of ratios will not appear astonishing if we consider that all the effects of nature are only mathematical results of a small number of immutable laws.Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, p. 177. * Infinitely varied in her effects, nature is only simple in her causes.Laplace, The System of the World, Dublin, 1830, p. 91. * What we know is little, and what we are ignorant of is immense. (Fourier comments: "This was at least the meaning of his last words, which were articulated with difficulty.") * One sees in this essay that the theory of probabilities is basically only common sense reduced to a calculus. It makes one estimate accurately what right-minded people feel by a sort of instinct, often without being able to give a reason for it. == List of works == * * * * * * * File:Laplace-1.jpg|Volumes 1-5 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799) File:Laplace-2.jpg|Title page to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799) File:Laplace-3.jpg|Table of contents to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799) File:Laplace-4.jpg|First page of Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799) ==Bibliography== * Œuvres complètes de Laplace, 14 vol. (1878–1912), Paris: Gauthier-Villars (copy from Gallica in French) * Théorie du movement et de la figure elliptique des planètes (1784) Paris (not in Œuvres complètes) * Précis de l'histoire de l'astronomie * Alphonse Rebière, Mathématiques et mathématiciens, 3rd edition Paris, Nony & Cie, 1898. ===English translations=== * alt=Volumes 1 and 2 of "System of the World" (1809)|thumb|246x246px|Volumes 1 and 2 of "System of the World" (1809)Bowditch, N. (trans.) (1829–1839) Mécanique céleste, 4 vols, Boston ** New edition by Reprint Services * – [1829–1839] (1966–1969) Celestial Mechanics, 5 vols, including the original French * Pound, J. (trans.) (1809) The System of the World, 2 vols, London: Richard Phillips * _ The System of the World (v.1) * _ The System of the World (v.2) * – [1809] (2007) The System of the World, vol.1, Kessinger, * Toplis, J. (trans.) (1814) A treatise upon analytical mechanics Nottingham: H. Barnett * , translated from the French 6th ed. (1840) ** * , translated from the French 5th ed. (1825) ==See also== * History of the metre * Laplace–Bayes estimator * Ratio estimator * Seconds pendulum * List of things named after Pierre-Simon Laplace * Pascal's wager == References == === Citations === === General sources === * * * * – (2006) "A Science Empire in Napoleonic France", History of Science, vol. 44, pp. 29–48 * * David, F. N. (1965) "Some notes on Laplace", in Neyman, J. & LeCam, L. M. (eds) Bernoulli, Bayes and Laplace, Berlin, pp. 30–44. * * * * * * , delivered 15 June 1829, published in 1831. * * * Grattan-Guinness, I., 2005, "'Exposition du système du monde' and 'Traité de méchanique céleste'" in his Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 242–57. * Gribbin, John. The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. New York, Random House, 2002. p. 299\. * * – (1981) "Laplace and the Vanishing Role of God in the Physical Universe", in Woolf, Henry, ed., The Analytic Spirit: Essays in the History of Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. . * * * * * (1999) * * Rouse Ball, W.W. [1908] (2003) "Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827)", in A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th ed., Dover, Also available at Project Gutenberg. * * * Whitrow, G. J. (2001) "Laplace, Pierre-Simon, marquis de", Encyclopædia Britannica, Deluxe CDROM edition * * * * ==External links== * * "Pierre-Simon Laplace" in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. * * Guide to the Pierre Simon Laplace Papers at The Bancroft Library * * English translation of a large part of Laplace's work in probability and statistics, provided by Richard Pulskamp * Pierre-Simon Laplace – Œuvres complètes (last 7 volumes only) Gallica-Math * "Sur le mouvement d'un corps qui tombe d'une grande hauteur" (Laplace 1803), online and analysed on BibNum (English). Category:1749 births Category:1827 deaths Category:People from Calvados (department) Category:18th-century French mathematicians Category:19th-century French mathematicians Category:Counts of the First French Empire Category:Determinists Category:Enlightenment scientists Category:French agnostics Category:French deists Category:18th-century French astronomers Category:French marquesses Category:French physicists Category:Fluid dynamicists Category:Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour Category:Mathematical analysts Category:Linear algebraists Category:Members of the Académie Française Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Probability theorists Category:French interior ministers Category:Theoretical physicists Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:University of Caen Normandy alumni
|
Hinduism is the largest religion in the Indian subcontinent, and the third largest religion in the world. Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world, and many practitioners refer to Hinduism as "the eternal law" (). Within this faith, there are four major traditions or denominations, namely, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. There also exist a number of minor traditions, such as Ganapatism and Saurism. The religion is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs, and hence the concept of God, and the number of deities, rests upon the philosophy and the tradition that make up a devotee's adherence. The faith is described by some to be monotheistic, where all deities are believed to be forms of Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, as popularised by the Advaita philosophy. It is also widely regarded to be polytheistic and henotheistic, though this is also considered to be a form of overgeneralisation. == Deities == The Trimurti are the most prominent deities of contemporary Hinduism. This consists of Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu, the Preserver, and Shiva, the Destroyer. Their feminine counterparts are Saraswati, the wife of Brahma, Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, and Parvati (or Durga), the wife of Shiva. thumb|Statue of Brahma ===Brahma=== Brahma is the god of creation, and the first of the Trimurti. His consort, as well as his shakti (divine energy), is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. He is identified with the Vedic creator god, Prajapati. His abode is at Satyaloka. The deity is said to have been born out of a lotus that grew out of the navel of Vishnu. He was given the four Vedas by Vishnu, and instructed to commence the act of creation. Brahma is not widely revered in contemporary Hinduism, as no major tradition emerged around his worship, as they did for Vishnu and Shiva. Some of the epithets offered to Brahma include: * Vedanatha * Chaturmukha * Prajapati * Hiranyagarbha * Vedagarbha * Kaushala thumb|Statue of Vishnu ===Vishnu=== Vishnu is the god of preservation, and the second of the Trimurti. He is generally regarded to be the entity who is most often involved in mortal affairs. His consort, as well as his shakti (divine energy), is Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity. His abode is at Vaikuntha, where he reclines on the divine serpent, Adishesha. He is regarded to have undertaken ten major incarnations upon the earth for the restoration of dharma and cosmic order, for the sake of the devas and human beings. The most prominent of these incarnations are Rama and Krishna. His adherents are called the Vaishnavas, who regard him to be the supreme deity. Some of the epithets and forms of the preserver deity are: * Vithoba * Narayana * Perumal * Jagannatha * Hayagriva * Achyuta * Madhava * Venkateshwara * Guruvayurappan * Vaikuntha Chaturmurti * Vaikuntha Kamalaja * Lakshmi Narayana * Krishna * Vishvarupa * Ranganatha * Dashavatara * Madhusudana * Padmanabha * Hari * Upulvan * Purushottama * Vasudeva * Govinda * Caturvyūha *Keshava ==== Dashavatara ==== The Dashavatara refers to the ten major incarnations of Vishnu: * Matsya, the fish * Kurma, the tortoise * Varaha, the boar * Narasimha, the man-lion * Vamana, the dwarf * Parashurama, the Brahmin warrior * Rama, the king, and the hero of the epic Ramayana * Krishna, a central character in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita * Buddha, the deluder of the asuras * Kalki, the vanquisher of adharma, expected to appear at the end of the Kali Yuga Balarama, the elder brother of Krishna, is sometimes featured as an avatar of Vishnu in the lists of the Puranas, replacing Buddha, though he is also widely considered in other traditions to be a form of Shesha, the serpent of Vishnu. Other significant forms of Vishnu include Prithu, Mohini, Dhanvantari, Kapila, Yajna, and a third of Dattatreya. thumb|Statue of Shiva ===Shiva=== Shiva is the god of destruction, and the third of the Trimurti. His consort, as well as his shakti (divine energy), is Parvati, the goddess of power. His abode is upon the mountain Kailasha. He is often represented with two sons, Kartikeya and Ganesha. His mount is the bull called Nandi. He is usually depicted with a third eye, a crescent upon his forehead, the Ganges flowing from his head, and a blue throat occasioned by consuming the kalakuta poison produced at the churning of the ocean. His adherents are called Shaivas, who regard him to be the supreme deity. Some of the epithets of the destroyer deity are: * Hara * Rudra * Virupaksha * Manjunatha * Bholenath *Maheshwara ==== Avatars ==== Some of the major avatars and forms associated with Shiva include: * Veerabhadra * Lingam * Jyotirlinga * Dakshinamurthy * Bhairava * Pashupati * Khandoba * Durvasa * Nataraja * Ardhanarishvara * Tripurantaka * Mahakala * Sharabha * Ravananugraha * Vaidheeswara * Lingodbhava * Somaskanda * Bhikshatana * Dattatreya The Tridevi comprises the consorts of the Trimurti, as well as each of their shakti. They are the primary goddesses in contemporary Hinduism, believed to assist their respective consorts in their acts of creation, preservation, and destruction in the universe. thumb|Statue of Saraswati === Saraswati === Saraswati is the goddess of learning, and also the patroness of music, art, and speech. The goddess is also regarded to be the power that resides within all poetry and writing. She is the consort of the creator deity, Brahma. She is represented as a graceful figure, donning white, and traditionally depicted with the veena (vīṇā), rosary (akṣamālā), water-pot (kamaṇḍalu) and book (pustaka). Her abode is at Satyaloka. Her mount is the white swan. Saraswati is associated with the following forms: * Savitri * Vani * Brahmani * Maha Saraswati * Gayatri * Vāc * Para Saraswati * Shatarupa * Medha * Sharada * Bharati * Aditi thumb|Sculpture of Lakshmi === Lakshmi === Lakshmi is the goddess of prosperity, associated with material and non-material wealth, fortune, and beauty. She is the consort of the preserver deity, Vishnu. Her origin is a central part of the Samudra Manthana, a significant event in the Puranas. According to the Lakshmi Tantra, the goddess Lakshmi, in her ultimate form of Mahasri, has four arms of a golden complexion, and holds a citron, a club, a shield, and a vessel containing amrita. The goddess is generally also considered to be serene and submissive to her consort. Her abode is at Vaikuntha. Her mount is typically an elephant or owl, though she is also usually seated on a lotus. ==== Avatars ==== Different manifestations of Lakshmi are - * Bhumi * Vedavati * Sita * Radha * Gopis * Rukmini * Ashtabharya * Junior wives of Krishna * Revati * Padmavathi * Niladevi * Tulasi * Rahi * Andal * Narasimhi * Varahi * Ashta Lakshmi - Adi Lakshmi, Dhana Lakshmi, Dhanya Lakshmi, Gaja Lakshmi, Santana Lakshmi, Dhairya Lakshmi, Vidya Lakshmi and Vijaya Lakshmi thumb|Sculpture of Parvati === Parvati === Parvati is the goddess of power, and is also associated with courage, fertility, and beauty. She is commonly referred to as Uma and Gauri. She is the consort of the destroyer deity, Shiva, and the daughter of Himavana. She is believed to be the reincarnation of Sati, the daughter of Daksha, who perished in the Daksha Yajna. In the Puranas, she performs a penance to marry Shiva, a celibate brahmachari, and the latter consents when he realises her true identity. When depicted alongside her consort, Parvati generally appears with two arms, but when alone, she is depicted having four, eight or ten arms, and is astride on a tiger or lion. She is generally considered to be a benevolent mother goddess, but also slays evil beings in her form of Kali. In goddess-centric traditions, Parvati is considered to be a complete incarnation of Adi Parashakti. Her abode is at Kailasha. ==== Avatars ==== In her fierce aspect of Kali, Parvati undertakes the following manifestations: * Mahakali * Bhadrakali * Sri Kali * Bhima Kali ===Other goddesses=== Communities of goddess worship are ancient in India. In the Rigveda, the most prominent goddess is Ushas, the goddess of dawn. The regional goddesses venerated in Hinduism are generally syncretised with Parvati, Lakshmi, or Adi Parashakti. Some of the major goddesses revered in modern Hinduism include: * Durga, the goddess of strength, the slayer of Durgamasura and Mahishasura * Kali, the slayer of Raktabija * Annapurna, the goddess of food and nourishment * Yogamaya or Vindhyavasini, the embodiment of Vishnu's divine energy * Shakambhari, a goddess of vegetation * Meenakshi, patron goddess of Madurai * Sati, the first consort of Shiva * Radha, the goddess of love and chief consort of Krishna * Gayatri, the personification of the Gayatri Mantra * Ganga, the goddess personification of the Ganges river * Yami, the personification of the river Yamuna * Bhramari, the goddess of bees * Kaushiki, the goddess who emerges from Parvati * Narmada, the personification of the river Narmada * Shashthi, also known as Devasena, wife of Kartikeya, the goddess of children and reproduction * Svaha, the goddess of sacrifices, daughter of Daksha and wife of Agni * Manasa, a goddess of snakes and fertility * Mariamman, the goddess of rain * Mhalsa, a regional form of either Mohini or Parvati * Renuka, mother of Parashurama * Shitala, a regional goddess of diseases * Rahi, a regional form of Radha, consort of Vithoba * Bhavani, a regional form of Parvati * Akilandeshwari, a form of Mahadevi * Devi Kanya Kumari, patron goddess of Kanyakumari In Shaivism-Shaktism, there exist nine forms of the goddess Durga, the Navadurga: * Shailaputri * Brahmacharini * Chandraghanta * Kushmanda * Skandamata * Katyayani * Kalaratri * Mahagauri * Siddhidhatri Tantric Hinduism advocates the worship of the ten forms of Mahadevi, the Mahavidyas: * Kali * Tara * Shodashi * Bhuvaneswari * Chhinnamasta * Bhairavi * Dhumavati * Bagalamukhi * Matangi * Kamalatmika A group of ten mother goddesses make up the Matrikas: * Brahmani * Maheshwari * Kaumari * Vaishnavi * Varahi * Narasimhi * Indrani * Chamunda * Vinayaki * Shivaduti == Pantheon == The Hindu pantheon is composed of deities that have developed their identities through both the scriptures of Hinduism as well as regional traditions that drew their legends from the faith. Some of the most popular deities of the Hindu pantheon include: thumb|Statue of Ganesha * Ganesha, also called Vinayaka and Ganapati, is a son of Shiva and Parvati. He is regarded to be a god of wisdom, and the remover of all obstacles. Several texts advocate his veneration before any other deity in rituals. The Ganapatya sect worships Ganesha as their chief deity. * Kartikeya, also called Murugan and Subrahmanya, is a son of Shiva and Parvati. He is the commander of the devas, and a major god of war. The Kaumaram sect worships him as their chief deity. * Ayyappan, also called Manikanta, is a regional deity, the son of Shiva and Mohini (an incarnation of Vishnu). thumb|Statue of Hanuman * Hanuman, also called Anjaneya and Maruti, is a vanara devotee of Rama. He is revered as the god of celibacy and strength. * The Navagrahas are the personifications of the nine planets, revered in Vedic astrology and several temples. * Kamadeva, also called Manmatha, is the god of love, a son of Vishnu. * Rati is the goddess of love and pleasure, the consort of Kamadeva. * Garuda is the eagle demigod mount of Vishnu. * Shesha is the serpent demigod mount of Vishnu. * Nandi is the bull mount of Shiva. ==Rigvedic deities== The Rigveda speaks of Thirty-three gods called the Trayastrinshata ('Three plus thirty'). They consist of the 12 Adityas, the 8 Vasus, the 11 Rudras and the 2 Ashvins:– Dyauṣ "Sky", Pṛthivī "Earth", Vāyu "Wind", Agni "Fire", Nakṣatra "Stars", Varuṇa "Water", Sūrya "Sun", Chandra "Moon". The Twelve Ādityas (personified deities) – Vishnu, Aryaman, Indra (Śakra), Tvāṣṭṛ, Varuṇa, Bhaga, Savitṛ, Vivasvat, Aṃśa, Mitra, Pūṣan, Dhata. Indra also called Śakra, the supreme god, is the first of the 33, followed by Agni. Some of these brother gods were invoked in pairs such as Indra-Agni, Mitra-Varuna and Soma-Rudra. thumb|Painting of Indra === Adityas === * Mitra, the god of oaths, promises, and friendships * Varuna, the god of water the seas, the oceans, and rain * Indra, also called Śakra, the king of gods, and the god of weather, storms, rain, and war * Savitr, the god of the morning sun; associated with Surya * Aṃśa, solar deity; associated with Surya * Aryaman the god of customs, hospitality, and marriages * Bhaga, god of fortune * Vivasvan, the god of the sun * Tvāṣṭṛ, the god of architecture and smithing; blacksmith of the gods * Pūshan, patron god of travellers and herdsmen, god of roads, * Dhāta, god of health and magic, also called Dhūti * Vamana avatar of Vishnu === Rudras === The Ramayana tells they are eleven of the 33 children of the sage Kashyapa and his wife Aditi, along with the 12 Adityas, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins, constituting the Thirty-three gods.Mani pp. 654–5 The Vamana Purana describes the Rudras as the sons of Kashyapa and Aditi. The Matsya Purana notes that Surabhi – the mother of all cows and the "cow of plenty" – was the consort of Brahma and their union produced the eleven Rudras. Here they are named: Nirriti, Shambhu, Aparajita, Mrigavyadha, Kapardi, Dahana, Khara, Ahirabradhya, Kapali, Pingala and Senani. Brahma allotted to the Rudras the eleven positions of the heart and the five sensory organs, the five organs of action and the mind.Daniélou, Alain (1991). The myths and gods of India. Inner Traditions International. pp. 102–4, 341, 371. .Mani, Vettam (1975). Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. . thumb|Statue of Surya ===Vasus=== The Vasus serve as the assistants of Indra and of Vishnu. * Agni the "Fire" god, also called Anala or "living", * Varuna the "Water" and "Ocean" god, also called Samudradeva or Apa, * Vāyu the "Wind" and "Air" god, also called Anila ("wind"), * Dyauṣ the "Sky" god, also called Dyeus and Prabhāsa or the "shining dawn", also called akasha or sky, * Pṛthivī the "Earth" goddess/god, also called Dharā or "support" and Bhumi or Earth, * Sūrya the "Sun" god, also called Pratyūsha, ("break of dawn", but often used to mean simply "light"), the Saura sect worships Sūrya as their chief deity, also called Anshuman, * Soma the "Moon" god, also called Chandra. * Nakshatrani, also called Dhruva or motionless polestar (Polaris) and Prabhasa. ===Ashvins=== The Ashvins (also called the Nāsatyas) are the twin gods of medicine. Nasatya is also the name of one twin, while the other is called Dasra. ==References== ==Sources== * : ' The Vedas refer to not 33 crore Devatas but 33 koti (Koti means types in Sanskrit) of Devatas. They are explained in Shatpath Brahman and many other scriptures very clearly. (In Sanskrit 33 koti means 33 types god's ) [...] .' The number 33 comes from the number of Vedic gods explained by Yajnavalkya in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad – the eight Vasus, the eleven Rudras, the twelve Adityas, Indra and Prajapati. (Chapter I, hymn 9, verse 2) . They are: 8-Vasu, 11-Rudra, and 12-Aaditya, 1-Indra and 1-Prajaapati. * * : "Though the popular figure of 330 million is not the result of an actual count but intended to suggest infinity, the Hindu pantheon in fact contains literally hundreds of different deities [...]" * * * Deities Hinduism
|
This is a list of English words of Sanskrit origin. Most of these words were not directly borrowed from Sanskrit. The meaning of some words have changed slightly after being borrowed. Both languages belong to the Indo-European language family and have numerous cognate terms. Innumerous words like "Mortal", "Feet", "End", "Path", "Mother", "Father" and the names of the numbers(1-10) are cognates of English and Sanskrit, along with other Indo- European languages like German, Latin, French or Persian. However, this list is strictly of the words which is taken from Sanskrit. ==A== ; Ambarella : through ultimately from Sanskrit: अम्बरेल्ला, a kind of tree. ; Aniline : through , French: Aniline and Portuguese: Anil from Arabic النيل al-nili and Persian نیلا nila, ultimately from Sanskrit नीली nili. ; Aryan : from Sanskrit , “which means noble; arya also means health. Noun of Arya is Aryana healthy, noble one” though it originally stems from the Proto-Indo-Iranian autonym . First attested in English in 1839, it was likely coined as a loan from earlier scholars in Europe writing in German and French who in turn borrowed directly from Sanskrit. ; Atoll : through Dhivehi : possibly from Sanskrit , interior, though there are other theories. ; Aubergine : from French , in Catalan , via Arabic and Persian bâdenjân ultimately from Sanskrit , meaning eggplant or aubergine. ; Avatar : from Sanskrit , which means "descent", an avatar refers to the human incarnation of God during times of distress on earth. Thus, Krishna and Rāma were both avatars of Vishnu, who also manifested himself as an avatar many other times, ten of which are considered the most significant. ==B== ; Bandana : from Sanskrit बन्धन bandhana, "a bond". ; Banyan : from Hindi baniyaa ultimately from Sanskrit वणिज् vaṇij, which means "a merchant". ; Basmati : Type of long grain rice, highly valued for its smell and texture. Through Hindi बासमती ultimately from Sanskrit वास vāsa. ; Bahuvrihi : from Sanskrit बहुव्रीहि bahuvrīhih, a composite word, meaning 'much rice'. ; Bidi : through Hindi बीड़ी ultimately from Sanskrit वितिक vitika. ; Bhakti : from Sanskrit भक्ति "bhakti", portion or more importantly, devotion. ; Brinjal : from Portuguese bringella or beringela, from Persian بادنجان badingān, probably from Sanskrit vātiṅgaṇa. ; Buddha : from Sanskrit बुद्ध buddha, which means "awakened, enlightened", refers to Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism. Also refers to one who is enlightened in accordance with the teachings of Buddha or a likeness of Buddha. ==C== ; Candy :Middle English candi, crystallized cane sugar, short for sugre-candi, partial translation of Old French sucre candi, ultimately from Arabic sukkar qandī : sukkar, sugar + qandī, consisting of sugar lumps (from qand, lump of crystallized sugar, from an Indic source akin to Pali kaṇḍa-, from Sanskrit खाण्डक khaṇḍakaḥ, from khaṇḍaḥ, piece, fragment, perhaps of Munda origin).American Heritage Dictionary – Candy ; Carmine and Crimson: From Arabic word Kirmiz(evolved in French later),from Sanskrit कृमि kṛmi meaning "worm". ; Cashmere :1680s, "shawl made of cashmere wool", from the old spelling of Kashmir, Himalayan kingdom where wool was obtained from long-haired goats. ; Chakram : from Sanskrit चक्रं Cakram, a circular throwing weapon, sharp edged discus. Chakram is derivative of word 'Chakra' which means Spiral or Circle ; Cheetah : which is from Sanskrit चित्रस chitra-s "uniquely marked". ; Chintz : from Hindi chint, from Sanskrit chitra-s "clear, bright". ; Chukar : via Hindi चकोर cakor and Urdu چکور chukar ultimately from Sanskrit चकोर cakorah. ; Chukker : from Hindi चक्कर and Urdu چکرchakkar, from Sanskrit चक्र cakra, "a circle, a wheel". ; Citipati : from Sanskrit चिति पति citi-pati, which means "a funeral pyre lord". ; Cot : from Hindi खाट khaat "a couch", which is from Sanskrit खट्वा khatva. ; Copra : from Portuguese copra (16c.), from koppara (cognate with Hindi khopra) "mature coconut usually used for extraction of coconut oil"; related to Hindi khopri "skull", from Sanskrit kharparah "skull". ; Cowrie : from Hindi कौड़ी kauri and Urdu کمتدب kauri, from Marathi कवडी kavadi, which is ultimately from Sanskrit कपर्द kaparda. ; Crimson : from Old Spanish cremesin, via Medieval Latin cremesinus from Persian قرمز qirmiz "a kermes", which is ultimately from Sanskrit कृमिज krmi-ja literally: "red dye produced by a worm". ; Crocus : from Greek κρόκος crocus, via Semitic languages (e.g. Hebrew כרכום karkōm, Aramaic ܟܘܪܟܡܐ kurkama, Persian كركم kurkum, which mean saffron or saffron yellowBabiniotis, Leksiko tis neoellinikis glossas.); ultimately from Sanskrit कुङ्कुमं kunkumam. ==D== ; Dal : through Hindi दाल dāl ultimately from Sanskrit दल dala, meaning cotyledon of a pea pod, a type of Indian food; also refers to lentils. ; Das : from Sanskrit दास daasa, a slave or servant. See also Dasa. ; Datura : through Latin and Hindi: धतूरा dhatūra "jimson weed" ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूरा dhattūrā, a kind of flowering plant. ; Deodar : through Hindi देओदार deodār ultimately from Sanskrit देवदारु devadāru, a kind of tree. ; Deva : from Sanskrit देव deva, which means "a god", akin to Latin deus, "god". ; Devi : from Sanskrit देवी devi, which means "a goddess". ; Dharma : from Sanskrit: धर्म dharma; akin to Latin: firmus, meaning "conformity to one's duty and nature" and "divine law" also "Religion". ; Dhoti : via Hindi dhotī (Hindi: धोती) ultimately from Sanskrit dhautī (Sanskrit: धौती) which means 'to wash', a traditional male garment used in India. Material tied around the waist that covers most of the legs. ; Dinghy : from Hindi दिन्गी dingi "a tiny boat", probably from Sanskrit द्रोण drona. ; Dvandva : is a Sanskrit technical term literally meaning "a pair". ==G== ; Ganja : via Hindi गांजा (gaanja or "hemp"), ultimately from Sanskrit गञ्जा (gañjā or "hemp").American Heritage Dictionary – Ganja ; Gharry : via Hindi word gādī (Hindi: गाड़ी) which is ultimately derived from Sanskrit word garta (Sanskrit: गर्त) which means 'chariot'. ; Ginger : from Old English gingifer, gingiber, from Late Latin gingiber, from Latin zingiberi, from Greek zingiberis, from Prakrit (Middle Indic) singabera, from Sanskrit श्रङ्गवेर śrngavera, from śrnga "horn" + vera- "body", although, it may have derived instead from Tamil word "Inchi" (இஞ்சி). ; Gondwana : from two Sanskrit words, goṇḍa (Devanagari: गोण्ड) which means 'Gondi people or mountaineers' and vana (Devanagari: वन) which means 'forest'. ; Guar : through Hindi गार ultimately from Sanskrit गोपाली gopālī, an annual legume. ; Gunny : via Persian گونی "Gooni" a burlap sack and Hindi गोनी, ultimately from Sanskrit गोणी goni "sack". ; Gurkha : via Nepalese गोर्खा ultimately from Sanskrit गोरक्ष goraksa, "a cowherd". Gurka derives from népali word Gorkha, followers of Saint Gorakhnath. ; Guru : via Hindi गुरु ultimately from Sanskrit गुरु guru, which means "a teacher". ==J== ; Jackal : from Turkish çakal, from Persian شغال shaghal, from Middle Indic shagal, ultimately from Sanskrit शृगाल srgala "the howler". ; Jaggery :via Portuguese jágara, jagre and Malayalam ഛക്കര chakkara, ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा śarkarā. ; Java : originally a kind of coffee grown on Java and nearby islands of modern Indonesia. By early 20c. it meant coffee generally. The island name is shortened from Sanskrit Yavadvipa "Island of Barley", from yava "barley" + dvipa "island". ; Juggernaut : through Odia ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ Jagannatha ultimately from Sanskrit जगन्नाथ jagat-natha-s, which means "lord of the world". ; Jungle : through Hindi जंगल jangal "a desert, forest"; also Persian جنگل jangal meaning forest; ultimately from Sanskrit जङ्गल jangala, which means "arid". ; Jute : from Sanskrit जुत juta-s, which means "twisted hair". ==K== :Karma ::from Sanskrit (karman); which means "action". :Kedgeree ::probably from Sanskrit (krśara). :Kermes ::via French & Persian (qermez); perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit (kṛmija); meaning "worm-made". ==L== ; Lac : through Urdu لاکھ, Persian لاک and Hindi लाख lakh from Prakrit लक्ख lakkha, ultimately from Sanskrit लाक्षा lākṣā, meaning lac. ; Lacquer : through French: Laque and Portuguese: Laca from Arabic لك lakk,लाख in Hindi, via Prakrit ultimately from Sanskrit लाक्षा lākṣā. ; Langur : through Hindi लुट lut probably ultimately from Sanskrit लङ्गूल langūla. ; Lilac : via Arabic للك lilak from Persian نیلک nilak meaning "bluish", ultimately from Sanskrit नील nila, which means "dark blue". ; Loot : ultimately from Sanskrit लुण्टा lota-m or लुण्ठति luṇṭhati meaning "he steals" through Hindi लूट lūṭ, which means "a booty, stolen thing". ==M== ; Maharajah : through Hindi महाराजा ultimately from Sanskrit महाराजा mahā-rājā, which means "a great king". ; Maharani : through Hindi महारानी finally from Sanskrit महाराज्ञी mahārājnī, which means "consort of a maharajah". ; Maharishi : from Sanskrit महर्षि maha-rishi, which means "a great sage". ; Mahatma : from Sanskrit महात्मा mahatma, which means "a great breath, soul". ; Mahayana : from Sanskrit महायान maha-yana, which means "a great vehicle". ; Mahout : via Hindi माहुत (variant of महावत) ultimately from Sanskrit महामात्रः mahāmātrah. ; Mandala : from Sanskrit मण्डल mandala, which means "a disc, circle". ; Mandarin : via Portuguese mandarim, Dutch mandarijn, Malay mantri or menteri, and Hindi मंत्री mantri "a councillor" ultimately from Sanskrit मन्त्रिन् mantri, which means "an advisor". ; Mantra : from Sanskrit मन्त्र mantra-s which means "a holy message or text". ; Maya : from Sanskrit माया māyā, a religious term related with illusion.] ; Moksha : from Sanskrit मोक्ष moksha, liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth.Dictionary.com – Moksha ; Mugger : via Hindi मगर and Urdu مگر magar ultimately from Sanskrit मकर makara ("sea creature"), like a crocodile, which attacks stealthily. ; Mung bean : through Hindi मुग mū̃g and Pali/Prakrit मुग्ग mugga ultimately from Sanskrit मुद्ग mudga, a kind of bean. ; Musk : via Middle English muske, Middle French Musc, Late Latin Muscus and Late Greek μόσχος moskhos from Persian موشک mushk, ultimately from Sanskrit मुस्क muska meaning "a testicle", from a diminutive of मुस mus ("mouse"). ; Mynah : through Hindi मैना maina ultimately from Sanskrit मदन madana-s, which means "love". ==N== ; Nainsook :through Hindi नैनसुख nainsukh ultimately from Sanskrit नयनसुख nayana-sukha, meaning "pleasing to the eyes". ; Nard : through Old French narde and Latin nardus from Greek νάρδος nardos, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit नलद nalada. ; Narghile : through French Narguilé and Persian نارگيله nārghīleh ultimately from Sanskrit नारिकेल nārikela. ; Nark : probably from Romany nak "a nose", via Hindi नक nak ultimately from Sanskrit नक्र nakra. ; Neem : through Hindi नीम nīm ultimately from Sanskrit निम्ब nimba, a kind of tree. ; Nilgai : through Hindi नीलगाय nīlgāy lit., blue cow ultimately from Sanskrit नीलगौ nīla-gau, an ox-like animal. ; Nirvana : from Sanskrit निर्वाण nirvāṇa which means "ascendance, higher state of being, transcendence, state of bliss" literally means "extinction, disappearance". ==O== ; Opal : through French opalle from Latin opalus from Greek ὀπάλλιος opallios, probably ultimately from Sanskrit उपल upala. ; Orange : through Old French orenge, Medieval Latin orenge and Italian arancia from Arabic نارنج naranj, via Persian نارنگ narang and Sanskrit नारङ्ग naranga-s meaning "an orange tree", derived from proto-Dravidian. ==P== ; Pal : 1788, from Romany (English Gypsy) pal "brother, comrade", variant of continental Romany pral, plal, phral, probably from Sanskrit bhrata "brother" ; Palanquin : via Odia word pālankī (Odia:ପାଲଙ୍କି) which is ultimately derived from Sanskrit पल्यङ्क palyanka which means 'bed' or 'couch'. ; Parcheesi : 1800, from Hindi pachisi, from pachis "twenty-five" (highest throw of the dice), from Sanskrit panca "five" ; Pepper : Old English pipor, from an early West Germanic borrowing of Latin piper "pepper", from Greek piperi, probably (via Persian) from Middle Indic pippari, from Sanskrit pippali "long pepper". ; Punch : via Sanskrit पञ्च pancha, meaning "five". The original drink was made from five ingredients: alcohol, sugar, lemon, water, and tea or spices.Online Etymology Dictionary – Punch (The other senses of 'punch' are unrelated.) ; Pundit : via Sanskrit पण्डित paṇdita, meaning "learned one or maestro". Modern Interpretation is a person who offers to mass media their opinion or commentary on a particular subject area.Oxford Dictionary – Pundit ==R== ; Raita : ultimately from Sanskrit राजिका rājikā via Hindi रायता rāytā, a south Asian condiment and side dish made of yogurt and vegetables. ; Raj : through Hindi राज and Pali/Prakrit रज्ज rajja ultimately from Sanskrit राज्य rājya, which means "a king" or "kingdom". Raj means kingdom or domain of a ruler. ; Rajah : through Hindi राज from Sanskrit राजन् rājān, which means "a king". ; Ramtil : through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit रामतिल rāmatila, which means "a dark sesame". ; Rani : through Hindi रानी ultimately from Sanskrit राज्ञी rājnī, consort of a rajah. ; Rice : via Old French ris and Italian riso from Latin oriza, which is from Greek ὄρυζα oryza, through an Indo-Iranian tongue finally from Sanskrit व्रीहि vrihi "rice", ultimately derived from proto-Dravidian arisi. ; Rupee : through Hindi रुपया rupiyā ultimately from Sanskrit रूप्यक rūpyaka, an Indian silver coin. ==S== ; Saccharide : via Latin Saccharon and Greek σάκχαρον from Pali सक्खर sakkharā, ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा sarkarā. ; Sambal : through Afrikaans, Indonesian and Tamil சம்பல் campāl ultimately from Sanskrit सम्बार sambhārei. ; Sambar : through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit शंबरः śambarah, a kind of Asian deer. ; Sandalwood : via Middle English sandell, Old French sandale, Medieval Latin sandalum, Medieval Greek σανδάλιον sandalion (diminutive of σάνδαλον sandalon) and Arabic and Persian صندل; ultimately from Sanskrit चन्दन candana meaning "wood for burning incense". ; Sapphire : via Old French saphir, Latin sapphirus and Greek σάπφειρος sappheiros from a Semitic tongue (c.f. Hebrew: ספיר sapir); possibly the ultimate origin is Sanskrit शनिप्रिय sanipriya which literally means "sacred to Saturn (Shani)". ; Sari : through Hindi साड़ी sari and Prakrit सदि sadi, finally from Sanskrit सति sati "garment". ; Shampoo : via Anglo-Indian shampoo and Hindi चाँपो champo from Sanskrit चपयति capayati, which means "kneads". ; Shawl : from Persian شال shal, finally from Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī, which means "a strip of cloth". ; Singapore : via Malay Singapura ultimately from Sanskrit सिंहपुर simhapura, literally "the lion city". ; Sri Lanka : from Sanskrit: श्री लंका which means "venerable island". It is said that Shree or Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth, resides there. ; Sugar : through Old French sucre, Italian zucchero, Medieval Latin succarum, Arabic: سكر sukkar and Persian: شکر shakar ultimately from Sanskrit शर्करा śarkara which means "ground or candied sugar" (originally "grit" or "gravel"). ; Sunn : via Hindi: सुन्न ultimately from Sanskrit: सन sāna, a kind of Asian plant. ; Swami : through Hindi स्वामी swami ultimately from Sanskrit स्वामी svami, which means "a master". ; Swastika : from Sanskrit स्वस्तिक svastika, a religious symbol associated rituals and divination. Swastika means "one associated with well-being, a lucky charm". ==T== ; Taka : via Maithili and Bengali : টাকা from Sanskrit टङ्क tanka. ; Talipot : through Hindi, Indonesian and Malay talipat from Sanskrit तालपत्र tālapatra, a kind of palm. ; Tank : a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, from a Hindi source, such as Gujarati tankh "cistern, underground reservoir for water", Marathi tanken, or tanka "reservoir of water, tank". Perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit tadaga "pond, lake pool", and reinforced in later sense of "large artificial container for liquid". ; Tendu : via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit तैन्दुक tainduka. ; Teapoy : via Hindi तिपाई tipāi and Urdu تپائي tipāʼī,which originated as a Sanskrit compound: त्रि (trí, "three") and पाद (pā́da, "foot"). ; Thug : through Marathi ठग thag probably ultimately from Sanskrit स्थग sthaga, which means "a scoundrel". ; Til : from Sanskrit तिलः tilah, a kind of plant. ; Toddy : through Hindi तरी tari ultimately from Sanskrit तल tala-s, a Dravidian origin is also probable. ; Toon : through Hindi तुन tūn ultimately from Sanskrit तुन्न tunna, a kind of tree. ; Tope : through Hindi टॉप ṭop probably from Prakrit थुपो thūpo, finally from Sanskrit स्तूप stūpa. ; Tutty : through Middle English tutie, Old French, Medieval Latin tūtia, Arabic توتي tūtiyā, and Persian توتیا ultimately from Sanskrit तुत्थ tuttha meaning "blue vitriol", a Dravidian origin is also probable. ==V== :Vina ::ultimately from Sanskrit (vīṇā) through Hindi (vīṇā); referring to a kind of musical instrument. ==W== :Wanderoo ::through () finally from Sanskrit (vānara), meaning a kind of monkey. ==Y== :Yoga ::through Sanskrit (yoga-s), which means "yoke, union". :Yogi ::through Hindi (yogi) from Sanskrit (yogi); meaning one who practices yoga or ascetic. ==Z== :Zen ::through Japanese 禅 and Chinese 禪 Chán ultimately from Pali (jhāna) and Sanskrit (dhyana), which means "a meditation". ==See also== * Hobson-Jobson * Indo-European vocabulary * Indian English * List of Hindu deities * Lists of English words by country or language of origin ==References== ==External links== *Sanskrit in Freedictionary.com *Sanskrit Dictionary containing terms of modern Spoken Sanskrit Sanskrit Sanskrit da:Danske ords etymologi
|
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. NASA was established in 1958, succeeding the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), to give the U.S. space development effort a distinctly civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. NASA has since led most American space exploration, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. NASA supports the International Space Station and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the crewed lunar Artemis program, Commercial Crew spacecraft, and the planned Lunar Gateway space station. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program, which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for uncrewed NASA launches. NASA's science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System; advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program; exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft such as New Horizons and planetary rovers such as Perseverance; and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the James Webb Space Telescope, and the Great Observatories and associated programs. ==History== ===Creating a civil aeronautics and space agency=== NASA traces its roots to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Despite being the birthplace of aviation, by 1914 the United States recognized that it was far behind Europe in aviation capability. Determined to regain American leadership in aviation, Congress created the Aviation Section of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1914 and established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and development. Over the next forty years NACA would conduct aeronautical research in support of the U.S. Air Force, its predecessors in the U.S. Army, the U.S. Navy, and the civil aviation sector. After the end of World War II, NACA became interested in the possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft, developing and testing the Bell X-1 in a joint program with the U.S. Air Force. NACA's interest in space grew out of its rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division. The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 ushered in the Space Age and kicked off the Space Race. Despite NACA's early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard. However, Project Vanguard was plauged by several issues and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency would launch Explorer 1, America's first satellite, on February 1, 1958. The Eisenhower Administration decided to split the United States' military and civil spaceflight programs, which were organized together under Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency. NASA was established on July 29, 1958 with the signing of the National Aeronautics and Space Act and it began operations on October 1, 1958. As the United States' premier aeronautics agency, NACA formed the core of NASA's new structure, absorbing its 8,000 employees and three major research laboratories. NASA also proceeded to absorb the Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard, the Army's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under Wernher von Braun. This left NASA firmly as the United States' civil space lead and the Air Force as the military space lead. ===First orbital and hypersonic flights=== Plans for human spaceflight began in the U.S. Armed Forces prior to NASA's creation. The Air Force's Man in Space Soonest and the Army's Project Adam served as the foundation for Project Mercury, the first American program to put people in space. NASA established the Space Task Group to manage the program, which would conduct sub-orbital flights with the Army's Redstone rockets and orbital flights with the Air Force's Atlas launch vehicles. While NASA intended for its first astronauts to be civilians, President Eisenhower directed that they be selected from the military. The Mercury 7 astronauts included three Air Force pilots, three Navy aviators, and one Marine Corps pilot. On May 5, 1961 Alan Shepard became the first American to enter space, performing a suborbital spaceflight in the Freedom 7. This flight occurred less than a month after the Soviet Union's Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space, executing a full orbital spaceflight. NASA's first orbital spaceflight was conducted by John Glenn on February 20, 1962, in the Friendship 7, conducting three full orbits before reentering. Glenn had to fly parts of his final two orbits manually due to a malfunction in the autopilot. The sixth and final Mercury mission was flown by Gordon Cooper in May 1963, performing 22 orbits over 34 hours in the Faith 7. The Mercury Program was a resounding success, achieving its objectives to orbit a human in space, develop tracking and control systems, and identify other issues associated with human spaceflight. While much of NASA's attention turned to space, it did not forget its aeronautics mission. Early aeronautics research attempted to build upon the X-1's supersonic flight to build an aircraft capable of hypersonic flight. The North American X-15 was a joint NASA-U.S. Air Force program, with the hypersonic test aircraft becoming the first non-dedicated spacecraft to cross from the atmosphere to outer space. The X-15 also served as a testbed for Apollo program technologies and ramjet and scramjet propulsion. ===Landing on the Moon=== Escalations in the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union prompted President John F. Kennedy to charge NASA with landing an American on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s, and installed James E. Webb as NASA administrator to achieve this goal. On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy openly declared this goal in his Urgent National Needs speech to the United States Congress, declaring: Despite attacks on the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon from the former president Dwight Eisenhower and 1964 presidential candidate Barry Goldwater, President Kennedy was able to protect NASA's growing budget, of which 50% went directly to human spaceflight and it was later estimated that, at its height, 1 out of 20 Americans worked on some aspect of the Apollo Program. To manage the Apollo Program, NASA required a more rigorous approach than it applied to Project Mercury. Mirroring the Department of Defense's program management concept using redundant systems in building the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, NASA requested the Air Force assign Major General Samuel C. Phillips to the space agency where he would serve as the director of the Appollo Program. Development of the Saturn V rocket was led by Wernher von Braun and his team at the Marshall Space Flight Center, derived from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency's original Saturn I. The Apollo spacecraft was designed and built by North American Aviation, while the Apollo Lunar Module was designed and built by Grumman. To develop the spaceflight skills and equipment required for a lunar mission, NASA initiated Project Gemini. Using a modified Air Force Titan II launch vehicle, the Gemini capsule could hold two astronauts for flights of over two weeks. Gemini pioneered the use of fuel cells instead of legacy batteries and demonstrated spacewalks and rendezvous operations. NASA also needed more detained information about the Moon's geography and composition to prepare for a landing, using three uncrewed spacecraft programs. The Ranger Program was started in the 1950s as a response to Soviet lunar exploration but was generally considered to be a failure. The Lunar Orbiter program had greater success, mapping the surface in preparation for Apollo landings and measured Selenography, conducted meteoroid detection, and measured radiation levels. The Surveyor program conducted uncrewed lunar landings and takeoffs, as well as taking surface and regolith observations. Despite the setback caused by the Apollo 1 fire, which killed three astronauts, the program proceeded. Apollo 8 was the first circumlunar flight and the first lunar landing was conducted by Apollo 11. Commanded by Neil Armstrong with astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins, Apollo 11 was one of the most significant missions in NASA's history, marking the end of the Space Race when the Soviet's gave up lunar ambitions. As the first human to step on the surface of the Moon, Neil Armstrong uttered the now famous words: NASA would conduct six total lunar landings as part of the Apollo Program, with Apollo 17 concluding the program in 1972. Wernher von Braun had advocated for NASA to develop a space station since the agency was created. In 1973, Following the end of the Apollo lunar missions NASA launched its first space station, Skylab, on the final launch of the Saturn V. Skylab repurposed a significant amount of former Apollo and Saturn hardware, with a repurposed Saturn V third stage serving as primary module for the space station. Damage to Skylab during launch required spacewalks by the first crew to make it habitable and operational. Skylab only hosted 9 missions and was decommissioned in 1974 and deorbited in 1979, two years prior to the Space Shuttle's launch and any possibility of boosting its orbit. In 1975, the Apollo–Soyuz mission was the first ever international spaceflight and a major diplomatic accomplishment between the Cold War rivals. Flown in 1975, a U.S. Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soviet Soyuz capsule. It also was the last flight of the Apollo capsule. ===Interplanetary exploration and space science=== thumb|right|Image from Mars taken by the Viking 2 lander During the 1960s, NASA started its space science and interplanetary probe program. The Mariner program was its flagship program, launching probes to Venus, Mars, and Mercury in the 1960s. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was the lead NASA center for robotic interplanetary exploration, making significant discoveries about the inner planets. Despite these successes, Congress was unwilling to fund further interplanetary missions and NASA Administrator James Webb suspended all future interplanetary probes to focus resources on the Apollo program. Following the conclusion of the Apollo program, NASA resumed launching interplanetary probes and expanded its space science program. The first planet tagged for exploration was Venus, sharing many similar characteristics to Earth. First visited by American Mariner 2 spacecraft, Venus was observed to be a hot and inhospitable planet. Follow-on missions included the Pioneer Venus project in the 1970s and Magellan, which performed radar mapping of Venus' surface in the 1980s and 1990s. Future missions were flybys of Venus, on their way to other destinations in the Solar System. Mars has long been a planet of intense fascination for NASA, being suspected of potentially having harbored life. Mariner 5 was the first NASA spacecraft to flyby Mars, followed by Mariner 6 and Mariner 7. Mariner 9 was the first orbital mission to Mars. Launched in 1975, Viking program consisted of two landings on Mars in 1976. Follow-on missions would not be launched until 1996, with the Mars Global Surveyor orbiter and Mars Pathfinder, deploying the first Mars rover, Sojourner. During the early 2000s, the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter reached the planet and in 2004 the Sprit and Opportunity rovers landed on the Red Planet. This was followed in 2005 by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and 2007 Phoenix Mars lander. The 2012 landing of Curiosity discovered that the radiation levels on Mars were equal to those on the International Space Station, greatly increasing the possibility of Human exploration, and observed the key chemical ingredents for life to occur. In 2013, the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) mission observed the Martian upper atmospher and space environment and in 2018, the Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations Geodesy, and Heat Transport (InSight) studied the Martian interior. The 2021 Perseverance rover carried the first extraplanetary aircraft, a helicopter named Ingenuity. NASA also launched missions to Mercury in 2004, with the MESSENGER probe demonstrating as the first use of a solar sail. NASA also launched probes to the outer solar system starting in the 1960s. Pioneer 10 was the first probe to the outer planets, flying by Jupiter, while Pioneer 11 provided the first close up view of the planet. Both probes became the first objects to leave the Solar System. The Voyager program launched in 1977, conducting flybys of Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus on a trajectory to leave the Solar System. The Galileo spacecraft, deployed from the Space Shuttle flight STS-34, was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, discovering evidence of subsurface oceans on the Europa and observed that the moon may hold ice or liquid water. A joint NASA-European Space Agency-Italian Space Agency mission, Cassini–Huygens, was sent to Saturn's moon of Titan, which along with Mars and Europa, are the only objects non-Terran objects in the Solar System suspected of being capable of harboring life. Cassini discovered three new moons of Saturn and the Huygens probe entered Titan's atmosphere. The mission discovered evidence of liquid hydrocarbon lakes on Titan and subsurface water oceans on the moon of Enceladus, which could harbor life. Finally launched in 2006, the New Horizons mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. Beyond interplanetary probes, NASA has a long tradition of launching space telescopes. Launched in the 1960s, the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory were NASA's first orbital telescopes, providing ultraviolet, gamma-ray, x-ray, and infrared observations. Not just looking up, NASA launched the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory to look down at Earth and observe its interactions with the Sun. The Uhuru satellite was the first dedicated x-ray telescope, mapping 85% of the sky and discovering a large number of black holes. Launched in the 1990s and early 2000s, the Great Observatories program are among NASA's most powerful telescopes. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 on STS-31 from the Discovery and could view galaxies 15 light years away. A major defect in the telescope's mirror could have cripped the program, had NASA not used computer enhancement to compensate for the imperfection and launched five Space Shuttle servicing flights to replace the damaged components. The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory was launched from the Atlantis on STS-37 in 1991, discovering a possible source of antimatter at the center of the Milky Way and observing that the majority of gamma-ray bursts occur outside of the Milky Way galaxy. The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched from the Columbia on STS-93 in 1999, observing black holes, quasars, supernova, and dark matter. It provided critical observations on the Sagittarius A* black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy and the separation of dark and regular matter during galactic collisions. Finally, the Spitzer Space Telescope is an infrared telescope and the last of the great observatories, launched in 2003 from a Delta II rocket. It is in a trailing orbit aroud the Sun, following the Earth and discovered the existence of brown dwarf stars. Other telescopes, such as the Cosmic Background Explorer and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, provided evidence to support the Big Bang. The James Webb Space Telescope, named after the NASA administrator who lead the Apollo program, is an infrared observatory launched in 2021. The James Webb Space Telescope is a direct successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, intended to observe the formation of the first galaxies. Other space telescopes include the Kepler space telescope, launched in 2009 to identify planets orbiting extrasolar stars that may be Terran and possibly harbor life. The first exoplanet that the Keplar space telescope confirmed was Kepler-22b, orbiting within the habitable zone of its star. NASA also launched a number of different satellites to study Earth, such as Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS) in 1960, which was the first weather satellite. NASA and the United States Weather Bureau cooperated on future TIROS and the second generation Nimbus program of weather satellites. It also worked with the Environmental Science Services Administration on a series of weather satellites and the agency launched its the experimental Applications Technology Satellites into geosynchronous orbit. NASA's first dedicated Earth observation satellite, Landsat, was launched in 1972. This led to NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration jointly developing the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite and discovering Ozone depletion. ===The Space Shuttle=== NASA had been perusing spaceplanes since the 1960s, blending the administration's dual aeronautics and space missions. NASA viewed a spaceplane as part of a larger program, providing routine and economical logistical support to a space station in Earth orbit that would be used as a hub for lunar and Mars missions. A reusable launch vehicle would end the need for expensive and expendable boosters like the Saturn V. In 1969, NASA designated the Johnson Space Center as the lead center for developing the design, development, and manufacturing of the Space Shuttle orbiter, while the Marshall Space Flight Center would lead the development of the launch system. NASA's series of lifting body aircraft, culminating in the joint NASA-U.S. Air Force Martin Marietta X-24, directly informed the development of the Space Shuttle and future hypersonic flight aircraft. Official development of the Space Shuttle began in 1972, with Rockwell International contracted to design the orbiter and engines, Martin Marietta for the external fuel tank, and Morton Thiokol for the solid rocket boosters. NASA acquired six orbiters: the Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour The Space Shuttle program also allowed NASA to make dramatic changes to its Astronaut Corps. While almost all previous astronauts were Air Force or Naval test pilots, the Space Shuttle allowed NASA to begin recruiting more non-military scientific and technical experts. A prime example is Sally Ride, who became the first American woman to fly in space on STS-7. It also allowed NASA to accept exchange astronauts from U.S. allies and partners for the first time. The first Space Shuttle flight occurred in 1981, when the Columbia launched on the STS-1 mission, designed to serve as a flight test for the new spaceplane. NASA intended for the Space Shuttle to replace expendable launch systems like the Air Force's Atlas, Delta, and Titan and the European Space Agency's Ariane. The Space Shuttle's Spacelab payload, developed by the European Space Agency, dramatically increased the scientific capabilities of shuttle missions over anything NASA was able to previously accomplish. NASA launched its first commercial satellites on the STS-5 mission and in 1984, the STS-41-C mission conducted the world's first on-orbit satellite servicing mission when the Challenge captured and repaired the malfunctioning Solar Maximum Mission satellite. It also had the capability to return malfunctioning satellite to Earth, like it did with the Palapa B2 and Westar 6 satellites. Once returned to Earth, the satellites were repaired and relaunched. Despite ushering in a new era of spaceflight, where NASA was contracting launch services to commercial companies, the Space Shuttle was criticized for not being as reusable and cost-effective as advertised. In 1986, Challenger disaster on the STS-51L mission resulted in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts on launch, grounding the entire space shuttle fleet for 36 months and forced the 44 commercial companies that contracted with NASA to deploy their satellites to return to expendable launch vehicles. When the Space Shuttle returned to flight with the STS-26 mission, it had undergone significant modifications to improve its reliability and safety. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and United States initaited the Shuttle-Mir program. The first Russian cosmonaut flew on the STS-60 mission in 1994 and the Discovery rendezvoused, but did not dock with, the Russian Mir in the STS-63 mission. This was followed by Atlantis' STS-71 mission where it accomplished the initial intended mission for the Space Shuttle, docking with a space station and transferring supplies and personnel. The Shuttle-Mir program would continue until 1998, when a series of orbital accidents on the space station spelled an end to the program. In 2003, a second space shuttle was lost when the Columbia was lost upon reentry during the STS-107 mission, resulting in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts. This accident marked the beginning of the end of the Space Shuttle program, with President George W. Bush directing that upon the completion of the International Space Station, the space shuttle be retired. In 2006, the Space Shuttle returned to flight and flew several additional missions, flying several mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope, but was retired with the completion of the completion of the STS-135 resupply mission to the International Space Station in 2011. ===Space stations=== NASA never gave up on the idea of a space station after Skylab's reentry in 1979. The agency began lobbing politicians to support building a space station as soon as the Space Shuttle began flying, selling it as an orbital laboratory, repair station, and a jumping off point for lunar and Mars missions. NASA found a strong advocate in President Ronald Reagan, who declared in a 1984 speech: In 1985, NASA proposed the Space Station Freedom, which both the agency and President Reagan intended to be an international program. While this would add legitimacy to the program, there were concerns within NASA that the international component would dilute its authority within the project, having never been willing to work with domestic or international partners as true equals. There was also a concern with sharing sensitive space technologies with the Europeans, which had the potential to dilute America's technical lead. Ultimately, an international agreement to develop the Space Station Freedom program would be signed with thirteen countries in 1985, including the European Space Agency member states, Canada, and Japan. Despite its status as the first international space program, the Space Station Freedom was controversial, with much of the debate centering on cost. Several redesigns to reduce cost were conducted in the early 1990s, stripping away much of its functions. However, despite calls for Congress to terminate the program it continued, in large part because by 1992 it had created 75,000 jobs across 39 states. By 1993, President Bill Clinton attempted to significantly reduce NASA's budget and directed costs be significantly reduced, aerospace industry jobs were not lost, and the Russians be included. In 1993, the Clinton Administration announced that the Space Station Freedom would become the International Space Station in an agreement with the Russian Federation. This allowed the Russians to maintain their space program through an infusion of American currency to maintain their status as one of the two premier space programs. While the United States built and launched the majority of the International Space Station, Russia, Canada, Japan, and the European Space Agency all contributed components. Despite NASA's insistence that costs would be kept at a budget of $17.4, they kept rising and NASA had to transfer funds from other programs to keep the International Space Station solvent. Ultimately, the total cost of the station was $150 billion, with the United States paying for two-thirds.Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, NASA was forced to rely on Russian Soyuz launches for its astronauts and the 2011 retirement of the Space Shuttle accelerated the station's completion. In the 1980s, right after the first flight of the Space Shuttle, NASA started a joint program with the Department of Defense to develop the Rockwell X-30 National Aerospace Plane. NASA realized that the Space Shuttle, while a massive technological accomplishment, would not be able to live up to all its promises. Designed to be a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane, the X-30 had both civil and military applications. With the end of the Cold War, the X-30 was canceled in 1992 before reaching flight status. ===Unleashing commercial space and return to the Moon=== Following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, President Bush started the Constellation program to smoothly replace the Space Shuttle and expand space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Constellation was intended to use a significant amount of former Space Shuttle equipment and return astronauts to the Moon. However, the Constellation program was canceled by the Obama Administration and former astronauts Neil Armstrong, Gene Cernan, and Jim Lovell sent a letter to President Barack Obama to warn him that if the United States did not get new human spaceflight ability, the U.S. risked become a second or third-rate space power. As early as the Reagan Administration, there had been calls for NASA to expand private sector involvement in space exploration rather than do it all in house. In the 1990s, NASA and Lockheed Martin entered into an agreement to develop the Lockheed Martin X-33 and VentureStar spaceplane, which was intended to replace the Space Shuttle. However, due to technical challenges the spacecraft was cancelled in 2001. Despite this, it was the first time a commercial space company directly expended a significant amount of its own resources into spacecraft development. The advent of space tourism also forced NASA to challenge its assumption that only governments would have people in space. The first space tourist was Dennis Tito, an American investment manager and former aerospace engineer who contracted with the Russians to fly to the International Space Station for four days, despite the opposition of NASA to the idea. Advocates of this new commercial approach for NASA included former astronaut Buzz Aldrin, who remarked that it would return NASA to its roots as a research and development agency, with commercial entities actually operating the space systems. Having corporations take over orbital operations would also allow NASA to focus all its efforts on deep space exploration and returning humans to the Moon and going to Mars. Embracing this approach, NASA's Commercial Crew Program started by contracting cargo delivery to the International Space Station and flew its first operational contracted mission on SpaceX Crew-1. This marked the first time since the retirement of the Space Shuttle that NASA was able to launch its own astronauts on an American spacecraft from the United States, ending a decade of reliance on the Russians. In 2019, NASA announced the Artemis program, intending to return to the Moon and establish a permanent human presence. This was paired with the Artemis Accords with partner nations to establish rules of behavior and norms of space commercialization on the Moon. == Active programs == === Human spaceflight === ==== International Space Station (1993–present) ==== The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which were manufactured in various factories around the world, and have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2009 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment occurred in 2010, though there are some debates of whether new modules should be added in the segment. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners. Long-duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS. The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members. Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational. The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past , having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations. The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of , is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.International Space Station , Retrieved October 20, 2011 The Russian Soyuz and American Dragon spacecraft are used to send astronauts to and from the ISS. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft provide service to the ISS; they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the (uncrewed) Dragon since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Between the retirement of the Shuttle in 2011 and the commencement of crewed Dragon flights in 2020, American astronauts exclusively used the Soyuz for crew transport to and from the ISS The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions. The ISS program is expected to continue to 2030, after which the space station will be retired and destroyed in a controlled de- orbit. ==== Commercial Resupply Services (2008–present) ==== Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) are a contract solution to deliver cargo and supplies to the International Space Station (ISS) on a commercial basis. NASA signed its first CRS contracts in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to SpaceX for twelve cargo Dragon and $1.9 billion to Orbital Sciences for eight Cygnus flights, covering deliveries to 2016. Both companies evolved or created their launch vehicle products to support the solution (SpaceX with The Falcon 9 and Orbital with the Antares). SpaceX flew its first operational resupply mission (SpaceX CRS-1) in 2012. Orbital Sciences followed in 2014 (Cygnus CRS Orb-1). In 2015, NASA extended CRS-1 to twenty flights for SpaceX and twelve flights for Orbital ATK. A second phase of contracts (known as CRS-2) was solicited in 2014; contracts were awarded in January 2016 to Orbital ATK Cygnus, Sierra Nevada Corporation Dream Chaser, and SpaceX Dragon 2, for cargo transport flights beginning in 2019 and expected to last through 2024. In March 2022, NASA awarded an additional six CRS-2 missions each to both SpaceX and Northrop Grumman (formerly Orbital). Northrop Grumman successfully delivered Cygnus NG-17 to the ISS in February 2022. In July 2022, SpaceX launched its 25th CRS flight (SpaceX CRS-25) and successfully delivered its cargo to the ISS. In late 2022, Sierra Nevada continued to assemble their Dream Chaser CRS solution; current estimates put its first launch in early 2023. ==== Commercial Crew Program (2011–present) ==== The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft, and NASA plans to add Boeing when its Boeing Starliner spacecraft becomes operational . NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030. The spacecraft are owned and operated by the vendor, and crew transportation is provided to NASA as a commercial service. Each mission sends up to four astronauts to the ISS, with an option for a fifth passenger available. Operational flights occur approximately once every six months for missions that last for approximately six months. A spacecraft remains docked to the ISS during its mission, and missions usually overlap by at least a few days. Between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first operational CCP mission in 2020, NASA relied on the Soyuz program to transport its astronauts to the ISS. A Crew Dragon spacecraft is launched to space atop a Falcon 9 Block 5 launch vehicle and the capsule returns to Earth via splashdown in the ocean near Florida. The program's first operational mission, SpaceX Crew-1, launched on 16 November 2020. Boeing Starliner operational flights will now commence after its final test flight which was launched atop an Atlas V N22 launch vehicle. Instead of a splashdown, a Starliner capsule returns on land with airbags at one of four designated sites in the western United States. ==== Artemis (2017–present) ==== thumb|upright|SLS with Orion rolling to Launch Complex 39B for tests, Mar 2022 Since 2017, NASA's crewed spaceflight program has been the Artemis program, which involves the help of US commercial spaceflight companies and international partners such as ESA, JAXA, and CSA. The goal of this program is to land "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region by 2025. Artemis would be the first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars. The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle was held over from the canceled Constellation program for Artemis. Artemis 1 was the uncrewed initial launch of Space Launch System (SLS) that would also send an Orion spacecraft on a Distant Retrograde Orbit. NASA's next major space initiative is to be the construction of the Lunar Gateway, a small space station in lunar orbit.Whitwam, Ryan. NASA Sets New Roadmap for Moon Base, Crewed Missions to Mars Extreme Tech, September 27, 2018. Accessed November 26, 2018. This space station will be designed primarily for non-continuous human habitation. The first tentative steps of returning to crewed lunar missions will be Artemis 2, which is to include the Orion crew module, propelled by the SLS, and is to launch in 2024. This mission is to be a 10-day mission planned to briefly place a crew of four into a Lunar flyby. The construction of the Gateway would begin with the proposed Artemis 3, which is planned to deliver a crew of four to Lunar orbit along with the first modules of the Gateway. This mission would last for up to 30 days. NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such as the Lunar Gateway and the Nautilus-X as part of its Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) program. In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 to get humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by the 2030s. In support of the Artemis missions, NASA has been funding private companies to land robotic probes on the lunar surface in a program known as the Commercial Lunar Payload Services. As of March 2022, NASA has awarded contracts for robotic lunar probes to companies such as Intuitive Machines, Firefly Space Systems, and Astrobotic. On April 16, 2021, NASA announced they had selected the SpaceX Lunar Starship as its Human Landing System. The agency's Space Launch System rocket will launch four astronauts aboard the Orion spacecraft for their multi-day journey to lunar orbit where they will transfer to SpaceX's Starship for the final leg of their journey to the surface of the Moon. In November 2021, it was announced that the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon by 2024 had slipped to no earlier than 2025 due to numerous factors. Artemis 1 launched on November 16, 2022 and returned to Earth safely on December 11, 2022. As of June 2022, NASA plans to launch Artemis 2 in May 2024 and Artemis 3 in December 2025. Additional Artemis missions, Artemis 4 and Artemis 5, are planned to launch after 2025. ==== Commercial LEO Development (2021–present) ==== The Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations program is an initiative by NASA to support work on commercial space stations that the agency hopes to have in place by the end of the current decade to replace the "International Space Station". The three selected companies are: Blue Origin (et al.) with their Orbital Reef station concept, Nanoracks (et al.) with their Starlab Space Station concept, and Northrop Grumman with a station concept based on the HALO-module for the Gateway station. === Robotic exploration === thumb|Video of many of the uncrewed missions used to explore the outer reaches of space NASA has conducted many uncrewed and robotic spaceflight programs throughout its history. More than 1,000 uncrewed missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the Solar System. ====Mission selection process==== NASA executes a mission development framework to plan, select, develop, and operate robotic missions. This framework defines cost, schedule and technical risk parameters to enable competitive selection of missions involving mission candidates that have been developed by principal investigators and their teams from across NASA, the broader U.S. Government research and development stakeholders, and industry. The mission development construct is defined by four umbrella programs. =====Explorer program===== The Explorer program derives its origin from the earliest days of the U.S. Space program. In current form, the program consists of three classes of systems - Small Explorers (SMEX), Medium Explorers (MIDEX), and University-Class Explorers (UNEX) missions. The NASA Explorer program office provides frequent flight opportunities for moderate cost innovative solutions from the heliophysics and astrophysics science areas. The Small Explorer missions are required to limit cost to NASA to below $150M (2022 dollars). Medium class explorer missions have typically involved NASA cost caps of $350M. The Explorer program office is based at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. =====Discovery program===== The NASA Discovery program develops and delivers robotic spacecraft solutions in the planetary science domain. Discovery enables scientists and engineers to assemble a team to deliver a solution against a defined set of objectives and competitively bid that solution against other candidate programs. Cost caps vary but recent mission selection processes were accomplished using a $500M cost cap to NASA. The Planetary Mission Program Office is based at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and manages both the Discovery and New Frontiers missions. The office is part of the Science Mission Directorate. NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced on June 2, 2021, that the DAVINCI+ and VERITAS missions were selected to launch to Venus in the late 2020s, having beat out competing proposals for missions to Jupiter's volcanic moon Io and Neptune's large moon Triton that were also selected as Discovery program finalists in early 2020. Each mission has an estimated cost of $500 million, with launches expected between 2028 and 2030. Launch contracts will be awarded later in each mission's development. =====New Frontiers program===== The New Frontiers program focuses on specific Solar System exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Primary objectives include Solar System exploration employing medium class spacecraft missions to conduct high-science-return investigations. New Frontiers builds on the development approach employed by the Discovery program but provides for higher cost caps and schedule durations than are available with Discovery. Cost caps vary by opportunity; recent missions have been awarded based on a defined cap of $1 billion. The higher cost cap and projected longer mission durations result in a lower frequency of new opportunities for the program - typically one every several years. OSIRIS-REx and New Horizons are examples of New Frontiers missions. NASA has determined that the next opportunity to propose for the fifth round of New Frontiers missions will occur no later than the fall of 2024. Missions in NASA's New Frontiers Program tackle specific Solar System exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Exploring the Solar System with medium-class spacecraft missions that conduct high-science-return investigations is NASA's strategy to further understand the Solar System. ===== Large strategic missions===== Large strategic missions (formerly called Flagship missions) are strategic missions that are typically developed and managed by large teams that may span several NASA centers. The individual missions become the program as opposed to being part of a larger effort (see Discovery, New Frontiers, etc.). The James Webb Space Telescope is a strategic mission that was developed over a period of more than 20 years. Strategic missions are developed on an ad-hoc basis as program objectives and priorities are established. Missions like Voyager, had they been developed today, would have been strategic missions. Three of the Great Observatories were strategic missions (the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Compton, and the Hubble Space Telescope). Europa Clipper is the next large strategic mission in development by NASA. ==== Planetary science missions ==== NASA continues to play a material in exploration of the Solar System as it has for decades. Ongoing missions have current science objectives with respect to more than five extraterrestrial bodies within the Solar System – Moon (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter), Mars (Perseverance rover), Jupiter (Juno), asteroid Bennu (OSIRIS-REx), and Kuiper Belt Objects (New Horizons). The Juno extended mission will make multiple flybys of the Jovian moon Io in 2023 and 2024 after flybys of Ganymede in 2021 and Europa in 2022. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 continue to provide science data back to Earth while continuing on their outward journeys into interstellar space. On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. The Curiosity rover successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars. In September 2014, NASA's MAVEN spacecraft, which is part of the Mars Scout Program, successfully entered Mars orbit and, as of October 2022, continues its study of the atmosphere of Mars. NASA's ongoing Mars investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars by the Perseverance rover and InSight). NASA's Europa Clipper, planned for launch in October 2024, will study the Galilean moon Europa through a series of flybys while in orbit around Jupiter. Dragonfly will send a mobile robotic rotorcraft to Saturn's biggest moon, Titan. As of May 2021, Dragonfly is scheduled for launch in June 2027. ====Astrophysics missions==== The NASA Science Mission Directorate Astrophysics division manages the agency's astrophysics science portfolio. NASA has invested significant resources in the development, delivery, and operations of various forms of space telescopes. These telescopes have provided the means to study the cosmos over a large range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Great Observatories that were launched in the 1980s and 1990s have provided a wealth of observations for study by physicists across the planent. The first of them, the Hubble Space Telescope, was delivered to orbit in 1990 and continues to function, in part due to prior servicing missions performed by the Space Shuttle. The other remaining active great observatory include the Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO), launched by STS-93 in July 1999 and is now in a 64-hour elliptical orbit studying X-ray sources that are not readily viewable from terrestrial observatories. The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) is a space observatory designed to improve the understanding of X-ray production in objects such as neutron stars and pulsar wind nebulae, as well as stellar and supermassive black holes. IXPE launched in December 2021 and is an international collaboration between NASA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). It is part of the NASA Small Explorers program (SMEX) which designs low-cost spacecraft to study heliophysics and astrophysics. The Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory was launched in November 2004 and is Gamma-ray burst observatory that also monitors the afterglow in X-ray, and UV/Visible light at the location of a burst. The mission was developed in a joint partnership between Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and an international consortium from the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. Pennsylvania State University operates the mission as part of NASA's Medium Explorer program (MIDEX). The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST) is another gamma-ray focused space observatory that was launched to low Earth orbit in June 2008 and is being used to perform gamma-ray astronomy observations. In addition to NASA, the mission involves the United States Department of Energy, and government agencies in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Sweden. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched in December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket, operates in a halo orbit circling the Sun-Earth point. JWST's high sensitivity in the infrared spectrum and its imaging resolution will allow it to view more distant, faint, or older objects than its predecessors, including Hubble. ==== Earth Sciences Program missions (1965–present) ==== thumb|Schematic of NASA Earth Science Division operating satellite missions as of February 2015 NASA Earth Science is a large, umbrella program comprising a range of terrestrial and space-based collection systems in order to better understand the Earth system and its response to natural and human-caused changes. Numerous systems have been developed and fielded over several decades to provide improved prediction for weather, climate, and other changes in the natural environment. Several of the current operating spacecraft programs include: Aqua, Aura, Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2), Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-on (GRACE FO), and Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2). In addition to systems already in orbit, NASA is designing a new set of Earth Observing Systems to study, assess, and generate responses for climate change, natural hazards, forest fires, and real-time agricultural processes. The GOES-T satellite (designated GOES-18 after launch) joined the fleet of U.S. geostationary weather monitoring satellites in March 2022. NASA also maintains the Earth Science Data Systems (ESDS) program to oversee the life cycle of NASA's Earth science data — from acquisition through processing and distribution. The primary goal of ESDS is to maximize the scientific return from NASA's missions and experiments for research and applied scientists, decision makers, and society at large. The Earth Science program is managed by the Earth Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate. ===Space operations architecture=== NASA invests in various ground and space-based infrastructures to support its science and exploration mandate. The agency maintains access to suborbital and orbital space launch capabilities and sustains ground station solutions to support its evolving fleet of spacecraft and remote systems. ====Deep Space Network (1963–present)==== The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) serves as the primary ground station solution for NASA's interplanetary spacecraft and select Earth- orbiting missions. The system employs ground station complexes near Barstow California in the United States, in Spain near Madrid, and in Australia near Canberra. The placement of these ground stations approximately 120 degrees apart around the planet provides the ability for communications to spacecraft throughout the Solar System even as the Earth rotates about its axis on a daily basis. The system is controlled at a 24x7 operations center at JPL in Pasadena California which manages recurring communications linkages with up to 40 spacecraft. The system is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). ====Near Space Network (1983–present)==== thumb|Near Earth Network Ground Stations, 2021 The Near Space Network (NSN) provides telemetry, commanding, ground-based tracking, data and communications services to a wide range of customers with satellites in low earth orbit (LEO), geosynchronous orbit (GEO), highly elliptical orbits (HEO), and lunar orbits. The NSN accumulates ground station and antenna assets from the Near-Earth Network and the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRS) which operates in geosynchronous orbit providing continuous real-time coverage for launch vehicles and low earth orbit NASA missions. The NSN consists of 19 ground stations worldwide operated by the US Government and by contractors including Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), Swedish Space Corporation (SSC), and South African National Space Agency (SANSA). The ground network averages between 120 and 150 spacecraft contacts a day with TDRS engaging with systems on a near-continuous basis as needed; the system is managed and operated by the Goddard Space Flight Center. ==== Sounding Rocket Program (1959–present) ==== The NASA Sounding Rocket Program (NSRP) is located at the Wallops Flight Facility and provides launch capability, payload development and integration, and field operations support to execute suborbital missions. The program has been in operation since 1959 and is managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center using a combined US Government and contractor team. The NSRP team conducts approximately 20 missions per year from both Wallops and other launch locations worldwide to allow scientists to collect data "where it occurs". The program supports the strategic vision of the Science Mission Directorate collecting important scientific data for earth science, heliophysics, and astrophysics programs. In June 2022, NASA conducted its first rocket launch from a commercial spaceport outside the US. It launched a Black Brant IX from the Arnhem Space Centre in Australia. ====Launch Services Program (1990–present)==== The NASA Launch Services Program (LSP) is responsible for procurement of launch services for NASA uncrewed missions and oversight of launch integration and launch preparation activity, providing added quality and mission assurance to meet program objectives. Since 1990, NASA has purchased expendable launch vehicle launch services directly from commercial providers, whenever possible, for its scientific and applications missions. Expendable launch vehicles can accommodate all types of orbit inclinations and altitudes and are ideal vehicles for launching Earth-orbit and interplanetary missions. LSP operates from Kennedy Space Center and falls under the NASA Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD). === Aeronautics Research === The Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) is one of five mission directorates within NASA, the other four being the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, the Space Operations Mission Directorate, the Science Mission Directorate, and the Space Technology Mission Directorate. The ARMD is responsible for NASA's aeronautical research, which benefits the commercial, military, and general aviation sectors. ARMD performs its aeronautics research at four NASA facilities: Ames Research Center and Armstrong Flight Research Center in California, Glenn Research Center in Ohio, and Langley Research Center in Virginia. ==== NASA X-57 Maxwell aircraft (2016–present) ==== The NASA X-57 Maxwell is an experimental aircraft being developed by NASA to demonstrate the technologies required to deliver a highly efficient all-electric aircraft. The primary goal of the program is to develop and deliver all-electric technology solutions that can also achieve airworthiness certification with regulators. The program involves development of the system in several phases, or modifications, to incrementally grow the capability and operability of the system. The initial configuration of the aircraft has now completed ground testing as it approaches its first flights. In mid-2022, the X-57 was scheduled to fly before the end of the year. The development team includes staff from the NASA Armstrong, Glenn, and Langley centers along with number of industry partners from the United States and Italy. ==== Next Generation Air Transportation System (2007–present) ==== NASA is collaborating with the Federal Aviation Administration and industry stakeholders to modernize the United States National Airspace System (NAS). Efforts began in 2007 with a goal to deliver major modernization components by 2025. The modernization effort intends to increase the safety, efficiency, capacity, access, flexibility, predictability, and resilience of the NAS while reducing the environmental impact of aviation. The Aviation Systems Division of NASA Ames operates the joint NASA/FAA North Texas Research Station. The station supports all phases of NextGen research, from concept development to prototype system field evaluation. This facility has already transitioned advanced NextGen concepts and technologies to use through technology transfers to the FAA. NASA contributions also include development of advanced automation concepts and tools that provide air traffic controllers, pilots, and other airspace users with more accurate real-time information about the nation's traffic flow, weather, and routing. Ames' advanced airspace modeling and simulation tools have been used extensively to model the flow of air traffic flow across the U.S., and to evaluate new concepts in airspace design, traffic flow management, and optimization. === Technology research === ==== Nuclear in- space power and propulsion (ongoing) ==== NASA has made use of technologies such as the multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), which is a type of radioisotope thermoelectric generator used to power spacecraft. Shortages of the required plutonium-238 have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennium. An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was New Horizons 2. In July 2021, NASA announced contract awards for development of nuclear thermal propulsion reactors. Three contractors will develop individual designs over 12 months for later evaluation by NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy. NASA's space nuclear technologies portfolio are led and funded by its Space Technology Mission Directorate. ==== Other initiatives ==== Free Space Optics. NASA contracted a third party to study the probability of using Free Space Optics (FSO) to communicate with Optical (laser) Stations on the Ground (OGS) called laser-com RF networks for satellite communications. Water Extraction from Lunar Soil. On July 29, 2020, NASA requested American universities to propose new technologies for extracting water from the lunar soil and developing power systems. The idea will help the space agency conduct sustainable exploration of the Moon. === Human Spaceflight Research (2005–present) === NASA's Human Research Program (HRP) is designed to study the effects of space on human health and also to provide countermeasures and technologies for human space exploration. The medical effects of space exploration are reasonably limited in low Earth orbit or in travel to the Moon. Travel to Mars, however, is significantly longer and deeper into space and significant medical issues can result. This includes bone loss, radiation exposure, vision changes, circadian rhythm disturbances, heart remodeling, and immune alterations. In order to study and diagnose these ill-effects, HRP has been tasked with identifying or developing small portable instrumentation with low mass, volume, and power to monitor the health of astronauts. To achieve this aim, on May 13, 2022, NASA and SpaceX Crew-4 astronauts successfully tested its rHEALTH ONE universal biomedical analyzer for its ability to identify and analyzer biomarkers, cells, microorganisms, and proteins in a spaceflight environment. ===Planetary Defense (2016–present)=== NASA established the Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) in 2016 to catalog and track potentially hazardous near-Earth objects (NEO), such as asteroids and comets and develop potential responses and defenses against these threats. The PDCO is chartered to provide timely and accurate information to the government and the public on close approaches by Potentially hazardous objects (PHOs) and any potential for impact. The office functions within the Science Mission Directorate Planetary Science division. The PDCO augmented prior cooperative actions between the United States, the European Union, and other nations which had been scanning the sky for NEOs since 1998 in an effort called Spaceguard. ====Near Earth object detection (1998–present)==== From the 1990s NASA has run many NEO detection programs from Earth bases observatories, greatly increasing the number of objects that have been detected. However, many asteroids are very dark and the ones that are near the Sun are much harder to detect from Earth-based telescopes which observe at night, and thus face away from the Sun. NEOs inside Earth orbit only reflect a part of light also rather than potentially a "full Moon" when they are behind the Earth and fully lit by the Sun. In 1998, the United States Congress gave NASA a mandate to detect 90% of near-Earth asteroids over diameter (that threaten global devastation) by 2008. This initial mandate was met by 2011. In 2005, the original USA Spaceguard mandate was extended by the George E. Brown, Jr. Near-Earth Object Survey Act, which calls for NASA to detect 90% of NEOs with diameters of or greater, by 2020 (compare to the 20-meter Chelyabinsk meteor that hit Russia in 2013). , it is estimated that less than half of these have been found, but objects of this size hit the Earth only about once in 2,000 years. See especially this figure. In January 2020, NASA officials estimated it would take 30 years to find all objects meeting the size criteria, more than twice the timeframe that was built into the 2005 mandate. In June 2021, NASA authorized the development of the NEO Surveyor spacecraft to reduce that projected duration to achieve the mandate down to 10 years. ====Involvement in current robotic missions==== NASA has incorporated planetary defense objectives into several ongoing missions. In 1999, NASA visited 433 Eros with the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft which entered its orbit in 2000, closely imaging the asteroid with various instruments at that time. NEAR Shoemaker became the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid, improving our understanding of these bodies and demonstrating our capacity to study them in greater detail. OSIRIS-REx used its suite of instruments to transmit radio tracking signals and capture optical images of Bennu during its study of the asteroid that will help NASA scientists determine its precise position in the solar system and its exact orbital path. As Bennu has the potential for recurring approaches to the Earth-Moon system in the next 100–200 years, the precision gained from OSIRIS- REx will enable scientists to better predict the future gravitational interactions between Bennu and our planet and resultant changes in Bennu's onward flight path. The WISE/NEOWISE mission was launched by NASA JPL in 2009 as an infrared-wavelength astronomical space telescope. In 2013, NASA repurposed it as the NEOWISE mission to find potentially hazardous near-Earth asteroids and comets; its mission has been extended into 2023. NASA and Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (JHAPL) jointly developed the first planetary defense purpose-built satellite, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) to test possible planetary defense concepts. DART was launched in November 2021 by a SpaceX Falcon 9 from California on a trajectory designed to impact the Dimorphos asteroid. Scientists were seeking to determine whether an impact could alter the subsequent path of the asteroid; a concept that could be applied to future planetary defense. On September 26, 2022, DART hit its target. In the weeks following impact, NASA declared DART a success, confirming it had shortened Dimorphos' orbital period around Didymos by about 32 minutes, surpassing the pre-defined success threshold of 73 seconds. NEO Surveyor, formerly called the Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam) mission, is a space-based infrared telescope under development to survey the Solar System for potentially hazardous asteroids.Finding Asteroids Before They Find Us NEOCam Home site at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory - Caltech The spacecraft is scheduled to launch in 2026. === Study of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (2022–present) === In June 2022, the head of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, Thomas Zurbuchen, confirmed the start of NASA's UAP independent study team. At a speech before the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine, Zurbuchen said the space agency would bring a scientific perspective to efforts already underway by the Pentagon and intelligence agencies to make sense of dozens of such sightings. He said it was "high-risk, high-impact" research that the space agency should not shy away from, even if it is a controversial field of study. == Collaboration == === NASA Advisory Council === In response to the Apollo 1 accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's air and space programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia disaster, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress. By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC). The NASA Authorization Act of 2014 reaffirmed the importance of ASAP. ===National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)=== NASA and NOAA have cooperated for decades on the development, delivery and operation of polar and geosynchronous weather satellites. The relationship typically involves NASA developing the space systems, launch solutions, and ground control technology for the satellites and NOAA operating the systems and delivering weather forecasting products to users. Multiple generations of NOAA Polar orbiting platforms have operated to provide detailed imaging of weather from low altitude. Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) provide near-real-time coverage of the western hemisphere to ensure accurate and timely understanding of developing weather phenomenon. === United States Space Force === The United States Space Force (USSF) is the space service branch of the United States Armed Forces, while the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the United States government responsible for civil spaceflight. NASA and the Space Force's predecessors in the Air Force have a long-standing cooperative relationship, with the Space Force supporting NASA launches out of Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, and Vandenberg Space Force Base, to include range support and rescue operations from Task Force 45. NASA and the Space Force also partner on matters such as defending Earth from asteroids. Space Force members can be NASA astronauts, with Colonel Michael S. Hopkins, the commander of SpaceX Crew-1, commissioned into the Space Force from the International Space Station on December 18, 2020. In September 2020, the Space Force and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding formally acknowledging the joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between NASA and Air Force Space Command. ===U.S. Geological Survey=== The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program. On July 23, 1972, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed to Landsat 1 in 1975. The most recent satellite in the series, Landsat 9, was launched on September 27, 2021. The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the United States and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance and education, and can be viewed through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. The collaboration between NASA and USGS involves NASA designing and delivering the space system (satellite) solution, launching the satellite into orbit with the USGS operating the system once in orbit. As of October 2022, nine satellites have been built with eight of them successfully operating in orbit. ===European Space Agency (ESA)=== NASA collaborates with the European Space Agency on a wide range of scientific and exploration requirements. From participation with the Space Shuttle (the Spacelab missions) to major roles on the Artemis program (the Orion Service Module), ESA and NASA have supported the science and exploration missions of each agency. There are NASA payloads on ESA spacecraft and ESA payloads on NASA spacecraft. The agencies have developed joint missions in areas including heliophysics (e.g. Solar Orbiter) and astronomy (Hubble Space Telescope, James Webb Space Telescope). Under the Artemis Gateway partnership, ESA will contribute habitation and refueling modules, along with enhanced lunar communications, to the Gateway. NASA and ESA continue to advance cooperation in relation to Earth Science including climate change with agreements to cooperate on various missions including the Sentinel-6 series of spacecraft ===Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)=== NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) cooperate on a range of space projects. JAXA is a direct participant in the Artemis program, including the Lunar Gateway effort. JAXA's planned contributions to Gateway include I-Hab's environmental control and life support system, batteries, thermal control, and imagery components, which will be integrated into the module by the European Space Agency (ESA) prior to launch. These capabilities are critical for sustained Gateway operations during crewed and uncrewed time periods. JAXA and NASA have collaborated on numerous satellite programs, especially in areas of Earth science. NASA has contributed to JAXA satellites and vice versa. Japanese instruments are flying on NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites, and NASA sensors have flown on previous Japanese Earth- observation missions. The NASA-JAXA Global Precipitation Measurement mission was launched in 2014 and includes both NASA- and JAXA-supplied sensors on a NASA satellite launched on a JAXA rocket. The mission provides the frequent, accurate measurements of rainfall over the entire globe for use by scientists and weather forecasters. ===Roscosmos=== NASA and Roscosmos have cooperated on the development and operation of the International Space Station since September 1993. The agencies have used launch systems from both countries to deliver station elements to orbit. Astronauts and Cosmonauts jointly maintain various elements of the station. Both countries provide access to the station via launch systems noting Russia's unique role as the sole provider of delivery of crew and cargo upon retirement of the space shuttle in 2011 and prior to commencement of NASA COTS and crew flights. In July 2022, NASA and Roscosmos signed a deal to share space station flights enabling crew from each country to ride on the systems provided by the other. Current geopolitical conditions in late 2022 make it unlikely that cooperation will be extended to other programs such as Artemis or lunar exploration. ===Indian Space Research Organisation=== In September 2014, NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) signed a partnership to collaborate on and launch a joint radar mission, the NASA-ISO Synthetic Aperature Radar (NISAR) mission. The mission is targeted to launch in 2024. NASA will provide the mission's L-band synthetic aperture radar, a high-rate communication subsystem for science data, GPS receivers, a solid-state recorder and payload data subsystem. ISRO provides the spacecraft bus, the S-band radar, the launch vehicle and associated launch services. ===Artemis Accords=== The Artemis Accords have been established to define a framework for cooperating in the peaceful exploration and exploitation of the Moon, Mars, asteroids, and comets. The Accords were drafted by NASA and the U.S. State Department and are executed as a series of bilateral agreements between the United States and the participating countries. As of September 2022, 21 countries have signed the accords. They are Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. ===China National Space Administration === The Wolf Amendment was passed by the U.S. Congress into law in 2011 and prevents NASA from engaging in direct, bilateral cooperation with the Chinese government and China-affiliated organizations such as the China National Space Administration without the explicit authorization from Congress and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The law has been renewed annually since by inclusion in annual appropriations bills. ==Management== ===Leadership=== The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC, and provides overall guidance and direction. Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be US citizens.Information for Non U.S. Citizens , NASA (downloaded September 16, 2013) NASA's administrator is nominated by the President of the United States subject to the approval of the US Senate, and serves at the President's pleasure as a senior space science advisor. The current administrator is Bill Nelson, appointed by President Joe Biden, since May 3, 2021. ===Strategic plan=== NASA operates with four FY2022 strategic goals. * Expand human knowledge through new scientific discoveries * Extend human presence to the Moon and on towards Mars for sustainable long-term exploration, development, and utilization * Catalyze economic growth and drive innovation to address national challenges * Enhance capabilities and operations to catalyze current and future mission success ===Budget=== NASA budget requests are developed by NASA and approved by the administration prior to submission to the U.S. Congress. Authorized budgets are those that have been included in enacted appropriations bills that are approved by both houses of Congress and enacted into law by the U.S. president. NASA fiscal year budget requests and authorized budgets are provided below. Year Budget Request in bil. US$ Authorized Budget in bil. US$ U.S. Government Employees 2018 $19.092 $20.736 17,551 2019 $19.892 $21.500 17,551 2020 $22.613 $22.629 18,048 2021 $25.246 $23.271 18,339 2022 $24.802 $24.041 18,400 est ===Organization=== NASA funding and priorities are developed through its six Mission Directorates. Mission Directorate Associate Administrator % of NASA Budget (FY22) Aeronautics Research (ARMD) Robert A. Pearce Exploration Systems Development (ESDMD) James Free Space Operations (SOMD) Kathy Lueders Science (SMD) Nicola Fox Space Technology (STMD) James L. Reuter Mission Support (MSD) Robert Gibbs Center-wide activities such as the Chief Engineer and Safety and Mission Assurance organizations are aligned to the headquarters function. The MSD budget estimate includes funds for these HQ functions. The administration operates 10 major field centers with several managing additional subordinate facilities across the country. Each is led by a Center Director (data below valid as of September 1, 2022). Field Center Primary Location Center Director Ames Research Center Mountain View, California Eugene L. Tu Armstrong Flight Research Center Palmdale, California Brad Flick (acting) Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio James A. Kenyon (acting) Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland Makenzie Lystrup Jet Propulsion Laboratory La Canada- Flintridge, California Laurie Leshin Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas Vanessa E. Wyche Kennedy Space Center Merritt Island, Florida Janet Petro Langley Research Center Hampton, Virginia Clayton Turner Marshall Space Flight Center Huntsville, Alabama Jody Singer Stennis Space Center Hancock County, Mississippi Richard J. Gilbrech == Sustainability == === Environmental impact === The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely affect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust. However, carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around of kerosene fuel per launch. Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water vapor. NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011. In contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion. An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010. On May 8, 2003, the Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. In 2018, NASA along with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, Pratt & Whitney, Monitor Coating and UTRC launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra High Temperature detectION). This project aims to enhance the temperature range of the Thermal History Coating up to and beyond. The final goal of this project is improving the safety of jet engines as well as increasing efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions. === Climate change === NASA also researches and publishes on climate change. Its statements concur with the global scientific consensus that the global climate is warming. Bob Walker, who has advised US President Donald Trump on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA. Former NASA atmospheric scientist J. Marshall Shepherd countered that Earth science study was built into NASA's mission at its creation in the 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act. NASA won the 2020 Webby People's Voice Award for Green in the category Web. === STEM Initiatives === Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa). Since 2011, the ELaNa program has provided opportunities for NASA to work with university teams to test emerging technologies and commercial-off-the-shelf solutions by providing launch opportunities for developed CubeSats using NASA procured launch opportunities. By example, two NASA-sponsored CubeSats launched in June 2022 on a Virgin Orbit LauncherOne vehicle as the ELaNa 39 mission. Cubes in Space. NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named "Cubes in Space". It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017, the world's smallest satellite, KalamSAT, was launched. === Use of the metric system === US law requires the International System of Units to be used in all US Government programs, "except where impractical". In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon using a mix of United States customary units and metric units. In the 1980s, NASA started the transition towards the metric system, but was still using both systems in the 1990s. On September 23, 1999, a mixup between NASA's use of SI units and Lockheed Martin Space's use of US units resulted in the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter. In August 2007, NASA stated that all future missions and explorations of the Moon would be done entirely using the SI system. This was done to improve cooperation with space agencies of other countries that already use the metric system. As of 2007, NASA is predominantly working with SI units, but some projects still use US units, and some, including the International Space Station, use a mix of both. == Media presence == === NASA TV === Approaching 40 years of service, the NASA TV channel airs content ranging from live coverage of crewed missions to video coverage of significant milestones for operating robotic spacecraft (e.g., rover landings on Mars for example) and domestic and international launches. The channel is delivered by NASA and is broadcast by satellite and over the Internet. The system initially started to capture archival footage of important space events for NASA managers and engineers and expanded as public interest grew. The Apollo 8 Christmas Eve broadcast while in orbit around the Moon was received by more than a billion people. NASA's video transmission of the Apollo 11 Moon landing was awarded a primetime Emmy in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the landing. The channel is a product of the U.S. Government and is widely available across many television and Internet platforms. === NASAcast === NASAcast is the official audio and video podcast of the NASA website. Created in late 2005, the podcast service contains the latest audio and video features from the NASA web site, including NASA TV's This Week at NASA and educational materials produced by NASA. Additional NASA podcasts, such as Science@NASA, are also featured and give subscribers an in-depth look at content by subject matter. === NASA EDGE === NASA EDGE is a video podcast which explores different missions, technologies and projects developed by NASA. The program was released by NASA on March 18, 2007, and, , there have been 200 vodcasts produced. It is a public outreach vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration and Space Operations Directorate at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The NASA EDGE team takes an insiders look at current projects and technologies from NASA facilities around the United States, and it is depicted through personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts, computer animations, and personal interviews with top scientists and engineers at NASA. The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects in materials and space exploration. NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website and from iTunes. In its first year of production, the show was downloaded over 450,000 times. the average download rate is more than 420,000 per month, with over one million downloads in December 2009 and January 2010. NASA and the NASA EDGE have also developed interactive programs designed to complement the vodcast. The Lunar Electric Rover App allows users to drive a simulated Lunar Electric Rover between objectives, and it provides information about and images of the vehicle. The NASA EDGE Widget provides a graphical user interface for accessing NASA EDGE vodcasts, image galleries, and the program's Twitter feed, as well as a live NASA news feed. === Astronomy Picture of the Day === == Gallery == == See also == * List of crewed spacecraft * List of NASA aircraft * List of space disasters * * :Category: NASA people * * * * == Explanatory notes == == References == == Further reading == * Alexander, Joseph K. Science Advice to NASA: Conflict, Consensus, Partnership, Leadership (2019) excerpt * Bizony, Piers et al. The NASA Archives. 60 Years in Space (2019) * Brady, Kevin M. "NASA Launches Houston into Orbit How America's Space Program Contributed to Southeast Texas's Economic Growth, Scientific Development, and Modernization during the Late Twentieth Century." Journal of the West (2018) 57#4 pp 13–54. * Bromberg, Joan Lisa. NASA and the Space Industry (Johns Hopkins UP, 1999). * Clemons, Jack. Safely to Earth: The Men and Women Who Brought the Astronauts Home (2018) excerpt * Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius, eds. Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight (NASA, 2006) * Launius, Roger D. "Eisenhower, Sputnik, and the Creation of NASA." Prologue-Quarterly of the National Archives 28.2 (1996): 127–143. * Pyle, Rod. Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age (2019), overview of space exploration excerpt * Spencer, Brett. "The Book and the Rocket: The Symbiotic Relationship between American Public Libraries and the Space Program, 1950–2015", Information & Culture 51, no. 4 (2016): 550–82. * Weinzierl, Matthew. "Space, the final economic frontier." Journal of Economic Perspectives 32.2 (2018): 173–92. online , review of economics literature == External links == * ** NASA Engineering and Safety Center ** NASA History Division ** Monthly look at Exploration events ** NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System ** NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server ** NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past ** NASA podcasts * NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site * * How NASA works on howstuffworks.com Category:1958 establishments in Washington, D.C. Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Collier Trophy recipients Category:Government agencies established in 1958 Category:Independent agencies of the United States government Category:Organizations based in Washington, D.C. Category:Webby Award winners
|
Cultural differences can interact with positive psychology to create great variation, potentially impacting positive psychology interventions. Culture differences have an impact on the interventions of positive psychology. Culture influences how people seek psychological help, their definitions of social structure, and coping strategies. ==Overview== Research shows that cultural factors affect notions of perceived happiness. Cultural psychologist Richard Shweder argues that these factors help shape what people deem is good, moral, and virtuous. The current general literature discusses positive psychology into two categories: Western and Eastern. Westerners seek rewards on more of a physical plane, while Easterners seek to transcend the physical plane to a spiritual one.Shweder, R.A., Much, N.C., Mahapatra, M., & Park, L. (1997). The "Big Three" of Morality (Autonomy, Community, Divinity) and the "Big Three" Explanations of Suffering. In A. Brandt & P. Rozin (Eds.) Morality and Health. New York: Routledge Western literature generally stresses autonomy, individuality, and personal satisfaction, while Eastern work generally focuses on harmony, collective cooperation, and group satisfaction. Despite cultural differences in many concepts of interest to positive psychology, the overwhelming majority of intervention studies are conducted using samples drawn from Western cultures. Recent studies show that happiness is a relatively new concept of positive psychology and that the meaning behind positive psychology is more complex than once thought. For the purpose of study, happiness was broken down into two different factors: endogenic and exogenic. Despite the influence of exogenic factors on an individual's happiness, endogenic factors have been proven to form the foundations of happiness. With these new findings, researchers broke down the biological foundations into several categories in order to further understand how endogenic factors play a role on an individual's happiness. The categories researchers selected to examine were genetics, endocrine glands, hormones, physical health, brain and neurotransmitters, typology, and attractiveness. It is also important to note the studies that have been done on twins to help determine what might cause happiness. A study between two twins found that 35-50 percent of happiness can be related to genetic factors. Studying happiness can better help one understand the impact of positive psychology. ==History== In the late 1800s and early 1900s, anthropologists and psychologists used race and culture as factors that influence positive, negative behaviors, and attitudes{Snyder, Lopez, Pedrotti (2011). Positive psychology was defined as the scientific and practical explorations of human strengths (2nd ed.)} Although it originally included culture, over time there became a perspective that neglected the way that the culture impacts behaviors and attitudes. This was used by some groups to assert dominance over others through eugenics. American psychologists, G. Stanley Hall and Henry H. Goddard, were among some of the notable figures to adopt this view. By the mid 20th century, the dominant view was that culture did not predetermine life outcomes; instead, differences were the consequence of environmental factors. The culturally different perspective holds that unique strengths can be highlighted within every culture. David Satcher was among the first to emphasize the influences of culture on mental health. Cultural differences occur both between and within nations. Social psychologists have supported the notion that humans are "social animals". == Major theories == Psychologists Charles R. Snyder, Shane J. Lopez, and Jennifer T. Pedrotti identify two major influential western traditions – Athenian and Judeo-Christian – and four major eastern traditions – Confucianism (China), Taoism (China), Buddhism (Japan), and Hinduism (Southeast Asia) – relevant to positive psychology. ===Western philosophy=== * The Athenian view (held by Aristotle and Plato) stems from discussion of virtue and human strength. It emphasizes the importance of a political community, or "polis", and states that people with good human virtue arrange themselves into a society and model good behavior. * The Judeo- Christian approach discusses the importance of the virtues of faith, hope, charity, fortitude, justice, temperance, and wisdom. It states that laws and rituals serve to cultivate strengths within society. ===Eastern philosophy=== * Confucianism stresses that leadership and education are central to morality. Emphasis is placed on taking care of others within the group. Virtues are used to achieve enlightenment, or the good life. * Taoism portrays the concept of "The Way," referring simultaneously to direction, movement, method, and thought. Tao is the energy surrounding and flowing through everyone, and The Way must be achieved through experience, rather than teaching alone. * Buddhism refers to the teachings of the "Enlightened One," which state that life is full of suffering brought on by human desire and attachment. There is, however, a possible end to the suffering through transcendence and ultimate understanding. Virtues are of utmost importance, and include love, joy, compassion, and composure. * Hinduism emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things. It advocates for the harmonious union among all individuals, who should strive for ultimate self-improvement and also encouraged to be good to others. Good deeds are motivated by the process of karma. ===Cultural differences in the concept of well-being=== Joshanloo (2014) identifies and discusses six broad differences between Western and non-Western conceptions of well-being. His analysis is based on his survey of the accounts of happiness and optimal functioning provided in Western as well as non-Western traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Sufism. These six major domains of difference are as follows: *Self-Transcendence versus self- enhancement. The way cultures define the self is essential in conceptualizing happiness. Whereas the Western concept of the self is primarily based on the ideals of individualism, eastern traditions tend to regard the self as a small part of the collective and the cosmos. Consistent with the Western understanding of the self, enhancing autonomy, independence, self-esteem, and a strong ego is considered to be a vital ingredient of a good life in these cultures. In contrast, in Asian traditions, the individual self is de- emphasized in one way or another. For example, in Buddhism, the existence of an individual self is considered an illusion. *Eudaimonism versus hedonism. In contemporary Western psychology, scientific analysis of individuals' mental well-being and quality of life is mainly undertaken in the field of subjective well-being, which has been formulated based on a hedonic understanding of well-being. A hedonistic conceptualization of happiness is in accord with the core values and ethos of modern Western culture, namely liberal modernity, hedonism, and romantic individualism. However, hedonism as a way of pursuing happiness is not equally favored in eastern traditions. In these traditions, positive emotions and pleasures are considered too temporary and marginal to be the criterion against which happiness is measured. Non-Western conceptualizations of happiness are thus more consistent with eudaimonism, which emphasizes virtues in defining happiness. *Harmony versus mastery. Consistent with the Western dominant way of thinking about humankind and its relationship with the environment, qualities such as environmental mastery and control are highly valued in Western cultures. In contrast, in eastern cultures where interpersonal harmony and adjustment are emphasized, people reach a sense of well-being through promoting mutual sympathy and harmony with others and the whole cosmos. These perspectives value self-transcendence, interdependence, softness, flexibility, and adjustment to the environment rather than autonomy and independence. *Contentment versus satisfaction. Life satisfaction has been stressed over the past four decades in Western psychological literature on mental health. Life satisfaction is believed in the Western thought to result from need or desire satisfaction. However, contentment, in non-Western cultures, involves satisfaction as well as many other qualities and experiences. It is understood as a delicate balance between joy and sorrow that should be preserved in both happy and sad times. It involves accepting any failure or misery one faces with composure, dignity, and gracefulness. This sense of contentment is believed to result from the realization of the transcendent self. Whereas the contentment is spiritually loaded, life satisfaction is not associated with morality and spirituality. *Valuing versus avoiding suffering. A potential consequence of a hedonistic conceptualization of happiness that stresses the maximization of subjective well-being (consisting in part of the absence of negative emotions) is that such a conceptualization, which seems to be dominant in the West, makes it difficult to accept hardship, negative affect, and unhappiness as possible integral parts of a good life. Having this in mind, eastern eudaemonistic theories of well-being accept the existence of negative feelings and anhedonia in a truly happy life. From an eastern point of view, one should be able to embrace both positive and negative sides of life. *Relevance versus relative irrelevance of spirituality and religion. In dominant Western lines of research where materialistic values and moral pluralism are valued, religion and spirituality are studied mainly as predictors of mental well-being, and they are not involved in formulating it. In contrast, in non-Western cultures, spirituality and religion are interwoven in individuals' understanding and experiencing of life in general and happiness in particular. Happiness for many non-Westerners is formulated based on religious and metaphysical worldviews. Transcendence, spirituality, mystical experience, following religious duties, and practicing religious rituals are essential for these people's sense of happiness. ===Viewpoints within positive psychology=== There are different approaches within the field of positive psychology. With the support of numerous sources, Bacon presents the idea that there are two "cultures" in positive psychology, or two different ways to view the positive psychology construct of personal strengths: focus culture and balance culture. In focus culture, individuals are focused on developing and expressing their personal strengths. Balance culture is instead oriented towards balancing and bringing harmony within oneself and among others. Bacon argues that individuals ascribing to the focus culture will differ in their life experience and life path than those who believe in the balance culture. Bacon believes that the strengths can be categorized into these two cultures and goes into depth, explaining why creativity is the prototypical strength in the focus culture and why wisdom represents an ideal strength in the balance culture. Rather than tying culture to a certain ethnic or cultural group, Bacon and others argue that there are two different cultures, or schools of thought, within positive psychology. These two cultures reflect a new way to categorize strengths (Bacon, 2005). ==Approaches== There are two main approaches to cross-cultural positive psychology. One perspective, termed 'culturally-free' believes that there are numerous human strengths that are valued universally, and that the pursuit of happiness is common across cultures. Proponents of this side view their approach as descriptive, and objective, claiming its results "transcend particular cultures and politics and approach universality". The other approach views values as culturally embedded, meaning that cultural values of the researchers influence their work. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 5 (DSM-V) takes this view and includes information throughout the manual to increase cultural sensitivity and further the awareness of a multicultural perspective in clinical practice. Some of the additional information includes insight into cultural differences in key symptoms of disorders as well as suggestions on how to take cultural context into account during treatment. Also, Western traditions fostered more individualistic societies while eastern traditions fostered more collectivistic societies. Individualistic cultures value the self above the group. Collectivistic cultures value the group above the individual. Key western values (Individualism) :* Autonomy/personal freedom :* Competition :* Personal achievement :* Self-oriented :* Future-oriented :* Hope :* Uniqueness (seen through commodities, names, attitudes, performances, attributes, etc.) Key eastern values (Collectivism and individualism) :* Seeks to cultivate interdependence :* Sharing/cooperation :* Conformity/desire to fit in (fosters duty to group and dependence) :* Promote harmony/avoiding conflict :* Going with the flow :* Loyalty to family and friends :* Past-oriented :* Group- oriented :* Compassion The different thought processes between Western and Eastern cultures impacts the positive psychology that they seek in their own lives. For example, in seeking happiness, Westerners give priority to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" as well as goal-directed thinking. Easterners, on the other hand, may be more accepting in their situation, and put more weight on inner life balance. The virtue of harmony appears to be a pillar of Eastern culture. Edward C. Chang did a series of quantitative studies in order to showcase the importance of understanding the equivalence of traits and constructs across cultural groups. For example, Asian Americans were more pessimistic than Caucasians, but the two groups were not all that different on their levels of optimism. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. have suggested that the ability to navigate and adapt to the increasingly diverse context of the world, is an important strength. People high on this are said to have "multicultural personalities". It adjusts for differences between cultures. Kristoffer G. van der Zee and Jan P. van Oudenhoven created the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), and identified five factors that describe personality style: cultural empathy, open-mindedness, emotional stability, initiative, and flexibility. This may correlate with enhanced well- being. Psychology researcher Daphna Oyserman and her colleagues advocate for a less static view of separate cultures (East vs. West), and suggest exploring more dynamic ways explaining the ways in which these cultures operate. Different cultures can operate together, rather than being seen as conflicting (it is not "me vs. we"). == Major empirical findings == There has been a recent effort by researchers to explore how concepts of Positive Psychology differ between cultures, as well as how culture influences how individuals view the good life. For example, Snyder's chapter (2009)Snyder, C. (2009). Positive Psychology Within a Cultural Context. In Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 49-57). Oxford: Oxford University Press. explores the way in which culture affects positive psychology. More specifically, Snyder acknowledges the fact that culture impacts an individual's understanding of strengths and weaknesses. Snyder claims that it is important to understand the cross-section of positive psychology and culture because it allows one to not only understand people within a culture, but it also enables one to appreciate people from different cultures. Snyder outlines two schools of thought in the positive psychology field that pertain to how we should view strengths within a cultural context: culture-free and culturally embedded perspective. Those ascribing to the culture-free perspective believe that strengths are not affected by culture and that there are universal strengths. The culturally embedded perspective argues that one must take into account culture when one is considering strengths because they believe strengths manifest themselves differently in different cultures (Snyder, 2009). Dahlsgaard, Peterson, and Seligman's (2005) meta-analysis present historical and psychological evidence supporting the contention that there are universal virtues that exist across cultures. They are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence. These authors note that these virtues have been represented in ancient texts within Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and from Athenian scholars. Each of these core virtues was represented in these schools of thought and became entrenched in the societies and cultures that ascribe to these religions and belief systems. Thus, these core virtues of courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence are valued equally across these different cultures (Dahlsgaard et al., 2005). Another virtue put forth by Seligman in attaining the good life is forgiveness. Previous researchers have not looked extensively at how forgiveness occurs in non-Western cultures, yet virtue is a very culturally embedded value. The research that has explored the virtue of forgiveness in non-Western cultures has found that there are no significant differences in overall levels of forgiveness, yet the reasons behind forgiving and the meaning of forgiveness varies between collectivist and individualistic cultures. For example, forgiveness in individualistic cultures is focused on a particular individual, while Eastern cultures see forgiveness in a broader, community context. Since forgiveness is a key virtue in positive psychology and a relevant topic in counseling, it is important to research forgiveness more thoroughly in a variety of cultures in order to better understand how different cultures view forgiveness. In studies that highlight differences between Western and Eastern cultures, discrepancies in values and emotions have been found when comparing the United States and China. Some might conclude that people in Eastern cultures are less happy than those in Western cultures, but research indicates that there is more value placed on suffering and transcendence in Eastern cultures than in the United States. It is also commonly believed that there is less happiness experienced by people in Eastern cultures because there is less individuality, but Eastern cultures are socialized in a much more collectivist mindset and develop into adults that are more concerned with finding a place in one's community rather than standing out, as Americans are.Biddle, C. (2012, March 22). Individualism vs. collectivism: our future, our choice. The Objective Standard, 7(1), 19. These differences in particular indicate that there should be further research into cultural differences to avoid mistakes in classifying behavior and psychological functioning. Kubokawa and Ottaway's literature review examines how emotions vary across cultures, suggesting that applications of positive psychology need to adapt to different cultural contexts. The authors use self- criticism as an example: self-criticism is considered detrimental to one's well-being in Western cultures, whereas collectivistic cultures value self- criticism as an important tool for personal growth and consider it useful in aligning with societal norms (Heine et al., 2001). The authors also discuss a study conducted in Asian Americans and Caucasians that examined optimism and pessimism. The study found that while Asian Americans rated higher in pessimism than Caucasians, they did not differ in levels of depressive symptoms, indicating that the association between pessimism and depression might not apply in Asian cultures the way it does in Western cultures. In general, many negative emotions in Western cultures do not hold the same connotations in East Asian cultures, leading the authors to suggest that classification of certain emotions as positive and negative is not universal, and that research in positive psychology should cater to these cultural aspects.Kubokawa, A. and Ottaway, A. (2009). Positive Psychology and Cultural Sensitivity: A Review of the Literature. Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1(2), 130-138 Kubokawa and Ottaway also present research that discredits the cultural relevance of the Values in Action Classification of Strengths (VIA) created by Peterson and Seligman. Peterson and Seligman (2004) identified six universal characters strengths and virtues that are valued by all cultures: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence. These virtues in turn led them to create a subset of 24 strengths common to all cultures. However, Christopher and Hickinbottom (2008) argue that the VIA Classification of Strengths is an oversimplification of cultures. While the values might be similar across cultures, the meaning that Peterson and Seligman ascribed to them are Western-orientated and might not translate well into more collectivist cultures. ===Cultural differences and the good life=== Previous research has demonstrated that the good life, as defined by subjective well-being, is rooted in predominantly Western ways of thinking. But, throughout history, subjective well-being has often become less vital in comparison to the needs to the larger community. This change results in individuals feeling subjective well-being in response to the success of their community rather than from their individual experiences. For example, the people of Bali see life as having two realms, everyday life and the spiritual world. Due to this dichotomy, it is difficult to examine subjective well-being without considering both realms, which occurs when positive psychology uses Western ways of thinking about the world. Another cultural difference in how one conceptualizes the good life can be seen in the beliefs of the Apsáalooke tribe, a Native American tribe in the US. Research has shown that for members of the Apsáalooke tribe, life satisfaction is deeply rooted in the belief that one's life is intertwined with others in their tribe. Due to this feeling of collectivity, satisfaction is taken from helping others. This example is just one of many in which other cultures differ in the concept of satisfaction from the concept of satisfaction in an individualistic culture. In addition, a difference between collectivist and individualist cultures is the conceptualization of positive and negative emotions, including happiness. For example, research indicates that individualism moderates the relationship between hedonism and happiness, such that hedonism is more strongly related to happiness in more individualistic (vs collectivistic) cultures. In individualist cultures, individuals attempt to avoid negative emotions, but in Eastern communities, some negative emotions are viewed as a virtue. One example of this is that collectivist cultures value shame because they view it as an opportunity to better themselves. So, when Western conceptualizations are applied to Eastern cultures, researchers run the risk of psychological imperialism. How does the culture of consumerism relate to positive psychology? Past research has shown that consumer culture and the pursuit of extrinsic goals leads to diminished well-being, in comparison to pursuing intrinsic goals that lead to an increase in well-being. These findings not only occur in America, but the same results occurred in samples across a variety of countries, including Romania, Germany, Russia, Singapore, and South Korea. These countries represent both individualistic and collectivist cultures, which demonstrates that one possible universal in positive psychology across cultures is the importance of the pursuit of intrinsic goals. === Cultural differences in well-being, meaning, and hope === Maygar-Moe, Owens, and Conoley identified specific cultural considerations that affect how practitioners should engage with concepts and theories in positive psychology within counseling settings. The literature review specifically addresses well-being, meaning, and hope. Well-being Wealthy, individualistic cultures experience higher levels of social well-being than underprivileged, collectivistic cultures (Diener, Diener, & Diener, 1995). Self-esteem was also more predictive of life satisfaction in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures (Suh, Diner, Oishi, & Triadis, 1998). ==== Meaning ==== Research suggest that searching for meaning is viewed more positively in interdependent culture: Steger, Kawabata, Shimai, and Otake (2008) found that when comparing Japan (example of interdependent culture) and the U.S. (example of independent culture), the Japanese sample was high in searching for meaning while the U.S. sample was higher in experiencing meaning. Additionally, the search for meaning in the Japanese sample was positively related to presence of meaning, unlike in the U.S. sample. Research also indicates that national levels of globalization can moderate the relationship between "thinking about the meaning of life" and life satisfaction. That is, in more globalized cultures, this relationship is negative, whereas in less globalized cultures, this correlation is positive. ==== Hope ==== Maygar-Moe, Owens, and Conoley argue that while previous research supports the idea that is hope is universally a positive expectancy variably, the cultivation of hope varies based on cultural makeup. European Americans – life satisfaction serves as a source of agentic hope and positive affect was found to be predictive of pathways of hope. Therefore, European Americans would benefit most from interventions that improve life satisfaction and positive affect (Chang & Banks, 2007). African Americans – lack of negative problem orientation was the strongest predictor for agentic, and positive problem orientation was the best predictor of pathways thinking. Therefore, African Americans would benefit best from interventions that simultaneously reduce a negative problem orientation and increase a positive problem orientation (Chang & Banks, 2007). Latinos – life satisfaction was the only predictor of pathways thinking, and rational problem solving was the best predictor of agentic thinking, therefore, Latinos would benefit most from interventions aiming to increasing rational problem solving and that would lead to higher life satisfaction (Chang & Banks, 2007). Asian Americans – positive problem orientation was the strongest predictor of pathways thinking, while positive affect was the strongest predictor of agentic thinking. Therefore, Asian Americans would benefit best from interventions that promote positive affect and a positive problem orientation (Chang & Banks, 2007). == Applications == Culturally appropriate psychoeducational and counseling interventions would benefit from more empirical research on culturally embedded positive psychology. Cross-cultural studies would help with the application of psychological treatment and recovery, along with improving the general understanding of the psyche of diverse populations of people. This is not only important for the differences between Western and Eastern civilizations, but has implications for the various cultural and ethnic groups within the United States of America, a society that has been considered a "melting pot" and has grappled with these issues throughout history. One important aspect of American culture that should be addressed is that of consumerism. Since the negative effects of the culture of consumption transcends specific cultures, it can become a common theme across counseling practices of positive psychology to encourage pursuing intrinsic values and the good life, and avoid pursuing extrinsic goals and the "goods" life. In addition, a culturally embedded approach would allow professionals outside the mental health field to utilize methodology and concepts from psychology to motivate and help people. Specifically, employers in any field of business would be able to find techniques that are culturally appropriate for encouraging employees to be better engaged in their careers and to find meaning in their work. This can effectively be applied to the cultural network groups that many companies organize for employees, such as women's and African-Americans' networks, that allow for employees and employers to increase the understanding of perspectives and cultural sensitivity in the workplace. * Furthermore, teachers and administrators would be better equipped to address issues in educational achievement and behavioral development amongst diverse groups of students. Since there is currently strong criticism of the public education system for the achievement gap amongst students based on race and socioeconomic status, it would be especially helpful for educational authorities to understand the disparities that students may face due to aspects of their background. Teachers would benefit from knowing how to better foster a love of learning, creativity, optimism, resilience, leadership, and teamwork in diverse groups of students in order to prepare students for achievement in the future. The concept of achievement is tied to the aforementioned topics for many children. When achievement seems possible for all students, regardless of their cultural backgrounds, they may be more likely to persistently pursue attaining it. === Applications of strengths theory across cultures === Virtues and strengths are valued differently across cultures, which in turn means that attempts to build strengths using positive psychology within counseling settings can only be successful if they include important cultural considerations. For example, Chang (1996) found that Asian Americans reported higher levels of pessimism than Caucasians, however within that population pessimism was not found to contribute to depression and was associated with positive problem-solving strategies. This suggests that while pessimism is considered a weakness in some cultures, it might actually serve as a strength in others: defensive pessimism, for example, leads people to set lower expectations for themselves. This supports the idea that applications of positive psychology to cultivate strengths need to be altered to fit the clients' cultural backgrounds. == Controversies == === Overstatement of sample and cohort differences: within ideological context === Individual differences in the way people experience positive and negative emotions affect study results in a way that makes sample and cohort differences less important than the studies stress. More specifically, the conception of the self is key in positive psychology, and cross cultural differences in the conception of the self-make it difficult to generalize results. What must be made clear in any given research is the necessity to define the camp of ideology from which the research is founded: a culture-free perspective, where the investigators assume that there are principles of positive psychology that transcend cultures and politics and reach universality and focus on the reports of those principles in all cultural studies; or a culturally-embedded perspective, where investigators acknowledge positive psychological principles that are made special due to the cultural context. === Non-standardized measurement of emotion === The first two problems converge for an even larger issue: the measurement of emotion is far from accurate. However, many studies and researchers use "oversimple checklists and questionnaires without follow-up or exploration of their adequacy." Without in-depth explorations, the possibilities of finding observations about the flow of events in an emotional encounter is minimal. Thus, with very subjective results and the inadequacy to rule out other causal connections, the measurement of positive emotion itself is flawed. With the cultural aspect of positive psychology, the problems largely consist of the definition of positive emotions and notions of a positive life. Many of the ideals that are associated with a positive psychology are notions that are deeply ingrained within Western cultures and do not necessarily apply to all groups of people. In relation to the previous point about measuring positive emotion, many of the social conditions in emotion measurement are ignored. "Positive psychology is doomed to being narrow and ethnocentric as long as its researchers remain unaware of the cultural assumptions underlying their work." A large part of the literature debates whether positive psychology is innately culture-free or culture- embedded. Those who advocate culture-free positive psychology state that happiness is a universal trait, whereas advocates of culture-embedded positive psychology believe that the cultural context reach happiness differently, depending on their culture. Non-standardized measurements of emotion are also due to the fact that pleasant hedonic experiences are expressed in very different ways across cultural groups, hindering researchers' ability to choose universal terms that will accurately describe these experiences without completely disregarding their cultural context. For example, Mesquita and Frijda (1992) argue that the word for "happiness" not only changes across languages, but it also describes a different emotional experience. In English, happiness refers to a "high arousal, exuberant experience," while its equivalent in Hindi, sukhi, refers to a low-arousal experience of peace and happiness, and in Kenya, for the Kipsigis, "happiness" is a lack of negative experiences, indicating a quiet and calm state. This makes it challenging for researchers to study positive psychology across cultures, as different interpretations of these terms could lead to invalid assumptions about specific emotions.Mitamura, C., Leu, J., Campos, B., Boccagno, C., and Tugade, M. M. (2014). Traversing Affective Boundaries: examining Cultural Norms for Positive Emotions. In Tugade, M. M., Shiota, M. N., and Kirby, L. D. (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Emotions (pp. 229-240). New York: The Guilford Press. == See also == * Cross-cultural psychology * Positive psychology == References == ==Further reading== * Cross Cultural Positive Psychology by Paul T.P. Wong (2011) * Positive Psychology: Blending Strengths of Western, Eastern, and other Indigenous Psychologies by Dr. Satish Pandey of Middlesex University (2011), * Ideal Affect: Cultural Causes and Behavioral Consequences by Jeanne L. Tsai * Toward a Multicultural Positive Psychology: Indigenous Forgiveness and Hmong Culture (2003), Steven J. Sandage, Peter C. Hill and Henry C. Vang, The Counseling Psychologist * Pedersen, P. B. (2002). The making of a culturally competent counselor. In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, & D. N. Sattler (Eds.), Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 10, Chapter 2), Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington USA * Lazarus 2003: Does the Positive Psychology Movement Have Legs? * Strengths & Positive Psychology, Strengths-based & Appreciative Leadership in Emerging Cultures by Todd A Conkright * Positive Psychology and Cultural Sensitivity: A Review of the Literature by Amanda Kubokawa and Amber Ottoway * The Future of Positive Psychology: Science and Practice, What comes next for the field of positive psychology? * Positive Psychology: Blending Strengths of Western, Eastern and Other Indigenous Psychologies Category:Positive psychology Positive psychology Positive psychology Positive psychology Category:Environmental psychology
|
Major (stylized as MAJOR) is a Japanese sports manga series written and illustrated by Takuya Mitsuda. It was serialized in Shogakukan's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Sunday from August 1994 to July 2010, with its chapters collected in 78 tankōbon volumes. It was followed by a sequel titled Major 2nd, which started in Weekly Shōnen Sunday in March 2015. It was adapted into a 154-episode anime television series by Studio Hibari and later by SynergySP, titled Major. It ran for six seasons on NHK E from November 2004 to September 2010. Two original video animations (OVAs) were released in December 2011 and January 2012. In 1996, Major received the Shogakukan Manga Award for the shōnen category. As of February 2018, the manga had over 54 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. ==Plot== The story of Major follows the life of Gorō Honda from kindergarten to his career as a professional baseball player. The story focuses on how the main protagonist overcomes tremendous challenges. Subsections are divided according to the official website's story sections. ===Kindergarten ~ First grade=== Gorō's father, Shigeharu Honda, is a baseball pitcher bouncing between the major and minor league teams of the NPB. Nonetheless, Gorō looks up to his father and wishes to be a professional baseball player just like him. Gorō's mother, Chiaki Honda, died from an unknown disease two years before the events of the story. Aside from his father, Gorō is very close to two other people: Momoko Hoshino and Toshiya Sato. Momoko is Gorō's kindergarten teacher and watches out for Gorō, as there are no other children of Gorō's age in the class. Toshiya is another child from Gorō's neighborhood, the only one of Gorō's age, and to whom Gorō taught baseball. The father and son are struck a cruel blow when an arm injury prevents Honda from continuing his baseball career as a pitcher. Gorō is especially shaken by the fact that his father cannot pursue his career as a baseball player. For Honda, Gorō and baseball are all he has left in his life. For his son's sake, Honda takes his best friend's advice, revives his batting instincts, and successfully transforms into a slugger. Amidst these struggles, Momoko is drawn deeper and deeper into the family's life. Eventually, Honda proposes to Momoko. Right when Honda establishes himself in a major league team, the Yokohama Marine Stars, the Tokyo Giants sign a contract with the American MLB player Joe Gibson, famous for his huge physical build and hard fastballs. When the Marine Stars with Honda and the Giants with Gibson finally meet on the field, Gibson strikes out every single Marine Stars batter, except for Honda. At his second at-bat, Honda hits a home run off Gibson's pitch. After Honda's home run, the Marine Stars coach launches a series of bunt attacks, scoring additional runs, and psychologically shaking up Gibson who considers the tactic unsportsmanlike. By Honda's third at-bat, Gibson has completely lost his mental focus, and accidentally pitches a dead ball that strikes Honda's head. The umpire immediately calls Gibson off the mound, though Honda quickly gets back onto his feet and continues with the game. Honda's excellent play makes him the headline of major newspapers. The next morning, Honda dies due to internal bleeding in his skull, leaving his heartbroken son and fiancé in mourning. ===Little League=== Three years have passed since Momoko adopted Gorō as her son upon Honda's death. When Gorō reaches fourth grade, he is finally old enough to join the local little league team, the Mifune Dolphins. However, the local kids are mostly interested in soccer, and Gorō has to get his new school friends to join him to have enough members to keep the baseball team from being dismantled. Gorō shows himself to be an exceptionally gifted baseball player. The team coach recommends that Gorō join the nearby Yokohama Little team instead, which has better players, coaching, and resources. When Gorō visits the team, he discovers that not only is his childhood friend Toshiya at Yokohama Little, but his father, Shigeharu Honda, was a member of the Yokohama Little team with the current coach when they were younger. Gorō finds himself torn; following in his father's footsteps would mean abandoning the friends he asked to join the Mifune Dolphins. Gorō has a big fight with Momoko over the issue, and Momoko seeks advice from Hideki Shigeno, Honda's old friend and teammate. While meeting with Shigeno, Momoko coughs up blood and is hospitalized. While it turns out to just be a gastric ulcer, it makes Gorō realize that the living people in his life are much more important than the dead ones. Meanwhile, Joe Gibson has just returned to the MLB after pitching in Japan for three years. He offers Gorō an all-expenses-paid invitation to travel to America and watch the MLB All-Star game, where Gibson will be the starting pitcher for the National League. At the game, not a single of the AL's top players can touch Gibson's pitches, and Gibson earns a standing ovation from the audience. Gibson explains that this was his way to show Gorō how great a slugger Honda had been since Honda had hit a home run off Gibson's best pitch. After the game, Gibson offers to allow Gorō to throw a ball at him. Gorō responds that he will postpone this "punishment" until the day he can pitch as well as Gibson. Back in Japan, with renewed determination, Gorō leads the Mifune Dolphins through various trials and practice matches to defeat Yokohama Little, the best team in the region. In the end, the Dolphins do defeat Yokohama Little, but Gorō is injured in the process, making him unable to play for a few months. At the end of the season, Gorō's adoptive mother marries Hideki Shigeno, and the new family plans to move to Fukuoka after Shigeno is traded from the Marine Stars. Gorō, unable to face his teammates, leaves without saying goodbye, leaving them heartbroken. ===Junior High=== Gorō moves back to Mifune when his stepfather is traded back to the Blue Oceans. Gorō finds his little league friends grown up and attending Mifune East Junior High School. Gorō surprises his friends when he tells them that he has been playing soccer and does not plan on playing for the junior high baseball team due to a shoulder injury he sustained in Fukuoka. Gorō reveals to his friends that he has switched to being a southpaw pitcher. At first, Gorō is not interested in playing baseball because he wants to play with hard balls, not the rubber ones used in the junior high league. During a match where Mifune East Junior High faces Mifune West Junior High, Gorō takes to the mound after seeing Mifune West insult his friends. In the game, Gorō's team manages a comeback victory. Together, Gorō and his friend Komori Daisuke rebuild the junior high baseball team. Eventually, they enter the regional junior high tournament, where Gorō once again finds himself playing against his friend and rival Toshiya Sato, who plays on the Tomonoura Junior High School team. Mifune eventually beats Tomonoura in a close game. Gorō's friendship with Toshiya goes downhill when Toshiya decides to go to Kaido High School, where Gorō has no desire to go. A Kaido scout urges Gorō to enter Kaido, but Gorō refuses the offer, saying "as long as Toshiya goes to Kaido, I won't enter Kaido." The scout tells Toshiya to quit applying for Kaido, as they want Gorō instead. Gorō and Toshiya make a bet: their two teams will play against each other, and the winner will attend Kaido. Mifune East wins, but Toshiya and Gorō decide to take on Kaido together. After a tournament defeat against Kaido Junior High, Gorō prepares to attend Kaido High to improve his pitching. Gorō, Komori, and Toshiya try out for the baseball team of the prestigious private high school. Komori is disqualified forced to attend Mifune High instead. Gorō and Toshiya make it through the first round of tryouts. Gorō then succeeds at an academic examination designed to test his determination. ===Kaido High School=== Immediately after they graduate middle school, Gorō and Toshiya are sent to Dream Island, where they undergo six months of hard training and make some new friends. Gorō then proceeds to the Atsugi campus, where he defeats a scholarship team. Gorō and Toshiya make the junior varsity team and spend a year and a half together as teammates. However, in their second year, Gorō reveals that his sincere desire is to challenge the excellent players of Kaido instead of playing on the same team as them. Toshiya is hurt by Gorō's decision but respects him for it. Gorō leads the junior varsity team to victory in a scrimmage against the varsity team and then quits Kaido High School to play for another team. ===Seishu High School=== Gorō has returned home after quitting Kaido. On arrival, his mother voices her dissatisfaction with the fact that he did not consult with her about his departure. She insists that Gorō be accountable for his actions and accept the responsibility to pay the application fee at any school that he chooses to enroll. Gorō's enrollment is rejected by several schools due to the Kaido assistant coach, Egashira, threatening to sue other schools for accepting him. Gorō is finally able to avoid Egashira's interference by enrolling at Seishuu High School. A girls-only school until just two years prior, Seishuu does not have a baseball team. Gorō enrolls, determined to create a baseball team from scratch. After he has enough committed players, Gorō and the team enter the summer tournament. First, Gorō and his new teammates play an exhibition match with the second-string players from Kaido. In the game, Gorō's foot gets injured when a rival player steps on it in a supposed accident. Despite the injury, Gorō and his team persist in the summer tournament and manage to reach the quarterfinals against Kaido. After a close game that goes into extra innings, Kaido wins and moves on to Koshien, while Gorō collapses from exhaustion. ===Minor League Baseball=== Despite losing the match against Kaido, Gorō attracted the eyes of many scouts during his time with the Seishuu High School team, including some from the Yokohama Marine Stars and the Tokyo Warriors. However, upon learning that Joe Gibson is still pitching in MLB and has dedicated his 300-win season to his "young friend in Japan", Gorō loses interest in Japanese professional baseball and leaves for America to try out for MLB. Meanwhile, Sato is recruited by the Tokyo Warriors, while Mayumura is hired by the Yokohama Marine Stars. Gorō's fastball, while ineffective against Major League sluggers, allows him to start in Triple-A instead of the rookie league. At first, he joins the Cougars but is soon released after a fight with Joe Gibson Jr. from the Oklahoma Falcons. Eventually, Gorō joins the Memphis Bats. In Triple-A, Gorō finds a new rival: Joe Gibson Jr, son of Joe Gibson and an outstanding slugger. Junior views the death of Gorō's father as the cause of a tragedy that occurred on his own family, and he challenges Gorō to a bet: If Junior can hit a home run off Gorō, Gorō is to return to Japan and never set foot on American soil again. On the other hand, if Gorō can strike out Junior, then Junior will visit Gorō's father's grave and apologize for his insults. Gorō manages to strike out Junior with his increasingly deadly fastball. The Bats go on to win the Triple-A playoffs. ===Baseball World Cup=== After the baseball season is over, Gorō returns to Japan. Shimizu finally admits her feelings for Gorō, and they became a couple. Meanwhile, Gorō learns from Toshi that there is going to be a Baseball World Cup the following year hosted in America, and for the first time, Major League players will be allowed to compete in it. Due to Gorō's impressive performance in the practice match between Rookies and the All-Star Japan team, he is selected as a replacement pitcher starting the second round of preliminaries. Gorō pitches as the closer against Venezuela and South Korea, earning a win and a save, respectively. Then, Mayumura earns a win pitching as closer against the Dominican Republic, advancing Japan to the semi-finals. Shimizu comes to America to cheer Gorō on and encounters Toshiya's younger sister, Miho Sato. The day before the semi-finals match against Cuba, Toshiya runs into his sister, and the traumatic memories of being abandoned by his parents seven years prior are rekindled. Toshiya's body goes into involuntary shock, and he is hospitalized. Miho feels guilty about the incident, but Toshiya calls her and asks her to watch the next game. Toshiya makes several excellent plays against Cuba's aggressive offense in the semi-finals, and Gorō gets the win as the closer. After the Cuba game, Gibson Jr. reveals to the Team USA's manager, as well as to Gorō, that his father, Joe Gibson, has angina pectoris. Junior hopes that the manager and Gorō might be able to dissuade Gibson from getting on the mound and potentially killing himself. However, with the players mostly in an "exhibition game" mentality, Gibson takes the mound in the 8th inning of the USA vs. Venezuela semi-finals, risking his life to raise the spirits of his teammates. The following day, Gibson collapses during a practice session, and Gorō rushes to the hospital to see him. Gibson reveals to Gorō that, in a chance meeting with Momoko 10 years prior, he asked her why she had not accepted any monetary compensation from him. Momoko simply asks Gibson to remain a top-class baseball player until Gorō grows up so that Gorō can be proud of having a father who hit a home run off of such a great pitcher. Momoko's words were the pillar that supported and drove Gibson all these years. He felt that if he did not play in the Baseball World Cup and face Gorō on the mound, he would have failed Gorō and Momoko. Gorō comforts Gibson, telling him that he has done enough, and urging him to watch Gorō and Junior's showdown on TV. The Japan vs. USA finals game begins with Japan taking a five-run lead, prompting Gibson to leave the hospital and go to the stadium to cheer his teammates on. Japan sends out Gorō in the 8th inning to protect their 1-run lead, but Junior hits a home run off Gorō's fastball. The game goes into extra innings. Gorō and Junior keep up consecutive no-hit innings until the 15th inning, in which Toshiya's bat breaks during an at-bat. The bat's flying shrapnel hits Gibson in the heart. Gibson catches the ball and uses his remaining strength to throw out a runner. He collapses soon after. Gorō, determined to strike out Gibson Jr, pitches the fastest pitch of his life: a fastball. However, Junior hits a home-run off the pitch, sealing the World Championship for the USA team. After the finals, Gorō loses his desire to play baseball and returns to Japan instead of going to Florida for spring training. But upon seeing his old teammates play in Japan, Gorō rekindles his desire to play and leaves to join the Hornets in Florida. ===Major League Baseball=== As the new MLB season begins, Gorō performs exceptionally well for the Hornets in exhibition matches. In his first official MLB game, he pitches a no-hit no-run game up until the 8th inning, when he suddenly loses his control. In his second game, his pitches start to go wild in the 5th inning. Suspecting "yips", the team's catcher, Keene, stops Gorō from voluntarily stepping off the mound, gambling on the chance that Gorō will overcome his struggles. Gorō throws at the batter's head and is ejected by the umpire. In his third game, Gorō is unable to retire a single batter. He is removed from the game in the first inning and sent back to the Triple-A Bats to improve his play. Believing that Gorō's defeat at the hands of Gibson Jr. was the cause of his yips, the Hornets send Gorō to Billy Oliver, a sports psychologist, for treatment. After Gorō recovers from his yips, he feels aimless, leading to performance struggles. Later, Gibson retires after a defeat at the hands of Gorō and the Hornets. Gibson's departure from baseball is treated as voluntary retirement, but in reality, Gibson takes the opportunity to start from scratch. He signs a minor league contract with Double-A Bulls. Gibson fights his way back up to the majors and waits for Gorō to rechallenge him. Ultimately, the Hornets lose to the Salmons, ending their World Series chances. Gorō heads back to Japan to take a rest and solidify his relationship with Shimizu. A flash-forward eight years shows Gorō being brought out to close the last game of the World Series, where the Hornets face off against the Raiders. During the match, Shimizu is shown giving birth to her and Gorō's first child. The ending finds Gibson Jr. against Gorō in one final face-off. ===Return to Japan=== Following the events of Season 6, the Major OVA finds Gorō, after a splendid fourteen-year career, forced to retire from the Hornets. He can no longer pitch due to a shoulder injury despite surgery and rehabilitation. He rejects some offers of coaching positions and decides to return to Japan to continue playing baseball as a hitter and fielder. Before leaving, Gorō promises Toshi he will meet him again on the field as a batting opponent in the Major League, and Sato pledges to wait for Gorō. Gorō takes two years to train himself as a fielder and a hitter. Afterward, he joins the Blue Oceans and returns to being a professional player, inspiring his daughter and his son as his father had inspired him. ==Characters== ===Main=== ; / : :A talented baseball player by the age of 5. His love of the game stems from his father, who played for the Yokohama Marine Stars. Gorō's mother died when he was three, leaving him with nothing but baseball and his father. Wanting nothing more than to follow in his father's footsteps, Gorō strives to become a professional ballplayer. Gorō also believes that the only way to make his father happy is to become a professional baseball player himself. He thrives on challenges and leverages his competitive mindset as he practices. He makes friends quickly, as people are drawn to his personality and his love of the game. :Tragedy again strikes Gorō at the age of 6, when he loses his father in a horrible accident in a game against MLB pitcher Joe Gibson. From then on, Gorō aims to join the MLB and someday challenge Gibson. He is taken in by Momoko, his kindergarten teacher, and his late father's lover. After Momoko gets married, Gorō's name is changed to Shigeno Gorō. ; : :Shigeharu is an up-and-coming baseball pitcher for the Marine Stars. He is a widower and lives with his son, Gorō. An elbow injury threatens to end his baseball career early on until his friend and teammate, Shigeno, suggests that he try hitting. He develops feelings for Gorō's kindergarten teacher and nearly marries her. However, he dies after being struck in the head by a pitch from Joe Gibson, an American pitcher who came to Japan from the MLB. During his childhood years, he played for the Yokohama Little league, and later Koshien high school alongside Shigeno. ; : :Chiaki Honda was the deceased wife of Shigeharu Honda. ; / : :Momoko was Gorō's nursery school teacher when he was younger. After Gorō left nursery school, she dated his dad Shigeharu and was engaged to him at the time of his death. She adopted Gorō and raises him as a single parent until she marries Hideki Shigeno several years later. Her name changes to Momoko Shigeno. She then has children of her own, a boy named Shingo and a girl named Chiharu. ; : :Hideki was an ace pitcher for the Yokohama Marine Stars. He and Shigeharu were buddies since high school, and Shigeno had been an irreplaceable friend to the Honda's. When Shigeharu was down due to his arm injury, Hideki sparked the thought for him to transform into a slugger instead. When Shigeharu died, he became reacquainted with Momoko and Goro (they last met at Honda's funeral), giving baseball-related advice to Goro. Then in early Spring three years later, he married Momoko and adopted Goro as his son. Around 1996, his son Shingo was born. In 1996 the Yokohama Marine Stars traded him to the Fukuoka Eagles (Hawks in the Movie). Then in 2000, the Yokohama got him back. However, following a period of bad performances, Shigeno announced his retirement after that season. For the remainder of the season, Shigeno's performance picked up again. His back number, #17, retired with him. (in the anime, the bad performances and retirement occurred during the 2002 season instead) After retiring from professional baseball, he became a sports commentator. In 2001, his daughter Chiharu was born. In 2005, Shigeno was recruited as the head coach as well as the pitcher coach of the Japan National Team for the Baseball World Cup. ; : :Initially, Sato was a boy who was forced by his mother to focus on his studies to become a responsible adult. While Gorō was playing catch by himself one time, he saw Toshi staring from his window. At first, Toshi did not want to play catch with Gorō, but Gorō went to Toshi's house and convinced Toshi to play with him. He develops a love of the game equal to Gorō and becomes a talented catcher. Told by his mother that if he wanted to play baseball, he had to play for the best team, Toshiya went to play as a catcher for Yokohama Little League, which is the area's best team. Gorō runs into him again (Gorō moved away after his father's fiancée adopted him), and the two begin a rivalry as intense as their friendship. He plays against Gorō on Yokohama Little and again as the catcher of Tomonoura Junior High School's team. In between the time, Toshiya's family abandoned him due to debt problems, and he began living with his grandparents. Swearing to go pro so he could one day repay the debt he has from his grandparents. In the Junior years, Toshi wanted to get into Kaido High because he believed that was the best path to turn pro. He was later told by the Kaido scouts to give up so Gorō would join. Though Toshi had misunderstood Gorō's idea and thought Gorō did not want to play baseball with him. After the defeat to Mifune East, Toshi regained his confidence in Gorō and wished that they would go to the same high school together and defeat Kaido. Later Gorō told Toshi to go to Kaido with him to improve their skills. They try out for Kaido High School's baseball team together with Komori and become teammates on Kaido's Junior Varsity team for a year and a half. :During his years in Kaido, Toshi had lost contact with Gorō after his departure from Kaido. And when Gorō finally meets Toshi again, Toshi had completely forgotten of Gorō's team thinking they were only just surviving in the tournament. During the match against Seishu, Toshi was confident in defeating Gorō's team, though he was amazed by Gorō pitching he was injured. Toshiya went on a fantastic winning in the Koshien Tournament. Forming a battery with Mayumura and was Kaido's fourth batter. After high school, he had been scouted by the Tokyo Warriors team and won the Best New Player award. During the Baseball World Cup, he first joined Team Japan as DH, but later took on the catcher mask. At first, he had some trouble during the first match, though with Gorō's help, Toshi's confidence slowly increased. ; : :Kaoru is in Gorō's class in elementary school and eventually begins to play little league baseball on the Mifune Dolphins Little League after an argument with Gorō where she sees his passion for the game. She was also the first person Gorō recruited to the Mifune Dolphins. In the finals against Yokohama, she was the catcher to replace the injured Komori. Already in elementary school, she began to have feelings for Gorō. In Junior High School, she switches to softball and becomes captain of the Mifune East Junior High team. Seeming, she still had a grudge against baseball because Gorō introduced it to her. Initially, she plans to follow Gorō, whom she has a crush on, to Kaido High School. However, she changes her mind after she discovers Kaido does not have a softball team and after Gorō tells her to follow her love of softball. She attended Seishu High School, the one Gorō later attends. She told her little brother Taiga to join Seishu's baseball club, seeming the great "baseball fanatic" was there. After high school, she attended Kyowa University. During the winter break of her freshman year, Gorō confesses to Kaoru, and they are going out. If Gorō was suggested as a baseball fanatic, Shimizu was said to be a softball fanatic. And now, she is shown that she is married to Gorō and has two children. ; : :Joe Gibson is the man responsible for the death of Gorō's birth father. The incident remained a heavy cross weighed upon him, driving him to remain one of the top pitchers in the MLB so that Honda, by comparison, would be seen as an even more significant player. Due to this incident, he began to have family problems as his family did not fit in Japan. His son Joe Gibson Jr. started to have a grudge against him as his son believed Gibson and Honda Shigeharu created the reason for the family breakdown. He later returned to America after the death of his wife and daughter. He continued pitching after the age of 40 and earning over 300 wins. He stated he was waiting for a Japanese boy to join the Major League to challenge him. For the Baseball World Cup, he was Team USA's ace pitcher, although at that time, he was diagnosed with angina pectoris, and the doctor warned he might die if he continues pitching. However, Gibson may feel that dying on the mound pitching his best would be the only way to truly make up to Gorō, Momoko, and the deceased Honda. His surgery was successful. Gibson also stated, "I too once had a great rival, though he is now dead because of me." ===Supporting=== ; : :Komori was Honda's catcher since his earlier days as a little leaguer back when they were in Mifune Dolphins along with Sawamura and Shimizu. At first, he was being bullied by Sawamura but was helped by Gorō and solved the problem. He continued to catch for Gorō when he returned from Fukuoka in Mifune East Middle School but ended when Mayumura eliminated them single-handedly in their game with Kaido Affiliate. In season 3, when Gorō left Kaido and entered Seishuu, they become rivals where Gorō eventually won. After High school, Komori went on to play for his Uni as their pinch hitter. After high school, Komori went on to have a regular job and became the coach of the Mifune Dolphins. Goro's daughter joins the team with Komori as the coach during OVA 1. ; : :Kaoru's brother. First seen back in season 1, where he asked his sister if baseball was fun, he returned in season 3 as a new member of the Seishuu Baseball Team, where he played as a shortstop. With his excellent skill and speed, he helped Gorō in challenging Kaido. Besides that, he also helped to take over the mound when Egashira injured gorō during their practice game with Kaido. He was a smartmouth kid who believed in defeat but later changed his opinion after watching Gorō time and time again pitching with an injured foot. Later on, he became the captain of the Seishuu Baseball Team to challenge Kaido once again with his new teammates. Declaring their goal is to win at Koshien. Though at first, he did not have the confidence and decided to learn to throw the gyroball so he could give new members the belief of going to Koshien. Though later, Gorō told him that he should make a team that suited him rather than follow in Gorō's footsteps. He is the 1st batter (batting left-handed) and plays shortstop. ; : :Initially, Ryota is a bully in elementary school, pushing Komori. Gorō and Shimizu stand up to him, and he eventually backs down after Gorō hits him for trying to throw his baseball glove into the river. He soon realizes that he does not have any real friends and asks Gorō if he can play baseball with him, Shimizu and Komori. He started off playing soccer but changes to baseball so he could play in Little League with Gorō and the others. In junior high, he went back to soccer and was the captain of the team. In season 6, we learn that he injured his knee and could not continue playing. He remains friends with Komori, Shimizu, and Gorō. ; : :Introduced in the Junior High story arc, Yoshitaka Yamane is on the Mifune Junior High School team but uses it to cut class with some other friends that follow him. He and his friends beat up Komori after he tells them that they have to quit if they are not going to contribute to the team and frightened the remaining players into quitting, too. When Gorō returns and confronts him, Yamane reveals that he hates baseball because he cannot play it anymore. He was injured the year before and cannot throw the ball with his right arm. Gorō, who suffered a similar injury, teaches Yamane to throw left-handed, and he rejoins the team, playing first base. He goes on to Mifune High School with Komori, where he became the pitcher. ; : :The son of Joe Gibson, Junior, is of the same age as Gorō. When Junior's parents divorced because his mother could not stand life in Japan, whereas Gibson wanted to remain in Japan pitching until he had found out how to make up for killing Honda, Junior stayed with his father in Japan. When his mother and sister died in a traffic accident in America, Junior became resentful towards his father and the deceased Honda. His motivation to play baseball was fueled by the desire to defeat his father. He is an extremely talented batter, being able to switch hit. He played for the AAA Oklahoma Falcons, the MLB team Texas Raiders, as well as the USA Team during the Baseball World Cup. He hit the walk-off home run against Gorō 103 mph pitch to lead the USA to the world cup victory. He plays third base. ;Ken Mayumura : :Introduced in season 2, he has a forward attitude. His personality is straightforward and to the point, often coming off as cold. He appears to be in complete control of his emotions at all times, including when facing established and more experienced players. Others see his pre-game ritual of sitting in a bathroom stall while listening to music as getting him in the right frame of mind to pitch, but in actuality, he does it because he is anxious and helps him focus his anxiety. Mayumura's pitch was as fast as Goro's and is also a gyroballer just like Shigeno. His goals are to achieve all possible individual achievements in Japanese Baseball before moving onto the Majors. In the anime, he plays for NPB's Yokohama Blue Oceans[Anime]/Orix BlueWave [Manga] as a starting pitcher. Still, at the end of season 6 and in OVA 2:World Series, it is shown that Mayumura becomes the ace pitcher for the Texas Raiders and forms a battery with Jeff Keene. ;Tashiro : : ;Fujii : ===Others=== ;Jeff Keene :Jeff Keene is the catcher for both Indiana Hornets and Memphis Bats, he seems to be quiet almost all the time and does not like "chit-chatting". He is always serious and is a catcher and batter. In OVA 2:World Tail, it was shown that Ken and Keene are forming a battery. ;Coach Ando :Coach Ando is a coach for the long-running little league baseball team "Mifune Dolphins", a team Goro and his friends (Komori, Kaoru, Sawamura, and the others) used to be teammates in their childhood. ;Billy Oliver :Billy Oliver is a sports psychiatrist and a friend of Joe Gibson. In season 6, the Indiana Hornets sent Goro Shigeno to Billy Oliver to cure his yips, although it was said that it is not possible to cure his yips with just medicine. Later in the anime, it was shown that Goro had finally conquered his yips. Billy Oliver is also known as "Dr. Oliver". ;Chiharu Shigeno Voiced by:Tomoko Kaneda :Chiharu is Goro's little sister and daughter of Momoko and Hideki Shigeno. ;Shingo Shigeno :Shingo is Goro's little brother and son of Momoko and Hideki Shigeno. ;Hayato Yaginuma :Hayato Yaginuma was a Japanese baseball player that Goro first met in America when he was hitchhiking. Ginumachi and Goro, together, joined in a tryout to be Minor League players, later during the audition, they battle against the Salmons, and their task is to get back the Salmons' 10 runs. Although Goro and his friends (including Yaginuma) lost, they were accepted to be Minor League players, but Goro was allowed to join the Salmons and met Sanchez, a pitcher with great controls over his ball;Bolton, a batter who hit Goro's pitch during a test;and Fox, a catcher (and/or batter) which Goro befriended. Ginumachi, later in the anime, went back to Japan but returned in America to watch Goro's Memphis Bats team battling against Joe Gibson Junior's Oklahoma Falcons. ;Miho Sato :Miho Sato is Toshiya's younger sister. In the older episodes, Miho, while she was still at her young age, and her parents left Toshi without him knowing it. Later in the anime, Kaoru met Miho in a restaurant when they bumped each other, but they became friends, Miho used a fake name "Waka", but Kaoru soon discovered her real name. ;Ayane :Ayane is a character introduced in the second season of the Major anime after the time fast-forward. She is first seen when Goro is running past her, and she is nearby the game. Her friend initially expresses interest in becoming the manager of the baseball club because she has a crush on the captain. Ayane is bumped by someone on the stairs and is falling backward, but the captain catches her. She seems to have developed a crush in response to this and asks her friend if more than one person can be a manager. After noticing her glowing look, Ayane's friend declares that she will back off and instead support Ayane's love. ;Megumi Koga :Megumi Koga (Japanese order Koga Megumi) is a girl in the film in the class 5-1 with Goro. She initially is impressed that he plays baseball but gets mad when she finds out who his dad is. Her brother is Masato (on Goro's team), and their father is Tetsuya, a teammate of Hideki, Goro's adoptive father. ;Muta :Muta is on the Mifune East team, and his number is 10. He was one of the bullies. He is lied to and called a "secret weapon" to explain why he was not part of the starting line-up due to his perceived lack of skill. He later pinch hits in the game against Tomonoura so he could get a chance to play. ;Kuramoto :Kuramoto is on Toshi's (Tokyo Warriors) team. His number is 5. ;Naruse :Naruse is the pitcher (number 1) for Tomonoura. He wears glasses, and Toshi refers to him as the ace. ==Media== ===Manga=== Major is written and illustrated by Takuya Mitsuda. The manga started in the 1994 issue #33 of Shogakukan's shōnen manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Sunday on August 3, 1994. The series finished in the 2010 issue #32 of Weekly Shōnen Sunday published on July 7, 2010. Shogakukan collected its 747 individual chapters into seventy-eight tankōbon volumes, released between January 13, 1995, and December 17, 2010. A sequel to the series entitled Major 2nd started in the 2015 issue #15 of Weekly Shōnen Sunday published on March 11, 2015. ===Anime=== Major has been adapted into an anime television series by Studio Hibari and later by SynergySP, titled . The series was broadcast on NHK E for 154 episodes divided in six seasons from November 13, 2004, to September 25, 2010. An animated film telling the story between the first and second seasons of the anime was released on December 13, 2008. Two OVAs were released on December 16, 2011, and January 18, 2012. The OVAs adapted the World Series chapter, which was skipped in the TV series. ==Reception and legacy== As of February 2018, the Major manga had over 54 million copies in circulation. Major won the 41st Shogakukan Manga Award in the shōnen category in 1996. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150.000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Major ranked #83. In 2006, the anime series ranked 46th in an online poll conducted by TV Asahi on Japan's favorite animated TV series. A Celebrity List of the same poll placed the anime series at the 70th spot. In 2005, sporting goods manufacturer Mizuno entered into a one-year agreement with Shogakukan to have their company logo appear in the baseball equipment used by Goro Shigeno and other characters in the manga series. Under the agreement, Mizuno would also use the Goro Shigeno character in other promotional events. An article from The Boston Globe credits the manga series for helping increase the popularity of the gyroball pitch. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Major Official website by Shōnen Sunday * Major Official website by NHK * Dramatic Baseball Movie Official website for the movie * Category:1994 manga Category:2004 anime television series debuts Category:2008 anime films Category:Anime series based on manga Category:Baseball in anime and manga Category:NHK original programming Category:Shogakukan manga Category:Shōnen manga Category:Studio Hibari Category:Xebec (studio) Category:Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen manga
|
Capnocytophaga canimorsus is a fastidious, slow-growing, Gram-negative rod of the genus Capnocytophaga.Pers C, Gahrn-Hansen B, and Frederiksen W. 1996. Capnocytophaga canimorsus Septicemia in Denmark, 1982-1995: Review of 39 Cases. Clinical Infectious Diseases 23: 71-75.Brenner DJ, Hollis DG, Fanning GR, and Weaver RE. 1989. Capnocytophaga canimorsus sp. nov. (Formerly CDC Group DF-2), a Cause of Septicemia following Dog Bite, and C. cynodegmi sp. nov., a Cause of Localized Wound Infection following Dog Bite. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 27 (2): 231-235. It is a commensal bacterium in the normal gingival flora of canine and feline species, but can cause illness in humans. Transmission may occur through bites, licks, or even close proximity with animals.Fischer LJ, Weyant RS, White EH and Quinn FD. Intracellular Multiplication and Toxic Destruction of Cultured Macrophages by Capnocytophaga canimorsus. Infection and Immunity 63 (9): 3484-3490. C. canimorsus generally has low virulence in healthy individuals,Lion C, Escande F and Burdin JC. 1996. Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections in Human: Review of the Literature and Cases Report. European Journal of Epidemiology 12 (5): 521-533. but has been observed to cause severe, even grave, illness in persons with pre- existing conditions. The pathogenesis of C. canimorsus is still largely unknown, but increased clinical diagnoses have fostered an interest in the bacillus. Treatment with antibiotics is effective in most cases, but the most important yet basic diagnostic tool available to clinicians remains the knowledge of recent exposure to canines or felines. ==History== Capnocytophaga canimorsus was first observed in 1976 by Bobo and Newton. The pair isolated a previously unknown Gram-negative bacterium from a patient presenting with meningitis in addition to sepsis. The patient had been previously exposed to two canine bites on two consecutive days from two different dogs. Noting the coincidence between the timing of the bites with the onset of symptoms, Butler et al. analyzed 17 similar cases of patients presenting with either sepsis or meningitis from 1961 to 1975. The cases had been sent to the CDC for examination due to the presence of an unknown Gram-negative bacillus isolated from infected individuals. Butler notified the CDC of the high incidence of dog bites in connection with the infections. The CDC could not identify the organism, so they applied the name CDC group DF-2. DF-2 stands for dysgonic fermenter, meaning that the bacterium is a slow-growing, fermentative bacillus. In 1989, while analyzing the properties of the unknown bacterium, Weaver et al. noted many similarities to bacteria of the genus Capnocytophaga. Later that same year, Brenner et al. proposed the name Capnocytophaga canimorsus after examining the morphology, G+C% content, and motility of the species. === Etymology === The name Capnocytophaga is derived from the Greek word kapnos, meaning "smoke", and given here because of its dependence on carbon dioxide for growth. It was added to distinguish this genus from the Cytophaga genus, originating from the Greek words of kytos (meaning "cell"), and phagein (meaning "eat"). The species name of canimorsus comes from the Latin words canis and morsus, meaning "dog" and "bite" respectively. ==Epidemiology== In the United States, 50% of Americans will be bitten by dogs during the course of their lifetimes; 1 million Americans are bitten by dogs annually.Janda JM, Graves MH, Lindquist D and Probert WS. 2006. Diagnosing Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12 (2): 340-342. Cases of human infection following exposure to C. canimorsus have been observed worldwide. Cases have been reported in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia and S. Africa. Symptoms may appear within 2–3 days after exposure, or up to 4 weeks later. Middle-aged and elderly persons are at greater risk for contraction of disease; more than 60% of sufferers are 50 years of age or older. In addition, individuals who spend a greater portion of their time with canines and felines are also at higher risk. This includes veterinarians, breeders, pet owners, and keepers. Having certain pre-existing medical conditions exacerbates the risk. Chance of infection by any bacterial species after dog bites varies between 3 and 20%; for cats, it may be as high as 50%.Gaastra W and Lipman LJA. 2010. Capnocytophaga canimorsus. Veterinary Microbiology 140: 339-346. ==Morphology, culture, and isolation== C. canimorsus is a fastidious, Gram-negative, fermentative, nonspore-forming rod. Bacilli are usually 1-3 μm in length. After growth on agar plates, longer rods tend to have a curved shape. The bacteria do not have flagella, but move with a gliding motion, although this can be difficult to see. C. canimorsus requires the right medium for growth. The bacterium cultures well on blood agar plates (heart infusion agar with 5% sheep or rabbit blood) and chocolate agar plates.Shin H, Mally M, Meyer S, Fiechter C, Paroz C, Zaehringer U, Cornelis GR. 2009. Escape from Immune Surveillance by Capnocytophaga canimorsus. Infection and Immunity 77: 2262-2271.de Boer MGJ, Lambregts PCLA, van Dam AP and van't Wout JW. 2007. Meningitis caused by Capnocytophaga canimorsus: when to expect the unexpected. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 109: 393-398. Colonies may not be visible for up to 48 hours due to slow growth. At 18 hours, colonies are usually less than 0.5 mm in diameter, and are spotty and convex. At 24 hours, colonies may be up to 1 mm in diameter. After 48 hours, colonies are narrow, flat, and smooth, with spreading edges. At this time, colonies may appear to be purple, pink, or yellow, but once they are scraped from the agar plate, they are always yellow in appearance. == Genome == The genome of C. canimorsus strain Cc5 consists of a single circular chromosome of 2,571,406 bp with a G+C content of 36.11%, and it encodes 2,405 open reading frames. ==In animals== Members of the genus Capnocytophaga are found in the oral cavities of humans and animals. Most of these species are not found in humans. C. canimorsus is a commensal bacterium found in dogs and cats; it is not a member of the normal microbiota of humans. About 26% of dogs carry these commensal bacteria in their mouths. C. canimorsus rarely causes disease symptoms in animals. One case of C. canimorsus isolated from a dog bite wound on a small dog's head has been reported; the bacteria were localized to the wound and the dog did not present with bacteremia. A few cases of infection have been reported in rabbits after being bitten by dogs. Clinical manifestations of C. canimorsus in rabbits causes a range of symptoms, including disseminated intravascular coagulation, cellular necrosis (tissue death), low blood pressure, gangrene, and kidney failure. ==High-risk categories== In addition to those at higher risk of developing complications from C. canimorsus due to greater contact with felines and canines, certain pre-existing conditions place individuals in a critically high-risk category. Among these are those who have undergone a splenectomy, alcoholics, and individuals with immunosuppression due to the use of steroids such as glucocorticoids. Individuals with β-thalassemia and smokers are also listed as high-risk. These individuals, like asplenics and alcoholics, have increased levels of alimentary iron in their bloodstream. C. canimorsus requires large amounts of iron to grow, so these conditions are optimal for the bacillus. ===Asplenia=== Of the cases presented in literature, 33% occurred in asplenic individuals, who have decreased IgM and IgG production. They also have delayed macrophage assembly and produce less tuftsin. Tuftsin is responsible for the stimulation of phagocytosis, so its decrease in the presence of bacterial infection poses a problem. A functional spleen is important for the removal of pathogens. Because this particular pathogen seems to flourish in asplenic patients, both IgM antibodies and tuftsin may be critical in the process of marking this bacterium for destruction by phagocytosis. Asplenics often have double the amount of healthy iron in their bloodstreams, and are 60 times more at risk of developing fatal clinical manifestations of the bacterium. Individuals with asplenia often experience symptom onset within a day of exposure. The infection rapidly progresses toward multiple organ system failures and finally death. The mortality rate in individuals with asplenia is much higher than any other at risk-category for C. canimorsus infections. ===Alcoholism=== People who struggle with alcohol addiction represent around 24% of individuals presenting with C. canimorsus infections. Alcoholism has been shown to result in decreased superoxide production in neutrophils,Segal, Anthony W. "How superoxide production by neutrophil leukocytes kills microbes." Innate Immunity to Pulmonary Infection: Novartis Foundation Symposium 279. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17278388/ as well as declines in neutrophil elastase activity.Happel KI and Nelson S. 2005. Alcohol, Immunosuppresion, and the Lung. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society 2 (5): 428-432. This results in an increase in predisposition to bacteremia (bacteria in the blood). As a result, people suffering from alcoholism are more likely to suffer from the more dangerous aspects of C. canimorsus invasions. Finally, alcoholics are associated with increased blood iron content. ===Immunosuppression=== Immunosuppressants are often used to treat autoimmune diseases, such as lupus. When individuals undergo treatment with immunosuppressants such as glucocorticoids, their bodies' defenses are lowered. As a result, exposure to C. canimorsus is more infectious in these individuals than in healthy individuals. Immunosuppressed patients make up about 5% of individuals presenting with C. canimorsus symptoms. ==Symptom onset and clinical manifestations== Symptoms appear within 1–8 days after exposure to C. canimorsus but usually present around day 2. Symptoms range from mild, flu-like symptoms to full-blown fulminant sepsis. Individuals often complain of any combination of: fever, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, abdominal pain, myalgia, confusion, dyspnea, headaches, and skin rashes such as exanthema. More severe cases of endocarditis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and meningitis have been reported. Prior treatment with methylprednisolone has been shown to prolong bacteremia in these infections, which enables the progression of endocarditis. ==Differential diagnosis== Diagnosing infections with C. canimorsus can be difficult. Common practice for culturing isolates is to keep agar plates for one week; sometimes, cultures of C. canimorsus are not visible at that point due to slow growth or inappropriate media. C. canimorsus requires very specific culture media and conditions; enriched media are necessary. C. canimorsus displays enhanced growth in high concentrations of carbon dioxide, so culturing the bacteria in candle extinction jars or carbon dioxide incubators is necessary. To diagnose this bacillus, certain reactions may be tested. The bacterium should test positive for catalase and oxidase, arginine dihydrolase, maltose, and lactose. It should test negative for nitrate reduction, urease, and H2S production. C. canimorsus can be distinguished from other Gram-negative bacteria by testing negative for inulin and sucrose. Due to the relatively slow growth of this bacterium, diagnosis often relies upon the clinician having knowledge that the patient was previously in contact with a canine or feline. Once aware of this, clinicians can request that agar plates be kept longer than one week to ensure proper isolation of the bacterium. Sometimes, even these methods fail. Cases have been noted where cultures repeatedly came up negative for C. canimorsus, only to determine its presence with 16S rRNA gene sequencing. PCR assays of species-specific genes may also be beneficial. For individuals presenting with meningitis, C. canimorsus can be diagnosed with a cerebrospinal fluid Gram stain. These methods are more costly, but are the best way to ensure species- level identification. Isolates are usually obtained from blood cultures (88% of the time) and less frequently from bite wounds. In incidents where the patient is in full septic shock, whole blood smears may be effective. ==Treatment== Immediate cleansing of wounds caused by canines and felines can be successful in keeping C. canimorsus infections at bay. Irrigation of wounds with saline is recommended and individuals are encouraged to seek medical help for the administration of antibiotics. Antibiotics are recommended if wounds are deep or individuals postpone seeking medical attention. Antibiotics that contain beta-lactamase inhibitors (i.e., oral Augmentin or parenteral Unasyn) cover C. canimorsus, as well as other organisms common in bites. Penicillin G is the drug of choice, although some isolates have been found to show resistance. C. canimorsus is susceptible to ampicillin, third-generation cephalosporins, tetracyclines, clindamycin, and chloramphenicol. It has shown resistance to gentamicin. Treatment is recommended for a minimum of three weeks. Hospitalization is required in more severe infections. For cases of sepsis, high doses of penicillin are required. Third-generation cephalosporins are often given prior to diagnosis because they cover a broad range of Gram- negative bacteria. After diagnosis, provided the strain is not beta-lactamase- producing, medication should be switched to penicillin G. Presumably, penicillin G could be given with a beta-lactamase inhibitor combination, such as Unasyn, for patients with a beta-lactamase-producing strain. Mortality of meningitis-related infections is much lower than mortality associated with sepsis. Because C. canimorsus induces fulminant sepsis, earlier diagnosis is associated with greater survival. ==Evasion of immune system== C. canimorsus has been observed to multiply in the presence of mouse J774.1 macrophages. Macrophages recognize and kill pathogens by engulfing them. They also secrete cytokines necessary to begin the immune pathway cascade. C. canimorsus bacteria are not internalized by macrophages; in fact, macrophage monolayers break down in their presence, suggestive of a cytotoxin.Shin H, Mally M, Kuhn M, Paroz C and Cornelis GR. 2007. Escape from Immune Surveillance by Capnocytophaga canimorsus. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 195: 375-386. In the presence of C. canimorsus, cytokine activity is greatly downregulated, because the macrophages fail to produce TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6 and IL-1α, interferon-γ, and nitric oxide. In addition, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4 ) normally recognizes pathogens and begins a signalling cascade to induce production of proinflammatory cytokines via the NF-κB pathway. In cells infected with C. canimorsus, TLR4 did not activate the signalling pathway, so did not elicit an inflammatory response by the immune system. Because this species does not elicit a strong inflammatory response, the bacteria have ample time for replication before detection by the host immune system. Electron micrographs of J774.1 monolayers infected with C. canimorsus have shown cells of the bacteria within the macrophage's vacuoles, surrounded by bacterial septa. This suggests that C. canimorsus replicates intracellularly in macrophages. C. canimorsus cells also show resistance to killing by complement and killing by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PNMs). C. canimorsus, when in the presence of PMNs, feeds on them by deglycosylating host glycans. In fact, in the presence of PMNs, C. canimorsus experiences robust growth. C. canimorsus has the ability to evade these necessary immune functions, and, therefore, must be taken seriously. Greater knowledge about the pathogenesis of this bacterium is required to prevent and treat the diseases associated with it. ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:Flavobacteria Category:Bacterial diseases Category:Zoonoses Category:Bacteria described in 1989 Category:Cat diseases
|
The Archdiocese of Newark is a Latin Church ecclesiastical jurisdiction, or archdiocese, of the Catholic Church in northeastern New Jersey in the United States. The mother church of the archdiocese is the Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Newark.Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart As of 2023, the archbishop of Newark is Joseph Cardinal Tobin. == Territory == The Archdiocese of Newark is a metropolitan see with four suffragan diocese in its ecclesiastical province. The suffragan dioceses are: * Diocese of Camden * Diocese of Metuchen * Diocese of Paterson * Diocese of Trenton The archdiocese contains the following counties: * Bergen * Union * Hudson * EssexNewark Archdiocese is diverse and densely populated , Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark. Accessed July 24, 2007. " ==History== ===1672 to 1789=== During the 17th century, the British government divided present day New Jersey into separate provinces of East Jersey and West Jersey. East Jersey, which covered area belonging to the present Archdiocese of Newark, was hostile toward Catholics. The first priests to venture into East Jersey were Harvey and Gage, the chaplains of the Catholic governor of New York, Thomas Dongan. Starting in 1672, the priests made a few trips to Woodbridge and Elizabethtown to the few Catholics there. Some of these early Catholics were French immigrants who were employed at salt works. However, in 1674, William Douglass was arrested in Elizabethtown and banished from East Jersey because he was a Catholic. In 1668, he had won a seat in the East Jersey provincial assembly, but was denied his seat due to his religion. East Jersey in 1698 granted religious toleration to all Christian faiths except Catholicism. The British Government combined East Jersey and West Jersey in 1702 into the Province of New Jersey. During the 18th century, Robert Harding and Ferdinand Farmer from Philadelphia traveled across the Province of New Jersey, ministering to Catholics at Mount Hope, Macopin, Basking Ridge, Trenton and Ringwood. The settlement of Macopin was founded by German Catholics sometime during this period.Meehan, Thomas. "Newark." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 15 September 2021 The French envoy François Barbé-Marbois, writing from Philadelphia in 1785, estimated the Catholic population in the new States of New York and New Jersey at approximately 1700, with over half of them living in New Jersey. Many French refugees from the Haitian Revolution had settled in Elizabeth. Vianney, Tissorant, and Malou traveled to New Jersey from St. Peter's Parish in New York City to provide ministry. The opening of mines, furnaces, glass works, and other industries attracted more Catholic immigrants to New Jersey. === 1789 to 1853 === On November 6, 1789, Pope Pius VI elevated the Apostolic Prefecture of the United States to the new Diocese of Baltimore, including all of the new United States.Mooney, Joseph. "Archdiocese of New York." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911 On April 8, 1808, Pope Pius VII erected the Diocese of Philadelphia and the Diocese of New York, taking their territory from the Diocese of Baltimore. * Sussex, Bergen, Morris, Essex, Somerset, Middlesex, and Monmouth counties in New Jersey became part of the Diocese of New York * The rest of New Jersey became part of the Diocese of Philadelphia. St. John's Parish, founded in 1826, was the first parish in Newark. In Jersey City, Saint Peter's Church was dedicated in 1831. Saint Mary of the Assumption Church, the first parish in Elizabeth, was started in 1844. Our Lady of Grace Parish was started in Hoboken in 1851. === 1853 to 1873 === In 1853, Pope Pius IX erected the Diocese of Newark, taking all of New Jersey from the Dioceses of New York and Philadelphia. The pope named James Bayley as the first bishop of Newark. Having limited funds to operated the diocese, Bayley appealed to the Society for the Propagation of the Faith in Lyon, France for assistance in 1854. The Society gave him approximately 19,000 francs. He also received material assistance from the Leopoldine Society in Vienna. In 1855, Bayley estimated the number of Catholics in the diocese at 40,000, mainly Irish and German. In 1856, Bayley opened Chegary Academy in Madison.Kupke, Raymond. "James Roosevelt Bayley", The Encyclopedia of American Catholic History The school moved in 1860 to South Orange, where it was incorporated in 1861 as Seton Hall College. The college also had a seminary. In 1857, a group of Benedictine Sisters arrived from Pennsylvania to establish schools in the diocese. The next year, Bayley sent five women to train with the Sisters of Charity. In 1872, Bayley became archbishop of Baltimore. === 1873 to 1900 === To replace Bayley, Michael Corrigan of Newark became the second bishop of Newark, appointed by Pius IX in 1873. At that time, Catholic boys sent to state institutions were not able to attend mass. Corrigan offered clergy to provide that service, but the State of New Jersey refused. In response, he established the Catholic Protectory in Denville as an alternative to the state institutions, where Catholic boys were taught skills and trades. Corrigan also established a House of the Good Shepherd for girls in 1875 in Newark. In 1880, a group of Dominican Nuns of the Perpetual Adoration arrived in Newark from France. Corrigan became coadjutor archbishop for New York in 1880. The next bishop of Newark was Winand Wigger of Newark, named by Pope Leo XIII in 1881. That same year, the pope erected the Diocese of Trenton, taking the southern portion of New Jersey from the Diocese of Newark. Shortly after his installation, Wigger remarked "In the Church of God there is no distinction of race, color or tongue.""Most Rev. Winand M. Wigger, D.D.", Archdiocese of Newark At the time of his consecration as a bishop, the diocese had 121 priests, 83 churches, 18,396 students enrolled in diocesan schools, and a Catholic population of 145,000. After surveying the church property in the diocese, Wigger negotiated a $2 million loan to cover the mortgages on many churches. In 1883, he moved the Catholic Protectory from Danville to Mount Arlington and established the Sacred Heart Union to aid in its maintenance. Wigger was fiercely hostile to the sale of alcohol; in 1884, he ordered his priests to deny the last rites of the Church to anyone who sold alcohol to minors or those with alcohol abuse problems. The brewers in the diocese were generally German and the saloon keepers predominantly Irish, but some viewed Wigger's hostility to alcoholic beverages as having an anti-Irish bias. Wigger also came in conflict with German Catholics who were attracted to non-Catholic societies and religions. He also became involved in the controversy stirred by the German Peter Cahensly over the alleged bias of Irish clergy in America against German Catholics. Wigger created German parishes, with their own schools for the preservation of German culture. Wigger held the fifth diocesan synod in November 1886, which enacted strict regulations on Catholic funerals and attendance at parochial and public schools. He even threatened to excommunicate Catholic parents who sent their children to public schools. Wigger unsuccessfully attempted to introduce state legislation to secure financial aid from the state for Catholic schools. In June 1899, Wigger laid the cornerstone for Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Newark. Wigger died in 1901. By the time of his death, the diocese had 256 priests, 153 churches, 34,817 students, and 300,000 Catholics === 1900 to 1937 === In 1901, John J. O'Connor of Newark was appointed the fourth bishop of Newark by Pope Leo XIII. During his tenure, the Catholic population of the diocese more than doubled, standing at over 683,000 by the time of his death. He increased the number of churches from 114 to 273, the number of priests from 265 to 712, and the number of Catholic school students from 35,330 to 82,462. O'Connor also established over 45 missions and chapels. He continued to oversee the construction of the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart. In 1903, O'Connor condemned the oath of the International Typographical Union and forbade Catholics from taking it, saying, "A man owes his allegiance first to God. In 1926, fear of automobile crashes prompted O'Connor to prohibit diocesan priests from owning or driving motor vehicles, except in rural parishes. O'Connor died in 1927. The next bishop of Newark was Bishop Thomas Walsh from the Diocese of Trenton, appointed by Pope Pius XI in 1928."Most Rev. Thomas J. Walsh, S.T.D., J.C.D.", Archdiocese of Newark The following year, Walsh established the Newark Mount Carmel Guild to help those on public assistance. In 1930, the guild set up a soup kitchen in the basement of St. Patrick's Pro-Cathedral."History", Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Newark In 1930, Walsh acquired the "Tower Hill", the estate of Louis C. Gillespie, founder of L.C. Gillespie & Sons. He invited the Religious Teachers Filippini to move to the diocese. The sisters relocated their motherhouse to Morristown and named it Villa Walsh. They opened a girls school, Villa Walsh Academy."Religious Teachers Filippini Mark 50th Year in the U.S.", The Catholic Advocate, Vol. 9, Number 49, 1 December 1960 In 1931, Walsh opened a new chancery building in Newark and in 1933 established Saint Gertrude Cemetery in Colonia."Saint Gertrude Cemetery & Chapel Mausoleum", Catholic Cemeteries Walsh raised $2 million in 25 days to build Immaculate Conception Seminary in 1936, and encouraged Seton Hall Preparatory School and Seton Hall College to seek state accreditation."Abbot Patrick Mary O'Brien ", St. Mary's Abbey === 1937 to 1986 === In December 1937, Pius XI took the following actions: * Erected the Diocese of Paterson, taking Morris, Sussex, and Passaic Counties from the Diocese of Newark * Elevated the Diocese of Newark to the Archdiocese of Newark.Archdiocese of Newark page on Catholic Hierarchy web site. The Dioceses of Camden, Paterson, and Trenton became suffragan sees of the new archdiocese. * Named Walsh as the first archbishop of Newark After Walsh died in 1952, Pope Pius XII that same year named Bishop Thomas Boland from the Diocese of Paterson as the second archbishop of Newark. Boland founded St. Joseph Regional High School in Montvale,"History", St. Joseph Regional High School Immaculate Heart Academy in Washington Township, and Paramus Catholic High School in Paramus in the 1960s. In January 1969, a group of 20 priests of the archdiocese accused Boland of adopting a "white racist attitude" toward African Americans". In response, Boland issued a seven-page report that outlined the programs the archdiocese had taken in regard to African-Americans. Boland retired in 1974. Bishop Peter Gerety from the Diocese of Portland was the third archbishop of Newark, appointed by Pope Paul VI in 1974. During his 12-year tenure in Newark, Gerety created the Office of Pastoral Renewal and began a ministry to divorced Catholics. The Office of Pastoral Renewal evolved into RENEW International, an organization based in Plainfield that provides resources for small Christian communities in the United States, Canada and Third World countries. Gerety established the Archbishop's Annual Appeal in 1975, and supported the charismatic and ecumenical movements. He also established the Archbishop Gerety Fund for Ecclesiastical History to advance studies in ecclesiastical history, especially the history of Catholicism in the United States. In November 1981, Pope John Paul II erected the Diocese of Metuchen, designating it as an suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Newark.Diocese of Trenton page on Catholic Hierarchy web site. In 1984, Gerety ordered People of Hope, a charismatic Catholic community in the archdiocese, to sever its relationship with Sword of the Spirit, a nationwide conference of charismatic groups, citing its authoritarian practices. People of Hope said that they were not subject to Gerety's authority. === 1986 to 2016 === Gerety retired in 1986. His replacement was Bishop Theodore McCarrick from the Diocese of Methuen, named by Pope John Paul II in 1986. During his tenure, McCarrick established the Office of Evangelization, ministries for Hispanics and victims of HIV/AIDS, and a drug prevention program. He also promoted vocations, and ordained 200 priests for the archdiocese. McCarrick became known as an advocate for social justice, once saying, "[T]he Church cannot be authentic unless it takes care of the poor, the newcomers, the needy." He became archbishop of the Archdiocese of Washington in 2000. thumb|Archbishop McCarrick in June 2006To replace McCarrick, John Paul II selected Bishop John J. Myers of the Diocese of Peoria in 2001. Later that year, Myers banned eulogies at funeral masses in the archdiocese, saying that some eulogies were inappropriate and too long. After pushback from parishioners, he reversed himself. In 2004, Myers criticized a group of law students at Seton Hall University for honoring Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, objecting because she allegedly favored abortion rights for women. In September 2013, Pope Francis named Bishop Bernard Hebda as coadjutor archbishop of the archdiocese to assist Myers. In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Myers planned to retire to a 7,500-foot so-called "palace", expanded at his direction in Pittstown. In June 2016, Francis named Hebda as the new archbishop of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis. The pope did not replace Hebda with another coadjutor. === 2016 to present === When Myers retired in late 2016, Francis named Archbishop Joseph W. Tobin from the Archdiocese of Indianapolis to replace him. Tobin welcomed a "pilgrimage" of gay and lesbian Catholics and their families to Sacred Heart Cathedral in 2017. In an interview before the mass, Tobin said, > "The word I use is 'welcome'. These are people that have not felt welcome in > other places. My prayer for them is that they do. Today in the Catholic > Church, we read a passage that says you have to be able to give a reason for > your hope. And I'm praying that this pilgrimage for them, and really for the > whole Church, is a reason for hope.". In September 2021, the archdiocese broke ground on a new St. Lucy's Homeless Housing and Support Services Site in Jersey City. The project was designed to provide emergency and transitional housing, along with supportive services, for homeless individuals and families."Mayor Fulop joins the Archdiocese of Newark to Break Ground on New St. Lucy’s Homeless Housing & Support Services Site", Jersey City, September 10, 2021 As of 2023, Tobin is the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Newark. === Sexual abuse scandal === In 2001, Michael Fugee, an archdiocese priest at St. Elizabeth's Parish in Wyckoff, was accused of molesting a 14-year-old boy on multiple occasions in the 1990s. Fugee confessed to police in 2001 to fondling a teenage boy. However, he later recanted his confession, saying he had been pressured by investigators. Fugee was tried and convicted in 2003 of criminal sexual contact, but his conviction was overturned in 2006 by an appellate court. To avoid a retrial, Fugee signed an agreement with the Bergen County Prosecutor's Office in 2007. He agreed to a lifetime ban working in contact with children. The archdiocese co-signed the agreement, promising it would supervise Fugee. In September 2009, the archdiocese assigned Fugee as chaplain at Saint Michael's Medical Center in Newark. However, after learning about Fugee's record, Saint Michael's demanded that the archdiocese remove him. The archdiocese later admitted that they never informed the hospital about Fugee's past, only the head of the archdiocese chaplain's office. In 2013, Fugee was discovered working in youth ministry at St. Mary's Parish in Colts Neck, a parish in the Diocese of Trenton. Myers said he was unaware of Fugee's youth work and immediately suspended him. There were calls for Myers to resign, including from members of the New Jersey State Legislature, because of his handling of the Fugee case. In early 2014, the Bergen County prosecutors agreed to not press new charges against Fugee if the Vatican laicized him, which happened in May 2014. In August 2016, Kevin Gugliotta, an archdiocesan priest, was arrested for possession of child pornography after detectives traced an upload he made of these materials to a chat room. Soon after his arrest, the archdiocese removed Gugliotta from public ministry. He pleaded guilty and in August 2017 was sentenced to an 11-year prison sentence. Gugliotta later told probation officers that he uploaded the pornography because he was angry with God for causing him to lose at poker tournaments. In 2018, Desmond Rossi, a priest with the Diocese of Albany, revealed that he had been sexually assaulted when he was a seminarian. Rossi said he attacked by two other seminarians in a Newark church in 1988. He filed a complaint with the Archdiocese of Newark in 2003. After an investigation, the archdiocese said that Rossi's complaint was credible, but could not be proven; they took no further action. In March 2019, a New Jersey man sued the archdiocese, claiming that he had been sexually abused by Gugliotta at St. Bartholomew the Apostle Parish in Scotch Plains. The plaintiff noted that a man complained to the archdiocese about Gugliotta in 2003, saying that he had sexually abused him as a boy when Gugliotta was a Boy Scout leader in the 1980s. However, since the alleged crime happened before Gugliotta entered the priesthood, the archdiocese allowed him to stay in ministry. In an August 2018 article, the Catholic News Agency said that six anonymous priests made the following claims during an interview about Cardinal Theodore McCarrick and several priests in the archdiocese; * That the archdiocese in 2014 removed Mark O'Malley as rector of St. Andrew's Hall Seminary after he secretly hid a camera in a priest's bedroom * That McCarrick would invite young men to stay at his house in Sea Girt on the Jersey Shore, or to spend the night in the cathedral rectory in Newark * That some priests in the archdiocese were involved in gay relationships with each other In response to the 2018 Catholic News Agency article, the archdiocese stated that neither the six priests nor anyone else "has ever spoken to Cardinal Tobin about a 'gay sub-culture' in the Archdiocese of Newark." Regarding O'Malley, the archdiocese stated that he had been "going through a personal crisis and received therapy after the incident at the seminary. Although he is not serving as a pastor, he has been deemed fit for priestly ministry and hopes to serve as a hospital chaplain." In July 2018, The New York Times reported that Robert Ciolek, a former priest, had received an $80,000 settlement in 2004 from the archdiocese and two other New Jersey dioceses. Ciolek had accused McCarrick of sexually abusing him at the Sea Girt house. In 2007, a second victim of sexual abuse at Sea Girt, a priest, had received a $100,000 settlement from the archdiocese. In September 2018, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops announced that its investigation of McCarrick would include his tenure as archbishop of Newark. In February 2019, the archdiocese released a list of 63 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse of minors since 1940. Cardinal Tobin also acknowledged that the alleged acts of abuse committed by the clergy listed were reported to law enforcement agencies. By 2020, the names of 86 accused clergy who served in the archdiocese were made public. In December 2019, a new law went into effect in state of New Jersey that allowed some of McCarrick's alleged victims to file lawsuits against him and the archdiocese. As of December 2019, eight lawsuits had been filed against the archdiocese. ==== 2020 lawsuits against archdiocese ==== By February 2020, according to a New Jersey attorney, the five Catholic dioceses in the state had paid over $11 million to compensate 105 claims of sex abuse committed by clergy. Of these 105 claims, 98 were compensated through settlements. America Magazine reported that the archdiocese and two other New Jersey dioceses had been making secret payments to victims of abuse by McCarrick since 2005. In July 2020, Northjersey.com reported that nine new sex abuse lawsuits had been filed against the archdiocese. The new lawsuits contained allegations of abuse by four archdiocese priests and three members of religious orders. * In July 2020, a New Jersey man sued the diocese, stating that he had been sexually abused by McCarrick and three priests at the Sea Girt house in 1982 when he was 14. At that time, McCarrick was bishop of Methuen. The plaintiff said that the beach house was a common place for McCarrick and others to engage in “open and obvious criminal sexual conduct”. The lawsuit stated that boys staying at the house were paired with adult clergymen in the same bedrooms. The Diocese of Methuen bought the house in 1985, then sold it to the archdiocese in 1988. * In August 2020, two men sued the archdiocese and Paramus Catholic High School in Paramus. The men alleged that they had been sexually molested by hockey coach Bernard Garris at the school and during athletic trips between 1986 and 1988. The lawsuit alleged that the archdiocese, the school and McCarrick covered up the abuse after the plaintiffs reported it. In October 2020, eight more former Paramus students filed similar lawsuits. * In December, 2020, it was revealed that the Archdiocese of Newark was among more than 230 sex abuse lawsuits filed within a period of one year against New Jersey Catholic dioceses. * Also in December 2020, three Michigan men sued the archdiocese, accusing Miroslaw Krol of sexually abusing them. Although a priest with the Archdiocese of Newark, Krol had been serving as chancellor of the Catholic Orchard Lake Schools in the Archdiocese of Detroit. The men, all school employees, said that Krol would sexually assault and constantly proposition them. When the men reported their allegations to the Orchard Lake board of trustees, they were fired. ==== 2021 lawsuits against archdiocese ==== * In May 2021, a woman filed a $50 million lawsuit, claiming that Archbishop Gerety sexually abused her in a church rectory in 1976 when she was five years old. * In September 2021, four former Archdiocese of Newark priests were named in new sex abuse lawsuits. * In November 2021, Michael Reading, a former archdiocesan priest, accused McCarrick of sexually abusing him in 1986 during a stay at McCarrick's beach house. Reading also claimed that as a boy, he was sexually abused in 1978 by Edward Eilert, an archdiocesan priest. ==Ministries== Jersey Catholic is the archdiocesan newspaper. The Catholic Committee on Scouting (CCOS) offers support for Catholic scouting units chartered with archdiocesan parishes and schools."Catholic Committee on Scouting", Office for Youth and Young Adult Ministry ==Churches== As of 2021, the Archdiocese of Newark served approximately 1.3 million Catholics in 212 parishes. ==Bishops== ===Bishops of Newark=== # James Roosevelt Bayley (1853–1872), appointed Archbishop of Baltimore # Michael Corrigan (1873–1880), appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of New York and subsequently succeeded to that see # Winand Wigger (1881–1901) # John J. O'Connor (1901–1927) # Thomas J. Walsh (1928–1937), elevated to archbishop ===Archbishops of Newark=== # Thomas J. Walsh (1937–1952) # Thomas Aloysius Boland (1953–1974) # Peter Leo Gerety (1974–1986) # Theodore Edgar McCarrick (1986–2000), appointed Archbishop of Washington # John J. Myers (2001–2016) \- Bernard Hebda (coadjutor archbishop 2013–2016; concurrently Apostolic Administrator of the Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis 2015–2016), appointed Archbishop of St. Paul and Minneapolis # Cardinal Joseph William Tobin, C.Ss.R. (2017–present) ===Current auxiliary bishops=== * Manuel Aurelio Cruz (2008–present) * Elias R. Lorenzo, OSB (2020–present) * Michael A. Saporito (2020–present) * Gregory J. Studerus (2020–present) ===Former auxiliary bishops=== * Thomas H. McLaughlin (1935–1937), appointed Bishop of Paterson * William A. Griffin (1938–1940), appointed Bishop of Trenton * Thomas Aloysius Boland (1940–1947), appointed Bishop of Paterson and later Archbishop of Newark * Justin J. McCarthy (1954–1957), appointed Bishop of Camden * Martin Walter Stanton (1957–1972) * Joseph Arthur Costello (1963–1978) * John Joseph Dougherty (1963–1982) * Jerome Arthur Pechillo, TOR (1976–1991) * Joseph Abel Francis, SVD (1976–1995) * Robert Francis Garner (1976–1995) * Dominic Anthony Marconi (1976–2002) * David Arias Pérez, OAR (1983–2004) * James T. McHugh (1987–1989), appointed Bishop of Camden and later Coadjutor Bishop and Bishop of Rockville Centre * John Mortimer Smith (1988–1991), appointed Bishop of Pensacola-Tallahassee and later Coadjutor Bishop and Bishop of Trenton * Michael Saltarelli (1990–1995), appointed Bishop of Wilmington * Charles James McDonnell (1994–2004) * Nicholas Anthony DiMarzio (1996–1999), appointed Bishop of Camden and later Bishop of Brooklyn * Paul Gregory Bootkoski (1997–2002), appointed Bishop of Metuchen * Arthur Serratelli (2000–2004), appointed Bishop of Paterson * Edgar Moreira da Cunha, SDV (2003–2014), appointed Bishop of Fall River * Gaetano Aldo Donato (2004–2015) * John Walter Flesey (2004–2017) ===Other archdiocesan priests who became bishops=== * Robert Seton, appointed titular archbishop of Heliopolis in Phoenicia in 1903 * Peter Baldacchino, appointed auxiliary bishop of Miami in 2014, later became Bishop of Las Cruces ==Schools== In May 2020, the Archdiocese of Newark announced that it would close nine elementary schools and Cristo Rey Newark High School in Newark due to financial problems. The archdiocese also noted that the it would have to pay approximately $80 million to keep all of its remaining elementary schools open for only five more years. ===Seminaries=== *Immaculate Conception (archdiocesan major seminary) at Seton Hall University – South Orange *Saint Andrew's Hall college seminary at Seton Hall University – South Orange *Redemptoris Mater Archdiocesan Missionary Seminary – Kearny ===Higher education=== * Caldwell College – Caldwell * Felician College – Rutherford * Saint Peter's University – Jersey City * Seton Hall University – South Orange ===Primary and secondary schools=== === High schools === ==== Bergen County ==== *Academy of the Holy Angels – Demarest * Bergen Catholic High School – Oradell * Don Bosco Preparatory High School – Ramsey * Immaculate Conception High School – Lodi * Immaculate Heart Academy – Washington Township * Paramus Catholic High School – Paramus * St. Joseph Regional High School – Montvale * St. Mary High School – Rutherford ==== Essex County ==== *Immaculate Conception High School – Montclair * Lacordaire Academy – Upper Montclair * Mount Saint Dominic Academy – Caldwell * St. Benedict's Preparatory School – Newark * St. Vincent Academy – Newark * Seton Hall Preparatory School – West Orange ==== Hudson County ==== * Hudson Catholic Regional High School – Jersey City * Kenmare High School – Jersey City * St. Dominic Academy – Jersey City * St. Peter's Preparatory School – Jersey City : * Alternative school financially independent of archdiocese. ==== Union County ==== * Mother Seton Regional High School – Clark * Oak Knoll School of the Holy Child – Summit * Oratory Preparatory School – Summit * Roselle Catholic High School – Roselle * Union Catholic Regional High School – Scotch Plains === Former high schools === * Benedictine Academy – Elizabeth (closed 2020) * Christ the King Preparatory School – Newark (Closed 2020) * Holy Family Academy – Bayonne (closed) * Marist High School – Bayonne (closed 2020) * Queen of Peace High School – North Arlington (closed 2017) * St. Anthony High School – Jersey City (closed 2017) * St. Mary of the Assumption High School – Elizabeth (closed 2019) ==Cemeteries== *Christ The King Cemetery – Franklin Lakes * Gate of Heaven Cemetery – East Hanover * Holy Cross Cemetery – North Arlington * Holy Name Cemetery – Jersey City * Holy Sepulchre Cemetery – East Orange * Madonna Cemetery – Fort Lee * Maryrest Cemetery – Mahwah * Saint Gertrude's Cemetery – Colonia"Archdiocesan Catholic Cemeteries", Catholic Cemeteries, Archdiocese of Newark * Saint Joseph's Cemetery – Lyndhurst ==Parishes == thumb|Our Lady of Mount Carmel – Bayonne * Guardian Angel Parish – Allendale * St. John Paul II Parish – Bayonne * Blessed Miriam Teresa Demjanovich Parish – Bayonne * St. Henry Parish – Bayonne * St. Vincent de Paul Parish – Bayonne * St. Peter Parish – Belleville * St. John the Evangelist Parish – Bergenfield * Little Flower Parish – Berkeley Heights * Sacred Heart Parish – Bloomfield * St. Thomas the Apostle Parish – Bloomfield * St. Valentine Parish – Bloomfield * St. Joseph Parish – Bogota * St. Aloysius Parish – Caldwell * St. Catherine of Siena Parish – Cedar Grove * St. Agnes Parish – Clark * Epiphany Parish – Clark * St. Mary Parish – Closter * St. Michael Parish – Cranford * St. Therese of Lisieux Parish – Cresskill * St. Joseph Parish – Demarest * St. Mary Parish – Dumont * St. Anthony Parish – East Newark * Holy Name of Jesus Parish – East Orange * Holy Spirit/O.L.Help of Christians Parish – East Orange * St. Joseph Parish – East Orange * St. Joseph Parish – East Rutherford * Holy Rosary Parish – Edgewater * St. Anthony of Padua Parish – Elizabeth * St. Genevieve Parish – Elizabeth * St. Hedwig Parish – Elizabeth * St. Mary of the Assumption Parish – Elizabeth * Immaculate Heart of Mary/St. Patrick Parish – Elizabeth * Blessed Sacrament Parish – Elizabeth * Holy Rosary/St. Michael Parish – Elizabeth * Immaculate Conception Parish – Elizabeth * Our Lady of Fatima Parish – Elizabeth * St. Adalbert/Ss. Peter & Paul Parish – Elizabeth * St. Leo Parish – Elmwood Park * Assumption Parish – Emerson * St. Cecilia Parish – Englewood * St. Anne Parish – Fair Lawn * St. Thomas More Parish – Fairfield * Our Lady of Grace Parish – Fairview * St. John the Baptist Parish – Fairview * Holy Trinity Parish – Fort Lee * Madonna Parish – Fort Lee * Most Blessed Sacrament Parish – Franklin Lakes * Most Holy Name Parish – Garfield * Our Lady of Mount Virgin Parish – Garfield * St. Stanislaus Kostka Parish – Garfield * Church of St. Anne – Garwood * St. Catharine Parish – Glen Rock * Holy Trinity Parish – Hackensack * Immaculate Conception Parish – Hackensack * St. Francis of Assisi Parish – Hackensack * St. Joseph Parish – Hackensack * Holy Cross Parish – Harrison * Our Lady of Czestochowa Parish – Harrison * Corpus Christi Parish – Hasbrouck Heights * Sacred Heart Parish – Haworth * St. John the Baptist Parish – Hillsdale * Christ the King Parish – Hillside * St. Catherine of Siena Parish – Hillside * St. Luke Parish – Ho Ho Kus * Our Lady of Grace/St. Joseph Parish – Hoboken * St. Ann Parish – Hoboken * St. Francis of Assisi Parish – Hoboken * SS Peter & Paul Parish – Hoboken * Sacred Heart of Jesus Parish – Irvington * St. Leo Parish – Irvington * Good Shepherd Parish – Irvington * St. Patrick & Assumption/All Saints Parish – Jersey City * St. Paul the Apostle Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Mount Carmel Parish – Jersey City * St. Aedan: St. Peter's University Church – Jersey City * St. Ann Parish (Polish) – Jersey City * St. Anne Parish – Jersey City * St. John the Baptist Parish – Jersey City * St. Joseph Parish – Jersey City * St. Nicholas Parish – Jersey City * St. Paul of the Cross Parish – Jersey City * Holy Rosary Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Czestochowa Parish – Jersey City * Parish of the Resurrection – Jersey City * St. Anthony of Padua Parish – Jersey City * St. Mary Parish – Jersey City * St. Michael Parish – Jersey City * Christ the King Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Mercy Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Sorrows Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Victories Parish – Jersey City * St. Aloysius Parish – Jersey City * Our Lady of Sorrows Parish – Kearny * St. Cecilia Parish – Kearny * St. Stephen Parish – Kearny * St. John the Apostle Parish – Clark ==Province of Newark== ==See also== *LT John P. Washington – Chaplain, USA – one of the Four Chaplains killed during World War II *Major Charles J. Watters, Chaplain, USA – killed in Vietnam War; awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously *Byzantine Catholic Eparchy of Passaic *Syrian Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark *List of the Catholic cathedrals of the United States *List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States *Plenary Councils of Baltimore *Catholic Church in the United States *Catholic Church and politics in the United States *History of Roman Catholicism in the United States ==References== ==External links== *Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark Official Site * Search for burials in the Archdiocese of Newark database *New Jersey Provincial Directory *List of parishes at the Archdiocese of Newark website Category:Religious organizations established in 1853 Newark Newark Category:1853 establishments in New Jersey
|
Young-Oak Kim (, 1919 – December 29, 2005) was a United States Army officer during World War II and the Korean War and a civic leader and humanitarian. He was a member of the U.S. 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team, and a combat leader in Italy and France during World War II. He was awarded 19 medals, including the Distinguished Service Cross, two Silver Stars, two Bronze Stars, three Purple Hearts, a Bronze Medal of Military Valor, a Légion d'honneur, a Croix de Guerre, and (posthumously) the Korean Taeguk Cordon of the Order of Military Merit. After his military career, Kim dedicated his life to public service and was an active founder and leader of several non-profit organizations for underserved communities throughout Southern California. He died of cancer at the age of 86. adapted from Myrna Oliver, LA Times. Jan 4, 2006, page B8 obituaries In May 2016, members of the Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus held a press conference, organized by the Council of Korean Americans, to call on President Barack Obama to posthumously award Kim the nation's highest civilian honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. ==Early life and education== Kim was born in Los Angeles in 1919. His parents were Soon Kwon Kim and Nora Koh. He had three brothers, two sisters, and one adopted brother, Andy Kil. One of his sisters was two-time Tony Award-winning costume designer Willa Kim. His father was a member of Daehanin-dongjihwe (대한인 동지회, literally: "The Great Korean People's Association"), the group Syngman Rhee established in Hawaii to help liberate Korea from Japan. This background helped Kim build a strong cultural identity. He grew up in Bunker Hill, Los Angeles, California, where his parents operated a grocery store at the intersection of Temple Street and Figueroa Street. Throughout Kim’s childhood, his family struggled financially due to his father's addiction to gambling.Kim, Y. O., & Tsukano, J. (1986, April). Colonel Young Oak Kim Oral History. audio. Kim graduated from Belmont High School and proceeded to Los Angeles City College. He dropped out after a year to support his family. He tried various jobs, but racial discrimination prevented him from staying long at any job. The U.S. Army refused his enlistment for the same reason. But after the U.S. Congress enacted a law subjecting Asian Americans to conscription, Kim was drafted into the Army. He entered service on January 31, 1941,National Archives and Records Administration. U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1938–1946 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2005. Original data: Electronic Army Serial Number Merged File, 1938–1946 [Archival Database]; World War II Army Enlistment Records; Records of the National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 64; National Archives at College Park, College Park, MD. three months before his father died. ==Career== ===World War II=== After spending half a year in the Army as an engineer, Kim was selected for the Infantry Officer Candidate School at Fort Benning, Georgia. Upon graduating in January 1943, he was assigned to the U.S. 100th Infantry Battalion, a unit of Japanese Americans from Hawaii. The battalion commander offered him a transfer, fearing ethnic conflict between Young Oak and the Japanese-American troops. (At the time, Korea was occupied by the Japanese empire.) Regardless, he insisted on staying, stating that "there [are] no Japanese nor Korean here. We're all Americans and we're fighting for the same cause." The 100th Battalion was sent to North Africa to assist in the war in Europe, but initially the U.S. Army had no plan for its deployment due to racial discrimination at the time. By its own request, the battalion was sent to the front and joined the war in Italy. There, Kim's map-reading skills and determination led to success in many battles and some "impossible missions". Second Lieutenant Young Oak Kim's first deployment was in Salerno, Italy, as part of the Allied offensive against the German forces in Italy. In this first offensive, he was wounded near Santa Maria Olivetto and was subsequently awarded his first Silver Star and Purple Heart. Young Oak Kim was then promoted to first lieutenant and participated in the Battle of Monte Cassino as part of the U.S. attempt to liberate Rome from German control. In the planning for Operation Diadem, the Allies needed to determine the locations of German tank units. Lieutenant Kim, as an officer in the joint U.S. 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team, volunteered to capture German soldiers to gain military intelligence. On May 16, 1944, with Private First Class Irving Akahoshi, he crawled into German territory near Cisterna, Italy. They captured two German soldiers in the daytime while the enemy rested for the evening watch. The information they gathered from the prisoners helped determine that there was not a tank unit in the breakthrough path the Allies were considering. The Allies broke the Gustav Line, and liberated Rome. For his actions, Lieutenant Kim was awarded the U.S. Distinguished Service Cross and the Italian Bronze Medal of Military Valor in 1944 and the Italian War Cross for Military Valor in 1945. He also led elements of the 100th Battalion in battles at Belvedere and Pisa, which helped break the Gothic Line. The Allies were able to occupy Pisa without casualties. In France, Kim was the battalion's operations officer. He fought in battles that liberated the towns of Bruyères and Biffontaine. He sustained severe wounds from enemy fire in Biffontaine, and later spent a six-month leave in Los Angeles in late 1944. Germany surrendered shortly before he was to return to the European Theater of Operations, and Captain Kim was consequently honorably discharged from the U.S. Army. For his actions, Captain Kim received a second Purple Heart and a French Croix De Guerre, along with a plaque dedicated to him on the Biffontaine church wall. ===Korean War=== Kim left the Army after World War II. However, there were not many opportunities for a young Korean man. He started a self-service laundry, which was quite rare at the time. The business was very successful; Kim's earnings were five times his salary as an Army captain. Two years later, war broke out in Korea in 1950. Kim abandoned the business and re-entered the Army: The Army allowed all U.S. soldiers of Korean descent—and anyone who could speak at least a word of Korean—to work in the Army Security Agency. Kim was no exception, but he wanted to fight. At his request, he was sent to East Asia, and by pretending not to know any Korean and with the help of people he had known from World War II, he was able to join the infantry. This was the first time he had ever been to Korea. He was assigned to the 31st Infantry of the 7th Infantry Division in April 1951 as the intelligence officer, under Lieutenant General William J. McCaffrey, who scouted him. Kim worked not only as an intelligence officer, but also virtually as an operations officer at the request of McCaffrey. Kim rescued many U.S. and South Korean army troops in several battles. The 31st Infantry played a major role in stopping Chinese troops and pushing them back above the 38th parallel. Kim's unit was the very first to cross that line. The 7th Infantry Division redrew the situation map every day, but only recorded the locations of regiments or larger military units. However, the map from May 31, 1951, included the location of Kim's battalion. During Operation Piledriver in August, after a battle in which his unit proceeded to the north of Kimhwa, his unit was mistakenly bombarded by the 555th Field Artillery Battalion because it seemed too far north to be friendly. Kim was seriously injured in the friendly fire incident. He was saved by doctors from Johns Hopkins University, who were in Tokyo. He made it back to Korea after two months of recuperation. Upon his return, McCaffrey put him in command of the regiment's 1st Battalion and promoted him to the rank of major. Major Kim became the first minority officer to command an Army battalion on the battlefield in U.S. history. His battalion also adopted an orphanage in Seoul. More than 500 war orphans were taken care of, and grew up to become artists, musicians, and other successful professionals. After fighting for nearly a year, Young Oak Kim left Korea in September 1952. In 2003, the government of the Republic of Korea decorated Kim for his social service. After serving in the Korean War, Major Kim became an instructor at the U.S. Army Infantry School in Fort Benning, Georgia. He then served in Germany as a staff officer and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1959, and also became an instructor at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Kim returned to Korea in the early 1960s as a U.S. military advisor to the South Korean army, during which he was promoted to the rank of colonel. ==Awards and decorations== ;Badges 140px Combat Infantryman Badge (2nd Award) ;Decorations Distinguished Service Cross Silver Star with bronze oak leaf cluster Legion of Merit with bronze oak leaf cluster Bronze Star with "V" Device and bronze oak leaf cluster Purple Heart with two bronze oak leaf clusters Army Commendation Medal ;Unit Award Army Presidential Unit Citation with silver and bronze oak leaf clusters ;Service Medals American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with four bronze campaign stars World War II Victory Medal Army of Occupation Medal National Defense Service Medal with service star Korean Service Medal with three bronze campaign stars Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal ;Foreign Awards Bronze Medal of Military Valor (Italy) French Legion of Honour (Officer) French Croix de guerre Taeguk Cordon of the Order of Military Merit (South Korea) Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation United Nations Korea Medal Republic of Korea War Service Medal ==Later life and death== After serving in the Army for 30 years, Kim retired with 80% disability in 1972.Retrieved 2015, from https://services1.arcgis.com/rct9rcgw4fy2e7dk/arcgis/rest/services/photos/featureserver/0/1028/attachments/2029 He attended California State University Dominguez Hills to study history, but left after a year because he wanted to focus his energy on a greater cause. Kim felt that it was time for him to use his leadership skills to serve his community in Los Angeles. He decided to begin a new chapter of his life as an advocate for racial equality, youth, the elderly, and the poor.Kim, Y. O., & Ho, P. (2000). Young Oak Kim Oral History. audio. In 1973, he joined Special Services for Groups (SSG), a non-profit health and human service organization dedicated to building and sustaining community-based programs that address the needs of vulnerable, richly diverse multi-ethnic communities. George Nishinaka, the head of SSG at the time, helped Kim become more involved with community service by nominating him to be a board member of United Way. Kim was the first Asian American person to serve on the United Way board for a total of 10 years. He recognized the underserved ethnic communities in Los Angeles and worked to provide them with linguistically and culturally competent services.Watanabe, B. (2009, May). Officials, Students and Community Leaders Dedicate Young Oak Kim Academy Middle school named for war hero, community leader pilots single-gender classrooms. Retrieved 2015, from http://www.goforbroke.org/about_us/press_releases/about_us_news_press100509.php When Kim joined the board, the Chinatown Service Center was the only United Way Asian Center. Kim added the Japanese, Filipino, Vietnamese, and Korean American Centers to United Way. He also diversified the board with three more Asian American members. Kim continued to be an active member of the Asian American community and beyond. In 1975, he helped found the Korean Youth and Cultural Center, now known as the Koreatown Youth and Community Center. The organization now serves more than 11,000 immigrants from Asia and Latin America each year. It helps youth and families in Los Angeles who are struggling with poverty and language barriers. Kim further served the Korean American community, as a founding member of the Korean American Coalition (KAC) from 1985 to 2005. The KAC has an ongoing goal to promote civic and civil rights interests of the Korean American community, through education, community organization, leadership development, and coalition-building with diverse communities.Korean American Coalition. Retrieved 2015, from http://www.kacla.org From 1986 to 1988, Kim served as a member of Serving the Family & Friends of the Keiro Homes, part of a non-for-profit healthcare organization that promotes healthy lifestyles for the elderly.19\. History – KYCC | Koreatown Youth Community Center. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from http://kyccla.org/about/mission/ Throughout the 1990s he served as Chairman of the Center for Pacific Asian Families, an organization that was founded to help address violence and sexual assault in the Asian and Pacific Islander communities. Under his leadership, the Center for Pacific Asian Families became the largest women’s shelter in Southern California.Mission, Vision and History. Retrieved 2015, from http://www.nurturingchange.org/about-us/history In 1986, Kim co-founded the Korean Health, Education, Information, and Research Center to provide new, uninformed immigrants with the health care information and services that they are entitled to receive by law in America. As one of the largest ethnic charity organizations today, it continues to help new immigrants obtain basic health care and offers them bilingual services in English, Spanish, and Korean.Korean Health, Education, Information & Research (KHEIR) Center, Los Angeles, CA . (2008). Retrieved 2015, from http://www.lakheir.org Along with health care and equal opportunities for the poor, Kim also valued education. From 1989 until 2005, he served as Chairman of 100th/442nd/MIS Memorial Foundation, a veteran’s association of Japanese American soldiers who fought during World War II. Under his leadership, the organization worked directly with teachers and provided them with lesson plans to tell students the story of these Army units and cultivate a sentiment of national pride and respect in schools throughout the United States. [28] Kim also co-founded other organizations that continue to educate the public: the Go For Broke Monument, the Go For Broke Educational Foundation, and the Japanese American National Museum.Nam, Jaeyon (February 24, 2006). "Growing Support for Naming School for War Hero Kim". Dynamic Korea. Embassy of the Republic of Korea in the United States of America. thumb|Young-Oak Kim's grave at Punchbowl National Cemetery Kim died from cancer on December 29, 2005, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles and rests at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (Punchbowl) in Honolulu, Hawaii.Foulkes, D. (2010, August). Young Oak Kim (1919–2005) First Ethnic Minority to Command a U.S. Army Combat Battalion. Retrieved 2015, from http://forgottennewsmakers.com/2010/06/07/young-oak-kim-1919-–-2005-first- ethnic-minority-to-command-a-u-s-army-combat-battalion/ He has three stepsons, one sister, and two brothers. His sister Willa Kim was a well known American costume designer. ==Legacy== A newly opened middle school in Los Angeles' fourth local district was named Young Oak Kim Academy in 2009 in recognition of Kim. In 2010, the Young Oak Kim Center for Korean American Studies opened at the University of California, Riverside. The Young Oak Kim Center has published many books discussing the history of the Korean American community, and has dedicated a biography to Young Oak Kim's life in the military after his military service. The book is called "Unsung Hero: the Col. Young O. Kim Story," and was originally written in Korean by Woo Sung Han and was translated to English by Professor Edward T. Chang. In 2016, the Council of Korean Americans (CKA), a national, non-partisan, non-profit organization of Korean American leaders, spearheaded coordination of diverse civic, political, and military leaders from across the United States to nominate Kim for a 2016 Presidential Medal of Freedom. The nomination was formally announced on May 17, 2016, at a press conference in Washington, DC by members of the Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus and is part of a series of tributes CKA plans leading up to what would be Kim's 100th Birthday on January 29, 2019. ==See also== *U.S. 100th Infantry Battalion *442nd Regimental Combat Team *U.S. 31st Infantry Regiment *Operation Shingle *Go For Broke!—This film dramatizes the lives and wartime heroics of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the 100th Infantry Battalion's Hawaiian troops. The film stars Van Johnson as a young officer, reluctant about his assignment to the 442nd. He comes to respect the Nisei troops, eventually contesting a transfer back to his original Texas unit. *Willa Kim—Young-Oak Kim's sister, a noted costume designer for stage, dance and film who twice received the Tony Award for Outstanding Costume Design. ==References== ==Further reading== * * * ==External links== * * *The Go For Broke National Educational Center's page on Colonel Young-Oak Kim's life *The "Home of Heroes" website about the 100th Infantry Battalion *Council of Korean Americans website Category:1919 births Category:2005 deaths Category:United States Army personnel of World War II Category:United States Army personnel of the Korean War Category:United States Army officers Category:American military personnel of Korean descent Category:People from Los Angeles Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States) Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Category:Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Korea) Category:Recipients of the Silver Star Category:Legionnaires of the Legion of Merit Category:Recipients of the Bronze Medal of Military Valor Category:Belmont High School (Los Angeles) alumni Category:Los Angeles City College alumni Category:Deaths from cancer in California Category:Burials in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific Category:People from Bunker Hill, Los Angeles Category:Military personnel from California
|
Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. The development of agriculture about 12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming. Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. However, domestication did not occur until much later. The earliest evidence of small- scale cultivation of edible grasses is from around 21,000 BC with the Ohalo II people on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. By around 9500 BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops – emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax – were cultivated in the Levant. Rye may have been cultivated earlier, but this claim remains controversial. Rice was domesticated in China by 6200 BC with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Rice was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3000 BC. In subsaharan Africa, sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 3000 BC, along with pearl millet by 2000 BC. Yams were domesticated in several distinct locations, including West Africa (unknown date), and cowpeas by 2500 BC. Rice (African rice) was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC. Teff and likely finger millet were domesticated in Ethiopia by 3000 BC, along with noog, ensete, and coffee. Other plant foods domesticated in Africa include watermelon, okra, tamarind and black eyed peas, along with tree crops such as the kola nut and oil palm. Plantains were cultivated in Africa by 3000 BC and bananas by 1500 BC. The helmeted guineafowl was domesticated in West Africa. Sanga cattle was likely also domesticated in North-East Africa, around 7000 BC, and later crossbred with other species. In South America, agriculture began as early as 9000 BC, starting with the cultivation of several species of plants that later became only minor crops. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 8000 BC and 5000 BC, along with beans, squash, tomatoes, peanuts, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Cassava was domesticated in the Amazon Basin no later than 7000 BC. Maize (Zea mays) found its way to South America from Mesoamerica, where wild teosinte was domesticated about 7000 BC and selectively bred to become domestic maize. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC; another species of cotton was domesticated in Mesoamerica and became by far the most important species of cotton in the textile industry in modern times.World Cotton Production, Yara North America Evidence of agriculture in the Eastern United States dates to about 3000 BCE. Several plants were cultivated, later to be replaced by the Three Sisters cultivation of maize, squash, and beans. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7000 BC. Bananas were cultivated and hybridized in the same period in Papua New Guinea. In Australia, agriculture was invented at a currently unspecified period, with the oldest eel traps of Budj Bim dating to 6,600 BCNational Heritage Places - Budj Bim National Heritage Landscape". Australian Government. Dept of the Environment and Energy. 20 July 2004. Retrieved 30 January 2020. See also attached documents: National Heritage List Location and Boundary Map, and Government Gazette, 20 July 2004. and the deployment of several crops ranging from yamsGammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304. . to bananas. The Bronze Age, from c. 3300 BC, witnessed the intensification of agriculture in civilizations such as Mesopotamian Sumer, ancient Egypt, ancient Sudan, the Indus Valley civilisation of the Indian subcontinent, ancient China, and ancient Greece. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population continued to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in methane emissions from cattle and the cultivation of rice. During the Iron Age and era of classical antiquity, the expansion of ancient Rome, both the Republic and then the Empire, throughout the ancient Mediterranean and Western Europe built upon existing systems of agriculture while also establishing the manorial system that became a bedrock of medieval agriculture. In the Middle Ages, both in Europe and in the Islamic world, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas. Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the British Agricultural Revolution. Since 1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as human labour has been replaced by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch process allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields. Modern agriculture has raised social, political, and environmental issues including overpopulation, water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies. In response, organic farming developed in the twentieth century as an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides. ==Origins== ===Origin hypotheses=== Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.Hillman, G.C. (1996) "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D.R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, UCL Books, London, pp. 159–203; Sato, Y. (2003) "Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin". In Y. Yasuda (ed.) The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture, Roli Books, New Delhi, p. 196 Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant. When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter- gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time. ===Early development=== Early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through means such as fire-stick farming and forest gardening very early. Wild grains have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. Domestic pigs had multiple centres of origin in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia, where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 BC and 9000 BC. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8500 BC. Camels were domesticated relatively late, perhaps around 3000 BC. It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) sites in the Levant, although wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale. At around the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig trees were domesticated. Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at some Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the Pre- Pottery Neolithic B (c. 7600 – c. 6000 BC) Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük, but is otherwise absent until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BC. Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria, remain controversial. Critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff. By 8000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass teosinte in southern Mexico by 6700 BC. The potato (8000 BC), tomato, pepper (4000 BC), squash (8000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World. Agriculture was independently developed on the island of New Guinea. Banana cultivation of Musa acuminata, including hybridization, dates back to 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC, in Papua New Guinea. Bees were kept for honey in the Middle East around 7000 BC. Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC. Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 3500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the world. The horse was domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4000 BC.Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. In Siberia, Cannabis was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2350 BC. In northern China, millet was domesticated by early Sino-Tibetan speakers at around 8000 to 6000 BC, becoming the main crop of the Yellow River basin by 5500 BC. They were followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. In southern China, rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River basin at around 11,500 to 6200 BC, along with the development of wetland agriculture, by early Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. Other food plants were also harvested, including acorns, water chestnuts, and foxnuts. Rice cultivation was later spread to Island Southeast Asia by the Austronesian expansion, starting at around 3,500 to 2,000 BC. This migration event also saw the introduction of cultivated and domesticated food plants from Taiwan, Island Southeast Asia, and New Guinea into the Pacific Islands as canoe plants. Contact with Sri Lanka and Southern India by Austronesian sailors also led to an exchange of food plants which later became the origin of the valuable spice trade. In the 1st millennium AD, Austronesian sailors also settled Madagascar and the Comoros, bringing Southeast Asian and South Asian food plants with them to the East African coast, including bananas and rice. Rice was also spread southwards into Mainland Southeast Asia by around 2000 to 1500 BC by the migrations of the early Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai-speakers. In the Sahel region of Africa, sorghum was domesticated by 3000 BC in Sudan and pearl millet by 2500 BC in Mali. Kola nut and coffee were also domesticated in Africa. In New Guinea, ancient Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7000 BC, domesticating sugarcane and taro. In the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh, 2-row and 6-row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as gazelle, swamp deer, blackbuck, chital, wild ass, wild goat, wild sheep, boar, and nilgai were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica; potato in South America, and sunflower in the Eastern Woodlands of North America. ==Civilizations== ===Sumer=== Sumerian farmers grew the cereals barley and wheat, starting to live in villages from about 8000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the region, agriculture relied on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first ploughs appear in pictographs from Uruk around 3000 BC; seed-ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on seals around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included chickpeas, lentils, peas, beans, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. They grew fruits including dates, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking. ===Ancient Egypt=== The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 BC and 4000 BC. This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation. Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. Archaeological evidence also suggests that the spread of agriculture was facilitated by the influx of farming communities from the tropical Sahara 6,500 years ago. ===South Asia=== Jujube was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BC. Barley and wheat cultivation – along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goats – followed in Mehrgarh culture by 8000–6000 BC. This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant. Pastoral farming in India included threshing, planting crops in rows – either of two or of six – and storing grain in granaries.Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. 47. . By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilisation by around 4500 BC. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used drainage and sewers. Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. ===Ancient China=== Records from the Warring States, Qin dynasty, and Han dynasty provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide granary system and widespread use of sericulture. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Qimin Yaoshu of AD 535, written by Jia Sixie.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. pp. 55–56. Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive. The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 57. The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 56. For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. p. 184 Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 89, 110. Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems,Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33. it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 110. By the end of the Han dynasty in the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.Robert Greenberger, The Technology of Ancient China, Rosen Publishing Group, 2006, pp. 11–12.Wang Zhongshu, trans. by K.C. Chang and Collaborators, Han Civilization (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982). These slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (Thomas Glick, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.) Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon, in the Pearl River valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South and Southeast Asia. ===Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world=== The major cereal crops of the ancient Mediterranean region were wheat, emmer, and barley, while common vegetables included peas, beans, fava, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb.Koester, Helmut (1995), History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age, 2nd edition, New York: Walter de Gruyter, , pp. 76–77. Agriculture in ancient Greece was hindered by the topography of mainland Greece that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialised exportation of oil and wine and importation of grains from Thrace (centered in what is now Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of Pontic Greeks near the Black Sea. During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic Empire controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica, major grain-producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic grain market also played a critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic. In the Seleucid Empire, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also practiced in other parts.Helmut Koester (1995), History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age, 2nd edition, New York: Walter de Gruyter, , p. 77. ===Roman Empire=== In the Greco-Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman agriculture was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. The Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18 to 88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80 to 500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera. The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by the owner and his family; slaves doing work under the supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.White, K. D. (1970), Roman Farming (Cornell University Press) ===The Americas=== Agricultural history took a different path from the Old World as the Americas lacked large-seeded, easily domesticated grains (such as wheat and barley) and large domestic animals that could be used for agricultural labor. Rather than the practice which developed in the Old World of sowing a field with a single crop, pre- historic American agriculture usually consisted of cultivating many crops close to each other utilizing only hand labor. Moreover, agricultural areas in the Americas lacked the uniformity of the east–west area of Mediterranean and semi-arid climates in southern Europe and southwestern Asia, but instead had a north–south pattern with a variety of different climatic zones in close proxitity to each other. This fostered the domestication of many different plants. At the time of first contact between the Europeans and the Americans, the Europeans practiced "extensive agriculture, based on the plough and draught animals," with tenants under landlords, but also forced labor or slavery, while the Indigenous peoples of the Americas practiced "intensive agriculture, based on human labour." Europeans wanted control of land for the grazing of their livestock and property rights for the control of production. Though they were impressed with the productivity of traditional farming techniques, they saw no connection to their system and were dismissive of Native American practices as "gardening" rather than a commercializable enterprise. Due to several thousand years of selective breeding, maize, the hemisphere's most important crop, was more productive than Old World grain crops. Maize produced two and one-half times more calories per acre than wheat and barley. ====South America==== The earliest known areas of possible agriculture in the Americas dating to about 9000 BC are in Colombia, near present-day Pereira, and by the Las Vegas culture in Ecuador on the Santa Elena peninsula. The plants cultivated (or manipulated by humans) were lerén (Calathea allouia), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), squash (Cucurbita species), and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria). All are plants of humid climates and their existence at this time on the semi-arid Santa Elena peninsula may be evidence that they were transplanted there from more humid environments. In another study, this area of South America was identified as one of the four oldest places of origin for agriculture, along with the Fertile Crescent, China, and Mesoamerica, dated between 6200 BC and 10000 BC. (To facilitate comprehension by readers, Radiocarbon calibrated BP dates in the above sources have been converted to BC.) In the Andes region, with civilizations including the Inca, the major crop was the potato, domesticated between 8000 and 5000 BC. Coca, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC. Animals were also domesticated, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. The people of the Inca Empire of South America grew large surpluses of food which they stored in buildings called Qullqas. The most important crop domesticated in the Amazon Basin and tropical lowlands was probably cassava, (Manihot esculenta), which was domesticated before 7000 BCE, likely in the Rondônia and Mato Grosso states of Brazil. The Guaitecas Archipelago in modern Chile was the southern limit of Pre-Hispanic agriculture near 44° South latitude, as noted by the mention of the cultivation of Chiloé potatoes by a Spanish expedition in 1557. ====Mesoamerica==== In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It gradually spread across North America and to South America and was the most important crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration. Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans, while cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop. The turkey, one of the most important meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest. In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula. ====North America==== The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco, varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marsh elder and little barley.Prehistoric Food Production in North America, edited by Richard I. Ford. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers 75.Adair, Mary J. (1988) Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains. Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence. Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested. The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America. Two major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were used extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.The History of Concord Grapes, http://www.concordgrape.org/bodyhistory.html The indigenous people in what is now California and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture. A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch". ===Australia=== Indigenous Australians were predominately nomadic hunter-gatherers. Due to the policy of terra nullius, Aboriginals were regarded as not having been capable of sustained agriculture. However, the current consensus is that various agricultural methods were employed by the indigenous people.Dark Emu In two regions of Central Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of agriculture were practiced. People living in permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua – Cyperus bulbosus), native millet (cooly, tindil – Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu (Marsilea drummondii). Indigenous Australians used systematic burning, fire- stick farming, to enhance natural productivity. In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.Williams, E. (1988) Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford The archaeologist Harry Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,Lourandos, H. (1997) Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape. Torres Strait Islanders are now known to have planted bananas. ==Middle Ages and Early Modern period== === Europe === The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or serfs. During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation. By AD 900, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The carruca heavy plough improved on the earlier scratch plough, with the adoption of the Chinese mouldboard plough to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population. At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted nitrogen-fixing legumes such as peas, lentils and beans. Improved horse harnesses and the whippletree further improved cultivation. Watermills were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool. Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met. ===Arab world=== From the 8th century to the 14th century, the Islamic world underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew Watson as the Arab agricultural revolution. This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much of the Old World, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of Al-Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with citrus and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as aubergine, spinach and chard, and the use of imported spices such as cumin, coriander, nutmeg and cinnamon. Intensive irrigation, crop rotation, and agricultural manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of noria water wheels, water mills, dams and reservoirs. === Columbian exchange === After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures in the Early Modern period. Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, becoming staple foods, replacing native African crops. After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe. The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the European Potato Failure, a disastrous crop failure from disease that resulted in widespread famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone. Adapted from 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created, by Charles C. Mann. ==Modern agriculture== ===British agricultural revolution=== Between the 17th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation to maintain soil nutrients, and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. The productivity of wheat went up from per acre in 1720 to around by 1840, marking a major turning point in history. Chapter 4 Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as Samuel Hartlib, Walter Blith and others. The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and in some places crop rotation was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates. The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding, and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the New Leicester sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham iron plough in 1730 to James Small's improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough models for different soils. Powered farm machinery began with Richard Trevithick's stationary steam engine, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812. Mechanisation spread to other farm uses through the 19th century. The first petrol-driven tractor was built in America by John Froelich in 1892. John Bennet Lawes began the scientific investigation of fertilization at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in 1843. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John Thomas North as well as guano (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of phosphate from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid. ===20th century=== Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful gasoline-powered general purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture. These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after World War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population. Collective farming was widely practiced in the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc countries, China, and Vietnam, starting in the 1930s in the Soviet Union; one result was the Soviet famine of 1932–33. Another consequence occurred during the Great Leap Forward in China initiated by Mao Tse-tung that resulted in the Great Chinese Famine from 1959 to 1961 and ultimately reshaped the thinking of Deng Xiaoping. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, water pollution, and farm subsidies. Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation,Weasel, Lisa H. 2009. Food Fray. Amacom Publishing hydroponics,Douglas, James S., Hydroponics, 5th ed. Oxford University Press, 1975. 1–3 and the development of economically viable biofuels such as ethanol. The number of people involved in farming in industrial countries fell radically from 24 percent of the American population to 1.5 percent in 2002. The number of farms also decreased and their ownership became more concentrated; for example, between 1967 and 2002, one million pig farms in America consolidated into 114,000, with 80 percent of the production on factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way. Famines however continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climatic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s. ===Green Revolution=== The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high- yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food. Although the Green Revolution at first significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield then levelled off. The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years". It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation. ===Organic agriculture=== For most of its history, agriculture has been organic, without synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, and without GMOs. With the advent of chemical agriculture, Rudolf Steiner called for farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924 laid the foundation for biodynamic agriculture. Lord Northbourne developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of organic farming in 1940. This became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now practiced in many countries. ==See also== * Agricultural expansion * Effects of climate change on agriculture * Farming/language dispersal hypothesis * Green Revolution * Historical hydroculture * History of cotton * History of fertilizer * History of gardening * History of sugar * History of the potato * Rural history ==References== ==Further reading== ===Books=== * ===Surveys=== * Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Wiley, 2011) excerpt * Federico, Giovanni. Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000 (Princeton UP, 2005) highly quantitative * Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History (1999) * Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (W.H. Freeman, 1990) * Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (Iowa State UP, 1993) * Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis (Monthly Review Press, 2006) Marxist perspective * Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and History: The Influence of Hunger on Human History (Harper, 1939) * Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (Routledge, 2008) ===Premodern=== * Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000 (Springer, 2009) * Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds. The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. (Cambridge UP, 2015) * Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern Times (Oxford UP, 1999) * Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (Yale UP, 1977) * Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era (Sagem 1981) * Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel (W.W. Norton, 1997) * Duncan-Jones, Richard. Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 1982) * Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (Oxford UP, 3rd ed. 2013) * Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, (Routledge, 1996) * Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction (Routledge, 1995) * Lee, Mabel Ping-hua. The economic history of china: with special reference to agriculture (Columbia University, 1921) * Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (Edinburgh UP, 1970) * Oka, H-I. Origin of Cultivated Rice (Elsevier, 2012) * Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995) * Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC to present. * Stevens, C.E. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire" in Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages (Cambridge UP, 1971) * * Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003) ===Modern=== * Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012) * Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History ( 1969) 43:4, 463–475. in JSTOR, in Britain, 1750–1850 * Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (Cambridge, 1999). * * Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Penguin, 1986) * Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (Heinemann, 2008) a standard scholarly history * Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge, 2010) ===Europe=== * Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350–1850 (Cambridge UP, 1997) * Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds. War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s (Routledge, 2012) * Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947 (Manchester UP, 1987) * * Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history (Springer, 1965) * Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America (Crofts, 1925) * Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (HarperCollins, 1980) * Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815 (Princeton UP, 1996) * Hoyle, Richard W., ed. The Farmer in England, 1650–1980 (Routledge, 2013) online review * Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840 (Cambridge University Press, 1990) * Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge UP, 1986) * * Moon, David. The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's Grasslands, 1700–1914 (Oxford UP, 2014) * Slicher van Bath, B.H. The Agrarian History of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward Arnold, reprint, 1963) * Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge University Press, 8 vols., 1978) * Williamson, Tom. Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870 (Liverpool UP, 2002) * Zweiniger- Bargielowska, Ina, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds. Food and war in twentieth century Europe (Ashgate, 2011) ===North America=== * Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis (University of Minnesota P, 1993) * * Gras, Norman. A History of Agriculture in Europe and America, (F.S. Crofts, 1925) * Gray, L.C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933) Volume I online; Volume 2 * Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. (University of Virginia Press, 2004) * Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (Purdue UP, 2002) * * O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping, and Eating (University Press of Kansas, 2015) * Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Readings in the history of American agriculture (University of Illinois Press, 1960) * Robert, Joseph C. The story of tobacco in America (University of North Carolina Press, 1949) * Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (UP of New England, 1981) * Russell, Peter A. How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century (McGill-Queen's UP, 2012) * Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (Da Capo, 1970 [1936]) * Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972 (Iowa State UP, 1972) * Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789 (Houghton, Mifflin, 1891) ==External links== * "The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture" from Cornell University Library Agriculture
|
Jennie Scott Griffiths (October 30, 1875 – June 29, 1951) was an American newspaper editor, journalist, and political and women's rights activist. Born in Texas, from the age of two, she performed as an orator and was a well-known elocutionist and child prodigy. Mostly homeschooled, she did attend formal institutions briefly and learned shorthand and typing. Her first job was typing the History of Texas from 1685 to 1892. Then she worked as a journalist and as a promoter for the Hagey Institute, which led to her traveling abroad. While on a world tour to promote the institute, she went to Fiji and married. Griffiths began editing for the Fiji Times, a newspaper owned by her husband. In 1913, the family moved to Australia where she became active in feminist, labor, and socialist organizations. As a pacifist, she opposed drafting personnel for war service. She wrote regularly for The Australian Worker and the socialist press. In the 1920s her family moved to San Francisco and naturalized as American citizens. She worked on the Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration and continued publishing in journals like the Industrial Worker. She served as the secretary of the California branch of the National Woman's Party in the 1940s and lectured frequently in favor of the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. Her papers are housed in the National Library of Australia. ==Early life and education== Jennie Scott Wilson was born on October 30, 1875, near Woodville, in a log cabin built by her father on the banks of Wolf Creek in Tyler County, Texas, to Laura (Cowart née Nettles) and Stephen Randolph Wilson. Her mother was from Louisiana, and her father, known as Randolph, was a cotton farmer from Tennessee. He had served in Hood's Texan Brigade of the Confederate Army during the American Civil War and her mother had lost all of her brothers in the conflict. After their marriage, the couple would have two daughters together, R. Ellen (b. 1874) and Jennie, who was named after a family friend. Wilson was the youngest child, very small for her age weighing only at nearly age three (as an adult she stood ), and was considered a child prodigy in elocution. She began to deliver speeches when she was just two years old and went on to cover subjects such as temperance and spirituality when addressing veterans groups and Sunday schools. The orations were written by her father, or included well known works, such as Rose Hartwick Thorpe's Curfew Must Not Ring Tonight and Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven and were presented throughout the state. She also recited prose and poetry, for which newspapers reported about her remarkable memorization skills. At the end of her performances she collected offerings from the audience. The family moved to Limestone County, Texas, when she was young, first settling in Pottersville and later in Lost Prairie. When Wilson was twelve, the family moved again, settling in Huntsville, Texas. She enrolled in school for the first time there, but quickly rose to the top of the class and left, continuing her education with a tutor at home, studying the works of Edward Bellamy, Charles Darwin, Henry George, Thomas Huxley, and Thomas Paine. The family moved again in 1890 to Austin, and Wilson began learning shorthand and typing at a local business school. She did not finish the course, as she received a job offer to type John Henry Brown's History of Texas from 1685 to 1892. In 1893, she moved to San Antonio and began writing for and editing the youth column of the journal Texas Farmer. Simultaneously, she also began working as a court reporter and became involved in the work of the Hagey Institute, an organization which promised to cure alcoholism and narcotic addiction. Her main income came from her promotional work with Hagey, frequently traveling from Texas to California, Colorado, and Mexico over the next three years on their behalf. ==Career== ===Fiji (1896–1912)=== In 1896, Wilson left Texas with her half-brother Thomas Cowart and his family to promote the establishment of Hagey Institutes internationally. After stopping in Honolulu, Hawaii, the group made their way to Auckland, New Zealand, before arriving in Suva, Fiji. Upon her arrival, she met Arthur George Griffiths, oldest son of the editor of the Fiji Times newspaper. Arthur proposed to her upon their meeting and despite her brother's protests, the two were married the following day, November 9, 1897, at the Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, in Suva. Under the nationality laws in place at the time, United States nationals who were women, lost their nationality upon marriage, as it was assumed that they acquired the nationality of their husband. Because of the legislation, Wilson lost her United States' citizenship. Fiji, at the time was a British colony and under the Fijian nationality law, Europeans living in Fiji were British subjects. Under terms of the British Aliens Act 1844, foreign women marrying British husbands became British subjects. The couple would have ten children together: Randolph (1898), Tom (1900), Don (1901), Max (1902), Laura (1903), Leonard (1905), Stephen (1907), Leonie (1908), Ciwa (1911), and Hazel (1913). Despite her duties as a mother, Griffiths became a contributor and editor at the Fiji Times, out of financial necessity. The couple engaged a nanny to help with the children and both Arthur and she worked as unpaid help to keep the paper going. When Jennie's father-in-law George Littleton Griffiths died in 1908, Arthur inherited the businesses. He had little training in writing, as he had focused on the management side of the business and keeping the equipment running. As Griffiths' experience was in writing, she took over editing the paper and wrote a regular column "Passing Notes", a society page, as well as reporting on the news, including coverage of foreign events and the legislature. Arthur was not suited to running the business and because of a lack of schooling opportunities, Griffiths urged him to sell it so that they could relocate to Australia in 1912. ===Australia (1913–1920)=== Arthur invested the proceeds from the sale in a large house in Sydney and the B & R Motor Company. The business went bankrupt, causing them to have to move. As the children reached the age of fourteen, each had to go to work to help with the family finances. Three months after having given birth to her last child in 1913, Griffiths went to work at Australian Woman's Weekly, a women's journal which was operated by Denton & Spencer from 1911 to 1921 before folding. The paper focused on household hints, fashion, handicrafts, and short fiction pieces. Under her editorship, Griffiths began to add articles on professional women and employment issues, as well as political and social movements. Eventually, she added more radical commentary in an opinion column which covered issues such as cooperative child care centers and kitchens to help the poor, the plight of unemployed women immigrants, equal pay, child welfare programs, legal reforms of divorce laws, women's participation in politics, sexual hygiene and birth control. By 1915, Griffiths was publishing articles in other journals and newspapers like The Australian Worker, Sydney's The International Socialist and The Sunday Times, which allowed her to express her pacifist and socialist views. By 1916, she was publishing more articles on feminism and politics in other journals than she was writing for Australian Woman's Weekly. In the debates on the draft, which emerged in women's groups in 1916 and 1917 after Australia entered into World War I, she argued strongly against the policy. She joined organizations like the Australian Labor Party, Social Democratic League, the Women's Anti-Conscription Committee, and the Women's Peace Army and actively took an anti-war stance. She participated in peace demonstrations, petition drives, and used her skill from her youth as an elocution performer to speak perched upon boxes in the street proclaiming the evils of war and its ties to power and wealth for those who benefited from the profits of increased manufacturing of weapons and other war-related products. These activities led the publishers of the Australian Woman's Weekly to fire her in October 1916. After her termination, Griffiths was unable to find permanent employment and took assignments to write articles for numerous papers both in and out of Australia. In addition to publishing in the Sunday Times, the International Socialist and Brisbane's Daily Standard, she wrote articles on feminism and against the war for Britain's Social Democrat and Chicago's Industrial Worker. She also wrote articles criticizing racism and the prosecution of people who opposed the war. Federal policies in favor of the war, the uncertain employment of both herself and Arthur, and the fact that T. J. Ryan, Premier of Queensland, was the only remaining Labor Party leader in power, convinced Griffiths to move to Queensland in 1917, where the family settled in Brisbane. She became very active there, speaking at meetings in support of the Bolshevik revolution, International Workers' Day, and the Sydney Twelve, members of the Industrial Workers of the World who had been arrested and charged with treason. She attempted to revive the Queensland Socialist League and was involved in the Red Flag riots, both in sewing banners and participating in demonstrations. When participants in the March 1919 protest were arrested, she campaigned for their release, but was disillusioned by the Australian turn toward conservatism and decided after the prisoner release to return to the United States. ===United States (1920–1951)=== In June 1920, Griffiths returned to Texas, first settling in San Benito in Cameron County. Family members followed a few at a time over several months, with some of the boys taking positions as crew on sailing vessels to pay for their passage. Two of her sons, Randolph and Don, remained behind in Australia. In 1922, they were back in San Antonio, and Griffiths was campaigning for the pardon of George McKinley Grace, a Black man who had been found guilty of assaulting a White woman. Griffiths and his other supporters opposed his hanging, believing that he was wrongfully convicted, but they were unsuccessful. Unable to make a living there, by 1923 the family had moved to San Francisco, California. She became a regular contributor of poetry to the Industrial Worker and wrote for the San Francisco Examiner and other local newspapers. She was involved in speaking engagements and activities of the Children's Protection Society, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, the Women's Peace Union, and the National Woman's Party. In 1928, she regained her United States nationality, when she and Arthur naturalized. During the 1930s Griffiths was recognized in the book American Women Poets of 1937 published by Henry Harrison in 1937 and was involved in the California division of the Federal Writers' Project for the Works Progress Administration. She gave lectures and worked for passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in the 1940s and in 1943 was elected as secretary-treasurer of the California branch of the National Woman's Party. Griffiths was one of the featured lecturers on women's gains toward equality for the National Woman's Party's commemoration of Susan B. Anthony's 125th birthday in 1945. In 1947, she was one of the women honored by the National Woman's Party for their work to gain suffrage and advance women's rights and in 1949, she was the California delegate to the party convention. ==Death and legacy== Griffiths died on June 29, 1951, in San Francisco and was buried on July 2 at the Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Colma, California. Her papers were donated to the National Library of Australia in 1993. The leather bag which was presented to her by the Red Flag prisoners, for whose release she had pressed, is also part of the collection of her memorabilia at the National Library. Griffiths is remembered as an activist who championed equal opportunity and equal rights for women, in part because she was often the main breadwinner in her family and in part because of her beliefs and idealism to defend those she felt had been wronged by social conventions and injustice. Her daughter, Ciwa, became a pioneering speech therapist who founded the HEAR Center in California and spent her career advocating for the use of technology and speech education to help people with hearing difficulties. ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * (Cited page numbers refer to on-line version) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== *Photographs Category:1875 births Category:1951 deaths Category:People from Woodville, Texas Category:University of Texas at Austin alumni Category:Fijian journalists Category:American poets Category:Australian women journalists Category:American women's rights activists Category:Australian women's rights activists Category:Trade unionists Category:Pacifist feminists Category:20th-century women writers Category:American expatriates in Fiji Category:American expatriates in Australia
|
Moldovan football clubs have participated in European football competitions since 1993.Champions LeagueEuropa LeagueCup Winners CupIntertoto Cup ==UEFA country coefficient and ranking== For the 2023–24 UEFA competitions, the associations were allocated places according to their 2022 UEFA country coefficients, which take into account their performance in European competitions from 2017–18 to 2021–22. In the 2022 rankings that are used for the 2023–24 European competitions, Moldova's coefficient points total is 11.250. Moldova is ranked by UEFA as the 33rd association in Europe out of 55. * 31 Slovenia 15.000 * 32 Belarus 12.500 * 33 Moldova 11.250 * 34 Lithuania 10.000 * 35 Bosnia and Herzegovina 9.125 ** Full list ==UEFA country coefficient history== As of 10 June 2023Bert Kassies Accumulated Valid Rank Movement Coefficient Change 1993–1994 1995–96 42 1.000 1993–94 to 1994–95 1996–97 45 –3 1.000 1993–94 to 1995–96 1997–98 36 +9 5.000 +4.000 1993–94 to 1996–97 1998–99 36 6.000 +1.000 1993–94 to 1997–98 1999–00 37 –1 6.666 +0.666 1994–95 to 1998–99 2000–01 37 4.333 –2.333 1995–96 to 1999–00 2001–02 34 +3 6.333 +2.000 1996–97 to 2000–01 2002–03 35 –1 4.499 –1.834 1997–98 to 2001–02 2003–04 33 +2 5.165 +0.666 1998–99 to 2002–03 2004–05 32 +1 5.832 +0.667 1999–00 to 2003–04 2005–06 30 +2 6.832 +1.000 2000–01 to 2004–05 2006–07 33 –3 6.332 –0.500 2001–02 to 2005–06 2007–08 33 6.832 +0.500 2002–03 to 2006–07 2008–09 34 –1 7.166 +0.334 2003–04 to 2007–08 2009–10 34 7.499 +0.333 2004–05 to 2008–09 2010–11 37 –3 6.665 –0.834 2005–06 to 2009–10 2011–12 34 +3 7.290 +0.625 2006–07 to 2010–11 2012–13 33 +1 7.749 +0.459 2007–08 to 2011–12 2013–14 36 –3 6.749 –1.000 2008–09 to 2012–13 2014–15 35 +1 7.666 +0.917 2009–10 to 2013–14 2015–16 31 +4 10.375 +2.709 2010–11 to 2014–15 2016–17 33 –2 10.000 –0.375 2011–12 to 2015–16 2017–18 34 –1 9.125 –0.875 2012–13 to 2016–17 2018–19 34 9.500 +0.375 2013–14 to 2017–18 2019–20 33 +1 10.000 +0.500 2014–15 to 2018–19 2020–21 35 –2 7.750 –2.250 2015–16 to 2019–20 2021–22 41 –6 6.750 –1.000 2016–17 to 2020–21 2022–23 45 –4 6.875 +0.125 2017–18 to 2021–22 2023–24 33 +12 11.250 +4.375 2018–19 to 2022–23 2024–25 32 +1 12.250 +1.000 ==Active competitions== ===UEFA Champions League=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. 1993–94 Zimbru Chișinău Preliminary round Beitar Jerusalem 1–1 0–2 1–3 17px 1997–98 Constructorul Chișinău First qualifying round MPKC Mozyr 1–1 2–3 3–4 17px 1998–99 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Újpest 1–0 1–3 2–3 17px 1999–00 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round St Patrick's Athletic 5–0 5–0 10–0 17px 1999–00 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Dinamo Tbilisi 2–0 1–2 3–2 17px 1999–00 Zimbru Chișinău Third qualifying round PSV Eindhoven 0–0 0–2 0–2 17px 2000–01 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round KF Tirana 3–2 3–2 6–4 17px 2000–01 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Maribor 2–0 0–1 2–1 17px 2000–01 Zimbru Chișinău Third qualifying round Sparta Prague 0–1 0–1 0–2 17px 2001–02 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Araks 2–0 1–0 3–0 17px 2001–02 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Anderlecht 1–2 0–4 1–6 17px 2002–03 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Zhenis 2–1 2–3 4–4 (a) 17px 2002–03 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Grazer AK 1–4 0–2 1–6 17px 2003–04 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Flora Tallinn 1–0 1–1 2–1 17px 2003–04 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Shakhtar Donetsk 0–0 0–2 0–2 17px 2004–05 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Jeunesse Esch 2–0 0–1 2–1 17px 2004–05 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Rosenborg 0–2 1–2 1–4 17px 2005–06 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Sliema Wanderers 2–0 4–1 6–1 17px 2005–06 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Partizan 0–1 0–1 0–2 17px 2006–07 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Pyunik 2–0 0–0 2–0 17px 2006–07 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Spartak Moscow 1–1 0–0 1–1 (a) 17px 2007–08 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Rànger's 2–0 3–0 5–0 17px 2007–08 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Beşiktaş 0–3 0–1 0–4 17px 2008–09 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Aktobe 4–0 0–1 4–1 17px 2008–09 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Sparta Prague 0–1 0–2 0–3 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Inter Turku 1–0 1–0 2–0 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Slavia Prague 0–0 1–1 1–1 (a) 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Olympiacos 0–2 0–1 0–3 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Dinamo Tirana 3–1 0–1 3–2 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Dinamo Zagreb 1–1 1–1 (a.e.t) 2–2 (6–5 p) 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Basel 0–3 0–1 0–4 17px 2011–12 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round Zestafoni 2–0 0–3 2–3 17px 2012–13 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Ulisses 1–0 1–0 2–0 17px 2012–13 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Dinamo Zagreb 0–1 0–4 0–5 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Sutjeska Nikšić 1–1 5–0 6–1 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Dinamo Zagreb 0–3 0–1 0–4 17px 2014–15 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Sutjeska Nikšić 2–0 3–0 5–0 17px 2014–15 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Slovan Bratislava 0–0 1–2 1–2 17px 2015–16 Milsami Orhei Second qualifying round Ludogorets Razgrad 2–1 1–0 3–1 17px 2015–16 Milsami Orhei Third qualifying round Skënderbeu Korçë 0–2 0–2 0–4 17px 2016–17 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Hapoel Be'er Sheva 0–0 2–3 2–3 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Kukësi 1–0 1–2 2–2 (a) 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Qarabağ 1–2 0–0 1–2 17px 2018–19 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Torpedo Kutaisi 3–0 1–2 4–2 17px 2018–19 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Shkëndija Tetovo 0–0 0–1 0–1 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Saburtalo Tbilisi 0–3 3–1 3–4 17px 2020–21 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Fola Esch 2–0 — — 17px 2020–21 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Qarabağ — 1–2 — 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Teuta Durrës 1–0 4–0 5–0 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Alashkert 3–1 1–0 4–1 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Crvena zvezda 1–0 1–1 2–1 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Dinamo Zagreb 3–0 0–0 3–0 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Inter 1–3 1–3 3rd 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Real Madrid 0–3 2–1 3rd 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Shakhtar Donetsk 2–0 1–1 3rd 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Zrinjski Mostar 1–0 0–0 1–0 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Maribor 1–0 0–0 1–0 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Viktoria Plzeň 1–2 1–2 2–4 17px 2023–24 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Farul Constanța ===UEFA Europa League=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. UEFA Cup 1994–95 Zimbru Chișinău Preliminary round Kispest Honvéd 0–1 1–4 1–5 17px 1995–96 Zimbru Chișinău Preliminary round Hapoel Tel Aviv 2–0 0–0 2–0 17px 1995–96 Zimbru Chișinău First round RAF Jelgava 1–0 2–1 3–1 17px 1995–96 Zimbru Chișinău Second round Sparta Prague 0–2 3–4 3–6 17px 1996–97 Zimbru Chișinău Preliminary round Hajduk Split 0–4 1–2 1–6 17px 1996–97 Tiligul Tiraspol Preliminary round Dinamo-93 Minsk 1–1 1–3 2–4 17px 1997–98 Tiligul Tiraspol First qualifying round Neuchâtel Xamax 1–3 0–7 1–10 17px 1998–99 Tiligul Tiraspol First qualifying round Anderlecht 0–1 0–5 0–6 17px 1999–00 Sheriff Tiraspol Qualifying round Sigma Olomouc 1–1 0–0 1–1 (a) 17px 1999–00 Constructorul Chișinău Qualifying round Ferencváros 1–1 1–3 2–4 17px 1999–00 Zimbru Chișinău First round Tottenham Hotspur 0–0 0–3 0–3 17px 2000–01 Constructorul Chișinău Qualifying round CSKA Sofia 2–3 0–8 2–11 17px 2000–01 Sheriff Tiraspol Qualifying round Olimpija Ljubljana 0–0 0–3 0–3 17px 2000–01 Zimbru Chișinău First round Hertha Berlin 1–2 0–2 1–4 17px 2001–02 Zimbru Chișinău Qualifying round Gaziantepspor 0–0 1–4 1–4 17px 2001–02 Nistru Otaci Qualifying round Debrecen 1–0 0–3 1–3 17px 2002–03 Nistru Otaci Qualifying round Aberdeen 0–0 0–1 0–1 17px 2002–03 Zimbru Chișinău Qualifying round IFK Göteborg 3–1 2–2 5–3 17px 2002–03 Zimbru Chișinău First round Betis 0–2 1–2 1–4 17px 2003–04 Nistru Otaci Qualifying round Crvena zvezda 2–3 0–5 2–8 17px 2003–04 Zimbru Chișinău Qualifying round Litex Lovech 2–0 0–0 2–0 17px 2003–04 Zimbru Chișinău First round Aris 1–1 1–2 2–3 17px 2004–05 Nistru Otaci First qualifying round Shakhtyor Soligorsk 1–1 2–1 3–2 17px 2004–05 Nistru Otaci Second qualifying round Sigma Olomouc 1–2 0–4 1–6 17px 2004–05 Tiraspol First qualifying round Shirak 2–0 2–1 4–1 17px 2004–05 Tiraspol Second qualifying round Metalurh Donetsk 1–2 0–3 1–5 17px 2005–06 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Vaduz 1–0 0–2 1–2 17px 2005–06 Nistru Otaci First qualifying round Khazar Lankaran 3–1 2–1 5–2 17px 2005–06 Nistru Otaci Second qualifying round Grazer AK 0–2 0–1 0–3 17px 2006–07 Nistru Otaci First qualifying round BATE Borisov 0–1 0–2 0–3 17px 2006–07 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Qarabağ 1–1 2–1 (a.e.t) 3–2 17px 2006–07 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Metalurh Zaporizhya 0–0 0–3 0–3 17px 2007–08 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Artmedia Petržalka 2–2 1–1 3–3 (a) 17px 2007–08 Nistru Otaci First qualifying round Budapest Honvéd 1–1 1–1 (a.e.t) 2–2 (4–5 p) 17px 2008–09 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Borac Čačak 1–1 1–3 2–4 17px 2008–09 Nistru Otaci First qualifying round Hertha Berlin 0–0 1–8 1–8 17px UEFA Europa League 2009–10 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Okzhetpes 1–2 2–0 3–2 17px 2009–10 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Paços de Ferreira 0–0 0–1 0–1 17px 2009–10 Iskra-Stal Second qualifying round Cherno More 0–3 0–1 0–4 17px 2009–10 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round MŠK Žilina 0–1 0–2 0–3 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Group H Steaua București 1–1 0–0 3rd 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Group H Fenerbahçe 0–1 0–1 3rd 17px 2009–10 Sheriff Tiraspol Group H Twente 2–0 1–2 3rd 17px 2010–11 Olimpia Bălți First qualifying round Khazar Lankaran 0–0 1–1 1–1 (a) 17px 2010–11 Olimpia Bălți Second qualifying round Dinamo București 0–2 1–5 1–7 17px 2010–11 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Zeta 0–0 1–1 1–1 (a) 17px 2010–11 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round Kalmar 0–2 0–0 0–2 17px 2010–11 Iskra-Stal Second qualifying round Elfsborg 0–1 1–2 1–3 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E AZ Alkmaar 1–1 1–2 4th 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E Dynamo Kyiv 2–0 0–0 4th 17px 2010–11 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E BATE Borisov 0–1 1–3 4th 17px 2011–12 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Dinamo Tbilisi 1–3 0–2 1–5 17px 2011–12 Iskra-Stal Second qualifying round Varaždin 1–1 1–3 2–4 17px 2011–12 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Željezničar 0–0 0–1 0–1 17px 2012–13 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Celje 1–0 1–0 2–0 17px 2012–13 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round Elfsborg 1–0 0–2 1–2 17px 2012–13 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Bangor City 2–1 0–0 2–1 17px 2012–13 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Young Boys Bern 1–0 (a.e.t) 0–1 1–1 (1–4 p) 17px 2012–13 Milsami Orhei Second qualifying round Aktobe 4–2 0–3 4–5 17px 2012–13 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Marseille 1–2 0–0 1–2 17px 2013–14 Tiraspol First qualifying round Skonto Riga 0–1 1–0 (a.e.t) 1–1 (2–4 p) 17px 2013–14 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Teuta Durrës 2–0 1–3 3–3 (a) 17px 2013–14 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round Chornomorets Odesa 2–1 0–2 2–3 17px 2013–14 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round F91 Dudelange 1–0 0–0 1–0 17px 2013–14 Milsami Orhei Second qualifying round Shakhtyor Soligorsk 1–1 (a.e.t) 1–1 2–2 (4–2 p) 17px 2013–14 Milsami Orhei Third qualifying round Saint-Étienne 0–3 0–3 0–6 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Vojvodina 2–1 1–1 3–2 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Group K Tottenham Hotspur 0–2 1–2 3rd 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Group K Anzhi Makhachkala 0–0 1–1 3rd 17px 2013–14 Sheriff Tiraspol Group K Tromsø 2–0 1–1 3rd 17px 2014–15 Tiraspol First qualifying round Inter Baku 2–3 1–3 3–6 17px 2014–15 Veris Chișinău First qualifying round Litex Lovech 0–0 0–3 0–3 17px 2014–15 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Shkëndija Tetovo 2–0 1–2 3–2 17px 2014–15 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round CSKA Sofia 0–0 1–1 1–1 (a) 17px 2014–15 Zimbru Chișinău Third qualifying round Grödig 0–1 2–1 2–2 (a) 17px 2014–15 Zimbru Chișinău Play-off round PAOK 1–0 0–4 1–4 17px 2014–15 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Rijeka 0–3 0–1 0–4 17px 2015–16 Sheriff Tiraspol First qualifying round Odd Skien 0–3 0–0 0–3 17px 2015–16 Saxan First qualifying round Apollon Limassol 0–2 0–2 0–4 17px 2015–16 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Renova 4–1 1–0 5–1 17px 2015–16 Dacia Chișinău Second qualifying round MŠK Žilina 1–2 2–4 3–6 17px 2015–16 Milsami Orhei Play-off round Saint-Étienne 1–1 0–1 1–2 17px 2016–17 Zaria Bălți First qualifying round Videoton 2–0 0–3 2–3 17px 2016–17 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Kapaz Ganja 0–1 0–0 0–1 17px 2016–17 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round Chikhura Sachkhere 0–1 3–2 3–3 (a) 17px 2016–17 Zimbru Chișinău Second qualifying round Osmanlıspor 2–2 0–5 2–7 17px 2017–18 Dacia Chișinău First qualifying round Shkëndija Tetovo 0–4 0–3 0–7 17px 2017–18 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Fola Esch 1–1 1–2 2–3 17px 2017–18 Zaria Bălți First qualifying round Sarajevo 2–1 1–2 (a.e.t) 3–3 (6–5 p) 17px 2017–18 Zaria Bălți Second qualifying round Apollon Limassol 1–2 0–3 1–5 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Legia Warsaw 0–0 1–1 1–1 (a) 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Group F København 0–0 0–2 3rd 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Group F Lokomotiv Moscow 1–1 2–1 3rd 17px 2017–18 Sheriff Tiraspol Group F Fastav Zlín 1–0 0–0 3rd 17px 2018–19 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Slovan Bratislava 2–4 0–5 2–9 17px 2018–19 Petrocub Hîncești First qualifying round Osijek 1–1 1–2 2–3 17px 2018–19 Zaria Bălți First qualifying round Górnik Zabrze 1–1 0–1 1–2 17px 2018–19 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Valur Reykjavík 1–0 1–2 2–2 (a) 17px 2018–19 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Qarabağ 1–0 0–3 1–3 17px 2019–20 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round FCSB 1–2 0–2 1–4 17px 2019–20 Petrocub Hîncești First qualifying round AEK Larnaca 0–1 0–1 0–2 17px 2019–20 Speranța Nisporeni First qualifying round Neftçi Baku 0–3 0–6 0–9 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol Second qualifying round Partizani Tirana 1–1 1–0 2–1 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round AIK Stockholm 1–2 1–1 2–3 17px 2020–21 Petrocub Hîncești First qualifying round Bačka Topola 0–2 — — 17px 2020–21 Dinamo-Auto First qualifying round Ventspils — 1–2 — 17px 2020–21 Sfîntul Gheorghe First qualifying round Shakhtyor Soligorsk — 0–0 (4–1 p) — 17px 2020–21 Sfîntul Gheorghe Second qualifying round Partizan 0–1 (a.e.t) — — 17px 2020–21 Sheriff Tiraspol Third qualifying round Dundalk 1–1 (3–5 p) — — 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Knockout round play-off Braga 2–0 0–2 (a.e.t) 2–2 (2–3 p) 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Pyunik 0–0 (a.e.t) 0–0 0–0 (3–2 p) 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E Manchester United 0–2 0–3 3rd 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E Real Sociedad 0–2 0–3 3rd 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Group E Omonia 1–0 3–0 3rd 17px ===UEFA Conference League=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. 2021–22 Sfîntul Gheorghe First qualifying round Partizani Tirana 2–3 2–5 4–8 17px 2021–22 Petrocub Hîncești First qualifying round Sileks 1–0 1–1 2–1 17px 2021–22 Petrocub Hîncești Second qualifying round Sivasspor 0–1 0–1 0–2 17px 2021–22 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Sarajevo 0–0 1–0 1–0 17px 2021–22 Milsami Orhei Second qualifying round Elfsborg 0–5 0–4 0–9 17px 2022–23 Sfîntul Gheorghe First qualifying round Mura 1–2 1–2 2–4 17px 2022–23 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Panevėžys 2–0 0–0 2–0 17px 2022–23 Milsami Orhei Second qualifying round KuPS 1–4 2–2 3–6 17px 2022–23 Petrocub Hîncești First qualifying round Floriana 1–0 0–0 1–0 17px 2022–23 Petrocub Hîncești Second qualifying round Laçi 0–0 4–1 4–1 17px 2022–23 Petrocub Hîncești Third qualifying round Fehérvár 1–2 0–5 1–7 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Knockout round play-off Partizan 0–1 3–1 3–2 17px 2022–23 Sheriff Tiraspol Round of 16 Nice 0–1 1–3 1–4 17px 2023–24 Zimbru Chișinău First qualifying round La Fiorita 2023–24 Milsami Orhei First qualifying round Panevėžys 2023–24 Petrocub Hîncești Second qualifying round Maccabi Tel Aviv ==Defunct competitions== ===UEFA Cup Winners' Cup=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. 1994–95 Tiligul Tiraspol Preliminary round Omonia 0–1 1–3 1–4 17px 1995–96 Tiligul Tiraspol Preliminary round Sion 0–0 2–3 2–3 17px 1996–97 Constructorul Chișinău Qualifying round Hapoel Ironi Rishon 1–0 2–3 3–3 (a) 17px 1996–97 Constructorul Chișinău First round Galatasaray 0–1 0–4 0–5 17px 1997–98 Zimbru Chișinău Qualifying round Shakhtar Donetsk 1–1 0–3 1–4 17px 1998–99 Constructorul Chișinău Qualifying round Rudar Velenje 0–0 0–2 0–2 17px ===UEFA Intertoto Cup=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. 1999 Tiligul Tiraspol First round Polonia Warsaw 0–0 0–4 0–4 17px 2000 Nistru Otaci First round Cwmbrân Town 1–0 1–0 2–0 17px 2000 Nistru Otaci Second round Austria Salzburg 2–6 1–1 3–7 17px 2001 Tiligul Tiraspol First round Cliftonville 1–0 3–1 (a.e.t) 4–1 17px 2001 Tiligul Tiraspol Second round Lombard Tatabánya 1–1 0–4 1–5 17px 2002 Constructorul Cioburciu First round Synot 0–0 0–4 0–4 17px 2003 Dacia Chișinău First round GÍ Gøta 4–1 1–0 5–1 17px 2003 Dacia Chișinău Second round Partizani Tirana 2–0 3–0 5–0 17px 2003 Dacia Chișinău Third round Schalke 04 0–1 1–2 1–3 17px 2005 Tiligul-Tiras First round Pogoń Szczecin 0–3 2–6 2–9 17px 2006 Tiraspol First round MKT-Araz İmişli 2–0 0–1 2–1 17px 2006 Tiraspol Second round Lech Poznań 1–0 3–1 4–1 17px 2006 Tiraspol Third round SV Ried 1–1 1–3 2–4 17px 2007 Dacia Chișinău First round Baku 1–1 (a.e.t) 1–1 2–2 (3–1 p) 17px 2007 Dacia Chișinău Second round St. Gallen 0–1 1–0 (a.e.t) 1–1 (3–0 p) 17px 2007 Dacia Chișinău Third round Hamburg 1–1 0–4 1–5 17px 2008 Tiraspol First round Mika 0–0 2–2 2–2 (a) 17px 2008 Tiraspol Second round Tavriya Simferopol 0–0 1–3 1–3 17px ==Overall record== As of 16 March 2023 ===By competition=== Competition UEFA Champions League 114 43 22 49 126 122 +4 37.72 UEFA Europa League / UEFA Cup 223 44 63 116 164 347 –183 19.73 UEFA Conference League 26 6 6 14 24 44 –20 23.08 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 12 1 3 8 7 21 –14 8.33 UEFA Intertoto Cup 36 12 11 13 38 53 –15 33.33 Total 411 106 105 200 359 587 –228 25.79 ===By country=== Moldovan clubs have not yet faced opponents from Gibraltar, Kosovo and San Marino. Opponents 20 11 2 7 34 25 +9 2 2 0 0 5 0 +5 14 9 5 0 17 4 +13 10 1 2 7 8 22 −14 21 5 7 9 19 31 −12 13 1 6 6 11 19 −8 4 0 0 4 1 12 −11 8 3 3 2 5 4 +1 12 3 4 5 8 20 −12 16 1 5 10 10 28 −18 10 2 0 8 6 15 −9 18 1 6 11 9 27 −18 2 0 1 1 0 2 −2 6 0 1 5 1 12 −11 2 1 1 0 2 1 +1 2 2 0 0 5 1 +4 4 2 1 1 5 6 −1 8 0 2 6 3 14 −11 12 5 0 7 16 19 −3 8 0 2 6 4 20 −16 6 1 1 4 3 10 −7 16 3 4 9 12 32 −20 2 1 0 1 2 2 0 3 2 1 0 11 1 +10 8 2 3 3 8 9 −1 2 0 0 2 2 6 −4 8 4 0 4 15 12 +3 5 3 0 2 5 4 +1 2 1 0 1 1 2 −1 2 1 1 0 2 0 +2 7 3 2 2 7 4 +3 4 3 1 0 7 1 +6 6 3 3 0 12 2 +10 6 1 2 3 5 7 −2 10 4 2 4 10 12 −2 2 2 0 0 4 1 +3 6 1 2 3 4 8 −4 10 2 4 4 8 17 −9 4 1 1 2 2 3 −1 6 0 2 4 3 12 −9 6 1 5 0 5 4 +1 2 0 1 1 0 1 −1 10 3 3 4 10 12 −2 4 0 0 4 2 10 −8 10 0 3 7 9 23 −14 12 4 3 5 7 10 −3 6 1 0 5 3 13 −10 12 2 3 7 9 22 −13 10 2 1 7 5 19 −14 12 0 2 10 3 24 −21 16 3 6 7 10 21 −11 4 3 1 0 4 1 +3 ==Other European competition== ===UEFA Youth League=== Season Club Round Opponent Home Away Agg. 2015–16 Zimbru Chișinău First round Příbram 1–2 0–2 1–4 17px 2016–17 Sheriff Tiraspol First round Viitorul Constanța 0–1 1–4 1–5 17px 2017–18 Zimbru Chișinău First round Vllaznia Shkodër 3–1 4–2 7–3 17px 2017–18 Zimbru Chișinău Second round Molde 0–0 0–2 0–2 17px 2018–19 Sheriff Tiraspol First round Gabala 1–3 1–1 2–4 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol First round Shkëndija Tiranë 1–0 2–1 3–1 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol Second round Sogndal 2–0 1–3 3–3 (a) 17px 2019–20 Sheriff Tiraspol Play-off round Crvena zvezda 0–0 (2–4 p) — — 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Inter 2–4 1–2 4th 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Real Madrid 0–1 1–4 4th 17px 2021–22 Sheriff Tiraspol Group D Shakhtar Donetsk 0–5 0–6 4th 17px ==Overall record== As of 7 December 2021 ===By competition=== Competition UEFA Youth League 21 5 3 13 21 44 –23 23.81 ===By country=== Opponents 4 4 0 0 10 4 +6 2 0 1 1 2 4 −2 2 0 0 2 1 4 −3 2 0 0 2 3 6 −3 4 1 1 2 3 5 −2 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 2 0 0 2 0 11 −11 ==See also== *Moldovan women's football clubs in European competitions ==References== ==External links== *UEFA Website Category:European football clubs in international competitions *
|
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that begins in early childhood, persists throughout adulthood, and affects three crucial areas of development: communication, social interaction and restricted patterns of behavior. There are many conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorder such as fragile X syndrome and epilepsy. In medicine and in psychiatry, comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional conditions co-occurring with the primary one, or the effect of such additional disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders, perhaps due to an overlap in genetic causes. Distinguishing between ASDs and other diagnoses can be challenging because the traits of ASDs often overlap with symptoms of other disorders and the characteristics of ASDs make traditional diagnostic procedures difficult. ==Comorbid conditions== ===Abnormal folate metabolism=== Several lines of evidence indicate abnormalities of folate metabolism in ASD. These abnormalities can lead to a decrease in 5-methyltetrahydrofolate production, alter the production of folate metabolites and reduce folate transport across the blood-brain barrier and in neurons. The most significant abnormalities of folate metabolism associated with ASDs may be autoantibodies to the alpha folate receptor (FRα). These autoantibodies have been associated with cerebral folate deficiency. Autoantibodies can bind to FRα and greatly impair its function. In 2013, one study reported that 60% and 44% of 93 children with ASD were positive for FRα-blocking and binding autoantibodies, respectively. This high rate of anti-FRα autoantibody positivity was confirmed by Ramaekers et al. who compared 75 children with ASD to 30 non-autistic "controls". These controls were children who had a developmental delay, but did not have ASD. FRα-blocking autoantibodies were positive in 47% of children with ASD, but only in 3% of children without ASD. Many children with ASD and cerebral folate deficiency have marked improvements in their clinical status when taking folinic acid. A series of five children with cerebral folate deficiency and low functioning autism with neurological deficits found a complete reduction of ASD symptoms with the use of folinic acid in a child and substantial improvements in communication in two other children. ===Abnormal redox metabolism=== An imbalance in glutathione-dependent redox metabolism has been shown to be associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Glutathione synthesis and intracellular redox balance are related to folate metabolism and methylation, metabolic pathways that have also been shown to be abnormal in ASD. Together, these metabolic abnormalities define a distinct endophenotype of TSA closely associated with genetic, epigenetic and mitochondrial abnormalities, as well as environmental factors related to ASD. Glutathione is involved in neuroprotection against oxidative stress and neuroinflammation by improving the antioxidant stress system. In autistic children, studies have shown that glutathione metabolism can be improved: * Subcutaneously by injection of methylcobalamin (a form of B12). * Oral folinic acid. * A vitamin and mineral supplement that includes antioxidants, coenzyme Q10 and vitamins B. * Tetrahydrobiopterin. Interestingly, recent DBPC studies have shown that N-acetyl-1-cysteine, a glutathione precursor supplement, is effective in improving the symptoms and behaviors associated with ASD. However, glutathione was not measured in these studies. Small, medium and large DPBC trials and open small and medium-sized clinical trials demonstrate that new treatments for children with ASD for oxidative stress are associated with improvements in baseline symptoms of ASD, sleep, gastrointestinal symptoms, hyperactivity, seizures and parental impression, sensory and motor symptoms. These new treatments include N-acetyl-l-cysteine, methylcobalamin with and without oral folinic acid, vitamin C, and a vitamin and mineral supplement that includes antioxidants, enzyme Q10, and B vitamins. Several other treatments that have antioxidant properties, including carnosine, have also been reported to significantly improve ASD behaviors, suggesting that treatment of oxidative stress could be beneficial for children with ASD. Many antioxidants can also help improve mitochondrial function, suggesting that clinical improvements with antioxidants could occur through a reduction in oxidative stress and / or an improvement in mitochondrial function. Some of these treatments can have frequent serious side effects (bronchospasm, etc. ...). ===Anxiety=== Anxiety disorders are common among children and adults with ASD. Symptoms are likely affected by age, level of cognitive functioning, degree of social impairment, and ASD-specific difficulties. Many anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, are not commonly diagnosed in people with ASD because such symptoms are better explained by ASD itself, and it is often difficult to tell whether symptoms such as compulsive checking are part of ASD or a co-occurring anxiety problem. The prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with ASD has been reported to be anywhere between 11% and 84%; the wide range is likely due to differences in the ways the studies were conducted. A systematic review summarized available evidence on interventions to reduce anxiety in school children with autism spectrum disorder. Of the 24 studies reviewed, 22 used a cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) approach. The review found that CBT was moderately to highly effective at reducing anxiety in school children with autism spectrum disorder, but that effects varied depending on whether they were reported by clinicians, parents or self-reported. Treatments involving parents and one-on-one compared to group treatments were more effective. ===Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder=== The diagnosis manual DSM-IV did not allow the co-diagnosis of ASD and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, following years of clinical research, the most recent edition of the DSM (DSM-5) in 2013 removed this prohibition of co-morbidity. Thus, individuals with autism spectrum disorder may also have a diagnosis of ADHD, with the modifiers of inattentive, hyperactive, combined-type, or not otherwise specified. Clinically significant symptoms of these two conditions commonly co-occur, and children with both sets of symptoms may respond poorly to standard ADHD treatments. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder may benefit from additional types of medications.DSM 5 ADHD Fact Sheet ===Brain fog=== Brain fog is a constellation of symptoms that include reduced cognition, inability to concentrate and multitask, as well as loss of short and long-term memory. Brain fog can be present in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Its prevalence, however, remains unknown. ===Bipolar disorder=== Bipolar disorder, or manic-depression, is itself often claimed to be comorbid with a number of conditions, including autism. Autism includes some symptoms commonly found in mood and anxiety disorders. ===Bowel disease=== Gastrointestinal symptoms are a common comorbidity in patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), even though the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. The most common gastrointestinal symptoms reported by proprietary tool developed and administered by Mayer, Padua, & Tillisch (2014) are abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea and bloating, reported in at least 25 percent of participants. Carbohydrate digestion and transport is impaired in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, which is thought to be attributed to functional disturbances that cause increased intestinal permeability, deficient enzyme activity of disaccharides, increased secretin-induced pancreatico-biliary secretion, and abnormal fecal flora Clostridia taxa. Altered gastrointestinal function accompanied by pain may induce feeding issues and increase perceived negative behaviors, including self injury, in individuals with autism. === Depression === Major depressive disorder has been shown by several studies to be one of the most common comorbid conditions in those with ASD, and is thought to develop and occur more in high-functioning individuals during adolescence, when the individual develops greater insight into their differences from others. In addition, the presentation of depression in ASDs can depend on the level of cognitive functioning in the individual, with lower functioning children displaying more behavioral issues and higher functioning children displaying more traditional depressive symptoms. ===Developmental coordination disorder=== The initial accounts of Asperger syndrome and other diagnostic schemes include descriptions of developmental coordination disorder. Children with ASD may be delayed in acquiring motor skills that require motor dexterity, such as bicycle riding or opening a jar, and may appear awkward or "uncomfortable in their own skin". They may be poorly coordinated, or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, poor handwriting, other hand/dexterity impairments, or problems with visual-motor integration, visual- perceptual skills, and conceptual learning. They may show problems with proprioception (sensation of body position) on measures of developmental coordination disorder, balance, tandem gait, and finger-thumb apposition. ===Epilepsy=== ASD is also associated with epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder. One in four autistic children develops seizures, often starting either in early childhood or adolescence. Seizures, caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, can produce a temporary loss of consciousness (a "blackout"), a body convulsion, unusual movements, or staring spells. Sometimes a contributing factor is a lack of sleep or a high fever. An EEG can help confirm the seizure's presence. Typically, onset of epilepsy occurs before age five or during puberty, and is more common in females and individuals who also have a comorbid intellectual disability. ===Fragile X syndrome=== Fragile X syndrome is the most common inherited form of intellectual disability. It was so named because one part of the X chromosome has a defective piece that appears pinched and fragile when under a microscope. Fragile X syndrome affects about two to five percent of people with ASD. If one child has Fragile X, there is a 50% chance that boys born to the same parents will have Fragile X (see Mendelian genetics). Other members of the family who may be contemplating having a child may also wish to be checked for the syndrome. ===Gender dysphoria=== Gender dysphoria is a diagnosis given to transgender people who experience discomfort related to their gender identity. Autistic people are more likely to experience gender dysphoria. Around 20% of gender identity clinic-assessed individuals reported characteristics of ASD. ===Hypermobility spectrum disorder and Ehlers–Danlos syndromes=== Studies have confirmed a link between hereditary connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndromes (EDS) and hypermobility spectrum disorder (HSD) with autism, as a comorbidity and a co-occurrence within the same families. ===Intellectual disability=== The fraction of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%. This wide variation illustrates the difficulty of assessing intelligence in autistic individuals. For example, a 2001 British study of 26 autistic children found about 30% with intelligence in the normal range (IQ above 70), 50% with a mild to moderate intellectual disability, and about 20% with a severe to profound intellectual disability (IQ below 35). For ASD other than autism the association is much weaker: the same study reported typical levels of intelligence in about 94% of 53 children with PDD-NOS. Estimates are that 40–69% of individuals with ASD have some degree of an intellectual disability, with females more likely to be in severe range of an intellectual disability. Learning disabilities are also highly comorbid in individuals with an ASD. Approximately 25–75% of individuals with an ASD also have some degree of learning disability, although the types of learning disability vary depending on the specific strengths and weaknesses of the individual. A 2006 review questioned the common assumption that most children with autism have an intellectual disability. It is possible that the association between an intellectual disability and autism is not because they usually have common causes, but because the presence of both makes it more likely that both will be diagnosed. The CDC states that based on information from 11 reporting states 46% of people with autism have above 85 IQ. ===Mitochondrial diseases=== The central player in bioenergetics is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria produce about 90% of cellular energy, regulate cellular redox status, produce ROS, maintain Ca2+ homeostasis, synthesize and degrade high- energy biochemical intermediates, and regulate cell death through activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mtPTP). When they fail, less and less energy is generated within the cell. Cell injury and even cell death follow. If this process is repeated throughout the body, whole organ systems begin to fail. Mitochondrial diseases are a heterogeneous group of disorders that can affect multiple organs with varying severity. Symptoms may be acute or chronic with intermittent decompensation. Neurological manifestations include encephalopathy, stroke, cognitive regression, seizures, cardiopathies (cardiac conduction defects, hypertensive heart disease, cardiomyopathy, etc...), diabetes, visual and hearing loss, organ failure, neuropathic pain and peripheral neuropathy. The prevalence estimates of mitochondrial disease and dysfunction across studies ranging from about 5 to 80%. This may be, in part, due to the unclear distinction between mitochondrial disease and dysfunction. Mitochondrial diseases are difficult to diagnose and have become better known and detected. Studies indicating the highest rates of mitochondrial diagnosis are usually the most recent. Some drugs are toxic to mitochondria. These can trigger or aggravate dysfunctions or mitochondrial diseases. * Antiepileptics : Valproic acid (also used in various other indications) and phenytoin are the most toxic. Phenobarbital, carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, ethosuximide, zonisamide, topiramate, gabapentin and vigabatrin are also. * Other types of drugs : Corticosteroids (such as cortisone), isotretinoin (Accutane) and other vitamin A derivatives, barbiturates, certain antibiotics, propofol, volatile anesthetics, non- depolarizing muscle relaxants, some local anesthetics, statins, fibrates, glitazones, beta blockers, biguanides, amiodarone, some chemotherapies, some neuroleptics, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and various other drugs. === Neurofibromatosis type I === ASD is also associated with Neurofibromatosis type I (NF-1). NF-1 is a complex multi-system human disorder caused by the mutation of a gene on chromosome 17 that is responsible for production of a protein, called neurofibromin 1, which is needed for normal function in many human cell types. NF-1 causes tumors along the nervous system which can grow anywhere on the body. NF-1 is one of the most common genetic disorders and is not limited to any person's race or sex. NF-1 is an autosomal dominant disorder, which means that mutation or deletion of one copy (or allele) of the NF-1 gene is sufficient for the development of NF-1, although presentation varies widely and is often different even between relatives affected by NF-1. ===Neuroinflammation and immune disorders=== The role of the immune system and neuroinflammation in the development of autism is controversial. Until recently, there was scant evidence supporting immune hypotheses, but research into the role of immune response and neuroinflammation may have important clinical and therapeutic implications. The exact role of heightened immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) of patients with autism is uncertain, but may be a primary factor in triggering and sustaining many of the comorbid conditions associated with autism. Recent studies indicate the presence of heightened neuroimmune activity in both the brain tissue and the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with autism, supporting the view that heightened immune response may be an essential factor in the onset of autistic symptoms. A 2013 review also found evidence of microglial activation and increased cytokine production in postmortem brain samples from people with autism. ===Neuropathies=== The prevalence of peripheral neuropathies would be significantly increased in ASD. Peripheral neuropathies may be asymptomatic. Peripheral neuropathy is a common manifestation of mitochondrial diseases and polyneuropathies would be relatively common. Neuropathies could also be caused by other features of ASD. ===Neurotransmitter anomalies=== ===Nonverbal learning disorder=== === Obsessive–compulsive disorder === Obsessive–compulsive disorder is characterized by recurrent obsessive thoughts or compulsive acts. About 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders also have OCD. === Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder === Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is a cluster c personality disorder characterized by a general pattern of excessive concern with orderliness, perfectionism, attention to details, mental and interpersonal control and a need for control over one's environment which interferes with personal flexibility, openness to experience and efficiency as well as interfering with relationships. There are considerable similarities and overlap between Autism and OCPD, such as list- making, inflexible adherence to rules and obsessive aspects of routines, though the latter may be distinguished from OCPD especially regarding affective behaviors, bad social skills, difficulties with theory of mind and intense intellectual interests e.g. an ability to recall every aspect of a hobby. A 2009 study involving adult autistic people found that 40% of those diagnosed with Autism met the diagnostic requirements for a co-morbid OCPD diagnosis. === Psychosis and schizophrenia === Childhood-onset schizophrenia is preceded by childhood autistic spectrum disorders in almost half of cases, and an increasing number of similarities are being discovered between the two disorders. Studies have also found that the presence of psychosis in adulthood is significantly higher in those with autism spectrum disorders, especially those with PDD-NOS, than in the general population. This psychosis generally occurs in an unusual way, with most individuals with ASD experiencing a highly atypical collection of symptoms. Recent studies have also found that the core ASD symptoms also generally present in a slightly different way during the childhood of the individuals that will later become psychotic, long before the actual psychosis develops. ===Reduced NMDA‐receptor function=== Reduced NMDA receptor function has been linked to reduced social interactions, locomotor hyperactivity, self-injury, pre-impulse inhibition (PPI) deficits, and sensory hypersensitivity, among others. Results suggest that NMDA dysregulation could contribute to core ASD symptoms. === Schizoid personality disorder === Schizoid personality disorder (SPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency towards a solitary or sheltered lifestyle, secretiveness, emotional coldness, detachment and apathy. Other associated features include stilted speech, a lack of deriving enjoyment from most, if not all, activities, feeling as though one is an "observer" rather than a participant in life, an inability to tolerate emotional expectations of others, apparent indifference when praised or criticised, a degree of asexuality and idiosyncratic moral or political beliefs. Symptoms typically start in late childhood or adolescence. Several studies have reported an overlap, confusion or comorbidity with the autism spectrum disorder Asperger syndrome. Asperger syndrome was at one time called "schizoid disorder of childhood". Eugen Bleuler coined the term "autism" to describe withdrawal to an internal fantasy, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance. The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original. In a 2012 study of a sample of 54 young adults with Asperger syndrome, it was found that 26% of them also met criteria for SPD, the highest comorbidity out of any personality disorder in the sample (the other comorbidities were 19% for obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, 13% for avoidant personality disorder and one female with schizotypal personality disorder). Additionally, twice as many men with Asperger syndrome met criteria for SPD than women. While 41% of the whole sample were unemployed with no occupation, this rose to 62% for the Asperger's and SPD comorbid group. Although the cause for this comorbidity is not yet certain, genetic evidence for a spectrum between cluster A personality disorders/schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders has been found.See Imprinted brain hypothesis, Causes of schizophrenia, DUF1220 Tantam suggested that Asperger syndrome may confer an increased risk of developing SPD. In the same 2012 study, it was noted that the DSM may complicate diagnosis of SPD by requiring the exclusion of a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) before establishing a diagnosis of SPD. The study found that social interaction, stereotyped behaviours and specific interests were more severe in the individuals with Asperger syndrome also fulfilling SPD criteria, against the notion that social interaction skills are unimpaired in SPD. The authors believe that substantial subgroup of people with autism spectrum disorder or PDD have clear "schizoid traits" and correspond largely to the "loners" in Lorna Wing's classification The autism spectrum (Lancet 1997), described by Sula Wolff. ===Sensory problems=== Unusual responses to sensory stimuli are more common and prominent in individuals with autism, and sensory abnormalities are commonly recognized as diagnostic criteria in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), as reported in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V); although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Sensory processing disorder is comorbid with ASD, with comorbidity rates of 42–88%. With or without meeting the standards of SPD; about 90% of ASD individuals have some type of atypical sensory experiences, described as both hyper- and hypo-reactivity. The prevalence of reported "unusual sensory behaviors" that effect functioning in everyday life is also higher; ranging from 45 to 95% depending on factors such as age, IQ and the control group used. Several studies have reported associated motor problems that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; ASD is not associated with severe motor disturbances. Many with ASD often find it uncomfortable to sit or stand in a way which neurotypical people will find ordinary, and may stand in an awkward position, such as with both feet together, supinating, sitting cross-legged or with one foot on top of the other or simply having an awkward gait. However, despite evidently occurring more often in people with ASD, all evidence is anecdotal and unresearched at this point. It has been observed by some psychologists that there is commonality to the way in which these 'awkward' positions may manifest. http://www.aspiestrategy.com/2013/02/adults-on-spectrum-these-are-your- feet.html?m=1 ===Sleep disorders=== Sleep disorders are commonly reported by parents of individuals with ASDs, including late sleep onset, early morning awakening, and poor sleep maintenance; sleep disturbances are present in 53–78% of individuals with ASD. Unlike general pediatric insomnia, which has its roots in behavior, sleep disorders in individuals with ASD are comorbid with other neurobiological, medical, and psychiatric issues. If not addressed, severe sleep disorders can exacerbate ASD behaviors such as self-injury; however, there are no Food and Drug Administration-approved pharmacological treatments for pediatric insomnia at this time. Studies have found abnormalities in the physiology of melatonin and circadian rhythm in people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). These physiological abnormalities include lower concentrations of melatonin or melatonin metabolites in ASDs compared to controls. Some evidence suggests that melatonin supplements improve sleep patterns in children with autism but robust, high-quality studies are overall lacking. ===Strabismus=== According to several studies, there is a high prevalence of strabismus in autistic individuals, with rates 3–10 times that of the general population. ===Tinnitus=== According to one study, 35% of people who are autistic would be affected by tinnitus, which is much higher than in the general population. ===Tourette syndrome=== The prevalence of Tourette syndrome among individuals who are autistic is estimated to be 6.5%, higher than the 2% to 3% prevalence for the general population. Several hypotheses for this association have been advanced, including common genetic factors and dopamine, glutamate or serotonin abnormalities. ===Tuberous sclerosis=== Tuberous sclerosis is a rare genetic disorder that causes benign tumors to grow in the brain as well as in other vital organs. It has a consistently strong association with the autism spectrum. One to four percent of autistic people also have tuberous sclerosis. Studies have reported that between 25% and 61% of individuals with tuberous sclerosis meet the diagnostic criteria for autism with an even higher proportion showing features of a broader pervasive developmental disorder. ===Vitamin deficiencies=== Vitamin deficiencies are more common in autism spectrum disorders than in the general population. * Vitamin D : Vitamin D deficiency was concerned in a German study 78% of hospitalized autistic population. 52% of the entire ASD group in the study was severely deficient, which is much higher than in the general population. Other studies also show a higher rate of vitamin D deficiencies in ASDs. * Vitamin B12 : The researchers found that, overall, B12 levels in the brain tissue of autistic children were three times lower than those of the brain tissue of children not affected by ASD. This lower-than-normal B12 profile persisted throughout life in the brain tissues of patients with autism. These deficiencies are not visible by conventional blood sampling. As for the classic deficiency of vitamin B12, it would affect up to 40% of the population, its prevalence has not yet been studied in autism spectrum disorders. Vitamin B12 deficiency is one of the most serious. * Vitamin B9 (folic acid) : Studies have been conducted regarding folic acid supplementation in autism in children. "The results showed that folic acid supplementation significantly improved certain symptoms of autism such as sociability, verbal / preverbal cognitive language, receptive language, and emotional expression and communication. In addition, this treatment improved the concentrations of folic acid, homocysteine and redox metabolism of standardized glutathione. " * Vitamin A : Vitamin A can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. According to a non-specific study on ASD: "Vitamin A and its derivatives, retinoids, are micronutrients necessary for the human diet in order to maintain several cellular functions of human development in adulthood as well as during aging (...) Although it is either an essential micronutrient, used in clinical applications, vitamin A has several toxic effects on the redox environment and mitochondrial function. A decline in the quality of life and an increase in the mortality rate among users of vitamin A supplements have been reported. Although the exact mechanism by which vitamin A causes its deleterious effects is not yet clear (...) Vitamin A and its derivatives, retinoids , disrupt mitochondrial function by a mechanism that is not fully understood." * Zinc : Zinc deficiency incidence rates in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 43.5%, 28.1% and 3.3% for boys and at 52.5%, 28.7% and 3.5% among girls. * Magnesium : Incidence rates of magnesium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 27%, 17.1% and 4.2% for boys and at 22.9%, 12.7% and 4.3% among girls. * Calcium : Incidence rates of calcium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 years and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 10.4%, 6.1% and 0.4% for boys and at 3.4%, 1.7% and 0.9% among girls. It has been found that special diets that are inappropriate for children with ASD usually result in excessive amounts of certain nutrients and persistent vitamin deficiencies. ===Other mental disorders=== Phobias and other psychopathological disorders have often been described along with ASD but this has not been assessed systematically. ==See also== * Autism and working memory * Characteristics of syndromic ASD conditions ==Notes== ==References== Category:Autism
|
Major General John Shirley Wood (January 11, 1888 – July 2, 1966) was a United States Army officer who served in World War I and World War II. He is most notable for training and commanding the 4th Armored Division, which spearheaded General George S. Patton's Third Army drive across France in 1944 during World War II. ==Early life== thumb|left|150px|At West Point in 1912 John Shirley Wood was born in Monticello, Arkansas on January 11, 1888, and was the son of Arkansas Supreme Court Justice Carroll D. Wood and Reola (Thompson) Wood.Northwest Arkansas Times, General Wood Heads Commission In Vienna, Austria, December 19, 1947George Forty, Tank Aces: From Blitzkrieg to the Gulf War, 1997, page 16 John Wood graduated from the University of Arkansas in three years, in 1907, was a member of the Kappa Alpha Order and was quarterback and captain of the football team.Kappa Alpha Order, The Kappa Alpha Journal, 1906, page 299Virginia Military Institute and the George C. Marshall Foundation, The Journal of Military History, Volume 53, 1989, page 260 In 1908, he began attendance at the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York; he graduated in 1912, and lettered in football, wrestling and boxing.Martin Blumenson, George Smith Patton, The Patton Papers: 1885-1940, 1972, page 196 Wood had taught chemistry while at the University of Arkansas, and at West Point he received his first nickname, "P" for "professor" because he used his skills as an instructor to tutor many academically deficient classmates.George Forty, 4th Armored Division in World War II, 2008, page 11George Washington Cullum, Edward Singleton Holden, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy, Volume 6, Part 2, 1920, page 1572 ==Military career== Wood was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Coast Artillery on June 12, 1912. He made an early mark in military academics, including assistant football coach and Chemistry instructor at West Point.Army-Navy Register, The Army, August 10, 1912, page 179 Wood wrote on military topics, and his articles and reviews and digests of military literature from other countries, including France, Germany, Italy and Spain appeared in professional journals throughout his career.John S. Wood, Field Artillery Journal, French Artillery Doctrine , September–October 1932, page 496John S. Wood, Field Artillery Journal, French Artillery Doctrine, January–February 1933, page 77John S. Wood, Field Artillery Journal, The Italian Artillery in Ethiopia , January–February 1937, page 27 In August 1916, after having been promoted to first lieutenant the month before, he returned to the United States Military Academy faculty and transferred to the Ordnance Corps in September. He was promoted to captain on May 15, 1917, a few weeks after the American entry into World War I, and to the temporary rank of major on December 18. ===World War I=== In March 1918, he sailed for France with the 3rd Division and participated in military operations at Chateau Thierry from May to June. He served on the staffs of the 3rd Division and 90th Division and took part in the Battle of Château-Thierry and Battle of Saint-Mihiel.Hugh Marshall Cole, The Lorraine Campaign, 1997, page 16 Wood then attended the French Staff School at Langres, from which he graduated in September. The school was created to teach planning and management skills to officers, and his classmates included George S. Patton, William Hood Simpson, and Alexander Patch. He returned to the United States in October 1918 and was assigned as Personnel Officer of the 18th Division at Camp Travis, Texas, before the war ended due to the Armistice with Germany the following month. ===Post-World War I=== In February 1919, he was transferred to the Field Artillery and became Professor of Military Science and Tactics at the University of Wisconsin.George Washington Cullum, Edward Singleton Holden, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy, at West Point, Volume 7, 1930, page 933 In 1921, he was assigned as executive officer of the 11th Field Artillery Regiment in Hawaii.Governor of Hawaii, Annual Report, 1921, page 118 He was a distinguished graduate of his class at the United States Army Command and General Staff College in June 1924. (Patton was the Honor Graduate.)Don M. Fox, Patton's Vanguard: The United States Army Fourth Armored Division, 2003, pages 15-16National Infantry Association, Infantry Journal, Volume 44, 1937, page 570 From June 1924 to May 1927, he was Executive Officer of the Motorized Artillery Brigade at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii. From May 1927 to July 1929, he commanded the 2nd Battalion, 16th Field Artillery Regiment at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.United States Army Adjutant General, U.S. Army Recruiting News, 1929 In July 1929, he began the course at France's Écoles Supérieures de Guerre, from which he graduated in August 1931.National Infantry Association, Infantry Journal, Volume 44, 1937, page 570 From August 1931 to 1932, he was Assistant to the Commandant of Cadets at West Point.United States Military Academy, Official Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N.Y., 1932, pages 17, 79, 81 From 1932 to August 1937, Wood was Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Culver Military Academy.United States Senate Military Affairs Committee, Hearing Record on Bill to Establish Compulsory Military Training, 1936, page 237 On August 1, 1937, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was commander of 3rd Battalion, 80th Field Artillery Regiment from August 1937 to September 1939.Army and Navy Journal, Inc., Army and Navy Journal, Volume 76, Issues 1-26, 1938, page 23 From September 1939 to 1940, Wood served as Chief of Staff for General Stanley D. Embick, Commanding General of Third Army.Mildred Hanson Gillie, Forging the Thunderbolt: History of the U.S. Army's Armored Forces, 1917-45, 1947, page 148 On 1 November 1940, he was promoted to colonel and assigned as Commanding Officer, 1st Infantry Division Artillery. In April 1941, he took command of the artillery of the 2nd Armored Division, but only served until June. From June to October 1941, he was Chief of Staff of the 1st Armored Corps. On November 5, 1941 (October 31), he was promoted to the temporary rank of brigadier general and took command of Combat Command "A", 5th Armored Division. ===World War II=== In May 1942, five months after the American entry into World War II, Wood took command of the 4th Armored Division (activated April 15, 1941) after Major General Henry W. Baird, and was responsible for the 4th Armored's organization and training. On June 21 he was promoted to the temporary rank of major general. ====Operations in Brittany==== Remaining in command of his division for the next two years, Wood spent that time training the 4th Armored for eventual overseas service. On July 28, 1944, Wood led the 4th Armored into combat in France after the Normandy breakout as part of Operation Cobra and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC). The Operation Overlord plan called for the U.S. Third Army, commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, to liberate Brittany, in particular the ports of Brest and Lorient and the Quiberon peninsula, enabling the implementation of Operation Chastity, the creation of a new port in Quiberon Bay to support the advance of 12th Army Group. By 3 August, Wood's 4th Armored Division had reached the base of the Quiberon peninsula. Disorganized German forces were retreating into Lorient, St. Nazaire and up the Quiberon peninsula. At this point, Wood proposed blocking the base of the Brittany peninsula and moving the majority of his forces eastward towards Chartres. Major General Troy H. Middleton, commanding VIII Corps, ordered the division to hold a line along the Vilaine River, sealing off the Rennes to Quiberon region. The 4th Armored Division stopped roughly ten miles short of the Quiberon Bay objective, despite facing minimal opposition. Believing that operations in Brittany had no strategic value, Wood told more than one colleague that his superiors were winning the war, but doing it "the wrong way."Bevin Alexander, Sun Tzu at Gettysburg: Ancient Military Wisdom in the Modern World, 2011, page 196 However, Lieutenant Colonel Harold L. Mack, of the COMZ staff, who described the failure to implement Operation Chastity as the "Critical Error of World War II". placed the blame for failing to capture Quiberon Bay on Wood stating that he "had set his heart on participating in the main drive for Paris, where he could achieve fame and glory" and accuses Wood and all his superiors in the chain of command of failing to appreciate the "supreme need of taking Quiberon Bay". ====Drive across France==== The 4th Armored led the Third Army's drive east across France, earning Wood his second nickname, "Tiger Jack" because when Patton would yell at him, Wood would pace like a caged animal and argue back.George Forty, 4th Armored Division in World War II, 2009, page 11 In August 1944, Wood ran into difficulty when command of his higher headquarters within Third Army, the XII Corps, was assigned to Manton S. Eddy. Wood thought he'd earned the opportunity to command a corps, but was bypassed by Omar Bradley, the commander of the U.S. 12th Army Group, which included Patton's Third Army. Wood was an artilleryman, and may have been passed over in favor of Eddy, who was an infantryman, as was Bradley.Don M. Fox, Patton's Vanguard: The United States Army Fourth Armored Division, 2003, page 2 It is also possible that Wood was not selected for corps command because of his outspoken manner and willingness to question his superiors.Steven Zaloga, George S. Patton: Leadership, Strategy, Conflict, 2011, page 30 ====End of active duty==== Wood did not get along with Eddy, including refusing to provide Eddy's headquarters with routine reports or copies of 4th Armored Division's operations orders. Eddy eventually complained to Patton, and Patton replaced Wood with Major General Hugh Gaffey on 3 December 1944, shortly before the Battle of the Bulge.Steven Zaloga, George S. Patton, 2011Don M. Fox, Patton's Vanguard: The United States Army Fourth Armored Division, 2003, pages 221-231 At the time of Wood's relief, he was assured by his superiors, the Third Army commander, Patton, and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander on the Western Front, that he was being relieved only because medical reports indicated that he was ill, and that after a short rest he would either return to command of the 4th Armored Division or be promoted to command of a corps.Christopher Richard Gabel, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Combat Studies Institute, The 4th Armored Division in the encirclement of Nancy, 1986, page 26Hanson W. Baldwin, Tiger Jack: Major General John S. Wood, 1979, pages 95-100 Wood received the Distinguished Service Cross, Distinguished Service Medal and the Silver Star for his service as commander of the 4th Armored Division. Wood returned to duty in the United States, and finished his military career in 1946 as the commander of the Armor Replacement Training Center (ARTC) at Fort Knox, Kentucky.Hugh Marshall Cole, The Lorraine Campaign, 1997, page 525 ==Post- military career== After retiring from the Army, Wood worked for the United Nations as Chief of Mission for the International Refugee Organization in Austria (1947-1952), and Chief of Mission for the United Nations Reconstruction Administration in Tokyo, South Korea, and Geneva (1952-1953).West Point Association of Graduates, Register of Graduates and Former Cadets of the United States Military Academy, 1975, 321 From 1957 to 1958 he was Civil Defense Director for Washoe County, Nevada.Nevada State Journal, State Civil Defense Chief Plans to Seek U.S. Funds, May 22, 1959 ==Retirement, death and burial== In retirement Wood resided in Reno, Nevada. He died there on July 2, 1966 and was buried at West Point Cemetery.Nevada State Journal, Obituary, John S. Wood, July 7, 1966 ==Personality== Wood was known for leading from the front, often flying in a light observation plane that would land him near his lead elements so he could observe and provide direction.Edgar F. Raines, Center of Military History, Eyes of Artillery: The Origins of Modern U.S. Army Aviation in World War II, 2000, page 213 He was also known for setting an example by sharing the deprivations of combat with his men, including living in a tent. Wood was also known for his eccentricities and outspokenness. As a Command and General Staff College student he displayed contempt for an instructor by reading a newspaper during a lecture.Don M. Fox, Patton's Vanguard: The United States Army Fourth Armored Division, 2003, page 2 In 1942, during training maneuvers in Tennessee, Wood argued publicly with exercise coordinator Ben Lear after Lear made disparaging remarks about the 4th Armored Division during an after action review.Hanson W. Baldwin, Tiger Jack: Major General John S. Wood, 1979, pages 119-128 During combat in France, he derided Courtney Hodges, commander of First United States Army, for living and working in specially built panel vans instead of setting an example by using a tent. ==Family== Wood was married to Marguerite Little (1890-1984).California Death Index, 1940-1997, 1984 entry for Marguerite Little Wood, retrieved March 23, 2014U.S. Social Security Death Index, 1935-Current, 1984 entry for Marguerite Little Wood, retrieved March 23, 2014 Their children included sons Lieutenant Colonel Carroll D. Wood (1913-1955) (West Point, 1937), Colonel John S. Wood (1920-2004) (West Point, 1943), and a daughter, Shirley (born 1929).West Point Association of Graduates, Memorial, Carroll D. Wood, retrieved March 23, 2014West Point Association of Graduates, Memorial, John S. Wood, Jr., retrieved March 23, 20141940 United States Federal Census, entry for family of John Shirley Wood, retrieved March 23, 2014 On May 17, 1957 Wood married Abigail Holman Harvey (1899-1983), who survived him.Nevada State Journal, Gen. John Wood Dies in Reno, July 4, 1966U.S. Social Security Death Index, 1935-Current, entry for Abigail Wood, retrieved March 23, 2014 ==Recognition== In addition to his military awards, Wood received an honorary LL.D. from the University of Arkansas in 1946.Gentry (Arkansas) Journal-Advance, 225 Students to Graduate At U. of A., May 30, 1946 His papers are part of the collections at the Syracuse University Library.Syracuse University Library, Overview of the Collection, John Shirley Wood Papers, retrieved March 22, 2014 He was the subject of a biography, 1979's Tiger Jack by Hanson W. Baldwin.Hanson Weightman Baldwin, Tiger Jack, 1979, title page ==Reputation== Wood is widely regarded as one of the best division commanders of World War II. Basil H. Liddell Hart wrote of Wood that "John S. Wood [was] one of the most dynamic commanders of Armor in World War II, and the first in the allied armies to demonstrate in Europe the essence of the art and tempo of handling a mobile force."Walter L. Hixson, The American Experience in World War II, 2003, page 77 Lieutenant General Willis D. Crittenberger said of Wood "He far exceeded in his leadership capabilities any man I have ever known." General Bruce C. Clarke, who served under Wood in the 4th Armored Division as Chief of Staff and commander of Combat Command A, said years later "The 'Gods of War' did not smile on 'P' Wood... . Under different circumstances 'P' had the brains, the knowledge, the drive, the magnetic hold on his men to have been listed on the rolls of the 'Great Captains' of history."Albin F. lrzyk, Armor magazine, The Mystery of "Tiger Jack", January–February 1990, pages 25, 32 ==Military awards== Wood's military decorations and awards include: 1st Row Distinguished Service Cross Army Distinguished Service Medal 2nd Row Silver Star Bronze Star Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster Army Commendation Air Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster 3rd Row World War I Victory Medal with three battle clasps American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with three 3/16 inch service stars 4th Row World War II Victory Medal Legion of Honour, Officer French Croix de guerre 1914–1918 with Palm French Croix de guerre 1939–1945 with Palm ==References== ==Further reading== * * ==External links== * *Longines Chronoscope Interview with John S. Wood, April 2, 1952 at You Tube * *Valor Awards for John Shirley Wood at Military Times Hall of Valor *Generals of World War II *United States Army Officers 1939–1945 Category:1888 births Category:1966 deaths Category:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps personnel Category:United States Army Field Artillery Branch personnel Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty Category:People from Monticello, Arkansas Category:People from Reno, Nevada Category:University of Arkansas alumni Category:United States Military Academy alumni Category:United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni Category:United States Army personnel of World War I Category:Military personnel from Arkansas Category:United States Army generals Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States) Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Category:Recipients of the Silver Star Category:Recipients of the Air Medal Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Category:American officials of the United Nations Category:Burials at West Point Cemetery Category:United States Army generals of World War II
|
Mafia II is a 2010 action-adventure game developed by 2K Czech and published by 2K. It was released on August 24, 2010 for PlayStation 3, Windows, and Xbox 360. The game is a standalone sequel to 2002's Mafia, and the second installment in the Mafia series. Set within the fictional city of Empire Bay from 1945 to 1951, the story follows Vito Scaletta, a young Sicilian-American mobster and war veteran, who becomes caught in a power struggle among the city's Mafia crime families while attempting to pay back his father's debts and secure a better lifestyle. The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. The player character's criminal activities may incite a response from law enforcement agencies, measured by a "wanted" system that governs the aggression of their response. Development began in 2003, soon after the release of the first Mafia game. Upon release, Mafia II received positive reviews, with praise particularly directed at its story, characters, and gameplay; however, the restrictive world design and lack of certain features present in other sandbox games were criticized. A version of the game including all previously released downloadable content, entitled Mafia II: Director's Cut, was released by Feral Interactive in December 2011. A sequel, Mafia III, developed by 2K Czech's successor Hangar 13, was published in October 2016. To coincide with the remake of the first game of the series, Mafia II: Definitive Edition, a remastered version of the game developed by D3T, was released by 2K Games on 19 May 2020, to mixed critical reception. This Definitive Edition was later bundled in the Mafia: Trilogy, released on 25 September 2020. ==Gameplay== thumb|left|Vito engaging in a gunfight with the authorities. Police awareness in the game works in a similar manner as with the previous game, although the player now has the option to bribe officers after committing an offense.Mafia II is an action-adventure game set in an open world environment and played from a third-person perspective. Most of the game is set in the fictional city of Empire Bay, based on New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Boston, and Detroit, during the mid-1940s and early 1950s.Interview: 2K Czech discusses 'Mafia II' The core gameplay revolves around shooting and driving; a limited melee combat system is also included, which combines punching and dodging. There are 50 era-accurate vehicles in the game as well as licensed music. Depending on the weather during the course of the game, vehicles handle differently. For example, during the early chapters in winter, vehicles are more likely to slip on the road due to the ice. Many firearms from the previous game return, such as the Thompson submachine gun and Colt 1911, as well as a pump-action shotgun. New World War II–era weapons, such the MG 42 and the Beretta Model 38, also appear in the game. Interacting with objects in the environment involves two action buttons: a standard action and a "violent" action, used in context-sensitive situations; for example, when stealing a car, the player may choose to either pick its lock or break the window glass. A map is included as in the original Mafia game, but the checkpoint system has been completely overhauled. New controls include a cover system that allows the player to take cover behind objects and shoot enemies, rather than just entering an arbitrary crouch pose behind them as in the first game. This feature provides tactical support against enemies and has become a crucial technique of the genre. The game's cutscenes are created by the game engine in real-time. For example, if the player is riding in a car and a cutscene starts, the player will be driving the same car with the same condition (damaged or intact) and will be wearing the same clothes. There are exceptions, however, such as the opening sequence and a cutscene in the tenth chapter, which are pre-rendered video clips. The game features three different in-game radio stations (Empire Central Radio, Empire Classic Radio and Delta Radio) with licensed music, news, and commercials. The radio stations include music from different genres including rock and roll, big band, rhythm and blues, and doo-wop, with licensed songs by Chuck Berry, The Everly Brothers, Dean Martin, Little Richard, Muddy Waters, Buddy Holly & The Crickets, Bing Crosby, Bill Haley & His Comets, The Chordettes, Ritchie Valens, Bo Diddley, Ricky Nelson, Eddie Cochran, The Champs, The Drifters, The Fleetwoods, Screamin' Jay Hawkins, Nat King Cole, The Chords, and The Andrews Sisters. ==Synopsis== === Setting === Set nearly a decade after the first game, Mafia II takes place between two distinct time periods – 1945 and 1951 – within the fictional U.S. city of Empire Bay; the game's first chapter takes place in the fictional town of San Celeste in Sicily, while the sixth is set within a prison located outside Empire Bay. The city is situated on the United States' eastern coastline and divided by a river, and consists of several districts, including wealthy suburbs, slums and tenement blocks for the city's different immigrant races, including Irish, African-American, Chinese, and Italian, and large-scale industrial complexes, with the city supported by a large port, a railroad station, a major prison outside its city limits, several parks, and a collection of shopping malls and supermarkets. The game's main story sees the city divided between a number of criminal outfits, including three mafia families — the Falcone family, Vinci family, and Clemente family — a Chinese Triad outfit, the Irish Mob, and several street gangs. The city's design, including the architectural styles, cultures, public transportation and landmarks, are influenced by various real-life American cities, including New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Boston and Detroit, from within the two respective time periods used in the game. Two of the game's DLC packs, The Betrayal of Jimmy and Jimmy's Vendetta, also take place in the early 1950s, but in a different canon from the base game, while the third, Joe's Adventures, is set during the events of the main storyline, bridging the gap between the two time periods. ===Plot=== In 1943, Sicilian immigrant Vito Scaletta is arrested during a robbery and opts to join the United States Army to avoid prison time, being enlisted in the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment. Vito first experiences the power of the Mafia when an operation in Sicily goes awry, and Don Calò arrives, ordering the Italian soldiers to stand down. In February 1945, Vito returns home on leave to Empire Bay and reunites with his childhood friend and accomplice Joe Barbaro, who has joined the Clemente crime family in his absence. Joe supplies Vito with counterfeit discharge papers and introduces him to some of his contacts for work. Learning that his late father left the family in debt to a loan shark, Vito seeks work with his father's former employer, Derek Pappalardo, who has ties with the Mafia. Later, he carries out several jobs alongside Joe and Henry Tomasino, a Clemente made man, securing enough money to pay off his father's debt. However, Vito is arrested again, this time for the theft and sale of ration stamps, and sentenced to ten years in prison. While serving the time, Vito befriends Leo Galante, the consigliere of Don Frank Vinci, but learns from his sister Francesca that their mother died and all the money Vito had obtained was spent on her funeral. In April 1951, Vito is released early due to his connections to Leo. Reuniting with Joe, the pair work their way up the ranks of the Falcone family, led by Don Carlo Falcone and his underboss Eddie Scarpa. After several jobs, Vito and Joe become made men within Falcone's organization, allowing them to secure a better lifestyle. Learning that the Clementes are conducting drug operations against the traditions of the Commission, Carlo orders the pair to assassinate Don Alberto Clemente. Following the hit, Henry approaches Eddie through Vito in search of new employment and is ordered to kill Leo to prove himself. Although Vito manages to warn Leo in time and help him leave the city, the Falcones nonetheless welcome Henry into the family. Vito quickly finds his life falling into turmoil after Francesca distances herself from him because of his mobster lifestyle, and his house is destroyed in a firebombing by the Irish Mob. To rebuild his fortunes, Vito joins Joe and Henry to profit from the sale of heroin bought from the city's Triads. However, Carlo, who is also conducting drug operations behind the Commission's back, learns about this and demands a cut of their profits. When Vito and Joe go to meet with Henry to discuss the matter, they witness the Triads publicly executing him and escaping with their money. The pair pursue them, killing a high-ranking Triad lieutenant in the process, but fail to retrieve the money. Indebted to loan shark Bruno Levine, whose money they borrowed for the heroin deal, Vito and Joe take on various jobs to raise money, including the assassination of retired mobster Tommy Angelo. When Vito visits Derek in search of work, he discovers that the latter ordered his father's death, and kills him in revenge. Meanwhile, the Vinci family kidnaps and tortures Joe. Vito manages to save him, but the pair learn that their actions have sparked a war between the Mafia and the Triads. After paying off the debt to Bruno, revealed to be the same loan shark his father was indebted to, Vito is called by Carlo to the planetarium for a meeting. On the way there, Leo picks him up and chastises him for the problems he caused, before confirming that Henry was a federal informant and that Carlo wants to kill Vito for vouching for him. However, grateful to Vito for previously saving his life, Leo has arranged for him to be spared by both the Commission and the Triads as long as he kills their common enemy: Carlo. At the planetarium, Vito discovers that Carlo offered to make Joe a caporegime if he killed him. However, Joe refuses and helps Vito kill Carlo. Outside, the pair are greeted by Leo, who takes Vito with him to celebrate, while Joe is driven off in a separate car. When Vito asks where Joe is being taken, Leo reveals that he was not part of their deal, leaving Vito to watch helplessly as his friend is taken away to whatever fate awaits him. ==Development== Preliminary work on Mafia II began in 2004; the work on the script began in 2003. Originally intended for a PlayStation 2 and Xbox release, the game was moved to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2005, following difficulties with the developer of the game engine. It was officially revealed in August 2007 at the Leipzig Games Convention. A playable version of the game was achieved in 2007 or 2008. Mafia II was expected to release in late 2009, but was delayed until its release in August 2010. 2K Czech wrote a new engine for the game which was named the “Illusion engine”. The new engine was the successor to the IS' LS3D engine which was used to make the first Mafia game. A promotional trailer was released for the game in August 2007. A second trailer was released on the Spike VGA show on 14 December 2008. An extended version of the trailer was released on 15 January with an extra 30 seconds of cut scene footage. The first gameplay footage debuted on GameSpot on 17 April 2009 as part of an interview with Mafia IIs producer, Denby Grace. The video shows driving and gunplay aspects to gameplay as well as portraying the physics engine. A third trailer was uploaded to the website on 28 May 2009. From 1 June 2009, four short videos are to be added to the Mafia II website. The first of these is called "The Art of Persuasion" and features the song "Mercy, Mr Percy" by the female singer Varetta Dillard. Another video was released featuring footage from the mission "The Buzzsaw". The video reveals the fate of "The Fat Man" who appeared in the earlier trailers. On 27 March 2010, a new trailer was released showcasing the PhysX- based cloth and physics system used in the game. On 3 August 2010, Sheridyn Fisher, the face of Playboy Swim 2010, became the official ambassador for Mafia II. Sheridyn's involvement with Mafia II highlights the agreement between 2K Games and Playboy magazine to use 50 of their vintage covers and Centerfolds in Mafia II as part of the in-game collectibles integration. A demo for the game was released on 10 August 2010 on Steam, Xbox Live Marketplace and PlayStation Network. ==Release== Mafia II was released on 24 August 2010 in North America, 26 August in Australia, and 27 August internationally. On 22 August 2015, digital sales of the PC version of Mafia II were suspended on Steam and other digital retailers for unexplained reasons. The game was restored to Steam on 1 June 2016. ===Pre-order bonuses=== On 26 May 2010 four content packs were offered as pre-order bonuses in America and European countries, each one available through different retailers. The Vegas Pack containing two additional cars and suits for Vito and the War Hero Pack containing two military-style vehicles and suits was available from GameStop and EBGames. The Renegade Pack containing two sports cars and two jackets was available from Amazon and the Greaser Pack featuring two hot-rods and two suits were available to Best Buy customers. These pre- order packs are available for purchase as game add-ons on the PlayStation Network, Xbox Live and Steam. On 26 May 2010, a collector's edition was announced for Mafia II. ===PlayStation 3 version=== The PlayStation 3 version became subject to controversy on 2K's Mafia II forums when 2K's interactive marketing manager Elizabeth Tobey stated that the PlayStation 3 version would be missing certain graphical details that were present in the Windows and Xbox 360 versions including three dimensional grass, pools of blood forming under dead bodies and realistic cloth physics. These details were said to be present in earlier builds of the game, but had to be removed to increase the game's frame rate. Upon release, the PlayStation 3 version received the same or higher review scores than the Xbox 360 version from Destructoid and Nowgamer (sites that review the game on multiple platforms rather than the normal practice of reviewing a single platform) due to additional content. ===Downloadable content=== Three downloadable content (DLC) packs were released for the game: The Betrayal of Jimmy is the first DLC pack, announced by Sony on 15 June 2010 at E3 2010. It was initially released exclusively to the PlayStation 3 as a free add-on to the base game, before being later ported to the other platforms. Set in a different canon from the base game, the story follows a gun-for-hire named Jimmy, who works for several criminal syndicates to undermine their rivals, until he is eventually set up by his employers and arrested. Missions are structured in a non-linear manner (similarly to the Grand Theft Auto series), and include a score attack feature in which players earn points for doing certain actions; both features would return in the second and third DLC packs. This DLC also contains the exclusive Waybar Hot Rod vehicle. Jimmy's Vendetta is the second DLC pack for the game. It was released on PlayStation Network, Xbox Live Marketplace, and Steam on 7 September 2010. The story picks up from the events of "The Betrayal of Jimmy", as Jimmy escapes from prison and exacts revenge on those who betrayed him. This DLC also contains the exclusive Police Bus vehicle. Joe's Adventures is the third and final DLC pack for Mafia II, released on 23 November 2010. The story bridges the gap between the two time periods in the base game's story, and features Joe Barbaro as the playable protagonist. The DLC's plot revolves around Joe's return to Empire Bay in 1950, having been forced to go into hiding for five years because of a hit put on him by the Clemente family. He slowly works his way up the ranks of the Falcone family in hopes they could help him, but soon uncovers a plot to overthrow Don Carlo Falcone, which he must thwart. The DLC combines standard missions with score-based, open world missions. It is estimated to provide eight hours of gameplay. The DLC also contains the exclusive Delizia Grandeamerica vehicle. === Alternative editions === Mafia II: Collector's Edition is a steelbook which includes 9 items: Made Man Pack (two classic luxury automobiles and two "made man" suits, including a vintage tuxedo), Art Book (photo album-style about the design process of the game), CD of the Orchestral Soundtrack (recorded by the Prague FILMHarmonic Orchestra), and a Map of Empire Bay. Mafia II: Digital Deluxe Edition is effectively the same as the physical edition, inclusive of the Made Man Pack, as well as digitalized versions of the soundtrack, art book and map.Mafia II: Digital Deluxe Edition at `mafia2game.com` Mafia II: Special Extended Edition is a compilation package published by 1C Company for the Russian market. It includes the base game, the three DLC packs (The Betrayal of Jimmy, Jimmy's Vendetta and Joe's Adventures), and four style packs (Vegas Pack, Renegade Pack, Greaser Pack, and War Hero Pack). It was released on 3 December 2010 for Windows. The same package was released on 1 December 2011 for Western markets as Mafia II: Director's Cut on Windows, OS X and their respective budget labels on consoles. In July 2015, this full edition of the game became unavailable on Steam in Western countries.Mafia II Director's Cut at `forums.steampowered.com` However, The Made Man Pack, previously only available in the Collector's Edition, is now available as DLC on Xbox Live. ===Mobile version=== A version of Mafia II was developed for mobile phones by Twistbox Games and published by Oasys Mobile; the iOS version was published Connect2Media. Instead of being a direct adaptation of Mafia II, the game bridges the gap between it and its predecessor, taking place largely in 1938. The story centers around Marco Russotto, a soldato in the Salieri crime family and the nephew of the family's gunsmith Vincenzo, who travels to Empire Bay to find and kill Tommy Angelo, the protagonist of the first Mafia game, for his betrayal of the family. The game features two possible endings, but only one is canon and leads into the events of Mafia II. ===Definitive Edition=== A remastered version of Mafia II with updated graphics titled Mafia II: Definitive Edition was released on PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on 19 May 2020. The owners of the original Steam version had their copy of the game updated to Definitive Edition at no additional cost. The Definitive Edition, which includes all of the story expansion and style packs, was developed by D3T. The Definitive Edition was later included in the Mafia: Trilogy pack, which was released on 25 September 2020 and also includes a remake of the first game, titled Mafia: Definitive Edition, and a version of Mafia III including all story expansion packs. ==Reception== ===Critical response=== Mafia II received "generally favorable reviews" for the Windows and PlayStation 3 versions, and "mixed or average reviews" for the Xbox 360 version and Definitive Edition remaster from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Greg Miller of IGN gave the game 7/10, calling it "a solid little game that'll give you a fun ride – just don't expect the world." Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot gave it 8.5 and stated: "Mafia IIs exciting action and uncompromising mob story make for an impressive and violent adventure." Matt Bertz of Game Informer gave it a 9.0/10, writing that "in an era when video games are moving away from relying on cinematics for storytelling, Mafia II draws on the rich mobster film history to weave a gripping drama about family, friendship, loyalty, betrayal, and pragmatism." The most negative review came from John Teti of Eurogamer who gave the game a 4/10 and wrote that "Mafia II gets the last word by destroying the myth that the mafia is interesting at all. It contends that the mob world is a hell of boredom populated by aggressively stupid automatons. These drones wake up each morning, carry out a series of repetitious tasks, and return home." Mafia II has the most profanity in a video game, particularly the word fuck, which is spoken 397 times, beating previous record holder, The House of the Dead: Overkill. ==Controversies== ===Removed content=== There was a significant amount of content removed from the final release of Mafia II. This removed content includes cut storylines, locations, characters, game modes, melee weapons and stores; various players have found leftover remnants for all of these features in the game's files. There was particular controversy caused when a car-destruction mission from the main game, as previewed at Gamescom 2009, was removed from the final release, and ended up re-appearing in the Joe's Adventures DLC, leading fans to wonder if content had been withheld from the game to sell separately. In November 2021, designer and lead writer Daniel Vávra showcased prototype images from Mafia II which had recently been uploaded to a colleague's online portfolio, explaining that there was going to be a full campaign in Sicily rather than just the one mission. When a fan asked Vávra on Facebook how much content was cut, Vávra replied, "A lot". ===Reactions from mob victims and civic groups=== Sonia Alfano, a member of the European Parliament and president of Italy's association for the families of Mafia victims, called for the game to be banned. Alfano's father Beppe was murdered by the Mafia in 1993.Italian Insider: New probe into 1993 slaying of Sicilian reporter Beppe Alfano Take-Two Interactive quickly responded to the issue, stating that the game's depiction of the American Mafia was no different from organized crime films such as The Godfather. They also responded to allegations of racism from Unico National, who claimed that the game portrayed Italian Americans unfairly and "indoctrinating" youth into violent stereotypes. ==Sequel== On 28 July 2015, 2K Games announced the sequel Mafia III. The game, which was released on 7 October 2016, takes place in the city of "New Bordeaux", based on New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1968, seventeen years after the events in Mafia II. The protagonist, Lincoln Clay, is a black veteran of the Vietnam War, who returns home to find that his former gang is facing problems. The developers stated that they wanted to stray away from traditional Italian mob characters from the first two Mafia games in this installment, although the game still features an Italian Mafia family that serve as the game's main antagonists. The game features several callbacks to Mafia II, including the return of Vito Scaletta, who plays a supporting role in the game. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Official website * * Mafia II at MobyGames Category:2010 video games Category:2K Czech games Category:Action-adventure games Category:Cancelled PlayStation 2 games Category:Cancelled Xbox games Category:Censored video games Category:Works about the American Mafia Category:Feral Interactive games Category:Games for Windows Category:Lua (programming language)-scripted video games Category:MacOS games Category:Mafia (series) Category:Mobile games Category:Obscenity controversies in video games Category:Open-world video games Category:Organized crime video games Category:PlayStation 3 games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games Category:Single-player video games Category:Take-Two Interactive games Category:Triad (organized crime) Category:Video game sequels Category:Video games developed in the Czech Republic Category:Video games set in 1945 Category:Video games set in Sicily Category:Video games set in the 1950s Category:Video games set in the United States Category:Video games using PhysX Category:Video games with expansion packs Category:Windows games Category:World War II video games Category:Xbox 360 games Category:Xbox One games Category:Xbox One X enhanced games Category:1C Company games Category:2K games
|
Lee Ann Meriwether (born May 27, 1935) is an American actress, former model, and the winner of the Miss America 1955 pageant. She has appeared in many films and television shows, notably as Betty Jones, the title character's secretary and daughter-in-law in the 1970s crime drama Barnaby Jones starring Buddy Ebsen. The role earned her two Golden Globe Award nominations in 1975 and 1976, and an Emmy Award nomination in 1977. She is also known for her portrayal of Catwoman, replacing Julie Newmar in the film version of Batman (1966), and for a co-starring role on the science fiction series The Time Tunnel. Meriwether had a recurring role as Ruth Martin on the daytime soap opera All My Children until the end of the series in September 2011. ==Early life== Meriwether was born in Los Angeles, California, to Claudius Gregg Meriwether and Ethel Eve Mulligan. She has one brother, Don Brett Meriwether. She grew up in San Francisco after the family moved there from Phoenix, Arizona. She attended George Washington High School, where one of her classmates was Johnny Mathis. She later attended City College of San Francisco, where one of her classmates was fellow actor Bill Bixby. After winning Miss San Francisco, Meriwether won Miss California 1954, then was crowned Miss America in 1955 with her recital of a John Millington Synge monologue. She then appeared that Sunday on What's My Line?, hosted by John Charles Daly (who also emceed the pageant that year). Following her reign as Miss America, she joined the Today show. An August 1, 1956, international news wirephoto of Meriwether and Joe DiMaggio announced their engagement. According to DiMaggio biographer Richard Ben Cramer, however, it was a rumor started by Walter Winchell. ==Career== ===1950s=== Meriwether was a "Today Girl" on NBC's The Today Show from 1955 to 1956. Her feature film debut came in 1959 as Linda Davis in 4D Man, starring Robert Lansing. She appears in The Phil Silvers Show episode, "Cyrano de Bilko". ===1960s=== In 1961, Meriwether guest starred once as Gloria in the episode "Buddy and the Amazon" on her first husband's (Frank Aletter) one-season CBS sitcom, Bringing Up Buddy. She also appeared in Leave It To Beaver episode "Community Chest" in season four. In 1962, she was cast as Martha Elweiss in the episode "My Child Is Yet a Stranger" on the CBS anthology series, The Lloyd Bridges Show. She played Nurse Dickens in a 1962 episode of the ABC sitcom, I'm Dickens, He's Fenster. From 1963 to 1965, she was cast in different roles in eight episodes of the NBC medical drama, Dr. Kildare. In 1964, she played the character Jeanelle in "This Is Going to Hurt Me More Than It Hurts You" on the CBS adventure series, Route 66. In 1965, she appeared in an episode on The Jack Benny Program as The Secretary. In a 1965 episode of 12 O'Clock High, "Mutiny at Ten Thousand Feet", she played Lieutenant Amy Patterson, and in the episodes "The Idolator" (also 1965) and "The Outsider" (1966), she played Captain Phyllis Vincent. She also guest starred in the season 2 episode "Big Brother". She was a regular on the single season science fiction television series The Time Tunnel with James Darren and Robert Colbert in 1966–67. Meriwether appeared as Dr. Egret on the NBC series, The Man from U.N.C.L.E. ("The Mad, Mad Tea Party", 1965) and in an episode of Hazel ("How to Lose 30 Pounds in 30 Minutes", also 1965) she played Miss Wilson, the owner of an exercise studio. Meriwether portrayed The Catwoman for the Batman movie (1966), and also appeared in two episodes of the Batman TV series in 1967 as Lisa Carson, a love interest to Bruce Wayne in the episodes "King Tut's Coup" and "Batman's Waterloo". In the late 1960s and early 1970s, she had guest starring roles in numerous TV series, including The Fugitive, Mannix, Star Trek episode "That Which Survives" (1969), Perry Mason episodes #245 "The Case of the Cheating Chancellor" and "The Case of the Frustrated Folksinger" (both 1965), and the F Troop episode "O'Rourke vs. O'Reilly". In films, she joined John Wayne and Rock Hudson for The Undefeated, and Andy Griffith in Angel in My Pocket (both 1969). In the same year as those two films, she played IMF spy Tracey in six Mission: Impossible episodes during season four after Barbara Bain's departure. ===1970s=== Meriwether began her award-nominated role as secretary and daughter-in-law Betty Jones in the 1973-1980 CBS series Barnaby Jones, opposite Buddy Ebsen. During the series' eight-year run she enjoyed an on- and off-screen chemistry with the elder Ebsen. During the series' run, she was reunited with her former classmate and best friend Bill Bixby during one episode. After her stint on Barnaby Jones, Meriwether became best friends with Ebsen, keeping in touch for many years until his death on July 6, 2003. She starred in the 1978 television movies True Grit: A Further Adventure with Warren Oates as Rooster Cogburn and Cruise Into Terror with an all-star ensemble cast, appeared on Circus of the Stars four times, and was a regular panelist on the game show Match Game. ===1980s=== Meriwether portrayed Lily Munster in the 1988–1991 revival of the 1960s television sitcom The Munsters, titled The Munsters Today, in which she starred alongside Jason Marsden, John Schuck, Howard Morton and Hilary Van Dyke. She also made several guest appearances on The Love Boat and Fantasy Island. ===1990s=== In the 1990s, she appeared as herself on an episode of Space Ghost Coast to Coast. In 1993, she guest starred on Murder, She Wrote, episode "Ship of Thieves". In 1996, Meriwether took over for Mary Fickett in the role of Ruth Martin on the soap opera All My Children, Fickett having played the role since its inception in 1970. After twenty-six years, Fickett wanted to go into semi-retirement as a recurring cast member. Negotiations with the network broke down and Meriwether was cast as Ruth Martin. In 1998, ABC deemed that they were at an impasse with Meriwether's agents and Mary Fickett was brought back as a recurring cast member. Fickett retired again, this time for good in December 2000. ABC decided to bring back the character of Ruth Martin in 2002, but Fickett remained in retirement. Meriwether was hence brought back and remained a featured recurring performer on the show until it ended. ===2000s=== thumb|upright|Meriwether in 2005 In 2002, she appeared in the documentary film Miss America. In 2003, Meriwether appeared in the TV-Movie Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt. She also appeared off-Broadway in the interactive comedy, Grandma Sylvia's Funeral. She voiced Big Mama in the video game Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots for the PlayStation 3. She also appears in one of the game's opening videos as a talkshow host having an interview with David Hayter, who voices Solid Snake in the game. In 2006, she joined James Garner, Abigail Breslin, Bill Cobbs and others in The Ultimate Gift. In 2008, Meriwether had a brief cameo as comic book character Battle Diva in the episode "Harper Knows" of the Disney Channel original series Wizards of Waverly Place. In 2010, she was once again reunited on screen with Hollywood veteran Bill Cobbs in No Limit Kids: Much Ado About Middle School. She voices President Winters in the video game Vanquish by PlatinumGames. ===2010s=== Meriwether continued to work on stage, television, game voice-overs, and feature films. She has made guest appearances on Desperate Housewives, Hawaii Five-0, The League, and Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23. Most recently, she revisited her role as Miss Hastings in the sequel/prequel to The Ultimate Gift, The Ultimate Life (2013), directed by Michael Landon Jr. She is also starring in the short film Kitty. She also makes appearances at Comic Cons where she speaks about her roles in Batman, Star Trek, and Time Tunnel. ==Personal life== On April 20, 1958, Meriwether married Frank Aletter. They had two daughters, actresses Kyle Aletter-Oldham and Lesley A. Aletter, and divorced in 1974. On September 21, 1986, Meriwether married Marshall Borden. ==Filmography== ===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1959 4D Man Linda Davis 1963 The Courtship of Eddie's Father Lee, Tom's Receptionist Uncredited 1966 Batman Selina Kyle / Catwoman, Kitka 1966 Namu, the Killer Whale Kate Rand 1968 The Legend of Lylah Clare Young Girl 1969 Angel in My Pocket Mary Elizabeth Whitehead 1969 The Undefeated Margaret Langdon 1973 The Brothers O'Toole Paloma Littleberry 2005 Gone Postal Fran Short film 2006 The Ultimate Gift Miss Hastings 2007 Say It in Russian Party guest 2008 Touching Home Grandma Eleanor 2008 Twisted Faith Mother Clare Short film 2010 No Limit Kids: Much Ado About Middle School Katie Direct-to- video 2011 Secret Identity Faye Florence Short film 2012 Sunset Stories Marie 2012 Silent But Deadly Vivian 2013 Remember to Breathe Alice Short film 2013 Birthday Cake Opal Hunt 2013 The Ultimate Life Miss Hastings 2013 The Curse of the Un-Kissable Kid Gypsy Short film 2014 Waiting in the Wings: The Musical Ethel 2014 Abaddon Old Ana 2014 Heaven Help Us Helen Short film 2015 A Horse for Summer Patsy 2015 Sunny in the Dark Dorothy 2015 In Memory Beth Sawyer Short film 2016 Kitty Mrs Tinsley Short film 2016 A Christmas in New York Irene Burgess 2017 Diary of a Lunatic Trew's Mother 2017 Breaking Legs GG 2017 Batman vs. Two-Face Lucilee Diamond (voice) Direct-to-video 2018 Hell's Kitty Grandma Kyle 2018 Still Waiting In The Wings Ethel 2018 Love & Debt Mrs Markson ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1954–1955 The Philco Television Playhouse Diane 3 episodes 1956 Matinee Theatre Episode: "Sincerely Yours, Charlie Fisher" 1957 The Alcoa Hour Girl in the Sketch Episode: "Protégé" 1957 Men of Annapolis The Girl Episode: "The Challenge" 1958 The Millionaire Nancy McKuehn Episode: "The Rod Matthews Story" 1958 The Phil Silvers Show Natalie Rumplemeyer Episode: "Cyrano De Bilko" 1958 Dragnet Vicki Tearson Episode: "The Big Rip" 1958 Omnibus Beautiful Witch Episode: "Mrs McThing" 1960–1962 The Clear Horizon Enid Ross 1961 Bringing Up Buddy Gloria Arnold Episode: "Buddy and the Amazon" 1961 Leave It to Beaver Young Woman Neighbor Episode: "Community Chest" 1962 The Lloyd Bridges Show Martha Elweiss Episode: "My Child Is Yet a Stranger" 1962 I'm Dickens, He's Fenster 2nd Hospital Receptionist Episode: "Nurse Dickens" 1962 Alcoa Premiere Kerry Episode: "Whatever Happened to Miss Illinois?" 1963–1965 Dr. Kildare Nurse Bonnie Tynes / Nurse Angela Springer / Nurse Harper / Nurse Adams / Nurse Betty Johnson 8 episodes 1964 Route 66 Jeanelle Episode: "This Is Going to Hurt Me More Than It Hurts You" 1964 The Young Marrieds Ann Reynolds #1 4 episodes 1964–1965 The Jack Benny Program Secretary / Mother With Baby w/ Andy Williams 2 episodes 1965 Perry Mason Evelyn Wilcox / Natalie Graham 2 episodes 1965 Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre Piper's Secretary Episode: "Double Jeopardy" 1965 The Man from U.N.C.L.E. Dr. Egret Episode: "The Mad, Mad Tea Party Affair" 1965 Hazel Miss Wilson Episode: "How to Lose 30 Pounds in 30 Minutes" 1965 F Troop Lily O'Reilly Episode: "O'Rourke vs. O'Reilly" 1965–1966 Twelve O'Clock High Capt. Phyllis Vincent / Lt. Amy Patterson 3 episodes 1965–1971 The F.B.I. Joanna Lauren / Liz / Marian Converse / Joanna Laurens 5 episodes 1966 The Fugitive Willis Hempstead Episode: "Not with a Whimper" 1966 My Three Sons Phyllis Allen Episode: "What About Harry?" 1966 Vacation Playhouse Doris Episode: "My Son, the Doctor" 1966–1967 The Time Tunnel Dr. Ann MacGregor 30 episodes 1967 Batman Lisa Carson 2 episodes 1967 Iron Horse Anne Daugherty Episode: "Dealer's Choice" 1967–1970 Family Affair Claudia Wells / Lise Lowell 2 episodes 1969 Star Trek: The Original Series Losira Episode: "That Which Survives" 1969 Land of the Giants Mother – Mrs Bara Episode: "Rescue" 1969 Mannix Reva Daniels S3-Episode 05: "A Question of Midnight" 1969–1970 Mission: Impossible Tracey / Anna Rojak 8 episodes 1970 The Name of the Game Bridget Episode: "Island of Gold and Precious Stones" 1970 My World and Welcome to It Mrs Bessinger Episode: "The Middle Years" 1970 Insight Miriam Episode: "The 7 Minute Life of James Houseworthy" 1970 Nanny and the Professor Marrijane Finley Episode: "An Element of Risk" 1970 The Immortal Sigrid Bergen Episode: "The Queen's Gambit" 1971 The New Andy Griffith Show Lee Sawyer 10 episodes 1971 Dan August Miranda Lewis Episode: "The Law" 1971 Love, American Style Segment: "Love and the Sweet Sixteen" 1972 Longstreet Miss Cooper Episode: "Through Shattering Glass" 1973 The Doris Day Show Lois Frazier Episode: "Hospital Benefit" 1973–1980 Barnaby Jones Betty Jones 178 episodes Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama (1975–1976) Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (1977) 1975 Cannon Betty Jones Episode: "The Deadly Conspiracy: Part 1" 1977 Having Babies II Martha Cooper Television film 1978 Cruise Into Terror Lil Mather Television film 1978 True Grit: A Further Adventure Annie Sumner Television film 1979 Time Express Vanessa Cartwright Episode: "The Copy- Writer/The Figure Skater" 1979 Mirror, Mirror Vanessa Wagner Television film 1979–1980 CHiPs 2 episodes 1980 Tourist Lulu Flemington Television film 1981–1984 The Love Boat Jessica Elliott / Barbara Braden / Ann Marshall 3 episodes 1983 Fantasy Island Leslie Darnell Episode: "The Butler's Affair/Roarke's Sacrifice" 1984 Finder of Lost Loves Julia Bennett Parsons Episode: "Portraits" 1985 Hotel Addie Meredith Episode: "Cry Wolf" 1985 Glitter Episode: "The Runaway" 1985 True Confessions Episode: "He's So Young" 1985–1995 Murder, She Wrote Vanessa Thorpe / Leslie Hunter / Grace Overholtz 3 episodes 1986 Mr. Belvedere Donna Flannagan Episode: "Reunion" 1987 You Are the Jury Marjorie Forrest Episode: "The State of Oregon vs. Stanley Manning" 1987 Jonathan Winters: On the Ledge Television film 1988–1991 The Munsters Today Lily Munster 73 episodes 1991 Jake and the Fatman Ellen Kurtin Episode: "Nevertheless" 1992 Dark Justice Lee Marshall Episode: "Happy Mothers Day" 1996 Duckman Widow Liebner (voice) Episode: "Pig Amok" 1996–2011 All My Children Ruth Martin 52 episodes 2000 Touched by an Angel Karla Episode: "The Face on the Bar Room Floor" 2003 Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Waitress in Diner Television film 2008 Wizards of Waverly Place Battle Diva Episode: "Harper Knows" 2012 Desperate Housewives Doris Episode: "What's to Discuss, Old Friend" 2012 Hell's Kitty Grandma Kyle Episode: "Catwoman vs. Hell's Kitty" 2012 Hawaii Five-0 Helen Tilton Episode: "Mohai" 2012 Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23 Marjorie Meyers Episode: "Sexy People..." 2012 The League Gumma Eve Episode: "Bro-Lo El Cordero" 2012–2014 Project: Phoenix Birdie Spencer 6 episodes 2015 The Ultimate Legacy Miss Hastings Television film 2017 Suspense Ellen Kirk Episode: "'Keepers of the Twilight'" 2018 Rise of the Catwoman Nana Episode: "The Night Shift" 2018 Kaplan's Korner Auditioner Episode: "He's Gone" ===Video games=== Year Title Role Notes 2008 Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots Big Mama (EVA) Also has a live-action cameo playing a host. 2010 Vanquish President Elizabeth Winters ==Awards== *1975 Golden Globe Award nomination, Best TV Actress (Drama) *1976 Golden Globe Award nomination, Best TV Actress (Drama) *1977 Emmy Award nomination, Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Drama Series ==References== ==External links== * * * * * * * * Category:1935 births Category:Living people Category:American film actresses Category:American soap opera actresses Category:American television actresses Category:American video game actresses Category:American voice actresses Category:Miss America winners Category:Actresses from Los Angeles Category:Actresses from San Francisco Category:Actresses from New York City Category:City College of San Francisco alumni Category:Miss America Preliminary Swimsuit winners Category:20th-century American actresses Category:21st-century American actresses
|
Lego BrickHeadz is a Lego theme that recreates iconic characters from themes like DC Comics, Marvel Comics, Star Wars and Disney as buildable characters. The theme was first introduced in 2016. ==Overview== The product line focuses on the buildable characters. Each set measures over 2” (7 cm) tall and contains at least 143 pieces. The legs are 4 plates high and are usually constructed from four 1x2 plates. The torso is usually constructed on a 4x4 plate, and is two bricks and one plate high. The arms are usually formed around a 2x2 plate and a 11476 Plate 1x2 W. 1 Horizontal Snap for the hand. The head is the most distinctive part but the core of it is the simplest and common to all models. Twelve 22885 Brick 1x2x1 2/3 W/4 Knobs are mounted on a 4x4 plate or equivalent. Also included Baseplate measures over 1” (4 cm) square and under 1” (1 cm) high for the buildable character to stand. The sets were designed primarily for children with an age rating of 10+ or above. In 2020, Lego Masters USA judge and Lego Design Lead Amy Corbett had recreated her latest outfits from the show as Lego BrickHeadz models. ==Development== Lego BrickHeadz is a new line of collectible figures. BrickHeadz is designed for kids who love the Lego brand but don't have time to spend two hours on a build. Each collectible figure takes approximately 10 to 15 minutes to create. Michael McNally, senior director of brand relations for Lego explained, "This sort of one-size-fits-all approach is not as appealing as it used to be,” and continued, "The onus then is really on brands to diversify their offerings so that there is something for everyone. We’ll always have free-form, open-ended building opportunities, but we’re always looking for surgical ways we can manipulate the Lego system in a way that might grab the attention of a completely different kid who needs a different solution.” BrickHeadz Designer Austin Carlson discussed about designing a BrickHeadz model and explained, "The start is a lot like a Lego Minifigure where I note the most important icons of the character and start from there. So for example, the startup for the Comic Con Joker BrickHead was intended to be more “classic” Joker so we wanted a tuxedo suit feel and a more slick back pointy hair for him. And the Joker is always known for his smile so we knew we needed that and Nic Groves added his big flower to him to capture his tricky clown nature. The same could be said with Superman's traditional curly-Q hair and how we captured that through a Unikitty tail!" During the Lego Fan Media Days, BrickHeadz Designers Austin Carlson and Marcos Bessa discussed how they came about and what the future holds for the series. Austin Carlson explained, "In the earliest stages things did change around. If you look at the original elephant, you can see there is a lack of real hands, and the base was slightly different. Then we needed them to be able to hold accessories; we needed printed eyes, decoration, things like that. So there was an evolution of the design, and as it became more defined we developed a set style guide." and continued, "Specifically, it defined the height of the body, the legs, the arms. Where we start to play around a little bit is usually with accessories and the hair, what’s iconic to the character. The one that I keep referencing is Black Widow, because of the amount of detail in the hair. But it makes a silhouette of the character that’s easily recognisable; it’s the same thing with Batman and the pointy ears. So when it comes to head accessories and items, stuff like that, we need to make sure it’s included, but at the same time we still have to meet our own style guide, much like how every minifigure is designed." Marcos Bessa explained, "The more characters we create and bring to the family, the more questions it raises [about the core design]. There are characters that make an exception to what we created as a core, and then we have to figure out how we represent this thing, this detail. So it’s always interesting to have these challenges!" Austin Carlson discussed his role as graphic designer and his input to the collectable minifigure series. Austin Carlson explained, "My involvement on Brickheadz has been completely handed over to Marcos now. I was originally hired as a graphic designer, that’s my job title, so for the first series of Brickheadz I was juggling building and doing graphic design at the same time. It was a difficult task because I had to balance them, but now all the responsibility for Brickheadz has been handed over, I can go back to focusing completely on the collectable minifigure series, and other graphic design related work." Marcos Bessa discussed the idea for a character that end up deciding just does not fit the BrickHeadz style and explained, "We’ve had a couple that turned out to be a bit more challenging in execution, that we have paused and might then revisit to see if we find new solutions. Maybe in the future a new part gets developed that suddenly triggers that solution that we haven't come up with. But there are also certain characters that just completely challenge the form, because BrickHeadz is primarily a small little square body with a huge head, and if you look at something like Blue, the raptor from Jurassic World, it challenges the whole form. That was a particularly hard one to execute. But we feel that we still managed to get a pretty recognisable and cool model that stays true to what the reference is, but also stays true to what BrickHeadz are. Marcos Bessa discussed about the two new types of glasses from the Go Brick Me (set number: 41957) and explained, "The brief for the BrickHeadz line actually came with a request to do something like this. The idea for the Go Brick Me set came very early, in early 2017, so the brand was just about to come out officially on the market. We were already planning what to do for 2018 and so the importance of customisation, allowing people to represent their features was of key importance for this. So we immediately started looking into what that would mean in terms of new elements – how to make glasses, do we need something new? I started exploring and came up with a whole lot of variations of new elements that we could make, trying to come up with something that would work and fulfil the brief for this purpose, but become a versatile enough element that it could become interesting for other uses. And I think we ended up finding something that is pretty cool for what we do in the set, but also offers a lot of other opportunities, and I'm really looking forward to seeing what comes out of it. ==Launch== The Lego BrickHeadz theme was launched at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2017. The convention-exclusive two-packs only available at the Lego booth, with characters included Captain America, Wonder Woman and The Joker based on the DC Comics and Marvel Comics. In 2019, Lego Design Manager Marcos Bessa announced the Lego BrickHeadz theme will continue into 2020 and presumably expand again as licensed characters return to the line-up. == Sub-themes == According to Bricklink, The Lego Group released 142 playsets as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. === Avatar === In 2022, The Lego Group revealed at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2022 a brand new set named Jake Sully & his Avatar (set number: 40554) will be released on 1 October 2022 and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 246 pieces and 1 baseplate. The set included 2 versions of Jake Sully in his human form with wheelchair and his Avatar form with spear. === Back to the Future === Marty McFly & Doc Brown (set number: 41611) was released on 18 April 2018 and based on the Back to the Future film. The set consists of 240 pieces and 2 baseplates. The set included Doc Brown's a detachable DeLorean time machine controller and Marty's a detachable camcorder. === DC Comics Super Heroes === In 2016, Superman & Wonder Woman (set number: 41490), Batman & The Joker (set number: 41491), Supergirl & Martian Manhunter (set number: 41496) was an exclusive sets are only available at San Diego Comic-Con. Several Lego DC Comics Super Heroes characters based on Justice League film have been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of DC Comics Super Heroes BrickHeadz was announced in January 2018, which included The Flash (set number: 41598), Wonder Woman (set number: 41599), Aquaman (set number: 41600), Cyborg (set number: 41601) and Tactical Batman & Superman (set number: 41610) as buildable characters. === Disney === In 2017, Belle (set number: 41595) and Beast (set number: 41596) were released on 1 March 2017 and based on the Beauty and the Beast film. Later, Captain Jack Sparrow (set number: 41593) and Captain Armando Salazar (set number: 41594) were released on 2 April 2017 and based on the Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales film. In 2018, Mr. Incredible & Frozone (set number: 41613) was released in April 2018 and based on Incredibles 2 film. The set consists of 160 pieces and 2 baseplates. Elsa (set number: 41617) and Anna & Olaf (set number: 41618) were released in July 2018 and based on the Frozen film. Ariel & Ursula (set number: 41623) was released in July 2018 and based on The Little Mermaid film. The set consists of 361 pieces and 2 baseplates. Jack Skellington & Sally (set number: 41630) was released in October 2018 and based on The Nightmare Before Christmas film. The set consists of 193 pieces and 2 baseplates. In 2020, Donald Duck (set number: 40377) and Goofy & Pluto (set number: 40378) were released in February 2020 and based on the Disney cartoon characters. Later, Mickey Mouse (set number: 41624) and Minnie Mouse (set number: 41625) were released in August 2020 and based on the Disney cartoon characters. In 2021, Daisy Duck (set number: 40476) and Scrooge McDuck, Huey, Dewey & Louie (set number: 40477) were released in June 2021 and based on the Disney cartoon characters. In December 2021, The Lego Group had revealed the two new sets are Buzz Lightyear (set number: 40552) and Woody & Bo Peep (set number: 40553) were released in February 2022 and based on the Toy Story film. Buzz Lightyear (set number: 40552) consists of 114 pieces with a baseplate and Woody & Bo Peep (set number: 40553) consists of 296 pieces with 2 baseplates. In January 2022, Chip & Dale (set number: 40550) was released on 1 March 2022 and based on Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers TV series. The set consists of 226 pieces with 2 baseplates. In January 2023, Disney 100th Celebration (set number: 40622) will be on 1 February 2023 and based on Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Mickey Mouse (as seen in Steamboat Willie), Snow White and Tinker Bell Disney cartoon characters. The set consists of 501 pieces with 4 baseplates. In addition, EVE & WALL•E (set number: 40619), Cruella & Maleficent (set number: 40620) and Moana & Merida (set number: 40621) were be released on 1 March 2023. === Ghostbusters === Peter Venkman & Slimer (set number: 41622) was released on 1 July 2018 and based on the original 1984 Ghostbusters film. The set consists of 228 pieces and 2 baseplates. The set included Peter Venkman's Proton pack and Slimer's hot dogs. === Go Brick Me === In 2018, Go Brick Me (set number: 41597) was released on 2 April 2018. The set consists of 708 pieces and 2 baceplates. In 2022, The Lego Group revealed at the LEGO CON 2022 a brand new set named FC Barcelona Go Brick Me (set number: 40542) will be released on 1 August 2022. The set consists of 530 pieces and 1 baseplate. Also included 3 different skin tones, 4 different hair colors and variety of hair styles. In July 2022, Manchester United Go Brick Me (set number: 40541) will be released on 1 August 2022. The set consists of 530 pieces and 1 baceplate. Also included 3 different skin tones, 4 different hair colors and variety of hair styles. === Jurassic World === Owen & Blue (set number: 41614) was released on 17 April 2018 and based on the Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom film. The set consists of 234 pieces and 2 baseplates. The set included Owen's tranquilizer gun and Blue's ferocious white teeth. === Looney Tunes === Road Runner and Wile E. Coyote (set number: 40559) was released on 1 February 2022 and based on the Looney Tunes characters. The set consists of 205 pieces and 2 baseplates. === Marvel Comics === In 2016, Iron Man & Captain America (set number: 41492), Black Panther & Doctor Strange (set number: 41493), Spider-Man & Venom (set number: 41497) was an exclusive sets only available at San Diego Comic-Con. In 2017, Captain America (set number: 41589), Iron Man (set number: 41590), Black Widow (set number: 41591) and The Hulk (set number: 41592) were released in March 2017. In 2018, Iron Man MK50 (set number: 41604), Thanos (set number: 41605), Star-Lord (set number: 41606) and Gamora (set number: 41607) were released on 2 April 2018 and based on the Avengers: Endgame film. Later, Groot & Rocket (set number: 41626) was released on 2 October 2018. === Minecraft === Steve & Creeper (set number: 41612) was released in August 2018 and based on the Minecraft video game. The set consists of 160 pieces and 2 baseplates. In March 2023, Alex (set number: 40624), Llama (set number: 40625) and Zombie (set number: 40626) were be released on 1 April 2023. === Minions: The Rise of Gru === Gru, Stuart and Otto (set number: 40420) and Belle Bottom, Kevin and Bob (set number: 40421) were released in April 2021 and based on the Minions: The Rise of Gru film. === Miscellaneous === Geoffrey (set number: 40316) was an exclusive set only available at Toys "R" Us. Lady Liberty (set number: 40367) was released on 4 July 2019. The set consists of 153 pieces and baseplate. Spice Girls Tribute (set number: 40548) was released on 1 March 2018 and based on Spice Girls are a British girl group from England. The set consists of 578 pieces and 5 baceplates. Lego Designer Daniel Squirrell discussed the process behind Spice Girls Tribute (set number: 40548) and how important it was to get the fine details just right to pay homage to the band. Lego Designer Daniel Squirrell explained, “The band members have famous outfits and iconic looks, like Geri’s Union Jack dress, Mel B’s trademark leopard print, Emma’s baby-pink dresses and pigtails, Melanie C’s tracksuits and of course Victoria’s little black dress,” and continued, “They have a meaningful history in British music and the youth of many of my peers, so it was important to reference these moments for the fans.” === Monkie Kid === Monkey King (set number: 40381) was released on 1 August 2020 and based on the Lego Monkie Kid theme. The set consists of 175 pieces and a baseplate. The set included a Golden Staff. === Pets === Several Lego Pets characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of Lego Pets BrickHeadz was announced in 2021, which included German Shepherd (set number: 40440), Shorthair Cats (set number: 40441), Goldfish (set number: 40442), Budgie, Dalmatian (set number: 40479), Ginger Tabby (set number: 40480), Cockatiel (set number: 40481) and Hamster (set number: 40482). St. Bernard (set number: 40543) and French Bulldog (set number: 40544) was released in January 2022. Koi Fish (set number: 40545) and Poodles (set number: 40546) were be released in August 2022. === Promotional === Nonnie - Inside Tour 2017 Edition, Amsterdam BrickHeadz, Beijing BrickHeadz, Cologne BrickHeadz and Hangzhou Brickheadz was released as promotion. === Seasonal === Several Lego Seasonal characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of Lego Seasonal BrickHeadz was announced in 2018, which included Valentine's Bee (set number: 40270), Easter Bunny (set number: 40271), Halloween Witch (set number: 40272), Thanksgiving Turkey (set number: 40273) and Mr. & Mrs. Claus (set number: 40274). In 2019, Lego Seasonal BrickHeadz including Birthday Clown (set number: 40348), Valentine's Puppy (set number: 40349), Easter Chick (set number: 40350), Halloween Ghost (set number: 40351), Thanksgiving Scarecrow (set number: 40352), Reindeer, Elf & Elfie (set number: 40353) and Dragon Dance Guy (set number: 40354) were released as well. In 2019, Lego Seasonal BrickHeadz including Valentine's Bear (set number: 40379), Easter Sheep (set number: 40380), Nutcracker (set number: 40425), and Lucky Cat (set number: 40436) were released as well. In 2021, Chinese New Year Pandas (set number: 40466) was released in January 2021. The set consists of 249 pieces and 3 baseplates. The set included a lantern and a buildable mandarin orange tree. La Catrina (set number: 40492) was released in August 2021. The set consists of 141 pieces and a baseplate. In 2022, Lion Dance Guy (set number: 40540) was released in January 2022. The set consists of 239 pieces and a baseplate. === Star Wars === Several Lego Star Wars characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of Lego Star Wars BrickHeadz was announced in 2017, which included Finn (set number: 41485), Captain Phasma (set number: 41486), Rey (set number: 41602), Kylo Ren (set number: 41603), Han Solo (set number: 41608), Chewbacca (set number: 41609), Darth Vader (set number: 41619), Stormtrooper (set number: 41620), Luke Skywalker & Yoda (set number: 41627), Leia Organa (set number: 41628), Boba Fett (set number: 41629), Boba Fett and Han Solo in Carbonite (set number: 41498) and Kylo Ren & Sith Trooper (set number: 75232) as buildable characters. The Mandalorian & The Child (set number: 75317) was released on 20 February 2020 and based on The Mandalorian TV series. The set consists of 295 pieces and 2 baseplates. The set included Mandalorian's a blaster rifle clipped on the back and a blaster pistol in hand and The Child's a hoverpram. Ahsoka Tano (set number: 40539) was released in January 2022 and based on Star Wars: The Clone Wars TV series. The set consists of 164 pieces and a baseplate. The set included Ahsoka Tano's two lightsabers. Ahsoka Tano (set number: 40539) has come full circle as Lego Ideas hosts a model showcase to mark the revealed of the 150th BrickHeadz. Obi-Wan Kenobi & Darth Vader (set number: 40547) was released in August 2022 and based on Obi-Wan Kenobi TV series. The set consists of 260 pieces and two baseplates. The set included Obi-Wan Kenobi's lightsaber and Darth Vader's lightsaber. Tusken Raider (set number: 40615) was released in January 2023 and based on Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope film. The set consists of 152 pieces and a baseplate. Battle of Endor Heroes (set number: 40623) will be released in May 2023 and based on Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi film. The set consists of 549 pieces and five baseplates. The set included Luke Skywalker, R2-D2, Lando Calrissian, Wicket and Princess Leia. === Stranger Things === Demogorgon & Eleven (set number: 40549) was released on 1 February 2022 and based on the Stranger Things Netflix sci-fi horror series. The set consists of 192 pieces and 2 baseplates. === The Lego Batman Movie === Several The Lego Batman Movie characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of The Lego Batman Movie BrickHeadz was announced on 1 March 2017, which included Batman (set number: 41585), Batgirl (set number: 41586), Robin (set number: 41587) and The Joker (set number: 41588) as buildable characters. === The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part === Several The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part BrickHeadz was announced in 2019, which included Emmet (set number: 41634), Wyldstyle (set number: 41635), Benny (set number: 41636) and Sweet Mayhem (set number: 41637) as buildable characters. === The Lego Ninjago Movie === Several The Lego Ninjago Movie characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of The Lego Ninjago Movie BrickHeadz was announced in September 2017, which included Lloyd (set number: 41487) and Master Wu (set number: 41488) as buildable characters. === Lego Ninjago === Several Lego Ninjago characters have also been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of 10th anniversary BrickHeadz was announced in May 2021, which included Golden Lloyd, Nya Samurai X, and Firstbourne Dragon as buildable characters. === The Lord of the Rings === Frodo & Gollum (set number: 40630), Gandalf the Grey & Balrog (set number: 40631) and Aragorn & Arwen (set number: 40632) were be released on 1 January 2023 and based on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. === The Simpsons === Homer Simpson & Krusty the Clown (set number: 41632) was released on 2 October 2018 and based on The Simpsons television series. The set consists of 215 pieces and 2 baseplates. === Universal Monsters === Frankenstein (set number: 40422) was released on 17 September 2020 and was based on the Universal Monsters character of Frankenstein's monster. The set consists of 108 pieces and baseplate. === Wedding === Wedding Bride (set number: 40383) and Wedding Groom (set number: 40384) were released in January 2020. The Wedding Bride set consists of 306 pieces and Wedding Groom set consists of 255 pieces. === Wizarding World === Several Lego Wizarding World based on Harry Potter series have been released as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. A range of Wizarding World BrickHeadz was announced in October 2018, which included Newt Scamander & Gellert Grindelwald (set number: 41631), Ron Weasley & Albus Dumbledore (set number: 41621), Hermione Granger (set number: 41616) and Harry Potter & Hedwig (set number: 41615). In 2020, Hagrid & Buckbeak (set number: 40412) was a free gift with qualifying purchases in Lego store. In 2021, Harry, Hermione, Ron & Hagrid (set number: 40495) and Voldemort, Nagini & Bellatrix (set number: 40496) was released in June 2021. In 2022, Professors of Hogwarts (set number: 40560) was released in June 2022. The set consists of 601 pieces with 4 baseplates. The set included Professors Severus Snape, Minerva McGonagall, Alastor 'Mad-Eye' Moody and Sybill Trelawney. In 2023, Harry Potter & Cho Chang (set number: 40616), Draco Malfoy & Cedric Diggory (set number: 40617) and Kingsley Shacklebolt & Nymphadora Tonks (set number: 40618) were released on 1 June 2003. ==App== An app titled Lego BrickHeadz Builder was developed by The Lego Group for Android and released on 12 July 2018. ==Reception== In 2019, Harry Potter and Hedwig (set number: 41615) was listed as one of The Top Ten best-selling Harry Potter toys in the UK for the 12 months ending May 2019. ==See also== * Lego Avatar * Lego Super Heroes * The Lego Movie (Lego theme) * The Lego Ninjago Movie (Lego theme) * Lego Ninjago * Lego Harry Potter * Lego Disney * Lego Star Wars * Lego Jurassic World (theme) * Lego Stranger Things * Lego Minions: The Rise of Gru * Lego Minecraft * Lego Monkie Kid * Lego The Lord of the Rings == References == == External links == * Official website Category:Lego themes Category:Products introduced in 2016
|
Ronald Vernie Dellums (November 24, 1935 – July 30, 2018) was an American politician who served as Mayor of Oakland from 2007 to 2011. He had previously served thirteen terms as a Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 9th congressional district, in office from 1971 to 1998, after which he worked as a lobbyist in Washington, D.C. Dellums was born into a family of labor organizers, and enlisted in the United States Marine Corps before serving on the Berkeley, California, City Council. He was the first African American elected to Congress from Northern California and the first successful openly socialist non-incumbent Congressional candidate after World War II. His politics earned him a place on President Nixon's enemies list. During his career in Congress, he fought the MX Missile project and opposed expansion of the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber program. When President Ronald Reagan vetoed Dellums's Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, a Democratic-controlled House and a Republican-controlled Senate overrode Reagan's veto, the first override of a presidential foreign-policy veto in the 20th century. ==Early years and family life== Dellums was born in Oakland, California, to Verney and Willa (Terry) Dellums. His father was a longshoreman. His uncle, C. L. Dellums, was one of the organizers and leaders of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. He had a younger sister, Theresa. His mother Willa died on August 17, 2008, at the age of 89.Christopher Heredia "Willa Dellums - mother of Oakland mayor - dies", San Francisco Gate, August 20, 2008 Dellums attended Oakland Technical High School and McClymonds High School. He served in the United States Marine Corps from 1954 to 1956. Dellums later received his A.A. degree from the Oakland City College, now Merritt College, in 1958, his B.A. from San Francisco State University in 1960, and his M.S.W. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1962. He became a psychiatric social worker and political activist in the African-American community beginning in the 1960s. He also taught at San Francisco State University and the University of California, Berkeley. Dellums was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. He was also a member of the fraternity's World Policy Council, a think tank whose purpose is to expand the fraternity's involvement in politics, and social and current policy to encompass international concerns. Dellums was married three times. He married his second wife, attorney Leola "Roscoe" Higgs, in 1961. The two divorced in 1998. He married his third wife, Cynthia Lewis, in 2000. One son, Michael, was convicted of a drug-related homicide in 1979, and remains in prison, being repeatedly denied parole due to bad behavior. Dellums had five other children: anthropologist Rachel R. Chapman, professional actor Erik, author Piper, Brandon and Pam; six grandchildren: Danielle Henderson, Jacob Holmes, Sydney Ross, Dylan Ross, Olivia Dellums, and actress Solea Pfeiffer; and two great- grandchildren: Jared Henderson and Charli Henderson. ==Berkeley City Council== Dellums was elected to the Berkeley City Council, after prompting from Maudelle Shirek, and served from 1967 to 1970. ==U.S. Congress== Dellums was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1970 after being recruited by anti-Vietnam War activists to run against the incumbent, Jeffery Cohelan, a white liberal close to organized labor who had not opposed the war early enough to win reelection in the district. Dellums defeated Cohelan in the Democratic primary and won the general election, serving without interruption for 27 years. In 1972, Dellums was reelected to Congress, 60 to 38 percent over his Republican opponent, Peter D. Hannaford, an advisor to then Governor Ronald Reagan. His politics earned him a place on the so-called Nixon's Enemies List, where his notation stated Dellums "had extensive EMK- Tunney support in his election bid." ===Foreign policy=== During his tenure in Congress, Dellums opposed every major American military intervention, except for emergency relief in Somalia in 1992. Dellums also supported the restriction of foreign aid to repressive African governments in Zaire (present-day DRC), Burundi, Liberia and Sudan. ====Anti-apartheid campaign==== thumb|Dellums in the 1970s In 1972, Dellums began his campaign to end the apartheid policies of South Africa. Fourteen years later, the U.S. House of Representatives passed Dellums's anti-apartheid legislation, calling for a trade restriction against South Africa and immediate divestment by American corporations. The bill, the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, had broad bipartisan support. It called for sanctions against South Africa and stated preconditions for lifting the sanctions, including the release of all political prisoners. President Reagan called for a policy of "constructive engagement" and vetoed the bill; however, his veto was overridden. It was the first override in the 20th century of a presidential foreign policy veto. Dellums's fight against apartheid in South Africa was the subject of a Disney Channel made-for-TV film, The Color of Friendship, released in 2000. The role of Congressman Dellums was played in the film by actor Carl Lumbly. ====Cold War conflicts in southern Africa==== As part of the Cold War struggle for influence in southern Africa, the United States joined with the apartheid government of South Africa in support of UNITA, led by Jonas Savimbi, against the ultimately victorious Angolan forces of the MPLA supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba. Dellums was criticized for his support of Fidel Castro's involvement with the MPLA in Angola and was called "the prototype of the Castroite congressman" by the conservative press. He also introduced legislation (which was unsuccessful) in September 1987 to prohibit economic and military assistance to Zaire, citing poor human rights, corruption, and collaboration with South Africa.Jeffrey M. Elliot and Mervyn M. Dymally, Voices of Zaire: Rhetoric or Reality, p. 16. ====Dellums v. Bush (1990)==== In 1990, Dellums and 44Martin Tolchin, "MIDEAST TENSIONS; 45 in House Sue to Bar Bush From Acting Alone", The New York Times, November 21, 1990. of his congressional colleagues sued then-president President George H. W. Bush in D.C. Federal District Court in 1990, in the case Dellums v. Bush, 752 F. Supp. 1141 (1990) attempting to halt a preemptive military buildup in the Middle East in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The plaintiff members of Congress asserted that military action without a declaration of war would be unlawful under U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 11 of the United States Constitution. Dellums v. Bush is notable in that it is one of only a few cases in which the Federal Courts have considered whether the War Powers Clause of the U.S. Constitution is justiciable in the courts. The Court in Dellums v. Bush indicated that, in that instance, it was, but because Congress had not yet acted as a majority, the lawsuit was premature. ====Military budgets and arms control==== Throughout his career Dellums led campaigns against an array of military projects, arguing that the funds would be better spent on peaceful purposes, especially in American cities. Programs he opposed included the Pershing II and MX missiles, and the B-2 bomber (popularly known as the "stealth bomber"). Because of his commitment to the closing of unneeded military bases, Dellums did not oppose the closing of the former Naval Air Station Alameda in his own district. The B-2 Stealth Bomber is a long-range strategic bomber, that features stealth technology that makes it far less visible to radar. The B-2 was a major technological advance; however, it was designed during the Cold War for military scenarios that some argued were less relevant following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Its total program cost was estimated in 1997 at over US$2.2 billion per airplane. Although Dellums opposed the B-2 project from the start, Congress approved initial funding for production of 135 bombers in 1987. However, with the winding down of the Cold War, total B-2 production was reduced to 21 aircraft in the early 1990s. But in 1997, seven former Secretaries of Defense signed a letter urging Congress to buy more B-2s, citing the difficulty of assembling a similar engineering team in the future should the B-2 project be terminated. Dellums, citing five independent studies consistent with his position, offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers with the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated;Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act June 23, 1997. nonetheless, Congress never approved funding for additional B-2 bombers. ====Vietnam war crimes hearings==== In January 1971, just weeks into his first term, Dellums set up an exhibit of Vietnam war crimes in an annex to his Congressional office, coordinated with the Citizens Commission of Inquiry (CCI). The exhibit featured four large posters depicting atrocities committed by American soldiers, embellished with red paint. The My Lai massacre was followed shortly thereafter by a series of hearings on war crimes in Vietnam, which began April 25, 1971. Dellums had called for formal investigations into the allegations, but Congress chose not to endorse the proceedings. As such, the hearings were ad hoc and only informational in nature. As a condition of room use, press and camera presence were not permitted; however, the proceedings were transcribed. A small number of other anti-Vietnam War congressional representatives also took part in the hearings. ===Integration of gays and lesbians in the military=== In 1993, Dellums was chairman of the House Armed Services Committee. Though he argued in favor of integration, Dellums was the sole sponsor of H.R. 2401, introduced on June 14, 1993, adding language to the Defense Authorization Act of 1994 to ensure continued support for unit cohesion in the military. Although the bill contained that language, Dellums pointed out that he personally found the language unacceptable, stating in the Congressional Record on August 4, 1993: "The bill also contains at least one policy that, while unacceptable to this Member in substantive terms, is not as retrograde as it might have been: It supports the President and the Joint Chiefs of Staff on the issue of allowing gay and lesbian service members to serve their country." Remaining in the bill was Title V Section G "[e]xpresses as congressional policy the prohibition against homosexual conduct or activity in the armed forces. Requires separation from the armed forces for such conduct or activity. Directs the Secretary to ensure that the standards for military appointments and enlistments reflect such policy." Dellums's "yes" vote on the bill with the unit cohesion support language was the first time in his 22-year congressional tenure that he voted in favor of any defense spending bill, previously opposing them on economic principles. However, Dellums gave several economic reasons in the Congressional Record for his "yes" vote, on H.R. 2401, including that "It cuts ballistic missile defense to $3 billion—less than one-half the level planned by the Bush administration ..." and: "it devotes a record $11.2 billion to environmental cleanup and improvement, and does so in a way that will stimulate the development of new technologies and new markets for American firms". ===U.S. House Committee positions=== Dellums served as chairman of the House Committee on the District of Columbia and the House Armed Services Committee. Dellums also served on the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Post Office and Civil Service Committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and the Select Committee to Investigate the Intelligence Community. Dellums co-founded the Congressional Black Caucus in 1971 and co-founded the Congressional Progressive Caucus in 1991. ===Dellums's last Congressional election=== Dellums was reelected 11 times from this Oakland-based district, which changed numbers twice during his tenure–from the 7th (1971–75) to the 8th (1975–93) to the 9th (1993–98). He only dropped below 57 percent of the vote twice, in 1980 and 1982. In his last House election race, in 1996, Dellums bested his opponent, Republican Deborah Wright, by a 77%–18% margin. In 1997, Dellums announced that he was retiring from Congress in the middle of his term, and his resignation forced a special election for the balance of his term–– which created a series of five special elections in 12 months as various East Bay politicians ran for different political offices. Dellums's successor, Barbara Lee, won the 2000 election by an even larger, 85%–9% margin. ===Congressional tribute=== Upon his resignation, several members of Congress, including Nancy Pelosi, Jane Harman, William Coyne, Nick Rahall, Ike Skelton, Juanita Millender-McDonald, and Tom DeLay gave speeches on the floor of the House in honor of Dellums. Millender- McDonald described Dellums as a "distinguished, principled [and] educated man." Her tribute went on: > Congressman Ron Dellums is revered on both sides of this aisle because of > his integrity and his commitment to progressive ideas. He was always on the > cutting edge of the issues. California will miss him in the ninth district, > but the State has been enriched by Ron Dellums. While he towers above most > of us physically, this attribute is matched by his intellect, faith in the > process and optimism for peaceful resolution of conflict. Congressman Danny Davis of Illinois described Dellums: > A creative, piercing, probing, incisive, thought-provoking, inspiring, > charismatic, careful, considerate and deliberative mind. The mind to stand > up when others sit down. The mind to act when others refuse to act. The mind > to stand even when you stand alone, battered, bruised and scorned, but still > standing. Standing on principle, standing tall and standing for the people. House Majority Leader Tom DeLay described Dellums as "...one of the most giving, open and stalwart, a real stalwart man when he was Chairman" > We are losing one of its finest Members, a Member that I have great respect > for, because he always did his homework, was so articulate and eloquent on > this floor. He always got my attention when he stood up and took the > microphone. He would stop every Member in their tracks to hear what he had > to say, and there are very few Members that have served in this body that > can claim the respect that both sides of the aisle had for the gentleman > from California. And the incredible reputation that the gentleman from > California has brought to this House; he has elevated this House. He has > elevated the distinction of this House by serving here, and this House will > greatly miss him when he leaves. ===Voting record=== thumb|Dellums in 1996 Dellums's voting records in Congress were "almost without exception straight As" from groups such as the Sierra Club, the National Organization for Women and the AFL–CIO. He received 100% on consumer group Public Citizen's scorecard. In contrast, he received an "F" from NumbersUSA, a group dedicated to limiting immigration. ===Dismissal of drug use allegations=== An eight-month investigation cleared Dellums of allegations that he had used cocaine and marijuana, finding there was no basis for the allegations. The investigation of Dellums and two other congressmen, Texas Democrat Charlie Wilson and California Republican Barry Goldwater Jr., began in 1983, based on a complaint from a House doorkeeper, who pleaded guilty to drug charges on Capitol Hill himself in March 1983. ==Presidential nominations== In 1976, Dellums was nominated for president by the National Black Political Assembly but refused, stating "It is not my moment; it's not my time."Henry, Charles P. "Major Problems for Minor Parties." The Crisis 97.1 (Jan 1990): 25-26, 39.Lusane, Clarence. African-Americans at the Crossroads: The Restructuring of Black Leadership and the 1992 Elections. Boston: South End Press, 1994. 47. That year, he received 20 delegate votes at the Democratic National Convention for the Vice-Presidency.Walton, Hanes, Jr. & Lester Spence. "African-American Presidential Convention and Nomination Politics: Alan Keyes in the 1996 Republican Presidential Primaries and Conventions." In Race and Ethnicity in Comparative Perspective. Edited by Georgia A. Persons. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999. 205. Four years later, he was again nominated as the presidential candidate, this time for the Independent Freedom Party, but refused the nomination because the IFP had not yet created an effective political structure.Glasrud, Bruce A. & Cary D. Wintz, eds. African Americans and the Presidency: The Road to the White House. New York: Routledge, 2010. 27. In that year's Democratic National Convention, Dellums received three delegate votes for the Presidential nomination. ==Lobbyist== Dellums worked as a legislative lobbyist, which drew criticism described in the East Bay Express, a local newspaper. Shortly after leaving office, Dellums began consulting for an international health-care company, Healthcare Management International which invests in health insurance programs in developing countries. Dellums worked in Washington, D.C., as a lobbyist for clients such as the East Bay Peralta Community College District and AC Transit, the public transit district charged with offering mass transit throughout the East Bay. Dellums's firm lobbied for Rolls-Royce, a company that manufactures aircraft engines. He also worked on behalf of the San Francisco International Airport during its attempts to build additional runway capacity, which has been vigorously opposed by environmental groups. His company was engaged in community relations work for the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory which conducts scientific research on behalf of the Department of Energy, and has long had a contentious relationship with its residential neighbors and the Berkeley city council. In addition he lobbied for Bristol-Myers Squibb, a multinational pharmaceutical corporation. In 2017, Bill Browder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that representatives of Vladimir Putin had hired "Howard Schweitzer of Cozen O'Connor Public Strategies and former Congressman Ronald Dellums to lobby members of Congress on Capitol Hill to repeal the Magnitsky Act and to remove Sergei's name from the Global Magnitsky bill." The bill is named for the Russian lawyer who was murdered in prison for pursuing the corruption of Putin's allies. Browder also worked with the Human Rights Accountability Global Initiative to oppose sanctions on Russia. Dellums lobbied for the Haitian government in 2001–2002 and worked to support Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the first democratically elected, former President of Haiti who was deposed in a 2004 coup.Democracy Now! | Haiti's Lawyer: U.S. Is Arming Anti-Aristide Paramilitaries When running for mayor of Oakland, Dellums listed his most recent profession as "retired Congressman" in election filing forms. When assistant City Clerk Marjo Keller informed the Dellums campaign that this description was unacceptable, the campaign elected to leave the occupation field blank. A former East Bay Express columnist once wrote a column titled "Dellums for Dollars" criticizing Dellums's lobbying. Speaking in defense of Dellums, Alameda County Supervisor Keith Carson said that, if asked, Dellums would likely say "just because I'm advocating for a company that may be paying me consulting fees, I'm not selling out my beliefs." ==Mayor of Oakland== thumb|Dellums as Mayor, 2009 ===2006 Oakland mayoral election=== After Oakland Council President Ignacio De La Fuente and District 3 City Council member Nancy Nadel declared their mayoral candidacies, Dellums was recruited to run for mayor of Oakland. An informal committee, "Draft Dellums", collected 8,000 signatures and presented them to the former Congressman at a public meeting at Laney College. Crowds of Oaklanders chanted "Run, Ron, Run".Heather MacDonald, "Ex-rep. thrills backers by entering Oakland mayoral race" Oakland Tribune, October 8, 2005. In October 2005, reportedly after weeks of deliberation and speculation, Dellums announced that he would run for mayor of Oakland. The incumbent mayor, former California Governor Jerry Brown, was prohibited by term limits from running again. On June 16, 2006, after a careful ballot count, and a dispute over whether votes for unqualified write-in candidates such as George W. Bush and Homer Simpson counted towards the total, Dellums was unofficially declared the winner in the Oakland mayoral race. Dellums garnered a 50.18 percent majority to win the election. This was 155 votes more than needed to avoid a runoff. Dellums received 41,992 votes, while his nearest challengers received 27,607 votes, and 10,928 votes respectively. ===Transition and citizen task forces=== Mayor-Elect Dellums's transition to office involved 800 Oaklanders who joined 41 task forces to make recommendations on issues ranging from public safety to education and affordable housing. Many of these recommendations helped to shape the policy agenda of the Dellums administration. The task forces recommended a land use policy which would emphasize zoning for job-creating business. This policy was adopted in 2007, and the city is being zoned. The task forces recommended a stronger policy on the hiring of local residents, and the City Council appointed a group to pursue this change. The task forces recommended a focus on the green economy, and the Mayor, along with a variety of community organizations created the Green Jobs Corps, an office of sustainability and the East Bay Green Corridor. Mayor Dellums reported that approximately two- thirds of the recommendations had been implemented as of the end of 2009. The Task Forces and the Inauguration itself, which included hundreds of the city's least affluent residents, were considered examples of grassroots democracy.Mayfield, Kimberly (January 4, 2007), "Grassroots Democracy Sprouts in Oakland", San Francisco Chronicle. ===Public safety initiatives=== Crime rates were high when Dellums took office in January 2007 and at his first State of the City Address in January 2008, Dellums called for hiring more police officers. Dellums promised that by year's end, the police department would be fully staffed at 803 officers. On November 14, 2008, 38 Oakland police officers were added to the force after graduating the 165th academy, bringing the department's force to 837 officers, the most in OPD history. In addition, to follow through on his calls for hiring more officers, Dellums offered Measure NN on the November 2008 ballot, a voter initiative parcel tax to hire 70 additional police officers at a hiring and training cost of $250,000 each. Though 55 percent of Oakland voters supported Measure NN, this failed to meet California's "two thirds" constitutional requirement for the enactment of a new tax. Dellums's administration negotiated the passage of a new police contract which was especially noteworthy, as it broke the Oakland Police Officers Association's opposition to the civilianization of certain OPD positions which were previously staffed by "sworn," uniformed police officers, with concomitant payrolls and police academy training costs. OPD then hired "non-sworn" personnel to work some of its desk jobs and administrative jobs, freeing up academy uniformed officers for street patrol and investigative work. On March 21, 2009, during the 2009 Oakland police shootings incident, the Oakland Police Department lost three sergeants and one officer. One of the officers left instructions in his emergency packet that if he were killed in the line of duty that Dellums not be permitted to speak at his funeral. Two of the officers' families requested the same, and when Dellums attended the March 28 public memorial service at the Oracle Arena he honored the requests.Thousands Attend Funeral For 4 Oakland Officers AP, March 28, 2009. In his State of the City address in 2008 Dellums promised to reduce the crime rate by 10% during 2009; the crime rate actually went down by 13%.V. Smoothe, "A Better Oakland", Oakland Crime Stats, November 2009. In 2009 Dellums hired the highly regarded Anthony Batts, formerly the Long Beach police chief. Batts had a record of reducing both crime and police shootings in that Southern California city. ===Education initiatives=== Noting that reducing teacher turn-over and improving the engagement of teachers with the families of their students would require increasing the number of teachers who came from the local community, Dellums initiated a program to create more teachers who were diverse local residents. He held teacher recruitment summits in City Hall, helped the Teach Tomorrow in Oakland program to obtain $2.7 million in federal funding, and spoke to the U.S. Conference of Mayors about the national potential of such programs. The Community Task Forces remained active in these efforts. In 2009 Dellums launched an anti-drop-out initiative which included sponsoring back to school rallies at City Hall and participating with the school district in truancy reduction efforts. He accepted an invitation from the national organization, America's Promise, to join their efforts at drop- out prevention. As part of this effort, he started Oakland's Promise, recruited several dozen community-based organizations to participate, held a Summit with 350 participants, and adopted an Action Plan to cut Oakland's drop-out rate in half. ===Promoting Oakland=== As mayor, Dellums proposed the idea of Oakland as a "Model City". He argued that Oakland is "big enough to be significant and small enough to get your arms around", and that the federal government needs a city like Oakland on which to try out new urban policy inventions. From 2008, Dellums campaigned to bring millions in American Recovery and Reinvestment Act federal stimulus funding to Oakland, using both his extensive Washington D.C. contacts and the idea of the Model City. By the end of 2009, his efforts had yielded US$65 million in stimulus funding for Oakland, including the largest police grant of any city in the country, and the second largest amount in competitive funding after Chicago. ===Criticism and recall efforts=== After his election as mayor of Oakland, Dellums came under criticism for a wide range of issues, including a lack of transparency in government, ineffectual governance, and alleged extended absence from his duties at City Hall. He was criticized for refusing to disavow a staff- generated letter sent in his name in July 2007 to a Federal Bankruptcy Court in support of Your Black Muslim Bakery, whose owners were suspects in the 2007 murder of reporter Chauncey Bailey.East Bay Express | News | Dellums' Scarlet Letter In 2009, Dellums and his wife were cited with failure to pay over $239,000 in federal income taxes. In 2007, Oakland reporter Elise Ackerman launched an unsuccessful campaign to recall Dellums and released an open letter addressed to Dellums. When addressing a town hall-style meeting in 2007, Dellums declared: "I'm giving it everything that I have. If that's not enough, that's cool. Recall me and let me get on with my private life." Dellums later announced he would not seek a second term as mayor of Oakland in the 2010 election. He was succeeded by Jean Quan. ==Death== Dellums died of complications from prostate cancer on July 30, 2018, at age 82. He was interred with military honors in section 82, at Arlington National Cemetery. ==Partisan affiliations== Although he ran as a Democrat and caucused as a Democrat in Congress, Dellums described himself as a socialist. He was the first self-described socialist in Congress since Victor L. Berger. In the 1970s, Dellums was a member of the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC), an offshoot of the Socialist Party of America. He later became vice- chair of the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA), which was formed by a merger between the DSOC and the New American Movement, and which works within and outside the Democratic Party. While running for mayor of Oakland, Dellums was officially registered as a member of the Democratic Party.California election results online On October 1, 2007, Dellums endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2008 Democratic presidential primary at a press conference held at Laney College in Oakland. He was named national chair of Clinton's Urban Policy Committee.HillaryClinton.com - Media Release Dellums was a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. ==Autobiography== In 2000, Dellums published an autobiography, cowritten with H. Lee Halterman, entitled Lying Down with the Lions: A Public Life from the Streets of Oakland to the Halls of Power.Lying Down with the Lions, Ronald V. Dellums and H. Lee Halterman. Boston: Beacon Press, 2000. ==See also== *List of African-American United States representatives *List of Democratic Socialists of America who have held office in the United States *The Color of Friendship ==References== ==External links== *Profile at Citymayors.com * *Dellums victory signifies a sea change in Oakland politics San Francisco Chronicle, June 19, 2006. *Ron Dellums's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project. * |- |- |- |- |- |- |- Category:1935 births Category:2018 deaths Category:20th- century American politicians Category:21st-century American politicians Category:African-American history in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:African-American members of the United States House of Representatives Category:African-American United States Navy personnel Category:African-American city council members in California Category:American social democrats Category:American lobbyists Category:California socialists Category:Deaths from cancer in Washington, D.C. Category:Deaths from prostate cancer Category:History of Berkeley, California Category:Mayors of Oakland, California Category:Members of the Democratic Socialists of America from California Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California Category:Military personnel from California Category:Nixon's Enemies List Category:Non-interventionism Category:Left-wing populism in the United States Category:Politicians from Berkeley, California Category:Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo Category:San Francisco State University alumni Category:United States Marines Category:Candidates in the 1980 United States presidential election Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni Category:Writers from Oakland, California Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Category:Dellums family Category:Members of Congress who became lobbyists Category:Oakland Technical High School alumni Category:McClymonds High School alumni
|
Lumbini Province () is a province in western Nepal. The third largest province by area and the third largest by population, Lumbini province is home to the World Heritage Site of Lumbini, where according to the Buddhist tradition, the founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha was born. Lumbini borders Gandaki Province and Karnali Province to the north, Sudurpashchim Province to the west, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar of India to the south. Lumbini's capital, Deukhuri, is near the geographic center of the province; it is a small town which is currently being developed to meet the prerequisite of provincial capital. The major cities in this province are Butwal and Siddharthanagar in Rupandehi District, Nepalgunj in Banke District, Tansen in Palpa District, and Ghorahi and Tulsipur in Dang District. == Etymology == Lumbini Province is named after the holy pilgrimage site of Lumbini in the Rupandehi District, birthplace of Gautama Buddha – the founder of Buddhism. The Provincial Assembly adopted Lumbini Province as the permanent name by replacing its initial name Province No. 5 on 6 October 2020 and Deukhuri was declared the state capital of the province. == History == === Pre-history === The Churiya range linked with the Dang valley of Lumbini province has been archaeologically considered very ancient with the existence of Sivapithecus, a link between man and ape. The pre-historic studies of the valley have been carried out extensively since the last century; by Tribhuvan University since 1966, American Museum of Natural History and the Department of Mines of then His Majesty's Government of Nepal from 1976, as well as the paleolithic study of Dang valley by University of Erlangen-Nuremberg of Germany in 1984, among others. These researches have pointed out that Dang valley was a lake approximately 2.5 to 1 million years ago. In addition, Hand axes and other artefacts dated to early Paleolithic (1.8 million to 100,000 years ago) have been found in alluvial deposits along the Babai River in Dang Valley, which have been classified as Acheulean or second-generation tools that succeed the oldest Olduwan. Also along the Babai River, there have been discoveries of archeological sites dated to Upper Paleolithic/Late Pleistocene (about 50,000 to 10,000 years ago). === Shakya- era === As per the Buddhist tradition, Queen Maya Devi of Kapilavastu was traveling to her father's Koliya kingdom in Devdaha to give birth to her child as was the Shakya tradition. However, on the way she stopped near the garden of Lumbini to rest and went into labour thus giving birth to the future Buddha under a sal tree. Gautama Buddha was born in 623 BC in Lumbini, testified by the inscription on the pillar erected by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 249 BC which marks the spot as the birthplace of Buddha Shakyamuni. The inscription mentions, as translated by Paranavitana: According to the Buddhist texts, Gautama Buddha was born as a prince in a royal Shakya clan reigning over the kingdom of Kapilavastu. This ancient city has been widely identified as Tilaurakot of present Kapilvastu district where ruins of the ancient fortified city have been found. Gautama was a prince of Kapilavastu until the age of 29, after which he left the palace behind and wandered throughout the Ganges plain as an ascetic – learning yoga and related concepts from various teachers. Gautama became the Buddha or the Enlightened One after several years of his wandering, one day under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. After enlightenment, he began his teachings and travelled extensively throughout the Ganges plain. The original teachings of Buddha later culminated into Buddhism, spreading through much of Asia then and the world at present. After the death of Gautama Buddha, eight princes out of sixteen mahājanapadās received Buddha's relics, one of them a Koliyan king of Rāmagrāma (present Parasi district) who built a stupa enshrining the relic. Buddhist texts point out the princes constructed a stupa at or near their capital city and enshrined Buddha's relics. The site has the only undisturbed original stupa containing the relic of Gautama Buddha in the world, and was added to the World Heritage Tentative List by UNESCO on 23 May 1996. === Reign of Ashoka the Great === Emperor Ashoka The Great, having converted to Buddhism after being victorious in brutal wars, devoted himself to the spread of Buddha's teachings and erected monolithic columns known as Pillars of Ashoka at sites associated with the life of Gautama Buddha. One such pillar was erected by Ashoka in Lumbini in 249 BC, commemorating the sacred site of Gautama Buddha's birth and declared the village free of taxation. In dedication to the two Buddhas of the past, Ashoka also set up a stone pillar and enlarged the stupa marking the birthplace of Buddha Kanakamuni at Nigali Sagar in Kapilvastu District. Another pillar, also in Kapilvastu District, was erected commemorating Kakusandha Buddha. === Medieval Period === During the medieval period after the 11th century, Khasa Kingdom dominated much of western Nepal and western Tibet which was initially oriented towards Buddhism and Shamanism, and at their peak encompassed Guge and Purang of Tibet and western Nepal up to Kaskikot. King Ripumalla, one of the initial Khasa rulers, left an inscription on the Ashoka pillar with six-syllable mantra of Buddhism and his wish "Om mani padme hum: May Prince Ripu Malla be long victorious", dated around 1312 CE. After the late 13th century, Khasa kingdom disintegrated into numerous principalities each with its own ruler. In the 18th century, King Prithvi Narayan Shah, born from the marriage of king Nara Bhupal Shah of the Gorkha Kingdom and Queen Kaushalyavati Devi, the princess of the Palpa kingdom; set out on a conquest to unify the region into modern Nepal. === Modern history === ====Anglo-Nepalese War==== The Anglo- Nepalese War (1814–1816) took place between the Gorkhali army of the Kingdom of Nepal and the British forces of the East India Company for two years leading to the Sugauli Treaty in 1816 which demarcated the boundary of the Kingdom of Nepal. Among the prominent battles during the Anglo-Nepalese War, the Battle of Jitgadhi - fought on January 1815 and again on the April of 1815 - was marked by the victory of the Gorkhali army. The Nepalese Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa, who led the kingdom of Nepal to victory in this battle, is revered as one of the national heroes in the military history of Nepal. Battle of Jit Gadhi After the Kingdom of Nepal outright refused the proposal of British East India Company which wanted to claim its sovereignty in the territories of Butwal and Sheoraj, General John Sullivan Wood of the East India Company led an offensive column to the fort of Jit Gadhi on January 1815 AD. The frontier fort, which was surrounded by dense forest and situated on the west bank of the river Tinau on a primary route to Tansen, was being held by Nepalese Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa - the nephew of Nepalese Prime Minister Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa. Although low in number and acutely inferior in firepower, the strong resistance put forward by Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa thwarted the incursion of the British forces into Nepal twice on January, 1815 and April, 1815. The battle established Colonel Thapa as a national military hero and forced the English troops to withdraw. ====Historical Districts==== During the Rana regime, the region was politically divided into administrative districts Butwal, Palpa, Deukhuri, Sallyana, Banke, Bardiya and Pyuthan. == Geography == Lumbini, with an area of 22,288 square kilometers (8,605.44 sq. mi) covers about 15.1% of the country's total area. Lumbini Province is almost the size of US state of New Jersey. The province extends 150 km (93 mi) north to south and about 300 km (186 mi) east to west at its maximum width. It shares 413.14 km (256 mi) of border with India (states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh). The Province is geographically bordered with Gandaki Province to the east and north, by Karnali province to the north and west, by Sudurpaschim Province to the west and by India to the south. There are three ecological regions of Mountains, Hills and Terai; each occupying 3.1%, 69.3% and 27.6% of the province respectively. Ecological regions of Lumbini Province Ecological regions Percentage of territory Mountains 3.1% Hills 69.3% Terai (plain) 27.6% === Climate === Lumbini has a humid subtropical climate and experiences four seasons. The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May and the monsoon season between June and September. In winter, it's sunny and mild, pleasantly warm during the day but cool at night, sometimes even cold. The average temperature in January is around 15 °C (59 °F). But the northern parts of the province get colder and can experience snowfall. By March, the temperature rises considerably and it begins to be hot, while from April to June it's scorching hot, and highs can reach or exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in southern plains. In June, the summer monsoon arrives, characterized by heavy rains, in the form of downpours and thunderstorms. The monsoon arrives first in the east, in early June, while in the west it comes in the middle of the month or so. The temperature decreases, with the maximum dropping to around 32 °C (90 °F) in July and August, but the humidity increases, making the heat muggy. The rains are heavy, especially in July and August, when they exceed 300 millimeters (12 inches) per month, but in certain areas at the foot of the mountains, they can exceed 600 mm (23.5 in) per month. The monsoon starts to withdraw by early October in the west, and about a week later in the east. The weather returns to be sunny, and even though October is still a hot month, the humidity decreases, and the night temperature becomes a bit cooler. Average temperatures and precipitation for selected communities in Lumbini Location August (°F) August (°C) January (°F) January (°C) Annual Precipitation (mm/in) Butwal 79 26.1 55.6 13.1 1827.2/71.9 Gulariya 84.4 29.1 59.4 15.2 1503.7/59.2 Nepalgunj 84.4 29.1 59.5 15.3 1302.1/51.3 Siddharthanagar 79.7 29 55.4 15.9 1762.7/69.4 Sitganga 75.6 24.2 51.8 11 1633.2/64.3 Tansen 76.8 24.9 53.4 11.9 1949.3/76.7 Tulsipur 79.7 26.5 55.4 13 1495.4/58.9 === Valleys === ==== Dang-Deukhuri ==== Dang and Deukhuri valleys, 10 km apart, are located in the Dang Deukhuri District. The Dang Valley lies between the Mahabharat Range in the north and the Churia Range in the south. It forms a nearly 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) plain within a local drainage basin of less than 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi). It is drained by the Babai River, and is one of the largest Inner Terai valleys. Deukhuri Valley is southeast of the Dang Valley and extends about 60 km (37 mi) in WNW-ESE direction with a maximum width of 20 km (12 mi), and is surrounded by Sivalik Hills on all sides. It forms a nearly 600 km2 (230 sq mi) plain within a drainage basin of 6,100 km2 (2,400 sq mi). The valley is drained by the West Rapti River. The elevations of Dang and Deukhuri valleys are 700 meters and 300 meters from sea level respectively. Late Cenozoic sedimentary sequences are well exposed along the southern part of Dang and all sides of Deukhuri valley, and mostly consist of deformed rocks resulting from the persistence of shortening between Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The two valleys have been considered a vital location of Paleolithic archeology in South Asia due to the abundant presence of ancient Paleolithic tool sites. Other small valleys of the province are located in districts like Arghakhanchi (Rapti), Palpa (Rampur), Gulmi (Simaltari), Pyuthan (Darban and Bajipur). === Forests === About 15% of the total land is covered in protected forest in the province. Forest area by districts in the province. Districts Forest (%) Area (ha.th.) Arghakhanchi 59.69 73.96 Banke 62.70 117.91 Bardiya 56.82 113.69 Dang 65.60 200.72 Gulmi 41.83 46.34 Kapilvastu 36.92 60.97 Parasi 81.30 22 Palpa 56.62 82.77 Pyuthan 48.95 64.67 Rolpa 52.82 99.60 Rukum 39.39 66.25 Rupandehi 19.54 25.51 Total 50.43 974.38 ===Mountains=== Being the only mountain district of Lumbini province, most of the prominent peaks of the province lie in Eastern Rukum District along the Dhaulagiri range. The tallest mountain of Lumbini Province in Eastern Rukum, Putha Himchuli also known as Mount Dhaulagiri VII, has an altitude of 7,246 meters and is one of the popular trekking peak of the Dhaulagiri region. The mountain was first ascended jointly by British explorer J.O.M Roberts and Nepalese climber Ang Nyima Sherpa in 1954. Mount Sisne I remained an unclimbed summit until 2013, and the first successful ascent was made by a mountaineering team led by Man Bahadur Khatri. List of highest peaks of Lumbini S/N Mountains Elevation (meters) District Range Additional Information 1 Mount Putha I 7,246 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 95th highest in the world. Date of first ascent: 1954 AD 2 Mount Putha II (Putha shoulder) 6,598 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 3 Mount Dogari (South) 6,315 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 4 Mount Samjang 5,924 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 5 Hiunchuli Patan 5,916 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 6 Mount Nimku 5,864 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 7 Mount Sisne II 5,854 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range 8 Mount Sisne I 5,849 Eastern Rukum District Dhaulagiri Range Date of first ascent: 26 May 2021 AD === Protected areas === Three regions of the province have been designated as protected; two national parks in the Terai lowlands of Banke and Bardiya - namely Banke National Park and Bardiya National Park which constitute the Tiger Conservation Unit of Nepal and a hunting reserve in the north of the province called Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in Eastern Rukum which is the only hunting reserve in the country. === Lakes and Rivers === With a multi-altitudinal variation in regional landscape stretching from high mountains in the north, to the hills in the middle and to the plains of the south; Lumbini province has 97 lakes with the plains of Terai constituting 92 % of all the lakes of the province. The hilly and the mountain region constitute 6 % and 2 % of all the lakes respectively. District-wise, Rupandehi has 28 lakes making it the district with the largest number of lakes of the province; followed by Kapilvastu (24), Parasi (21), Dang (8), Banke (4), Bardiya (3), Arghakhanchi (2), Palpa (2),Pyuthan (2), Eastern Rukum (2) and Rolpa (2). Some of the most popular lakes of the province are Bahrakune, Jakhera, Gajedi and Taalpokhara. One of the five sacred rivers of Buddhism, the ancient Airavati river now known as the West Rapti River, has its drainage source in the lesser Himalayas of Eastern Rukum in the north of the province. The river flows traversing the districts of Eastern Rukum, Rolpa, Arghakhanchi, Pyuthan, Dang, and Banke. The river then flows to the Sravasti district of Indian State of Uttar Pradesh - one of the ancient and most sacred city of Buddhism where Gautama Buddha spent most of his life after enlightenment. The Rohini River, one of the prominent river flowing through Kapilvastu and Rupandehi, is a left tributary of the West Rapti River. Gandaki River, on the north-east, marks the boundary of Lumbini province with Gandaki Province. Another river called Babai River draining the inner Terai of Dang Valley, Salyan and Bardiya remains a river of particular international archeological interest. The discovery of ancient Hand axes and other artifacts on the deposits along the river in Dang Valley have marked the region as prehistoric. The artifacts have been dated to early Paleolithic (1.8 million to 100,000 years ago) and are classified as Acheulean or second-generation tools that succeed the oldest Olduwan. == Demographics == In 2021 Lumbini had a census population of 5,122,078 with 1,141,902 households. === Ethnicity === The province is very ethnically diverse. The largest group is the Magar with 14.58% of the population. The second largest is Tharu with 14.30%. The Chhetri (14.24%), Hill Brahmin (11.27%), Kami (6.01%), Damai (1.93%), Kurmi(1.73%), Musalman (6.93%), Yadav (4.01%), Chamar (2.01%), 1. === Religion === The majority of population in the province practices Hinduism, followed by Islam, Buddhism and Christianity. Among these, almost 90% of the people identify themselves as Hindus and 7% identify themselves as Muslims, 3% as Buddhists and 1% as Christians. Often cited as an example of social harmony, the majority population of Hindus and Muslims of Lumbini and the surrounding villages have safeguarded and promoted the Buddhist heritage sites together in unison. === Language === Nepali is the most spoken language of the province, but is also a home to Tharu community and 'Tharu language' with 600,000 speakers. The province also has many speakers of Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Sanskrit and Magar languages. The Language Commission of Nepal has recommended Tharu and Awadhi as official language in the province. The commission has also recommended Bhojpuri, Sanskrit, Magar and Maithili to be additional official languages, for specific regions and purposes in the province. Languages of Lumbini (2011) Languages Percentage Speakers Number of Speakers Nepali 50.09% 2,273,980 Tharu 13.3% 595,304 Bhojpuri 11.4% 508,630 Awadhi 11.2% 497,701 Sanskrit 5.1% 228,371 Magar 4.6% 204,034 Maithili 1.2% 54,135 Nepal Bhasa 0.6% 27,413 Gurung 0.4% 19,520 Other 1.3% 56,097 == Administrative subdivisions == There is a total of 109 local administrative units in the province which include four sub-metropolitan cities, 32 urban municipalities, and 73 rural municipalities. thumb|Districts of Lumbini|258x258px === Districts === Districts in Nepal are the second level of administrative divisions after provinces. Lumbini Province is divided into 12 districts, which are listed below. A district is administrated by the head of the District Coordination Committee and the District Administration Officer. The districts are further divided into municipalities or rural municipalities. After the state's reconstruction of administrative divisions, Nawalparasi District and Rukum District were divided into Parasi District and Nawalpur District, and Eastern Rukum District and Western Rukum District respectively. Districts of Lumbini Province Districts Nepali Headquarters Area (km2.) Population (2011)2011 Census District Level Detail Report , Central Bureau of Statistics. Official Website Kapilvastu District कपिलवस्तु जिल्ला Taulihawa 1,738 571,936 Parasi District परासी जिल्ला Ramgram 634.88 321,058 Rupandehi District रुपन्देही जिल्ला Siddharthanagar 1,360 880,196 Arghakhanchi District अर्घाखाँची जिल्ला Sandhikharka 1,193 197,632 Gulmi District गुल्मी जिल्ला Tamghas 1,149 280,160 Palpa District पाल्पा जिल्ला Tansen 1,373 261,180 Dang District दाङ देउखुरी जिल्ला Ghorahi 2,955 552,583 Pyuthan District प्युठान जिल्ला Pyuthan 1,309 228,102 Rolpa District रोल्पा जिल्ला Liwang 1,879 224,506 Eastern Rukum District पूर्वी रूकुम जिल्ला Rukumkot 1,161.13 53,018 Banke District बाँके जिल्ला Nepalganj 2,337 491,313 Bardiya District बर्दिया जिल्ला Gulariya 2,025 426,576 Lumbini Province लुम्बिनी प्रदेश Deukhuri 22,288 km2 4,499,272 === Municipality === Cities and villages are governed by municipalities in Nepal. A district may have one or more municipalities. Lumbini has two types of municipalities. # Urban Municipality ## Metropolitan city (Mahanagarpalika) ## Sub-metropolitan city (Upa-mahanagarpalika) and ## Municipality (Nagarpalika) # Rural Municipality (Gaunpalika) The government of Nepal has set out a minimum criteria to meet city and towns. These criteria include a certain population, infrastructure and revenues. == Government == The Governor acts as the head of the province, while the Chief Minister is the head of the provincial government. The Chief Judge of the Tulsipur High Court is the head of the judiciary. The Speaker of the Assembly is Purna Bahadur Gharti. Umakanta Jha is the first Governor of Lumbini Province. Current Governor Dharma Nath Yadav was appointed on 4 November 2019 by the President of Nepal. === Provincial Assembly === Lumbini provincial assembly is the unicameral legislative assembly consisting of 87 members. Candidates for each constituency are chosen by the political parties or stand as independents. Each constituency elects one member under the first past the post (FPTP) system of election. The current constitution specifies that sixty percent of the members should be elected from the first past the post system and forty percent through the party-list proportional representation (PR) system. Women should account for one-third of total members elected from each party. If one- third percentage are not elected, the party that fails to ensure so shall have to elect one-third of the total number as women through the party-list proportional representation. 229x229px Party Parliamentary party leader Seats CPN (UML) Lila Giri 29 Nepali Congress Dilli Bahadur Chaudhary 27 CPN (Maoist Centre) Jokh Bahadur Mahara 10 Nagrik Unmukti Party Dharma Bahadur Chaudhary 4 Rastriya Prajatantra Party Ashish Kumar Chaudhary 4 Janamat Party Chandrakesh Gupta 3 Loktantrik Samajwadi Party Santosh Kumar Pandeya 3 People's Socialist Party 3 CPN (Unified Socialist) 1 Rastriya Janamorcha 1 Independent 2 Total 87 == Economy == As of 2021, Lumbini Province is the 2nd fastest growing province in Nepal after Bagmati Province and is third out of the seven provinces in terms of its contribution to the GDP (14% as of 2021). The two major custom points of Nepal, Nepalganj and Siddharthanagar (Bhairahawa) are situated in the south of the province, and are major transit zones of trade and transport through India. The rapidly expanding cities in Lumbini province, Butwal and Siddharthanagar in Rupandehi District, Ghorahi and Tulsipur in Dang District, and Nepalgunj and Kohalpur in Banke District are major industrial centers. Ranking 2nd in the number of banks and financial institutions in Nepal after Bagmati Province; several projects have been launched in the province to boost economic growth. Construction of the Gautam Buddha International Airport, upgrade of the Nepalgunj Airport into an international airport as per the 20-years master plan, establishment of industrial units in Special economic zone, and the opening of new hotels are expected to spur further economic growth in the province. The national pride projects which have been initiated in the province include: National Pride Projects in Lumbini Province Project Investment (NPR) Sikta Irrigation Project 25.2 Billion Babai Irrigation Project 18 Billion Bheri-Babai Diversion Multipurpose Project (including Karnali Province) 33 Billion Gautam Buddha International Airport 6 Billion Lumbini Development Trust 7.5 Billion Electricity Transmission Project (including Bagmati Province) 61 Billion North-South (Karnali) Highway (including Karnali Province) 4.1 Billion === Agriculture === The province has both temperate and tropical climates and is diverse in terms of agriculture crop production potentialities. The province is best suited for agriculture production with five core terai districts, one inner terai, and 6 other hill districts. The land is very fertile and a good source of irrigation prevails. Sikta Irrigation Project and Babai Diversion and Irrigation project have benefited the agricultural production. The major crops are paddy, mustard, wheat, maize, sugarcane, vegetables, potato, lentils and cotton. Lumbini is self-sufficient in milk, cereal crops and pulses. Agriculture land use area in Lumbini Land use Percentage Area (Hectares) Arable land 45.5% 404,541 Temporary Crops 44.9% 398,849 Permanent crops 5% 44,388 Woodland/Forest 0.9% 8,343 Meadows/Pasture 0.6% 5,561 Temporary Fallow 0.5% 4,389 Temporary Meadows 0.2% 1,303 Pondes 0.1% 828 Other 2.4% 21,017 === Industry === By 2021, there were 16,549 registered companies in the province. Lumbini province ranks 2nd in the country after Bagmati Province in the share of small, cottage and micro-level industries numbering 81,164 that create an estimated 493,686 employment. In addition, tourism industry is a massively growing industry in Lumbini province, welcoming the largest numbers of tourists in Nepal from about 113 countries worldwide. Two of the prime industrial estates of Nepal in Lumbini Province - Nepalgunj industrial estate (district), the oldest industrial estate of the province, was established in 1973 AD and Butwal industrial estate was established in 1975 AD. Combined, the two industrial estates have about a hundred industries in the zone and are a significant source of revenue of the country. Post-promulgation of the Constitution of Nepal in 2015, further industrial estates were declared in the province by the Council of Ministers of the Government of Nepal: Motipur industrial estate in Rupandehi and Naubasta industrial estate in Banke districts. Similarly, Dang industrial estate has been declared in Dang district. ==Tourism== === Lumbini === Lumbini, considered one of the holiest place in Buddhism associated with the Buddha's birth, is a World Heritage Site and the most visited place in Nepal with 1.5 million tourist arriving annually. Lumbini has a number of older temples, including the Mayadevi Temple - a site traditionally considered to be the birthplace of the Buddha, and various new temples funded by Buddhist organizations from various countries that have been completed or are still under construction. The ancient ruins of complex structures have been conserved in the area including the Shakya tank – the remains within the Mayadevi Temple with brick structures and cross-wall system that have been dated from 3rd century BC, Ashoka pillar, excavated remains of Buddhist monasteries of 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD and the remains of Buddhist stupas (memorial shrines) dated between 3rd century BC to the 15th century AD. In addition to the ruins of ancient monasteries, there is a sacred Bodhi tree and an ancient bathing pond. File:Royal Thai Monastery, Lumbini.jpg|Royal Thai monastery File:Stupa in Lumbini.jpg|South Korean Stupa File:2015-03-16 Lumbini（Sri Lanka temple）ルンビニ・スリランカ寺 DSCF1296.jpg|Sri Lankan Temple File:Garden of Field of Stupas (German Monastery) - Lumbini Development Zone - Lumbini - Nepal (13848651175).jpg|German monastery File:Austrian monastery 2.jpg|Austrian monastery File:Zhong Hua Chinese Buddhist Monastery, Lumbini, Nepal.jpg|Chinese Monastery thumb|World Peace Pagoda, Lumbini|253x253px Lumbini complex is divided into three areas: Sacred garden, Monastic zone, Cultural center and new Lumbini village. The sacred garden is the epicenter of the complex which is centered around the birthplace of Buddha and consists of the Mayadevi Temple, the Asoka Pillar, the Marker Stone, the Nativity Sculpture, Sacred Pond (Puskarini), and many structural ruins including Buddhist Viharas & Stupas. The monastic zone is divided into east and west each reflecting two different schools of Buddhism. As a centre of pilgrimage, many countries have established their monasteries in the complex reflecting their own cultural design and spirituality. In the large monastic zone only monasteries can be built; no shops, hotels or restaurants are allowed. The zone is divided into an eastern and western monastic zone, the eastern having the Theravadin monasteries, the western having the Mahayana and Vajrayana monasteries. The Cultural Center consists of museums, Lumbini International Research Institute (LIRI), administration complex etc. and the New Lumbini Village has the World Peace Pagoda and the Lumbini Crane Sanctuary. World Peace Pagoda lies at the northern end of the Lumbini complex and was designed by Japanese buddhists to represent universal peace. File:Ruins within Maya Devi Temple Complex.jpg|Ruins within Maya Devi Temple complex File:Lumbini,The Birth Place Of Gautam Buddha.jpg|Sacred Pond adjacent to Temple File:The little Buddha statue at Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini,.jpg|Little Buddha Statue File:Shanti stupa, World Peace Pagoda, Lumbini.jpg|World Peace Stupa gate === Kapilvastu === Widely attributed as the hometown of Gautama Buddha, the Kapilvastu District of present-day Nepal has more than 130 archaeological sites, primarily concentrated in Tilaurakot, Kudan, Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Araurakot, Sagarhawa and Sisaniya. The region is also considered the hometown of two previous Buddhas before Gautama: Kakusandha Buddha who was born in Gotihawa and Koṇāgamana Buddha who was born in Niglihawa. Among three Ashoka pillars in Nepal, two are situated in Gotihawa and Niglihawa erected during King Ashoka's visit to ancient Kapilvastu. Tilaurakot, considered the cardinal point of the ancient Shakyan city of Kapilavastu where Gautama Buddha spent 29 years of his lifetime, was added to the World Heritage Tentative List by UNESCO on 1996. File:Tilaurakot, Taulihawa Kapilbastu Lumbini Zone Western Nepal 2, Rajesh Dhungana.jpg|Ruins of ancient Kapilavastu at Tilaurakot File:Gotihawa Ashok Pillar Buddha Kapilvastu Lumbini Zone Nepal Rajesh Dhungana (5).jpg|Kakusandha Buddha Ashoka Pillar File:Koṇāgamana Buddha Ashoka (1).JPG|Koṇāgamana Buddha Ashoka Pillar === Ramagrama === After the death of Gautama Buddha, his relics were divided among eight princes out of sixteen mahājanapadās. A Koliyan king of Rāmagrāma (present Parasi district), built a stupa enshrining one relic. Known as the only undisturbed original relic of Buddha in the world, the site of stupa was added to the World Heritage Tentative List by UNESCO on 23 May 1996. === Dhaulagiri circuit === The Dhaulagiri circuit in Eastern Rukum encompasses the Dhaulagiri mountain range of the northern Lumbini Province. The Dhaulagiri mountain range extends from the northwest to the northeast of Eastern Rukum district and then continues eastward to its tallest peak at Dhaulagiri I. Putha Hiunchuli (Dhaulagiri VII), one of the most popular 7,000-metre mountains, was first climbed by British explorer J. O. M. Roberts and Sherpa Ang Nyima in 1954. The West Dhaulagiri circuit is a tourist trekking circuit close to the Dhaulagiri mountain range and Magar-majority villages, with a distinct preserved Kham Magar culture of the northern Lumbini province.The circuit's eastern portion is situated along the Dhorpatan reserve of Eastern Rukum, which was designated to preserve high-altitude ecosystems in western Nepal in 1983. The reserve harbours alpine, sub-alpine and high temperate vegetation and 137 species of birds. Endangered animals in the reserve include the musk deer, wolf, red panda, cheer pheasant and danphe. === National Parks === Bardiya National Park is the largest national park in the lowland Terai, covering 968 square kilometres. It was established in 1976 to protect the representative ecosystem, habitats of tigers and their prey species. As a beautiful, unspoiled wilderness of sal forest, grassland, and alluvial washes cut by the many fingers of the Karnali River, it is a popular tourist destination, offering elephant rides and wilderness sight-seeing of Gangetic dolphins, tigers, rhinos and elephants. In 1997, a buffer zone of 327 square kilometres surrounding the park was declared, consisting of forests and private lands. The buffer zone is jointly managed by the local communities and the park and community development and resource management is carried out jointly. The Babai valley, which is rich in biodiversity, was added to the park in 1984. The zone has wooded grassland and riverine forest and its water is home to Gharial crocodile. More than 30 different mammals, 513 species of birds and several species of snakes, lizard and fishes have been recorded in the park area. File:Bardia forest.jpg|Forest trees of Bardiya National Park File:Banke National Park.jpg|Banke National Park File:Deers at Bardiya National Park.jpg|Deers at Bardiya National Park Banke National Park, adjacent to the Bardiya National Park with the coherent protected area of 1,518 km2 (586 sq mi), represents the Tiger Conservation Unit (TCU). The national park was established in 2010 and is a protected area of tiger and four-horned antelopes. The park extends over 550 square kilometers in Banke district of the province. Banke National Park is connected with Bardiya National Park in the west and wildlife sanctuary and forests of India in the south. The protected zone is an important component of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) that provides habitat for tigers. The park has eight ecosystem types: Sal forest, deciduous Riverine forest, savannahs and grasslands, mixed hardwood forest, flood plain community, Bhabar and foothills of Chure range. It is home to 124 plants, 34 mammals, more than 300 birds, 24 reptiles, 7 amphibians and 58 fish species. Under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, 3 species of mammals (tiger, striped hyaena, four- horned antelope), 4 species of birds (giant hornbill, black stork, Bengal florican, and lesser florican) and 2 species of reptiles (gharial crocodile and python) are protected in the park. === Cultural Heritage === Religious sites The culture of the province has been shaped by multi-religious and multi-ethnic demography as well as the historical development of the Indian sub-continent. Hinduism, the dominant religion of the province and the cultural sacred sites related to it, are prevalent throughout the province. Hinduism flourished overwhelmingly in Dang valley where the cultural centers of the Hindu Nath tradition connected to Yogi Gorakhnath were established long before the creation of modern Nepal. A prominent Gorakhnath temple in Dang district, also known as Ratnanath temple, remained an ancient temple which was respected and protected by the ruling kings of the region throughout - including the later kings of the Shah dynasty. Further popular Hindu sites in Dang district include Ambikeshwori Temple with a deity of Shiva and Goddess Sati Devi; and Pandaveswor temple which has the world's largest trident and believed to be where the five Pandavas brother prayed to Lord Shiva. To the south-western region of Lumbini province, Shiva and Goddess Durga are worshipped in Bageshwori Temple in Banke District. Other prominent temples of the province include Bhairabsthan Temple of Palpa where Lord Bhairava is worshipped as a deity and Swargadwari temple of Pyuthan which has the deities of Shiva and Vishnu. Islam, the second-most followed religion of the province, is mostly distributed in the southern districts bordering India. Kapilvastu and Banke districts have one of the largest Muslim population of Nepal and along with Rupandehi, constitute almost half of all the Muslims in Nepal. One of the oldest mosque of Nepal established in 1950 AD, Jama Masjid Rahmaniya, is situated in Rupandehi District. Within and around Lumbini, sacred sites related to the birth and childhood of Gautama Buddha are pilgrimage centers for Buddhists throughout the world. Lumbini Development Trust, an autonomous and non-profit organization manages the Buddhist sites in Lumbini and the master plan is initiated together with the United Nations to ensure long-term safeguarding of the archeological sites of global importance. Rani Mahal After being forced to drop his royal titles, General Khadga Shumsher was sent to Palpa as a Commander in Chief of Nepal where his beloved youngest wife, Rani Tej Kumari Devi, died. The General constructed a grand palace and named it after his wife as Rani Mahal ("Queen's Palace") in 1893 AD. He also named the nearby forest around the palace as Rani ban ("Queen's forest"). The palace is at the banks of the Kali Gandaki River. == Infrastructure == === Education === By 2014, Palpa District was one of the first 4 "fully literate" districts of Nepal, achieving a literacy rate of over 95%. By 2018, further districts of Lumbini province namely, Arghakhanchi, Gulmi, Pyuthan, Dang, Parasi, Rupandehi, Rolpa, Bardiya and Eastern Rukum District were classified as fully literate districts of Nepal. Universities * Nepal Sanskrit University * Rapti Academy of Health Sciences * Lumbini Bauddha University === Health === According to the National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) 2016, the Province's Neonatal Mortality (per 1000 live births) stands at 30 and Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births) stands at 42, both of which are higher than the national average of 21 and 32 respectively. The province has 670 public health facilities, including four hub hospitals, 18 hospitals, two regional medical stores, 31 primary health care centers, 570 health posts, 27 urban health centers, 15 community health units and 9 other health facilities. === Communication === In Lumbini province, 49.2% of the population have radio access and followed by 30.4% have access to TV, and only 1.3% have access to the internet. Similarly, 4.4% of the population have access to landline telephone, while 65.8% have access to mobile phone. There are three major cell phone providers in Lumbini Province. They are Nepal Doorsanchar Company Limited (NTC), Ncell Axiata Limited (NCELL) and Smart Cell. The coverage of Smart Cell providers is only in 5 districts. There are 66 newspaper channels in Lumbini Province with national, provincial, and local outreach. As per the classification, some of the top-ranking newspapers are Gorachya Dainik, Dainik Nepalgunj, and Mechikali Sandesh Dainik. There are a total of 63 radio stations in the province, such as Radio Lumbini, Radio Tulsipur, Bheri F.M., etc. === Energy === 91% of the population has access to electricity in the province. Of the 12 districts in Lumbini Province, Parasi, Kapilvastu and Bardiya have been electrified by more than 99 percent. Gulmi, Arghakhanchi and Rupandehi have more than 95 percent electrification and Rukum East has the lowest electrification of 11.25 percent. Lumbini generates 21.2 MW of electricity from hydropower. Total number of electricity consumers in the province is 457992, consuming 370.8 Million MWh of energy annually. According to NEA, Distribution and Consumer Service Directorate 93% of consumers are domestic users; loss of electricity in the province is 12.17% for the year 2076/77 (2020 AD). Out of the total loss in distribution provincial office, Gularia contributes the highest loss percentage of 25.02%. Butwal Solar PV Project, Nepal's first private grid-connected solar power plant, was connected to national transmission line in October 2020. Ridi Hydropower Company has constructed the power plant in Tilottama of Rupendehi District. With over 32,000 solar panels of 330 watts each, the plant can generate 8.5 MW of electricity. === Transportation === ==== Roadways ==== Transportation routes in Lumbini evolved since 30px H01. Lumbini has two major routes, 30px H01 and 30px H10 both intersecting in Butwal. 8,931 km of road is constructed in the Province. Out of which 5,293 km is blacktopped. All 12 districts of the province are connected via blacktopped roads. Major highways of the province are as follows: # Mahendra Highway: Mahendra Highway(30x30px H01) traverses districts of Bardiya, Banke, Dang, Kapilvastu, Rupandehi, Parasi latitudinally. It connects to Bagmati to east and Sudurpaschim to the west. # Ratna Highway: Ratna Highway (30x30px H12) to Karnali Province. It starts at Nepal- India border in Nepalgunj and terminates at Birendranagar, Surkhet. The highway transition into the Karnali Highway system from the point it terminates. # Rapti Highway: Rapti Highway (30x30px H11) starts from Ameliya, Dang and terminates at Musikot West Rukum. This highway makes hilly regions of Rolpa, Salyan West Rukum and east Rukum accessible. # Siddhartha Highway: Siddhartha Highway(30x30px H10) highway starts at Nepal-India Border in Siddharthanagar and terminates at Prithivi chowk, Pokhara. The major settlements on the highway are Siddharthanagar, Butwal, Tansen, Waling, Putalibazar, Syangja and Pokhara. Bhairahawa and Nepalgunj have always been major trade routes with India. Lumbini has no railways but East West railway, Kathmandu-Lumbini railway and several other routes connecting Indian cities are planned. ==== Air Travel ==== Gautam Buddha International Airport, Nepalgunj Airport and Dang Airport are major airstrips in the province. Nepalgunj Airport, Nepal's second most busiest airport after Tribhuwan International Airport, is being upgraded to an international airport as per the 20 year master plan. Being mostly flat land air travel isn't preferable but Nepalgunj Airport serves as hub for most of the airports in Karnali Province and Sudurpaschim Province and is a transit point for tourists heading to Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash in Tibet. New airports are under construction in Resunga (Gulmi District) and Sandhikharka (Arghakhanchi District). File:Nepalgunj AIrport .jpg|Nepalgunj Airport is Nepal's second- most busiest airport after TIA File:Gautam Buddha International Airport.jpg|Lumbini hosts Nepal's second international airport - Gautam Buddha International Airport ==See also== *List of Provinces of Nepal *List of districts of Nepal *List of mayors of municipalities in Nepal *List of districts of Lumbini Province ==References== Lumbini Pradesh Category:2015 establishments in Nepal Category:Provinces of Nepal Category:States and territories established in 2015
|
Cobham () is a large village in the Borough of Elmbridge in Surrey, England, centred south-west of LondonGrid Reference Finder distance tools and northeast of Guildford on the River Mole. It has a commercial/services High Street, a significant number of primary and private schools and the Painshill landscape park. ==Toponymy== Cobham appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Covenham and in 13th century copies of earlier charters as Coveham. It is recorded as Cobbeham and Cobeham in the 15th century and the first use of the modern spelling "Cobham" is from 1570. The name is thought to derive from an Anglo-Saxon landowner either as Cofa's hām or Cofa's hamm. The second part of the name may have originated from the Old English hām meaning a settlement or enclosure, or from hamm meaning land close to water. The area of the village known as Cobham Tilt, is first recorded as la Tilthe in 1328. The name is thought to derive from the Old English Tilthe, meaning "cultivated land". ==History== thumb|right|St Andrew's Church Cobham is an ancient settlement whose origins can be traced back on the ground through Roman times to the Iron Age. It lay within the Elmbridge hundred. Cobham appears in Domesday Book as Covenham and was held by Chertsey Abbey. Its Domesday assets were: 12½ hides; 3 mills worth 13s 4d, 10 ploughs, 1 alike unit of meadow, woodland worth 40 hogs. It rendered altogether £14 per year to its feudal system overlords. Historically, Cobham other than outlying farms comprised two developed areas, Street Cobham and Church Cobham. The former lay on the Portsmouth-London Road, and the building now known as the Cobham Exchange was once a coaching inn. The latter grew up around St Andrew's Church, which dates from the 12th century. Although much altered and extended in the 19th century, the church preserves a Norman tower and is a Grade I listed building (the highest architectural category). The village's population was reported as 1617 inhabitants in 1848. The arrival of the railway in the 1880s led to the expansion of the original village, the eastern fields and southern areas towards the railway station becoming suburbanised during the 20th century. A 1960s improvements scheme widened the entrance to the High Street from River Hill to the south which was very narrow, removing a few historic and picturesque buildings, replacing some with less ornate brickwork glass-fronted buildings suitable as shops. Subsequently, the High Street has developed into a local shopping centre. ===Aviation and motor industries=== thumb|A 1936 Railton Straight Eight. Altogether 1379 of the Railton 8s were made. Cobham is from Brooklands and played host to associated and its own aviation and motoring activity in the 20th century. Leading motor engineer and car designers Reid Railton and Noel Macklin set up a manufacturing facility, building Railton road cars at the Fairmile Works from 1933 to 1940. An example is displayed at Brooklands Museum in the same borough. In World War II, after a major aircraft factory, Vickers-Armstrongs, at Brooklands was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 4 September 1940, with heavy loss of life and many more injured, the Vickers Experimental Department was quickly dispersed to secret premises on the Silvermere and Foxwarren Park estates along Redhill Road. Engineer and inventor Barnes Wallis also carried out important trials catapulting models of his 'Upkeep' bouncing bomb across Silvermere Lake around 1942 and conducted spinning trials with larger prototypes at 'Depot W46' (the largest of the three dispersed sites). Vickers had numerous other wartime dispersed depots locally and those within the boundaries or whose nearest village was Cobham included Corbie Wood and Riseholme (on Seven Hills Road), Conway Cottage and Norwood Farm. Despite its proximity to Brooklands and Wisley airfields (both active until the early 1970s), Cobham saw relatively few aircraft crashes. Most notable was a Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter which flew low over Brooklands apparently in trouble and crashed at Cobham on 16 March 1944; the pilot survived and little else was published of this incident. During World War II aircraft company Airspeed Ltd set up a design office at Fairmile Manor which designed the civil aircraft the Airspeed Ambassador before moving back to Portsmouth in the late 1940s.Boot, Roy. From Spitfire to Eurofighter: 45 years of Combat Aircraft Design. Pp 25–26. Shrewsbury, England: AirLife Publishing, 1990. . After the war, Vickers' Experimental Department continued to use two of the Redhill Road sites (now known as 'Foxwarren') and built aircraft prototypes there such as the Viscount airliner and Valiant V-bomber, until it moved back to the main factory at Brooklands in the late 1950s. In the 1970s residents Mike Chambers ran a business building Huron Formula Fords and a Formula Atlantic car at the Silvermere works and Geoff Uren prepared the BMW team saloon cars and Graham Hill's Jägermeister-sponsored Formula 2 car. From 1972 to 2011 Cobham Bus Museum occupied an ex-aircraft hangar (used mainly by Vickers-Armstrongs as a machine shop) next to Silvermere golf course in Redhill Road. The bus museum reopened as the London bus museum at Brooklands Museum on 1 August 2011. The former premises have been replaced by a care home. ==Geography== ===Boundaries=== Cobham fits into a triangle between the River Mole to the south, the A3 to the north and a borderline for the most part on the nearside of the (New) London to Guildford railway line to the southeast – directly west of Oxshott. On the southern border is the historic village, Stoke D'Abernon, part of the small post town, which gives its name to the railway station between the two areas on the line mentioned: Cobham & Stoke D'Abernon. ===Other=== ;Soil The village neighbourhoods of Downside (south) and Fairmile (east) are on slowly permeable, seasonally wet, slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soil. The longstanding built-up areas resemble the adjacent fertile east banks of the Mole such as at landscape garden Painshill Park on free-draining gravel topped with layers of alluvium. This contrasts with the steep west bank, acidic sandy heath, which underlies the highest land on all the outskirts, residual outcrops of the Bagshot Sands (Formation). These isolate Cobham village historically, Esher Commons, Oxshott Heath and Woods and the Redhill Common part of Ockham and Wisley Commons. ;Elevation Watershed points, or in international terms drainage divides, are at the summits of the sides of the lower Mole Valley, attaining and towards the east close to Oxshott and Stoke D'Abernon respectively. The River Mole runs through Cobham, with a visitor area and well-surfaced path by the mill in the High Street, dividing the low-rise urban village/town centre from the remaining agricultural parts of Cobham in the west and south. This can flood small, old parts of the village centre in extreme rainfall. Elevation reaches a minimum here of above sea level.Grid square map Ordnance survey website Retrieved 2013-10-13Cobham Conservation & Heritage Trust (Improvements at River Hill, Cobham) Flood Risk Assessment Bell Fischer Retrieved 2013-10-13 ;Demography Cobham used to have two wards; the Cobham Fairmile ward has a population of 4,760 neighbouring Cobham and Downside has a population of 6,158. Cobham Fairmile ward has been abolished and is now part of the Oxshott and Stoke d’Abernon Ward. ;Neighbouring places ==Landmarks== thumb|right|200px|Cedar House At the heart of Cobham is the Church Cobham Conservation Area, which was designated in 1973 and includes fourteen statutory listed buildings. Amongst these are Pyports, once the home of Vernon Lushington; the picturesque Church Stile House; and two fine houses overlooking the River Mole: Ham Manor and Cedar House, the latter owned by the National Trust. Across the river from the church into Downside village, the estate of Cobham Park was the home of John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier, who was made Commander-in-Chief of the army in 1757. In 1806 Cobham Park was bought by Harvey Christian Combe a brewer and Lord Mayor of London. The present house was completed in 1873 by his nephew, Charles Combe, to a design by Edward Middleton Barry: it has now been divided into apartments. At the other end of the village, beside the A3, Painshill Park is a fine 18th-century landscape garden, restored from dereliction since 1980. Painshill House dates from the 18th century and has also been divided into apartments. Two other large houses on the outskirts of Cobham have been taken over by schools: Heywood is now the American Community School, and Burwood House is now Notre Dame School. Chelsea F.C.'s training ground is nearby, close to Cobham and Stoke d'Abernon railway station and some of its more deluxe private homes belong to Chelsea's players. The Fairmile or eastern part of the parish has a high proportions of mansions and gated roads. ===Cobham Mill=== left|200px|thumb|Cobham Mill The River Mole provides a setting for the red brick water mill, constructed Late 18C and once part of a much larger complex. It stands on the site of earlier mills dating back to the Middle Ages. The mill was in use until 1928, when it became uneconomical to continue operating. Thereafter it was used as a storehouse. During World War II, a Canadian tank collided with the main building, causing much damage.Cobham Mill – A Brief History, Cobham Mill Preservation Trust, https://www.cobhammill.org.uk/history-of-the-mill/ In 1953 the main part of the mill was demolished by Surrey County Council to alleviate traffic congestion on Mill Road. This left just the grist mill standing. thumb|right|Cobham Mill, June 2005 In 1973 the Cobham Conservation Group was formed, later to become the Cobham Conservation and Heritage Trust, and one of its main objectives was to rescue the much deteriorated grist mill building from sliding into the river as a result of water erosion of the mill island. In 1986 the freehold of the mill was taken over by the Thames Water Authority who, as part of their flood control expenditure rebuilt the weirs nearby. They also recognised that the mill was Grade II listed and shored up the mill's foundations. Thereafter, the Cobham Mill Preservation Trust was formed as a sister organisation to the Cobham Conservation Group and took over the leasehold. The building was restored to full working order by the volunteers of the Cobham Mill Preservation Trust, and first opened to the public in 1993. Cobham Mill is now open to the public from 2 pm to 5 pm on the second Sunday of each month between April and October, inclusive. ==Education== St Andrew's Primary School is located in the village as is Cobham Free School which is an all-through school. A local prep school is Feltonfleet School. There are three independent schools: Notre Dame; ACS (The American Community Schools) Cobham International and Reed's School. ==Local leisure and entertainment== Painshill Park is nearby and Silvermere golf course is located in Redhill Road on the north side of the A3. Cobham has four football clubs: Cobham F.C., Mole Valley SCR F.C., Cobham United Football Club and Cobham Town FC (formed 2007). Cobham also has a cricket club, Cobham Avorians, formed in 1928. Avorians was named after its founder, local landowner Edward James Avory, and originally played at the Fairmile Estate before re-locating to Convent Lane on the Burwood Estate in 1948. Cobham Rugby Football Club has four teams which play regularly, as well as youth and mini sections. There is Cobham Village Club and a branch of the Royal British Legion. Cobham Players regularly present plays, musicals, pantomimes and other entertainments in Cobham. Walton Firs Activity Centre lies just off the A3 in Cobham and covers 28 acres. It takes its name from Colonel Walton, who dealt with the purchase of the site in 1939. It was used by a Royal Artillery Anti-Aircraft Battery during World War II and in peacetime returned to use as a Scout camp site. During the 1990s some 3,000 additional trees were planted, and more recently an all-weather barn and an artificial, but realistic, caving complex have been added. ==Politics== === Parliament and Local === The Member of Parliament (MP) is Conservative Dominic Raab in the Esher and Walton constituency. Raab succeeded Ian Taylor who stood down at the 2010 General Election. In local government Cobham is part of Elmbridge Borough Council and Surrey County Council. Until 2016, Cobham was divided into two wards, Cobham Fairmile and Cobham & Downside for Elmbridge voting. Following boundary changes in 2016, Cobham was divided between a newly drawn Cobham and downside ward and an expanded Oxshott & Stoke d’Abernon ward, with the Fairmile name disappearing. There are six councillors covering the two new wards, all Conservative. Cobham councillor James Browne was Leader of Elmbridge Borough Council in 2019. For Surrey County voting, Cobham is paired with Stoke d'Abernon. Cobham has many old buildings, conservation areas and housing development pressures. It has a very active Heritage Trust, re-formed in 2007, and a lower-profile Residents Association. Unlike neighbouring areas in Elmbridge, Residents and amenity groups do not contest local elections in Cobham; occasionally independents have stood, such as in a 2007 by-election. The only non-Conservative elected was a Liberal/Focus councillor, Mike King in 1984 in the Fairmile ward, which includes some high density social and private housing beside the A3, as well upmarket private estates. Cobham and Downside ward includes the village centre, private estates off the A245 Stoke Road, semi-rural Downside and Hatchford, Ockham south of the M25. Since the 2013 Surrey County election, the local Member for Cobham is Conservative, Mrs Mary Lewis who serves as Cabinet member for Children, Young People and Families. A Cobham & Downside member on Elmbridge, Mike Bennison since 2005 also represents the next 3 stops up the line to London Oxshott Claygate and Hinchley Wood on Surrey County Council. === British Army === Following the formation of the Territorial Force in 1908, the town, for recruiting, was granted to the 6th Battalion, The East Surrey Regiment which maintained a platoon from A Company. The town also maintained the "Sandyroyd School Troops of Scouts". ==Road and rail links== To the north and west of the town is the A3 trunk road, a major arterial route from London to Portsmouth. This road links to the M25 motorway at Junction 10, immediately to the southwest of Cobham. * The A307, Portsmouth Road starts in Cobham and runs northwards to the adjoining town of Esher. This is also known as the "old A3". * The A245 runs through the centre of the town and leads to Leatherhead in the south-east and Byfleet to the west. Cobham & Stoke d'Abernon railway station, opened in 1885, is on the New Guildford line from London Waterloo. ==Police and fire services== The closest public desk and offices of Surrey Police is at the Civic Offices, Elmbridge Borough Council, in Esher. * Surrey Fire & Rescue Service, called Painshill Fire Station, has a full-time crew together with: ** 1 Water Tender Ladder ** 1 Incident Command Unit ** 1 Forward Command Vehicle ==Notable people== *John Addison, (1920–1998), composer, was born in Cobham. *Matthew Arnold, (1822–1888), poet, lived in Cobham from 1873 to 1888. *Malcolm Arbuthnot, (1877–1967), pictorialist, photographer and artist, was born in Cobham. *Sir Felix Aylmer, (1889–1979), actor, lived at Painshill House, Cobham in the 1970s. *Antonio Banderas (born 1960), Spanish actor, lives in Cobham *General Sir Thomas Brotherton, (1785–1868), died nearby and is buried in St. Andrew's churchyard. *Harvey Christian Combe, (1752–1818), brewer, Lord Mayor of London, owner of Cobham Park *Aaron Eckhart, (born 1968), American actor, lived in Cobham and attended the American Community School. *Shane Filan, (born 1979), singer, former member of Westlife, has homes in Cobham and Sligo, Ireland. *Kit Hain, (born 1956), singer and songwriter, was born in Cobham *Harold B. Hudson, (1898–1982), World War I flying ace, was born in Cobham. *Nick Jones, (born 1963), entrepreneur, owner of Babington House and husband of Kirsty Young, grew up in Cobham. *Nicholas Lane, (1585–1644), cartographer, came from a Cobham family and his earliest surviving work, 1613, is of Painshill. *John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier, (1680–1770), Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, lived at Cobham Park. *Vernon Lushington, (1832–1912), lawyer and patron to the arts, lived at Pyports in Cobham. *Sir (Albert) Noel Campbell Macklin (1886–1946), of Fairmile estate, a British car maker and boat designer. *Kenneth McAlpine (1920–2023), racing driver, was born in Cobham. *Nichola McAuliffe (born 1955), television and stage actress and writer, was born in Cobham. *Admiral Sir Graham Moore, (1764–1843), naval officer, lived at Brook Farm in Cobham and is buried in St. Andrew's churchyard. *General Lord Henry Percy VC KCB, (1817–1877), soldier and MP, was born at Burwood House (now Notre Dame School). *Sir Thomas Sopwith, (1888–1989), aviation pioneer and industrialist who founded the Sopwith Aviation, H G Hawker Engineering, Hawker Aircraft and Hawker Siddeley aircraft companies, lived at Compton House, Cobham in the 1920s. *Fred Stedman, (1870–1918), Surrey county cricketer, was born in Cobham. *Gerrard Winstanley, (1609–1676), reformer, lived in Cobham from 1643 and was churchwarden in 1667–1668. *Louis Cole, British film-maker and YouTube personality. *Mudar Zahran, Jordanian politician and Secretary General of the Jordanian Opposition Coalition. *Sue Biggs , director general of the Royal Horticultural Society. ==Demography and housing== Output area Detached Semi- detached Terraced Flats and apartments Caravans/temporary/mobile homes Shared between households Cobham Fairmile (ward) 792 366 274 262 1 2 Centre and south 1,157 687 401 507 4 2 The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%. Output area Population Households % Owned outright % Owned with a loan hectares Cobham Fairmile (ward) 4,751 1,697 34 32 553 Centre and south 4,988 2,047 40 31 276 The proportion of households in the settlement who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free). ==In film, fiction and the media== The Cobham News & Mail covered local news in the latter part of the 20th century until it closed and was incorporated into the Surrey Advertiser. Cobham is also covered by the Elmbridge Guardian, the Surrey Herald and the Surrey Comet newspapers. ==Nearest places== *Stoke D'Abernon *Oxshott *Esher *Leatherhead *Hersham *Weybridge *Walton-on-Thames *Effingham *Byfleet *East Horsley *West Horsley *Downside ==Notes== ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * ==External links== * Aerial photographs of Cobham * Cobham Conservation and Heritage Trust * Cobham Mill Preservation Trust * Official website for Cobham Rugby Football Club * Official website for Cobham Sports Association incorporating Cobham Rugby, Cobham Tennis and Cobham Cricket * Cobham Players * Cobham Avorians Cricket Club * Category:Towns in Surrey Category:Borough of Elmbridge
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.