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The Improved Outer Tactical Vest (IOTV) is an enhanced version of, and a replacement for, the older Outer Tactical Vest (OTV) variant of the Interceptor Multi-Threat Body Armor System, as fielded by the United States Army. The IOTV is compatible with the Deltoid and Axillary Protector System (DAPS) components, ESAPI (Enhanced Small Arms Protective Insert), Enhanced Side Ballistic Inserts (ESBI), as well as the OTV's groin protector. It has a flame-resistant standalone shirt, the Army Combat Shirt, designed specifically for use with the IOTV. The OTV design was considered insufficient and lacking in certain areas, which led to the IOTV's development and fielding. The IOTV is currently produced by Point Blank Body Armor, BAE Systems, KDH Defense Systems, Protective Products Enterprises, UNICOR and Creative Apparel Associates. The IOTV first saw action in combat with U.S. Army ground combat units in from mid-2007 onward and currently remains the standard body armor type used by regular U.S. Army ground combat units overseas, although the new Modular Scalable Vest is set to replace it in the coming years. == Background == While the Interceptor Body Armor and the Outer Tactical Vest were considered fairly effective, questions were raised over whether or not they were the best possible armor solution for soldiers of the United States Military. This debate was heightened by controversy over Dragon Skin, produced by the now defunct Pinnacle Armor. Various claims surfaced that Dragon Skin was more effective at protecting soldiers than the then standard issue Interceptor body armor system, with independent studies and reports seeming to back these claims, eventually leading to multiple congressional members asking for further evaluation. In response, the military made public testing that showed widespread failures in the testing of the Dragon Skin armor. Ultimately, Dragon Skin never saw widespread adoption, and many of the perceived shortfalls of the Outer Tactical Vest such as standard of protection or modularity were addressed in the new Improved Outer Tactical Vest and E-SAPI plates. ==Technical details== A size Medium IOTV weighs , less than a Medium OTV vest, while providing more coverage. However, a fully equipped IOTV, complete with all its components (soft armor panel inserts, four ballistic plate inserts (front and back plates and two side plates), collar, and groin protectors) still weighs , with a Large IOTV weighing about . The functionality of the enhanced side ballistic inserts, which provide coverage under the arms and down the sides of the torso, is built into the IOTV. The IOTV provides the ability to don the vest in two ways. The first is to simply place the vest over the head and pull down, and the second is to remove fasteners on the wearer's left shoulder, sliding into the vest to the right. To complete the procedure for both methods the wearer then lifts up the front panel of the vest and fastens the waistband, which takes the weight of the vest off the shoulders somewhat, and then fastens the side protection modules. A key design feature for the IOTV is that the entire armor system is able to be released with the pull of a hidden lanyard. The armor then falls apart into its component pieces, providing a means for escape in case the wearer falls into water or becomes trapped in a hazardous environment. The hidden release lanyard also allows medical personnel easier access to a casualty, which was one concern that was not addressed with the old Interceptor armor. It also features a grid of PALS webbing on the front, back, and sides for the attachment of modular pouches and accessories such as neck and throat protection, groin protection, or deltoid protection. ===Female model=== In response to the large numbers of female soldiers in the army, a female- specific version of the IOTV (F-IOTV) was developed. Previously, standard tactical vests were issued to women in combat. Army soldiers found that women's movement was restricted, in ways such as bending over, getting in and out of tight spaces, or positioning their rifles against their shoulders. The long armor plates inside the vests would also rub against their hips and cut into their thighs when they sat down. Development of a model for women began in 2009. After much testing and measurements, the Army came up with a vest that is shorter to accommodate smaller torsos and has tailoring to fit closer to women's chests. The new vest eliminates gaps between the material and the body and can be fitted with smaller side ballistic inserts for small waist sizes. The vest has a lighter feel because it doesn’t rest on the female soldier's shoulders like the male vest. The first female soldier vests were given to soldiers deploying for Afghanistan in September 2012. ==Features== Nearly all modern military body armor is designed to prevent penetration from bullets to vital areas of the body, in addition to protection against knives and fragmentation from explosives. Typically this is accomplished through both highly durable woven synthetic fibers such as Kevlar or Dyneema, and either metal or ceramic ballistic plates. The IOTV is the standard issue torso protection component to the United States Army. The IOTV is designed to take the weight of the vest off the shoulders and move it to the lower torso. The vest is also equipped with a mesh inner cover that is designed to improve airflow inside of the armor. There is also a back pad in the lower back area of the vest, which is designed to defeat fragmentation impacts to the lower back/kidney areas. However, the back pad does not provide significant ballistic protection. The vest can withstand a direct impact from a 7.62 millimeter (both NATO and ex-Soviet types) on the front or rear if using the older SAPI plates (NIJ standard III). Use of the new E-SAPI plates increase protection to armor-piercing versions of the aforementioned rounds in addition to .30-06 Springfield M2 armor-piercing rounds (NIJ standard IV). The IOTV provides, without the ballistic ceramic plates inserted, protection from small caliber rounds (i.e. 9mm) and fragmentation. The soft kevlar panels have been tested to stop 9 mm 124 grain full metal jacket bullets at 1,400 ft/s (426 m/s) with minimal deformation and has a V-50 of roughly 1,525 ft/s (465 m/s). This means that the bullet has to be traveling faster than 1,525 ft/s for it to have more than a 50% chance of breaking through the soft armor panel. These specifications are similar to the NIJ standard level III-A certification, however, military standards do not require their vests to be NIJ certified as this is primarily a law enforcement standard. The modular design of the vest allows greater tactical flexibility in regards to different situations faced by ground troops. A US Army medical research report concluded that greater modular design leads to the ability to find a more effective balance between projectile protection and the physical endurance of the soldier, preventing losses in agility and mobility, and therefore reducing potential injuries or casualties. === E-SAPI Plates === E-SAPI (Enhanced Small Arms Protective Insert) plates and their smaller counterparts E-SBI (Enhanced Side Ballistic Inserts) plates, are ceramic ballistic plates that provide the bulk of the protection against projectiles when carried in an Improved Outer Tactical Vest, and are also used as part of many other body armors such as the Modular Tactical Vest. E-SAPI plates are designed to cover the vital front and back torso areas of the torso, while E-SBI plates are designed to protect the sides of the torso. The plate component itself is made of boron carbide, a widely used and extremely hard boron-carbon ceramic. Backing the plate is a layer of Spectra, a woven polymer material with extremely high tensile strength meant to stop any projectile that manages to pass through the ceramic strikeface. When a bullet strikes the E-SAPI plate, the kinetic energy is dispersed throughout the ceramic layer, and the majority of military rounds in common use are stopped or broken up. If the bullet continues through the boron carbide layer, the Spectra backing either stops the bullet, or, if the bullet was powerful enough, allows the bullet to pass through into the IOTV itself, and likely the wearer. Even in the event of the E-SAPI plate failing to prevent penetration, the velocity and energy of the penetrating round is often reduced to the point where the resulting wound is non lethal. E-SAPI plates are manufactured by Armorworks Enterprises, Ceradyne, Simula, and BAE Systems. Durability standards are high for E-SAPI plates, with Army requirements on environmental condition testing involving the plates being kept 6 hours at both a high temperature and a low temperature in addition to being dropped twice among a variety of other requirements. USSOCOM requirements are even more stringent, involving 24 hours at high and low temperatures. While E-SAPI plates do hold significant defensive advantages over the preceding SAPI plates, the increased protection comes at the cost of increased weight and significantly increased cost. Comparing medium-sized plates, a SAPI plate weighs 1.82 kilograms while an E-SAPI plate weighs 2.5 kilograms, over a 35 percent increase in weight. In regards to cost, E-SAPI plates cost 50 percent more, coming in at approximately $600 per plate. SAPI plates were largely phased out in favor of E-SAPI plates beginning in 2005. === XSAPI Plates === XSAPI (X Threat Small Arms Protective Insert) plates are ceramic ballistic plates that have begun replacement of the ESAPI. They are mostly issued to personnel in higher threat environments like Iraq or Afghanistan. The plates are tan colored and the first batch was shipped in the second quarter of 2009, Ceradyne receiving a $77 million contract for delivery. Its threat level is presumably against the M993 7.62 NATO penetrator, as denoted by the back's marking. In the text "7.62mm AP/WC Protection" displayed on the back of the plate, "WC" is the chemical formula for tungsten carbide, the penetrator material of the M993 projectile. == Effectiveness == The Improved Outer Tactical Vest as a whole is an improvement over previous US body armor systems, with the fragmentation vest from the Vietnam War being limited to fragmentation protection, the PASGT vest being limited to pistol rounds, and the previous Outer Tactical Vest being unable to stop armor piercing rounds. In response to the feedback of soldiers on the effectiveness of the armor system, the Army has continually upgraded the IOTV with new features, with Generation III involving a more intuitive quick release system and the new Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP). Rather than producing entirely new IOTV armor sets, body armor conversion kits have been delivered at a lower cost in order to bring older Generation armor sets up to newer standards. === Alternatives === One criticism carried over from the older OTV to the newer IOTV is what is regarded as the excessive weight of the armor, especially by dismounted infantrymen who regard the armor almost as a liability. In response to this, the U.S. Army is looking into supplementing the heavy IOTV with the newer Modular Body Armor Vest (MBAV) and Soldier Plate Carrier System (SPCS) already in service in Ranger and Airborne units. The MBAV and SPCS do provide less soft body armor coverage, but are lighter than the IOTV, thus more suitable for patrol in Afghanistan. The Army plans to introduce the torso and extremity protection (TEP) system beginning in 2018, which includes a modular scalable vest, ballistic combat shirt, blast pelvic protection system, and battle belt to reduce overall weight from while maintaining coverage by reducing excess bulk.Deploying soldiers could see lighter body armor by 2018 - Armytimes.com, 16 April 2017 The Modular Scalable Vest, first issued in 2018, is set to replace the IOTV as the standard protective vest issued to US soldiers. == Users == * : U.S. Army * : Nearly a thousand vests purchased by Ukraine from private owners between 2014 and 2016, and utilized by Ukrainian soldiers involved in combating the Russian invasion of Ukraine. ==See also== * Dragon Skin * Gold Flex * Modular Tactical Vest * Osprey body armor * PRU-70 * Soldier Plate Carrier System ==References== ==External links== * "Army to Field Improved Body Armor" at United States Army Official Homepage Category:Ballistic vests Category:Military equipment introduced in the 2000s Category:Military equipment of the United States
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The Holocaust has been a prominent subject of art and literature throughout the second half of the twentieth century. There is a wide range of ways–including dance, film, literature, music, and television–in which the Holocaust has been represented in the arts and popular culture. ==Dance== The subject of the Holocaust has been depicted within modern dance.Forward (22 March 2012) Traiger, Lisa "Telling the Holocaust Through Dance" * In 1961, Anna Sokolow, a Jewish-American choreographer, created her piece Dreams, an attempt to deal with her night terrors; eventually, it became an aide-mémoire to the horrors of the Holocaust. * Rami Be'er tries to illustrate the feeling of being trapped in Aide Memoire (Hebrew title: Zichron Dvarim). The dancers move ecstatically, trapped in their turmoil, spinning while swinging their arms and legs, and banging on the wall; some are crucified, unable to move freely on the stage. This piece was performed by the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company. * Tatiana Navka caused controversy when she and her dancing partner, Andrei Burkovsky, appeared in the Russian version of Dancing on Ice dressed as concentration camp prisoners. ==Film== The Holocaust has been the subject of many films, such as Night and Fog (1955), The Pawnbroker (1964), The Sorrow and the Pity (1969), Voyage of the Damned (1976), Sophie's Choice (1982), Shoah (1985), Korczak (1990), Schindler's List (1993), Life Is Beautiful (1997), The Pianist (2002) and The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (2008). A list of hundreds of Holocaust movies is available at the University of South Florida, and the most comprehensive Holocaust-related film database, comprising thousands of films, is available at the Yad Vashem Visual Center. Arguably, the Holocaust film most highly acclaimed by critics and historians alike is Alain Resnais's Night and Fog (1955), which is harrowingly brutal in its graphic depiction of the events at the camps. Many historians and critics have noted its realistic portrayal of the camps and its lack of the histrionics present in so many other Holocaust films. Renowned film historian Peter Cowie states: "It's a tribute to the clarity and cogency of Night and Fog that Resnais' masterpiece has not been diminished by time or displaced by longer and more ambitious films on the Holocaust, such as Shoah and Schindler's List." With the aging population of Holocaust survivors, there has been an increased focus in recent years on preserving the Holocaust memory through documentaries. Among the most influential of these is Claude Lanzmann's Shoah (1985), which attempts to tell the story in as much as a literal manner as possible without dramatization. Reaching the young population (especially in countries where the Holocaust is not part of education programs) is a challenge, as shown in Mumin Shakirov's documentary The Holocaust – Is It Wallpaper Paste? (2013). ===Central European film=== The Holocaust has been a popular theme in cinema in the Central and Eastern European countries, particularly the cinemas of Poland, the Czech and Slovak halves of Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. These nations hosted concentration camps or lost substantial portions of their Jewish populations to the gas chambers and, consequently, the Holocaust and the fate of Central Europe's Jews have haunted the work of many film directors, although certain periods have lent themselves more easily to exploring the subject. Although some directors were inspired by their Jewish roots, other directors, such as Hungary's Miklós Jancsó, have no personal connection to Judaism or the Holocaust and yet have repeatedly returned to explore the topic in their works. Early films about the Holocaust include Auschwitz survivor Wanda Jakubowska's semi-documentary The Last Stage (Ostatni etap, Poland, 1947) and Alfréd Radok's The Long Journey (Daleká cesta, Czechoslovakia, 1948). As Central Europe fell under the grip of Stalinism and state control over the film industry increased, works about the Holocaust ceased to be made until the end of the 1950s (although films about World War II continued to be produced). Among the first films to reintroduce the topic was Jiří Weiss' Sweet Light in a Dark Room (Romeo, Juliet a tma, Czechoslovakia, 1959) and Andrzej Wajda's Samson (Poland, 1961). In the 1960s, several Central European films that dealt with the Holocaust, either directly or indirectly, had critical successes internationally. In 1966, the Slovak-language Holocaust drama The Shop on Main Street (Obchod na korze, Czechoslovakia, 1965) by Ján Kadár and Elmer Klos won a special mention at the Cannes Film Festival in 1965 and the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film the following year. Another sophisticated Holocaust film from Czechoslovakia is Dita Saxova (Antonín Moskalyk, 1967).Analyzed in Constantin Parvulescu, "The Testifying Orphan: Rethinking Modernity's Optimism" https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1509633 While some of these films, such as Shop on the Main Street, used a conventional filmmaking style, a significant body of films were bold stylistically and used innovative techniques to dramatize the terror of the period. This included nonlinear narratives and narrative ambiguity, for example in Andrzej Munk's Passenger (Pasażerka, Poland, 1963) and Jan Němec's Diamonds of the Night (Démanty noci, Czechoslovakia, 1964); expressionist lighting and staging, as in Zbyněk Brynych's The Fifth Horseman is Fear (...a paty jezdec je Strach, Czechoslovakia, 1964); and grotesquely black humor, as in Juraj Herz's The Cremator (Spalovač mrtvol, Czechoslovakia, 1968). Literature was an important influence on these films, and almost all of the film examples cited in this section were based on novels or short stories. In Czechoslovakia, five stories by Arnošt Lustig were adapted for the screen in the 1960s, including Němec's Diamonds of the Night. Although some works, such as Munk's The Passenger (1963), had disturbing and graphic sequences of the camps, generally these films depicted the moral dilemmas the Holocaust placed ordinary people in and the dehumanizing effects it had on society as a whole, rather than the physical tribulations of individuals actually in the camps. As a result, a body of these Holocaust films was interested in those who collaborated in the Holocaust, either by direct action, for example in The Passenger and András Kovács's Cold Days (Hideg Napok, Hungary, 1966), or through passive inaction, as in The Fifth Horseman is Fear. The 1970s and 1980s were less fruitful times for Central European film generally, and Czechoslovak cinema particularly suffered after the 1968 Soviet-led invasion. Nevertheless, interesting works on the Holocaust, and more generally the Jewish experience in Central Europe, were sporadically produced in this period, particularly in Hungary. Holocaust films from this time include Imre Gyöngyössy and Barna Kabay's The Revolt of Job (Jób lázadása, Hungary, 1983), Leszek Wosiewicz's Kornblumenblau (Poland, 1988), and Ravensbrück survivor Juraj Herz's Night Caught Up With Me (Zastihla mě noc, Czechoslovakia, 1986), whose shower scene is thought to be the basis of Steven Spielberg's similar sequence in Schindler's List. Directors such as István Szabó (Hungary) and Agnieszka Holland (Poland) were able to make films that touched on the Holocaust by working internationally, Szabó with his Oscar-winning Mephisto (Germany/Hungary/Austria, 1981) and Holland with her more directly Holocaust-themed Angry Harvest (Bittere Ernte, Germany, 1984). Also worth noting is the East German-Czechoslovak coproduction Jacob the Liar (Jakob, der Lügner, 1975) in German and directed by German director Frank Beyer, but starring the acclaimed Czech actor Vlastimil Brodský. The film was remade in an English-language version in 1999 but did not achieve the scholarly acceptance of the East German version by Beyer. A resurgence of interest in Central Europe's Jewish heritage in the post-Communist era has led to several more recent features about the Holocaust, such as Wajda's Korczak (Poland, 1990), Szabó's Sunshine (Germany/Austria/Canada/Hungary, 1999), and Jan Hřebejk's Divided We Fall (Musíme si pomáhat, Czech Republic, 2001). Both Sunshine and Divided We Fall are typical of a trend of recent films from Central Europe that asks questions about integration and how national identity can incorporate minorities. In comparison to movies from the 1960s, these current ones have been significantly less stylised and subjectivized. For example, Polish director Roman Polanski's The Pianist (France/Germany/United Kingdom/Poland, 2002) was noted for its emotional economy and restraint, which somewhat surprised some critics given the overwrought style of some of Polanski's previous films and Polanski's personal history as a Holocaust survivor. ==Literature== A novel about Auschwitz is not a novel – or else it is not about Auschwitz. \-- Day by Elie Wiesel There is a substantial body of literature and art in many languages. Perhaps one of the most difficult parts of studying Holocaust literature is the language often used in stories or essays; survivor Primo Levi notes in an interview for the International School for Holocaust Studies, housed at the Yad Vashem: > On many occasions, we survivors of the Nazi concentration camps have come to > notice how little use words are in describing our experiences... In all of > our accounts, verbal or written, one finds expressions such as > "indescribable," "inexpressible," "words are not enough," "one would need a > language for..." This was, in fact, our daily thought; language is for the > description of daily experience, but here it is another world, here one > would need a language of this other world, but a language born here. This type of language is present in many, if not most, of the words by authors presented here. ===Accounts of victims and survivors=== * Joaquim Amat- Piniella wrote K.L. Reich, in which he describes his time at Mauthausen camp. * Jean Améry wrote At the Mind's Limits: Contemplations by a Survivor on Auschwitz and Its Realities. * Bruno Apitz, an East German author, wrote Naked Among Wolves. * Aharon Appelfeld wrote the satirical novel Badenheim 1939. * Alicia Appleman-Jurman wrote Alicia: My Story. * Inge Auerbacher wrote I Am a Star: Child of the Holocaust. * Denis Avey wrote The Man who Broke into Auschwitz, where he describes his experiences as a prisoner of war. * Nonna Bannister wrote The Secret Holocaust Diaries: The Untold Story of Nonna Bannister, a collection of diary entries and memoirs she wrote before, during, and after her time in a Nazi labor camp. * Gad Beck wrote An Underground Life: Memoirs of a Gay Jew in Nazi Berlin. * Jurek Becker, East German Jewish author, wrote Jacob the Liar. * Mary Berg wrote The Diary of Mary Berg: Growing Up in the Warsaw Ghetto. * Pierre Berg wrote Scheisshaus Luck: Surviving the Unspeakable in Auschwitz and Dora. * Hélène Berr wrote a diary about experiences in Holocaust that was published as The Journal of Hélène Berr. * Bruno Bettelheim wrote The Informed Heart. * Livia Bitton-Jackson wrote I Have Lived a Thousand Years: Growing Up in the Holocaust. * Aimé Bonifas wrote Prisoner 20-801: A French National in the Nazi Labor Camps in the summer of 1945, on his life in Buchenwald and other camps. * Cornelia ten Boom helped many Jews escape the Nazi Holocaust and was imprisoned for her actions. Her book, The Hiding Place, describes the ordeal. * Tadeusz Borowski wrote This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen and We Were in Auschwitz. * Thomas Buergenthal wrote A Lucky Child about his experiences of Auschwitz as a ten-year-old child. * Renata Calverley wrote Let Me Tell You a Story: One Girl's Escape from the Nazis. * Leon Cohen wrote From Greece to Birkenau: The Crematoria Workers' Uprising. * Arnold Daghani wrote Memories of Mikhailowka: The Illustrated Diary of a Slave Labour Camp Survivor and The Grave is in the Cherry Orchard. * Gusta Davidson Draenger wrote Justyna's Narrative, a diary in which she describes the Jewish resistance in and around the Kraków Ghetto. * Charlotte Delbo wrote Auschwitz and After, a first person account of life and survival in Birkenau. * Cordelia Edvardson wrote Burned Child Seeks the Fire. * David Faber wrote Because of Romek: A Holocaust Survivor's Memoir. * Anne Frank wrote The Diary of a Young Girl. * Viktor Frankl wrote Man's Search for Meaning. * Richard Glazar, who was one of only a small group of survivors of the Treblinka revolt, wrote an autobiographical book titled Trap with a Green Fence: Survival in Treblinka. * Dorka Goldkorn wrote Memoirs of A Participant of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. * Leon Greenman wrote An Englishman in Auschwitz. * Irene Gut Opdyke wrote In My Hands: Memories of a Holocaust Rescuer about how she rescued some Jews from deportation. * Fanya Gottesfeld Heller wrote Love in a World of Sorrow/Strange and Unexpected Love (both titles used). * Arek Hersh wrote A Detail of History: The Harrowing True Story of a Boy Who Survived the Nazi Holocaust. * Magda Herzberger wrote Survival about her early life, her time in the camps and her reunion with her mother. * Etty Hillesum wrote An Interrupted Life: The Diaries and Letters of Etty Hillesum. * Edgar Hilsenrath wrote Night, which describes life and survival in a Jewish ghetto in the Ukraine, and The Nazi and the Barber, which describes the story from the point of view of a SS mass murderer, who later assumes a Jewish identity and escapes to Israel. * Eugene Hollander was a Hungarian who wrote From the Hell of the Holocaust: A Survivor's Story. * Sidney Iwens wrote How Dark the Heavens. * Marie Jalowicz Simon wrote Gone to Ground: One Woman's Extraordinary Account of Survival in the Heart of Nazi Germany. * Hermann Kahan wrote The Fire and the Light. * Imre Kertész wrote Fatelessness. * Ruth Klüger wrote Still Alive, which is a memoir of her experiences growing up in Nazi-occupied Vienna and later in the concentration camps of Theresienstadt, Auschwitz-Birkenau, and Christianstadt. * Josef Kohout's account of his imprisonment at Sachsenhausen concentration camp was published by journalist Heinz Heger as The Men With the Pink Triangle. * David Koker wrote At the Edge of the Abyss: A Concentration Camp Diary, 1943–1944. * Jerzy Kosiński wrote the semi-autobiographical novel The Painted Bird. * Clara Kramer wrote Clara's War: One Girl's Story of Survival. * Anatoly Kuznetsov's novel Babi Yar: A Document in the Form of a Novel is about the Babi Yar massacre. * Estelle Laughlin wrote Transcending Darkness: A Girl's Journey Out of the Holocaust. * Olga Lengyel wrote Five Chimneys, where she describes her life in Auschwitz–Birkenau and highlights issues of special importance to women. * Primo Levi wrote If This Is a Man and The Truce, which describe his time and Auschwitz and his journey back home as well as The Drowned and the Saved, which is an attempt at an analytical approach. * Victor Lewis wrote Hardships and Near-Death Experiences at the Hands of the Nazi SS and Gestapo. * Leon Leyson wrote The Boy on the Wooden Box: How the Impossible Became Possible… on Schindler's List. * Marceline Loridan-Ivens wrote a memoir But You Did Not Come Back, which details her time in Auschwitz-Birkenau. * Jacques Lusseyran wrote the autobiography And There Was Light: Autobiography of Jacques Lusseyran, Blind Hero of the French Resistance about his life before WWII, his work in the resistance, and his experience in Buchenwald concentration camp * Arnošt Lustig wrote Night and Hope about his life in the Theresienstadt concentration camp. * wrote An Ordinary Camp about her time at Ravensbrück subcamp in Neubrandenburg. * Ruth Minsky Sender has written three memoirs about her experience: The Cage, To Life and Holocaust Lady. * Filip Müller wrote Eyewitness Auschwitz: Three Years in the Gas Chambers at Auschwitz, where he describes his work in the Sonderkommando. * Irène Némirovsky wrote Suite française which portrays life in France between June 1940 and July 1941, the period during which the Nazis occupied Paris. * Ana Novac wrote The Beautiful Days of My Youth: My Six Months in Auschwitz and Plaszow. * Miklós Nyiszli wrote Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account where he describes his work, which included medical experiments with and autopsies of other inmates. * Henry Orenstein wrote I Shall Live: Surviving Against All Odds 1939–1945, a memoir of his experiences during the Nazi Holocaust and his survival in five concentration camps. * Boris Pahor wrote Necropolis, which tells the story from the point of view of survivor who is visiting Natzweiler-Struthof camp, twenty years after he was there. * Samuel Pisar wrote Of Blood and Hope. * Sam Pivnik wrote Survivor – Auschwitz, The Death March and My Fight for Freedom. * Schoschana Rabinovici wrote Thanks to My Mother, which gives a detailed view of Jewish life in Vilnius and the Vilnius Ghetto, as well as of her life in concentration camps. * Chil Rajchman wrote The Last Jew of Treblinka: A Memoir. * Tomi Reichental wrote I Was a Boy in Belsen. * Emanuel Ringelblum wrote Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto. * Marija Rolnikaitė wrote I Must Tell. * Eva Schloss wrote Eva's Story: A Survivor's Tale by the Step-Sister of Anne Frank. * Magda Riederman Schloss wrote We Were Strangers: The Story of Magda Preiss. * Pierre Seel wrote I, Pierre Seel, Deported Homosexual, a memoir of his imprisonment as a homosexual in the Schirmeck-Vorbrück camp and his subsequent deportation. * Jorge Semprún's first book, The Cattle Truck, recounts his deportation and incarceration in Buchenwald in fictionalized form. * Joseph Shupac wrote The Dead Years, about his time in Majdanek, then Auschwitz, Mittelbau-Dora and Bergen-Belsen. * Tadeusz Sobolewicz wrote But I Survived, about his life in Auschwitz and five other concentration camps. * Mieczyslaw Staner wrote The Eyewitness, where he recounts his experience in the Kraków Ghetto and the Płaszów concentration camp. * John G. Stoessinger wrote From Holocaust to Harvard: A Story of Escape, Forgiveness, and Freedom. * Władysław Szpilman wrote The Pianist which tells about the 1943 destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto and the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. * Shlomo Venezia wrote Inside the Gas Chambers: Eight Months in the Sonderkommando of Auschwitz. * Felix Weinberg wrote Boy 30529: A Memoir. * Helga Weiss wrote Helga's Diary: A Young Girl's Account of Life in a Concentration Camp. * Gerda Weissmann Klein wrote All But My Life, which is an autobiographical account of the Holocaust. * wrote Death Brigade/The Janowska Road (both titles are used), where he describes his work as part of Sonderaktion 1005, of burning more than 310,000 bodies close by Janowska concentration camp. * Alter Wiener wrote From A Name to A Number: A Holocaust Survivor's Autobiography. * Jankiel Wiernik wrote A Year in Treblinka. * Elie Wiesel wrote Night about his deportation to Auschwitz, as well as Dawn and Day. * Samuel Willenberg wrote Revolt in Treblinka. * Miriam Winter wrote Trains: A Memoir of a Hidden Childhood during and after World War II, in which she describes her survival of the Holocaust as a "hidden child". * Eva Salier wrote The Survival of a Spirit for teenagers and preteens. It recounts her story and highlights the role of humor as a coping mechanism making note that, "Mad as it may sound, there was a funny side even in Auschwitz". ====Texts in other languages==== * Janina Altman wrote Oczyma dwunastoletniej dziewczyny. She wrote this when she was 12 years old and recounts her time in Lwów Ghetto and Janowska concentration camp. The book was translated from Polish into German, French, Finnish, Catalan, and Spanish. * Denise Holstein wrote Je ne vous oublierai jamais, mes enfants d'Auschwitz. * Henri Kichka and Serge Klarsfeld wrote Une adolescence perdue dans la nuit des camps. * Marga Minco wrote Het bittere kruid – een kleine kroniek. * André Rogerie wrote Vivre c'est vaincre. * Paul Sobol wrote Je me souviens d'Auschwitz – De l'étoile de shérif à la croix de vie. ===Fake survivor accounts=== These authors published fictional works as their memoirs and claimed to be Holocaust survivors: * Herman Rosenblat wrote a fictitious Holocaust memoir titled Angel at the Fence. * Misha Defonseca wrote a fictitious Holocaust memoir titled Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust Years. * Binjamin Wilkomirski is the name under which Bruno Dössekker published his fictional memoir Fragments: Memories of a Wartime Childhood. * Rosemarie Pence was the subject of biography titled Hannah: From Dachau to the Olympics and Beyond. * Enric Marco wrote a made-up story called Memoir of Hell. * Donald J. Watt is the author of a fictitious Holocaust memoir entitled Stoker: The Story of an Australian Soldier Who Survived Auschwitz-Birkenau. ===Based on accounts of victims and survivors but written by other people=== * Art Spiegelman completed the second and final installment of Maus, his Pulitzer Prize-winning graphic novel in 1991. Through text and illustration, the autobiography retraces his father's steps through the Holocaust along with the residual effects of those events a generation later. According to Holocaust Literature: A History and Guide, Maus can be seen as a species of oral history, and is very much an autobiography, for the parents "bleed history" into their children. * Larry Duberstein published Five Bullets in 2014. Of the novel, which chronicles the life of Duberstein's uncle who escaped Auschwitz and joined the Soviet partisan struggle against the German army, historian Theodore Rosengarten wrote, "[m]ore people learn about the Holocaust from fiction than from anything else, and readers will learn more from Duberstein's daring, elegant, introspective masterpiece than any other novel I know." * Jonathan Safran Foer tells in Everything Is Illuminated the story of his mother and her village. * Diane Ackerman recounts The Zookeeper's Wife the true story of how the director of the Warsaw Zoo saved the lives of 300 Jews who had been imprisoned in the Warsaw Ghetto. * Fern Schumer Chapman wrote two books about the Holocaust. The first Motherland: Beyond the Holocaust – A Mother-Daughter Journey to Reclaim the Past is about the author and her mother returning to the village where their family used to live. Her mother was the only one who survived. The second book is Is It Night or Day?. * Vasily Grossman wrote The Hell of Treblinka, describing the liberation by the Red Army of the Treblinka extermination camp. * Alexander Ramati wrote And the Violins Stopped Playing: A Story of the Gypsy Holocaust. * Lucette Lagnado wrote Children of the Flames: Dr Josef Mengele and the Untold Story of the Children of Auschwitz. * Sarah Helm wrote If This Is a Woman: Inside Ravensbrück, Hitler's Concentration Camp for Women. ===Accounts of perpetrators=== Other famous works are by people who were not themselves victims. * Kazimierz Moczarski who wrote Conversations with an Executioner about the stories he was told by the SS perpetrator Jürgen Stroop. * Rudolf Höss, the longest-serving commandant of Auschwitz, wrote Commandant of Auschwitz while awaiting execution. ===Fictional accounts=== The Holocaust has been a common subject in American literature, with authors ranging from Saul Bellow to Sylvia Plath addressing it in their works. * The title character of American author William Styron's novel Sophie's Choice (1979), is a former inmate of Auschwitz who tells the story of her Holocaust experience to the narrator over the course of the novel. It was commercially successful and won the National Book Award for fiction in 1980. * In 1991, Martin Amis' novel, Time's Arrow was published. This book, shortlisted for the Booker Prize, details the life of a Nazi doctor but is told in reverse chronological order, in a narrative that almost seems to cleanse the doctor of his sins he has committed and return to a time before the horrific acts of pure evil that preceded the Nazi regime. * Schindler's Ark was published in 1982 by Australian novelist Thomas Keneally. * Sarah's Key is a novel by Tatiana de Rosnay which includes the story of a ten year old Jewish girl, who is arrested with her parents in Paris during the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup. * The Reader is a novel by German law professor and judge Bernhard Schlink * The Shawl is a short story by Cynthia Ozick and tells the story of three people and their march to and internment in a Nazi concentration camp. * Richard Zimler's The Warsaw Anagrams takes place in the Warsaw ghetto in 1940-41 and is narrated by an ibbur (ghost). Named 2010 Book of the Year in Portugal, where Zimler has lived since 1990, the novel was described in the San Francisco Chronicle in August 2011 as follows: "Equal parts riveting, heartbreaking, inspiring and intelligent, this mystery set in the most infamous Jewish ghetto of World War II deserves a place among the most important works of Holocaust literature." Zimler's The Seventh Gate (2012) explores the Nazi war against disabled people. Booklist wrote the following: "Mixing profound reflections on Jewish Mysticism with scenes of elemental yet always tender sensuality, Zimler captures the Nazi era in the most human of terms, devoid of sentimentality but throbbing with life lived passionately in the midst of horror." * "Stalags" were pocket books that became popular in Israel and whose stories involved lusty female SS officers sexually abusing Nazi camp prisoners. During the 1960s, parallel to the Eichmann trial, sales of this pornographic literature broke all records in Israel as hundreds of thousands of copies were sold at kiosks. * Some alternate history fiction set in scenarios where Nazi Germany wins World War II, includes the Holocaust happening in countries where it did not happen in reality. And, the effects of a slight turn of historic events on other nations is imagined in The Plot Against America, by Philip Roth where an alleged Nazi sympathizer—Charles A. Lindbergh—defeats FDR for the Presidency in the United States in 1940. * The effect of the Holocaust on Jews living in other countries is also seen in The Museum Guard by Howard Norman, which is set in Nova Scotia in 1938 and in which a young half-Jewish woman becomes so obsessed and disturbed with a painting of a "Jewess on a Street in Amsterdam", that she is resolved to go to Amsterdam and "reunite" with the painter, despite all the horrific events occurring in Europe at the time and the consequences that may result. * A large body of literature has also been established concerning the Nuremberg Trials of 1945–1946, a subject which has been continually written about over the years. (See Nuremberg Trials bibliography). * The Invisible Bridge, written by Julie Orringer, tells the story of a young Hungarian-Jewish student who leaves Budapest in 1937 to study architecture in Paris, where he meets and falls in love with a ballet teacher. Both are then caught up in the second world war and struggle to survive. * The Storyteller is a novel written by the author Jodi Picoult. * Jenna Blum wrote Those Who Save Us where she explored how non-Jewish Germans dealt with the Holocaust. * Skeletons at the Feast is a novel by Chris Bohjalian and tells the story of a journey of a family in the waning months of World War Two. * A Scrap of Time and Other Stories, written by Ida Fink, is a collection of fictional short stories relating various characters to the Jewish experience of the Holocaust. *The Lost Shtetl (2020), the debut novel of Max Gross, centers on a Jewish shtetl that was spared the Holocaust and the Cold War. It garnered acclaim from book critics and drew comparisons with the novels of Michael Chabon. ====Literature for younger readers==== * Jane Yolen's The Devil's Arithmetic (1988) hurls its protagonist—an American teenage Jewish girl of the 1980s—back in time to the terrifying circumstances of being a young Jewish girl in a Polish shtetl in the 1940s. In her novel Briar Rose a child finds out that her grandmother was a survivor of the Holocaust and then tries to find the identity and the life of her grandmother. * Young adult author John Boyne created an innocent perspective of the Holocaust in The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (2006), which has been adapted into a 2009 movie of the same name. * Markus Zusak's The Book Thief (2005) is a Holocaust story narrated by Death himself. * Australian Morris Gleitzman's novels for children Once (2005), Then (2009), Now (2010), and After (2011) deal with Jewish children on the run from the Nazis during World War II. * The prize-winning companion novels of another Australian, Ursula Dubosarsky, The First Book of Samuel (1995) and Theodora's Gift (2005), are about children living in contemporary Australia in a family of Holocaust survivors. * Lois Lowry's book Number the Stars tells about the escape of a Jewish family from Copenhagen during World War II. * Milkweed is a young adult historical fiction novel by American author Jerry Spinelli. * Yellow Star is a children's novel by Jennifer Roy. * Daniel's Story is a 1993 children's novel by Carol Matas, telling the story of a young boy and his experiences in the Holocaust. * Hana's Suitcase was written by Karen Levine and tells the story of Hana Brady. * Arka Czasu is a 2013 young adult novel by Polish author Marcin Szczygielski, telling the story about the escape of a nine-year-old Jewish boy Rafał from Warsaw Ghetto. ===Poetry=== To write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric. And this corrodes even the knowledge of why it has become impossible to write poetry today. Absolute reification, which presupposed intellectual progress as one of its elements, is now preparing to absorb the mind entirely. \-- Prisms by Theodor W. Adorno German philosopher Theodor Adorno commented that "writing poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric", but he later retracted this statement. There are some substantial works dealing with the Holocaust and its aftermath, including the work of survivor Paul Celan, which uses inverted syntax and vocabulary in an attempt to express the inexpressible. Celan considered the German language tainted by the Nazis, although he was friends with Nazi sympathizer and philosopher Martin Heidegger. Poet Charles Reznikoff, in his 1975 book Holocaust, created a work intrinsically respectful of the pitfalls implied by Adorno's statement; in itself both a "defense of poetry" and an acknowledgment of the obscenity of poetical rhetoric relative to atrocity, this book utilizes none of the author's own words, coinages, flourishes, interpretations and judgments: it is a creation solely based on U.S. government records of the Nuremberg Trials and English-translated transcripts of the Adolf Eichmann trial in Jerusalem. Through selection and arrangement of these source materials (the personal testimonies of both survivor victims and perpetrators), and severe editing down to essentials, Reznikoff fulfills a truth-telling function of poetry by laying bare human realities, and horrors, without embellishment, achieving the "poetic" through ordering the immediacy of documented testimony. In 1998, Northwestern University Press published an anthology, edited by Marguerite M. Striar, entitled Beyond Lament: Poets of the World Bearing Witness to the Holocaust, which, in poetry, defends the sentiments of the statement of Adorno, in a section entitled "In Defense of Poetry," and reinforces the need to document for future generations what occurred in those times so as to never forget. The book collects, in poetry by survivors, witnesses, and many other poets—well known and not—remembrances of, and reflections on, the Holocaust, dealing with the subject in other sections chronologically, the poems organized in further sections by topics: "The Beginning: Premonitions and Prophecies," "The Liberation," and "The Aftermath." Aside from Adorno's opinion, a great deal of poetry has been written about the Holocaust by poets from various backgrounds—survivors (for example, Sonia Schrieber Weitz) and countless others, including well-known poet, William Heyen (author of Erika: Poems of the Holocaust, The Swastika Poems, and The Shoah Train), himself a nephew of two men who fought for the Nazis in World War II. I Never Saw Another Butterfly by Hana Volavkova is a collection of works of art and poetry by Jewish children who lived in the concentration camp Theresienstadt. ===Comparative study=== Pinaki Roy offered a comparative study of the different Holocaust novels written in or translated into English. Roy also reread different Holocaust victims' poems translated into English for the elements of suffering and protestations ingrained in them. Elsewhere, Roy explored different aspects of Anne Frank's memoir of the Nazi atrocities, one of the more poignant remembrances of the excesses of World War II. Moreover, in his "Damit wir nicht vergessen!: a very brief Survey of Select Holocaust Plays", published in English Forum(4, 2015: 121–41, ), Roy offers a survey and critical estimate of different plays (in Yiddish, German, and English translation), which deal with the theme of the Holocaust. Ernestine Schlant has analyzed the Holocaust literature by West German authors. She discussed literary works by Heinrich Böll, Wolfgang Koeppen, Alexander Kluge, Gert Hofmann, W.G. Sebald and others. The so-called Väterliteratur (novels about fathers) from around 1975 reflected the new generation's exploration of their fathers' (and occasionally mothers') involvement in the Nazi atrocities, and the older generation's generally successful endeavour to pass it under silence.Schlant, Ernestine (1999), p. 85. This was often accompanied by a critical portrayal of the new generation's upbringing by authoritarian parents. Jews are usually absent from these narratives, and the new generation tends to appropriate from unmentioned Jews the status of victimhood.Schlant, Ernestine (1999), p. 94. One exception, where the absence of the Jew was addressed through the gradual ostracism and disappearance of an elderly Jew in a small town, is Gert Hofmann's Veilchenfeld (1986).Schlant, Ernestine (1999), p. 180-87. In 2021 De Gruyter published study focused on Polish, Czech, and Slovak Holocaust Fiction. ==Role-playing game== White Wolf, Inc. put out Charnel Houses of Europe: The Shoah in 1997 under its adult Black Dog Game Factory label. It is a supplement on the ghosts of the victims of the Holocaust for the game Wraith: The Oblivion. == Music == The songs that were created during the Holocaust in ghettos, camps, and partisan groups tell the stories of individuals, groups and communities in the Holocaust period and were a source of unity and comfort, and later, of documentation and remembrance. Terezín: The Music 1941–44 is a set of CDs of music composed by inmates at Terezín concentration camp. It contains chamber music by Gideon Klein, Viktor Ullmann, and Hans Krása, the children's opera Brundibár by Krása, and songs by Ullmann and Pavel Haas. The music was composed in 1943 and 1944, and all the composers died in concentration camps in 1944 and 1945. The CDs were released in 1991. The massacre of Jews at Babi Yar inspired a poem written by a Russian poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko which was set to music by Dmitri Shostakovich in his Symphony No. 13 in B-Flat Minor, first performed in 1962. In 1966, the Greek composer Mikis Theodorakis released the Ballad of Mauthausen, a cycle of four arias with lyrics based on poems written by Greek poet Iakovos Kambanellis, a Mauthausen concentration camp survivor. In 1984, Canadian rock band Rush recorded the song "Red Sector A" on the album Grace Under Pressure. The song is particularly notable for its allusions to The Holocaust, inspired by Geddy Lee's memories of his mother's stories about the liberation of Bergen-Belsen, where she was held prisoner. One of Lee's solo songs, "Grace to Grace" on the album My Favourite Headache, was also inspired by his mother's Holocaust experiences. In 1988, Steve Reich composed Different Trains, a three-movement piece for string quartet and tape. In the second movement, Europe — During the War, three Holocaust survivors (identified by Reich as Paul, Rachel, and Rachella) speak about their experiences in Europe during the war, including their train trips to concentration camps. The third movement, "After the War", features Holocaust survivors talking about the years immediately following World War II. In 2017, the Swedish melodic death metal band Arch Enemy recorded the song "First Day in Hell" on the album Will to Power. The song was written by the band's lead vocalist, Alissa White-Gluz, who based it on her Jewish grandparents experiences in the concentration camps. In 2018, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency wrote an article about the song "101 Jerusalem," which chronicles the real-life story of a Jewish boy fleeing Nazism during World War II.Marcus M. Gilban, "A Brazilian Holocaust survivor’s life gets memorialized in song", JTA News, November 14, 2018 ==Television== * In the Heartbeat episode "Out Of The Long, Dark Night", a mysterious woman named Lisa Barnes breaks into the house of married couple Eva and James Knight. She paints a swastika and writes "ARBEIT MACHT FREI" on a wall, which upsets the Jewish Eva. Lisa later returns and attempts to gas Eva to death, but fails. When she is arrested, Lisa reveals that Eva Knight is in reality not Jewish, but a Czechoslovakian nurse and Nazi named Eva Hanacek, who had murdered Lisa's Jewish parents during the Holocaust (Lisa had survived because her parents had sold what they had, and sent the young Lisa to England, before the war). Hanacek had been in charge of examining prisoners, deciding who would be put to hard labour, and who would be sent to their death. If a prisoner could pay Hanacek, she would let them live, but Lisa's parents could not pay, and were killed. Lisa had tried to take the information about Eva Knight to the authorities, but had been dismissed, as Eva Hanacek had been reported to have been killed by Russian bombs in 1945. When confronted by Lisa's allegations, Eva Knight reveals the truth about herself: she had been born Eva Beskova, a Slovacian Jew. Her family was killed by the Nazis, but Eva had been allowed to live. She was young and pretty, and the Nazis had decided that they had a use for her. They sent her to the Russian front, and forced her into a life of prostitution. To prevent any SS-officer from fathering a racially impure child by accident, the Nazis had Eva forcibly sterilized. Eva managed to escape, and came across the dead body of Eva Hanacek, whom she discovered looked like her (and stole Hanacek's identity). Eva Hanacek had Red Cross papers and a lot of money, that allowed Eva Beskova to make it to the British, and escape persecution. Eva's story is confirmed by medical evidence of her sterilization. * In the American Dad! episode "Tearjerker", Tearjerker (a parody of James Bond villains) has produced the saddest movie of all time: a Holocaust movie, about a mentally handicapped Jewish boy with a cancer-ridden puppy. Audiences all over the world are shown crying their eyes out, with the one exception being Tehran (where the Muslim audience find the film hilarous). * Herbert, a recurring character on the animated sitcom Family Guy, is a Holocaust survivor. In the episode "German Guy", Chris Griffin meets and befriends an old German man named Franz Gutentag. Herbert spots the two, and becomes terrified at the sight of Franz. Herbert goes to Chris' parents and tells them that Franz is a Nazi SS lieutenant named Franz Schlechtnacht, whom he had met during World War II (while serving in the United States Air Force) after being shot down in his plane. He was then taken to a concentration camp by the Nazis, after he was believed to be gay, that was run by Franz (who decided which prisoners lived, and which were sent to their death), and was forced to undergo hard labor. Chris' parents are reluctant to believe Herbert's story. Chris and his father later discover the truth about Franz, who locks them up in his basement. Finding out about this, Herbert confronts Franz, which result in a physical confrontation and ends with Franz falling to his death. *Felicity Smoak (Emily Bett Rickards), who is one of the main characters of the DC Comics superhero drama television series Arrow and the love interest and later wife of its titular protagonist Oliver Queen / Green Arrow (Stephen Amell), their daughter Mia (Katherine McNamara), and Felicity's mother Donna (Charlotte Ross), are descendants of the Holocaust survivors. In "Crisis on Earth-X", a 2017 4-part crossover episode of Supergirl, Arrow, The Flash, and DC's Legends of Tomorrow, depicts that in a parallel universe where the Axis forces won World War II, and that the Holocaust has continued into the 21st century and spread throughout the world. One Jewish concentration camp prisoner in the Nazi-annexed United States is a parallel universe counterpart of Felicity (also portrayed by Rickards), who is saved by her doppelgänger's husband from execution. Another notable prisoner is Ray Terrill (Russell Tovey), who is superhero The Ray, is arrested for resisting the Nazi regime in addition to his homosexuality. * David Haller (Dan Stevens), the protagonist of the Marvel superhero television series Legion, is the son of a Romani Holocaust survivor named Gabrielle (Stephanie Corneliussen). Flashbacks in the episode "Chapter 22", Charles Xavier (David's father) is shown meeting Gabrielle at a mental hospital, after World War II. Gabrielle had been rescued from the camps, but had lost her entire family and the trauma of the Holocaust had left Gabrielle catatonic. With his telepathy, Charles manages to get her out of that state (and they later got married). In the episode "Chapter 23", the grown David is sent back in time, finds himself in a concentration camp, and encounters Gabrielle as a young woman, during her time as a prisoner in the camp. Upon noticing David, Gabrielle asks David (mistaking her future son for a fellow prisoner) if he is: "Jew or gypsy? Or homosexual?". ==Theater== There are many plays related to the Holocaust, for example "The Substance of Fire" by Jon Robin Baitz, "The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui" by Bertolt Brecht, Jeff Cohen's "The Soap Myth", Dea Loher's "Olga's Room", "Cabaret", the stage adaptation of "The Diary of Anne Frank", "Broken Glass" by Arthur Miller, and "Bent" by Martin Sherman. In 2010 the advisory board of the National Jewish Theater Foundation launched the Holocaust Theater International Initiative, which has three parts: the Holocaust Theater Catalog, a digital catalog in the form of a website containing plays from 1933 to the present about the Holocaust that has user specific informative entries, the Holocaust Theater Education (HTE), which is the development of curricula, materials, techniques, and workshops for the primary, secondary, and higher education levels, and the Holocaust Theater Production (HTP), which is the promotion and facilitation of an increased number of live domestic and international productions about the Holocaust, that includes theater works to be recorded for digital access. The Holocaust Theater Catalog, which launched in October 2014, is the first comprehensive archive of theater materials related to the Holocaust; it was created by the Sue and Leonard Miller Center for Contemporary Judaic Studies and the George Feldenkreis Program in Judaic Studies — both at the University of Miami — and the National Jewish Theater Foundation. * In 2010, a theater adaptation of Boris Pahor's novel Necropolis, directed by Boris Kobal, was staged in Trieste's Teatro Verdi. *In 2014 Gal Hurvitz, a young actress and theater artistic director decided to found the Etty Hillesum Israeli Youth Theatre in memory of Etty Hillesum to provide a safe space for youth from underprivileged neighborhoods and backgrounds (Jews, Arabs and Emigrates in Jaffa). ==Visual arts== Creating artwork inside the Nazi concentration camps and ghettos was punishable; if found, the person who created it could be killed. The Nazis branded art that portrayed their regime poorly as "horror propaganda". Nonetheless, many people painted and sketched as inhabitants needed a way to bring life into their lives and express their human need to create and be creative. The Nazis found many of the artists' works before the prisoners could complete them. ===Works by victims and survivors=== * A survivor of the Nazi onslaught in Zamosc, Poland Artist Irene Wechter Lieblich started painting at the age of 48 after her immigration to the United States. She was a recognized New York painter who painted pre-Nazi Jewish cultural life of Shtetls surrounding Zamosc, as well as Holocaust paintings while incarcerated in a ghetto, and Jews attempting to flee from the Nazis. She went on early in her art career illustrating the children's books of Nobel laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer who lauded her work as being authentic to Jewish life in Poland before the war. * David Olère began to draw at Auschwitz during the last days of the camp. He felt compelled to capture Auschwitz artistically to illustrate the fate of all those that did not survive. He exhibited his work at the State Museum of Les Invalides and the Grand Palais in Paris, at the Jewish Museum in New York City, at the Berkeley Museum, and in Chicago. * Alice Lok Cahana (1929–2017), a Hungarian Holocaust survivor, is well known for her artwork dealing with her experiences in Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen as a teenage inmate. Her piece, No Names, was installed in the Vatican Museum's Collection of Modern Religious Art.Houston Chronicle (12 November 2006) Johnson, Patricia C. "Pope welcomes Houston artist to Vatican Museum" Her work is also exhibited at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem and at the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. Her art was featured in the 1999 Academy award-winning documentary, The Last Days. * Esther Nisenthal Krinitz (1927–2001), a Polish survivor untrained in art, told her story in a series of 36 fabric art pictures that are at once both beautiful and shocking. Memories of Survival (2005) displays her art along with a narrative by her daughter, Bernice Steinhardt. * While inside the Łódź Ghetto, Mendel Grossman took over 10,000 photographs of the monstrosities he saw there. Grossman secretly took these photos from inside his raincoat using materials taken from the Statistics Department. He was deported to a labor camp in Koenigs Wusterhausen and stayed there until 16 April 1945. Ill and exhausted, he was shot by Nazis during a forced death march, still holding on to his camera but the negatives of his photos were discovered and published in the book With a Camera in the Ghetto. The photos illustrate the sad reality of how the Germans dealt with the Jews. * German internment camps were much less strict with art. A black, Jewish artist named Josef Nassy created over 200 drawings and paintings while he was at the Laufen and Tittmoning camps in Bavaria. ===Works with Holocaust as theme=== * A number of artists produced pictures of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in the months following its liberation, including Leslie Cole, Mary Kessell, Sargeant Eric Taylor (one of the camp's liberators), Mervyn Peake, and Doris Zinkeisen. * In Israel, many additional artists have dealt with the subject of the Holocaust, including the partisan Alexander Bogen, Moshe Gershuni, Joseph (Yoske) Levy, Yigal Tumarkin, and others. Children of survivors have also expressed their personal family stories through various forms of visual art, such as quilting. An exhibition held at Yad Vashem in 2011 Virtues of Memory highlighted six decades of Holocaust survivors' creativity. *The Visual artist Yishay Garbasz has devoted a large part of her art career to the inheritance of Traumatic memories as a second generation to the Holocaust. Including her book "In My Mother's Footsteps" she follows her mother's footsteps through the Holocaust as well as many other projects exhibited in many galleries and museums around the world as well as the Busan biennale 2010. * The pop art painter Dan Groover produced several paintings on the Shoah theme, which were presented in an exhibition in Emek Refaim Street in Jerusalem. * Israel-born artist Judith Weinshall Liberman has created 1,000 paintings and wall hangings, including the Holocaust Wall Hangings, a series of 60 fabric banners illustrating the plight of Jews and other minorities during the Holocaust. ==See also== * Bibliography of The Holocaust * Glossary of Nazi Germany * Holocaust humor * List of composers influenced by the Holocaust * List of books about Nazi Germany * Nazi exploitation * Nazi songs * World War II in art and literature * Yellow badge ==References== ==External links== *Basic bibliography of the Holocaust *DaHo - Bibliographic database on Holocaust literature and culture in Central and Eastern Europe *Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies: Artist Gallery From Holocaust Survivors And Remembrance Project—iSurvived.org: :* Inmate Art from Concentration Camps and Gettos: Expressing the Inexpressible :* Contemporary Art About and in Response to the Holocaust :* Holocaust Literature :* Music of the Holocaust--A Remembering for the Future *Heartstrings: Music of the Holocaust an online exhibition by Yad Vashem * Music of the Holocaust, Teacher's Guide * Music of the Holocaust, CSUS * Art and the Holocaust from University of Pennsylvania * Unspeakable - The artist as witness to the Holocaust. Imperial War Museum exhibition *United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Music of the Holocaust and Poetry and the Holocaust * Essay on the history of Holocaust cinema DEFA Film Library Massachusetts * Jacob The Liar World ORT Resources: * Music and the Holocaust * Learning about the Holocaust Through Art * Roy, Pinaki. "Damit Wir Nicht Vergessen!: A very brief Survey of Select Holocaust Plays". English Forum (), 4, March 2015: 121–41.
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The siege of Goražde (; ) refers to engagements during the Bosnian War (1992–95) in and around the town of Goražde in eastern Bosnia. On 4 May 1992, Goražde was besieged by the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). It was attacked from three sides - from the north, the south and the east. The Muslim majority towns in close proximity to Goražde, such as Foča, Rogatica and Višegrad had already been taken by the Yugoslav People's Army in the earlier months of 1992, leaving only the Muslim stronghold of Goražde left in the southern Bosnian Podrinje region. Goražde was one of six Bosniak enclaves, alongside Bihać, Sarajevo, Srebrenica, Tuzla and Žepa, to be surrounded and besieged by the Bosnian Serb Army. == Background == Goražde is a small town in eastern Bosnia close to the Serbian border. According to the 1991 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia census, Goražde (including the present-day Novo Goražde) had a population of 37,573, 26,296 of which were Bosnian Muslims (or Bosniaks) and 9,843 Serbs. This figure showed that the majority of the population were Bosniaks, with the rest being Serbs. The town of Goražde itself was inhabited by 16,273 people when Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1992. On 9 Jan 1992, a Bosnian Serb state was declared, ahead of the 29 February–1 March referendum on independence. Later renamed the Republika Srpska, it developed its own military as the JNA withdrew from Croatia and handed over its weapons, equipment and 55,000 troops to the newly created Bosnian Serb army. By 1 March, Bosnian Serb forces set up barricades in Sarajevo and elsewhere and later that month Bosnian Serb artillery began shelling the town of Bosanski Brod. By 4 April, Sarajevo was shelled. In May 1992, the ground forces of Bosnian Serb state officially became known as the Army of Republika Srpska (Serbian: Vojska Republike Srpske, VRS). By the end of 1992, the VRS held seventy percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the outbreak of the war, eastern Bosnia, a Bosniak-majority territory before the war, was subjected to ethnic cleansing operations and numerous atrocities involving murder, rape on a massive scale, plundering, and forced relocation by Serb forces and paramilitary gangs. Taking place throughout the municipalities of Srebrenica, Vlasenica, Rogatica, Bratunac, Višegrad, Zvornik and Foča, the purpose of these operations was to create in eastern Bosnia a contiguous Serb-controlled land having a common border with Serbia. == Siege == The VRS had begun a campaign of indiscriminate shelling, often hitting civilian buildings and inflicting mass casualties. Sniper attacks were frequent and many civilians chose not to leave their homes. The fighting was reported to become even more intense during the weekend, with Serbs from Serbia proper joining in to fight the Bosniaks. In response to the inhumane treatment of civilians by the VRS, the local units of the Bosnian Ministry of the Interior (MUP) began a campaign of retribution against the Bosnian Serb civilians who were still living in the city. Dozens of local Serbs were arrested and executed in the local school; a hundred more, including women and children, were forcibly held as human shields to protect the police station from shelling. In August 1992, 1st and 31st Drina Strike Brigades of the ARBiH successfully accomplished the Operation Circle, thereby pushing the VRS forces out of the eastern suburbs. However, the siege continued.thumb|Frontlines of the Yugoslav Wars in 1993|leftAs the war progressed, Goražde's humanitarian situation began to worsen. The massive influx of refugees from the surrounding areas meant that Goražde's population had increased from the pre-war number of 37,573, to roughly 70,000. This sharp increase was because non-Serbs, mainly Bosniaks, had fled their homes from the surrounding areas such as Višegrad, Foča, and Rogatica. Disease was extremely prevalent in Goražde. In April 1993, Goražde was made into a United Nations Safe Area, along with other besieged towns such as Srebrenica, Tuzla and Bihać. The United Nations provided humanitarian assistance for the starving civilians trapped in Goražde enclave. They established safe passes which would transport aid to the enclave but eventually closed the routes for the humanitarian convoys and instead dropped aid packages by air due to large casualties using the safe passes. These packages contained little food, and were insufficient for the whole population. thumb|A map depicting the full VRS encirclement of Goražde by 1993. In May 1993, the Bosnian Serbs launched an offensive in the Goražde region. The VRS secured complete control of the Višegrad municipality, pushing the Bosniaks out of the western countryside of the town, and took the villages of Međeđa, Kaoštice and Ustiprača using the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Podrinje Brigades. The Serbs then used the 11th and 18th Herzegovina Brigades, the 1st Guards Motorised Brigade, and the 65th Protection Motorised Regiment to seize the town of Trnovo on 11 July 1993 and take the nearby village of Jabuka, finally severing the land bridge that connected Goražde to central Bosnia. The offensive also encircled Sarajevo using the 1st Igman Infantry Brigade, the 2nd Sarajevo Infantry Brigade and the Elms Motorized Regiment. Though, this encirclement was broken later. Between 30 March and 23 April 1994, the Serbs launched another major offensive with the aim overrunning Goražde. On 9 April 1994, the Secretary General of the UN, citing Security Resolution 836, threatened airstrikes on the Serbian forces which were attacking the Goražde enclave. For the next two days, NATO planes carried out air strikes against Serb tanks and outposts, however, these attacks did little to stop the overwhelming Bosnian Serb Army. Knowing Goražde would fall without foreign intervention, NATO issued the Serbs an ultimatum, and the Serbs were forced to comply. Under the conditions of the ultimatum, the Serbs had to withdraw all militias to 3km from the town by 23 April 1994, and all of their artillery and armored vehicles from the town by 26 April 1994. The VRS complied. On 28 May 1995, Goražde, was again targeted by the VRS, who ignored the ultimatum and launched an attack on UN guard posts. Around 350 UN servicemen were taken hostage, including 33 Royal Welch Fusiliers, but the remaining men from the Royal Welch Fusiliers who were already stationed there and reinforcement Bosniak troops prevented the VRS from taking over the UN post. Goražde avoided the brutal end that happened to Srebrenica, where the Bosnian Serbs continued on to after the failed attempt. == Role of the UN == > 'I would say that the role of the international community in general in > Bosnia and Herzegovina was very dishonourable' - Ferid Buljubašić In April 1994, during the large-scale Serb offensive on Goražde, a group of 20 soldiers from the UK’s Special Air Service regiment had been hurriedly evacuated under the perception that the enclave would fall into Serb hands. This immediately ruined the reputation of the UN as they were seen that they would rather leave than defend the town's doomed population of 70,000. NATO planes also bombed Serb tanks which had already been destroyed. The British UN detachment in Goražde had also been reported to be faking execution of their tasks and generally being 'extremely inclined towards the Serbs.' === Operation Screwdriver === Operation Screwdriver was the plan to evacuate all of the UN British Troops who were stationed in Goražde if the enclave came under attack from Bosnian Serb forces. The British Prime Minister at the time, John Major, was reluctant to reinforce the town's population of roughly 30,000 and instead wanted to bring the British troops back home. The operation would include an air-evacuation from Goražde using several Harrier fighter jets, 14 attack bombers and a fleet of 30 helicopters, all of which were on standby in a nearby Italian air base. The operation would also involve roughly 1,500 frontline and support personnel, and was estimated to last between 10 and 15 minutes. Britain had anticipated that Goražde would share the same fate as Srebrenica, and estimated the town would fall to the Serb forces in roughly 7-14 days. John Major didn't want Britain to be dragged into a war with the VRS, and his senior military commander, Field Marshal Peter Inge, fully supported the operation. According to its rubric, it was most likely to be used 'after a period of chaos following a major battle in which one side - most probably the Vojska Republike Srpske (Bosnian Serb Army) - has emerged victorious'. By the end of the war, however, the operation had not commenced. == War crimes == In October 2019, the state court in Sarajevo found Ibro Merkez guilty, as the former chief of the police’s Public Security Station in Goražde, of unlawfully detaining Serb civilians and treating them in inhumanely manner between the middle of July 1992 and August 4 the same year Merkez was sentenced to two years in prison, while two other former policemen, Predrag Bogunić and Esef Hurić, were acquitted of all charges. Merkez was further acquitted of charges related to the period after August 4, 1992, because he was wounded and underwent medical treatment. Despite the presence of United Nations personnel throughout the siege, no member of the international community has confirmed the execution allegations as credible. In December 2021, Bosnia’s state prosecution also said that they has charged two people, Branislav Lasica and Miroslav Milović, with committing war crimes in 1992 against the civilian population of the Goražde area of eastern Bosnia, organising a group of people and incitement to the commission of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes, as well as violation of the laws and customs of war. The charges say that in their capacity as commanders of units of the Bosnian Serb Army, VRS, in that area, Lasica and Milović commanded and participated in an attack in Lozje, where around 30 people were killed. Most of the victims allegedly were civilians, including women, children and the elderly, and several dozen people were taken away and detained. Property was destroyed or appropriated on a large scale. The prosecution intends to invite 139 witnesses and introduce 251 pieces of evidence. The indictment has been filed with the state court, the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for confirmation. Another Serb military commander, Brane Petković, was also indicted for war crimes by the Bosnian court. However, Petković failed to turn up to his court hearing on 16 June 2022. The State Court said that he had also failed to attend an earlier hearing on 10 March 2022 as well. It said that the Justice Ministry sought international legal assistance from competent bodies in the neighbouring country. The indictment, confirmed in November 2020, said that Petković – as superior officer to the commander of the District Headquarters of the Territorial Defense, TO, of Gorazde Serb Municipality, and commanders and members of the TO Municipal Headquarters’ Company – failed to prevent his subordinates from committing crimes or punish crime perpetrators – although he knew or could have known that his subordinates were either getting ready to commit or had committed crimes. During that attack, it said, seven Bosniak men were captured and taken in unknown direction and killed. Their remains were discovered in a mass grave in the village of Siseta, in Gorazde municipality, on March 17, 1993. In a report to the State Prosecution, British judge Joanna Korner wrote that the potential benefit of indicting unavailable persons is often “outweighed by the costs in time and resources”. Despite that, such practices have been followed by other prosecutors’ offices in Bosnia and Herzegovina either, as BIRN reported before. == Aftermath == Goražde was the only Bosniak enclave in the Eastern Podrinje region to survive besiegement, and in the Dayton Agreement in December 1995, a land bridge between Goražde and Sarajevo was opened, through the municipality of Trnovo, and the newly formed municipalities of Foča-Ustikolina and Pale-Prača. With the signing of the accords, the siege ended. ==Casualties== According to the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo (RDC), Goražde recorded 511 civilians (126 Serbs and 385 non-Serbs, mostly Bosniaks) and 1,100 soldiers who lost their lives during the war. Some sources place the total number of people killed or wounded at roughly 7,000, 548 of whom were children. ==References== Category:Goražde Category:Bosnian War Category:Serbian war crimes in the Bosnian War
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Sword of Destiny () is the second published short story collection in Polish fantasy writer Andrzej Sapkowski's The Witcher series. Although published in 1992, it is officially considered the second entry in the series, behind The Last Wish, which was published the following year. Sword of Destiny was first published in English in the UK by Gollancz in 2015. The anthology consists of six stories, loosely linked in chronology. They introduce characters that become major players in the later novels, which began with 1994's Blood of Elves and are known as The Witcher Saga. The titular story, "The Sword of Destiny", introduces the character of Ciri. The following story, "Something More", is a direct prequel to the novels. ==Plot== ===""=== Geralt of Rivia meets the traveling knight Borch "Three Jackdaws" and his Zerrikanian bodyguards Tea and Vea, who seek a green dragon. Although Geralt is a Witcher, a professional monster slayer, he explains that he does not kill dragons, because they do not prey on humans. They join a larger party hunting the dragon, including Geralt's friend Dandelion; a group of dwarves led by Yarpen Zigrin; a mercenary group known as the Crinfrid Reavers, and another led by Boholt; chivalry-obsessed paladin Eyck of Denesle; a company of men-at-arms led by the underaged King Niedamir; and the sorcerers Dorregaray and Geralt's ex-lover Yennefer. The party eventually encounters a golden dragon, Villentretenmerth, who offers a fair battle to anyone who wishes to challenge him. Eyck of Denesle accepts and is defeated, which weakens the party's resolve and causes King Niedamir's cadre to leave. Boholt, the dwarves, and the Reavers elect to attack the dragon together and split the treasure. Geralt, Dorregaray, and Dandelion disagree, for which they are paralyzed by Yennefer and tied to a cart. Yennefer attempts to disable the dwarves and Reavers so she can kill the dragon herself, as its viscera will supposedly cure her infertility, but is disabled instead. Villentretenmerth, bored of waiting, enters the struggle and dispatches the Reavers and dwarves. He leaves a fledgling green dragon with the remaining party members and attacks an oncoming militia from a nearby village. Tea and Vea appear and assist the golden dragon, revealing that Borch was actually Villentretenmerth in human form. Reassuming his human form, Villentretenmerth explains that the green dragon, Myrgtabrakke, called him for assistance and left him her "treasure" (her hatchling) as payment. Geralt asks Villentretenmerth why he chooses a human disguise. Villentretenmerth admits that, unlike the rest of dragonkind, he likes humans. He says that Yennefer's infertility is irreversible, but she refuses to give up on finding a cure. Villentretenmerth returns to his dragon form and flies away. ===""=== Geralt hunts and kills a zeugl living in a garbage heap outside of Aedd Gynvael. He returns to Yennefer at their inn and complains that the town's atmosphere is making him confused and short- tempered. Yennefer insists that they stay because she likes the town and its history, and because she is visiting her sorcerer friend Istredd. The two make love. The next morning, Geralt meets the pompous warrior Ivo Mirce (a.k.a. "Cicada") who works for the alderman Herbolth, who pays Geralt his fee for killing the zeugl but subtracts a small tax. Herbolth also mentions that Yennefer has been in Aedd Gynvael many times before to visit Istredd. As Geralt leaves, Cicada harasses him. Geralt meets with Istredd, who confides that he loves Yennefer and proposed marriage to her, but she asked for time to think about it. Istredd believes that Geralt's presence makes her decision difficult, and wishes for Geralt to leave and never see her again. Istredd insists that he's a better mate for her than Geralt, as witchers do not actually feel emotions. Geralt insists that Yennefer loves him, as she slept with him the night before. Istredd smugly replies that she slept with him that morning. Yennefer returns home that night, and she and Geralt discuss their natures. Yennefer creates a black kestrel with her magic and asks it what the truth is, and it replies that "the truth is a shard of ice." The next day, Geralt and Istredd agree to duel for Yennefer's hand. Herbolth intervenes and says the town needs Istredd's services, and Geralt is not allowed to kill him. Tired and affected by the recent events, Geralt walks into a dark alley without his weapons and is attacked by two thieves, who leave him after realizing he is a witcher. One thief tells him to not involve others if he wishes to commit suicide. That evening, he receives a message from Yennefer. The next morning, Geralt beats Cicada and his men before meeting Istredd, who has received a note from Yennefer, wishing him farewell. Istredd does not accept this and still wishes to fight Geralt. Geralt repeats the thieves' words to him and leaves. ===""=== Geralt meets Dandelion in the capital metropolis of Novigrad after the latter is kicked out by his enraged lover Vespula. The pair head to a nearby inn where Dandelion asks his friend, the halfling merchant Dainty Biberveldt, to pay his outstanding tab and buy them dinner. Dainty is afraid of Geralt and the trio makes small talk before they are interrupted by another beaten Dainty. The Dainty whom Geralt and Dandelion were talking to is a mimic—also known as a vexling, or a doppler—a creature that can transform into and mimic others. The doppler introduces himself as Tellico Lunngrevink Letorte, nicknamed "Dudu". Dudu attacked Dainty outside of Novigrad, stole his horses and caravan, and sold them to buy seemingly worthless goods in Dainty's name, leaving Dainty destitute and sullying his reputation. Geralt refuses to kill Dudu because he is an intelligent being. Dudu escapes and Dainty is ordered by Schwann, a city official, to pay a tax on Dudu's profits, which Dainty cannot afford. The trio are accosted by Chappelle, royal minister of security affairs and head of the city's secret police. Chappelle tells them that stories of a doppler in the city must stop spreading, as the city is protected by the Eternal Fire, which promises protection from monsters and similar threats. Muskrat, the merchant guild's treasurer, arrives and tells Dainty that the 'useless' goods bought by Dudu have sold for massive profits, due to recent political events. Vimme Vivaldi, a banker friend of Dainty's, has made Dudu's transactions thus far. He explains that Dudu's worthless purchases were a cover for legitimate ones, that have resold for exorbitant prices. Due to Dudu's successes, Dainty has recovered his fortune and reputation, with the taxes paid in full. However, Dudu is still at large, making "random" purchases and sales with Dainty's face. Geralt, Dandelion, and Dainty find Dudu and give chase. Dudu transforms into Geralt to fight him, but is too good-natured and loses. Dudu explains that he merely wishes to assimilate and survive in the city. He transforms into Dandelion and heads into the market, where he is beaten by a still-angry Vespula. Geralt captures Dudu, but is stopped by Chappelle, who reveals that he is also a doppler, taking a recently deceased Chappelle's form. Dainty, Dudu, and Chappelle agree that Dudu can live in the city under the alias of Dainty's cousin, Dudu Biberveldt, and work as his proxy in Novigrad. Dudu reveals that his "random" purchases will be used for more Eternal Fire altars, making another fortune. ===""=== Geralt acts as translator to help Duke Agloval propose to his lover, the mermaid Sh'eenaz. The proposal is unsuccessful because neither party agrees to transform themselves to live with the other, and Agloval refuses to pay Geralt. He meets up with Dandelion and his close friend Essi Daven, a female minstrel known as "Little Eye". Agloval arrives with a job for Geralt. A pearl-diving boat was found floating alone in the ocean, with the crew vanished and blood splatters on the deck, presumably the work of a sea monster. After accepting the job, Geralt and Essi share a kiss, which neither can explain. The next day, Geralt begins his hunt, and Essi joins him. Geralt fails to find anyone willing to take him to the fishing boat's location. Sh'eenaz warns Geralt away from the site. Essi's nautical knowledge, however, allows Geralt to reach the site, which he does with Dandelion. The two find stairs leading into the water, which Dandelion theorizes leads to the sunken city of Ys. The pair are attacked by undersea creatures. Geralt is dragged underwater as he and Dandelion escape, but is saved by Sh'eenaz, who again warns him away. While dressing his wounds, Essi admits her love for Geralt. However, Geralt feels nothing for her, due to his love for Yennefer. He allows Essi to spend the evening with him, and gives her a pearl found on the stairs to Ys, which Essi swears to keep. Geralt tells Agloval of the undersea race, but refuses to kill them, as they are intelligent. Agloval decides to go to war with the creatures, despite Geralt and Essi's pleas against it. However, Sh'eenaz arrives, having become human, so that she may marry Agloval and live with him. Geralt, Dandelion, and Essi leave and travel together, with Geralt and Essi eventually ending their affair. Dandelion composes a ballad the night before they part ways, about a witcher and a bard falling in love, but never performs it. Geralt and Essi never see each other again, and Essi dies in a smallpox epidemic a few years later, with Dandelion burying her with her lute and the pearl Geralt gave her. ===""=== Geralt heads to Brokilon, the Last Forest, to deliver a message to the queen of the dryads, Eithne, from King Venzlav. He finds bodies left by the dryads, along with one survivor, his friend Freixenet, alive but wounded. Dryads accost Geralt and the dryad Braenn agrees to take him to Eithne. Geralt and Braenn encounter and kill a giant centipede threatening a girl named Ciri, who joins them. Ciri likes Geralt, and explains that she is a princess and was going to be married off to Prince Kistrin, son of King Ervyll, but ran away. Braenn, Geralt, and Ciri arrive in Duen Canell, the heart of Brokilon. Freixenet's wounds have been treated, as the dryads intend for him to impregnate some of them. Ciri realizes that the dryads plan to keep her—the dryads bolster their numbers by taking and brainwashing young girls into their culture, as they had done to Braenn. Geralt meets Eithne and the two discuss destiny, which Eithne believes is a "doubled-edged sword". Eithne allows Ciri to choose whether she wants to stay in the forest or leave with Geralt. She makes Ciri drink the water of Brokilon, which removes memories of a former life, but it doesn't affect Ciri. At the same time, drinking the water causes Geralt to realize that Ciri is "Cirilla, daughter of Pavetta and granddaughter to Queen Calanthe of Cintra, and Geralt's promised 'Child of Destiny' as per the Law of Surprise (which he enacted in "A Question of Price"). Ciri and Geralt awaken at the edge of Brokilon, released by Eithne. The two move towards Brugge to tell King Venzlav that Eithne refuses to concede land to him. They encounter Verdan mercenaries, sent by King Ervyll, who have murdered a group of merchants and plan to use the incident to provoke war with the dryads. Geralt fights them while Ciri hides, and is helped by dryads and the druid Mousesack, who has been sent to bring Ciri to Cintra. As they journey to Cintra, Mousesack confides that Calanthe has canceled Ciri's arranged marriage to Kistrin, and Ervyll's dishonorable actions will reinforce her decision. Ciri and Mousesack urge Geralt to take Ciri with him, as expected under the Law of Surprise, but Geralt declines, and attempts to leave while Ciri is sleeping. Ciri wakes up and calls to Geralt, insisting that she is his destiny, but he walks away. ===""=== Geralt saves the merchant Yurga from monsters that had toppled Yurga's cart, after exacting the Law of Surprise from him. Geralt defeats the monsters but is severely wounded. Yurga puts him in his cart and gives Geralt one of his healing potions, which knocks Geralt unconscious and causes him to dream of memories. In the first, Geralt spends Beltane with Yennefer, who says that they can't stay together, which he accepts. In the next, Geralt visits Cintra six years after his visit in 'A Question of Price'. He notices children playing in the moat of the castle. Calanthe allows him to guess which child is Pavetta's, who died with Duny in a shipwreck, and take it, but will not tell him if he is correct. She has learned of the witcher's training and is afraid of what will happen to her grandchild if taken. Geralt however had no intentions to call in his promise, wanting to look into the face of destiny and understand. Geralt explains that he was abandoned by his sorceress mother, not claimed by the witcher's Law of Surprise, and still doesn't believe in destiny. Believing Pavetta had a son, he claims the son isn't playing in the moat and leaves. Geralt awakes and finds his mother Visenna healing him. Geralt wishes to look at her and know if destiny has led them back to each other, but Visenna refuses, saying that it won't change anything. The next day, Yurga tells Geralt about the battle of Sodden that drove back the Nilfgaardian forces, but killed fourteen sorcerers who fought there. There is a monument listing the dead sorcerers' names. Geralt goes there and remembers encounters with the sorcerers listed, before meeting Death in the form of a young woman. She reads him the last name on the monument, Yennefer of Vengerberg. Heartbroken, Geralt asks Death to take him but she refuses. Yurga later tells Geralt that he knows the names, and the last is not Yennefer. Geralt rescinds his Law of Surprise after Yurga offers one of his sons for witcher training. Geralt recalls meeting Dandelion soon after Nilfgaard began marching across the continent. Geralt saves Dandelion and promises to help him cross the river after he goes to Cintra. Dandelion tells him that Cintra has fallen, with Calanthe throwing herself from the castle walls and all of the nobility committing suicide. Ciri is missing and assumed dead. Despondent, Geralt asks Dandelion if he believes in destiny, and claims that even if two people are destined to be together, there must be "something more" for that destiny to mean anything. Finally, Geralt and Yurga arrive at the latter's house. Yurga's wife has a surprise: she has taken in a young girl orphaned in the attacks. The child is revealed to be Ciri, who escaped Cintra. Ciri and Geralt embrace and Ciri asks if she is his destiny, to which Geralt responds that she is "something more". ==Production== The first collection of Andrzej Sapkowski's short stories was simply titled The Witcher and published by Reporter in 1990. SuperNowa acquired the publishing rights to the series that same year and published Sword of Destiny in 1992 as their first entry. In 1993, they published The Last Wish to replace Reporter's collection as the first book in their official order. Chronologically speaking, the stories in The Last Wish take place before those in Sword of Destiny. Sword of Destiny was translated into English translation by David French and published in the United Kingdom by Gollancz on May 21, 2015. == Audiobook == In 2011, after the success of the audio play based on Sapkowski's Narrenturm, Fonopolis and audioteka.pl released the audio plays based on The Last Wish and Sword of Destiny. Sword of Destiny, lasting about 15 hours, was voiced by 49 actors, including as Geralt, Anna Dereszowska as Yennefer, as Dandelion, as Ciri, and as narrator. == Reception == Sword of Destiny won the 2012 Tähtifantasia Award in Finland. ==Adaptations== *"The Bounds of Reason" was adapted in The Witcher television series episode "Rare Species" (1st Season). *Elements of "Sword of Destiny" were adapted in The Witcher episode "Of Banquets, Bastards and Burials" (1st Season). *"A Shard of Ice", even though not directly adapted in The Witcher series, introduces Istredd who is one of the key figures in first two seasons of the show. Taken from the story, his first meeting with Geralt which reveals that both were involved with Yennefer is part of the plot line of the "Turn Your Back" episode of the 2nd Season. *"Something More" was adapted into the two episodes that ended season one of The Witcher: "Before a Fall" and "Much More". ==Notes== == References == ==External links== *Review *Review Category:1993 short story collections Category:Fantasy short story collections Category:The Witcher Category:Polish short story collections Category:Polish fantasy
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The Lee-on-the-Solent Line was a three mile long railway in Hampshire, England; it was built by the Lee-on-the-Solent Railway company, promoted in association with a landowner's wish to develop a new seaside resort on his land. It ran from Lee-on-the-Solent to a station at Brockhurst (Fort Brockhurst) on the Gosport line of the London and South Western Railway, but there was no through running. The company tried to operate with extremely low operating costs and ran into conflict with the operational requirements of the Board of Trade. It opened its line in 1894, but was not commercially successful, and after some military usage before 1918, patronage declined as road passenger services increased in reliability. The line closed to passengers in 1931 and completely in 1935. ==History== ===Lee-on-the-Solent=== thumb|The Lee-on-the-Solent Railway 1894 Lee-on-the-Solent lies on the coast about four miles west of Gosport. In the middle decades of the nineteenth century it was undeveloped, but the area was owned by Sir John C Robinson. He saw the potential of developing the locality into a high class "watering place" similar to Bournemouth. With the help of one of his sons, he constructed Marine Parade, a broad thoroughfare more than a mile in length, together with an esplanade along the sea front. In addition he started the development of a new housing scheme. A pier was essential to a seaside resort, he believed, and using his own money, he provided one, which opened in 1888. A steamer service made calls there in the summer months.Kevin Robertson, The Railways of Gosport, Including the Stokes Bay and Lee-on-the-Solent Branches, Noodle Books, Southampton, 2009, ISBN 978-1-906419-25-7, pages 25 and 26 ===Lee-on-the-Solent Railway Company=== A railway connection too was believed to be essential and the Lee-on-the-Solent Railway Company was established. The engineer R H Tigg estimated the expense of the enterprise as £22,052. The Company obtained a Board of Trade Certificate to construct and operate the line on 5 July 1890.Donald J Grant, Directory of the Railway Companies of Great Britain, Matador, Kibworth Beauchamp, 2017, ISBN 978 1785893 537 The Lee-on-the-Solent Light Railway was incorporated under the provisions of the Railway Construction Facilities Act of 1864 as a light railway.H P White, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: volume II: Southern England, Phoenix House, London, 1961, page 126 The Act enabled the construction of a railway without a special Act if landowners assented (among other conditions), and it appears that Robinson owned the relevant lands. The mile line was to make a junction with the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) at Brockhurst, on the Gosport line.Brockhurst was renamed Fort Brockhurst in 1893. Board meetings appear to have been poorly focussed on the business of constructing an operational railway, and there may have been financial impropriety by directors. By early 1892 little construction work had been carried out. It is likely that share subscription was slow to be forthcoming, for in November 1892 it was indicated that Robinson was prepared to render the necessary financial assistance personally. This enabled work to proceed, and the construction was substantially complete by the spring of 1893. ===Board of Trade approval=== The consent of the Board of Trade was essential to passenger operation, and at this stage the Company informed the Board that "As the line is to be very light for some years after opening it is proposed to dispense with stations except at Lee terminus, where the station is half complete, and at Brockhurst where an adjoining platform will allow passengers to use the LSWR waiting room. It is proposed to work the railway with cars of the American type, having end platforms and low steps. The platforms to be only of a height sufficient for stock with steps." Through running to and from the LSWR was apparently not contemplated. Four intermediate stopping places were to be provided, Elmore, Browndown, Privett and Pound Lane Crossing. Each of the three last named would have had a special type of level crossing, where the gates would close automatically after the passage of a train: this would avoid the expense of a crossing keeper. There would be a platform either side of the crossing, and trains would stop at the platform on the approach side of the crossing; the guard would open the gates across the road leaving the gates to be restored across the railway by the actuating mechanism.Robertson, pages 27 and 28 Major Yorke of the Board of Trade made a site inspection on 15 July 1893. He reported that the line failed inspection on thirteen points, including that gauge ties were required on any curves of less than 15 chains radius; that there were no signals at all; that all sidings were supposed to be locked with a key on the train-staff, but the time of inspection the sidings were locked by a loose key; no facing point locks were provided and there were no check rails on 10 chain curves. The comment was also made that the line appeared to have been partly built outside the limits of deviation set and that the gradients were steeper than those originally proposed. Major Yorke sent a telegram to the Board of Trade stating that "I cannot recommend the opening as the works are incomplete". By early 1894 the LSWR, the Lee-on-the-Solent Railway company and the Board of Trade had been negotiating over the subject of through trains. Altered track arrangements at Fort Brockhurst would be needed and standard height platforms would be needed at the stopping places, and a porter and waiting shelter would have to be provided at the stations. The LSWR stood back from these discussions as far as possible. But the changes were made and on 28 March 1894 the Lee-on-Solent board informed the Railway Inspectorate that the line would be ready for re-inspection the next month. The plan was to open the line on 28 April 1894. They added that they intended to use the two engines belonging to the company, and that the two "American or tramcar-type carriages" had been fitted with continuous footboards at the same height as ordinary carriages. Platform heights had been raised to 3 feet and would be provided with lamps. If permission were given to using ordinary passenger stock in an emergency, an undertaking would be given not to stop at other than at Brockhurst and Lee. The re-inspection, again by Major Yorke, took place on 7 May 1894. He found that buffers were absent at Brockhurst on a siding; that the new platform ramps were too steep; and that fencing was needed at the rear of Privett and Browndown stations. He reminded the company that a 10 mph maximum speed would operate as they had agreed. On that basis he gave provisional sanction given for the opening with a further re- inspection in June. ===Opening=== thumb|Railway clearing house map of lines around Gosport The company arranged a formal opening on 12 May 1894. To operate the new service a locomotive was hired from the South Western, notwithstanding the previous remark about the company's own engines. White states that a contractor worked the line until 1909. The initial service comprised eight trains each way daily with three on Sundays, all services calling by request at the two intermediate halts of Browndown and Privett. Later the timetable was changed to afford a slightly reduced number during the winter months. The fact that the first train did not leave Brockhurst until 10:15 indicates the type of patronage the line wished to attract.Robertson, page 29 From the time of opening up to and including 20 May 1894 total traffic receipts were £30 3s 5d. Wages amounted to £44 a month. Development of business was hampered by the need to change trains at Brockhurst: through running to the line was not possible because of the track layout there. A re-inspection of the facilities took place on 5 November 1894, as promised when provisional opening sanction had been given. As before, the Inspecting Officer was Col Yorke (the change of title indicating promotion in the previous 6 months) who noted that the banks of the two bridges should be watched, due to doubts about their stability. There was agreement with the Board of Trade that the speed limit on the line might be raised to 20 mph.Robertson, page 31 and 32 In June 1895 the LSWR informed the Company that both the locomotives they were hiring were worn out and no other suitable machines were available for the line's 8-ton axle loading. However it would be possible, the LSWR said, to operate the service with railmotors. The easy gradients and generous timings were unlikely to show up the deficiencies in pulling power these vehicles had exhibited elsewhere. To make such a change, the LSWR would need to take formal powers to work the line, which they did, effective from 26 July 1909. The railmotor service started from 1 August 1895; the vehicle concerned was No 9 of the H13 class, sister machine No 10 joining in from 1 September 1909. The train service was now ten trains each way daily on weekdays, with five on Sundays in July only. A new halt was also opened at Elmore on 11 April 1910. The railmotors lasted in use until 1915, when the working reverted to locomotive haulage and push-and-pull trains, which remained the pattern for most of the remaining life of the line. During the First World War traffic actually increased on account of military construction work at Lee-on-the-Solent.Michael G Harvey and Eddie Rooke, Railway Heritage: Portsmouth, Silver Link Publishing, Peterborough, 1997, ISBN 1 85794 104 7, page 66 ==Grouping of the railways== In 1923 most of the railways of Great Britain were transferred into the ownership of one or other of four new large companies, following the Railways Act 1921, in a process known as the grouping. The Lee-on-the-Solent company, and the LSWR, would transfer into the Southern Railway. The finances of the Lee concern had to be resolved, as a large financial deficit had accumulated. In 1908, expenditure of £1,100 had been remunerated with income of £700 only. The asset value of the line was £4,400 was set against debts of some £14,600. The Southern Railway was reluctant to acquire a concern with a negative value. Bonavia puts it more strongly: "The Lee-on[-the]-Solent Railway was bankrupt and the Southern fought right up to the Court of Appeal against being forced to assume its liabilities."Michael R Bonavia, The History of the Southern Railway, Unwin Hyman, London, 1987, ISBN 004 385107 X, page 5 The matter was decided by arbitration at an Amalgamation Tribunal on 4 January 1923, which determined that the Southern should be responsible and an appeal by the Southern a few months later against the decision was dismissed. The last board meeting of the Lee Company was held on 1 February 1923. ==Decline from 1923== Bus competition increased rapidly in the late 1920s, and the line was unable to survive: the three intermediate stations closed on 1 May 1930; passenger services ceased completely on 1 January 1931, and the line closed entirely on 30 September 1935. Six men and a dog travelled on the last train.Ernest F Carter, An Historical Geography of the Railways of the British Isles, Cassell, London, 1959, page 478 ==Locations== * Lee-on-the-Solent; opened 12 May 1894; closed 31 August 1914; reopened 1 October 1914; closed 1 January 1931;Railway Passenger Stations by M.Quick page 276 * Elmore; opened 11 April 1910; closed 31 August 1914; reopened 1 October 1914; closed 1 May 1930; * Browndown; opened 12 May 1894; closed 31 August 1914; reopened 1 October 1914; closed 1 May 1930; * Privett; opened 12 May 1894; renamed Fort Gomer Halt 1909; closed 31 August 1914; reopened 1 October 1914; closed 1 May 1930; * Brockhurst; LSWR station; opened November 1865; renamed Fort Brockhurst 23 November 1893; closed 8 June 1953.M E Quick, Railway Passenger Stations in England, Wales and Scotland: A Chronology, version 5.04, September 2022, Railway and Canal Historical Society, electronic download ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *Lee-on- Solent station and line history *Line route map Category:Closed railway lines in South East England Category:Railway lines opened in 1894 Category:Rail transport in Hampshire Category:Railway lines closed in 1935
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Graceville Memorial Park is a heritage-listed park at 173 Oxley Road, Graceville, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was established in 1904. It is also known as Graceville Recreation Reserve and the Sherwood War Memorial. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 September 2006. == History == Graceville Memorial Park, located on a flat, low-lying part of Graceville, was gazetted as the Graceville Recreation Reserve in 1904, but it was referred to as Graceville Memorial Park by 1926. The park was enlarged in July 1979, with the resumption of about of vacant, ownerless land (lot 2, RP 70795) for an access way to Churchill Street, south of the park. From 1840 to 1859 the peninsula that includes the suburb of Graceville was known as Boyland's Pocket, a run for sheep and cattle. After 1859 the area was subdivided into farms with an average size of about . Maize, potatoes, and bananas were grown, cotton was attempted in the 1860s, and sugar cane was produced until a cold spell in the 1870s. The area was relatively isolated from Brisbane until the railway line from Ipswich crossed the river from Chelmer to Indooroopilly in 1875. Graceville's subdivision for residential housing started during the building boom of the 1880s, and the Graceville railway station was opened in 1886. The Shire of Sherwood was created in 1891, excised from the Yeerongpilly Division (created in 1879). From the late 1880s onwards there was an increased interest in Queensland in healthy outdoor recreation, and the flood-prone grassland on which the park was later sited was used as a lacrosse field in the 1890s. The formation of sporting clubs in Queensland led to pressure on local councils to provide facilities, and in May 1904 fourteen acres of this grassland was gazetted as the Graceville Recreation Reserve by the Queensland government. The reserve was vested in the Sherwood Shire Council, to be held in trust for recreation purposes, and the park's primary role since then has been as a leased venue for various team sports, mainly cricket and hockey, but also including soccer, rugby league, and Australian Rules football. A croquet club and a tennis club were also established. Other users included the Graceville Methodist Sunday School, which held classes in a ground shed on the reserve between November 1914 and November 1917, and a bridge club, which was formed at the croquet club premises around 1929. Aviators may have also used the park as an aerodrome in the 1920s. The outpouring of grief in Australia that accompanied the deaths, and overseas burial, of 60,000 service people in World War I, led to a period of memorial building across the nation. A memorial was unveiled in Graceville Recreational Reserve on 28 November 1920 by Lieutenant E.M. Little, chairman of the local R.S.S.A.L.I.A. Funded by public subscriptions, the memorial was designed by Mr I Bennet, and was erected by Andrew Lang Petrie Monumental Works, at a cost of . On a copper scroll made by Ernest Gunderson, 51 soldiers and one nursing sister were included in a list of Sherwood Shire's fallen. 265 men, and seven nurses had enlisted from the Shire. Between 1985 and 1996, a low sandstone wall was built around the monument, and three flagpoles were set to the west. Plaques representing each of the three armed services have also been added to the north, east and west sides of the monument since 1985. In 2004 sandstone pavers replaced the bitumen that had been laid around the monument. Before the unveiling of the memorial, 52 memorial trees were also planted. Bunya pines and cotton trees were set in a single row along Plumridge Street and Appel Street (then called Graceville Parade) to commemorate the dead. Today, 29 bunya pines and 11 cotton trees remain. Some locals claim that there were memorial plaques on these trees, but that the plaques had gone by the 1950s. In addition to the memorial trees on the western and northern edges of the park, an avenue of bauhinias, cabbage tree palms and Chinese elms was planted either side of a drive from Oxley Road to the memorial. A single line of figs and camphor laurels continued west from the memorial towards Appel Street. The eastern section of the drive had a bitumen surface by 1961, but the western section of the memorial drive, from the memorial to Appel Street, has reverted to grass. A trophy field gun captured by the Australian Imperial Force near Abancourt, France, in August 1918 was also sited near the memorial from the early 1920s, but it was removed before 1952. In 1925 the Sherwood Shire was incorporated in the City of Greater Brisbane, and the recreation reserve is referred to as Graceville Memorial Park in the 1926 Park Schedule for the City. However, the emphasis on sports had continued. By 1924 the park contained three cricket ovals, with a shelter and dressing sheds, three croquet lawns, and two tennis courts. The Graceville Croquet Club was formed in March 1919, with Thomas Murray Hall, Member of the Queensland Legislative Council, as its first Patron. A number of returned servicemen were settling in area at this time, and their wives wanted their own sporting activities. The Sherwood Shire Council leased a portion of the park to the croquet club in May 1919. The southernmost of the three croquet lawns remained as rough grass until 1923, and the croquet clubhouse was probably built between 1924 and 1929. The clubhouse has received a small extension to the north since 1985. The Brisbane City Council continues to lease the premises to the club. The nearby Memorial Park Estate used the name of the park for the estate and was available for sale on 24 April 1926. thumb|Grandstand, 2014 The Western Suburbs District Cricket Club was formed in 1921, and it has had an association with the park since 1924. In 1928 the Queensland Cricket association took out a twenty-year lease on playing ovals one and two, and a seasonal lease on oval three. The grandstand facing the number one oval was opened in September 1936. The Brisbane City Council Register of new buildings lists the grandstand on 13 February 1936, with H. Sanham as the contractor, and the Brisbane City Council as the architect. The cost of the brick and timber building was listed at . The two changing rooms and storage area within the brick ground floor have been renovated and reconfigured over time, and the current latticed balustrade at the front of the seating was introduced since 1985. Two similar grandstands currently exist in Brisbane, one at Bulimba Memorial Park (built 1923), and one at Langlands Park (1937). Overlapping ovals replaced the three undersize ovals. The number one oval was reconstructed with ash, its sightscreens were moved, and the arris fence was removed. Soon after 1968 some practice-bowling cages were installed on the south side of the park between the croquet club and the war memorial. Currently, the two main ovals have turf wickets, and a concrete wicket stands where the number three oval used to be located. The cricket clubhouse to the east of the grandstand started as a refreshment stall , and was extended in the 1960s. Both the number two and number three ovals had their own dressing sheds, which have changed or have been removed. The current timber changing- shed facing the number two oval replaced an earlier structure between 1946 and 1952. It has been extended to the south since 1985, and a new aluminium shed has been erected nearby. Although there were two tennis courts in the park's southeast corner by 1924, the Banksia Tennis Club did not take out a formal lease until 1938, for of land. The club also built a timber clubhouse before 1946. The Banksia Tennis Club surrendered its lease in 1989, due to the aging of its membership, and a car park and a half basketball court had replaced the tennis courts, their fences, and clubhouse, by 1993. Other clubs have also used the park over time. The Brisbane Hockey Association has had the winter use of the ovals since 1941, and in 1955 the Graceville United Soccer Club had the winter use of the number four oval, an area in the north of the park between ovals one and three. This area had a concrete wicket by 1952, but this had been removed by 1975. In the 1960s there are also references in Brisbane City Council records to the Sherwood District Junior Australian Rules Club, and the South Rugby League Juniors. There were floodlights on poles around the perimeter of the park by 1961, but in 1975 the South West United Hockey Club requested new lighting, for night training. thumb|Playground, 2014 Other built features in the park include the toilet block near the croquet club, which was built in the late 1960s, and the playground, which existed between the cricket clubhouse and the tennis club by 1961. The playground's equipment was upgraded in 1968, the late 1980s, and in the 1990s. A shade canopy was added in 1993. A bikeway path, along the western and northern perimeter of park, was built about 1991. In 1996, the steamroller, which had been in the playground since the 1960s, was moved, restored, and installed inside a roofed enclosure to the east of the car park. The steamroller is an "S" type, four steam-horse power model, built between 1923 and 1925, by Marshall and Sons and Company, in Gainsborough, England. The ex Brisbane City Council steamroller is listed as an "Engineering and Industrial Heritage Site" on the website of Engineers Australia, Queensland Division. Features that have now been removed include two earth closets, sited either side and to the south of the memorial, which were probably removed around the time that the new toilet block was installed. A zigzag concrete path, installed in the 1960s, once ran through the site of the playground, and some of the tree plantings along Oxley Road, including fig trees and palms, have been replaced. Buildings that have been removed since 1985 include the timber changing shed for the number three oval, and a small shed just north of the croquet club which was replaced by an aluminium shed. == Description == Graceville Memorial Park, bounded by Oxley Rd to the east, Plumridge Street to the north, and Appel Street to the west, lies just to the east of the Ipswich to Brisbane railway line, and currently covers . There is vehicle access from Oxley Road, along the memorial drive, and pedestrians can access the park from anywhere along Appel Street, Plumridge Street, and Oxley Road, as well as from the end of Addison Street in the south, and via the access way from Churchill Street. The park is flat, and the main features consist of the tree plantings and buildings. The number one cricket oval is near Oxley road, the number two oval is in the middle of the park, and a concrete wicket is located in the northwest corner of the park. Mature memorial bunya trees and cotton trees are planted on the northern and western perimeter of the park. An avenue of mature bauhinia, cabbage tree palms, and Chinese elms runs from Oxley road to the war memorial, and a single row of mature figs and camphor laurels runs west from the memorial to Appel Street. Behind the grandstand are two mature Moreton Bay fig trees, and two mature bunya pines. The Oxley Road frontage still has some mature fig trees and palm trees, along with more recent plantings. A steamroller stands under a shelter between Oxley Road and the car park. Further west is the cricket clubhouse, a single-story timber building, with a low-pitched skillion roof clad in galvanised iron. A sightboard stands just to the north of the clubhouse, and across the number one oval, a second sightboard stands among the memorial trees on Plumridge Street. === The Cricket Grandstand === The cricket grandstand that faces the number one oval is a rectangular pavilion, with a timber-trussed hipped roof clad in corrugated iron that is supported on plain timber posts. The tiered seating area is supported on an orange brick base, which contains two changing rooms, toilets, and a storage area. The hardwood floorboards of the seating area are covered in bitumen sheeting, and there is a scorer's desk in an upper row of the timber seating. The gable on the northern face has a flagpole and a rising sun motive infill. A divided timber staircase rises to the viewing area on the north face. Below the concrete capping to the walls on the east, west, and south elevations there are decorative panels of roughcast render between the projecting rows of bricks. === War Memorial === The war memorial is at the western end of the memorial avenue of trees, at the south side of the park, and consists of a polished grey granite column set on a light grey granite pedestal, which sits on a stepped base of rusticated grey granite. Sandstone tiles and a low fence of sandstone with eight sandstone bollards surround the high monument. The shaft of the column has a gold laurel wreath imprinted on its north face, and is crowned with a polished ball, which is etched with a map of Australia, and the words "ANZAC". The north face of the pedestal has a small plaque reading The Great War 1914-1919, above a copper scroll that lists the Shire's dead in the First World War and which is inscribed Fallen Heroes of the Sherwood Shire, Honoured and in Memory Evergreen. Under the scroll is a small plaque reading Dulce et Decorum est pro Patria Mori. At the base of the pedestal is the badge of the Royal Australian Navy. On the east face is a plaque reading World War II 1939-45, and under it, is a plaque inscribed In honour of the men and women who served Australia in time of conflict during World War II. Lest We Forget. At the base of the pedestal is the rising sun badge of the Australian army. On the west face a plaque reads Korea-Malaya Borneo-Vietnam. Under this is set the badge of the Royal Australian Air Force. Three flagpoles stand to the west of the monument. === Croquet Clubhouse === The croquet clubhouse and its three playing lawns stand on the Appel Street frontage of the park. Small shade structures with seating are on the borders of the croquet lawns. The clubhouse is a rectangular timber building with its long axis addressing the middle lawn. It has a gabled roof that is clad in corrugated iron. A modern shade structure extends over the southern entrance, and there is an extension at the northern end of the building. A gable projects towards the lawn above an entrance on the northern side there are sash windows. Internally, the clubhouse has a timber floor, with walls and ceiling clad in fibrous cement sheeting. Most of this internal space is used for small tables and chairs and there is a small kitchenette and toilet at one end. Two timber honour boards are displayed. Number two oval's changing shed, which has its back to the croquet lawns, is a timber building on a concrete slab with a skillion roof clad in galvanised iron. It has an extension on its southern end that accommodates a small garage. The features of the Graceville Memorial Park which are not of historical significance include the aluminium storage shed near the croquet clubhouse and the aluminium shed to the south of the number two oval's changing shed; the brick toilet block; the cricket practice nets; a drinking fountain near the playground; the playground and its equipment; the bikeway; the half basketball court and car park; the steamroller's shelter shed; and assorted park seating. == Heritage listing == Graceville Memorial Park was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 September 2006 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. Surviving as a highly visible remnant of the development of the Graceville district, the use of the park for team sports from the 1890s to the present demonstrates the interest in health- promoting recreation that occurred in Queensland from the late 1880s onwards. Reflecting the proliferation of recreational sport clubs that occurred during post-war suburban development, a croquet club was established in the park in 1919, and cricket and tennis facilities were operational by 1924. The Brisbane City Council's expenditure on a cricket grandstand during the Depression demonstrates the continued importance of sport to Queenslanders during the 1930s. The decade after the First World War witnessed demonstrations of grief for those who had died. Graceville Memorial Park's War Memorial, with its linked memorial avenue, and rows of memorial bunya and cottonwood trees along Appel and Plumridge Streets, demonstrates the process of grieving that was occurring across Australia in 1920 and is symbolic of both civic mourning and national pride. The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage. Graceville Memorial Park has features that are now uncommon within a suburban park, such as the handsome and substantial Interwar grandstand and the extensive formal plantings of memorial bunya trees. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. Graceville Memorial Park is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of its class, having open recreational space, sports facilities, clubhouses and a grandstand within a park whose focal point is a War Memorial and which is bordered by memorial plantings. The place is important because of its aesthetic significance. As a large open space with fine mature trees, the park has landmark value. The memorial avenue of trees delineates the ceremonial approach to the War Memorial and effectively marks the park's southern border. The cottonwood and bunya arrangement is also striking in its contrast of alternating size and shape. A well-designed and substantial cricket grandstand enhances the aesthetic values of the park and is a fine example of the work of the Brisbane City Architect's Office in the 1930s. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The war memorial in the park has a strong and continuing association with the wider community as evidence of the impact of a major historic event and as the focal point for the remembrance of that event. The park is also important to the local area as a venue for sport and recreation for several generations, having a long-standing association with the Graceville Croquet Club and Western Suburbs District Cricket Club. == References == === Attribution === == External links == Category:Queensland Heritage Register Category:Graceville, Queensland Category:Parks in Queensland Category:Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register Category:Protected areas established in 1904 Category:1904 establishments in Australia Category:Military memorials in Queensland
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Afro-Jamaicans are Jamaicans of predominant Sub-Saharan African descent. They represent the largest ethnic group in the country. Most Jamaicans of mixed- race descent self-report as just Jamaican. The ethnogenesis of the Black Jamaican people stemmed from the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th century, when enslaved Africans were transported as slaves to Jamaica and other parts of the Americas. The first Africans to arrive in Jamaica came in 1513 from the Iberian Peninsula. When the English invaded Jamaica in 1655, many of them fought with their Spanish masters, who gave them their freedom, and then fled to the mountains, resisting the English colonial administration for decades, becoming known as Maroons. During the period of British rule, slaves brought into Jamaica were primarily Akan, some of whom ran away and joined with Maroons and even took over as leaders. == Origin == West Africans were captured and enslaved in wars with other West African states, as retribution for crimes committed within a state or by abduction by either African or European slavers, and marched to the coast in "coffles" with their necks yoked to each other. The most common means of enslaving an African was through abduction. They were placed in trading posts or forts to await the six- to twelve-week Middle Passage voyage between Africa and the Americas during which they were chained together, underfed, and kept in the ship's hold by the thousands. Those who survived were fattened up and oiled to look healthy prior to being auctioned in public squares to the highest bidders. === Ethnicities === Based on slave ship records, enslaved Africans mostly came from the Akan people (Akwamu, Ashanti, Akyem Fante and Bono) followed by Igbo people, Ibibio people, Kongo people, the Yoruba and the Fon people. Akan (then called Coromantee) culture was the dominant African culture in Jamaica. Originally in earlier British colonization, the island before the 1750s was in fact mainly Akan imported. However, between 1663 and 1700, only six per cent of slave ships to Jamaica listed their origin as the Gold Coast, while between 1700 and 1720 that figure went up to 27 per cent. The number of Akan slaves arriving in Jamaica from Kormantin ports only increased in the early eighteenth century.Michael Siva, After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739–1842, PhD dissertation (Southampton: Southampton University, 2018), p. 27. But due to frequent rebellions from the then known "Coromantee" that often joined the slave rebellion group known as the Jamaican Maroons, other groups were sent to Jamaica. The Akan population was still maintained because they were the preference of British planters in Jamaica because they were "better workers", according to these Planters. According to the Slave Voyages Archives, though the Igbo had the highest importation numbers, they were only imported to Montego Bay and St. Ann's Bay ports, while the Gold Coast (mainly Akan) were more dispersed across the island and were a majority imported to seven of 14 of the island's ports (each parish has one port). Field slaves fetched £25–75 while skilled slaves such as carpenters fetched prices as high as £300. The majority of the house slaves were mulattoes. On reaching the plantation, the slaves underwent a "seasoning" process in which they were placed with an experienced slave who taught them the ways of the estate. Although the initial slave traders were the Portuguese and the Dutch, between 1750 and 1807 (the year in which the British Empire abolished the slave trade), Britain "dominated the buying and selling of slaves to the Americas". They were also Brown/Mulatto or mixed race people at the time who had more privileges than the Black slaves and usually held higher-paying jobs and occupations. Shipbuilding flourished and manufacturing expanded: the "process of industrialization in England from the second quarter of the eighteenth century as to an important extent a response to colonial demands for rails, axes, buckets, coaches, clocks, saddles...and a thousand other things". == History == === Atlantic slave trade === Region of embarkment, 1701–1800 Amount % Bight of Biafra (Igbo, Ibibio) 31.9 Gold Coast (Asante/Fante Akan) 29.5 West-central Africa (Kongo, Mbundu) 15.2 Bight of Benin (Yoruba, Ewe, Fon, Allada and Mahi) 10.1 Windward Coast (Mandé, Kru) 4.8 Sierra Leone (Mende, Temne) 3.8 Southeast Africa (Macua, Malagasy) 0.1 (Unknown) 5.0 The Atlantic slave trade began in the 15th century when the Portuguese took hold of land near Gibraltar and soon encountered Africans, whom they quickly took as prisoners. By mid-century, the first public sale of these prisoners was held. By 1455 Portugal was importing close to 800 enslaved Africans a year. Sugar cultivation began in the Azores islands, and as the demand for sugar grew, so did the demand for slaves to work the fields of sugar cane. By the 16th century, other countries wanted a piece of this action and the competition for the sugar and enslavement trades began. By 1700 Jamaica was awash with sugar plantations and Jamaica's population consisted of 7,000 English to 40,000 enslaved Africans. The sugar industry grew quickly in Jamaica—in 1672 there were 70 plantations producing 772 tonnes of sugar per annum—growing in the 1770s to over 680 plantations. By 1800, it was 21,000 English to 300,000 enslaved Africans. In 1820 there were 5,349 properties in Jamaica of which 1,189 contained over 100 enslaved Africans. Each estate was its own small world, complete with an entire labour force of field workers and skilled artisans, a hospital, water supply, cattle, mules and horses as well as its own fuel source. Each plantation fuelled the wheels of British mercantilism. Sugar, molasses and rum were exported to England for sale and ships were financed to return to Africa and collect more slaves in exchange for trinkets and transport them to the West Indies as a labour source. This became known as the Triangular Trade. Money was not left in England's colonies—the financing came from Mother England, and to Mother England the profits returned. === Sugar estates === A typical sugar estate was . This included a Great House where the owner or overseer and the domestic enslaved Africans lived, and nearby accommodation for the bookkeeper, distiller, mason, carpenter, blacksmith, cooper and wheelwright. With the exception of the bookkeeper, by the middle of the eighteenth century, skilled enslaved Africans had replaced white indentured servants in these posts. The field enslavement' quarters were usually about a half mile away, closer to the industrial sugar mill, distillery and the boiling and curing houses, as well as the blacksmiths' and carpenters' sheds and thrash houses. In addition, there was a poultry pen and a cattle yard along with a hospital for Africans. Some estates, if large enough, had accommodation for an estate doctor. Estates had estate gardens and the Africans had their own kitchen gardens as well as polnicks provision grounds found in the hills, which were required by law from as early as 1678. During enslavement, however, the enslaved Africans kept pigs and poultry and grew mangoes, plantain, ackee, okra, yam and other ground provisions. The cultivation of these lands took on greater proportions as plantations were abandoned when the island faced increasing competition from Brazil, Cuba and beet sugar, a loss in labour after emancipation in the 1830s as well as the loss of protective trade duties after the passage of the 1846 Sugar Equalization Act in England. The workforce on each plantation was divided into gangs determined by age and fitness. On average most estates had three main field gangs. The first was made up of the strongest and most able men and women. The second, of those no longer able to serve in the first, and the third, of older enslaved Africans and older children. Some estates had four gangs, depending on the number of children living on the estate. Children started working as young as 3 or 4 years old. ==== Significance of sugar ==== To a large extent, Jamaican customs and culture were fashioned by sugar. According to John Hearne (1965), for two hundred years sugar was the only reason behind Jamaica's existence as a centre for human habitation. For centuries, sugar was Jamaica's most important crop. Jamaica was once considered the "jewel" in Britain's crown. In 1805, the island's peak of sugar production, it produced 101,600 tonnes of sugar. It was the world's leading individual sugar producer. The cultivation of sugar was intricately intertwined with the system of African enslavement. This connection has set the course of the nation's demographics since the 18th century when enslaved Africans vastly outnumbered any other population group. The descendants of the enslaved Africans comprise the majority of Jamaica's population. They have influenced every sphere of Jamaican life and their contributions are immeasurable. == Culture == Jamaican enslaved peoples came from West/Central Africa and South-East Africa. Many of their customs survived based on memory and myths. They encompassed the life cycle, i.e. a newborn was not regarded as being of this world until nine days had passed and burial often involved libations at the graveside, and the belief that the dead body's spirit would not be at rest for some 42 days (a derivative of the Ashanti beliefs like Adae Kese Festival). They included forms of religion in which healing was considered an act of faith completed by obeahmen and communication with the spirits involved possession often induced by dancing and drumming. African- based religions include Myal and Revival and later Kumina from Congolese immigrants. Many involved recreational, ceremonial and functional use of music and dance. "Slaves," Brathwaite explains, "danced and sang at work, at play, at worship, from fear, from sorrow from joy". They recreated African musical instruments from materials found in Jamaica (calabash, conch, bamboo, etc.) and featured improvisation in song and dance. All of these customs and many more such as the Christmas street parades of Jonkonnu, were misunderstood and undervalued by Europeans with the exception of the political use of drumming to send coded messages from plantation to plantation. Drumming of any kind was therefore often banned. Jamaican music today has emerged from the traditional musical forms of work songs sung by slaves, the ceremonial music used in religious services and the social and recreational music played on holidays and during leisure time. The cramped housing space provided to the enslaved Africans, which limited their dwellings (often made of wattle and daub) to one window and one door, meant that very little other than sleeping took place indoors. Life, as in Africa, was lived communally, outside. Similarly language, as in Africa, is considered powerful, particularly naming. Brathwaite (1971) gives an example of a woman whose child falls ill and wants her name to be changed, believing that this would allow her to be cured. Language is certainly an area where African retention is strongest. Jamaicans today move between Patois a creolised English and standard English. Jamaican patois was born from the intermixing of African slaves and English, Irish, Welsh, Scottish sailors, enslaved Africans, servants, soldiers and merchants. The enslaved African spoke many dialects, and given the need for a common tongue, Jamaican patois was born. It has been in use since the end of the 17th century by Jamaicans of all ethnicities and has been added to by the, Chinese, Hakka, Indians, Lebanese, Germans, and French who also settled on the island. Some words also indicate Spanish and Taino presence in Jamaican history. Many of these traditions survive to this day, testament to the strength of West African culture despite the process of creolisation (the intermingling of peoples adjusting to a new environment) it encountered. === Myal and Revival === Kumfu (from the word Akom the name of the Akan spiritual system) was documented as Myal and originally only found in books, while the term Kumfu is still used by Jamaican Maroons. The priest of Kumfu was called a Kumfu-man. In 18th-century Jamaica, only Akan gods were worshipped by Akan as well as by other enslaved Africans. The Akan god of creation, Nyankopong was given praise but not worshipped directly. They poured libation to Asase Ya, the goddess of the earth. But nowadays they are only observed by the Maroons who preserved a lot of the culture of 1700s Jamaica. "Myal" or Kumfu evolved into Revival, a syncretic Christian sect. Kumfu followers gravitated to the American Revival of 1800 Seventh Day Adventist movement because it observed Saturday as god's day of rest. This was a shared aboriginal belief of the Akan people as this too was the day that the Akan god, Nyame, rested after creating the earth. Jamaicans that were aware of their Ashanti past while wanting to keep hidden, mixed their Kumfu spirituality with the American Adventists to create Jamaican Revival in 1860. Revival has two sects: 60 order (or Zion Revival, the order of the heavens) and 61 order (or Pocomania, the order of the earth). 60 order worships God and spirits of air or the heavens on a Saturday and considers itself to be the more 'clean' sect. 61 order more deals with spirits of the earth. This division of Kumfu clearly shows the dichotomy of Nyame and Asase Yaa's relationship, Nyame representing air and has his 60 order'; Asase Yaa having her 61 order of the earth. Also the Ashanti funerary/war colours: red and black have the same meaning in Revival of vengeance. Other Ashanti elements include the use of swords and rings as means to guard the spirit from spiritual attack. The Asantehene like the Mother Woman of Revival, has special two swords used to protect himself from witchcraft called an Akrafena or soul sword and a Bosomfena or spirit sword. === John Canoe === A festival was dedicated to the heroism of the Akan king 'John Canoe' an Ahanta from Axim, Ghana in 1708. See John Canoe section. === Jamaican Patois === Jamaican Patois, known locally as Patwa, is an English creole language spoken primarily in Jamaica and the Jamaican diaspora. It is not to be confused with Jamaican English nor with the Rastafarian use of English. The language developed in the 17th century, when enslaved peoples from West and Central Africa blended their dialect and terms with the learned vernacular and dialectal forms of English spoken: British Englishes (including significant exposure to Scottish English) and Hiberno English. Jamaican Patwa is a post-creole speech continuum (a linguistic continuum) meaning that the variety of the language closest to the lexifier language (the acrolect) cannot be distinguished systematically from intermediate varieties (collectively referred to as the mesolect) nor even from the most divergent rural varieties (collectively referred to as the basilect). Jamaicans themselves usually refer to their use of English as patwa, a term without a precise linguistic definition. Jamaican Patois contains many loanwords of African origin, a majority of those etymologically from Gold Coast region (particularly of the Asante-Twi dialect of the Akan language of Ghana).Cassidy FG: Multiple etymologies in Jamaican Creole. Am Speech 1966, 41:211-215 === Proverbs === Most Jamaican proverbs are of Asante people, while some included other African proverbs. == Genetic studies == === Jamaican mtDNA === A DNA test study submitted to BMC Medicine in 2012 states that "....despite the historical evidence that an overwhelming majority of slaves were sent from the Bight of Biafra and West-central Africa near the end of the British slave trade, the mtDNA haplogroup profile of modern Jamaicans show a greater affinity with groups found in the present-day Gold Coast region Ghana....this is because Africans arriving from the Gold Coast may have thus found the acclimatization and acculturation process less stressful because of cultural and linguistic commonalities, leading ultimately to a greater chance of survivorship and a greater number of progeny." More detailed results stated: "Using haplogroup distributions to calculate parental population contribution, the largest admixture coefficient was associated with the Gold Coast(0.477 ± 0.12 or 59.7% of the Jamaican population with a 2.7 chance of Pygmy and Sahelian mixture), suggesting that the people from this region may have been consistently prolific throughout the slave era on Jamaica. The diminutive admixture coefficients associated with the Bight of Biafra and West-central Africa (0.064 ± 0.05 and 0.089 ± 0.05, respectively) is striking considering the massive influx of individuals from these areas in the waning years of the British Slave trade. When excluding the pygmy groups, the contribution from the Bight of Biafra and West-central rise to their highest levels (0.095 ± 0.08 and 0.109 ± 0.06, respectively), though still far from a major contribution. When admixture coefficients were calculated by assessing shared haplotypes, the Gold Coast also had the largest contribution, though much less striking at 0.196, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.189 to 0.203. When haplotypes are allowed to differ by one base pair, the Jamaican matriline shows the greatest affinity with the Bight of Benin, though both Bight of Biafra and West-central Africa remain underrepresented. The results of the admixture analysis suggest the mtDNA haplogroup profile distribution of Jamaica more closely resembles that of aggregated populations from the modern- day Gold Coast region despite an increasing influx of individuals from both the Bight of Biafra and West-central Africa during the final years of trading enslaved Africans. The aforementioned results apply to subjects whom have been tested. Results also stated that black Jamaicans (that make up over 90% of the population) on an average have 97.5% of African MtDNA and very little European or Asian ancestry could be found. Both ethnic and racial genetic results are based on a low sample of 390 Jamaican persons and limited regional representation within Jamaica. As Afro-Jamaicans are not genetically homogeneous, the results for other subjects may yield different results. === Jamaican Y-DNA === Pub Med results were also issued in the same year (2012): "Our results reveal that the studied population of Jamaica exhibit a predominantly South-Saharan paternal component, with haplogroups A1b-V152, A3-M32, B2-M182, E1a-M33, E1b1a-M2, E2b-M98, and R1b2-V88 comprising 66.7% of the Jamaican paternal gene pool. Yet, European derived chromosomes (i.e., haplogroups G2a*-P15, I-M258, R1b1b-M269, and T-M184) were detected at commensurate levels in Jamaica (10.1%), whereas Y-haplogroups indicative of Chinese [O-M175 (3.8%)] and Indian [H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%)] ancestry were restricted to Jamaica. African paternal DNA 66.7% European paternal DNA 10.9% Chinese paternal DNA 3.8% Indian paternal DNA 1.2% === Jamaican autosomal DNA === The gene pool of Jamaica is about 80.3% Sub-Saharan African, 10% European, and 5.7% East Asian; according to a 2010 autosomal genealogical DNA testing. == Notable Afro-Jamaicans == * Billy Strachan * Adrian Mariappa (Jamaican mother) * Tyson Beckford (Jamaican parents) * Naomi Campbell (Jamaican parents) * Ian Wright (Jamaican parents) * John Barnes (Jamaican parents) * Dexter Blackstock (Jamaican father) * Notorious BIG - Christopher Wallace (Jamaican mother) * Frank Bruno (Jamaican parents) * Lewis Hamilton (Jamaican father) * Ainsley Maitland-Niles (Jamaican parents) * Andre Wisdom (Jamaican parents) * Anton Walkes (jamaican father) * Bobby De Cordova-Reid (Jamaican parents) * Brandon Clarke (Jamaican Father) * Cheyna Matthews (Jamaican father) * Chinyelu Asher (Jamaican father) * Craig Eastmond (Jamaican parents) * Danny Gabbidon (Jamaican father) * Danny Simpson (Jamaican father) * Darius Vassell (Jamaican Parents) * Darren Mattocks * Demar Phillips * Deshorn Brown * Dever Orgill * Djed Spence (Jamaican father) * Fraizer Campbell (Jamaican parents) * Giles Barnes (Jamaican parents) * Javain Brown * Jermaine Beckford (Jamaican father) * John Barnes (Jamaican mother) * Junior Morias * Kasey Palmer (Jamaican parents) * Kevin Lisbie (Jamaican parents) * Marcus Barnes (Jamaican parents) * Mason Greenwood (Jamaican parents) * Matty McNeil (Jamaican Father) * Buju Banton * Beenie Man * Big Youth * Black Uhuru * Usain Bolt * Paul Bogle * Yohan Blake * Dennis Brown * Bounty Killer * Naomi Campbell (Jamaican parents) * Sol Campbell (Jamaican parents) * Capleton * Daniel Caesar (Jamaican father) * Chalice * Jimmy Cliff * Kevin Michael Richardson (Jamaican Father) * Derek Cornelius (Jamaican mother) * Desmond Dekker * DJ Kool Herc * Ricardo Fuller * Ricardo Gardner * Marcus Garvey * Chris Gayle * Beres Hammond * Kamala Harris (Jamaican father) * Heavy D (Jamaican parents) * Patrick Ewing * Patrick Ewing Jr. (Jamaican parents) * George William Gordon * Marion Hall * Jason Puncheon (Jamaican parents) * Joseph Hill * Kofi Cockburn * I Wayne * Inner Circle * Yazmeen Jamieson (Jamaican father) * Grace Jones * Vybz Kartel * Koffee * Jonathan Lewis (Jamaican father) * Bob Marley * Damian Marley * Ziggy Marley * Morgan Heritage * Mustard * Claude McKay * The Notorious B.I.G. (Jamaican parents) * Lee "Scratch" Perry * Mike McCallum * Colin Powell (Jamaican parents of mixed African and Scottish ancestry) * Sheryl Lee Ralph (Jamaican mother) * Shabba Ranks * Lennox Lewis (Jamaican parents) * Danny Ray (Jamaican parents, based in the United Kingdom) * Trevor D. Rhone * Joey Badass (Jamaican father) * Capital Steez (Jamaican parents) * Floyd Mayweather Jr. (Jamaican Grandmother) * Busta Rhymes (Jamaican parents) * Queen Nanny * Pop Smoke (Jamaican mother) * Shaggy * Errol Spence Jr. (Jamaican father) * Samuel Sharpe * Raheem Sterling (Jamaican parents) * NLE Choppa (Jamaican mother) * Uncle Luke (Jamaican father) * Super Cat * Third World * Peter Tosh * Tyson Beckford (Jamaican parents) * Lani Guinier (Jamaican father) * Bunny Wailer * Ella Mai (Jamaican mother) * Courtney Walsh * XXXTentacion (Jamaican parents) * Aljamain Sterling (Jamaican parents) * Jamelia (Jamaican parents) * Emily Maddison * Callum Robinson (Jamaican father) * Dujon Sterling (Jamaican parents) * Deanne Rose (Jamaican parents) * Jamoi Topey * Mustard (record producer) (Jamaican parents) * Labrinth (Jamaican parents) * Lamar Walker * Lauren James (Jamaican father) * Alvas Powell * Kerry Washington (Jamaican mother) * Donovan Ruddock * Pete Rock (Jamaican parents) * Lamont Bryan (Jamaican mother) * Leon Bailey * Pepa * Matt Phillips (Jamaican father) * Max Aarons (Jamaican father) * Mel Gaynor (Jamaican father) * Omar Richards (Jamaican parents) * Owayne Gordon * Peter-Lee Vassell * Reece James (Jamaican father) * Rimario Gordon * Rolando Aarons * Sanchez Watt (Jamaican father) * Sean Johnson (Jamaican Father) * Shane Paul McGhie (Jamaican father) * Tashan Oakley-Boothe (Jamaican parents) * Tyrick Mitchell (Jamaican parents) * Ndamukong Suh (jamaican mother) * Havana Solaun (Jamaican mother) * Isaac Hayden (jamaican mother) * Jobi McAnuff (Jamaican father) * Jourdaine Fletcher * Justin McMaster (Jamaican parents) * Khari Stephenson * Olufolasade Adamolekun (Jamaican Mother) * Nathaniel Adamolekun (Jamaican mother) * Wes Morgan (Jamaican parents) * Pete Wentz (Jamaican mother) * Rachelle Smith (Jamaican parents) * Roy Hibbert (Jamaican Father) * Shenseea (Jamaican mother) * Tajon Buchanan (Jamaican parents) * Zavon Hines * Omari Caro (Jamaican father) * Konya Plummer * Deneisha Blackwood * Melvin Brown (Jamaican father) * Khadija Shaw * Asafa Powell * Robin Fraser * Colorado Murray * Cory Burke * Chavany Willis == See also == * Coromantee * Dancehall * Dub music * Jonkanoo * Mento * Old school jungle * Passa Passa * Reggae * Rocksteady * Ska == References == Afro-Jamaican Category:Ethnic groups in Jamaica Category:Society of the Caribbean
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José Manuel Calderón Borrallo (; born September 28, 1981) is a Spanish basketball executive and former player who is a special advisor for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). With the Spain national team, he won a FIBA World Cup title in 2006, two Olympic silver medals in 2008 and 2012, as well as a bronze medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics. He also won a EuroBasket title in 2011, two silver medals in 2003 and 2007 as well as a bronze in 2013. Calderón earned an All-EuroBasket Team selection in 2007. ==Early life and European career== José Calderón was born and raised in the town of Villanueva de la Serena, in Spain.José Manuel Calderón – About Me His main inspiration for basketball came from his father, who used to play basketball for his hometown's team, Doncel La Serena. Calderón used to enjoy seeing his father play. He accompanied him to his games and practices. He received a proposal to play professional basketball after he won a junior team championship. After a discussion with his parents, Calderón decided to carry on the professional basketball tradition. Calderón was greatly focused on training for and playing basketball during this time in his life. He was surrounded by motivated teammates who put in strong effort, and pushed Calderón to work as hard as them. After playing for Diputación Foral Alava, Calderón joined Lucentum Alicante (Spanish Second Division) in 1999, and he was able to lead his team to the ACB (Spanish First Division). Unfortunately, his team had to return to the second division because of fierce competition. This helped Calderón adapt to the competition, and catalyzed an improvement to his game. In 2001, Calderón joined ACB team Fuenlabrada. He averaged 9.7 points, and 1.7 assists in 18.6 minutes per game, and shot 83.2% from the free throw line.José Manuel Calderón – Player Profile By the end of the season, he received an opportunity to play for the Spain national team. In 2002, he played for the senior Spain national team in the 2002 FIBA World Championship at Indianapolis, where his team ended up in fifth place. After the summer, Calderón signed with TAU Vitoria. Calderon played three seasons with Tau Vitoria, resulting in plenty of wins. His team became the winners of the Spanish King's Cup, and were also runners-up in both the Liga ACB (Spanish League) and the EuroLeague. In 2002–03, he averaged 7.5 points, 2.4 rebounds, 1.4 assists and 1.1 steals in the EuroLeague. In 2003–04, he averaged 7.2 points, 1.4 rebounds, 2.0 assists, and 1.1 steals in the EuroLeague. In 2004–05, he averaged 11.6 points, 3.4 rebounds, 2.6 assists and 1.5 steals in the EuroLeague.Calderon, Jose Manuel – Euroleague.net ==NBA career== left|thumb|upright|Calderón played mostly off the bench in his rookie season (2005–06) with the Raptors ===Toronto Raptors (2005–2013)=== ====Rookie season==== Calderón entered the NBA when former Raptors GM Rob Babcock persuaded the Spanish guard to sign with the Toronto Raptors on August 3, 2005."Raptors Sign Jose Calderon", nba.com/raptors, August 3, 2005, Retrieved June 21, 2007. Known as a talented playmaker, he struggled with his shooting in his first year in the NBA. By the end of the 2005–06 season, he was ranked third among all rookies in assists with 4.5 per game. He finished the season with 64 played games, having started in 11 of them. He averaged 5.5 points, 4.5 assists, 2.2 rebounds and an assists-per-turnover ratio of 2.85. ====2006–07 season==== Throughout the 2006–07 season, Calderón played primarily as backup to T. J. Ford, turning in solid numbers from the bench.Smith, Doug, "Calderon makes point to remember team first", thestar.com, September 20, 2007, Retrieved September 21, 2007. As acknowledged by coach Sam Mitchell as well as his teammates, Calderón's form was instrumental to the Raptors' push for a playoff spot, and later, the Atlantic Division title.Post- Game Quotes, nba.com/raptors, January 31, 2007, Retrieved June 21, 2007. He ended his regular season with improved averages of 8.8 points and 5.1 assists per game and .525 in field goal percentage, even though he had less playing time compared to his rookie season. In the 2007 NBA Playoffs, Calderón played in all of Toronto's games in the series against the New Jersey Nets, but the Raptors were defeated 4–2.Raptors Post Up, nba.com/raptors, May 4, 2007, Retrieved June 21, 2007. Calderón averaged 13.0 points and 5.3 assists per game in his first NBA playoff season. ====2007–08 season==== Toronto continued to deploy Ford and Calderón in tandem for the point guard position to good effect. Ford was injured for several games in November and December and the Spaniard stepped in with impressive performances.Raptors Cruise Past Mavericks For Third Straight Win, nba.com/raptors, December 12, 2007, Retrieved December 13, 2007. In three games against the Memphis Grizzlies, Cleveland Cavaliers and Chicago Bulls, Calderón provided 37 assists while committing only three turnovers.Smith, Doug, "Calderon leads Raptors past Bulls", thestar.com, November 26, 2007, Retrieved November 26, 2007. 14 games into the season, he was also leading the league in assist-to-turnover ratio with 5.67 to 1,2007–08 TURNOVERS , nba.com, accessed May 2, 2008. but even so, he said: "But how I feel about the team right now is that we need T.J. Ford [for the next game]."Grange, Michael, "Toronto goes to the well, finds it's deep", globeandmail.com, November 25, 2007, Retrieved November 26, 2007. 35 games into the season, the Spaniard increased the turnover ratio to 6.15 to 1, setting him on course to break an NBA record (he went to end the season as the league-leader with 5.38 to 1).Ewing, Lori, "Humble Calderon on pace for efficiency record", thestar.com, January 10, 2008, Retrieved January 11, 2008.2007–08 ASSISTS LEADERS : Assists Per Game , nba.com, accessed May 2, 2008. He shot at least 50% on field goals, 40% on three-pointers, and 90% on free-throws, and is sometimes listed as a member of the NBA's 50–40–90 Club, even though he was sixteen free-throws shy of attaining the NBA league minimum number of makes in this category. By mid-season, he was touted as a possibility for making the All-Star reserve team.Smith, Doug, "Calderon playing like all-star", thestar.com, January 27, 2008, Retrieved January 28, 2008. Even after Ford returned from injury for the final third of the campaign, Calderón was able to keep his place in the starting lineup. Ford had initially agreed to playing backup, but reportedly became frustrated at not being able to start.Feschuk, Dave, "Raptors' Ford may be wearing out his welcome", thestar.com, March 28, 2008, Retrieved March 29, 2008. Calderón eventually asked the coaching staff to play Ford as starter instead, leading to widespread praise from the coaching staff, teammates, and fans. Given that he was going to become a free agent by the end of the campaign, there were even calls for Ford to be traded so that the team could be built around Calderón as point guard. By the end of the regular season, Calderón was fifth in the league for assists per game, and in the 2008 NBA Playoffs, Ford split the playing time with him about equally, with the two players combining for averages of 23.4 points and 13.6 assists per game.T.J. Ford Info Page – Career Stats and Totals , nba.com, accessed September 8, 2007. However, the Raptors were eliminated by the Orlando Magic in the first round four games to one.Magic Beat Raptors, Move to Second Round , nba.com, April 29, 2008, accessed May 1, 2008. ====2008–09 season==== On July 9, 2008, Calderón re- signed with the Raptors to a multi-year deal, reported to be worth $7.5 million to $8.5 million a season.Raptors sign Calderon to long-term deal , canada.com, July 9, 2009, Retrieved January 22, 2010.Raptors Re-Sign Calderon, nba.com/raptors, July 9, 2008, Retrieved July 28, 2008. With the departure of Ford to the Indiana Pacers, the Spaniard was slated to start the point guard position for the Raptors. At the same time, new acquisition Jermaine O'Neal formed the frontcourt with Bosh. However, 17 games into the season, Toronto fired head coach Sam Mitchell and the line-ups were constantly shuffled. By the end of 2008, the Raptors were 12–20, but with Calderón out for almost a month thereafter, the team slipped to 16–28. When Calderón returned to the Raptors lineup, he helped snap a seven-game losing streak with a 114–94 victory over Chicago, recording 23 points on 9-of-10 shooting and 10 assists. Not long after, he set the second-longest streak in NBA history for consecutive free throws made (87).Bogut returns as Bucks beat Raptors 96–85, nba.com, January 30, 2009, accessed February 3, 2009. On March 13, 2009, Calderón surpassed Alvin Williams' franchise record for career assists with 1795.Hamilton, Pistons beat Raptors 99–95 in overtime , nba.com, March 13, 2009, Retrieved March 14, 2009. On March 29, 2009, in a game against Chicago, he tied the franchise record for most assists in game with 19,Bosh, Bargnani lead Raptors to OT win over Bulls, nba.com, March 29, 2009, Retrieved March 30, 2009. and not long after, set an NBA record for highest free-throw percentage in a season. These records, however, were overshadowed by the Raptors rapidly falling out of the playoffs picture soon after the All-Star break, and the criticism Calderón faced for being unable to defend and play an up-tempo game. Toronto eventually finished with a 33–49 record,2008–09 NBA Season Summary, basketball-reference.com, Retrieved April 16, 2009. with the Spaniard leading the Eastern Conference in assists per game and the league in free throw percentage and assist-to-turnover ratio.2008–09 ASSISTS LEADERS : Assists Per Game , nba.com, Retrieved April 20, 2009.2008–09 FREE THROWS LEADERS: Free Throw Percentage , nba.com, Retrieved April 20, 2009. ====2009–10 season==== thumb|upright|Going for a layup against the Orlando Magic, November 22, 2009 The Raptors underwent a significant roster overhaul in the preseason, such as bringing Jarrett Jack from Indiana to play as Calderón's back-up and point forward Hedo Türkoğlu to share in ball-handling duties. With a third of the season gone, the Spaniard picked up an injury that put him out for 12 games, resulting in Jack holding on to the starting spot even upon the former's return, paralleling the Ford-Calderón scenario in 2007–08. Still, the pair combined well and helped bring the Raptors to a 21–20 record at the mid-season mark. During the early stages of the 2010 offseason, the Raptors had a deal in place to send Calderon and Reggie Evans to the Charlotte Bobcats for Tyson Chandler and Boris Diaw. However, Michael Jordan, the owner of the Bobcats, nixed the deal right before it was finalized, which allowed Calderon to remain with the Raptors. ====2010–11 season==== Calderón was ranked fifth in assists per game (8.9) at the conclusion of the regular season. ====2011–12 season==== On February 12, 2012, Calderón scored a career high 30 points in a 94–92 loss against the Lakers. Calderón led the league in assists per turnover (4.5) for the third time in five years at the conclusion of the regular season. ===Detroit Pistons (2013)=== On January 30, 2013, Calderón was traded to the Detroit Pistons in a three-team trade which sent Tayshaun Prince, Austin Daye, and Ed Davis to the Memphis Grizzlies and Rudy Gay and Hamed Haddadi to Toronto. He became the starting point guard for the Pistons, and in just his fourth game for the franchise, he recorded 23 points and 10 assists in the 105-100 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. Calderón finished the season averaging 11.3 points and 7.1 assists per game. He also led the league in three-point shooting percentage (.461) and was second in assists per turnover (4.1). ===Dallas Mavericks (2013–2014)=== On July 11, 2013, Calderón signed with the Dallas Mavericks to a reported four-year, $28 million contract. He became the Mavericks lead point guard, starting in 81 games. He had his best game on December 20, 2013 against his former team, the Toronto Raptors, where he recorded 23 points and 9 assists. Calderón finished the season averaging 11.4 points and 4.7 assists per game. ===New York Knicks (2014–2016)=== On June 25, 2014, Calderón, along with Shane Larkin, Wayne Ellington, Samuel Dalembert and two 2014 second-round picks, was traded to the New York Knicks in exchange for Tyson Chandler and Raymond Felton. In the process, he re-joined former Raptor teammate Andrea Bargnani. After a preseason injury kept him on sidelines for the first 13 games of the season, he made his Knicks debut on November 22, 2014 as he recorded 3 points, 3 rebounds, 3 assists and 2 steals in the 91-83 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. On March 23, 2015, Calderón was ruled out for the rest of the season after undergoing a procedure on his strained left Achilles tendon.Knicks' Jose Calderon underwent surgery, done for the season On March 13, 2016, he made a game-winning three-point shot with 0.2 seconds left on the clock to defeat the Los Angeles Lakers. ===Los Angeles Lakers (2016–2017)=== On June 22, 2016, Calderón was traded, along with Jerian Grant and Robin Lopez, to the Chicago Bulls in exchange for Derrick Rose, Justin Holiday and a 2017 second-round draft pick. On July 7, he was traded again, this time with two future second- round picks to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for the rights to Ater Majok.Lakers Acquire Jose Calderon On December 5, 2016, he was ruled out for two to four weeks with a right hamstring strain.Jose Calderon Injury Update On February 27, 2017, he was waived by the Lakers. After being waived by the Lakers, Calderón was set to join the Golden State Warriors. However, after Kevin Durant suffered a possible season-ending knee injury, the Warriors felt they needed a forward instead of a point guard to fill Durant's role. The Warriors still honored their agreement with Calderón, signing him on March 1, 2017 before waiving him later that day. While he was only with the team for two hours, the Warriors agreed to pay Calderón the $415,000 he would have earned if he had been on the team for the rest of the season. ===Atlanta Hawks (2017)=== On March 4, 2017, Calderón was claimed off waivers by the Atlanta Hawks. ===Cleveland Cavaliers (2017–2018)=== On July 10, 2017, Calderón signed with the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Cavaliers made it to the 2018 NBA Finals, but lost 4–0 to the Golden State Warriors. ===Return to Detroit (2018–2019)=== On July 7, 2018, Calderón signed with the Detroit Pistons. ==Executive career== On November 4, 2019, the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) announced that Calderón had joined them as the special assistant to the executive director for the 2019–20 NBA season. On January 14, 2022, Calderón was hired by the Cleveland Cavaliers as a special advisor to the front office. ==National team career== Calderón enjoyed a successful international career. When he played for Spain's national youth team, he won the gold medal at the 1998 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship, as well as the bronze medal at the 2000 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship. As his career advanced, the point guard began appearing for the Spain national team. Calderón was part of the Spain national team which finished fifth at the 2002 FIBA World Championship and second at the 2003 EuroBasket. He was later named the team captain during the 2004 Summer Olympics, and on September 3, 2006, Calderón and his Spanish squad defeated Greece, and won the 2006 FIBA World Championship, along with future Raptors teammate, Jorge Garbajosa. In 2007 EuroBasket, Calderón and Garbajosa again featured for the Spanish team. In the knockout stages, Calderón recorded a game-high 17 points as Spain defeated Germany 83–55 in the quarterfinals.Game card , eurobasket2007.org, September 13, 2007, Retrieved September 14, 2007. In the semifinals, Calderón scored 18 points in Spain's defeat of Greece.Boxscore , eurobasket2007.org, September 15, 2007, Retrieved September 16, 2007. The Spaniard led his team in points again in the final, but Spain lost 60–59 to Russia.Game card , eurobasket2007.org, September 16, 2007, Retrieved September 17, 2007. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Calderón was part of the squad that won the silver medal, but was injured and therefore could not play in the semifinal and the final games. He averaged 7.3 points per game in the tournament.Statistics , nbcolympics.com, Retrieved August 26, 2008. Calderón won another silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He also made Spain's squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics, but played only sparingly. At the end of the Olympics, he announced his retirement from the national team. ==Player profile== Calderón is one of the best free throw shooters in the NBA, having set an NBA record for free throw shooting (98.1%) in 2008–09 with 151 of 154 attempts. Known as a highly efficient player, Calderon's 2007–08 season would have made him one of eight players in NBA history to shoot at or over 50% on field goals, 40% on three-point field goals, and 90% on free throws for a full season, but he did not have enough free throws made to qualify. ==Career statistics== * Led league NBA record ===NBA=== ====Regular season==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 64 || 11 || 23.2 || .423 || .163 || .848 || 2.2 || 4.5 || 0.7 || 0.1 || 5.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 77 || 11 || 21.0 || .521 || .333 || .818 || 1.7 || 5.0 || 0.8 || 0.1 || 8.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 56 || 30.3 || .519 || .429 || .908 || 2.9 || 8.3|| 1.1 || 0.1 || 11.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Toronto | 68 || 68 || 34.3 || .497 || .406 ||style="background- color:#E0CEF2"| .981 || 2.9 || 8.9 || 1.1 || 0.1 || 12.8 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 68 || 39 || 26.7 || .482 || .398 || .798 || 2.1 || 5.9 || 0.7 || 0.1 || 10.3 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 68 || 55 || 30.9 || .440 || .365 || .854 || 3.0 || 8.9 || 1.2 || 0.1 || 9.8 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 53 || 53 || 33.9 || .457 || .371 || .882 || 3.0 || 8.8 || 0.9 || 0.1 || 10.5 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 45 || 30 || 28.3 || .470 ||style="background-color:#cfecec"|.429* || .904 || 2.4 || 7.4 || 0.6 || 0.1 || 11.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Detroit | 28 || 28 || 31.7 || .527 ||style="background-color:#cfecec"|.520* || .893 || 2.5 || 6.6 || 1.1 || 0.1 || 11.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Dallas | 81 || 81 || 30.5 || .456 || .449 || .825 || 2.4 || 4.7 || 0.9 || 0.1 || 11.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| New York | 42 || 42 || 30.2 || .415 || .415 || .906 || 3.0 || 4.7 || 0.7 || 0.0 || 9.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| New York | 72 || 72 || 28.1 || .459 || .414 || .875 || 3.2 || 4.1 || 0.9 || 0.1 || 7.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 24 || 11 || 12.2 || .416 || .353 || 1.000 || 1.7 || 2.1 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 3.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Atlanta | 17 || 2 || 14.5 || .404 || .267 || .875 || 1.9 || 2.2 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 3.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Cleveland | 57 || 32 || 16.0 || .503 || .464 || .800 || 1.5 || 2.1 || 0.5 || 0.0 || 4.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Detroit | 49 || 0 || 12.9 || .375 || .246 || .818 || 1.2 || 2.3 || 0.3 || 0.1 || 2.3 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 895 || 591 || 26.4 || .472 || .407 || .873 || 2.4 || 5.8 || 0.8 || 0.1 || 8.9 ====Playoffs==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2007 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 6 || 1 || 24.3 || .507 || .250 || .833 || 1.7 || 5.3 || 0.8 || 0.0 || 13.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2008 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 5 || 0 || 24.0 || .440 || .476 || 1.000 || 3.6 || 7.0 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 11.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2014 | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 7 || 7 || 27.3 || .462 || .478 || 1.000 || 1.3 || 4.4 || 0.1 || 0.0 || 10.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2017 | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 6 || 0 || 12.5 || .478 || .333 || - || 1.3 || 2.2 || 0.3 || 0.2 || 4.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2018 | style="text- align:left;"| Cleveland | 13 || 3 || 8.0 || .346 || .222 || 1.000 || 0.8 || 0.7 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 1.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2019 | style="text- align:left;"| Detroit | 3 || 0 || 3.3 || - || - || - || 0.0 || 1.7 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 0.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 40 || 11 || 16.2 || .459 || .372 || .929 || 1.4 || 3.1 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 6.5 ===EuroLeague=== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2002–03 | style="text- align:left;" rowspan="3"|Tau Cerámica | 17 || 6 || 21.5 || .477 || .406 || .875 || 2.4 || 1.4 || 1.1 || 0.0 || 7.5 || 8.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2003–04 | 19 || 10 || 21.6 || .470 || .405 || .830 || 1.4 || 2.0 || 1.1 || 0.2 || 7.2 || 7.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2004–05 | 22 || 17 || 26.8 || .494 || .421 || .841 || 3.4 || 2.6 || 1.5 || 0.0 || 11.6 || 12.9 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 58 || 33 || 23.5 || .484 || .414 || .844 || 2.5 || 2.1 || 1.2 || 0.1 || 9.0 || 9.8 ==Personal life== On March 2, 2007, the Raptors announced that Calderón had been named a Right To Play Athlete Ambassador."Jose Calderon Named as Right to Play Ambassador" , nba.com/raptors, March 2, 2007, Retrieved June 21, 2007. Right To Play is an athlete-driven international humanitarian organization that uses sport and play as a tool for the development of children and youth in the most disadvantaged areas of the world. As part of the program, Calderón pledged $1000 for every assist he recorded in a home game against the Chicago Bulls on November 26, 2007. He ended the game with 14 assists.Smith, Doug, "Calderon in a giving mood", thestar.com, November 26, 2007, Retrieved November 26, 2007. Calderon is a co-owner of an organic pig farm.24 SECONDS:...with Jose Calderon He is married to Ana Hurtado. The couple welcomed their first child, Manuel, in Villanueva de la Serena on May 23, 2010. ==See also== * Toronto Raptors accomplishments and records * List of European basketball players in the United States ==References== ==External links== *Calderón's official website *José Calderón at euroleague.net *José Calderón at acb.com *José Calderón at fiba.com Category:1981 births Category:Living people Category:2002 FIBA World Championship players Category:2006 FIBA World Championship players Category:2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup players Category:Atlanta Hawks players Category:Baloncesto Fuenlabrada players Category:Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players at the 2016 Summer Olympics Category:CB Lucentum Alicante players Category:Cleveland Cavaliers players Category:Dallas Mavericks players Category:Detroit Pistons players Category:FIBA World Championship-winning players Category:Liga ACB players Category:Los Angeles Lakers players Category:Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics Category:Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics Category:National Basketball Association players from Spain Category:New York Knicks players Category:Olympic basketball players for Spain Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Spain Category:Olympic medalists in basketball Category:Olympic silver medalists for Spain Category:People from Villanueva de la Serena Category:Sportspeople from the Province of Badajoz Category:Point guards Category:Saski Baskonia players Category:Spanish expatriate basketball people in Canada Category:Spanish expatriate basketball people in the United States Category:Spanish men's basketball players Category:Toronto Raptors players Category:Undrafted National Basketball Association players
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John C. Rensenbrink (August 30, 1928 – July 30, 2022) was an American political scientist, philosopher, journalist, conservationist, and political activist. He has initiated and helped found many organizations, the most prominent of which are the Maine Green Party (1984); the Green Party of the United States (1984–87) for both of which he was a principal founder;Lasarte, Diego (February 28, 2020) "Former Bowdoin professor and Green Party co-founder reflects on legacy", The Bowdoin Orient. and CREA (the Cathance River Education Alliance) 2000 to the present, a hands-on ecological education project for local schools, schoolchildren and high school students in mid- coast Maine.John Rensenbrink Biography Americans Who Tell The Truth ==Early life and education== Rensenbrink was born in 1928 in rural Pease, Minnesota, one of seven children of Dutch-American farming parents. His mother, Effie (Koiman), was born in the Netherlands; his father, John Rensenbrink, was the eldest son of Dutch immigrants. Rensenbrink and his brother Henry operated the dairy farm upon their father's untimely death in 1943. Unable to attend high school, Rensenbrink took a correspondence course conducted by the American School in Chicago. He left the farm in 1946 to attend Calvin College, an Evangelical college in Grand Rapids, Michigan; his mother and siblings moved to that city the following year. Rensenbrink studied history, English and philosophy at Calvin and was editor of the college newspaper during his junior and senior years. He graduated from Calvin with a BA in 1950. He then entered the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, focused primarily on political philosophy, and received a master's degree in political science in 1951. This was followed by a Fulbright Scholarship to study at the University of Amsterdam from 1951 to 1952. Thereafter, he studied at the University of Chicago, concentrating on political philosophy, American politics, and constitutional law, and completed his Ph.D. in political science from that university in 1956. His Ph.D. thesis was entitled "Technology and Utopia: the Structure of Freedom".John C. Rensenbrink Vita International Society for Universal Dialogue ==Academic and other professional work== Rensenbrink began teaching at Coe College in Cedar Rapids, Iowa in 1956. After a year at Coe teaching history and international relations, he taught political philosophy and American government at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, for four years (1957–61). As he prepared for his first class at Williams in the summer of 1957, Rensenbrink met Carla Washburne in her father's College Bookstore in Williamstown. Carla was a rising Junior at Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Massachusetts. They married in June 1959, shortly after Carla's graduation. They moved to Maine in 1961. Rensenbrink taught political philosophy and history at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, for one year before taking a job in 1962 for three years as Education Advisor to the governments of Kenya and Tanzania, sponsored by the U.S. Agency for International Development. He and Carla and their daughters Kathryn and Margaret, (born in Dar es Salaam), aged three and one respectively, returned to Bowdoin College in 1965. Rensenbrink was promoted to the tenured position of associate professor in 1968 and to full professor in 1974. The Rensenbrinks' third child, Elizabeth, was born in January 1968. Rensenbrink spent the first six months of 1983 in Poland, accompanied by his wife and three daughters, as a research professor at the Marie Sklodowska University in Lublin, sponsored jointly by that university and Lock Haven State University in Pennsylvania. This was during the suppression of the Solidarity movement. Eluding the watchful eye of the Communist regime's secret police, he researched and studied the sources and shape of social change as represented by Solidarity. He wrote his first book, based on that experience, in 1988, published by the University of Louisiana Press, "Poland Challenges a Divided World." In it he accurately predicted the non-violent overthrow of the Communist regime and the victory of the Solidarity movement, events which surprised the world in 1989 and led rapidly thereafter to the demolition of the Berlin Wall and the fall of the Communist regime in Russia. Following semi-retirement in 1989, Rensenbrink continued teaching at Bowdoin for several years, creating an interdisciplinary seminar for majors in Black, Women's, and Environmental Studies. Starting in the mid-90s and continuing to the present, Rensenbrink has participated in the International Society for Universal Dialogue (ISUD), founded by Janusz Kuczynski (now deceased), head of the philosophy department at the University of Warsaw. He has presented several papers at their world Congresses, held every two years, and served as its secretary and vice president before being elected president at the Helsinki Congress in 2005. Serving as president for two years, he organized the 7th Congress of ISUD at Hiroshima in Japan in 2007. His presidential address was on cross-cultural dialogue as a major factor in the search for peace. Rensenbrink delivered one of three Key Note addresses to the 11th Congress of ISUD in Warsaw on July 11, 2016. It was titled, "Co-Evolution—Basis for Inter- Active Dialogue." ==Political work== Rensenbrink's first foray into politics was a letter-to-the-editor at the age of 14 praising Minnesota's political leader Harold Stassen. The letter appeared in the Minneapolis Star Journal. It was the first of many letters to the editor in that newspaper during the next several years. While in college Rensenbrink participated in a popular campaign to unseat the mayor of Grand Rapids. Shortly after, at the University of Michigan in 1951–52, he joined the Young Republicans, but found himself disgusted with the politics of Joseph McCarthy. Rensenbrink left the Republican Party and became a Democrat after listening to the speeches of Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic nominee for president in 1952 and 1956. In 1968, following the assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert F. Kennedy, and following Chicago Democratic Mayor Daley's police crackdown of student protestors at the national Democratic nominating convention in Chicago, Rensenbrink formed with others the Reform Democrats of Maine (1968 to 1970). The attempt was to help end the Vietnam War and to reform the Democratic Party. In 1976 and 1978, Rensenbrink ran in the Democratic primary for the Lewiston/Auburn/Topsham Senate seat of the Maine legislature. The district was heavily Democratic so that a victory in the primary ensures victory in the general election. He came up short both times, losing by only 170 votes in 1978. During the early 1980s, Rensenbrink joined with others in campaigns to close Maine's only nuclear plant. The campaigns were battles lost, by close margins, but the struggle against nuclear power was won in terms of public opinion. The nuclear plant, "Maine Yankee," closed down within several years of these campaigns. ===The Green Party=== 1984 was a decisive year for Rensenbrink. While in Poland the previous year, he had heard about the Germany elections which West Germany of Green Party have candidates. They had won 27 seats in the nation's Parliament. That summer, on his way back to the United States, Rensenbrink stopped off in Munich and in Frankfurt to visit friends who had joined the German Green Party and were celebrating their unexpected Parliamentary success. That fall, back in Maine and Bowdoin College, Alan Philbrook, a fellow anti-nuclear activist, called to say he had been at the first meeting of the Greens in Canada and, on his return to Maine, registered the Green Party of Maine. The two then called a meeting for January 14, 1984, to consider forming a Green Party organization in Maine. This was accomplished in Augusta on that date—the first of its kind, as they later discovered, in the United States. Rensenbrink quickly made plans to seek early retirement (which was accomplished in 1989) and threw himself into Green Party organizing in Maine and in the United States. A meeting in St. Paul, Minnesota was followed by regular monthly meetings of what was first called the Committees of Correspondence, later changed to Green Committees of Correspondence, with a Clearing House in Kansas City headed by Dee Berry. Working with the Clearing House, the annual gathering of a Green Assembly, and the Inter-Regional Committee that had formed, Rensenbrink headed a three-year project to produce a Green Policy Program, generated from the over 300 grass roots groups that had sprung up in the early years. The Program was completed and approved in September 1990, at the annual meeting of the Green Assembly in Boulder, Colorado. Thereafter, Rensenbrink, with others, formed the Green Politics Network whose aim was the eventual creation of a national Green Party of associated state Green Parties. The result was the Association of State Green Parties (ASGP), which, from 1996 to 2001 grew to include all of the state Green parties and then morphed into the Green Party of the United States in 2001. Rensenbrink has continued to be active in the USGP's National Committee and annual Conventions and Presidential campaigns and in its International Committee, which he had founded in 1997 as part of ASGP. Rensenbrink was the Maine Green Party's candidate for U.S. Senator in 1996 against Republican Susan Collins and Democrat Joe Brennan. and received 4% of the vote. The Maine Green Party changed its name to Maine Green Independent Party (MGIP) in 1998. It has grown steadily. With more than 41,000 Maine residents enrolled in the party, it has the largest per capita membership of any Green Party in the United States. It fielded a candidate for governor in each four-year election cycle from 1994 to 2006, getting 10% of the vote in 2002 and 2006. Rensenbrink worked as campaign manager for two gubernatorial campaigns: Jonathan Carter in 1994 and Pat LaMarche in 1998 and worked as a major advisor in the others. MGIP has run 10 or more candidates for the state legislature in most elections, placing one in the state House of Representatives in 2002 and 2004. It has become the second party after the Democrats in Maine's largest city, Portland, and, for several years, has had three of its members in the Portland City Council. It has also elected several members to the School Board. ==Community work== Rensenbrink helped found Merrymeeting Community Action (MCA) in mid-coast Maine in 1966–1967. Together with Professor Paul Hazelton of Bowdoin College's Education Department, Rensenbrink developed and wrote for MCA the first successfully funded anti- poverty program in Maine and served on MCA's board of directors for several years. In 1999, Rensenbrink, together with his wife Carla and several fellow townspeople, created Topsham's Future, a citizen action group dedicated to balancing the then very rapid economic development of Topsham with the preservation and vitality of community values and neighborhood integrity. One of its major accomplishments was creation of the Cathance River Nature Preserve through extended negotiations with retirement-community developer John Wasileski. Building on their success in the negotiation, Rensenbrink and Wasileski joined together to found the Cathance River Education Alliance a program in 2000. The program provides hands-on ecological education for thousands of students and teachers in area schools. In 2019, the road leading to the CERA office was renamed "Rensenbrink Way." Together with several other concerned and influential citizens of Topsham in 2008, Rensenbrink helped defeat at the polls a proposal to replace Topsham's Town Meeting form of government with a council form of government. Following this they persuaded the town Select Board to create a Topsham Government Improvement Committee. This committee, chaired by Rensenbrink, produced a Report recommending improvements in Topsham's Town Meeting, some of which have been instituted with others pending. Rensenbrink, as part of his goal to help develop an international community of strong ecological and politically alert activists from among Greens and Green-minded people, established the Green Horizon Foundation in 2002, and continued as its president. Among its projects, it publishes Green Horizon Magazine, which got its start in 2003. Rensenbrink was its chief editor together with co-editor Steve Welzer of the New Jersey Green Party. The foundation also conducts a website and does book publishing. ==Death== Rensenbrink died on July 30, 2022. ==Selected awards== * Praxis Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Role of Scholar and Activist, presented September 2, 1994, by the American Political Science Association's Organized Section on Transformational Politics * Award presented in 2004 by the Maine Green Independent Party "For 20 years of outstanding service to the Green movement in Maine and the Maine Green Independent Party." * Award presented in 2006 by the Cathance River Education Alliance "In appreciation for co-founding CREA." * Portrait painted by Rob Shetterly – Arranged by the Maine Green Independent Party on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the party, May 2009. The portrait is part of the series of paintings by Rob Shetterly on "Americans Who Tell the Truth." ==Publications== * How Change Does and Does Not Take Place: Maine Case Studies of Innovation in Education Reform Programs, ERIC Document, Resources in Education, Arlington, VA; Document Number ED 127664, 1977 * The Theory and Practice of Undistorted Communication, Analysis of the State Town Meeting Project 1990, Maine Humanities Council, Portland, Maine. * Poland Challenges a Divided World, Louisiana State University Press, 1988 * The Greens and the Politics of Transformation, Preface by Jay Walljasper R&E; Miles Publishers, 1992 * Against All Odds, the Green Transformation of American Politics, foreword by Ralph Nader, Leopold Press 1999 * Ecological Politics: For Survival and Democracy, Lexington Books, 2017 ===Selected articles=== * "A Study in Praxis: the Caucus for a New Political Science." New Political Science, Winter 1980 * "Beyond Polis and Cosmopolis: Green Pathways to a New Universalism." In Dialogue and Universalism, Vol. V, No. 5,vWarsaw, 1995. * "Security, Democracy, and World Governance." In The Global Greens, Edited by Margaret Blakers. The Green Institute, Canberra 2001 * "The Dalai Lama on Suffering and Compassion, an Ontological Critique." In Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress of the International Society for Universal Dialogue. Published by Skepsis, Athens 2004. * "Dialogue and Being – An Ontological Investigation." In Dialogue and Universalism, Vol XXIII, No. 3/2013. == External links == * Appearances on C-SPAN ==References== Category:1928 births Category:2022 deaths Category:American people of Dutch descent Category:American political scientists Category:Bowdoin College faculty Category:Calvin University alumni Category:Coe College faculty Category:Green Party of the United States politicians Category:Maine Democrats Category:Maine Greens Category:People from Mille Lacs County, Minnesota Category:People from Topsham, Maine Category:University of Chicago alumni Category:University of Michigan alumni Category:Williams College faculty
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Frank Costello (; born Francesco Castiglia ; January 26, 1891 – February 18, 1973) was an Italian-American crime boss of the Luciano crime family. In 1957, Costello survived an assassination attempt ordered by Vito Genovese and carried out by Vincent Gigante. However, the altercation persuaded Costello to relinquish power to Genovese and retire. Costello died on February 18, 1973. ==Early life== Costello was born on January 26, 1891, in Lauropoli, a frazione of the town of Cassano allo Ionio in the province of Cosenza in the Calabria region, Italy. In 1895, he boarded a ship to the United States with his mother and his brother Edward to join their father, who had moved to New York City's East Harlem several years earlier and opened a small neighborhood Italian grocery store. While Costello was still a boy, his brother introduced him to gang activities. At 13, he had become a member of a local gang and started using the name Frankie. Costello committed petty crimes and went to jail for assault and robbery in 1908, 1912, and 1917. In 1918, he married Lauretta Geigerman, a Jewish woman who was the sister of a close friend. That same year, Costello served ten months in jail for carrying a concealed weapon. ==Alliance with Luciano== While working for the Morello gang, Costello met Charlie "Lucky" Luciano, the Sicilian leader of Manhattan's Lower East Side gang. The two Italians immediately became friends and partners. Several older members of Luciano's mob family disapproved of this growing partnership. They were mostly old-school mafiosi who were unwilling to work with anyone who was not Italian, and skeptical at best about working with non-Sicilians. To Luciano's shock, they warned him against working with Costello, whom they called "the dirty Calabrian." Along with Italian American associates Vito Genovese and Tommy "Three-Finger Brown" Lucchese, and Jewish associates Meyer Lansky and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, the gang became involved in robbery, theft, extortion, gambling and narcotics. The Luciano-Costello-Lansky-Siegel alliance prospered even further with the passage of Prohibition in 1920. The gang went into bootlegging, backed by criminal financier Arnold "the Brain" Rothstein.Stolberg, p. 119 The young Italians' success let them make business deals with the leading Jewish and Irish criminals of the era, including Dutch Schultz, Owney "the Killer" Madden and William "Big Bill" Dwyer. Rothstein became a mentor to Costello, Luciano, Lansky and Siegel while they conducted bootlegging business with Bronx beer baron Schultz. In 1922, Costello, Luciano, and their closest Italian associates joined the Sicilian crime family led by Joe "the Boss" Masseria, a top Italian underworld crime boss. By 1924, Costello had become a close associate of Hell's Kitchen's Irish crime bosses Dwyer and Madden. He became involved in their rum-running operations, known as "The Combine"; this might have prompted him to change his last name to the Irish "Costello." In 1925, Costello became a U.S. citizen. On November 19, 1926, Costello and Dwyer were indicted on federal bootlegging charges. They were accused of bribing two U.S. Coast Guardsmen, presumably so that they would not disturb the unloading of liquor from boats in New York Harbor. The largest boat in the Combine fleet could carry 20,000 cases of liquor. In January 1927, the jury deadlocked on the bootlegging charges for Dwyer and Costello. In 1926, Dwyer was convicted of bribing a Coast Guard official and sentenced to two years in jail. After Dwyer was imprisoned, Costello took over the Combine's operations with Madden. This caused friction between Madden and a top Dwyer lieutenant, Charles "Vannie" Higgins, who believed he should have been running the Combine instead of Costello. Thus, the "Manhattan Beer Wars" began between Higgins on one side, and Costello, Madden, and Schultz on the other. At this time, Schultz was also having problems with gangsters Jack "Legs" Diamond and Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, who had begun to rival Schultz and his partners with Higgins's help. Eventually, the Costello-Madden-Schultz alliance was destroyed by New York's underworld. In the late 1920s, Johnny Torrio helped to organize a loose cartel of East Coast bootleggers, the Big Seven, in which a number of prominent gangsters, including Costello, Luciano, Longy Zwillman, Joe Adonis, and Meyer Lansky played a part. Torrio also supported creation of a national body that would prevent the sort of all-out turf wars between gangs that had broken out in Chicago and New York. His idea was well received,Howard Abadinsky, Organized Crime," Cengage Learning, 2009, p.115 and a conference was hosted in Atlantic City by Torrio, Lansky, Luciano and Costello in May 1929; the National Crime Syndicate was created. ==Castellammarese War== In early 1931, the Castellammarese War broke out between Masseria and Salvatore Maranzano. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer the death of his boss, Masseria, in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. On April 15, 1931, Luciano had lured Masseria to a meeting where he was murdered at a restaurant called Nuova Villa Tammaro on Coney Island. While they played cards, Luciano allegedly excused himself to the bathroom, with the gunmen reportedly being Genovese, Albert Anastasia, Joe Adonis, and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel; Ciro "The Artichoke King" Terranova drove the getaway car, but legend has it that he was too shaken up to drive away and had to be shoved out of the driver's seat by Siegel.Sifakis, (2005). pp. 87–88 Luciano took over Masseria's family, with Genovese as his underboss. In September 1931, Luciano and Genovese planned the murder of Maranzano. Luciano had received word that Maranzano was planning to kill him and Genovese, and prepared a hit team to kill Maranzano first. On September 10, 1931, when Maranzano summoned Luciano, Genovese, and Costello to a meeting at his office, they knew Maranzano would kill them there. Instead, Luciano sent to Maranzano's office four Jewish gangsters whose faces were unknown to Maranzano's people. They had been secured with the aid of Lansky and Siegel."Lucky Luciano: Criminal Mastermind," Time, Dec. 7, 1998 After assassinating Maranzano, Luciano subsequently created The Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime. ==Years as consigliere== In 1931, after the Masseria and Maranzano murders, Luciano became the leader of the new Luciano crime family, with Genovese as underboss and Costello as consigliere. Costello quickly became one of the biggest earners for the Luciano family and began to carve his own niche in the underworld. He controlled the slot machine and bookmaking operations for the family with associate Philip "Dandy Phil" Kastel. Costello placed approximately 25,000 slot machines in bars, restaurants, cafes, drugstores, gas stations, and bus stops throughout New York. In 1934, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia confiscated thousands of Costello's slot machines, loaded them on a barge, and dumped them into the river. Costello's next move was to accept Louisiana governor Huey Long's proposal to put slot machines throughout Louisiana for 10% of the take. Costello made Kastel overseer of the Louisiana slot operation. Kastel had the assistance of New Orleans mafioso Carlos "Little Man" Marcello. Costello brought in millions of dollars in profit from slot machines and bookmaking to the Luciano family. ==Boss and prison== In 1936, Luciano was convicted of running a prostitution ring and sentenced to 30 to 50 years in state prison. He attempted to rule the crime family from prison with the help of Costello and Lansky, but found it too difficult. With Luciano's imprisonment, Genovese became acting boss of the Luciano crime family. In 1937, Genovese was indicted for a 1934 murder and fled to Italy to avoid prosecution. Luciano then appointed Costello as acting boss. His underboss was his cousin Willie Moretti. From May 1950 to May 1951, the U.S. Senate conducted a large-scale investigation of organized crime, commonly known as the Kefauver Hearings, chaired by Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Costello was convicted of contempt of the Senate and sentenced to 18 months in prison. Senator Kefauver concluded that politician Carmine DeSapio was assisting the activities of Costello, and that Costello had become influential in decisions made by the Tammany Hall council. DeSapio admitted to having met Costello several times, but insisted that "politics was never discussed". In 1952, the government began proceedings to strip Costello of his U.S. citizenship, and he was indicted for evasion of $73,417 in income taxes between 1946 and 1949. He was sentenced to five years in prison and fined $20,000. In 1954, Costello appealed the conviction and was released on $50,000 bail; from 1952 to 1961 he was in and out of half a dozen federal and local prisons and jails, his confinement interrupted by periods when he was out on bail pending determination of appeals. ==Assassination attempt and aftermath== In 1956, Adonis, a powerful Costello ally, chose deportation to Italy over a long prison sentence. His departure left Costello weakened, but Genovese still had to neutralize one more powerful Costello ally, Anastasia, who had taken over the Mangano crime family after the disappearance of boss Vincent Mangano and the murder of his brother Philip Mangano on April 14, 1951. In early 1957, Genovese decided to move on Costello. Genovese ordered Vincent Gigante to murder Costello, and on May 2, 1957, Gigante shot and wounded Costello outside his apartment building. The altercation persuaded Costello to relinquish power to Genovese and retire. Genovese then controlled what is now called the Genovese crime family. A doorman identified Gigante as the gunman, but in 1958 Costello testified that he was unable to recognize his assailant; Gigante was acquitted of attempted murder.Vincent Gigante, Mob Boss Who Feigned Incompetence to Avoid Jail, Dies at 77, by Selwyn Raab, The New York Times, December 19, 2005 On October 25, 1957, Anastasia was murdered at the barber shop of the Park Sheraton Hotel at 56th Street and 7th Avenue in Manhattan. Carlo Gambino was expected to be proclaimed boss of Anastasia's family at the November 14, 1957, Apalachin Meeting. Genovese called to discuss the future of Cosa Nostra in light of his takeover.Davis, pp. 83-84 When police raided the meeting, to the detriment of Genovese's reputation, Gambino's appointment was postponed to a later meeting in New York City.Davis, pp. 88-90 In 1959, Genovese was convicted of selling a large quantity of heroin. On April 17, 1959, Genovese was sentenced to 15 years in the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia. ==Retirement and death== Costello, 1964|thumb|200px|right During his retirement, Costello was still known as "The Prime Minister of the Underworld". He still retained power and influence in New York's Mafia and remained busy throughout his final years. Cosa Nostra bosses and old associates such as Gambino and Lucchese still paid visits to Costello at his Waldorf Astoria penthouse, seeking advice on important Mafia affairs. Costello's old friend Meyer Lansky also kept in touch. Costello occupied himself with gardening and displayed some of his flowers at local horticultural shows. On February 20, 1961, the United States Supreme Court upheld a lower court order that stripped Costello of his US citizenship. But on February 17, 1964, the same court set aside a deportation order for Costello, citing a legal technicality. In early February 1973, Costello suffered a heart attack at his Manhattan home and was rushed to Doctors Hospital in Manhattan, where he died on February 18. Costello's sedate memorial service at a Manhattan funeral home was attended by 50 relatives, friends, and law enforcement agents. Costello is interred in a private mausoleum in St. Michael's Cemetery in East Elmhurst, Queens. In 1974, after his enemy Carmine Galante was released from prison, he allegedly ordered the bombing of the doors to Costello's mausoleum. ==Popular culture== * Costello has been portrayed in several movies, including by actors Feodor Chaliapin Jr. in My Brother Anastasia (1973), James Andronica in Gangster Wars (1981), Carmine Caridi in Bugsy (1991), Costas Mandylor in Mobsters (1991), and by Kirk Baltz in the television movie Kingfish: A Story of Huey P. Long (1995). * Costello was referenced in the Allen Ginsberg poem "Hadda Be Playing on the Jukebox". The line is written: 'It had to be FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover / and Frank Costello syndicate mouthpiece / meeting in Central Park, New York weekends, / reported Time magazine'. The poem was later performed live (with music) by the band Rage Against the Machine on the album Live & Rare. * The film The Departed features an Irish mob boss named Frank Costello (played by Jack Nicholson) in present-day Boston. Nicholson's character is related to the real-life Costello in name only; the character was based on Boston mobster "Whitey" Bulger, with the film plot based on Infernal Affairs, a Hong Kong thriller film made in 2002. * Costello was portrayed by Anthony DiCarlo in AMC's docudrama series The Making of the Mob: New York. * He was portrayed by Paul Sorvino in the 2019 television series Godfather of Harlem. * Costello is portrayed in the upcoming film Wise Guys by Robert De Niro. ==Footnotes== ==References== * * * * == External links == * * Frank Costello at Rotten.com * Seize The Night: Frank Costello * The Free Information Society: Frank Costello Biography Category:1891 births Category:1973 deaths Category:American crime bosses Category:American gangsters of Italian descent Category:American people convicted of tax crimes Category:Bosses of the Genovese crime family Category:Capo dei capi Category:Consiglieri Category:Genovese crime family Category:Italian emigrants to the United States Category:Italian crime bosses Category:Italian gangsters Category:People from East Harlem Category:People from Cassano all'Ionio Category:People of Calabrian descent Category:Prohibition-era gangsters
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Norman Mattoon Thomas (November 20, 1884 – December 19, 1968) was an American Presbyterian minister who achieved fame as a socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. ==Early years== Thomas was the oldest of six children, born November 20, 1884, in Marion, Ohio, to Emma Williams (née Mattoon) and Weddington Evans Thomas, a Presbyterian minister. Thomas had an uneventful Midwestern childhood and adolescence, helping to put himself through Marion High School as a paper carrier for Warren G. Harding's Marion Daily Star.Kauffman, Bill (2010-08-01) Up Against the Wall , The American Conservative Like other paper carriers, he reported directly to Florence Kling Harding. "No pennies ever escaped her," said Thomas. The summer after he graduated from high school his father accepted a pastorate at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, which allowed Norman to attend Bucknell University. He left Bucknell after one year to attend Princeton University, the beneficiary of the largesse of a wealthy uncle by marriage.David A. Shannon, The Socialist Party of America: A History. New York: Macmillan, 1955; p. 189. Thomas graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University in 1905.Johnpoll, Bernard K. Pacifist's Progress: Norman Thomas and the Decline of American Socialism. Quadrangle Books, 1970. p. 13. After some settlement house work and a trip around the world, Thomas decided to follow in his father's footsteps and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911.Shannon, The Socialist Party of America, pp. 189–90. After assisting the Rev. Henry Van Dyke at the fashionable Brick Presbyterian Church on Manhattan's Fifth Avenue, Thomas was appointed pastor of the East Harlem Presbyterian Church, ministering to Italian-American Protestants.Current Biography 1945, pp. 688–91. Union Theological Seminary had been at that time a center of the Social Gospel movement and liberal politics, and as a minister, Thomas preached against American participation in the First World War. This pacifist stance led to his being shunned by many of his fellow alumni from Princeton, and opposed by some of the leadership of the Presbyterian Church in New York. When church funding of the American Parish's social programs was stopped, Thomas resigned his pastorate.Current Biography 1945, p. 688. Despite his resignation, Thomas did not formally leave the ministry until 1931, after his mother's death. It was Thomas's position as a conscientious objector that drew him to the Socialist Party of America (SPA), a staunchly antimilitarist organization. When SPA leader Morris Hillquit made his campaign for mayor of New York in 1917 on an antiwar platform, Thomas wrote to him expressing his good wishes. To his surprise, Hillquit wrote back, encouraging the young minister to work for his campaign, which Thomas energetically did.Shannon, The Socialist Party of America, p. 190. Soon thereafter he himself joined the Socialist Party.Shannon, The Socialist Party of America, pp. 190–91. Thomas was a Christian socialist.Shannon, The Socialist Party of America, p. 191. Thomas was the secretary (then an unpaid position) of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation even before the war. When the organization started a magazine called The World Tomorrow in January 1918, Thomas was employed as its paid editor. Together with Devere Allen, Thomas helped to make The World Tomorrow the leading voice of liberal Christian social activism of its day. In 1921, Thomas moved to secular journalism when he was employed as associate editor of The Nation magazine. In 1922 he became co-director of the League for Industrial Democracy. Later, he was one of the founders of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor of the American Civil Liberties Union. ==Electoral politics== Thomas ran for office five times in quick succession on the Socialist ticket—for governor of New York in 1924, for mayor of New York in 1925, for New York State Senate in 1926, for alderman in 1927, and for mayor of New York again in 1929. In 1934, he ran for the US Senate in New York and polled almost 200,000 votes, then the second-best result for a Socialist candidate in New York state elections; only Charles P. Steinmetz polled more votes, almost 300,000 in 1922 when he ran for State Engineer. Thomas's political activity also included attempts at the US presidency. Following Eugene Debs's death in 1926, there was a leadership vacuum in the Socialist Party. Neither of the party's two top political leaders, Victor L. Berger and Hillquit, was eligible to run for president because of their foreign birth. The third main figure, Daniel Hoan, was occupied as mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Down to approximately 8,000 dues-paying members, the Socialist Party's options were limited, and the little-known minister from New York with oratorial skills and a pedigree in the movement became the choice of the 1928 National Convention of the Socialist Party. The 1928 campaign was the first of Thomas's six consecutive campaigns as the presidential nominee of the Socialist Party. As an articulate and engaging spokesman for democratic socialism, Thomas had considerably greater influence than the typical perennial candidate. Although most upper- and middle-class Americans found socialism unsavory, the well-educated Thomas—who often wore three-piece suits and looked and talked like a president—gained grudging admiration. Thomas frequently spoke on the difference between socialism, the movement he represented, and communism and revolutionary Marxism. His early admiration for the Russian Revolution had turned into energetic anti-Stalinism. (Some revolutionaries thought him no better; Leon Trotsky criticized Thomas on more than one occasion.) He wrote several books, among them his passionate defense of World War I conscientious objectors, Is Conscience a Crime?, and his statement of the 1960s social democratic consensus, Socialism Re-examined. ==Socialist Party politics== At the 1932 Milwaukee Convention, Thomas and his radical pacifist allies in the party joined forces with constructive socialists from Wisconsin and a faction of young Marxist intellectuals called the "Militants" in backing a challenger to National Chairman Morris Hillquit. While Hillquit and his cohort retained control of the organization at this time, this action earned the lasting enmity of Hillquit's New York-based allies of the so-called "Old Guard". The diplomatic party peacemaker Hillquit died of tuberculosis the following year, lessening the stability of his faction. At the 1934 National Convention of the Socialist Party, Thomas's connection with the Militants deepened when he backed a radical Declaration of Principles authored by his longtime associate from the radical pacifist journal The World Tomorrow, Devere Allen. The Militants swept to majority control of the party's governing National Executive Committee at this gathering, and the Old Guard retreated to their New York fortress and formalized their factional organization as the Committee for the Preservation of the Socialist Party, complete with a shadow Provisional Executive Committee and an office in New York City. Thomas favored work to establish a broad Farmer–Labor Party upon the model of the Canadian Cooperative Commonwealth Federation,Johnpoll, Pacifist's Progress, pp. 138–39. but remained supportive of the Militants and their vision of an "all-inclusive party", which welcomed members of dissident communist organizations (including Lovestoneites and Trotskyists) and worked together with the Communist Party USA in joint Popular Front activities. The party descended into a maelstrom of factionalism in the interval, with the New York Old Guard leaving to establish themselves as the Social Democratic Federation of America, taking with them control of party property, such as the Yiddish-language The Jewish Daily Forward, the English- language New Leader, the Rand School of Social Science, and the party's summer camp in Pennsylvania. In 1937, Thomas returned from Europe determined to restore order in the Socialist Party. He and his followers in the party teamed up with the Clarity majority of the National Executive Committee and gave the green light to the New York Right Wing to expel the Appeal faction from the organization. These expulsions led to the departure of virtually the whole of the party's youth section, who affiliated to the new Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party. Demoralization set in and the Socialist Party withered, its membership level below that of 1928. ==Causes== Thomas was initially as outspoken in opposing the Second World War as he had been with regard to the First World War. Upon returning from a European tour in 1937, he formed the Keep America Out of War Congress, and spoke against war, thereby sharing a platform with the non-interventionist America First Committee.Norman Thomas, A Socialist's Faith. (1951); pp. 312–13. In the 1940 presidential campaign he said Republican Wendell Willkie was the candidate of "the Wall Street war machine" and that he "would take us to war about as fast and about on the same terms as Mr. Roosevelt".Facts on File: World News Digest November 5, 1940 In testimony to Congress in January 1941 he opposed the proposed Lend Lease program of sending military supplies to Great Britain, calling it "a bill to authorize undeclared war in the name of peace, and dictatorship in the name of defending democracy". He said that the survival of the British Empire was not vital to the security of the United States, but added that he favored helping Britain to defend herself against aggression.Facts on File: World News Digest, January 28, 1941. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, a bitter split took place in the Socialist Party regarding support for the war; Thomas reluctantly supported it, though he thought it could have been honorably avoided. His brother and many others continued their pacifist opposition to all wars.Swanberg, Norman Thomas, p. 260 Thomas later wrote self-critically that he had "overemphasized both the sense in which it was a continuance of World War I and the capacity of nonfascist Europe to resist the Nazis".Thomas, A Socialist's Faith, p. 313. Thomas was one of the few public figures to oppose President Roosevelt's incarceration of Japanese Americans following the attack on Pearl Harbor. He accused the ACLU of "dereliction of duty" when the organization supported the forced mass removal and incarceration.The ACLU national board supported the government and tried to stop a rogue chapter on the West Coast from going to court. "American Civil Liberties Union," Densho Encyclopedia (2013)For more detail see . Thomas also campaigned against racial segregation, environmental depletion, and anti-labor laws and practices, and in favor of opening the United States to Jewish victims of Nazi persecution in the 1930s. Thomas was an early proponent of birth control. The birth-control advocate Margaret Sanger recruited him to write "Some Objections to Birth Control Considered" in Religious and Ethical Aspects of Birth Control, edited and published by Sanger in 1926. Thomas accused the Catholic Church of hypocritical opinions on sex, such as requiring priests to be celibate and maintaining that laypeople should have sex only to reproduce. "This doctrine of unrestricted procreation is strangely inconsistent on the lips of men who practice celibacy and preach continence."The Abortion rights controversy in America, A Legal Reader, edited by N.E.H. Hull, William James Hoffer and Peter Charles Hoffer, 2004. p. 60 Thomas also deplored the secular objection to birth control because it originated from "racial and national" group-think. "The white race, we are told, our own nation—whatever that nation may be—is endangered by practicing birth control. Birth control is something like disarmament—a good thing if effected by international agreement, but otherwise dangerous to us in both a military and economic sense. If we are not to be overwhelmed by the 'rising tide of color' we must breed against the world. If our nation is to survive, it must have more cannon and more babies as prospective food for the cannon."The Abortion Rights Controversy, p. 61 Thomas was also very critical of Zionism and of Israel's policies toward the Arabs in the postwar years (especially after the Suez Crisis) and often collaborated with the American Council for Judaism. ==Later years== After 1945, Thomas sought to make the anti-Stalinist left the leader of social reform, in collaboration with labor leaders like Walter Reuther. In 1961, he released an album, The Minority Party in America: Featuring an Interview with Norman Thomas, on Folkways Records, which focused on the role of the third party. Thomas actively campaigned for Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 presidential election. He was critical of Johnson's foreign policy, but praised his work on civil rights and poverty. Thomas called Johnson's opponent Barry Goldwater a "personable man with good stands on domestic issues" but also described him as "the greatest evil" due to his views on foreign policy.Norman Thomas: The Great Dissenter; Raymond F. Gregory, 2008 Thomas's 80th birthday in 1964 was marked by a well-publicized gala at the Hotel Astor in Manhattan. At the event Thomas called for a cease- fire in Vietnam and read birthday telegrams from Hubert Humphrey, Earl Warren, and Martin Luther King Jr. He also received a check for $17,500 () in donations from supporters. "It won't last long," he said of the check, "because every organization I'm connected with is going bankrupt." In 1966, the conservative journalist and writer William F. Buckley, Jr chose Thomas to be the third guest on Buckley's new television interview show, Firing Line. In 1968, Thomas signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War."Writers and Editors War Tax Protest", New York Post, January 30, 1968. Also in 1966, Thomas traveled to the Dominican Republic along with future Congressman Allard K. Lowenstein to observe that country's general election. The two were leaders of the "Committee on free elections in the Dominican Republic", an organization based in the United States that monitored the election. In the autumn of that year, Thomas received the second Eugene V. Debs Award for his work in promoting world peace. ==Personal life== In 1910, Thomas married Frances Violet Stewart (1881–1947), the granddaughter of John Aikman Stewart, financial adviser to Presidents Lincoln and Cleveland, and a trustee of Princeton for many years. Together, they had three daughters and two sons: * Mary "Polly" Thomas (1914–2010), who married Herbert C. Miller Jr, a professor and chairman of pediatrics at the University of Kansas * Frances Thomas (1915–2015), who married John W. Gates, Jr. (died 2006) * Rebekah Thomas (1918–1986), who married John D. Friebely * William Stewart Thomas (1912-1988) * Evan Welling Thomas II (1920–1999), who married Anna Davis (née Robins) in 1943 ** Evan Welling Thomas III (b. 1951) ===Death=== Thomas died at the age of 84 on December 19, 1968, at a nursing home in Huntington, New York. Pursuant to his wishes, he was cremated and his ashes were scattered on Long Island. ===Legacy=== The Norman Thomas High School (formerly known as Central Commercial High School) in Manhattan and the Norman Thomas '05 Library at Princeton University's Forbes College are named after him, as is the assembly hall at the Three Arrows Cooperative Society, where he was a frequent visitor. He is also the grandfather of Newsweek columnist Evan Thomas and the great- grandfather of writer Louisa Thomas. A plaque in the Norman Thomas '05 Library reads: Norman M. Thomas, class of 1905. "I am not the champion of lost causes, but the champion of causes not yet won." ==Works== * The Conquest of War. New York: Fellowship Press, 1917. * War's Heretics : A Plea for the Conscientious Objector. Chicago: American Liberty Defense League, 1917. * The case of the Christian Pacifists at Los Angeles, Cal. New York City: National Civil Liberties Bureau 1918 * The Conscientious Objector in America. New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1923. * The League of Nations and the Imperialist Principle: A Criticism. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1923. * What Is Industrial Democracy? New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1925. * The Challenge of War: An Economic Interpretation. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1927. * Is Conscience a Crime? New York: Vanguard Press, 1927. * In the League and Out. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1930. * America's Way Out: A Program for Democracy. New York: Macmillan, 1931. * Socialism and the Individual. Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1931. * The Socialist Cure for a Sick Society. New York: John Day Company, 1932. * As I See It. New York: Macmillan, 1932. * Why I Am a Socialist. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1932. * What Socialism Is and Is Not. Chicago: Socialist Party of America, 1932. * What's the Matter with New York: A National Problem. With Paul Blanshard. New York: Macmillan, 1932. * A Socialist Looks at the New Deal. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1933. * The New Deal: A Socialist Analysis. Chicago: Committee on Education and Research of the Socialist Party of America, 1934. * Human Exploitation in the United States. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1934. * The Choice Before Us. New York: Macmillan, 1934. (UK title: Fascism or Socialism?) * The Plight of the Share Cropper. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1934. * War – No Glory, No Profit, No Need. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1935. * War As a Socialist Sees It. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1936. * After the New Deal – What? New York: Macmillan, 1936. * Debate: Which Road for American Workers – Socialist or Communist? New York: Socialist Call, 1936. * Is the New Deal Socialism? An Answer to Al Smith and the American Liberty League. New York: National Office, Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1936]. * Why I Am a Socialist. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1936. * Shall labor support Roosevelt? Chicago : Labor League for Thomas and Nelson, 1936. * Emancipate youth from toil, old age from fear, Chicago: Socialist Party, 1936. * You Can't Cure Tuberculosis with Cough Drops. New York: Socialist Party, n.d. [1936]. – leaflet * Democracy versus dictatorship New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1937. * Socialism on the Defensive. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938. * Justice Triumphs in Spain! A Letter about the Trial of the POUM. With Devere Allen. Chicago: Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1938]. * Collective Security Means War. Chicago: Socialist Party, 1938. * Keep America Out of War: A Program. With Bertram D. Wolfe. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1939. * Russia: Democracy or Dictatorship? With Joel Seidman. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1939. * What's Behind the "Christian Front"? New York: Workers' Defense League, 1939. * Stop the Draft : An Appeal to the American People. New York: Socialist National Headquarters, 1940. * We Have a Future. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941. * World Federation: What Are the Difficulties? New York: Post War World Council, 1942. * Democracy and Japanese Americans. New York: Post War World Council, 1942. * Martin Dies and Socialism. New York: Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1943]. * Victory's Victims? The Negro's Future. With A. Philip Randolph. Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1943]. * What Is Our Destiny? Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1944. * Conscription: The Test of Peace. New York: Post War World Council, 1944. * Russia: Promise and Performance. New York: Socialist Party, 1945. * A socialist looks at the United Nations Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1945. * An Appeal to the Nations. New York: Socialist Party, 1947. * The One Hope of Peace: Universal Disarmament Under International Control. New York: Post War World Council, 1947. * Why I am a candidate New York: Socialist Party, 1948. * How Can the Socialist Party Best Serve Socialism? An Argument in Support of the Position of the Majority of the National Executive Committee Concerning Electoral Activities. [New York]: [Socialist Party], 1949. * A Socialist's Faith. New York: W. W. Norton, 1951. * Democratic Socialism: A New Appraisal. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1953. * The Test of Freedom. New York: W. W. Norton, 1954. * Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen... Reflections on Public Speaking. New York: Hermitage House, 1955. * The Prerequisites for Peace. New York: W. W. Norton, 1959. * Great Dissenters. New York: W.W. Norton, 1961. * Eugene V. Debs in the Light of History. Terre Haute, IN: Eugene V. Debs Foundation, 1964. * Socialism Re-Examined. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. ==References== ==Further reading== * Fleischmann, Harry, Norman Thomas: A Biography. New York, Norton & Co., 1964. * Hyfler, Robert, Prophets of the Left: American Socialist Thought in the Twentieth Century. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. * Gregory, Raymond F., Norman Thomas: The Great Dissenter. Sanford, NC: Algora Publishing, 2008. * Johnpoll, Bernard K., Pacifists Progress: Norman Thomas and the Decline of American Socialism. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970. * Seidler, Murray B., Norman Thomas: Respectable Rebel. Binghamton, New York, Syracuse University Press, 1967. Second Edition. * Swanberg, W. A., Norman Thomas: The Last Idealist. New York, Charles Scribner and Sons, 1976. * Thomas, Louisa, Conscience: Two Soldiers, Two Pacifists, One Family – A Test of Will and Faith in World War I. New York, The Penguin Press, 2011. * Venkataramani, M.S., "Norman Thomas, Arkansas Sharecroppers, and the Roosevelt Agricultural Policies, 1933–1937", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 47, no. 2 (Sept. 1960), pp. 225–46. . ==External links== * * Letter from Thomas to Salah Bitar * Thomas, Norman. Cuarenta anos de comunismo: promesas y realidades New York: Instituto de Investigaciones Internacionales del Trabajo,1957 * Norman Thomas's FBI files, hosted at the Internet Archive: ** Part 1 ** Part 1A ** Part 2 ** Part 14 * *Norman Thomas Papers, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University Special Collections * Category:1884 births Category:1968 deaths Category:19th-century Presbyterians Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th- century American politicians Category:20th-century Presbyterian ministers Category:American anti-capitalists Category:American anti-fascists Category:American Christian pacifists Category:American Christian socialists Category:American anti-racism activists Category:American Civil Liberties Union people Category:American conscientious objectors Category:American democratic socialists Category:American socialists Category:American male non- fiction writers Category:American pacifists Category:American political writers Category:American Presbyterians Category:American tax resisters Category:American anti-poverty advocates Category:American anti–Vietnam War activists Category:American anti–World War II activists Category:Activists for African-American civil rights Category:Candidates in the 1928 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1932 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1936 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1940 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1944 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1948 United States presidential election Category:Members of the Executive of the Labour and Socialist International Category:The Nation (U.S. magazine) people Category:Non-interventionism Category:People from Cold Spring Harbor, New York Category:People from Marion, Ohio Category:People from Ridgefield, Connecticut Category:Presbyterian socialists Category:Princeton University alumni Category:Socialist Party of America politicians from New York (state) Category:Socialist Party of America presidential nominees Category:Writers from New York (state) Category:Writers from Ohio Category:American magazine founders
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Back to Bedlam is the debut studio album by the English singer-songwriter James Blunt, released on 11 October 2004 by Custard and Atlantic Records. It is named after the famous psychiatric institution of Bethlem Royal Hospital, which is commonly known as Bedlam. Initially lingering in the lower regions of the UK Albums Chart in its first few months of release, it became a major worldwide success after its third single, "You're Beautiful", became a worldwide hit in the summer of 2005. Back to Bedlam would go on to become the highest-selling album of 2005 in the UK, with over 2.4 million copies sold. By December 2009, the album had been certified 10× Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for sales of over 3 million, making it the best-selling album of the 2000s in the UK. In 2011, it was overtaken by Amy Winehouse's Back to Black as the best-selling album of the 21st century in the UK. Back to Bedlam currently ranks as the 18th best-selling album in UK chart history and the biggest selling debut album by a British artist. As of 2017, it has sold 3.33 million copies in the UK and over 11 million copies worldwide. ==Background and recording== Blunt had piano and violin lessons as a child, but his first significant exposure to popular music was at Harrow School. There, he was introduced to the guitar by a fellow student, and started playing the instrument and writing songs at age 14. At University of Bristol, his undergraduate thesis was The Commodification of Image – Production of a Pop Idol; one of his main references for the thesis was sociologist and rock critic, Simon Frith, chairman of the Mercury Music Prize panel of judges since 1992. Because the British Army sponsored his university education, Blunt was obliged to serve a minimum of four years in the armed forces. He stated on an interview in his Back to Bedlam sessions that he chose to join the military as his father was "pushing for it, so that [Blunt] could obtain a secure work placement and income". Blunt trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. While still in the army, he worked on demos during his time off. A backing vocalist and songwriting collaborator suggested he contact Elton John's manager Todd Interland, with whom she used to share a house. Interland told HitQuarters that he listened to Blunt's demo while driving home and after hearing the track "Goodbye My Lover", pulled over and called the mobile number written on the CD to set up a meeting. Blunt left the British Army in 2002 so that he could pursue his musical career. It was at that period that he started using the stage name "Blunt", in part to make it easier for others to spell; "Blount" is pronounced the same way, and remains his legal surname. Shortly after leaving the army, he was signed to EMI music publishers and Twenty-First Artists management. A record contract remained elusive, with label executives pointing to Blunt's posh speaking voice as a barrier in class-divided Britain. Linda Perry, who was just launching her own label Custard Records in early 2003, heard Blunt's promotional tape when visiting London, and soon after heard him perform live at the South by Southwest Music Festival. She made an offer to him the same night and within a few days, Blunt signed a recording contract with Perry, and one month later he was in Los Angeles working with producer Tom Rothrock. Blunt recorded Back to Bedlam in 2003 with producer Tom Rothrock at Rothrock's home studio, using session musicians and performing on many different instruments himself. While in Los Angeles, he lodged with actress Carrie Fisher, whom he had met through the family of a former girlfriend. Fisher was very supportive of Blunt's aspirations, suggesting the name of the album and providing use of a bathroom in her home for Blunt to record the song "Goodbye My Lover". ==Critical reception== AllMusic felt "...the Soulful British crooner James Blunt's wistful debut infuses the listener – in order – with rainy-day hope, the wistful comfort of unattainable love, and finally, world-weary resignation. While his parched and effeminate falsetto recalls Gasoline Alley-era Rod Stewart with a healthy dose of Antony and the Johnsons, it's the late Elliott Smith who casts the largest shadow on Back to Bedlam." Q magazine and Common Sense Media awarded the album four stars out of five. RocknWorld stated "It's hard to describe James Blunt or his music without falling prey to many a cliché or hyperbole. Comes from the UK, serves in the army then makes an album of movingly sincere ballads which make a huge impression on his homeland and Australia, thus allowing him to enjoy phenomenal, chart topping success. However, in this case, the music Blunt is making does really deserve and warrant the hype surrounding him. Strangely enough, even with his music being all over the radio here in Australia, I cannot begrudge the fact that Blunt is truly talented and has made himself a damn good debut record." BBC Collective said "It's very rare I give an album 5 stars. Many have come close, but just missing it. I never thought i would say this, but Back To Bedlam has not got one bad track on it. I've listened to it 3 times back to back, just to make sure." Slant Magazine said, in a three and a half star review, that "Bedlam is an overall raw listening experience" and that though "Blunt's writing often juxtaposes love with death" that it's "More reason for American girls to go gaga over this able British bloke." Indie London praised the album, and went on to call it "...a masterful debut and one which you mustn't allow to pass you by." In a 4 star review, About.com said that "To aptly describe James Blunt's music in his debut album Back to Bedlam, it would be an injustice to ignore the backdrop of his past and its relation to his music – in fact it's impossible to do so" and gave praise to the songs which they called "Hauntingly captivating, his words paint the pictures of many stories lived, masterly recited through his songs. Back to Bedlam seems not so much a pop compilation as it does a reflection of a life through the art of music." Nate Murray of Relevant gave a similar review, and compared his work to the likes of Elliott Smith, calling it "endearingly honest" and continued "...like any great writer, he invites the reader, or in this case, the listener, into the intimate details of life that resonate with most anyone. Combine such candid writing with a voice one interviewer has called 'disgustingly gorgeous', and you have a recipe for musical addiction. Blunt's talents have earned the endorsement of Elton John and led to comparisons with John’s early work, as well as the late Elliott Smith." ==Track listing== ==Personnel== *James Blunt – lead vocals on all tracks; guitars on tracks 1, 5, 6 and 9; organ on tracks 3, 4, 6 and 9; piano on tracks 1, 4, 5 and 10; Wurlitzer electric piano on tracks 5, 6 and 7; acoustic guitar on tracks 2 and 7; Rhodes piano on tracks 3 and 4; keyboards and marimba on track 1; classical guitar on track 3; twelve-string guitar on track 4; church organ on track 5; backing vocals on track 6; grand piano on track 8; mellotron on track 9 *Sasha Krivtsov – bass on all tracks except 4, 7 and 10; backing vocals on track 6 *Charlie Paxson – drums on all tracks except 10; backing vocals on track 6 (credited as Charlie Paxton) *John Nau – Hammond organ on tracks 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8; Wurlitzer electric piano on tracks 1, 3, 8 and 9; piano on track 2; guitar sustain on track 4; backing vocals on track 6; tack piano on track 8 *Eric Gorfain – strings on track 2, 4 and 5 *Richard Dodd - strings on track 2, 4, and 5 *The Section Quartet – strings on tracks 2, 4 and 5 *John "Gumby" Goodwin – electric guitar on track 3; backing vocals on track 6; slide guitar solo on track 7 *Matt Chait – guitar sample on track 4; electric guitar on track 7; guitar on track 8 *Jimmy Hogarth – acoustic guitar and keyboards on track 3 *Sacha Skarbek – Rhodes piano on track 3 *Amanda Ghost – backing vocals on track 3 *Guy Chambers – guitar feedback on track 5 *Tom Rothrock – backing vocals on track 6 *W. Vincent – bass on track 8 *The Producer – slide guitar on track 9 *Linda Perry – guitar and production on track 10 *P. III – bass on track 10 *Brian McCloud – drums on track 10 *Tom Rothrock – production, mixing *Mike Tarantino – engineering; lead guitar on track 1; electric guitar on track 2; Mississippi guitar on track 7 *David Guerrero – engineering on track 10 *John Morrical – engineering assistance *Andrew Chavez – engineering assistance on track 10 *Don Tyler – mastering ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2004–2008) Peak position European Albums (Billboard) 1 Greek Albums (IFPI Greece) 1 Japanese Albums (Oricon) 7 Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico) 7 ===Year-end charts=== Chart (2005) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 9 Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)"Jahreshitparade Alben 2005" (in German). Austrian Charts Portal. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 41 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)"Jaaroverzichten 2005: Albums" (in Dutch). Ultratop Flanders. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 30 Belgian Alternative Albums (Ultratop Flanders)"Jaaroverzichten 2005: Alternatieve Albums" (in Dutch). Ultratop Flanders. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 21 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)"Rapports Annuels 2005: Albums" (in French). Ultratop Wallonia. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 23 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) 8 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)"Jaaroverzichten – Album 2005" (in Dutch). MegaCharts. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 17 European Albums (Billboard) 2 Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista) 24 French Albums (SNEP) 10 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 21 Irish Albums (IRMA) 1 Italian Albums (FIMI) 40 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) 1 Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE) 48 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) 4 Swedish Albums & Compilations (Sverigetopplistan) 5 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) 6 UK Albums (OCC) 1 Worldwide Albums (IFPI) 9 Chart (2006) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 1 Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)"Jahreshitparade Alben 2006" (in German). Austrian Charts Portal. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 6 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)"Jaaroverzichten 2006: Albums" (in Dutch). Ultratop Flanders. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 6 Belgian Alternative Albums (Ultratop Flanders)"Jaaroverzichten 2006: Alternatieve Albums" (in Dutch). Ultratop Flanders. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 4 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)"Rapports Annuels 2006: Albums" (in French). Ultratop Wallonia. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 5 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) 33 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)"Jaaroverzichten – Album 2006" (in Dutch). MegaCharts. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 13 European Albums (Billboard) 1 French Albums (SNEP) 11 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 5 Greek Albums (IFPI) 33 Greek Foreign Albums (IFPI) 5 Irish Albums (IRMA) 20 Italian Albums (FIMI) 77 Japanese Albums (Oricon) 40 Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico) 17 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) 2 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)"Årslista Album – År 2006" (in Swedish). Sverigetopplistan. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 14 Swedish Albums & Compilations (Sverigetopplistan) 17 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) 3 UK Albums (OCC) 22 US Billboard 200"Billboard 200 Albums – Year-End 2006". Billboard. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 7 US Tastemakers Albums (Billboard) 10 US Top Rock Albums (Billboard)Rock Albums – Year-End 2006". Billboard. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 2 Worldwide Albums (IFPI) 4 Chart (2007) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 78 Belgian Midprice Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 14 Belgian Midprice Albums (Ultratop Wallonia) 2 UK Albums (OCC) 113 US Billboard 200"Billboard 200 Albums – Year-End 2007". Billboard. Retrieved 8 August 2018. 189 Chart (2008) Position Belgian Midprice Albums (Ultratop Wallonia) 13 ===Decade-end charts=== Chart (2000–09) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 8 UK Albums (OCC) 1 US Billboard 200 Digit page 168 on the PDF archive. 137 ==Certifications and sales== ==Use in media== Eight of the ten songs on Back to Bedlam were licensed for use in television shows, movies, advertising campaigns and trailers, a total of 34 times. This included "Tears and Rain", "So Long Jimmy" and "Cry", tracks that had not been released as singles. ==See also== * List of best-selling albums in the United Kingdom * List of best- selling albums of the 2000s in Australia * List of best-selling albums of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom * List of best-selling albums of the 2000s (century) in the United Kingdom ==References== ==External links== * Back to Bedlam Category:2004 debut albums Category:James Blunt albums Category:Atlantic Records albums Category:Albums produced by Tom Rothrock Category:Albums produced by Linda Perry Category:Custard Records albums Category:Albums recorded in a home studio
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Lorena Ochoa Reyes (; born 15 November 1981) is a Mexican former professional golfer who played on the U.S.-based LPGA Tour from 2003 to 2010. She was the top-ranked female golfer in the world for 158 consecutive and total weeks (both are LPGA Tour records), from 23 April 2007 to her retirement on 2 May 2010, at the age of 28 years old. As the first Mexican golfer of either gender to be ranked number one in the world, she is considered the best Mexican golfer and the best Latin American female golfer of all time. Ochoa was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 2017. ==Childhood and amateur career== Born and raised in Guadalajara, Ochoa was the third of four children of a real estate developer and an artist. She took up golf at the age of five, won her first state event at the age of six, and her first national event at seven. An 11-year-old Ochoa approached the professional Rafael Alarcón, 1979 winner of the Canadian Amateur Championship, as he worked on his game at Guadalajara Country Club, where her family lived near the 10th tee. She asked him if he would help her with her game. Alarcon asked her what her goal was, "She said she wanted to be the best player in the world." As a junior, she captured 22 state events in Guadalajara and 44 national events in Mexico. She won five consecutive titles at the Junior World Golf Championships and in 2000 she enrolled at the University of Arizona in the U.S. on a golf scholarship, where she was a teammate of fellow freshman Natalie Gulbis. While a student in Tucson, Ochoa received regular tutoring and greatly improved her English by watching movies and reading magazines between practice and tournaments.How I Learned English: 55 Accomplished Latinos Recall Lessons in Language and Life, ed. Tom Miller, (National Geographic Books). pg. 154. She was very successful in women's collegiate golf in the next two years, winning the NCAA Player of the Year Awards for 2001 and 2002, finishing runner-up at both the 2001 and 2002 NCAA National Championship and being named to the National Golf Coaches Association (NGCA) 2001 All-America First team. She won the 2001 Pac-10 Women's Golf Championships, was named Pac-10 Freshman/Newcomer of the Year 2001 and was All-Pac-10 First team in 2001 and 2002. In her second year she had eight tournament wins in ten events she entered and set an NCAA record with seven consecutive victories in her first seven events. She won the Golfstat Cup in both 2001 and 2002. The Cup is given to the player who has the best scoring average versus par with at least 20 full rounds played during a season. setting the single-season NCAA scoring average record as a freshman at 71.33 and beating her own record the next year by just over a stroke per round with a 70.13 average. In November 2001, Ochoa was presented with Mexico's National Sports Award by Mexican President Vicente Fox. She was the youngest person and first golfer to receive Mexico's highest sporting accolade. In 2006, she was named NCAA Division I Women's Golf Most Outstanding Student Athlete, an award which was bestowed as part of the 25th Anniversary of Women's Championships celebration, taking into account outstanding performances over the past 25 years. She was the recipient of the 2003 Nancy Lopez Award, which is presented annually to the world's most outstanding female amateur golfer. Nancy Lopez describes Ochoa off the golf course: "When you meet her for the second time [...] she remembers not only your name, but also the slightest detail from the last time you spoke." ==Professional career== Ochoa left college after her second year to turn professional, then won three of ten events played on the 2002 Futures Tour, and topped its money list to earn membership on the LPGA Tour for the 2003 season. She was also Duramed FUTURES Tour Player of the Year. In her rookie season on the LPGA Tour in 2003, she had eight top-10 finishes, including runner-up finishes at the Wegmans Rochester and Michelob Light Open at Kingsmill, ending the season as the Louise Suggs Rolex Rookie of the Year and ninth on the LPGA official money list. In 2004, she won her first two LPGA Tour titles: the Franklin American Mortgage Championship (where she became the first Mexican born player to win on the LPGA Tour) and the Wachovia LPGA Classic. That same year she placed in the top ten in three of the four major championships. In 2005, Ochoa won the Wegmans Rochester LPGA. In 2006, her first round score of 62 in the Kraft Nabisco Championship tied the record for lowest score ever by a golfer, male or female, in any major tournament. Her playoff loss to Karrie Webb marked her best finish until 2007 in an LPGA major. By the end of the year she won six tournaments, topped the money list and claimed her first LPGA Tour Player of the Year award which goes to the player who gains the most points throughout the season based on a formula in which points are awarded for top-10 finishes and are doubled at the LPGA's four major championships and at the season- ending ADT Championship. She also won the LPGA Vare Trophy for lowest scoring average on the LPGA Tour. Her achievements were recognized outside the sport of golf when Ochoa won the 2006 Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year award and received the National Sports Prize for the second time. In April 2007, Ochoa overtook Annika Sörenstam to become the world number one ranked golfer. thumb|right|250px| Lorena Ochoa (MEX) during pro-am before 2008 LPGA Championship held at Bulle Rock Golf Course, on 3 June 2008 in Havre de Grace, Maryland. In August 2007, Ochoa won her first major championship at the historic home of golf, the Old Course at St Andrews, with a wire-to-wire win by four shots at the Women's British Open. She won the next two LPGA events, the CN Canadian Women's Open and the Safeway Classic, the first to win three consecutive events since Sörenstam in 2005. Also in 2007, Ochoa became the first woman ever to earn more than $4,000,000 in a single season, surpassing Sörenstam's previous record of $2,863,904. In April 2008, Ochoa won her second major championship, this time at the Kraft Nabisco Championship, becoming the first golfer to win consecutive LPGA majors since Sörenstam in 2005. She celebrated this victory in the traditional fashion for the Kraft Nabisco by jumping into the pond on the 18th green. The following week, she won the Corona Championship in her home country by 11 strokes. This gave her the final tournament win she needed to qualify for the World Golf Hall of Fame, although she cannot be inducted until she completes ten seasons on the LPGA Tour. Ochoa was coached by Rafael Alarcon, a Mexican professional. Alarcon finished second in the 1976 Canadian Amateur Championship, won that title in 1979, then turned professional. ==Retirement== thumb|right|250px| Lorena Ochoa of Mexico on the 18th fairway during last practice round before 2009 Ricoh Women's British Open held at Royal Lytham & St Annes on 29 July 2009 in Lytham St Annes, England On 20 April 2010, Ochoa released a statement indicating her intent to retire from professional golf. At a press conference held in Mexico City on 23 April 2010, Ochoa said her last tournament would be the 2010 Tres Marias Championship to be played from 29 April through 2 May. She said that her career plan had always been to play for "around ten years" and to be the number 1 ranked player in the world. She also said: > I just want to be honest with all of you. I went to Asia, and after two or > three days of being in Thailand, it was really easy to me – it was really > clear to see that I didn't want to be out there, you know. I just was > thinking of other things. I wanted to get home. I wanted to start working on > the foundation. I wanted to be here close to my family. Ochoa said she would still maintain her membership in the LPGA and would play in the Lorena Ochoa Invitational and "I'm going to leave the door open in case I want to come back in one or two years to play a U.S. Open or a Kraft Nabisco."Lorena Ochoa Retirement Transcript Ochoa made a limited return to competitive golf in 2012, having been invited by her sponsor, Lacoste, to compete in the Lacoste Ladies Open de France, an event on the Ladies European Tour. Ochoa finished the event in T22, 13 shots behind the winner Stacey Keating. Ochoa also announced she would compete in the 2012 edition of her own event, the Lorena Ochoa Invitational. ==Tournament host== In November 2008, she became the host of a new annual LPGA event, the Lorena Ochoa Invitational, held at her original home course, Guadalajara Country Club. Proceeds from the tournament help support the Lorena Ochoa Foundation. ==Personal life== thumb|right|180px|Ochoa golf swing in 2004 Lorena Ochoa's successes fuel the family business, the Ochoa Group in Guadalajara, managed by her brother Alejandro Ochoa. Lorena Ochoa is represented by the Ochoa Sports Management, along with Alarcon and Sophia Sheridan, a Mexican golfer who plays on the LPGA's developmental tour. The Ochoas are confident the list will expand as they attempt to grow the game in Mexico through Ochoa Golf Academies, created by Lorena, Alejandro and Alarcon. Ochoa Sports Management also operates the LPGA Corona Championship, an annual tour stop in Morelia, Mexico; and the Lorena Ochoa Invitational. The Lorena Ochoa Foundation operates La Barranca, a primary school in Guadalajara with 250 underprivileged students and an innovative curriculum. In 2008, the foundation opened a high school with 21 freshmen students. The plan, according to foundation director Carmen Bolio, is to add a new class each year and then construct a high school building that's separate from the primary school. She became engaged to her boyfriend Andrés Conesa Labastida, CEO of Aeroméxico,Recibe Lorena Ochoa anillo de compromiso and they married in December 2009. In April 2011, Ochoa announced she was pregnant with the couple's first child. As of mid-2017, she has 3 children. ==Professional wins (30)== ===LPGA Tour (27)=== Legend LPGA Tour major championships (2) Other LPGA Tour (25) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 16 May 2004 Franklin American Mortgage Championship −16 (70-67-67-68=272) 1 stroke Wendy Ward 2 29 Aug 2004 Wachovia LPGA Classic −19 (67-68-69-65=269) 2 strokes Grace Park 3 19 Jun 2005 Wegmans Rochester LPGA −15 (67-69-72-65=273) 4 strokes Paula Creamer 4 15 Apr 2006 LPGA Takefuji Classic −19 (63-68-66=197) 3 strokes Seon Hwa Lee 5 21 May 2006 Sybase Classic −5 (71-71-66=208) 2 strokes Kyeong Bae Hee-Won Han 6 27 Aug 2006 Wendy's Championship for Children −24 (67-68-64-65=264) 3 strokes Jee Young Lee Stacy Prammanasudh 7 8 Oct 2006 Corona Morelia Championship −20 (71-64-68-69=272) 5 strokes Julieta Granada 8 15 Oct 2006 Samsung World Championship −16 (67-73-67-65=272) 2 strokes Annika Sörenstam 9 12 Nov 2006 The Mitchell Company Tournament of Champions −21 (66-73-63-65=267) 10 strokes Paula Creamer Juli Inkster 10 25 Mar 2007 Safeway International −18 (69-64-69-68=270) 2 strokes Suzann Pettersen 11 20 May 2007 Sybase Classic −18 (68-67-67-68=270) 3 strokes Sarah Lee 12 24 Jun 2007 Wegmans LPGA −8 (69-71-67-73=280) Playoff In- Kyung Kim 13 5 Aug 2007 Ricoh Women's British Open −5 (67-73-73-74=287) 4 strokes Maria Hjorth Jee Young Lee 14 19 Aug 2007 CN Canadian Women's Open −16 (70-65-64-69=268) 3 strokes Paula Creamer 15 26 Aug 2007 Safeway Classic −12 (67-66-71=204) 5 strokes Sophie Gustafson Christina Kim Mhairi McKay Inbee Park 16 14 Oct 2007 Samsung World Championship −18 (68-67-69-66=270) 4 strokes Mi-Hyun Kim 17 18 Nov 2007 ADT Championship −4 (70-70-66-68) 2 strokes Natalie Gulbis 18 2 Mar 2008 HSBC Women's Champions −20 (66-65-69-68=268) 11 strokes Annika Sörenstam 19 30 Mar 2008 Safeway International −22 (65-67-68-66=266) 7 strokes Jee Young Lee 20 6 Apr 2008 Kraft Nabisco Championship −11 (68-71-71-67=277) 5 strokes Suzann Pettersen Annika Sörenstam 21 13 Apr 2008 Corona Championship −25 (66-66-66-69=267) 11 strokes Song-Hee Kim 22 20 Apr 2008 Ginn Open −18 (68-67-65-69=269) 3 strokes Yani Tseng 23 18 May 2008 Sybase Classic −10 (68-67-71=206) 1 stroke Na Yeon Choi Sophie Gustafson Brittany Lang Catriona Matthew Morgan Pressel 24 28 Sep 2008 Navistar LPGA Classic −15 (67-67-69-70=273) Playoff Cristie Kerr Candie Kung 25 1 Mar 2009 Honda LPGA Thailand −14 (71-69-68-66=274) 3 strokes Hee Young Park 26 26 Apr 2009 Corona Championship −25 (65-65-69-68=267) 1 stroke Suzann Pettersen 27 4 Oct 2009 Navistar LPGA Classic −18 (66-68-66-70=270) 4 strokes Brittany Lang Michelle Wie LPGA Tour playoff record (2–5) No. Year Tournament Opponent(s) Result 1 2005 Safeway International Annika Sörenstam Lost with par on first extra hole 2 2006 SBS Open at Turtle Bay Joo Mi Kim Soo Young Moon Kim won with birdie on second extra hole Ochoa eliminated by birdie on first hole 3 2006 Kraft Nabisco Championship Karrie Webb Lost to birdie on first extra hole 4 2007 Ginn Tribute Hosted by Annika Nicole Castrale Lost to par on first extra hole 5 2007 Wegmans LPGA In- Kyung Kim Won with par on second extra hole 6 2007 Longs Drugs Challenge Suzann Pettersen Lost to birdie on second extra hole 7 2008 Navistar LPGA Classic Cristie Kerr Candie Kung Won with par on second extra hole Kerr eliminated by par on first hole ===Futures Tour (3)=== No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 16 Jun 2002 JWA/Michelob Light FUTURES Charity Golf Classic −9 (201) 4 strokes Amy Dahle 2 30 Jun 2002 Ann Arbor FUTURES Classic −8 (68-72-68=208) 1 stroke Christina Kim 3 11 Aug 2002 Betty Puskar Futures Golf Classic −9 (70-68-69=207) 2 strokes Erika Wicoff Futures Tour playoff record (0–1) No. Year Tournament Opponent(s) Result 1 2002 Hewlett-Packard Garden State FUTURES Summer Classic Christina Kim Lost to birdie on sixth extra hole ==Major championships== ===Wins (2)=== Year Championship Winning score Margin Runners-up 2007 Ricoh Women's British Open −5 (67-73-73-74=287) 4 strokes Maria Hjorth, Jee Young Lee 2008 Kraft Nabisco Championship −11 (68-71-71-67=277) 5 strokes Suzann Pettersen, Annika Sörenstam ===Results timeline=== Tournament 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Kraft Nabisco Championship T21LA 8 LA 3 T8 T35 2 T10 1 T12 4 LPGA Championship T20 T8 T5 T9 T6 T3 T23 U.S. Women's Open CUT WD T13 T44 T6 T20 T2 T31 T26 Women's British Open T24 4 CUT T4 1 T7 T28 LA = low amateur CUT = missed the half-way cut WD = withdrew "T" = tied ===Summary=== Tournament Wins 2nd 3rd Top-5 Top-10 Top-25 Events Cuts made Kraft Nabisco Championship 1 1 1 4 7 9 10 10 LPGA Championship 0 0 1 2 5 7 7 7 U.S. Women's Open 0 1 0 1 2 4 9 7 Women's British Open 1 0 0 3 4 5 7 6 Totals 2 2 2 10 18 25 33 30 *Most consecutive cuts made – 17 (2006 Kraft Nabisco – 2010 Kraft Nabisco) *Longest streak of top-10s – 7 (2006 British Open - 2008 LPGA) ==LPGA Tour career summary== Year Tournaments played Cuts made Wins 2nd 3rd Top 10s Best finish Earnings ($) Money list rank Scoring average Scoring rank 2000 1 0 0 0 0 0 CUT n/a 76.50 2001 2 2 0 0 0 1 T7 n/a 70.75 20021 5 4 0 0 0 2 T5 19,080 n/a (142) 71.00 n/a (10) 2003 24 23 0 2 3 8 2 823,740 9 70.97 12 2004 27 27 2 1 5 18 1 1,450,824 3 70.02 3 2005 23 20 1 4 0 12 1 1,201,786 4 71.39 9 2006 25 25 6 6 2 21 1 2,592,872 1 69.24 1 2007 25 25 8 5 2 18 1 4,364,994 1 69.68 1 2008 22 22 7 0 2 17 1 2,763,193 1 69.70 1 2009 22 22 3 4 0 14 1 1,489,395 4 70.16 1 2010 6 6 0 0 0 2 4 176,527 53 71.92 n/a2(30) 2012 1 1 0 0 0 0 T18 13,158 141 71.00 n/a Totals 183 177 27 22 14 113 1 14,863,331 4 1 The first three events of 2002 were played as an amateur; missed cut was an injury withdrawal (neck) prior to second round of the 2002 U.S. Women's Open. 2 Ochoa was not included in the final 2010 scoring average rankings; her final event was in early May. ==Futures Tour summary== Year Tournaments played Cuts made Wins 2nd 3rd Top 10s Best finish Earnings ($) Money list rank Scoring average Scoring rank 2002 10 10 3 4 0 8 1 53,702 1 69.27 1 ==Honors and awards== 2001 *Mexico National Sports Award (a) 2002 *Futures Tour Rookie of the Year *Futures Tour Player of the Year 2003 *LPGA Rookie of the Year 2006 *Mexico National Sports Award (2) *AP Female Athlete of the Year *Mexico Athlete of the Year *LPGA Rolex Player of the Year *LPGA Tour Money Winner *LPGA Vare Trophy *Golf Writers Association of America Female Player of the Year 2007 *LPGA Rolex Player of the Year (2) *LPGA Tour Money Winner (2) *LPGA Vare Trophy (2) *Women's Sports Foundation Sportswoman of the Year *Glamour Magazine Woman of the Year *Mexico National Sports Award (3) *Golf Writers Association of America Female Player of the Year (2) *AP Female Athlete of the Year (2) *EFE Sportswoman of the Year *Heather Farr Player Award 2008 *Best International Athlete ESPY Award *LPGA Rolex Player of the Year (3) *LPGA Tour Money Winner (3) *LPGA Vare Trophy (3) *Golf Writers Association of America Female Player of the Year (3) 2009 *LPGA Rolex Player of the Year (4) *LPGA Vare Trophy (4) 2011 *Bob Jones Award ==Team appearances== Amateur *Espirito Santo Trophy (representing Mexico): 1998, 2000 Professional *World Cup (representing Mexico): 2005 ==See also== *List of golfers with most LPGA Tour wins *Statue of Lorena Ochoa, in Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco ==Notes and references== ==External links== * * * *Lorena Ochoa at ArizonaWildcats.com (archived) Category:Mexican female golfers Category:Arizona Wildcats women's golfers Category:LPGA Tour golfers Category:Winners of LPGA major golf championships Category:World Golf Hall of Fame inductees Category:Sportspeople from Guadalajara, Jalisco Category:Mexican people of Spanish descent Category:1981 births Category:Living people
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Quan Am Temple is a Chinese-style Buddhist temple located on Lao Tu Street in Cho Lon, District 5, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Founded in the 19th century, it is dedicated to Guanyin (), the Chinese goddess of mercy and the Chinese form of the Indian bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. The pagoda is popular among both Vietnamese and Chinese Buddhists; most of its inscriptions are in Chinese characters, but some have had Vietnamese labels added. In addition to veneration of Guanyin and the teachings of the Buddha, the pagoda also includes Pure Land worship of the Amitabha Buddha (), elements of Taoism, and the folk worship of the Fujianese sea goddess Mazu in her role as the "Queen of Heaven" (). ==History== The temple was built by Hokkien immigrants to the city in the late 19th century. ==Layout== On one side of Lao Tu Street is the pagoda complex, with an entrance through a gatehouse; on the other side is an associated garden with an artificial pond. The pagoda complex itself consists of a small front courtyard, an antechamber with an altar to the Jade Emperor, a main chamber with an altar to Mazu, and a large rear courtyard dominated by the statue of Guanyin. ===Grounds=== The garden, which is separated from the street by a red metal gate, contains an artificial pond and fountain. In the middle is a miniature scale artificial island with rocky terrain and a roofed pavilion. A Chinese-style statue of Guanyin stands on the stone border to the little pond. Guanyin is standing erect on a lotus flower. She is wearing a crown and a long white robe. With her right hand, she holds a small golden pearl, while with the left she holds a small vial. This vial contains the elixir of life, amrita. The relief images on the three panels surrounding the pond depict Taoist motifs. thumb|left|The relief panels surrounding the artificial pond have Taoist motifs. In the center panel, a green dragon, his body partially obscured by clouds, hovers above the ocean waters, while golden fish play at the surface. In the leftmost panel, the three divinities that represents the Three Stars () are standing together in Heaven. The Status Star () is dressed as a Chinese mandarin, wearing a red robe with light blue trim. The Longevity Star () is depicted as an old man with a white beard and a yellow robe. In his right hand, he is carrying a peach, the symbol of immortality, while in his left hand he carries a wooden staff with the head of a dragon. The Jade Emperor and Lao-tze are surrounded by children who are gathering the peaches of immortality and placing them in baskets and a wagon. One child presents a basket of peaches to Lao-tze, as the Jade Emperor looks on and touches his beard. Behind the deity of status stands the deity that's associated with prosperity star, who is stroking the head of one of the children. In the rightmost panel, a group of eight musicians are depicted making music in a natural setting. The instruments include flutes, percussion, and strings. ===Front Courtyard=== The entrance to the pagoda across the street from the garden is through a small red gatehouse. Between the gatehouse and the pagoda building itself is a narrow courtyard. At both ends of the narrow courtyard are relief panels fashioned in the same style as the panels in the garden across the street. The difference is that while the panels in the garden have Taoist motifs, those in the courtyard have Buddhist motifs depicting the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha. Amitabha is the Buddha associated with the form of Buddhist piety that promises salvation through faith. It is a form of piety available even to those who lack the ability or opportunity to pursue salvation through meditation and reflection. Devotees of Amitabha call his name in all sincerity, and he rewards them by having them reborn into the paradise that is called the Pure Land, a place without suffering and without evil, where sentient beings can prepare themselves for ultimate salvation. To the left of the main entrance of to the pagoda complex is a panel depicting Amitabha Buddha as he presides over the Pure Land. *Amitabha is depicted sitting cross-legged on a lotus flower. He is wearing robes of red and orange. He has the elongated ears and curled hair of the Shakyamuni Buddha (i.e., the Buddha), and his head is surrounded by a halo of fire. His right hand makes the gesture of fearlessness, and his left hand the gesture of giving. He is flanked by two standing bodhisattvas, who prayerfully clasp their hands at their chests. They are Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva () and Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva (). These two bodhisattvas are Amitabha's companions in the principal iconographic triad of Pure Land Buddhism. Surrounding Ambitabha and the bodhisattvas are numerous monks and devotees. Most of the monks are dressed in orange robes, with short-cropped greyish hair. thumb|A bodhisattva converses with the spirit of the land. *To Ambitabha's right is an interesting group of figures. **The spirit of the land on which the pagoda was built has a white beard and black and red robes; a horned demon protects him from the sun by means of an umbrella made of a gigantic leaf. The spirit of the land is conversing with a bodhisattva, who appears to be coming from the entourage surrounding Amitabha. **Behind the spirit of the land are a novice monk, dressed in grey, and an azure dragon. **Somewhat above the spirit of the land, emerging from some clouds, is a dark-skinned four-armed archer, with fierce bulging eyes and thick black eyebrows. With two of his hands, the archer fits an arrow to his bow; with the other two, he gesticulates above his head. A small light-skinned head grows upwards from the darker head below. thumb|left|Amitabha blesses a female devotee. To the right of the main entrance is another panel depicting Amitabha presiding over the Pure Land. Again, Amitabha is depicted sitting on a lotus throne, and wearing red and orange clothing. Again he is flanked by two standing boddhisattvas with clasped hands. Amitabha's left hand rests in his lap in the gesture of meditation, while his right hand is raised in a benevolent gesture towards a haloed woman who kneels at his feet. To Amitabha's left, a diverse crowd of figures emerges from the clouds surrounding a mountainous wilderness landscape. About half the figures are monks clad in orange robes; the rest include two bearded men in armor, one playing a lute and the other carrying a sword, and a man leading a harnessed tiger. ===Entry Hallway and Altar to Jade Emperor=== The partially covered entry hallway is dominated by a central altar to the Jade Emperor (), which faces a large incense censer. The wall to the right of the altar features a large relief depiction of a tigress with her cub, a symbol of fertility, and the wall to the left a golden dragon swirling through the clouds. Gilded panels of the male Amitabha Buddha and three female Bodhisattvas () mounted on mythical creatures flank the reliefs. *Amitabha Buddha () sits cross legged on the back of a fierce lion or qilin (sometimes called a "unicorn" in English translation). His right hand rests in his lap in the gesture of meditation, cradling a lotus flower. His left hand is raised in a gesture of instruction. thumb|The bodhisattva Manjusri, in female form, is mounted on a lion. *Manjusri Bodhisattva (), the bodhisattva of wisdom, takes a feminine form and sits on a snarling lion. She does not carry her normal attributes, the sword (representing the intellect capable of cutting through error) and the book of wisdom. Instead, her left hand cradles a flaming orb, while her right hand is hidden from view. The lion represents the wild mind subdued by wisdom and meditation. *Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva () takes a feminine form as she sits serenely on the back of a lion. Her right hand rests in her lap cradling an orb, while her left hand is raised in a gesture of instruction. *Samantabhadra Bodhisattva (), the bodhisattva of virtue and religious devotion, takes a feminine form and rides on the back of an elephant. Her right hand cradles a lotus blossom, while the left is raised in a gesture of instruction. The white elephant represents the purification of the senses. At the center of the altar to the Jade Emperor stands a dark statue clothed in yellow robes and a golden crown, representing the lord of the universe. Just in front is a statue of the chubby "Laughing Buddha" Maitreya ()—the Buddha of the future. Maitreya is sitting comfortably on the ground with one knee raised, his robe opened at the chest, his mouth opened in friendly mirth. ===Main Hallway and Altar to Mazu=== thumb|right|A dragon coils down a pillar in front of the altar dedicated to Mazu. The main altar inside the pagoda is dedicated to Mazu. Her Vietnamese name is a transcription of her Chinese epithet Tianhou, meaning "Empress of Heaven". She is also known as , a calque of her Cantonese epithet A-ma, meaning "Beloved Mother". Both roles cause her to be syncretized with both the Virgin Mary and Guanyin. In the center, Mazu stands tall dressed in multicolored robes and crown, her golden face serene and dispassionate. The lady is flanked by much shorter attendants, and scowling demons stand guard in front of her. The space in front of the altar is dominated by pillars decorated with relief carvings of coiled yellow dragons. The dragons spiral downwards along the pillars, from heaven above to the ocean below. Off to one side stands a large cast bronze bell. On the walls to the left and right of the altar are relief carvings depicting Taoist motifs. On the one side, a group of Taoist Immortals fraternize in a mountainous landscape. Two of them are playing a board game; one is making music. On the other side, a group of celestial women accompany a youth riding a cloud between mountain tops. ===Outer Courtyard and Altar to Guanyin=== Beyond the altar to Mazu is the partially covered outer courtyard. In its center is the altar to Guanyin (). Numerous statues and altars to other deities and holy persons are located along the periphery of the courtyard. Incense stick holders, offerings of fruit and rice, and ovens for burning offerings of money, are also present. thumb|left|The main image in the outer courtyard is the statue of Guanyin. The central image is a Chinese-style statue of Guanyin. She is standing tall and smiling, with her right hand raised in gesture of instruction and her left hand cradling the small vase that contains the elixir of life. She is flanked by two smaller figures, one of whom clasps his hands together and gazes at her adoringly. To the left and right of the central group of statues dragons wind upward into the sky around tall pillars. Outside the pillars are a pair of relief images of smiling bodhisattvas mounted on complacent beasts. To one side is a depiction of a female Manjusri seated on the back of a green lion and cradling a lotus stem and blossom. The lion represents the wild mind conquered by the wisdom of the bodhisattva. To the other side is a depiction of a female Samantabhadra on the back of a white elephant and carrying a scroll. The elephant represents the discipline of the senses. The smaller altars along the periphery of the outer courtyard are dedicated to various figures of Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese mythology, legends and literature. They include the following: thumb|This figure is one of a series representing Buddhist holy men. *One altar is flanked by numerous statues of Buddhist arhats (), or holy men, made of dark wood. They are in various positions and attitudes. One is sitting on the ground, holding a round bowl in his lap. Another is mounted on an elephant. Another holds his bowl up, as in an offering. And so on. *Monkey, the central figure in Chinese classic Journey to the West, is depicted in a statue. He is clothed in yellow robes and wears a gilded headpiece. His right hand is raised to his forehead as if he were shielding his eyes from the sun in order to gaze into the distance. Across the courtyard, a small diorama depicts Monkey and his companions Tang Sanzang, Pigsy, and Sandy moving through a rocky landscape, while Guanyin watches over them from the top of a cliff. ==See also== * Qianliyan & Shunfeng'er * List of Mazu temples around the world * Thien Hau Temple (Cholon) ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * . * . * . ==External links== Category:Pagodas in Vietnam Category:Buddhist temples in Ho Chi Minh City Category:Mazu temples
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A joystick, sometimes called a flight stick, is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick, also known as the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian and military aircraft, either as a centre stick (or side-stick). It has various switches to control the movements of the aircraft controlled by the Pilot and First Officer of the flight. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more than one push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick. Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger- operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones. == Aviation == right|thumb|Cockpit of a glider with its joystick visible Joysticks originated as controls for aircraft ailerons and elevators, and are first known to have been used as such on Louis Bleriot's Bleriot VIII aircraft of 1908, in combination with a foot-operated rudder bar for the yaw control surface on the tail. == Origins == The name joystick is thought to originate with early 20th century French pilot Robert Esnault-Pelterie. There are also competing claims on behalf of fellow pilots Robert Loraine, James Henry Joyce, and A. E. George. Loraine is cited by the Oxford English Dictionary for using the term "joystick" in his diary in 1909 when he went to Pau to learn to fly at Bleriot's school. George was a pioneer aviator who with his colleague Jobling built and flew a biplane at Newcastle in England in 1910. He is alleged to have invented the "George Stick" which became more popularly known as the joystick. The George and Jobling aircraft control column is in the collection of the Discovery Museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Joysticks were present in early planes, though their mechanical origins are uncertain. The coining of the term "joystick" may actually be credited to Loraine, as his is the earliest known usage of the term, although he most certainly did not invent the device. ==Electronic joysticks== ===History=== The electrical two-axis joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and patented in 1926 (U.S. Patent no. 1,597,416)". NRL was actively developing remote controlled aircraft at the time and the joystick was possibly used to support this effort. In the awarded patent, Mirick writes: "My control system is particularly applicable in maneuvering aircraft without a pilot." The Germans developed an electrical two-axis joystick around 1944. The device was used as part of the Germans' Funkgerät FuG 203 Kehl radio control transmitter system used in certain German bomber aircraft, used to guide both the rocket-boosted anti-ship missile Henschel Hs 293, and the unpowered pioneering precision-guided munition Fritz-X, against maritime and other targets. Here, the joystick of the Kehl transmitter was used by an operator to steer the missile towards its target. This joystick had on-off switches rather than analogue sensors. Both the Hs 293 and Fritz-X used FuG 230 Straßburg radio receivers in them to send the Kehl's control signals to the ordnance's control surfaces. A comparable joystick unit was used for the contemporary American Azon steerable munition, strictly to laterally steer the munition in the yaw axis only. This German invention was picked up by someone in the team of scientists assembled at the Heeresversuchsanstalt in Peenemünde. Here a part of the team on the German rocket program was developing the Wasserfall missile, a variant of the V-2 rocket, the first ground-to-air missile. The Wasserfall steering equipment converted the electrical signal to radio signals and transmitted these to the missile. In the 1960s the use of joysticks became widespread in radio- controlled model aircraft systems such as the Kwik Fly produced by Phill Kraft (1964). The now-defunct Kraft Systems firm eventually became an important OEM supplier of joysticks to the computer industry and other users. The first use of joysticks outside the radio-controlled aircraft industry may have been in the control of powered wheelchairs, such as the Permobil (1963). During this time period NASA used joysticks as control devices as part of the Apollo missions. For example, the lunar lander test models were controlled with a joystick. In many modern airliners aircraft, for example all Airbus aircraft developed from the 1980s, the joystick has received a new lease on life for flight control in the form of a "side-stick", a controller similar to a gaming joystick but which is used to control the flight, replacing the traditional yoke. The sidestick saves weight, improves movement and visibility in the cockpit, and may be safer in an accident than the traditional "control yoke". ===Electronic games=== thumb|CH Products Mach 2 analog joystick for Apple II computers The small knobs are for (mechanical) calibration, and the sliders engage the self-centering springs. Ralph H. Baer, inventor of the Magnavox Odyssey console, released in 1972, created the first video game joysticks in 1967. They were able to control the horizontal and vertical position of a spot displayed on a screen. The earliest known electronic game joystick with a fire button was released by Sega as part of their 1969 arcade game Missile, a shooter simulation game that used it as part of an early dual-control scheme, where two directional buttons are used to move a motorized tank and a two-way joystick is used to shoot and steer the missile onto oncoming planes displayed on the screen; when a plane is hit, an explosion is animated on screen along with an explosion sound. In 1970, the game was released in North America as S.A.M.I. by Midway Games. Taito released a four-way joystick as part of their arcade racing video game Astro Race in 1973, while their 1975 multidirectional shooter Western Gun introduced dual-stick controls with one eight-way joystick for movement and the other for changing the shooting direction. In North America, it was released by Midway under the title Gun Fight.Stephen Totilo, In Search Of The First Video Game Gun, Kotaku In 1976, Taito released Interceptor, an early first-person combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft. The Atari CX40 joystick, developed for the 1977 Atari Video Computer System, is a digital controller with a single fire button. The Atari joystick port was for many years the de facto standard digital joystick specification. Joysticks were commonly used as controllers in first and second generation game consoles, but they gave way to the familiar game pad with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Master System during the mid-1980s, though joysticks—especially arcade-style ones—were and are popular after-market add-ons for any console. In 1985, Sega's third-person arcade rail shooter game Space Harrier featured a true analog flight stick, used for movement. The joystick could register movement in any direction as well as measure the degree of push, which could move the player character at different speeds depending on how far the joystick was pushed in a certain direction.Space Harrier Retrospective, IGN A variation of the joystick is the rotary joystick. It is a type of joystick-knob hybrid, where the joystick can be moved in various direction while at the same time being able to rotate the joystick. It is mainly used in arcade shoot 'em up games, to control both the player's eight-directional movement and the gun's 360-degree direction. It was introduced by SNK, initially with the tank shooter TNK III (1985) before it was popularized by the run and gun video game Ikari Warriors (1986). SNK later used rotary joystick controls in arcade games such as Guerrilla War (1989). A distinct variation of an analog joystick is a positional gun, which works differently from a light gun. Instead of using light sensors, a positional gun is essentially an analog joystick mounted in a fixed location that records the position of the gun to determine where the player is aiming on the screen. It is often used for arcade gun games, with early examples including Sega's Sea Devil in 1972; Taito's Attack in 1976; Cross Fire in 1977; and Nintendo's Battle Shark in 1978. During the 1990s, joysticks such as the CH Products Flightstick, Gravis Phoenix, Microsoft SideWinder, Logitech WingMan, and Thrustmaster FCS were in demand with PC gamers. They were considered a prerequisite for flight simulators such as F-16 Fighting Falcon and LHX Attack Chopper. Joysticks became especially popular with the mainstream success of space flight simulator games like X-Wing and Wing Commander, as well as the "Six degrees of freedom" 3D shooter Descent. VirPil Controls' MongoosT-50 joystick was designed to mimic the style of Russian aircraft (including the Sukhoi Su-35 and Sukhoi Su-57), unlike most flight joysticks. However, since the beginning of the 21st century, these types of games have waned in popularity and are now considered a "dead" genre, and with that, gaming joysticks have been reduced to niche products. In NowGamer's interview with Jim Boone, a producer at Volition Inc., he stated that FreeSpace 2s poor sales could have been due to joysticks' being sold poorly because they were "going out of fashion" because more modern first-person shooters, such as Quake, were "very much about the mouse and [the] keyboard". He went further on to state "Before that, when we did Descent for example, it was perfectly common for people to have joysticks – we sold a lot of copies of Descent. It was around that time [when] the more modern FPS with mouse and keyboard came out, as opposed to just keyboard like Wolfenstein [3D] or something.". Since the late 1990s, analog sticks (or thumbsticks, due to their being controlled by one's thumbs) have become standard on controllers for video game consoles, popularized by Nintendo's Nintendo 64 controller, and have the ability to indicate the stick's displacement from its neutral position. This means that the software does not have to keep track of the position or estimate the speed at which the controls are moved. These devices usually use potentiometers to determine the position of the stick, though some newer models instead use a Hall effect sensor for greater reliability and reduced size. In 1997, ThrustMaster, Inc. introduced a 3D programmable controller, which was integrated into computer games to experience flight simulations. This line adapted several aspects of NASA's RHC (Rotational Hand Controller), which is used for landing and navigation methods. In 1997 the first gaming joystick with force feedback (haptics) was manufactured by CH Products under license from technology creator, Immersion Corporation. The product, called the Force FX joystick was followed by force feedback joysticks from Logitech, Thrustmaster, and others, also under license from Immersion. ===Arcade sticks=== An arcade stick is a large-format controller for use with home consoles or computers. They use the stick-and-button configuration of some arcade cabinets, such as those with particular multi-button arrangements. For example, the six button layout of the arcade games Street Fighter II or Mortal Kombat cannot be comfortably emulated on a console joypad, so licensed home arcade sticks for these games have been manufactured for home consoles and PCs. ===Hat switch=== thumb|upright|Hat switch - at top, in green A hat switch is a control on some joysticks. It is also known as a POV (point of view) switch. It allows one to look around in one's virtual world, browse menus, etc. For example, many flight simulators use it to switch the player's views, while other games sometimes use it as a substitute for the D-pad. Computer gamepads with both an analogue stick and a D-pad usually assign POV switch scancodes to the latter. The term hat switch is a shortening of the term "Coolie hat switch", named for the similar-looking headgear. In a real aircraft, the hat switch may control things like aileron or elevator trim. ===Cameras=== Apart from buttons, wheels and dials as well as touchscreens also miniature joysticks have been established for the efficient manual operation of cameras.Fujifilm X100F steps up to 24.3MP, adds AF joystick, dpreview.com 19 January 2017, retrieved 19 August 2020.Richard Butler: Panasonic Lumix DMC-LX3 Review, dpreview.com 11 April 2008, retrieved 19 August 2020.Carey Rose, Rishi Sanyal, Dan Bracaglia: Sony a7 III Review, dpreview.com 23 April 2018, retrieved 19 August 2020. Joystick.Kamera.P1078740.jpg|Miniature joystick to be operated by the right thumb, next to an electronic viewfinder Joystick.Kamera.P1078738.jpg|Detailed view == Industrial applications == In recent times, the employment of joysticks has become commonplace in many industrial and manufacturing applications, such as cranes, assembly lines, forestry equipment, mining trucks, and excavators. In fact, the use of such joysticks is in such high demand, that it has virtually replaced the traditional mechanical control lever in nearly all modern hydraulic control systems. Additionally, most unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and submersible remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) require at least one joystick to control either the vehicle, the on- board cameras, sensors and/or manipulators. Due to the highly hands-on, rough nature of such applications, the industrial joystick tends to be more robust than the typical video-game controller, and able to function over a high cycle life. This led to the development and employment of Hall effect sensing to such applications in the 1980s as a means of contactless sensing. Several companies produce joysticks for industrial applications using Hall effect technology. Another technology used in joystick design is the use of strain gauges to build force transducers from which the output is proportional to the force applied rather than physical deflection. Miniature force transducers are used as additional controls on joysticks for menu selection functions. Some larger manufacturers of joysticks are able to customize joystick handles and grips specific to the OEM needs while small regional manufacturers often concentrate on selling standard products at higher prices to smaller OEMs. == Assistive technology == Specialist joysticks, classed as an assistive technology pointing device, are used to replace the computer mouse for people with fairly severe physical disabilities. Rather than controlling games, these joysticks control the pointer. They are often useful to people with athetoid conditions, such as cerebral palsy, who find them easier to grasp than a standard mouse. Miniature joysticks are available for people with conditions involving muscular weakness such as muscular dystrophy or motor neurone disease as well. They are also used on electric powered wheelchairs for control since they are simple and effective to use as a control method. == See also == *Aircraft flight control system *The Arcade (joystick) *Flight simulator *Game controller *Gamepad *Glossary of computer hardware terms *Gravis PC GamePad *Kempston joystick *TAC-2 *Yoke (aircraft) == References == == Further reading == * (11 pages) (NB. This is based on an earlier German article published in 1996 in Lab. Jahrbuch 1995/1996 für Künste und Apparate (350 pages) by Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln mit dem Verein der Freunde der Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln; in Cologne, Germany. .) == External links == Category:American inventions Category:Aircraft controls Category:Computing input devices Category:Game controllers Category:Computer peripherals
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The Garden Bridge project was an unsuccessful private proposal for a pedestrian bridge over the River Thames in London, England. Originally an idea of Joanna Lumley, and strongly supported by then-Mayor of London Boris Johnson, the designer Thomas Heatherwick worked with Arup Group on a proposal by Transport for London (TfL) for a new bridge across the Thames between Waterloo Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge. The proposed concrete, steel, cupronickel clad structure was intended to carry pedestrians, with no cycles or other vehicles. It was to have been located some from Waterloo Bridge and from Blackfriars Bridge, and have included some areas of planting. The project was to include a commercial building, built on former green space at the southern end of the bridge. The bridge was intended to be funded by raising over £140 million of private money (including taxpayer funding through charitable gift aid) and £60 million of promised public money, of which £30m was from Transport for London (£20m of this to be repaid over 55 years) and £30m from the Department for Transport, adding up to projected funding of over £200m. In January 2017, the trustees of the prospective owner of the bridge, the Garden Bridge Trust, stated that costs would "substantially exceed" an earlier revised total of £185m and, in April 2017, a report by Margaret Hodge MP concluded, on the basis of the Garden Bridge Trust's own evidence, that the cost would be over £200m. If built, it was proposed that the bridge would have been open from 6am to midnight, with closures for the preparation for and holding of up to 12 private commercial events per year to raise funds for its maintenance. A planning condition required annual maintenance costs to be guaranteed by a third party and it was expected that this would be the Greater London Authority. The annual maintenance costs were variously estimated at between £2m and £3.5m, before allowing for the repayment of loan capital and interest. In July 2016, preparatory work for the bridge was halted and the Garden Bridge Trust put contractors on standby to allow for a financial review and because they had not cleared outstanding issues such as securing legal rights to the land on either side of the river, despite signing a contract for construction of the bridge in January 2016. In September 2016, Sadiq Khan, Mayor of London, announced a formal review by Margaret Hodge of the procurement processes in relation to the bridge project and its value for money. In October 2016, the National Audit Office reported on procurement issues and perceived value for money for that part of the cost of the project which was being met by funds (£30m) from the Department for Transport. In January 2017, the trustees of the Garden Bridge Trust (the limited company behind the project) said they were unable to conclude that the trust was a going concern. In February 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales found the financial management of the trust to be satisfactory, albeit with criticisms as to the trustees' approach. The subsequent report by Margaret Hodge MP was highly critical of the plan, its procurement, its cost, the risk to public funds, and lack of value for money. The Garden Bridge Trust formally announced on 14 August 2017 that it would be ending the project and that the Garden Bridge Trust itself would be wound up in accordance with the Companies Acts. The failed project cost £53m, including £43m of public money. ==Ownership== The Garden Bridge Trust, a registered charity (charity registration number 1155246) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales, and with an exemption from use of the term "Limited", was to own the bridge, as private space in the public realm. The company was incorporated on 30 October 2013 under reference 08755461. Lord Davies of Abersoch is chairman of the trust and a director of the limited company. ==Design== thumb|Location of the Garden Bridge as in The Garden Bridge Trust Guest Consultation. The bridge would have been long and across at its widest point. It would have run from the roof of Temple tube station at the foot of Arundel Street on the north bank to Queen's Walk on the South Bank, next to ITV's London Studios, where a public green open space would have been sacrificed and built upon to provide a commercial building associated with the bridge, with removal of some 28 mature trees. The new building would have housed a combination of public toilets, maintenance facilities, and operational areas, together with an events space which was intended to be occupied by Coin Street Community Builders who have a long lease of the area on which the building would have been constructed. The bridge would have featured trees and shrubs, hedging plants and climbers, perennials, ferns and grasses, and bulbs. Its construction would have required the felling of mature trees on both sides of the river, including 28 plane trees in the avenue on Queen's Walk which were planted in the 1960s as a living memorial to London's war dead. The bridge was to have been planted with some 270 immature trees. In order to limit the wind loading on the bridge structure the trees would have been maintained by pruning so that they never exceeded a height of at the bridge piers and near the bridge landings. Dan Pearson was appointed as landscape designer. Before granting planning permission, Westminster City Council raised concerns that the bridge would cause "significant harm" to a number of protected views from Waterloo Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, and the South Bank, but concluded that new views from the garden bridge would outweigh the damage caused. The bridge's proposed private owners claimed however that English Heritage stated in an assessment that "the Bridge would be as a picturesque incident in the riverscape….its low slung and restrained architecture and engineering will change the character of views but not cause harm to the setting of, and views to and from historic assets." ==Operation== In November 2014, it was claimed that the bridge would be off limits to groups of eight or more people and to cyclists. The Garden Bridge Trust later said that groups of eight or more would not be banned and cyclists would be allowed to use the bridge, if they were to dismount and push their cycles. The bridge would have been open to the public for 18 hours each day, closing between midnight and 6am. The draft business plan allowed the Garden Bridge Trust to close the bridge for up to 12 days a year for commercial events. Further, the charity proposed to rent the rooftop of the bridge's South Bank landing podium for commercial purposes on every weekend between May and October. Nine bridges already span the between Westminster Bridge and London Bridge, seven of which can be crossed on foot. Projections of visitor numbers suggested that the bridge would have added another 3.5 million visitors a year, an 18% increase on 2014 numbers. In 2014, critics of the project began campaigning to have it brought under judicial review or another appeal process through the secretary of state. In November 2015, planning documents for the bridge revealed that public access to the bridge was to be controlled, including the use of the tracking of visitors' mobile phone signals to guard against overcrowding, a video surveillance system and security staff known as "visitor hosts" who would have limited policing powers under a Community Safety Accreditation Scheme, including the right to issue fines. The rules of the bridge were to prohibit "any exercise other than jogging, playing a musical instrument, taking part in a 'gathering of any kind', giving a speech or address, scattering ashes, releasing a balloon and flying a kite." The bridge's private owners claimed that conditions would be "similar" to those of the Royal Parks. At a meeting at City Hall on 17 December 2015, Boris Johnson, then Mayor of London said, in defence of the project, "It's important that we don't rest on our laurels, but continue to adorn the city with things that will attract visitors … and to get it done within a four-year mayoralty is a very challenging thing." During the 2016–2017 review conducted by Dame Margaret Hodge for the Mayor of London, the only parties to express support for the bridge were Boris Johnson, the Garden Bridge Trust (the prospective owner of the bridge) itself and the Evening Standard while, on the other hand, "hostility" to the bridge was "substantial". ==Funding== By August 2016, the proposed cost of the bridge had risen to £185 million, from the original estimate of £60m. When first promoted, it was claimed that the project would be financed entirely from private sources, but a total of £60m towards the capital cost was then committed from public funds, with £30m pledged from Transport for London (TfL) funds by Mayor of London Boris Johnson and £30m pledged by HM Treasury. It was then agreed in November 2015 that £20m of TfL funds would be repaid over a period of 50 years as a loan. Further, the City of Westminster granted planning permission conditionally upon provision of a guarantee of maintenance costs. The Greater London Authority initially indicated willingness to underwrite those maintenance costs, estimated at a minimum of £2m a year, in perpetuity. In June 2013, the Commissioner of Transport for London, Sir Peter Hendy had stated that the public would meet no more than the "enabling costs" of the project of £4m. Nevertheless, the financial chief for Transport for London considered the proposed bridge extremely expensive when compared with other crossings on the Thames. For example, the Millennium Bridge had cost only £22m. Writing in The Guardian in February 2016, Ian Jack contrasted the £60m taxpayer support for the project with the closure of five Lancashire museums – two of which are nationally important – and 40 libraries. Jack described the bridge as unwanted and unnecessary and the closures as "cultural disembowelment". He asked whether a meeting between Joanna Lumley, a friend of designer Thomas Heatherwick and Boris Johnson had played a part. Jane Duncan, president of the Royal Institute of British Architects requested the project be put on hold pending an investigation of the tendering process for the appointments of Heatherwick Studio and Arup. Ian Jack followed up in May with another article calling the bridge an oddity born of the "chumocracy", and correspondents from outside London were equally scathing. On 16 February 2016, Walter Menteth of Project Compass CIC, a procurement intelligence service, published a detailed report on the irregularities in the procurement leading to the appointment of Arup Group and Thomas Heatherwick by Transport for London; the report concluded that an independent investigation would be appropriate before the public made any further financial commitment to the project. On 8 March 2016, the Evening Standard editor Sarah Sands wrote in defence of the bridge: In the 17 months to 31 March 2016, the Garden Bridge Trust spent over £26 million, 80% of which was funded by Transport for London. In the same period, the group raised £13 million in new private donations. However, the project's financing status deteriorated. During the same period in which the project's cost estimate was revised upward from £60 million to over £200 million (as of April 2017), the Garden Bridge Trust lost two major donors, causing a reduction in private funding pledges to £69 million. No new pledges had been obtained since August 2016. Sadiq Khan, who had been elected Mayor of London in May 2016, undertook an investigation of Johnson's decisions in relation to the procurement process for the bridge. In May 2016, he published a draft version of the Garden Bridge Trust business case for the bridge which showed that donations to the Trust from unnamed private companies, organisations and individuals totalled £83.1 million, representing the privately pledged money; this included £43.75m from donors who chose to remain anonymous. London Assembly Member Tom Copley called for transparency on private donations to the project, asking if donations had been received from companies which may benefit or have benefited from Transport for London contracts. The Charity Commission case report published on 28 February 2017 subsequently found that the processes for awarding of contracts were robust, and that benefactors were not party to contracts made by the charity. In July 2016, Dan Anderson of Fourth Street published a review of the Garden Bridge's Draft Operations and Maintenance Business Plan. Anderson's report concluded that "After detailed analysis of the Operations and Maintenance Business Plan it is this author's considered opinion that the basic business model is flawed and the Business Plan targets are optimistic at best, but more likely unachievable". On 11 July 2016, the BBC reported that preparatory work for the bridge had been halted to allow City Hall to review the finances. Sadiq Khan said that no more public money would be spent on the bridge. The halted work would have cost £3m for infrastructure preparation in the Tube station at Temple on the north bank of the Thames so that the bridge structure could be built on its roof. A Garden Bridge Trust spokesman said that the Garden Bridge Trust had signed a costs agreement with TfL which included a repayment schedule. On 26 July 2016, the BBC reported that the project had run into financial trouble and that the Garden Bridge Trust was seeking an extension of a £15m underwriting of the project: "tough questions are being asked in Whitehall about the footbridge and its public value". The additional assurance of the underwriting extension was needed in order for the Garden Bridge Trust to complete and file its statutory accounts, due on 31 July 2016. However, on Friday 29 July 2016, the last day on which it could validly do so, the Garden Bridge Trust changed its accounting reference date so as to extend its accounting period from 31 October 2015 to 31 March 2016, a further five months, postponing its obligation to file any accounts. On 8 August 2016, the National Audit Office formally announced that during Autumn 2016 it was to investigate the Department for Transport's handling of its £30 million grant to the Garden Bridge project. The audit would not seek to determine the value for money of the project as a whole. The Director of the audit team was to be Rebecca Sheeran. The National Audit Office invited submission of evidence for its investigation. The National Audit Office duly reported in October 2016. In an interview with Evan Davis on BBC Newsnight on 17 August 2016, Lord Davies of Abersoch said that the Garden Bridge Trust had raised some £69.5 million ("call it £70 million") of private funds in addition to £60 million of public funds. Some who had offered funding had never entered into legally binding commitments to pay and "one or two" had withdrawn from the project. Further, delays in the project now meant that the costs had risen to £185 million and that the bridge would not be completed before 2019. The figures of increased cost and the reduction in funds raised, together with the longer timescale, were then confirmed by the Garden Bridge Trust. In September 2016, the Mayor of London announced a formal review into project's finances and value for money. Dame Margaret Hodge conducted an inquiry into the planned structure. The mayor's office said she would investigate whether value for money had been achieved from the taxpayers' contribution and investigate the work of bodies such as Transport for London and the Greater London Authority. The Hodge Report was published in April 2017. In January 2017, the trustees of the Garden Bridge Trust stated that they expected the bridge's costs to "substantially exceed" the existing estimate of £185 million, and the Hodge Report in April 2017 stated that costs were estimated to be over £200 million. ===National Audit Office report=== On 11 October 2016, the National Audit Office reported the results of its inquiries into the £30 million funding provided for the Garden Bridge by the Department for Transport. The report recorded that in the Department's assessment of the original business case for the Bridge there was seen to be a significant risk that the project could represent poor value for money but the Department agreed to make the £30 million contribution anyway. The manner in which the funding was provided, by block grant to Transport for London left the Department with limited oversight of its own support to the Garden Bridge Trust. This arrangement simplified the Trust's access to public funding through a single source but it also made TfL responsible for assuring and overseeing all of the £60 million public funding and for ensuring value for money for taxpayers' investment. There was initially a cap on the amount of the Department's funding that could be used by the Garden Bridge Trust for pre-construction activity, but this cap was relaxed on three separate occasions, on two of those occasions against the advice of civil servants and on one of them by way of formal Ministerial Direction from the Secretary of State. The report summarised that: ===Charity Commission report=== On 28 February 2017, the Charity Commission published a Case Report which commented on the financial management of the Trust. The Charity Commission concluded that trustees had been meeting their duties and were acting in compliance with charity law; there was no concern about the management of conflicts of interest; the charity's financial management met required standards; trustees provided strategic leadership and direction to the charity and its staff to help it deliver its purpose; trustees understood their roles and duties and responsibilities as trustees; the Commission saw evidence of robust and informed decision-making. Arrangements to award contracts since the charity had been formed appear to have been robust. There was evidence of significant trustee engagement and some benchmarking of hourly rates and materials. However, trustees did not fully explore the opportunities to compare the critical paths of other comparable infrastructure projects and thus better enable themselves to assess project risk. The Commission went on to comment that the charity's accounts had been filed and had identified ongoing uncertainty over whether the charity was a going concern. The Commission considered that, given the public interest, the trustees could have provided more detail in their annual report about the progress made, given the expenditure incurred and the challenges addressed. The charity held no reserves but expected to meet any obligations from the use of its restricted funds. Given the reliance on using restricted funds the Commission would have expected a fuller description of how these funds, including the guarantee, could be used with greater detail on how the charity would meet its liabilities in the event of closure. ==Planning process== ===Initial planning approval=== The full planning applications for the project were submitted to Westminster and Lambeth Councils on 30 May 2014, and it was originally intended, subject to receiving planning permission and raising the necessary funds, that construction of the bridge would start in 2015 and be completed by 2018. The planning application was approved by Lambeth Council (local authority on the south side of the bridge), subject to conditions, in November 2014. Westminster City Council passed a plan for the bridge on 2 December 2014 by a vote of three to one. In December 2014, Boris Johnson approved the scheme to build the bridge, with construction then expected to start in 2015. ===Judicial review=== In January 2015, a legal challenge of Lambeth's planning permission was brought by Michael Ball, former director of the Waterloo Community Development Group, with the support of local opposition group Thames Central Open Spaces. On 21 April 2015, permission was granted by The Hon. Mr Justice Ouseley for a full judicial review of Lambeth's decision to grant planning permission on the grounds that the impact of views on heritage assets (particularly Somerset House) had not been properly considered, and Lambeth had not adequately ensured the ongoing maintenance of the bridge. However, it was agreed the case should be dismissed after Lambeth and the trust agreed to enter into a planning obligation requiring the trust to submit a plan for the maintenance of the bridge for approval by the Council, and to provide a surety or guarantor for the trust's ongoing maintenance obligations. The Greater London Authority has guaranteed the maintenance costs. A second judicial review, of Lambeth's decision to allow a variation of the lease on the South Bank, was dismissed in September 2016. ===Lease and permission=== On 25 September 2015, Lambeth Council suspended negotiations with the Garden Bridge Trust over the terms of the lease, which would be required at the South Bank end of the bridge. Lambeth's position was that funds for the bridge should not be provided by Transport for London, that the £30m of funding from Transport for London was not justified, and that Lambeth would permit the bridge only if it was assured that the project's funds would not be taken from Transport for London. Negotiations were resolved in November 2015. However, in March 2016 it was reported that Lambeth Council had put the necessary lease modifications in place. Permission from the Coin Street Community Builders, a housing trust which holds a long-term lease over part of the land needed to construct the southern approaches, was also required for the bridge's construction. In March 2016, in "a last ditch" attempt to stop the bridge, local politicians wrote to the housing trust urging it to refuse permission, although the housing trust indicated that it was not in a position to oppose the decisions of elected governments. The planning permission for the bridge had been due to expire in December 2017. ==Project collapse== === Hodge report=== Margaret Hodge's report for the Mayor of London was published in April 2017. It found that: there had been multiple failings from the start; the business case for construction of the bridge was weak; the purpose of the bridge was confused and unclear; the Garden Bridge Trust had raised only £69m in private pledges of funding; the final cost if built would now exceed £200m of capital expenditure, excluding the amount of any possible endowment for maintenance; the project was controversial and unpopular and the Garden Bridge Trust was unlikely to be able to raise the money, and that taxpayers should accept the loss of public money already spent that would result from cancelling the project and avoid further waste of public funds. She also concludedReport, executive summary, para 8 that the appointments in 2013 of Heatherwick Studio (for design and consulting services) and Arup (for engineering and project management services) "were not open, fair or competitive procurements … and [her review had] revealed systematic failures and ineffective control systems at many levels". Architecture critic Rowan Moore described the project as "a landmark of the post-truth era" and a vanity project by Boris Johnson. ===Refusal of mayoral guarantee=== In response to the Hodge report, Mayor of London Sadiq Khan, Johnson's successor, announced on 28 April 2017 that he would not provide a guarantee for the future running costs of the bridge, due to concerns about the project's financial viability. Since the guarantee was a condition of planning permission, the mayor's refusal had the effect of ending the project. ===Formal abandonment=== On 14 August 2017 after months of uncertainty the Garden Bridge Trust entirely abandoned the project. The BBC London transport correspondent Tom Edwards described the situation as a shambles which was "an embarrassing mess for the capital ... already descend[ing] into finger pointing and a blame game over who is culpable for wasting £46.4m of public money". In February 2019 it was revealed that the total public cost had been £43m. ==References== ==External links== * Interview with Heatherwick in the Evening Standard * Thames Central Open Spaces Category:2017 in London Category:Thomas Heatherwick Category:Proposed bridges in the United Kingdom Category:Unbuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom Category:Pedestrian bridges in London Category:Proposed infrastructure in London
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Fast of the Firstborn (, Ta'anit B'khorot or , Ta'anit B'khorim) is a unique fast day in Judaism which usually falls on the day before Passover (i.e., the fourteenth day of Nisan, a month in the Jewish calendar; Passover begins on the fifteenth of Nisan). In modern times, the fast is usually broken at a siyum celebration (typically made at the conclusion of the morning services), which, according to prevailing custom, creates an atmosphere of rejoicing that overrides the requirement to continue the fast (see Breaking the fast below). Unlike all other Jewish fast days, only firstborn children are required to fast on the Fast of the Firstborn. This fast commemorates the salvation of the Israelite firstborns during the Plague of the Firstborn (according to the Book of Exodus, the tenth of the ten plagues wrought upon Ancient Egypt prior to the Exodus of the Children of Israel), when, according to Exodus (12:29): "...God struck every firstborn in the Land of Mitzrayim (Ancient Egypt)...." ==Origins== The primary source quoted for this custom is Tractate Soferim 21:3, where it is stated that firstborns fast "in commemoration of the miracle that they were saved from the Plague of the Firstborn". Rabbeinu AsherAsher ben Jehiel, commentary to the Babylonian Talmud, Pesachim 10:19 and Rabbeinu Aharon HaKoheinOrchot Chayyim, p. 76, §13 quote the Jerusalem TalmudPesachim 68a as an additional source for the fast, though the same passage can also be understood to mean that firstborns do not fast.Raavyah, 525 The Shulchan Aruch records the custom of fasting,Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 470:1 however R' Moshe Isserles records that some people instead "redeem" the fast.Darchei Moshe, Orach Chaim 470 Later commentaries suggest that this redemption could be done by holding a siyum or by giving charity. R' Yosef Eliyahu Henkin suggests that since the custom is absent from the (Babylonian) Talmud, it is not universally binding but rather depends on current practice, allowing the current practice of replacing the fast with a siyum or charity (Henkin preferred charity).Gevurot Eliyahu, Orach Chaim 143 ==Meaning of the fast== Fasts in Judaism can have a number of purposes, including atonement for sins; commemorative mourning, and commemorative gratitude (see Ta'anit). The Fast of the Firstborn incorporates commemorative gratitude for salvation from the Plague of the Firstborn, as detailed above. According to Rabbi Jacob Emden, the Fast of the Firstborn also commemorates the salvation of the Jews from the plot of Haman. This is because Haman advanced his plot on the thirteenth of Nisan,Esther 3:12 and Queen Esther reacted by instructing all Jews of Shushan to undertake a three-day fast beginning the next day, the fourteenth of Nisan.Esther 4:16 according to Rashi on 4:17; according to Esther Rabbah 8:7, the fast began on the 13th but included the 14th. For this reason, even some non-firstborns maintain the custom to fast on the fourteenth of Nisan. According to Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach,Halichos Shlomo 3:179–180 the Fast of the Firstborn also includes an aspect of mourning: firstborns fast to mourn the loss of their priestly statusSee which had initially been granted them on the fourteenth of Nisan. Furthermore, during the Temple period, this loss was most profoundly felt on the fourteenth of Nisan, which was the busiest day of the year for the Temple priests and Levites.See Pesachim 58a Rabbi Yehuda Grunwald (Rabbi of Satmar and student of the Ketav Sofer) suggests that the firstborn Israelites fasted in trepidation in advance of the Plague of the Firstborn; despite a divine guarantee of safety, they felt a need to fast in repentance to achieve greater divine protection. Rabbi Grunwald thus posits that this was the precedent for the Fast of the Firstborn.Zichron Yehuda, vol. 1. §133 ==Qualifications for fasting== There is disagreement among the early halakhic authorities (authoritative scholars of Jewish law) as to who qualifies as a firstborn (bechor) for purposes of the Fast of the Firstborn. All authorities agree, however, to the conditions of halakhic adulthood (generally speaking, this is 12 years for a female and 13 years for a male) and sanity, preconditions for all positive mitzvot, to obligate one to fast. (Other rare conditions, such as deaf-muteness, also exempt one from positive mitzvot). According to the Bayit Chadash, the Sefer Agudah, and arguably the Maharil, both men and women are obligated to fast. This is based upon the Midrash, which states that both men and women among the firstborn Egyptians perished in the plague.Pesikta de-Rav Kahana, 7; Exodus Rabbah, 18:3 Following a precedent common in Jewish commemorative rituals, the above authorities ruled that all those who were miraculously saved should participate in commemoration (see also Pesachim 108b). Since both men and women died from the plague, all firstborn Jewish men and women alive at that time are considered to have been miraculously saved. The Rema and the Vilna Gaon rule that women are exempt from the fast. As the Book of Exodus (13:12–15) mentions the biblical commandment of Redemption of the Firstborn as commemorative of the salvation of Jewish firstborns in Egypt, and as this command only applies to firstborn males, the Rema and the Vilna Gaon rule similarly that only males are obligated to fast. Common practice is that only males fast. While a firstborn to both parents, or a firstborn to only the mother, must fast according to all authorities, there is a dispute among the early halakhic authorities regarding the status of a firstborn to only the father. The Shulchan Aruch codifies that a firstborn to only the father is obligated to fast,Orach Chaim 470:1 while most printings of the Arba'ah TurimTur, Orach Chaim 470:1 indicate that such a person would be exempt. Common practice follows the Shulchan Aruch. Typically, if the oldest in the family died, the next oldest is not required to fast. However, if the oldest child had died within 30 days of birth, the next oldest is required to fast. (The Dagul Mervavah maintains that this only applies if the oldest child had been born prematurely or was not born viable). Many authorities, including the Rema, note the custom that the father of a firstborn should fast on his child's behalf until the child reaches halakhic adulthood. The Rema rules that if the father is a firstborn himself, the mother should fast on behalf of the child. The Mateh Moshe and Maharil dispute this and rule in such a scenario that the mother need not fast. The Magen Avraham rules that it is appropriate to follow the lenient opinion if fasting causes the mother excessive discomfort or if she is pregnant or nursing, but he adds that a mother who begins following the former opinion must maintain that custom and fast in subsequent years. The Sh'vut Ya'akov (1:17) rules that the above-cited custom of the father fasting for the child goes into effect as soon as the child is born, except where the child is born after chatzot ha'laila (halakhic midnight, which generally corresponds to solar midnight) on the 14th of Nisan of that year. (Since the child had not yet been born by the equivalent time that the Plague of the Firstborn had occurred in Egypt, the father need not fast for his child until the following year) The Korban N'tan'elPesachim 10:19:80 disagrees. He writes that the custom only goes into effect from the time the child is 30 days old. This relates, again, to the command to redeem the firstborn, which does not go into effect until the child is 30 days old. There is some discussion among the poskim (halakhic authorities) regarding whether a firstborn born through Caesarean section is required to observe this fast, given that he is not obligated in the Redemption of the Firstborn. The Chok Ya'akov (470:2) suggests that such a firstborn may be required to fast, while the Kaf HaChayyim (470:3) rules that he need not fast. To circumvent this question, as well as dispute regarding a firstborn non-Jew who converts to Judaism, Rabbi Yosef Shalom Elyashivcited in HaSeder Ha'aruch, vol. 3, p. 44 suggests that such firstborns participate in a seudat mitzvah (see here and here below). ==Duration of the fast== As with most Jewish fast days, the fast begins at dawn. The common practice is that it is subsequently broken in the morning at a seudat mitzvah (celebratory meal) following a siyum. If the fast is not broken at a seudat mitzvah, there is a dispute among halakhic authorities regarding the duration of the fast. Normally, all Jewish fasts continue until nightfall (most authorities rule that this is approximately 40 minutes after sunset, but varies by location and time of year). However, the presence of a fast immediately before a holiday presents a unique quandary. Normally, one may not enter a Shabbat (Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath) or Yom Tov (festival) in a state of fasting. The Talmud (Eruvin 41a) discusses what one should do when a formal fast day (other than Yom Kippur) falls directly before Shabbat or Yom Tov. The sages of the Talmud are divided over two options: Either one should break the fast shortly before sundown, or one should fast through nightfall, regardless. Since the Talmud arrives at no clear conclusion, disagreement arose among halakhic authorities. The Maharil rules that the fast continues until nightfall, while others rule that it should be broken before sundown. ==Breaking the fast== In modern times, however, this fast is rarely observed, as most firstborns opt to attend a siyum (festive meal celebrating the completion of a tractate of the Talmud) instead. This is considered a legitimate form of "breaking" the fast, and therefore the firstborn may eat during the rest of the day. The Mishnah Berurah quotes three opinions regarding circumstances in which the fast may be broken. According to the first, a healthy individual must fast if he can sustain the fast without undue suffering and without any subsequent weakening that would affect his ability or inclination to heartily partake of his Passover Seder meal (and specifically the matzah). (If one is obligated to partake of a festive meal that day, such as if he is the father of an infant on the day of circumcision, this opinion requires him to undertake a reciprocal fast at the soonest opportunity.) According to the second custom (quoted by the Magen Avraham in the name of the Maharash Levi), the fast may be broken at any festive meal celebrating a circumcision or a redemption of the firstborn. According to the third custom, based upon the Maharshal,Yam Shel Sh'lomo, Bava Kamma 7:37 the fast may even be broken at a seudat mitzvah for a siyum celebrating the completion of study of a tractate of Talmud. The latter custom is commonly observed. If a firstborn attending a siyum does not hear the completion of the tractate, or if he does not understand what he hears, or if he is in the shiva period of mourning and is thus forbidden from listening to the Torah material being taught, some authorities rule that subsequent eating would not qualify as a seudat mitzvah and he would therefore be forbidden to break his fast.Ben Ish Chai 1:96:25; Rabbi Shlomo Yosef Elyashiv, Siddur Pesach K'hilchaso, p. 168; Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, Chazon Ovadiah, p. 99 Other authorities allow a firstborn to break his fast under such circumstances.Minchas Yitzchak 9:45; Teshuvos V'hanhagos 1:300, 2:210 in the name of Rabbi Yaakov Yisrael Kanievsky The Minchas Yitzchak (ibid.) suggests that a firstborn in such a position should at least try to contribute to the siyum in some way, such as by sponsoring or helping to prepare the meal. In order to break one's fast on a seudat mitzvah, many authorities rule that one must partake of at least a kotevet of food (around 1.5 to 2 oz.) or a melo lugmav of liquid (at least around 1.7 oz.) at the seudah.Minchas Yitzchak, ibid.; Chazon Ovadiah, ibid.; Teshuvos V'hanhagos, ibid. Other authorities rule that a firstborn need not eat anything at the siyum itself, and that he may break his fast anytime after the siyum.Siddur Pesach K'hilchaso, ibid; Rabbi Yehoshua Menachem Mendel Ehrenberg, Devar Yehoshua 2:81 Rabbi Moshe FeinsteinOC 1:157, based on the N'mukei Yosef (Bava Batra 53b), the Ran (ibid. 121b), the Rashbam (ibid), and the Eliyah Rabba extends the possibility of breaking the fast to include even breaking it at a festive meal celebrating the completion of any mitzvah that required regular, continual involvement. According to these authorities, such a meal would be considered a seudat mitzvah of adequate caliber to exempt one from continuing the fast. Additionally, the MordechaiPesachim 107 quotes the ruling of his father-in-law Rabbeinu Yechiel that firstborns need not fast at all on the day before Passover; firstborns need only limit their diet to snacks. (The Bigdei Yesha commentary suggests the rationale behind this ruling was to avoid holding a fast during the month of Nisan, which is generally prohibited.) The Mishnah Berurah states that it is appropriate for a weak individual to follow this ruling. Nevertheless, there are communities, including many North African communities and the Sephardic community in Amsterdam, where the firstborns do fast. ==When Passover begins after Shabbat== If the day before Passover falls on Shabbat, many authorities rule that the fast is not observed at all, and others set for the previous Thursday (this is the common practice today).Shulchan Aruch OC 470:2. This is because it is forbidden to fast on Shabbat (except for where Yom Kippur falls on Shabbat), and fasts are preferably not set for Friday. In such a scenario, the ritual of Bedikat Chametz (the formal search for forbidden leaven that is conducted before Passover) is set for Thursday night. Normally, it is forbidden to eat (starting from nightfall) before conducting the Bedikat Chametz. However, for a firstborn who is fatigued or uncomfortable from the fast, the Mateh Moshe and Maharil rule that some food may be eaten before the search or that another person may be appointed to perform the search on behalf of the firstborn. Rabbi Moshe Feinstein (OC 4:69:4) raises the possibility, based on the RemaRema, Orach Chaim 686:2 (regarding a year when Taanit Esther was observed on Thursday instead of Shabbat, but a person celebrated a circumcision on this Thursday); this is supported by a similar ruling of the P'ri M'gadim that one who breaks the adjusted Thursday fast might be required to fast on Friday, as perhaps the fast is considered to have been moved to whichever earlier day is more appropriate, and not to Thursday specifically. Since there are many opinions that dispute the Rema,such as the Shulchan Aruch, Turei Zahav, Eliyah Rabba, Chayei Adam, Sh'vut Ya'akov, Mor U-K'tzi'a Rabbi Feinstein writes that, practically speaking, one should not fast on Friday in such circumstances. This rationale may be based on the above cited Korban N'tan'el, who writes that excessive strictures regarding keeping the Fast of the Firstborn should not come at the expense of possibly fasting unnecessarily during the month of Nisan. The above halakhic quandary is avoided completely if a firstborn fasts the entire day on Thursday. However, Rabbi Feinstein makes no mention of this requirement. In order for a firstborn (who eats on Thursday) to comply with the ruling of the Rema, the Piskei T'shuvot suggests participating in a second siyum on Friday, while Rabbi Tzvi Pesach Frank suggests partaking on Friday of leftovers from the previous day's siyum. ==Status of the fast== In halakha, there are two general types of fast: the communal fast and the individuals' fast. Among other differences between the two, a special prayer is added by the Chazzan (leader of the prayers) on communal fasts whenever both ten fasting individuals congregate and the Chazzan is fasting. While the Magen Avraham treats the fast as an individual's fast, the Shiyurei K'nesset Ha-G'dolah, the P'ri Chadash, and the Or Zaru'a view it as a communal fast. To avoid the practical implications of the controversy, the Mishnah Berurah suggests that a firstborn should not serve as Chazzan on the day of the fast. Additionally, this fast differs from many other fasts established in the Jewish calendar in that this fast is not indicated in the Hebrew Scriptures. This lessens the severity of the fast, and someone who experiences significant discomfort as a result of fasting may break his fast (Mishnah Berurah based on the Rema). ==Modern practice== The custom of the Fast of the Firstborn is today observed nearly universally throughout Orthodox Ashkenazic communities. However some Sefardic and Mizrahi communities have not fully adopted the custom. It is not traditionally observed by Yemenite Jews and its practice was discouraged by Moroccan-Israeli rabbi Joseph Messas.Mayim Haim, Orah Haim, Siman 109 Amongst Conservative Jews, the custom is endorsed by various communities and cited positively in their responsa.Responsa Concerning Pesah Eve – R. David Golinkin, Vol. 5, section 9 Rabbi Jacob Petuchowski at Hebrew Union College/Jewish Institute of Religion, Cincinnati, Reform, taught that Tsom B'chorot was the clearest example of a fast with a moral, social action message. Concern for life, even lives of enemies and oppressors, is the reason for the fast. ==See also== * Jewish holiday * Passover * Quartodecimanism ==Notes and references== ==Further reading== * The Book of Our Heritage Eliyahu Kitov, Feldheim Inc., 1968 (hardcover: ; paperback: ) * The Festivals in Halacha Shlomo Yosef Zevin, Mesorah Publications, 1981 () * Halachas of Tanit Bechorim ==External links== * Laws and customs of the Fast of the Firstborn * Audio lecture on Fast of the Firstborn by Rabbi Michael Taubes * Elaboration on the meaning and laws of the fast by Rabbi Daniel Travis * Firstborn caesarian section births, firstborn converts, and the required degree of participation in a siyum * Fast of the Firstborn when Erev Pesach falls on Shabbat * Women and the Fast of the Firstborn * Rabbi Dr. Raymond Apple on Fast of the First-Born * My Jewish Learning article on the Fast of the Firstborn * Rabbi Eliezer Melamed, Peninei Halakha Laws Of Pesach, Pages 217–223, Ta’anit Bekhorot – the Fast of the Firstborns, Who Is Included in the Custom to Fast?, The Custom to Rely on a Siyum Masekhet Category:Passover Category:Jewish fast days Category:Jewish law Category:Nisan observances
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Maiquel José Falcão Gonçalves (8 March 1981 – 23 January 2022) was a Brazilian professional mixed martial artist who competed in the Light Heavyweight division. A professional competitor since 2004, Falcão was perhaps best known for his stint in Bellator, winning the Season Six Middleweight Tournament; he also fought for the UFC, KSW, Fight Nights Global, and M-1 Global. ==Mixed martial arts career== ===Early career=== Falcão compiled a record of 25-3 (1) with 21 wins by knockout, fighting exclusively in his native Brazil. Two of his early losses came at the hands of former UFC Light Heavyweight Fábio Maldonado. ===Ultimate Fighting Championship=== On 20 November 2010, Falcão made his UFC debut at UFC 123, beating Gerald Harris by a controversial unanimous decision. The bout was controversial for multiple reasons. First, after dominating the opening round, Falcão sank in a rear-naked choke. However, the round buzzer went off at least five seconds early. This was arguably costly for Falcão, as Dana White speculated that had the round expired at the correct time, Harris would have succumbed to the submission. Falcão's initial momentum waned, with the third round seeing a virtual stop to his attacks. After a strong crowd reaction, the bout ended with Falcão winning via unanimous decision (29-27, 29–28, 29–28). Following the fight (and criticism from Dana White), Falcão stated that the lack of action in the third round was because he was waiting for Harris to attack, however he later conceded that White's criticism was fair. The bout's heavy criticism cost Harris his job shortly afterwards. Falcão remarked on his opponent's behavior during the fight, stating "[h]e tapped out in three different occasions, hiding it. It was a new thing for me, it was the first time I got three wins on the same bout. On the first round, he tapped out the first time when he was on the four points position, then he tapped out again in the end of the first round, when I got him on the rear-naked choke with his body turned up, and on the third round he tapped out again on a rear-naked choke." Just days later, Falcão was arrested in Brazil for assaulting a woman outside a nightclub back in 2002. In 2002 Falcão had been sentenced to 24 months in prison, but following 8 months of the sentence he moved to house arrest on the assurance from his lawyer. Falcão was expected to return at UFC Live: Sanchez vs. Kampmann against Alessio Sakara. However, in January 2011, he pulled out of the fight due to injury. Falcão was expected to face Tom Lawlor on 27 August 2011, at UFC 134. However, the UFC abruptly released him on 11 May. According to one of Falcão's agents, the move came after fans and media bombarded the UFC with demands that he be removed from the UFC 134 card. In 2013, UFC president Dana White confirmed that he'd cut Falcão two years earlier because the UFC has zero tolerance for assault on women. He said, "Sexual assault, hitting a woman or anything like that, you're gone from the roster. It doesn't matter if you're a winner or a champion or anything like that. You're gone. Keep your hands off women." ===Post-UFC=== Falcão's first fight after his release was against fellow Brazilian Julio Cesar Bilik at Centurion MMA 2 on 9 July 2011. Falcão dropped Bilik early on with a clean punch then pouncing on him with a barrage of punches before the referee eventually stepped in to stop the fight giving Falcão the TKO win after just 27 seconds. Falcão faced Dibir Zagirov at Oplot Challenge 100 on 15 February 2014. He won via guillotine choke. ===Bellator=== In early 2012, Falcão joined the Bellator Season Six Middleweight Tournament. He faced Norman Paraisy in the opening round at Bellator 61 and dominated the fight by using his superior striking and scoring multiple takedowns, Falcão won via unanimous decision. In the semifinals round, Maiquel faced Vyacheslav Vasilevsky on 20 April at Bellator 66. He won the fight via unanimous decision. Falcão then faced Andreas Spang in the finals at Bellator 69. After his win over Vasilevsky, Falcão was involved in a post-fight scuffle with Spang, who was brought into the cage to do a face-off with Falcão for the first time after Spang's fight. When they moved in close to each other, Spang immediately shoved Falcão. Startled by this, the much publicized temperament of Falcão rushed back at him with a knee to the ribcage and then lifted up his hand as if looking to throw a punch. Officials, Bellator commentator/former fighter Jimmy Smith and fight matchmaker Sam Caplan separated the two from one another. After getting rocked in the first round, Falcão opted for a more conservative approach by using his wrestling to grind out Spang and he won via unanimous decision. On 25 April 2012, Bellator CEO Bjorn Rebney announced that Falcão, the winner of the Season Six Middleweight Tournament, would face Alexander Shlemenko to crown the company's new Middleweight Champion. The two men met at Bellator 88 on 7 February 2013, for the vacant title. After a back and forth fight, Shlemenko won via knockout in the second round. On 25 July 2013, Bellator released Falcão due to ongoing legal battles in his home country of Brazil. The last straw was a violent brawl outside a gas station (see below). ===Post-Bellator=== After a year away from the sport, Falcão returned and faced Dibir Zagirov at Oplot Challenge 100 on 15 February 2014. Falcão won via submission in the second round. Falcão then faced top Polish prospect Mamed Khalidov at KSW 27 on 17 May 2014. Falcão lost the bout via armbar submission in the later stages of round 1. In a rematch from their Bellator 66 bout, Falcão faced Vyacheslav Vasilevsky at Plotforma S-70 5 on 9 August 2014. Falcão would lose via TKO at 0:37 in the first round. After two consecutive losses, Falcão rebounded in a three-fight win streak, with notable wins over Brett Cooper (Bellator veteran), Jesse Taylor (WSOF veteran) and Artur Guseinov (M-1 Global veteran). Falcão faced M-1 Global Middleweight Champion Ramazan Emeev on 4 April 2016, at M-1 Grand Prix 2016. He lost the fight via submission. ===Fight Nights Global=== In 2016 Falcão signed with Fight Nights Global. Falcão defeated Vladimir Mineev on 9 December 2016, at Fight Nights Global 56. Falcao dropped a rematch with Mineev on 21 April 2017, at Fight Nights Global 63 via first-round TKO. Falcao faced Ayub Gimbatov on 4 November 2017 at Fight Nights Global 78. He lost the fight via TKO in the first round. Falcao was scheduled to face fellow Bellator veteran Emiliano Sordi on 18 November 2017 for the Arena Tour Light Heavyweight Championship, but the bout was cancelled. ==Gas station altercation== In July 2013, Falcão and a fellow MMA fighter Kauê Mena became involved in a struggle inside a gas station's convenience store in Balneário Camboriú, Santa Catarina after Falcão assaulted a female customer. Moments after striking the alleged assault victim, a relative of the victim came into the store and attempted to punch Falcão, missing, and Falcão knocked him to the ground. As Falcão attempted to flee the scene, he and Mena were confronted outside the gas station and surrounded by three or four male relatives and friends of the assault victim. As one of the men punched Mena another hit Falcão with a piece of wood from the front, knocking him out. Falcão was then kicked backwards while receiving more strikes with the makeshift weapon. During this time Mena was punched and kicked while he was on the ground unconscious. Mena was in serious condition at an intensive care unit and Falcão had only minor injuries. A few days after the struggle, Renovação Fight Team coach Marcelo Brigadeiro expelled Falcão and Mena from the team. The fight also led to his release from Bellator. In an interview after the incident, Falcão claimed that the two fighters had come to the gas station from a bar to purchase more alcohol. While inside, Falcão admits to making sexual advances towards the young girl. He then admitted to striking the young girl because, he claims, she made racial slurs directed at him. Falcão later apologized to Mena's family as well as the MMA community. Kauê Mena has all but retired from mixed martial arts as he is unable to even go outside without help. ==Personal life and death== Falcão married a Ukrainian woman named Nataliia Tandarina in Kiev on January 10, 2020. In the early hours of 23 January 2022, Falcão was stabbed outside of a bar in his hometown of Pelotas, Brazil. He was rushed to a nearby hospital where he was pronounced dead, at the age of 40. ==Accomplishments and championships== * Bellator Fighting Championships **Bellator Season Six Middleweight Tournament Winner * Serbian Battle Championship **SBC Light Heavyweight Championship (one time) ==Mixed martial arts record== |- | Loss | align=center| 40–20 (1) | Nemanja Uveric | TKO (punches) |Serbian Battle Championship 36 | | align=center|1 | align=center|2:30 | Zrenjanin, Serbia | |- |- | Loss | align=center| 40–19 (1) | Sergey Romanov | Submission (anaconda choke) | Krepost Fighting Championship | | align=center|1 | align=center|3:10 | Sochi, Russia | Middleweight bout. |- | Loss | align=center| 40–18 (1) | Igor Pokrajac | TKO (elbows and punches) | Serbian Battle Championship 25 | | align=center|1 | align=center|3:24 | Novi Sad, Serbia | |- | Loss |align=center| 40–17 (1) | Evgeny Erokin | TKO (punches) | MFP: Parus Fight Championship | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 1:06 | Dubai, India | |- |Loss |align=center| 40-16 (1) | Muzaffar Radjabov | TKO (punches) | WTFKF: World Total Kombat Federation | | align=center| 2 | align=center| 0:33 | Bukhara, Uzbekistan | |- | Win |align=center| 40–15 (1) | Igor Pokrajac | TKO (punches) | Serbian Battle Championship 21 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 4:55 | Odžaci, Serbia | |- | Loss |align=center| 39–15 (1) | Wagner Silva Gomes | Decision (split) | SFT: Standard Fighting Tournament 9 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Sao Paulo, Brazil | |- | Loss |align=center| 39–14 (1) | Marcus Vinicius Fialho de Silveira | KO (punches) | Jorge Velho Team: JVT Championship 14 | | align=center| 2 | align=center| 1:46 | Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | |- |Loss |align=center|39–13 (1) |Attila Végh |Decision (unanimous) |Oktagon 10 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 5:00 |Prague, Czech Republic | |- | Win |align=center| 39–12 (1) | Patrick Quadros | Decision (unanimous) | TAURA MMA: 5 | | align=center| 2 | align=center| 2:55 | Viamão, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | |- |Loss |align=center|38–12 (1) |Ayub Gimbatov |TKO (punches) |Fight Nights Global 78: Tsarev vs. Guseinov | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:12 |Samara, Russia | |- | Loss |align=center| 38–11 (1) | Strahinja Gavrilovic | TKO (doctor stoppage) | TKO 40 | | align=center|2 | align=center|5:00 | Montreal, Quebec, Canada | |- | Win |align=center| 38–10 (1) | Jose Rodrigo Guelke | Decision (unanimous) | Aspera Fighting Championship 55 | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Paraná, Brazil | |- | Loss |align=center| 37–10 (1) | Vladimir Mineev | TKO (punches) | Fight Nights Global 63: Alibekov vs. Khamitov | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 3:36 | Vladivostok, Russia | |- | Win |align=center| 37–9 (1) | Vladimir Mineev | Decision (majority) | Fight Nights Global 56: Falcão vs. Mineev | | align=center| 3 | align=center| 5:00 | Vladivostok, Russia | |- | Win |align=center| 36–9 (1) | Tyago Moreira | Submission (guillotine choke) | Aspera Fighting Championship 43 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 4:08 | Paraná, Brazil | |- |Loss |align=center|35–9 (1) |Ramazan Emeev |Submission (anaconda choke) |M-1 Challenge 65: Emeev vs. Falcão | |align=center|1 |align=center|2:50 |St. Petersburg, Russia | |- | Loss |align=center| 35–8 (1) | Aziz Karaoglu | TKO (punches) | KSW 33: Khalidov vs. Materla | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 0:30 | Krakow, Poland | |- | Win |align=center| 35–7 (1) | Brett Cooper | KO (punch) | KSW 32: Road to Wembley | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 0:59 | London, England | |- | Win |align=center| 34–7 (1) | Jesse Taylor | Submission (guillotine choke) | Arena Tour 5: Falcao vs. Taylor | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 3:13 |Buenos Aires, Argentina | |- | Win |align=center| 33–7 (1) | Artur Guseinov | Submission (rear-naked choke) | Battle of Stars 3 | |align=center| 2 |align=center| 1:49 |Kaspiysk, Dagestan Republic, Russia | |- | Loss | align=center| 32–7 (1) | Vyacheslav Vasilevsky | TKO (punches) | Plotforma S-70: 5 | | align=center| 1 | align=center| 0:37 | Sochi, Russia | |- | Loss |align=center| 32–6 (1) | Mamed Khalidov | Submission (armbar) | KSW 27: Cage Time | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:52 |Gdańsk, Poland | |- | Win |align=center| 32–5 (1) | Dibir Zagirov | Submission (guillotine choke) | Oplot Challenge 100 | |align=center| 2 |align=center| 3:27 |Kharkov, Ukraine | |- | Loss |align=center| 31–5 (1) | Alexander Shlemenko | KO (punches) | Bellator 88 | |align=center| 2 |align=center| 2:18 |Duluth, Georgia, United States |For Bellator Middleweight Championship. |- | Win |align=center| 31–4 (1) | Andreas Spang | Decision (unanimous) | Bellator 69 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 5:00 |Lake Charles, Louisiana, United States | Bellator Season Six Middleweight Tournament Final. |- | Win |align=center| 30–4 (1) | Vyacheslav Vasilevsky | Decision (unanimous) | Bellator 66 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 5:00 |Cleveland, Ohio, United States | Bellator Season Six Middleweight Tournament Semifinal. |- | Win |align=center| 29–4 (1) | Norman Paraisy | Decision (unanimous) | Bellator 61 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 5:00 |Bossier City, Louisiana, United States | Bellator Season Six Middleweight Tournament Quarterfinal. |- | Win |align=center| 28–4 (1) | Douglas del Rio | TKO (punches) | Apocalypse FC 1 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 1:15 |Passo Fundo, Brazil | |- | Loss | align=center| 27–4 (1) | Antônio Braga Neto | Submission (kimura) | Amazon Forest Combat 1 | | align=center|2 | align=center|4:26 | Manaus, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 27–3 (1) | Julio Cesar Bilik | TKO (punches) | Centurion MMA 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 0:28 |Itajaí, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 26–3 (1) | Gerald Harris | Decision (unanimous) | UFC 123 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 5:00 |Auburn Hills, Michigan, United States | |- | Win |align=center| 25–3 (1) | Wendres Carlos da Silva | TKO (punches) | Arena Gold Fights 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| N/A |Curitiba, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 24–3 (1) | Daniel Ludtke | TKO (knee and punches) | Match Point Sports Aquafit Fight Championship 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 0:52 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 23–3 (1) | Ricardo Silva | TKO (doctor stoppage) | Blackout FC 3 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 0:12 | Balneario Camboriu, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 22–3 (1) | Arimarcel Santos | TKO (punches) | WFC: Pozil Challenge | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:26 | Gramado, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 21–3 (1) | Eli Reger | Submission (rear-naked choke) | Nitrix Show Fight 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:29 |Joinville, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 20–3 (1) | Allan Froes | TKO (punches) | Golden Fighters 1 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:15 | Novo Hamburgo, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 19–3 (1) | Nelson Martins | KO (punches) | Floripa Fight 5 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| N/A |Florianópolis, Brazil | |- | Loss |align=center| 18–3 (1) | Daniel Ludtke | TKO (punches) | Clube da Luta 1 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 1:12 | Novo Hamburgo, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 18–2 (1) | Romulo Nascimento | KO (punches) | Paranagua Fight 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:10 |Paranaguá, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 17–2 (1) | Rodrigo Freitas | TKO (punches) | Predador FC 11 | |align=center| 2 |align=center| 2:24 |Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 16–2 (1) | Edson Franca | Submission (punches) | Predador FC 10: Kamae | |align=center| 2 |align=center| N/A |São Paulo, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 15–2 (1) | Josue Verde | TKO (punches) | Floripa Fight 4 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 1:40 |Florianópolis, Brazil | |- | Loss |align=center| 14–2 (1) | Fábio Maldonado | TKO (punches) | Predador FC 9: Welterweight Grand Prix | |align=center| 2 |align=center| 2:00 |São Paulo, Brazil | |- | NC |align=center| 14–1 (1) | Fabiano Scherner | No Contest | Desafio: Fight Show | |align=center| 1 |align=center| N/A | Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 14–1 | Reinaldo Samurai | KO (punch) | Bage Open Fight | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 3:00 | Bage, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 13–1 | Daniel Barbosa | KO (knee and punches) | Desafio: Fight Show | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 1:40 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 12–1 | Alex Moura | TKO (punches) | Full Fight: Open Vale Tudo | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:00 | Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 11–1 | Lucio Aguiar | KO (punches) | Storm Samurai | |align=center| 1 |align=center| N/A |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 10–1 | Leandro Gordo | KO (punches) | Desafio: Fight Show | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 0:15 |Florianópolis, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 9–1 | Laerte Costa Silva de Oliveira | TKO (submission to punches) | G1: Open Fight 3 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:30 |Curitiba, Brazil | |- | Loss |align=center| 8–1 | Fábio Maldonado | TKO (punches) | Mariliense MMA Circuit 1 | |align=center| 3 |align=center| 0:46 |São Paulo, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 8–0 | Felipe Miranda | KO (punches and elbows) | Super Fight | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:00 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 7–0 | Silverio Bueno | KO (punches) | Paranaguá Fight 1 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 0:42 |Paranaguá, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 6–0 | Claudio Mattos | KO (punches) | Tsunamy 4 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 2:00 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 5–0 | Rogerio Farias | KO (knees and punches) | Coliseu Fight | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:00 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 4–0 | Anderson Brito | KO (punch) | Tsunamy 3 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:00 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 3–0 | Josimar Lira Rodrigues | Decision (unanimous) | Tsunamy 2 | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 15:00 |Pelotas, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 2–0 | Andre Rocha | TKO (punches) | Camaqua Open Vale Tudo | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 4:00 | Camaqua, Brazil | |- | Win |align=center| 1–0 | Guilherme Freitas | KO (knees) | Piratini Fight | |align=center| 1 |align=center| 3:30 | Piratini, Brazil | ==See also== * List of Bellator MMA alumni ==References== ==External links== *UFC Profile * Category:1981 births Category:2022 deaths Category:Brazilian male mixed martial artists Category:Middleweight mixed martial artists Category:Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu Category:Brazilian practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu Category:People from Pelotas Category:Sportspeople from Rio Grande do Sul Category:People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu Category:Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters Category:Deaths by stabbing in Brazil Category:People murdered in Brazil Category:Brazilian murder victims Category:Sportspeople from Curitiba
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Legal education is the education of individuals in the principles, practices, and theory of law. It may be undertaken for several reasons, including to provide the knowledge and skills necessary for admission to legal practice in a particular jurisdiction, to provide a greater breadth of knowledge to those working in other professions such as politics or business, to provide current lawyers with advanced training or greater specialisation, or to update lawyers on recent developments in the law. Legal education can take the form of a variety of programs, including: * Primary degrees in law, which may be studied at either undergraduate or graduate level depending on the country. * Advanced academic degrees in law, such as masters and doctoral degrees. * Practice or training courses, which prospective lawyers are required to pass in some countries before they may enter practice. * Applied or specialised law accreditation, which are less formal than degree programs but which provide specialised certification in particular areas. * Continuing legal education, which do not lead to a qualification but provide practicing lawyers with updates on recent legal developments. == History == Early Western legal education emerged in Republican Rome. Initially those desiring to be advocates would train in schools of rhetoric. Around the third century BCE Tiberius Coruncanius began teaching law as a separate discipline.George Long article, p. 655 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Anqiquities by William Smith. John Murray, London 1875. His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy. After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts.Unknown. "legal education." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 4 March 2007 . It is possible that Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students to attend consultations with citizens in which he provided legal advice. These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested. Canon and ecclesiastical law were studied in universities in medieval Europe. However, institutions providing education in the domestic law of each country emerged later in the eighteenth century. In England, legal education emerged in the late thirteenth century through apprenticeships. The Inns of Court controlled admission to practice and also provided some legal training. English universities had taught Roman and canon law for some time, but formal degrees focused on the native common law did not emerge until the 1800s.Andrew Boon and Julian Webb, 'Legal Education and Training in England and Wales: Back to the Future?' (2008) 58(1) Journal of Legal Education 79. == Forms == === Primary degrees in law === In many countries, including most of those in the Commonwealth of Nations, the principal law degree is an undergraduate degree, usually known as a Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Graduates of such a program are eligible to become lawyers by passing the country's equivalent of a bar exam. In these countries, graduate law programs are advanced degrees which allow for more in-depth study or specialisation. In the United States and Canada, the primary law degree is a graduate degree known as the Juris Doctor (JD). Students may pursue such a degree only after completing an undergraduate degree, usually a bachelor's degree. The undergraduate degree can be in any field, though most American lawyers hold bachelor's degrees in the humanities and social sciences. American law schools are usually an autonomous entity within a larger university. Primary degrees in law are offered by law schools, known in some countries as faculties of law. Law schools may have varying degrees of autonomy within a particular university or, in some countries, can be entirely independent of any other post-secondary educational institution. === Advanced degrees in law === Higher degrees allow for more advanced academic study. These include the Masters of Law (LLM) by coursework or research, and doctoral degrees such as the PhD or SJD. Practitioners may undertake a Masters of Law by coursework to obtain greater specialisation in an area in which they practice. In many common law countries, a higher degree in law is common and expected for legal academics. In addition, incorporating practical skills is beneficial for practitioners seeking higher degrees to better prepare them in their respective legal area of practice.SpearIt. “Drafting Legal Documents in a Doctrinal Class,” in Experiential Education in the Law School Curriculum (Carolina Academic Press 2017) SSRN 3021333. In contrast, higher degrees in law are uncommon in the United States, even within the academy. === Practice or training courses === In some countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Canada and some states of Australia,NSW Law Society, 'Practical Legal Training', retrieved 8 February 2017. the final stages of vocational legal education required to qualify to practice law are carried out outside the university system. The requirements for qualification as a barrister or as a solicitor are covered in those articles. === Applied law programs or specialist accreditation === Legal education providers in some countries offer courses which lead to a certificate or accreditation in applied legal practice or a particular specialisation. === Continuing legal education === Continuing legal education (also known as continuing professional development) programs are informal seminars or short courses which provide legal practitioners with an opportunity to update their knowledge and skills throughout their legal career. In some jurisdictions, it is mandatory to undertake a certain amount of continuing legal education each year. ==By country== ===Australia=== In Australia most universities offer law as an undergraduate-entry course (LLB, 4 years), or combined degree course (e.g., BSc/LLB, BCom/LLB, BA/LLB, BE/LLB, 5–6 years). Some of these also offer a three-year postgraduate Juris Doctor (JD) program. Bond University in Queensland runs three full semesters each year, teaching from mid-January to late December. This enables the Bond University Law Faculty to offer the LLB in the usual 8 semesters, but only 2 years. They also offer a JD in two years. The University of Technology, Sydney will from 2010 offer a 2-year accelerated JD program. In 2008, the University of Melbourne introduced the Melbourne Model, whereby Law is only available as a graduate degree, with students having to have completed a three-year bachelor's degree (usually an Arts degree) before being eligible. Students in combined degree programs would spend the first 3 years completing their first bachelor's degree together with some preliminary law subjects, and then spend the last 2–3 years completing the law degree (JD). Alternatively, one can finish any bachelor's degree, and providing their academic results are high, apply for graduate-entry into a 3-year LLB program. Australian Law Schools include those at the University of New England, Australian Catholic University, Australian National University, La Trobe University, Flinders University, Bond University, Macquarie, Monash, Deakin, UNSW, University of Tasmania, Adelaide, Victoria University, Sydney, Melbourne, Queensland University of Technology, the University of Queensland, the University of Western Australia and the University of Canberra. === Canada === The professional law degree in Canada is the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) / Juris Doctor (J.D.) for common law jurisdictions, and the Bachelor of Laws, Licentiate of Law or Bachelor of Civil Law (LL.B./LL.L./B.C.L.) for Quebec, a civil law jurisdiction. Quebec civil law degrees (and the transsystemic B.C.L../J.D. [previously called B.C.L./LL.B.] program at McGill University) are undergraduate-entry—students can be admitted directly after Quebec's pre- university college program (). Admittance to an LL.B. (also called J.D.) program in common law requires at least two years of undergraduate education, although a completed undergraduate degree is usually required. In practice, the vast majority of those who are admitted have already earned at least an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. The change in academic nomenclature re- designating the common law degree as a J.D. rather than an LL.B., currently completed or under consideration at a number of Canadian schools, has not affected the level of instruction—it is the same degree.To JD or Not JD — Law is Cool, November 13, 2007. Accessed 7 April 2008.Alumni Consultation Next for Western's JD Proposal — Law is Cool, February 26, 2008. Accessed 7 April 2008. === China === === Germany === In Germany, law degrees historically did not exist and are unnecessary for legal practice. However, those who wish to enter the legal profession must still study in universities, for which the standard curriculum length is 4 and 1/2 years. Some law schools have also begun to award the Diplom-Jurist degree. German students enter into law school after high school (Gymnasium) graduation. After their studies, candidates complete the First State Examination. In the First State Exam, 30% of the exam is on a specialized area of law, chosen by the examinee, which is organized and carried out by the university. In practice, the more important part is the 70% of obligatory areas of law examined by the Justizprüfungsamt, a body of the state administration of justice. Failure rates of the 1st State Examination can be up to 30%. The written part concerns the analysis of legal issues. After passing the 1st State Examination, candidates undertake a two-year legal traineeship ("Referendariat"), organized by the Federal States. After the legal traineeship, candidates must take the 2nd State Examination, with failure rates far lower than in the 1st State Examination. The written exam consists of drafting judgments, contract and other legal documents; there is also an oral exam. After passing the 2nd State Exam, the trainee may become a lawyer. ===Hong Kong=== In Hong Kong law can be studied as a four-year undergraduate degree Bachelor of Laws (LLB), a two-year postgraduate degree (Juris Doctor), or the Common Professional Examination conversion course for non-law graduates. One must then pass the one-year Postgraduate Certificate in Laws (PCLL) currently offered at the University of Hong Kong (HKU), Chinese University of Hong Kong and City University of Hong Kong, before starting vocational training: a year's pupillage for barristers or a two-year training contract for solicitors. The move to a four-year LLB was recent and, in the case of HKU, was aimed at shifting some of the more theoretical aspects of the HKU PCLL into the LLB, leaving more room for practical instruction. ===India=== The Bar Council of India prescribes and supervises standard of legal education in India. Law degrees in India are granted and conferred in terms of the Advocates Act, 1961, which is a law passed by the Parliament both on the aspect of legal education and also regulation of conduct of legal profession. Various regional universities or specialised national law universities offer Law graduate degrees through various law schools. In India law can be studied, as LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) or B.L. (Bachelor of Law), a three-year graduate degree after completion of Bachelor's degree. Alternatively after standard 12 one can join an integrated five-year law course which provides option to avail B.A. LL.B. or B.B.A. LLB. or B.Sc. LL.B. In India applied legal education for specific branches of law is also offered such as, Business law, Human resource and Labour laws, Property laws, Family laws, Human rights & Legal awareness, Taxation law and many more. === Italy and France === Law in Italy and France is studied in a jurisprudence school which is an entity within a larger university. Legal education can be started immediately after obtained a Diploma. Italian and French law schools are affiliated with public universities, and are thus public institutions. As a consequence, law schools are required to admit anyone holding the baccalaureate. However, the failure rate is extremely high (up to 70%) during the first two years of the "licenza in diritto". There are no vast disparities in the quality of Southern European law schools. Many schools focus on their respective city and region. The law school program is divided following the European standards for university studies (Bologna process): * first a license of law program (Licence de droit): three-year period * Then a Master of law program (Master de droit): two-year period * Ph.D. in Law (Doctorat en droit): three-year period (often more). The first year of the master program (M1) is specialized: public law, private law, business law, European and international law, etc. The second year of the master of law program (M2) can be work- oriented or research oriented (the students write a substantial thesis and can apply to doctoral programs, e.g., a PhD in Law). The second year is competitive (entry is based on the student's grades and overall score and on extracurricular activities) and generally more specialized (IP law, contract law, civil liberties, etc.). Students must pass a specific examination to enter bar school (CRFPA, école du barreau). They must successfully finish the first year of a Master of law (M1 or maitrise de droit) to be able to attend. If they succeed, then after 18 months (school, practical aspects, ethics and internship) they then take the CAPA exam and diploma(Certificat d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat). Successful students also take the Oath in order to practice law. === Japan === The Japanese Ministry of Justice opened the University of Tokyo Faculty of Law in 1877 (changed to Imperial University in 1886). To matriculate to the University of Tokyo, students had to finish ten to fifteen years of compulsory education; acceptance was therefore available to only a small elite. The law program produced politically-dependable graduates to fill fast-track administrative positions in government, also known as high civil servants (koto bunkan), and to serve as judges and prosecutors. Private law schools opened around 1880. These lacked the government funding given to the University of Tokyo, so the quality of education there lagged behind. Students only had to pass an examination to matriculate to private law schools, so many of them had not completed middle school. The private law schools produced a large portion of private attorneys because their graduates were often ineligible to apply for government positions. The Imperial University Faculty of Law was given supervisory authority over many private law schools in 1887; by the 1920s, it promulgated a legal curriculum comprising six basic codes: Constitutional Law, Civil Law, Commercial Law, Civil Procedure, Criminal Law, and Criminal Procedure. The same basic structure survived in Japanese legal education to the end of the twentieth century. Prior to the implementation of the "law school system" in 2004, the legal education system was driven more by examinations than by formal schooling. The passage rate for the bar exam was historically around three percent, and nearly all those who sat for the exam took it several times. A number of specialized "cram schools" trained prospective lawyers for the exam, and these schools remain prevalent today. After passing the bar exam, prospective barristers were required to train for 16 months at the Legal Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court of Japan. The training period has traditionally been devoted to litigation practice and virtually no training is given for other aspects of legal practice, e.g., contract drafting, legal research. During this period, the most "capable trainees" are "selected out" to become career judges; others may become prosecutors or private practitioners. In 2004, the Japanese Diet passed a law allowing for the creation of graduate level law school that offer a J.D., or Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士). The 2006 bar examination was first in Japanese history to require a law school degree as a prerequisite. In the past, although there has been no educational requirement, most of those who passed the examination had earned undergraduate degrees from "elite" Japanese universities such as the University of Tokyo, Kyoto University or Hitotsubashi University. With this new law school system came a new bar exam, with a 40–50% passage rate which is capped by a numerical quota. Applicants are now limited to taking the exam three times in a five-year period. Despite the much higher bar passage rate with the new exam, due to the quotas, approximately half of Japanese law school graduates will never be admitted to practice. The new system also reduced the apprenticeship period at the Legal Research and Training Institute to one year. A number of other law-related professions exist in Japan, such as patent agents (benrishi), tax accountants (zeirishi), scriveners, etc., entry to each of which is governed by a separate examination. Attorneys ("bengoshi"), being qualified to practice any law, can automatically be qualified as patent agents and tax accountants with no additional examination, but not vice versa. === Korea === Legal education in Korea is driven by examination. The profession of barristers, is highly regulated, and the pass rate for the bar exam is around five percent. Prospective attorneys who do pass the exam usually take it two or three times before passing it, and a number of specialized "private educational institutes" exist for prospective lawyers. After passing the bar exam, prospective barristers undergo a two-year training period at the Judicial Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court of Korea. During this period, the most capable trainees are "selected out" to become career judges; others may become prosecutors or private practitioners. In 2007, the Korean government passed a law allowing for the creation of three-year law schools (법학전문대학원). According to the new law, the old system of selecting lawyers by examination will be phased out by 2013 and the U.S.-style law schools will be the sole route to become a lawyer. In February 2008, the Ministry of Education of Korea selected 25 universities to open law schools. The total enrollment for all law schools is capped at 2,000, which is a source of contention between the powerful Korea Bar Association, and citizen groups and school administrators. There is an uproar among the schools which failed to get the government's approval and even among the schools that did get the approval, there is dissatisfaction due to an extremely low enrollment number. Several law schools are permitted to enroll 40 students per year, which is far below the financially sustainable number. Beginning in 2012, passage of the Lawyer Admission Test (which is distinct from the old bar exam) will be required for qualification to practice. A number of other legal professions exist in Korea, such as patent attorneys (변리사), tax attorneys (세무사), solicitors(법무사), etc., entry to each of which is governed by a separate examination. === Malaysia === As a Commonwealth country, the Malaysian legal education system is rooted from the United Kingdom. Legal qualifications offered by the local law faculties require students to have a pre-university qualification such as the Malaysian Higher School Certificate, A-Level, International Baccalaureate, Foundation Course or a Diploma. Generally, the law degree programmes in Malaysia consist of civil law subjects, but there are institutions such as The National University of Malaysia, International Islamic University Malaysia and Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin that include Sharia or Islamic law courses as requirements for admission and graduation. Malaysian law graduates from universities in the UK, Australia or New Zealand are allowed to practice law in Malaysia. However, they are required to obtain a Certificate of Legal Practice in Laws of Malaysia. ===New Zealand=== The Council of Legal Education was established by section 2 of the New Zealand University Amendment Act 1930 (amending and deemed part of the New Zealand University Act 1908).Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908-1957, volume 2, p 269 There is a New Zealand Law Students Association,"New Zealand Law Students Association" [1974] New Zealand Law Journal 24 Google Books which has published a journal called Wagon Mound,[1973] New Zealand Law Journal 182 Google Books and holds an annual national mooting competition."Mooting" in "Legal Education" [2000] NZLJ 238 Google; [1994] NZLJ 25 Google; [1998] NZLJ 309 Google There is an Auckland University Law Students Society, which publishes the Auckland University Law Review,(1992) 7 Auckland University Law Review; New Zealand Books in Print 1970, pp 17 & 149; Law Books 1876-1981: Books and Serials on Law and its Related Subjects, R R Bowker, p 4926 is a member of International Law Students Association,Ilsa Guide to Education and Career Development in International Law, ILSA, 1991, p 237 and which held the Students' Conference on Law Reform in 1965."Auckland University Law Students Society - Easter Conference" [1965] NZLJ 112 Google. The Law in a Changing Society: A Policy and Programme for Law Reform, J R Hanan, Minister of Justice, Wellington, 1965, p 3 Google. There is a Wellington Law Students Society,(1944) 20 NZLJ 266 Google an Otago Law Students Society,(1876) 1 New Zealand Jurist (New Series) 85. W Jackson Barry, Past & Present, And Men of the Times, McKee and Gamble, 1897, p 239 and a University of Canterbury Law Students Society.Fong and Edwards, Australian and New Zealand Legal Abbreviations, Australian Law Librarians' Group, New South Wales Branch, 1988, p 40 The original Canterbury Law Students Society was established in 1875.Robin Cooke, Portrait of a Profession: The Centennial Book of the New Zealand Law Society, A H & A W Reed, 1969, p 265 GoogleFor further reading on legal education in New Zealand, see Gregory S Crespi, "Comparing United States and New Zealand Legal Education" (1997) 30 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 31 Google; Geoff McLay, "Toward a History of New Zealand Legal Education" (1999) 30 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 333; and Peter Spiller, "The History of New Zealand Legal Education: A Study in Ambivalence" (1993) 4 Legal Education Review 223, 1 Legal Education Digest; J F Northey, "Legal Education and the Universities" [1962] New Zealand Law Journal 9 Google; Legal Education in the Seventies, (Occasional Pamphlet No 6), Legal Research Foundation, School of Law, Auckland, 1971; "The Impact of United States Ideas on Legal Education in New Zealand" in Philips and Lealand and McDonald (eds), The Impact of American Ideas on New Zealand's Educational Policy, Practice and Thinking, NZ-US Educational Foundation, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1989, p 262 et seq; Hatchard (ed), "New Zealand", Directory of Commonwealth Law Schools 2003/2004, Cavendish Publishing, 2003, p 175 et seq === Philippines === Law degree programs are considered graduate programs in the Philippines. As such, admission to law schools requires the completion of a bachelor's degree, with a sufficient number of credits or units in certain subject areas. Legal education in the Philippines is regulated and supervised by the Legal Education Board, a statutorily created independent Body chaired by a retired member of the Supreme Court or of the Court of Appeals. Its first chairman is Justice Hilarion Aquino. Sitting as members of the Board are a representative of the law professors, a representative of the law deans and a representative of the Commission on Higher Education. The membership of a student representative has been subject to continuing debate and resistance on the part of law schools. Graduation from a Philippine law school constitutes the primary eligibility requirement for the Philippine Bar Examinations, administered by the Supreme Court during the month of September every year. In order to be eligible to take the bar examinations, one must complete either of the two professional degrees: The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) program or the Juris Doctor (J.D.) program. Advanced degrees are offered by some law schools, but are not requirements for admission to the practice of law in the Philippines. The degrees Master of Laws (LL.M.), Master of Legal Studies are available in only a handful of Philippine universities and colleges, among these San Beda College Graduate School of Law, the University of Santo Tomas and Ateneo de Manila University. The Doctor of Civil Law degree (DCL) is offered only by the University of Santo Tomas and the Doctor of Juridical Science (JSD) degree is offered by the San Beda College Graduate School of Law. Graduate programs in law are also regulated by the Legal Education Board. Legal education in the Philippines normally proceeds along the following route: * Undergraduate education (usually 4 years) * Law school (usually 4 years) * Admission to the bar (usually by taking a Philippine bar exam) * Legal practice and mandatory continuing legal education === Russia and Ukraine === Law degree – jurist (often compared to an LL.M., but in fact equivalent to the degree of Specialist specific to the Soviet educational system) is awarded in Russia and Ukraine after 5 years of study at a university. Jurist degree may also be awarded in a shorter period of time if a law student has already completed Bachelor or Specialist degree in another field of studies or has previously earned a basic law degree (comparable to Paralegal, an associate degree in U.S.) from a specialized law college. Bachelor jurist degree (equivalent to Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.)) may be earned concurrently with another bachelor's or master's degree in some universities (comparable to a double-major). Note that this fused, one-degree (Specialist) educational scheme has coexisted with the two-degree (bachelor's – master's) scheme since Russia and Ukraine launched their higher education reforms to bring the domestic educational systems in closer compliance with the Bologna accords. See also academic degree. The latest educational reforms created new system where a four-year law program is offered at the universities for earning bachelor's degree, and a five-year law program is offered for master's degree. The degree of Specialist is no longer awarded and is renamed into master's degree. === Serbia === To become a lawyer in Serbia, students must graduate from an accredited faculty of law. First-level studies last four years (eight semesters), after which it is possible to enroll in Master's degree and PhD studies programmes. To become a student of the faculty of law, a candidate must pass the admission test. The practical training for students is organized at courts of law, and local and international moot court competitions. A lawyer must pass the national bar examination to become an attorney, a judge, or a prosecutor. In order to take the bar exam, it is only necessary to complete the 4 year studies programme and have a certain amount of work experience ( i.e. as a paralegal), but most attorneys have also attained the master's degree in law before passing the bar exam. ===South Africa=== In South Africa, the LL.B. is the universal legal qualification for admission and enrollment as an Advocate or Attorney. Since 1998, LL.B. programmes may be entered directly at the undergraduate level; at the same time, the LLB. continues to be offered postgraduate and may then be accelerated dependent on the bachelor's degree. The programme lasts between two and four years correspondingly (compare Australia, above). See . Although not formally required for specialised practice, further training, e.g. in tax, is usually via postgraduate diplomas or focused, coursework-based LL.M. programmes. Research degrees are the LL.M. and LL.D., or PhD depending on university. The Master's dissertation reflects an ability to conduct independent research, whereas the Doctoral thesis will, in addition, constitute an original contribution to the field of law in question. A doctorate, generally, is required for positions in legal academia. See ; . Historically, the B.Proc. and B.Juris were the legal degrees offered at the undergraduate level. The four-year BProc qualified one to practise as an attorney, or become a prosecutor or magistrate in the lower courts, but did not allow for admission as an advocate. The three-year B.Juris was the basic requirement for prosecutors and magistrates in the lower courts, but on its own, did not qualify one to practise as an attorney. Both offered admission to the LLB. For admission as an attorney, one serves "articles" as a candidate attorney with a practising attorney for two years, and then writes a "board exam" set by the relevant provincial Law Society. See Attorneys in South Africa. The length of articles may be reduced by attending a practical legal training course or performing community service. Attorneys may additionally qualify as Notaries and Conveyancers, via the Conveyancing and Notarial Practice Examinations; those with technical or scientific training may further qualify as patent attorneys. The requirements to enter private practice as advocates (Junior Counsel) are to become members of a Bar Association by undergoing a period of training (pupilage) for one year with a practicing Advocate, and to sit an admission examination. On the recommendation of the Bar Councils, an advocate "of proven experience and skill" with at least ten years experience, may be appointed by the President of South Africa as a Senior Counsel (SC; also referred to as a "silk"). See Advocates in South Africa. The Act regulating admission to practise law ("The Qualifications of Legal Practitioners Amendment Act of 1997") is being revised. === South American countries === The law of South America is one of the most unified in the world. All countries can be said to follow civil law systems, although recent developments in the law of Brazil suggest a move towards the stare decisis doctrine. === Sri Lanka === In order to practice law in Sri Lanka, a lawyer must be 'admitted and enrolled as an Attorney-at-Law of the Supreme Court of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. To be admitted to the bar a law student must complete law exams held by the Sri Lanka Law College and undergo a six-month period of apprenticeship under a senior practicing lawyer. There are two routes taken by students: # Those who have gained a law degree, an LL.B. (which is 3–4 years long in Sri Lankan State Universities of University of Colombo, University of Jaffna, Open University of Sri Lanka and University of Peradeniya) are given direct entry to undertake law exams at the Sri Lanka Law College. # Those who don't hold a law degree, could gain entrance to the Sri Lanka Law College via a competitive entrance exam to study law and prepare for the law exams. Both groups of students must undergo a period of apprenticeship under a senior practicing lawyer who has at least 8 years of practicing experience. To become a judge one must be admitted as an Attorney-at-Law. === United Kingdom === In England and Wales, law can be studied as an undergraduate degree or in a Graduate Diploma in Law where students complete the Common Professional Examination. After obtaining the degree which is necessary to complete certain vocational courses and to serve a period of on the job training before one is able to qualify to practice as a barrister, legal executive, or solicitor. Bar Professional Training Course is regarded as one of the hardest degrees and presently it is the most expensive law-related degree. ===United States=== The education of lawyers in the United States is generally undertaken through a law school program, although in some states (such as California and Virginia) applicants who have not attended law school may qualify to take the bar exam. Legal education in the United States normally proceeds along the following route: * Undergraduate education (usually 4 years) * Law school (usually 3 years) * Admission to the bar (usually by taking a state's bar exam) * Legal practice In the United States, in most cases, the degree awarded by American law schools is the Doctor of Jurisprudence or Juris Doctor (J.D.), a Doctoral degree, the pursuit of which students undertake only after having completed an undergraduate degree in some other field (usually a bachelor's degree). The law school program is considered to be a professional school program and upon graduation you receive the distinct title of Doctor (although most states strictly regulate the ability of attorneys to style themselves "doctor"). Research degrees that are awarded include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), Doctor of Juridical Science degrees (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) and Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.), are post- undergraduate and research and academic-based level degrees. In the U.S. the Legum Doctor (LL.D.) is only awarded as an honorary degree. A number of law students apply for an optional judicial clerkship (less than 10% end up in such position), to be taken after law school and before legal practice. Clerkships usually last one year with appellate courts, but trial level courts (including federal district court) are increasingly moving towards two-year clerkships. Once a student has graduated from law school, the student is expected to pursue admission to the bar in order to practice. Requirements for membership in the bar vary across the United States. In almost every state, the only way to be admitted to the bar is to pass a (usually multi-day) written examination. Once admitted, most States require attorneys to must meet certain Continuing Legal Education (CLE) requirements. Academic degrees for non-lawyers are available at the baccalaureate and master's level. A common baccalaureate level degree is a Bachelor of Science in Legal Studies (B.S.). Academic master's degrees in legal studies are available, such as the Master of Studies (M.S.), and the Master of Professional Studies (M.P.S.). Such a degree is not required to enter a J.D. program. Foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S., who do not have a J.D., often seek to obtain a Master of Laws (LL.M.) (or other degrees similar to the LL.M., such as the Juris Master (J.M.), Master of Comparative Law (M.C.L.) and Master of Jurisprudence (M.J.)). ==See also== ==References==
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The Diocese of Nola () is a Roman Catholic diocese in Italy, suffragan of the Archdiocese of Naples."Diocese of Nola" Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved February 29, 2016."Diocese of Nola" GCatholic.org. Gabriel Chow. Retrieved February 29, 2016. Its seat is the Campanian city of Nola, now a suburb of Naples. Its cathedral is dedicated to the Assumption (). The dedication was originally to S. Stephen, the Protomartyr, but after the second reconstruction the dedication was changed to the Assumption.Cappelletti, p. 564. It is traditionally credited with the introduction of the use of bells into Christian worship. ==History== ===Antiquity=== The diocese was founded in the 3rd century by D'Avino, p. 489: "La sede vescovile fu eretta nel secolo terzo, e da Alessandro III dichiarata suffraganea di Napoli." He was martyred, as were St Januarius's companions Reparatus, Faustillus, and Acacius.D'Avino, p. 489: "Ne fu primo vescovo S. Felice seniore di Nola verso il 254, zelante promulgatore della fede. Governò la sua Chiesa cinque anni, e fu martirizzato con trenta dei suoi compagni sotto il prefetto Marciano, durante la persecuzione di Valeriano ai 15 novembre." The early center of worship was at Cimitile, outside Nola proper and now named for its cemetery.Ebanista and Fusaro, "Il complesso basilicale," in: C. Ebanista; F. Fusaro (2005), Cimitile. Guida al complesso basilicale e alla città, pp. 19-105. The basilica of St Felix Martyr was built by Bishop Paulinus in the late 4th or early 5th century.Ebanista and Fusaro, p. 47: "La complessa stratificazione haavuto origine alla fine del III secolo, quando S. Felice fu sepolto in una semplice tomba in laterizi.... Intorno alla metà del IV secolo, ad est dell'aula fu realizzata una basilica a tre navate con abside ad est (basilica orientale). Tra il 401 e il 403, Paolino di Nola, demolita l'abside dell'aula ad corpus, costruì una triplice apertura (triforium) che consentiva l'accesso all'atrio di un nuovo e più grande edificio di culto che egli chiamò basilica nova." Paulinus is traditionally credited with the introduction of bells into Christian ritual, whence two major medieval forms became known as s and s.. The information is stated to be derived from Polydore Vergil (c. 1470–1555), hardly "traditionally credited", as claimed. Felix's remains, and then Paulinus's own, made the site a focus of Christian pilgrimage. (Paulinus's body was removed to the neighboring diocese of Benevento in 839, traded to the emperor in 1000, and finally restored to Nola in 1909.) ===Middle Ages=== Around 505, the mythical Bishop Paulinus IIILanzoni, p. 237. supposedly enslaved himself to free a widow's son. Several buildings were restored under Bishop Lupicinus around 786. In 1370, Bishop Francesco Scaccani began construction of the present Gothic cathedral, which was completed by Gian Antonio Boccarelli in 1469. The cathedral was administered and serviced by a Chapter, composed of four dignities (the Dean, the Archdeacon, the Treasurer, and the Cantor) and sixteen Canons. In addition, there was a Theologus and a Penitentiarius, in accordance with the decrees of the Council of Trent; they held prebends, but did not have a vote in the Chapter. There were also twelve beneficed clergy.D'Avino, p. 490, column 2. Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 291, note 1. In 1918, the Chapter had three dignities (Dean, Precentor, and Treasurer) and 7 Canons; there were eight Canons de numero.Orbis catholicus 1918 (London: The Universe 1918), p. 518. ===Renaissance=== The seminary was founded by Bishop Antonio Scarampi (1549–1569), introducing the reforms decreed by the Council of Trent. Bishop Traiano Caracciolo constructed a new seminary building in 1738. In 1585, Bishop Fabrizio Gallo (1585–1614) founded several charitable institutions. In 1588 Gallo held a diocesan synod.Ebanista, "et manet", p. 259-260. ===Modern period=== Giambattista Lancellotti, who served as bishop from 1615 to 1656, also served as papal nuncio to Poland from 1622 to 1627. ==Bishops== ===to 1200=== * Felix ()Lanzoni, pp. 228-236, places Felix in the 3rd quarter of the 3rd century, and distinguishes between a Felix episcopus and a Felix presbyter. : ... * Marinus () : ... * Priscus (. 523)Bishop Priscus died on 25 February 523. Lanzoni, p. 237. : ... : [Quodvultdeus]Lanzoni, p. 237: "Quodvultdeus fu un laico nolano, defunto probabilmente nel 455, non un vescovo." * Paulinus (387?–431)Paulinus died on 22 June 431. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 4. * Paulinus Junior (attested 442)The second Paulinus died on 10 September 442. Mommsen, CIL X.1, p. 153, no. 1340. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 5. Santinello (2005), pp. 19-24. : ... * Deodatus (attested 473)Bishop Deodatus died on 26 June 473. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 6. * Felix (attested 484)Bishop Felix died on 9 February 484. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 7. * John Talaia (484–?)Bishop John Talaias was formerly pope of Alexandria. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 8. * Theodosius (attested 490)Bishop Theodosius died on 7 December 490. Mommsen, CIL X.1, p. 153, no. 1345. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 9. * Serenus (attested 494–501)In 496, Pope Gelasius I wrote to the bishops of Salerno and Capua, ordering them to investigate the case of two clerics of Nola who had done injury to Bishop Serenus. Bishop Serenus attended the Roman synod of 499. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 10. Kehr, p. 299, no. 6. : [Paulinus III] ()Remondini III, pp. 65-70. His existence as a bishop is refuted by Lanzoni, p. 237, who shows that a mistaken interpretation of names in an inscription in the cathedral by Bishop Lupicinus (in the late 8th century) led to the belief that Paulinus had been a bishop. : ... * Priscus (attested 523)Bishop Priscus died on 25 February 523. Mommsen, CIL X.1, p. 153, no. 1348. Lanzoni, p. 239, no. 11. * Musonius (attested 535)Bishop Musonius died on 19 September 535. Santaniello (2005), "I successori", pp. 40-41. * Leo (attested 536)Bishop Leo was legate of the Holy See in Constantinople in 536. Lanzoni, p. 239, no. 12. : ... * Joannes (attested c. 555–560)Bishop Joannes was the recipient of two letters from Pope Pelagius I, who rebuked him for making improper requests of the pope. Kehr, p. 299, nos. 9-10. * AurelianusHis epitaph states that he governed the Church of Nola for 38 years. Mommsen, CIL X.1, p. 155, no. 1366. Lanzoni, p. 238, no. 13. * Senatus : ... * Gaudentius (attested 594, 595)In November 594, after the death of Bishop Festus of Capua in Rome, Pope Gregory I appointed Gaudentius as Apostolic Visitor to the Church of Capua. Kehr, Italia pontificia VIII, p. 300, nos. 11-12. Lanzoni, p. 239, no. 15. : ... * Aurelius (attested 680)Bishop Aurelius was present at the Roman synod of Pope Agatho in 680, whose decrees were sent in a synodal letter by Pope Agatho to the Council of Constantinople, which were subscribed by Bishop Aurelius. He states that he was part of the provincia Campaniae. J. D. Mansi (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, editio novissima, Tomus XI (Florence: A. Zatta 1765), p. 299. : ... * Lupicinus (Lupinus) ()Cappelletti, pp. 585-586. : ... * LandoCappelletti, p. 586. * Jacobus (Jacopo)Ughelli, p. 254, assigns Jacobus a floruit date of 843, without stating grounds. * Leo Tertius (attested 896, 911)Cappelletti, p. 586. * JoannesCappelletti, p. 586. * Stephanus (attested 965, 973)Cappelletti, pp. 586-587. * Sixtus (attested 986)Sixtus (Sisto): Ughelli, p. 254. Cappelletti, p. 587. * Sasso (attested 1093)Sasso: Ughelli, p. 254. Cappelletti, pp. 587-588. * Guilelmus (attested 1105, 1123)Guilelmus: Ughelli, pp. 254-255. Cappelletti, pp. 588-590. : ... * Paganus (attested 1136)Cappelletti, p. 590. : ... * Bartholomaeus (attested 1143)Bartholmaeus: Ughelli, pp. 255-257. : ... * Robertus (1158–1173)In May 1158, Robertus was already Bishop-elect. Leone Mattei Cerasoli, "Di alcuni vescovi poco noti, (cont.)", in: Archivio storico per le province napoletane 44 (1919), p. 321. * Rufinus (1173–1175)Cappelletti, p. 593. * Bernardus (1175–)In a document of August 1181, Bernardus states that he was in the sixth year of his episcopate, signifying that his reign began in 1175. Bernardus attended the Third Lateran Council of Pope Alexander III in 1179. He is mentioned as Bishop of Nola in a document of Pope Clement III dated 7 June 1190. Ughelli, p. 257. Cappelletti, pp. 593-594. Kehr, p. 301, no. 1. Cerasoli, p. 321. : ... ===1200 to 1600=== *Marinus (attested 1202)Norbert Kamp (1973), Kirche und Monarchie im staufischen Königreich Sizilien. Prosopographische Grundlegung. Bistümer und Bischöfe des Königreichs 1194-1266. 1. Abruzzen und Kampanien, (Munich: Wilhelm Fink 1973), p. 364. : ... * Petrus (–1225)Gams, p. 907. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica I, p. 370. * Marco Perrone (1225–) * Petrus (December 1239 – ) * Giovanni Montefuscolo (1259–1288) : Francesco Fontana (1289–1296) AdministratorFrancesco had been named Archbishop of Messina, but because of the war between the Angevins and the Aragonese, he was not able to enter his diocese. Pope Nicholas IV therefore appointed him Apostolic Administrator of Nola on 29 January 1289. He resigned, and Pietro Gerra was appointed, on 23 August 1296. Ernest Langlois, Les Registres de Nicolas IV Tome premier (Paris: Fontemoing 1905), p. 90, no. 471. Eubel I, p. 370. : Pietro Gerra (23 August 1296 – 6 January 1298) AdministratorGerra: Eubel I, p. 370. * Landone (22 April 1298 – 1304) * Antonio Carafa ( – ?) * Giacomo (14 May 1311 –1328) * Pietro Sparano (1328–1331)Bishop Pietro, formerly a Canon of Capua, had been Bishop of Venafro from 9 March 1326. He was transferred to Nola by Pope John XXII on 6 September 1328, while Bishop Giacomo was still alive. Pietro died on 6 September 1331. Eubel I, p. 370. G. Mollat, Jean XXII. Lettres communes, Tome VIII (Paris: Boccard 1924) p. 2, no. 42725. * Nicolò de Acerno (22 October 1331 – 1340) * Lygus di Orvieto (1340–1349)Lygus of Orvieto was a Canon of the cathedral of Reims and a papal chaplain. He was appointed Bishop of Nola by Pope Benedict XII on 6 November 1340. On 24 April 1341, Lygus was working at the papal Court, and received a mandate from Benedict XII to deal with problems in Brabant. It appears that his bishopric was a benefice rather than a real episcopal assignment. Alphonse Fierens, Lettres de Benoît XII (1334–1342) (Paris: Champion 1910), p. 360, no. 678. Remondini III, p. 150. Eubel I, p. 370. * Nicola d'Offerio (1349)A noble of Ravello and a Canon of Naples, Nicholas died in Avignon before he could be consecrated a bishop. Cappelletti, p. 602. D'Avino, p. 489, column 2. * Francesco Rufolo (1349–1370)Franciscus Rufulus, according to his tombstone, was a native of Naples and a Doctor in utroque iure. He was a Canon of Naples and an Auditor of the Rota in the Roman Curia. He was appointed bishop on 25 May 1349, by Pope Clement VI. He died on 5 July 1370. Cappelletti, p. 602. Eubel I, p. 370 with note 5. * Francesco Scaccani (1370–1400)A native of Nola and a Canon of the cathedral Chapter, Scaccani (Scaczano, according to Eubel) was a Doctor in utroque iure, and a Referendary of Pope Boniface IX. He was appointed on 21 June 1370, by Pope Urban V. He served as a Referendary of Pope Boniface IX, and was his Vicar in spiritualibus in Rome and the immediate neighborhood. He died on 15 July 1400. Remondini III, pp. 156-168. Cappelletti, pp. 604-605. Eubel I, p. 370 with note 6. * Gianantonio Tarentino (Torrenti) (1400–1402) ?Bishop Gianantonio does not appear in Ughelli or Eubel. Remondini, pp. 168-169. Cappelletti, p. 603. * Flaminio Minutolo (26 July 1402 – 1442)In 1438, Minutolo was granted at his request a Coadjutor bishop, Leone dei Simeoni, Archdeacon of Nola, who succeeded him on his death in 1442. Remondini III, pp. 170–180. Cappelletti, p. 604. Eubel I, p. 370, with note 7. * Leone dei Simeoni (23 March 1442 – July 1469)Leo dei Simeoni succeeded Bishop Minutolo on the day of his death, which Remondini places on the last day of April 1442. His funeral monument states that he was bishop for thirty years, and that he died in July 1469; this is obviously counting from the date of his having been named Coadjutor. Remondini III, pp. 180-188. Cappelletti, p. 604-605. Eubel Hierarchia catholica II, p. 204. * Giovanni Antonio Boccarelli (9 August 1469 – 1475) * Marco Vigerio (July 1475 – December 1475)A native of Savona, Vigerius was a member of the Observant Franciscans, and had been the Preceptor of Pope Sixtus IV, who had been Master of that Order. Following the death of Bishop Boccarelli in July 1475, Sixtus IV named Vigerio Bishop of Nola. After a few months, he renounced the diocese and returned to his convent in Savona. He was the uncle of Cardinal Marco Vigerio. Remondini III, pp. 190-191. Cappelletti, p. 605. Gams, p. 908. Eubel II, p. 204, note 1. * Orlando Orsini (15 December 1475 – 1503)Orsini: Remondini III, pp. 192-201. Eubel II, p. 204. * Gianfrancesco Bruno (4 July 1505 – 1549)Eubel III, p. 260 with note 3. * Antonio Scarampi (1549 – 9 March 1569)Scarampi was appointed Coadjutor bishop on 20 August 1546, since Bishop Bruni was disabled by illness. He succeeded to the diocese automatically on the death of Bishop Bruni in 1549. Scarampi was transferred to the diocese of Lodi on 9 March 1569 by Pope Paul IV. He died on 30 July 1576. Eubel III, pp. 220, 260 with note 4. * Filippo Spinola (1569–1585)Spinola was a native of Genoa, the son of Agostino, Conte di Tassarolo and Marchese di Pastorana. He had been a Referendary of the Tribunal of the Two Signatures (judge) in the Roman Curia, and domestic prelate of Pope Clement IX. He was then named Bishop of Bisignano (1566–1569). He was transferred to the diocese of Nola on 9 March 1569 by Pope Pius V. Spinola was named a cardinal on 12 December 1583 by Pope Gregory XIII and assigned the titular church of Santa Sabina on 20 February 1584. He was named Legate in Perugia and Umbria on May 13, 1585, for a two-year term, which was renewed again and again until 1591. He resigned the diocese of Nola on 1 July 1585. He died in Rome on 20 August 1593. Remondini III, pp. 228-233. Eubel III, pp. 47; 134 with note 10; 260 with note 6. * Fabrizio Gallo (15 July 1585 – 6 November 1614)"Bishop Fabrizio Gallo" Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved March 21, 2016. ===1600 to present=== * Giambattista Lancellotti (1615–1656)Lancellotti belonged to the noble Roman family which had produced his brother, Cardinal Orazio Lancellotti (1611–1620). He was appointed Vice-Legate of Ravenna, and then of Bologna. Pope Paul V named him Bishop of Nola on 26 January 1615; he made his solemn entry into his diocese on Palm Sunday 1615. He redecorated the cathedral with statuary, a new pulpit, and two organs. He was appointed papal nuncio to Poland by Pope Paul V; he served from 1622 to 1627. At the conclusion of his term, he was recommended to Pope Urban VIII for a cardinalate, which never came. He died on 23 July 1656, at the age of eighty. Remondini III, pp. 291-363. Gauchat, Hierarchia catholica IV, p. 260. * Francesco Gonzaga (1657–1673)Francesco Gonzaga was the illegitimate eighth child of Duke Vincenzo I of Mantua; his mother was Doña Ines de Argota dei Conti di Cabrilana del Monte. He joined the Theatine Order at their monastery of S. Paolo in Naples in 1619. He was appointed Bishop of Geruntia e Cariati in 1633, and was named a Canon of the Lateran Basilica in 1655. He was transferred to the diocese of Nola on 17 December 1657. He died on 18 December 1673. Ughelli, p. 274. Remondini III, pp. 369-373. Gauchat, p. 248. * Filippo Cesarini (1674–1683)Cesarini was Bishop of Montepeloso from 1655 to 1674. He was transferred to the diocese of Nola on 1 May 1674 by Pope Clement X. He died on 6 July 1673. Gauchat IV, p. 248 with note 11. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica V, p. 291 with note 2. * Francesco Maria Moles (1684–1695)Moles was born in Naples in 1637, and became a member of the Theatine Order. He taught theology in their houses, and became their Visitor General, and then President General. He was named Bishop of Nola on 10 January 1684, and was consecrated in Rome on 16 January 1684 by Cardinal Alessandro Crescenzio. He resigned in 1695 due to illness, and retired to a Theatine house at Vico. He died in Naples on 12 May 1697. Ughelli-Coleti, pp. 264-265. Cappelletti, pp. 620-621. Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 291 with note 3. * Daniele Scoppa (16 May 1695 – 13 May 1703)Scoppa: Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 291 with note 4. * Francesco Maria Federico Carafa (7 April 1704 – 6 January 1737)Carafa: Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 291 with note 5. * Traiano Caracciolo (21 March 1738 – 16 February 1764)Caracciolo: Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VI, p. 312 with note 2. * Nicola Sanchez de Luna (13 May 1764 – 23 April 1768)Sanchez had been Archbishop of Chieti. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VI, p. 313 with note 3. * Filippo Lopez y Royo (16 May 1768 – 17 June 1793)Lopez was transferred to the diocese of Palermo by Pope Pius VI on 17 June 1793. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VI, p. 313 with note 4. * Giovanni Vincenzo Monforte (1798–1802)Monforte had previously been Bishop of Tropea (1786–1798). He was transferred to the diocese of Nola by Pope Pius VI on 29 January 1798. He was transferred to the diocese of Naples by Pope Pius VII on 24 May 1802. He died in Naples on 15 June 1802. D'Avino, p. 490. Ritzler- Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VI, p. 313 with note 5; 419 with note 4. * Vincenzo Torrusio (29 October 1804 – 24 March 1823)Torrusio: Cappelletti, p. 631. D'Avino, p. 490. * Nicola Coppola (17 November 1823 – 14 April 1828)Coppola: Cappelletti, p. 631. D'Avino, p. 490. * Gennaro Pasca (23 June 1828 – 2 October 1855)Pasca: Cappelletti, p. 631. D'Avino, p. 490. * Giuseppe Formisano (28 September 1855 – 7 January 1890)Formisano: Cappelletti, p. 631. D'Avino, p. 490. * Agnello Renzullo (22 June 1890 – 11 April 1924)Born in Naples in 1836, Renzullo had previously been Bishop of Isernia e Venafro (1880–1890). Annuario pontificio 1912 (Roma: Tip. Vaticana 1912), p. 135. * Egisto Domenico Melchiori (2 May 1924 – 5 December 1934) * Michele Raffaele Camerlengo (5 May 1935 – 9 September 1951) * Adolfo Binni (14 February 1952 – 7 January 1971) * Guerino Grimaldi (19 March 1971 – 2 July 1982) * Giuseppe Costanzo (6 August 1982 – 7 December 1982) * Umberto Tramma (23 June 1990 – 25 March 1999) * Beniamino Depalma (15 July 1999 – 11 November 2016) * Francesco Marino (11 November 2016 – present) ==References== ==Bibliography== ===Reference works=== * p. 907-908. (Use with caution; obsolete) * * * * * * * * * ===Studies=== * *Ebanista, C.; Fusaro, F. (2005), Cimitile. Guida al complesso basilicale e alla città. Nuova edizione ampliata e aggiornata. Cimitile: Commune de Cimitile–Progetto grafico di R. C. La Fata, 2005. *Kehr, Paul Fridolin (1925). Italia pontificia Vol. VIII (Berlin: Weidmann 1925), pp. 297–302. *Lanzoni, Francesco (1927). Le diocesi d'Italia dalle origini al principio del secolo VII (an. 604). Faenza: F. Lega, pp. 228–239. * * *Santaniello, Giovanni (2005). "I successori del vescovo Paolino di Nola (secoli V e VI)", in: Teologia e Vita, Quaderni dell'Istituto Superiore di Scienze Religiose "Giovanni Duns Scoto - Nola", nº 7, giugno 2005, pp. 18–51. * ====Acknowledgments==== * . Category:Roman Catholic dioceses in Campania Roman Catholic Diocese of Nola Category:Dioceses established in the 2nd century
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This article details the list of women's singles Grand Slam tournaments tennis champions. Some major changes have taken place in history and have affected the number of titles that have been won by various players. These have included the opening of the French national championships to international players in 1925, the elimination of the challenge round in 1922, and the admission of professional players in 1968 (the start of the Open Era). Since then, 58 women have won at least one grand slam.ESPN Sports Almanac 2006, page 814World Book Encyclopedia 2008 T p166aCompton Encyclopedia 1975 ST p301Concord EncyclopediaCBS Sports " "Top End Sports " " "Tennis 28 Slams " " All of these tournaments have been listed based on the modern definition of a tennis major, rather than when they were officially recognized by the ILTF. The Australian, French Championships, and U.S. tournaments were officially recognized by the ILTF in 1924, though the French Championships were not played in 1924 because of the Olympics. The United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) had several grievances with the ILTF and refused to join when it was formed in 1913. From 1913 to 1923 there were three official championships recognized by the ILTF: * World Grass Court Championships – Wimbledon. * World Hard Court Championships, held in Paris on clay courts. * World Covered Court Championships, held in Europe on an indoor wood surface. During that same time period the USLTA recognized the U.S. National Championships and did not recognize any world championship. * U.S. National Championships, held in New York on grass. ==Champions by year== {| class="wikitable nowrap" style="font-size:90%; height: 17.2em;" Tournament surface AU Hard (1988–Present) Grass (1905–1987) FR Clay WB Grass US Hard (1978–Present) Clay (1975–1977) Grass (1881–1974) Flag Icon Key List of National Flags Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open 1884 Maud Watson 1885 Maud Watson 1886 Blanche Bingley Hillyard 1887 Lottie Dod Ellen Hansell 1888 Lottie Dod Bertha Townsend 1889 Blanche Bingley Hillyard Bertha Townsend 1890 Helen Rice Ellen Roosevelt 1891 Lottie Dod Mabel Cahill 1892 Lottie Dod Mabel Cahill 1893 Lottie Dod Aline Terry 1894 Blanche Bingley Hillyard Helen Hellwig 1895 Charlotte Cooper Sterry Juliette Atkinson 1896 Charlotte Cooper Sterry Elisabeth Moore 1897 * Blanche Bingley Hillyard Juliette Atkinson 1898 Adine Masson * Charlotte Cooper Sterry Juliette Atkinson 1899 Adine Masson * Blanche Bingley Hillyard Marion Jones 1900 * Blanche Bingley Hillyard Myrtle McAteer 1901 * Charlotte Cooper Sterry Elisabeth Moore 1902 Adine Masson * Muriel Robb Marion Jones 1903 Adine Masson * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Elisabeth Moore 1904 * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers May Sutton Bundy 1905 Kate Gillou * May Sutton Bundy Elisabeth Moore 1906 Kate Gillou-Fenwick * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Helen Homans 1907 * May Sutton Bundy Evelyn Sears 1908 Kate Gillou-Fenwick * Charlotte Cooper Sterry Maud Barger-Wallach 1909 * Dora Boothby Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 1910 Jeanne Matthey * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 1911 Jeanne Matthey * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 1912 Jeanne Matthey * Ethel Thomson Larcombe Mary Browne 1913 * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Mary Browne 1914 Marguerite Broquedis * Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers Mary Browne 1915 rowspan="5" rowspan="4" Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1916 Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1917 Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1918 Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1919 Suzanne Lenglen Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 1920 Suzanne Lenglen * Suzanne Lenglen Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1921 Suzanne Lenglen * Suzanne Lenglen Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1922 Margaret Molesworth Suzanne Lenglen * Suzanne Lenglen Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1923 Margaret Molesworth Suzanne Lenglen * Suzanne Lenglen Helen Wills Moody 1924 Sylvia Lance Harper * Kathleen McKane Godfree Helen Wills Moody 1925♦ Daphne Akhurst Suzanne Lenglen Suzanne Lenglen Helen Wills Moody 1926 Daphne Akhurst Suzanne Lenglen Kathleen McKane Godfree Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1927♦ Esna Boyd Robertson Kornelia Bouman Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody 1928● Daphne Akhurst Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody 1929● Daphne Akhurst Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody 1930♦ Daphne Akhurst Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody Betty Nuthall 1931♦ Coral McInnes Buttsworth Cilly Aussem Cilly Aussem Helen Wills Moody 1932♦ Coral McInnes Buttsworth Helen Wills Moody Helen Wills Moody Helen Jacobs 1933 Joan Hartigan Peggy Scriven Vivian Helen Wills Moody Helen Jacobs 1934 Joan Hartigan Peggy Scriven Vivian Dorothy Round Helen Jacobs 1935 Dorothy Round Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling Helen Wills Moody Helen Jacobs 1936 Joan Hartigan Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling Helen Jacobs Alice Marble 1937 Nancye Wynne Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling Dorothy Round Anita Lizana 1938 Dorothy Bundy Cheney Simonne Passemard Mathieu Helen Wills Moody Alice Marble 1939♦ Emily Hood Westacott Simonne Passemard Mathieu Alice Marble Alice Marble 1940 Nancye Wynne Bolton rowspan="6" Alice Marble 1941 rowspan="5" Alice Weiwers † Sarah Palfrey Cooke 1942 Alice Weiwers † Pauline Betz 1943 Simone Iribarne Lafargue † Pauline Betz 1944 Raymonde Veber Jones † Pauline Betz 1945 Lolette Payot † Sarah Palfrey Cooke 1946♦ Nancye Wynne Bolton Margaret Osborne duPont Pauline Betz Pauline Betz 1947 Nancye Wynne Bolton Patricia Canning Todd Margaret Osborne duPont Louise Brough 1948 Nancye Wynne Bolton Nelly Landry Louise Brough Margaret Osborne duPont 1949♦ Doris Hart Margaret Osborne duPont Louise Brough Margaret Osborne duPont 1950♦ Louise Brough Doris Hart Louise Brough Margaret Osborne duPont 1951 Nancye Wynne Bolton Shirley Fry Doris Hart Maureen Connolly 1952♦ Thelma Coyne Long Doris Hart Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly 1953♠ Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly 1954♦ Thelma Coyne Long Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Doris Hart 1955 Beryl Penrose Angela Mortimer Louise Brough Doris Hart 1956♦ Mary Carter Reitano Althea Gibson Shirley Fry Shirley Fry 1957♦ Shirley Fry Shirley Bloomer Brasher Althea Gibson Althea Gibson 1958♦ Angela Mortimer Zsuzsa Körmöczy Althea Gibson Althea Gibson 1959♦ Mary Carter Reitano Christine Truman Maria Bueno Maria Bueno 1960♦ Margaret Smith Court Darlene Hard Maria Bueno Darlene Hard 1961 Margaret Smith Court Ann Haydon Jones Angela Mortimer Darlene Hard 1962● Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Karen Hantze Susman Margaret Smith Court 1963♦ Margaret Smith Court Lesley Turner Bowrey Margaret Smith Court Maria Bueno 1964♦ Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Maria Bueno Maria Bueno 1965● Margaret Smith Court Lesley Turner Bowrey Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court 1966 Margaret Smith Court Ann Haydon Jones Billie Jean Moffitt King Maria Bueno 1967♦ Nancy Richey Françoise Dürr Billie Jean Moffitt King Billie Jean Moffitt King 1968♦ Billie Jean Moffitt King ↓ Open Era ↓ 1968♦ ↓ Open Era ↓ Nancy Richey Billie Jean Moffitt King Virginia Wade 1969● Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Ann Haydon Jones Margaret Smith Court 1970♠ Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court 1971♦ Margaret Smith Court Evonne Goolagong Cawley Evonne Goolagong Cawley Billie Jean Moffitt King 1972● Virginia Wade Billie Jean Moffitt King Billie Jean Moffitt King Billie Jean Moffitt King 1973● Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Billie Jean Moffitt King Margaret Smith Court 1974♦ Evonne Goolagong Cawley Chris Evert Chris Evert Billie Jean Moffitt King 1975♦ Evonne Goolagong Cawley Chris Evert Billie Jean Moffitt King Chris Evert 1976♦ Evonne Goolagong Cawley Sue Barker Chris Evert Chris Evert 1977 Kerry Melville Reid Mima Jaušovec Virginia Wade Chris Evert Evonne Goolagong Cawley 1978 Chris O'Neil ‡ Virginia Ruzici Martina Navratilova Chris Evert 1979 Barbara Jordan ‡ Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Tracy Austin 1980♦ Hana Mandlíková Chris Evert Evonne Goolagong Cawley Chris Evert 1981 Martina Navratilova Hana Mandlíková Chris Evert Tracy Austin 1982♦ Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Chris Evert 1983● Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova 1984● Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova 1985♦ Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Hana Mandlíková 1986♦ Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova 1987♦ Hana Mandlíková Steffi Graf Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova 1988♠ Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf 1989● Steffi Graf Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Steffi Graf Steffi Graf 1990 Steffi Graf Monica Seles Martina Navratilova Gabriela Sabatini 1991● Monica Seles Monica Seles Steffi Graf Monica Seles 1992● Monica Seles Monica Seles Steffi Graf Monica Seles 1993● Monica Seles Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf 1994♦ Steffi Graf Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Conchita Martínez Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 1995● Mary Pierce Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf 1996● Monica Seles Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf 1997● Martina Hingis Iva Majoli Martina Hingis Martina Hingis 1998 Martina Hingis Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Jana Novotná Lindsay Davenport 1999 Martina Hingis Steffi Graf Lindsay Davenport Serena Williams 2000♦ Lindsay Davenport Mary Pierce Venus Williams Venus Williams 2001♦ Jennifer Capriati Jennifer Capriati Venus Williams Venus Williams 2002● Jennifer Capriati Serena Williams Serena Williams Serena Williams 2003♦ Serena Williams Justine Henin Serena Williams Justine Henin 2004 Justine Henin Anastasia Myskina Maria Sharapova Svetlana Kuznetsova 2005 Serena Williams Justine Henin Venus Williams Kim Clijsters 2006♦ Amélie Mauresmo Justine Henin Amélie Mauresmo Maria Sharapova 2007♦ Serena Williams Justine Henin Venus Williams Justine Henin 2008 Maria Sharapova Ana Ivanovic Venus Williams Serena Williams 2009♦ Serena Williams Svetlana Kuznetsova Serena Williams Kim Clijsters 2010♦ Serena Williams Francesca Schiavone Serena Williams Kim Clijsters 2011 Kim Clijsters Li Na Petra Kvitová Samantha Stosur 2012♦ Victoria Azarenka Maria Sharapova Serena Williams Serena Williams 2013♦ Victoria Azarenka Serena Williams Marion Bartoli Serena Williams 2014 Li Na Maria Sharapova Petra Kvitová Serena Williams 2015● Serena Williams Serena Williams Serena Williams Flavia Pennetta 2016♦ Angelique Kerber Garbiñe Muguruza Serena Williams Angelique Kerber 2017 Serena Williams Jeļena Ostapenko Garbiñe Muguruza Sloane Stephens 2018 Caroline Wozniacki Simona Halep Angelique Kerber Naomi Osaka 2019 Naomi Osaka Ashleigh Barty Simona Halep Bianca Andreescu 2020 Sofia Kenin Iga Świątek ◊ Naomi Osaka 2021 Naomi Osaka Barbora Krejčíková Ashleigh Barty Emma Raducanu 2022♦ Ashleigh Barty Iga Świątek Elena Rybakina Iga Świątek 2023 Aryna Sabalenka Iga Świątek Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open == Champions list == Tournament record and active players indicated in _bold_. Titles Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Years _24_ Margaret Court 13 11 _11_ 5 3 5 1960–1973 23 Serena Williams 23 7 3 7 6 1999–2017 22 Steffi Graf 22 4 6 7 5 1987–1999 19 Helen Wills Moody 19 0 4 8 7 1923–1938 18 Chris Evert 18 2 _7_ 3 6 1974–1986 Martina Navratilova 18 3 2 _9_ 4 1978–1990 12 Billie Jean King 4 8 1 1 6 4 1966–1975 9 Maureen Connolly 9 1 2 3 3 1951–1954 // Monica Seles 9 4 3 0 2 1990–1996 8 Suzanne Lenglen 8 0 2 6 0 1919–1926 / Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 8 0 0 0 _8_ 1915–1922 7 Dorothea Lambert Chambers 7 0 0 7 0 1903–1914 Maria Bueno 7 0 0 3 4 1959–1966 Evonne Goolagong 7 4 1 2 0 1971–1980 Justine Henin 7 1 4 0 2 2003–2007 Venus Williams 7 0 0 5 2 2000–2008 6 Blanche Bingley Hillyard 6 0 0 6 0 1886–1900 Margaret Osborne 6 0 2 1 3 1946–1950 Nancye Wynne Bolton 6 6 0 0 0 1937–1951 Louise Brough 6 1 0 4 1 1947–1955 Doris Hart 6 1 2 1 2 1949–1955 5 Lottie Dod 5 0 0 5 0 1887–1893 Charlotte Cooper Sterry 5 0 0 5 0 1895–1901 Daphne Akhurst 5 5 0 0 0 1925–1930 Helen Jacobs 5 0 0 1 4 1932–1936 Alice Marble 5 0 0 1 4 1936–1940 Pauline Betz 5 0 0 1 4 1942–1946 Althea Gibson 5 0 1 2 2 1956–1958 Martina Hingis 5 3 0 1 1 1997–1999 Maria Sharapova 5 1 2 1 1 2004–2014 4 Elisabeth Moore 4 0 0 0 4 1896–1905 Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 4 0 0 0 4 1909–1919 Shirley Fry 4 1 1 1 1 1951–1957 Hana Mandlíková 4 2 1 0 1 1980–1987 Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 4 0 3 0 1 1989–1998 Kim Clijsters 4 1 0 0 3 2005–2011 Naomi Osaka 4 2 0 0 2 2018–2021 Iga Świątek 4 0 3 0 1 2020–2023 3 Juliette Atkinson 3 0 0 0 3 1895–1898 May Sutton 3 0 0 2 1 1904–1907 Mary Browne 3 0 0 0 3 1912–1914 Joan Hartigan 3 3 0 0 0 1933–1936 Dorothy Round 3 1 0 2 0 1934–1937 Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling 3 0 3 0 0 1935–1937 Angela Mortimer 3 1 1 1 0 1955–1961 Darlene Hard 3 0 1 0 2 1960–1961 Ann Haydon Jones 2 1 0 2 1 0 1961–1969 Virginia Wade 3 1 0 1 1 1968–1977 Lindsay Davenport 3 1 0 1 1 1998–2000 Jennifer Capriati 3 2 1 0 0 2001–2002 Angelique Kerber 3 1 0 1 1 2016–2018 Ashleigh Barty 3 1 1 1 0 2019–2022 * 128 players have won at least one of the 454 majors that have been played. == Grand Slam titles by decade == 1880s 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s == Grand Slam achievements == These are players who achieved some form of a tennis Grand Slam. They include a Grand Slam, non-calendar year Grand Slam, Career Grand Slam, Career Golden Slam, and Career Super Slam. No player has won a single season Super Slam. The tennis Open Era began in 1968, after the Australian Open and before the French Open. === Grand Slam === Players who held all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously (in a calendar year). Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Maureen Connolly 1953G 1953C 1953G 1953G Margaret Court 1970G 1970C 1970G 1970G Steffi Graf 1988H 1988C 1988G 1988H === Non-calendar year Grand Slam === Players who held all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously (not in a calendar year). From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was the last major tournament held in a season. Player From To Streak Martina Navratilova 1983 Wimbledon 1984 US Open 6 Steffi Graf 1993 French Open 1994 Australian Open 4 Serena Williams 2002 French Open 2003 Australian Open 4 Serena Williams (2) 2014 US Open 2015 Wimbledon 4 ===Career Grand Slam=== Players who won all four Grand Slam titles over the course of their careers. Until 1977 the 4 Slams were played on 2 different surfaces (grass, clay). After 1978 they were contested on 3. * The event at which the Career Grand Slam was completed indicated in bold. Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Maureen Connolly 1953G 1953C 1952G 1951G Doris Hart 1949G 1950C 1951G 1954G Shirley Fry Irvin 1957G 1951C 1956G 1956G Margaret Court 1960G 1962C 1963G 1962G Margaret Court (2) 1961G 1964C 1965G 1965G Margaret Court (3) 1962G 1969C 1970G 1969G Billie Jean King 1968G 1972C 1966G 1967G Chris Evert 1982G 1974C 1974G 1975C Martina Navratilova 1981G 1982C 1978G 1983H Martina Navratilova (2) 1983G 1984C 1979G 1984H Chris Evert (2) 1984G 1975C 1976G 1976C Steffi Graf 1988H 1987C 1988G 1988H Steffi Graf (2) 1989H 1988C 1989G 1989H Steffi Graf (3) 1990H 1993C 1991G 1993H Steffi Graf (4) 1994H 1995C 1992G 1995H Serena Williams 2003H 2002C 2002G 1999H Maria Sharapova 2008H 2012C 2004G 2006H Serena Williams (2) 2005H 2013C 2003G 2002H Serena Williams (3) 2007H 2015C 2009G 2008H === Golden Slam === Players who held all four Grand Slam titles and the Olympic gold medal simultaneously. Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Olympics Steffi Graf 1988H 1988C 1988G 1988H 1988H === Career Golden Slam === Players who won all four Grand Slam titles and the Olympic gold medal over the course of their careers. * The event at which the Career Golden Slam was completed indicated in bold. Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Olympics Steffi Graf 1988H 1987C 1988G 1988H 1988H Serena Williams 2003H 2002C 2002G 1999H 2012G === Career Super Slam === Players who won all four Grand Slam titles, the Olympic gold medal and the year-end championship over the course of their careers. * The event at which the Career Super Slam was completed indicated in bold. Player Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Olympics Year-end Steffi Graf 1988H 1987C 1988G 1988H 1988H 1987Cp Serena Williams 2003H 2002C 2002G 1999H 2012G 2001Cp ==Multiple titles in a season== ===Three titles=== {| class="wikitable" Australian—French—Wimbledon 1953♠ Maureen Connolly Open Era Open Era 1970♠ Margaret Court 1988♠★ Steffi Graf 2015★ Serena Williams ===Two titles=== {| class="wikitable" Australian—French Australian—French 1953♠ Maureen Connolly 1962● Margaret Court 1964 Margaret Court Open Era Open Era 1969● Margaret Court 1970♠ Margaret Court 1973● Margaret Court 1988♠ Steffi Graf 1991● / Monica Seles 1992● / Monica Seles 2001 Jennifer Capriati 2015● Serena Williams == Tournament statistics == ===Most titles per tournament=== Grand Slam Titles Player Australian Open 11 (All-time) Margaret Court Australian Open 7 (Open Era) Serena Williams French Open 7 Chris Evert Wimbledon 9 Martina Navratilova US Open 8 (All-time) / Molla Mallory US Open 6 (Open Era) Chris Evert US Open 6 (Open Era) Serena Williams == Consecutive titles == ===Overall record=== Titles Player First event Last event 6 Maureen Connolly 1952 WIM 1953 USO Margaret Court 1969 USO 1971 AO Martina Navratilova 1983 WIM 1984 USO 5 Steffi Graf 1988 AO 1989 AO 4 Steffi Graf (2) 1993 FO 1994 AO Serena Williams 2002 FO 2003 AO 2014 USO 2015 WIM 3 Helen Wills Moody 1928 FO 1928 USO 1929 FO 1929 USO Margaret Court (2) 1965 WIM 1966 AO Billie Jean King 1967 WIM 1968 AO 1972 FO 1972 USO Chris Evert 1982 USO 1983 FO Steffi Graf (3) 1989 WIM 1990 AO / Monica Seles 1991 USO 1992 FO Steffi Graf (4) 1995 FO 1995 USO 1996 FO 1996 USO Martina Hingis 1997 WIM 1998 AO === At one tournament === Titles Player Years 7 Margaret Court AO 1960–66 6 Martina Navratilova WIM 1982–87 5 Suzanne Lenglen 1919–23 4 Molla Mallory USO 1915–18 Helen Wills Moody WIM 1927–30 Helen Jacobs USO 1932–35 Chris Evert USO 1975–78 == Grand Slam titles by country == ===All-time=== ===Open era=== ==See also== === List of Grand Slam records lists === * Chronological list of women's Grand Slam tennis champions * List of Grand Slam women's singles finals * List of Grand Slam–related tennis records * List of WTA Tour top- level tournament singles champions * Lists of tennis records and statistics === List of Grand Slam champions === * List of Grand Slam men's singles champions * List of Grand Slam men's doubles champions * List of Grand Slam women's doubles champions * List of Grand Slam mixed doubles champions * List of Grand Slam boys' singles champions * List of Grand Slam girls' singles champions * List of wheelchair tennis champions ==References== Women
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The title Best in Show is awarded annually to the dog chosen as winner of the Crufts dog show, according to conformation show rules. This title was first awarded in 1928, the initial winner being Primley Sceptre, a fawn Greyhound. Previously, Crufts had used the title "Best Champion", sponsored by the Illustrated Kennel News, which was awarded from 1905 to 1914.Jackson (1990): p. 194Jackson (1990): p. 195 The first winner of Best Champion was Ch. The Sable Mite, a Pomeranian. According to Crufts: The Official History the first winner of that award was the first dog to be considered the "best" at a Crufts show, although it only lists winners between 1906 and 1912. When Best Champion was introduced at Crufts in 1905, it was seen by Charles Cruft as an extension of the other titles already available at the show. The class was one of several classes reserved for Crufts subscribers at the cost of a guinea per year. Because of the restriction in entry, there were years when the winner of Best Champion was defeated in other classes which were not restricted to subscribers.Jackson (1990): p. 91 Crufts was not the first dog show in the UK to introduce this type of title, the first event to do so was at the Cambridge Canine Society Show in 1900.Bengton (2008): p. 216 The change to Best in Show was considered by the press to be of little significance and was not promoted by Charles Cruft,Jackson (1990): p. 108 and did not require a dog to have won its Best of Breed class until 1936. It did however remove restrictions on entry, which remained until the mid-1960s when entry to Crufts was restricted to dogs who had already become a champion by gaining championship points at other dog shows.Bengton (2008): p. 66 The most successful breed in the modern era since Best in Show was introduced has been the English Cocker Spaniel. Of the breed's seven show titles, all but one of them were owned and bred by Herbert Summers Lloyd (known predominantly as H. S. Lloyd) from the "of Ware" kennel. Only four dogs have won Best in Show on more than one occasion, and on three of these occasions they were English Cocker Spaniels owned by Lloyd. The fourth occasion was a Labrador Retriever named Bramshaw Bob, owned by Countess Lorna Howe who is the second most successful breeder in the show's history as she also won Best in Show once more with another Labrador in 1937, Ch. Cheveralla Ben of Banchory. Although no dog has won Crufts more than once since H. S. Lloyd's Tracey Witch of Ware in 1950, owner Jackie Lorimer won the title in 1993 with Irish Setter Sh Ch. Danaway Debonair and again with the dog's son, Sh Ch. Caspians Intrepid in 1999. ==1905 to 1914== ===Best Champion=== First awarded in 1905, it was listed as the 51st and last out of the members-only trophies on its introduction in the show schedule. The description of the award read, "AN ANTIQUE SILVER CUP, value FIVE GUINEAS, offered by the Proprietors of the "ILLUSTRATED KENNEL NEWS," for the best Champion of any breed in the Show. To be won outright." Year Prefix Winner Image Breed Owner(s) Ref(s) 1905 Ch. The Sable Mite alt="A greyscale photo of a small fluffy dog looking to the left." Pomeranian Mrs Vale Nicholas 1906 Ch. Wishaw Leader alt="A greyscale photo of a rough collie looking to the right." Scotch Collie[A] Mr R A Tait Jackson (1990): p. 90 1907 Ch. The Sable Mite alt="A greyscale photo of a small fluffy dog looking to the left." Pomeranian Mrs Vale Nicholas 1908 Ch. Shelton Viking alt="A greyscale photo of a large dark coloured dog facing right." Newfoundland Mrs Vale Nicholas Jackson (1990): p. 192 1909 Ch. Clareholm Dora alt="A greyscale photo of a long low spaniel in black and grey, the dog is facing left but has turned its head slightly towards the camera. Field Spaniel Mrs E. Rouse Jackson (1990): p. 193Smith (1909): p. 101 1910 Ch. Broadwater Banker alt="A greyscale photo of a typical looking greyhound with a docked tail. It faces right. Greyhound Mrs E. Chapman Smith (1909): p. 81 1911 Ch. Collarbone of Notts Wire Fox Terrier Mr A.E.G. Way 1912 Ch. The Pride of Sussex St Bernard Mr H Stocken & Miss Samuel 1913 Ch. Choo-tai of Egham Pekingese Miss V. Ashton Cross 1914 Ch. St. Blaise Greyhound Miss D. Beadon ==1928 to present== ===Best in Show=== Introduced in 1928, the prize was first described as "STERLING SILVER GOLD GILT 10-inch REPOUSSE ROSE BOWL. Decorated in flowers on circular base, for the best Dog in the Show. (OPEN TO ALL)". During World War II, Crufts was not staged and in 1954, the dog-based competition was not held because of the electricians’ strike. In 2001, the canine festival was held in May, two months later than planned, because of the foot-and-mouth disease. The show was not held in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Year Prefix Winner Breed Group Owner(s) Ref(s) 1928 – Primley Sceptre Greyhound Hound Mr Herbert Whitley Dogworld: Digital Crufts Edition (2010): p. 66 1929 – Heather Necessity Scottish Terrier Terrier Mr Robert Chapman Jackson (1990): p. 110 1930 – Luckystar of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd Jackson (1990): p. 197 1931 – Luckystar of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd 1932 – Bramshaw Bob Labrador Retriever Gundog Countess Lorna Howe Jackson (1990): p. 112 1933 – Bramshaw Bob Labrador Retriever Gundog Countess Lorna Howe 1934 – Southball Moonstone Greyhound Hound B Harland-Worden Jackson (1990): p. 113 1935 – Pennine Prima Donna Pointer Gundog Mr Arthur Eggleston Jackson (1990): p. 114 1936 Ch. Choonam Hung Kwong Chow Chow Utility Mrs. Violet Mannooch Jackson (1990): p. 117 1937 Ch. Cheveralla Ben of Banchory Labrador Retriever Gundog Countess Lorna Howe 1938 – Exquisite Model of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd Jackson (1990): p. 119 1939 – Exquisite Model of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd 1940 Competition not held due to World War II.[C] Jackson (1990): p. 198Jackson (1990): p. 199 1941 Competition not held due to World War II. 1942 Competition not held due to World War II. 1943 Competition not held due to World War II. 1944 Competition not held due to World War II. 1945 Competition not held due to World War II. 1946 Competition not held due to World War II. 1947 Competition not held due to World War II. 1948 – Tracey Witch of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd 1949 Competition not held.[D] 1950 – Tracey Witch of Ware English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Mr H. S. Lloyd 1951 – Twynstar Dyma-Fi Welsh Terrier Terrier Capt. & Mrs I Morlais Thomas Dogworld: Digital Crufts Edition (2010): p. 80 1952 Ch. Noways Chuckles Bulldog Utility Mr John T. Bernard Jackson (1990): p. 200 1953 Ch. Elch Elder of Ouborough Great Dane Working Mr Bill G. Siggers 1954 Competition not held due to electricians’ strike[E] 1955 Ch. Tzigane Affri of Nashend Poodle (Standard) Utility Mrs. April Proctor 1956 – Treetops Golden Falcon Greyhound Hound Mr. Judy de Cassembroot and Miss Bobbie Greenish 1957 Ch. Volkrijk of Vorden Keeshond Utility Mrs. Rene Tucker Jackson (1990): p. 201 1958 Ch. Chiming Bells Pointer Gundog Mrs. Bill Parkinson 1959 Ch. Sandstorm Saracen Welsh Terrier Terrier Mrs. D M Leach and Mrs. Margaret Thomas 1960 – Sulhamstead Merman Irish Wolfhound Hound Florence Nagle and Marion Clark 1961 Ch. Riverina Tweedsbairn Airedale Terrier Terrier Mr Pat McCaughey and Mr Mac Shutch Jackson (1990): p. 202 1962 Ch. Crackwyn Cockspur Wire Fox Terrier Terrier Mr. Harry L Gill 1963 – Rogerholm Recruit Lakeland Terrier Terrier Mr. Bill Rogers 1964 Sh Ch.[F] Silbury Soames of Madavale English Setter Gundog Mrs. Ada Williams Jackson (1990): p. 203 1965 Ch. Fenton of Kentwood German Shepherd Pastoral Sonnica H Godden 1966 – Oakington Puckshill Amber Sunblush Poodle (Toy) Utility Mrs. Clare E Perry 1967 Ch. Stingray of Derryabah Lakeland Terrier Terrier Mr. Wilf and Mrs. Betty Postlewaite Jackson (1990): p. 204 1968 Ch. Fanhill Faune Dalmatian Utility Mrs. Jean Woodyatt 1969 Ch. Hendrawen's Nibelung of Charavigne German Shepherd Pastoral Mr Edwin and Mrs Shirley White 1970 – Bergerie Knur Pyrenean Mountain Dog Working Mr Fred and Mrs Constance Prince Jackson (1990): p. 205Dogworld: Digital Crufts Edition (2010): p. 84 1971 Ch. Ramacon Swashbuckler German Shepherd Pastoral Prince Ahmed Husain 1972 Ch. Abraxas Audacity English Bull Terrier Terrier Violet Drummond-Dick 1973 – Alansmere Aquarius Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Toy Mr Alan Hall and Mr John Evans 1974 Ch. Burtonswood Bossy Boots St. Bernard Working Marjorie Hindes Jackson (1990): p. 206 1975 Ch. Brookewire Brandy of Layven Wire Fox Terrier Terrier Mr Giuseppe Benelli and Mr Paolo Dondini Jackson (1990): p. 207 1976 Ch. Dianthus Buttons West Highland White Terrier Terrier Mrs Kath Newstead & Mrs Dorothy Taylor 1977 Sh Ch.[F] Bournehouse Dancing Master English Setter Gundog Mr Gordon F Williams 1978 Ch. Harrowhill Huntsman Wire Fox Terrier Terrier Miss Evelyn Howles Jackson (1990): p. 208 1979 Eng Am Ch. Callaghan of Leander Kerry Blue Terrier Terrier Wendy Streatfield 1980 Ch. Shargleam Blackcap Retriever (Flat Coated) Gundog Pat Chapman Dogworld: Digital Crufts Edition (2010): p. 87 1981 Ch. Astley Portia of Rua Irish Setter Gundog Colette and Mary Tuite Jackson (1990): p. 209 1982 Ch. Grayco Hazelnut Poodle (Toy) Utility Mrs Lesley A Howard 1983 Ch. Montravia Kaskarak Hitari Afghan Hound Hound Pauline Gibbs 1984 Ch. Saxonsprings Hackensack Lhasa Apso Utility Jean Blyth Jackson (1990): p. 210 1985 Ch. Montravia Tommy-Gun Poodle (Standard) Utility Mrs Marita Gibbs 1986 Ch. Ginger Xmas Carol Airedale Terrier Terrier Miss Alessendra Sommi-Livraghi 1987 Ch. Viscount Grant Afghan Hound Hound Mr Chris and Mrs Julie Amoo Jackson (1990): p. 211 1988 Sh Ch.[F] Starlite Express at Valsett English Setter Gundog Mr Joe W and Mrs Val Watkin 1989 Ch. Potterdale Classic of Moonhill Bearded Collie Pastoral Brenda White 1990 Ch. Olac Moon Pilot West Highland White Terrier Terrier Mr Derek Tattersall Jackson (1990): p. 212 1991 Sh Ch.[F] Raycrofts Socialite Clumber Spaniel Gundog Mr Ralph Dunne 1992 Ch. Pencloe Dutch Gold Whippet Hound Morag Bolton-Lockhart 1993 Sh Ch.[F] Danaway Debonair Irish Setter Gundog Jackie Lorrimer Dogworld: Digital Crufts Edition (2010): p. 89 1994 Ch. Purston Hit and Miss From Brocolitia Welsh Terrier Terrier Mrs A. Maughan 1995 Sh Ch. Starchelle Chicago Bear Irish Setter Gundog Mrs Rachel Shaw-Rainey and Mr Tony Rainey 1996 Sh Ch.[F] Canigou Cambrai English Cocker Spaniel Gundog Tricia Bentley 1997 Ch. Ozmilion Mystification Yorkshire Terrier Toy Osman Sameja 1998 Ch. Saredon Forever Young Welsh Terrier Terrier Judith Averis 1999 Sh Ch.[F] Caspians Intrepid Irish Setter Gundog Jackie Lorimer 2000 Ch. Torums Scarf Michael Kerry Blue Terrier Terrier Mr Ron Ramsay 2001 Ch. Jethard Cidevant Basenji Hound Mr Paul Singleton 2002 Nord Ch.[G] Topscore Contradiction Poodle (Standard) Utility Mr S and Mrs K Glenna 2003 Ch. Yakee A Dangerous Liaison Pekingese Toy Mr Easdon and Mr Martin 2004 Ch. Cobyco Call the Tune Whippet Hound Mrs L Yacoby-Wright 2005 Am Ch/Ch. Cracknor Cause Celebre Norfolk Terrier Terrier Elizabeth Matell, Pam Beale and Stephanie Ingram 2006 Am Ch. Caitland Isle Take a Chance Australian Shepherd Pastoral Nancy Resetar 2007 Ch/Am Ch. Araki Fabulous Willy Tibetan Terrier Utility Mr John Shaw and Mr Neil Smith 2008 Ch. Jafrak Philippe Olivier Giant Schnauzer Working Mr and Mrs Cullen 2009 Ch. Efbe's Hidalgo at Goodspice Sealyham Terrier Terrier Marjorie Good 2010 Sh Ch/Aust Ch.[F][H] Hungargunn Bear It'n Mind Hungarian Vizsla Gundog Mrs N and Mrs K Craggs and Armstrong 2011 Sh Ch.[F] Vbos The Kentuckian Retriever (Flat-Coated) Gundog Jim Irvine 2012 Ch. Zentarr Elizabeth Lhasa Apso Utility Margaret Anderson 2013 Ch. Soletrader Peek A Boo Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen Hound Sara Robertson and Wendy Doherty 2014 Ch/Am Ch. Afterglow Maverick Sabre Poodle (Standard) Utility Jason Lynn, John Stone and Sandra Stone 2015 Ch. McVan's To Russia With Love Scottish Terrier Terrier M L Khenkina 2016 Ch. Burneze Geordie Girl West Highland White Terrier Terrier Marie Burns 2017 Sh Ch. Afterglow Miami Ink American Cocker Spaniel Gundog Jason Lynn and R Da Silva 2018 Ch. Collooney Tartan Tease Whippet Hound David and Yvette Short 2019 Akc/Se/Hr/Pl/Fr Ch. Planet Waves Forever Young Daydream Believers Papillon Toy K. Roosens & J. Goessens 2020 Ch. Silvae Trademark Wire-haired Dachshund Hound D. McCalmont and K. McCalmont 2021 Competition not held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2022 Int Ch/Nord Ch/Dan Ch/Norw Ch. Almanza Backseat Driver Retriever (Flat Coated) Gundog Ms R & Mr P Ulin & Oware 2023 Am Gch. Kan Trace Very Cheeky Chic Lagotto Romagnolo Gundog Mrs S & Mr A Zdunic Sinkovic & Lucin ===Most successful breeds=== As of 2023 Number of wins Breeds 7 English Cocker Spaniel 4 Irish Setter, Standard Poodle, Welsh Terrier 3 English Setter, Flat Coated Retriever, German Shepherd, Greyhound, Labrador Retriever, West Highland White Terrier, Whippet, Wire Fox Terrier 2 Afghan Hound, Airedale Terrier, Kerry Blue Terrier, Lakeland Terrier, Lhasa Apso, Pointer, Scottish Terrier, Toy Poodle 1 American Cocker Spaniel, Australian Shepherd, Basenji, Bearded Collie, Bulldog, Bull Terrier, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Chow Chow, Clumber Spaniel, Dalmatian, Giant Schnauzer, Great Dane, Hungarian Vizsla, Irish Wolfhound, Keeshond, Lagotto Romagnolo, Norfolk Terrier, Papillon, Pekingese, Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen, Pyrenean Mountain Dog, Sealyham Terrier, St. Bernard, Tibetan Terrier, Wire-haired Dachshund, Yorkshire Terrier ===Most successful groups=== As of 2023 Number of wins Groups 26 Gundog 22 Terrier 13 Utility 12 Hound 5 Pastoral, Working 4 Toy ==See also== * List of Best in Show winners of the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show * List of individual dogs * ==Notes== *A ^ Ch. Wishaw Leader was registered as a Scotch Collie, a breed now split into two breeds, Smooth Collie and Rough Collie. *B ^ Not held as the venue was requisitioned by the British Army for use as a warehouse for military equipment during World War I.Jackson (1990): p. 100 *C ^ Not held due to World War II and the change of ownership of the show from the family of Charles Cruft to The Kennel Club. *D ^ The date of the event was moved from October to February, causing the event to skip a year. *E ^ The show was cancelled due to a strike by electricians. *F '^'^'^'^'^'^'^'^ The abbreviation Sh Ch stands for Show Champion, a title awarded to gundogs and Border Collies for winning three Challenge Certificates under three different judges with at least one of those Certificates being awarded when the dog in question is more than twelve months old. *G ^ The abbreviation Nord Ch. stands for Nordic Champion, which is awarded to a dog with a championship title from three different Nordic countries. *H ^ The abbreviation Aust Ch. stands for Australian Champion. ==Citations== ==References== * * * * ==External links== *Crufts Best in Show Roll of Honour on Flickr Category:Awards to animals * Category:Dog shows and showing Category:Lists of British award winners Category:Lists of dogs Category:United Kingdom-related lists
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Derby County Football Club is an English association football club based in Derby, which competes in the EFL League One during the 2023–24 season. The club was founded in 1884, by William Morley, as an offshoot of Derbyshire County Cricket Club; it has spent all but six seasons in the top two divisions of the English football league. The club's competitive peak came in the 1970s when it had two spells as English League Champions and competed in major European competitions on four separate occasions, reaching the European Cup semi-finals, as well as winning several minor trophies. The club was also a strong force in the interwar years of the football league and also won the 1945–46 FA Cup. Derby County are founder members of the Football League, which was created in 1888. Over the years Derby have played in the First Division, Second Division, Third Division, Third Division North, Premier League, the Championship and League One. Since 2022, Derby competes in the third tier of English football, League One, after relegation from the Championship. Derby's first opponent was Bolton Wanderers on 8 September 1888 a game which Derby won 6–3. Their most regular opponents have been Middlesbrough & Wolverhampton Wanderers having met 142 times whilst Derby best record is against Bolton Wanderers, Derby beating the Trotters 64 times. The most league defeats inflicted upon Derby is against Liverpool who have triumphed over Derby 66 times while the most drawn matches have come against Stoke City with the two teams sharing the points on 40 occasions. Derby have played a total of 109 different league opponents. ==Key== *The records include the results of matches played in The Football League (from 1888 to 1996, 2002 to 2007, 2008 to 2024) and the Premier League (from 1996 to 2002, 2007 to 2008). Wartime matches are regarded as unofficial and are excluded, as are matches from the abandoned 1939–40 seasons. Football League play-offs, Test Matches and cup matches are not included. *For the sake of simplicity, present-day names are used throughout: for example, results against Ardwick, Small Heath and Woolwich Arsenal are integrated into the records against Manchester City, Birmingham City and Arsenal, respectively. * Teams with this background and symbol in the "Club" column are current divisional rivals of Derby County. * Clubs with this background and symbol in the "Club" column are defunct. *P = matches played; W = matches won; D = matches drawn; L = matches lost; F = Goals scored; A = Goals conceded; Win% = percentage of total matches won ==All-time league record== :Statistics correct as of matches played on 7 May 2023. Derby County F.C. league record by opponent Opponent P W D L P W D L P W D L F A Win% Ref(s) Opponent Home Away Total Accrington 5 1 2 2 5 1 1 3 10 2 3 5 17 27 % Accrington Stanley 2 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 4 1 2 1 8 6 % Accrington Stanley 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 7 0 % Arsenal 49 25 10 14 49 12 10 27 98 37 20 41 142 152 % Aston Villa 62 29 12 21 62 9 11 42 124 38 23 63 162 238 % Barnsley 36 22 8 6 36 11 9 16 72 33 17 22 104 84 % Barrow 2 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 9 7 % Birmingham City 58 27 21 10 58 17 15 26 116 44 36 36 201 165 % Blackburn Rovers 61 24 21 16 61 12 12 37 122 36 33 53 210 206 % Blackpool 34 22 8 4 34 9 8 17 68 31 16 21 117 88 % Bolton Wanderers 64 42 14 8 64 22 9 33 128 64 23 41 232 187 % Bournemouth 6 5 0 1 6 1 3 2 12 6 3 3 16 12 % Bradford City 17 8 4 5 17 6 6 5 34 14 10 10 49 38 % Bradford (Park Avenue) 9 6 1 2 9 3 1 5 18 9 2 7 34 27 % Brentford 16 8 4 4 16 4 6 6 32 12 10 10 54 57 % Brighton & Hove Albion 17 9 4 4 17 5 2 10 34 14 6 14 40 39 % Bristol City 35 24 4 7 35 11 11 13 70 35 15 20 120 82 % Bristol Rovers 13 8 3 2 13 3 4 6 26 11 7 8 40 38 % Burnley 48 26 10 12 48 13 10 25 96 39 20 37 147 140 % Burton Albion 3 2 1 0 3 0 1 2 6 2 2 2 4 5 % Bury 29 22 4 3 29 5 9 15 58 27 13 18 99 84 % Cambridge United 8 4 3 1 8 5 2 1 16 9 5 2 16 10 % Cardiff City 32 12 10 12 34 5 9 20 68 17 19 32 93 114 % Carlisle United 9 3 2 4 9 2 3 4 18 5 5 8 23 26 % Charlton Athletic 43 20 11 12 43 16 9 18 86 36 20 30 140 136 % Chelsea 47 24 10 13 47 11 15 21 94 35 25 34 138 136 % Cheltenham Town 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 5 2 % Chester City 2 2 0 0 2 1 1 0 4 3 1 0 13 5 % Chesterfield 5 2 3 0 5 2 1 2 10 4 4 2 19 9 % Colchester United 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 8 5 % Coventry City 38 21 11 6 38 9 10 19 76 30 21 25 98 96 % Crewe Alexandra 5 2 2 1 5 2 1 2 10 4 3 3 23 17 % Crystal Palace 32 20 6 6 32 8 10 14 64 28 16 20 91 69 % Darlington 4 1 2 1 4 0 1 3 8 1 3 4 10 13 % Darwen 2 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 4 3 0 1 12 5 % Doncaster Rovers 10 6 1 3 10 6 0 4 20 12 1 7 36 22 % Everton 63 30 9 24 63 12 12 39 126 42 21 63 173 240 % Exeter City 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 2 1 % Fleetwood Town 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 2 % Forest Green Rovers 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 6 0 % Fulham 29 17 8 4 29 4 13 12 58 21 21 16 97 83 % Gainsborough Trinity 5 4 1 0 5 2 3 0 10 6 4 0 29 8 % Gillingham 5 4 1 0 5 2 1 2 10 6 2 2 14 7 % Glossop North End 7 7 1 0 7 2 3 2 14 8 4 2 32 17 % Grimsby Town 33 20 7 6 33 12 8 13 66 32 15 19 115 88 % Halifax Town 2 2 0 0 2 0 1 1 4 2 1 1 12 4 % Hartlepool United 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 4 2 0 2 6 6 % Huddersfield Town 48 32 12 4 48 7 15 26 96 39 27 30 142 136 % Hull City 30 15 6 9 30 7 10 13 60 22 16 22 87 77 % Ipswich Town 42 15 12 15 42 13 8 21 84 28 20 36 107 119 % Leeds City 6 4 1 1 6 3 0 3 12 7 1 4 35 23 % Leeds United 55 24 14 17 55 11 13 31 110 35 27 48 139 164 % Leicester City 49 28 7 14 49 14 18 17 98 42 25 51 137 125 % Leyton Orient 22 14 3 5 22 6 4 12 44 20 7 17 58 49 % Lincoln City 13 12 1 0 13 5 4 4 26 17 5 4 58 31 % Liverpool 63 26 23 24 63 6 15 42 126 32 28 66 156 248 % Luton Town 21 10 8 3 21 5 2 14 42 15 10 17 53 49 % Manchester City 46 24 11 11 46 8 9 29 92 32 20 40 132 143 % Manchester United 45 16 17 12 45 11 10 24 90 27 27 36 132 157 % Mansfield Town 2 2 0 0 2 1 1 0 4 3 1 0 11 2 % Middlesbrough 71 34 17 20 71 15 16 40 142 49 33 60 204 238 % Millwall 26 9 6 11 26 7 8 11 52 16 14 22 59 60 % Milton Keynes Dons 2 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 4 2 1 1 7 4 % Morecambe 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 6 1 % Nelson 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 7 2 % Newcastle United 56 23 14 19 56 13 15 28 112 36 29 46 138 164 % Newport County 2 0 2 0 2 1 1 0 4 1 3 0 8 6 % Northampton Town 3 1 2 0 3 2 1 0 6 3 3 0 11 7 % Norwich City 33 10 15 8 33 10 4 19 66 20 19 27 78 94 % Nottingham Forest 50 20 14 16 50 13 14 23 100 33 28 39 147 144 % Notts County 27 14 9 4 27 8 9 10 54 22 18 14 83 64 % Oldham Athletic 20 12 5 3 20 6 7 8 40 17 12 11 53 50 % Oxford United 6 3 1 2 6 3 1 2 12 6 2 4 13 11 % Peterborough United 7 5 1 1 7 1 1 5 14 6 2 6 21 20 % Plymouth Argyle 21 14 3 4 21 8 5 8 42 22 8 12 74 56 % Port Vale 10 7 1 2 10 3 2 5 20 10 3 7 33 23 % Portsmouth 43 27 7 9 43 10 11 22 86 37 18 34 135 122 % Preston North End 56 33 10 13 56 13 11 32 112 46 21 45 143 158 % Queens Park Rangers 28 12 6 9 28 8 12 8 56 21 18 17 69 64 % Reading 23 10 3 10 23 4 6 13 46 14 9 23 62 78 % Rochdale 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 1 4 3 0 1 11 3 % Rotherham United 27 16 6 5 27 4 11 12 54 20 17 17 89 78 % Scunthorpe United 10 5 3 2 10 3 2 5 20 8 5 7 45 38 % Sheffield United 53 33 7 13 53 12 9 32 106 45 16 45 167 155 % Sheffield Wednesday 63 34 19 10 63 15 19 29 126 49 38 39 206 169 % Shrewsbury Town 6 2 3 1 6 1 2 3 12 3 5 4 13 17 % South Shields 7 5 1 1 7 1 2 4 14 6 5 3 27 20 % Southampton 31 15 12 4 31 8 9 14 62 23 21 18 97 92 % Southend United 6 3 0 3 6 2 1 3 12 5 1 6 15 14 % Southport 2 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 4 3 0 1 11 5 % Stevenage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A Stockport County 12 11 0 1 12 0 3 9 24 11 3 10 41 28 % Stoke City 66 38 18 10 66 13 22 31 132 51 40 41 219 170 % Sunderland 64 34 15 16 65 12 12 41 130 46 27 57 183 206 % Swansea City 22 11 4 7 22 4 4 14 44 15 8 21 73 75 % Swindon Town 5 5 0 0 5 2 2 1 10 7 2 1 23 12 % Tottenham Hotspur 32 17 9 6 32 7 8 17 64 24 17 23 100 94 % Tranmere Rovers 7 4 1 2 7 2 0 5 16 6 1 7 28 23 % Walsall 6 3 1 3 6 2 2 2 14 5 3 4 17 14 % Watford 21 10 6 5 21 6 7 8 42 16 13 13 64 58 % West Bromwich Albion 53 30 15 7 53 10 15 28 106 41 30 35 173 154 % West Ham United 34 17 8 9 34 6 15 13 68 23 23 22 93 99 % Wigan Athletic 10 3 4 3 10 5 1 4 20 8 5 7 21 21 % Wimbledon 10 4 4 2 10 1 4 5 20 5 8 7 26 26 % Wolverhampton Wanderers 71 38 12 21 71 21 18 32 142 59 30 53 249 245 % Workington 2 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 4 1 1 2 8 7 % Wrexham 4 3 0 1 4 1 2 1 8 4 2 2 11 8 % Wycombe Wanderers 2 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 4 2 1 1 7 6 % Yeovil Town 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 6 2 % York City 4 4 0 0 4 1 2 1 8 5 2 1 12 7 % ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Derby County official website League Record By Opponent Derby County
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Come Dance with Me is an American reality competition television series that premiered on CBS on April 15, 2022. The show pairs young dancers with a family member that has supported their training, and the pair perform a dance together for a panel of judges before the determining who continues to the next round. The show was created by LL Cool J, Chris O'Donnell, and Reinout Oerlemans. ==History== Come Dance with Me began as a pitch by Reinout Oerlemans for a new family-based dance competition show. Chris O'Donnell was friends with Oerlemans, and he was reading about the pitch while on set working NCIS: Los Angeles. O'Donnell's co-star LL Cool J caught wind of it and expressed interest himself. The two decided that they would help create the show together. ==Show format== Talented young dancers team up with an untrained adult family member who has encouraged their dance training. Each week, the pairs learn a dance routine from various dance styles and perform it for a panel of judges. The two lowest-scoring teams then perform a freestyle dance-off to determine which team is eliminated. ===Judges and hosts=== For the first season, songwriter Philip Lawrence signed on to host the show. Jenna Dewan was the first judge to join the show bringing her experience as a dancer with Janet Jackson and hosting World of Dance. She was joined on the judges panel by plus-size model Dexter Mayfield and Tricia Miranda, a hip hop choreographer. ===Contestants=== Contestant Age Partner Hometown Status Maceo Sicam 14 Albert Sicam (father) Santa Clarita, California Withdrew Lucas Valazquez 13 Carolina Valazquez (mother) La Mirada, California Eliminated 1st Ava Otto 10 John Otto (father) Santa Clarita, California Eliminated 2nd Saeda McKoy 11 Shamus McKoy (father) Mesa, Arizona Eliminated 3rd Emelyn Yniguez 12 Nicole Yniguez (mother) Las Vegas, Nevada Eliminated 4th Noah Ross 15 Sylvia Ross (mother) Santa Clarita, California Eliminated 5th Connor Wayment 13 Nadya Wayment (mother) Ogden, Utah Eliminated 6th Kamryn Smith 9 Adriana Smith (mother) Phoenix, Arizona Eliminated 7th Mia Clark 10 Crystal Clark (mother) Lexington, South Carolina Eliminated 8th Emily Tatoosi 12 Anna Tatoosi (mother) Woodland Hills, California Third place Avery Khoundara 11 Jack Khoundara (father) Phoenix, Arizona Runners-up Kennedy Rae Thompson 10 Justin Thompson (father) Stafford, Virginia Winners ==Scoring charts== Couple Place 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 1+2 Kennedy & Justin 1 24 25 25 22 22.5 25.5 29+=57.5 += Avery & Jack 2 21 19 21.5 21.5 21.5 25 29 27.5 28.5+=57 28.5+29=57.5 Emily & Anna 3 23.5 24 24.5 26 22.5 26.5 +28= += Mia & Crystal 4 22.5 24.5 24.5 24 25 24 25.5 28 += Kamryn & Adriana 5 22 22.5 22.5 24.5 25 27.5 Connor & Nadya 6 21.5 24.5 25.5 25.5 Noah & Sylvia 7 21.5 20.5 21 23.5 24 Emelyn & Nicole 8 22 22 22.5 Saeda & Shamus 9 21 21.5 25 25 Ava & John 10 20.5 21 Lucas & Carolina 11 18.5 Maceo & Albert 12 — : indicate the lowest score for each week : indicate the highest score for each week : the couple eliminated that week : the returning couple that was in the bottom two, or three : the couple withdrew from the competition : the couple did not perform : the winning couple : the runner-up couple : the third-place couple ===Average score chart=== This table only counts dances scored on a 30-point scale. Place Couple Total points Number of dances 1 Kennedy & Justin 317 12 2 Avery & Jack 305.5 12 3 Emily & Anna 314.5 12 4 Mia & Crystal 250.5 9 5 Kamryn & Adriana 198 8 6 Connor & Nadya 157 7 7 Noah & Sylvia 131.5 6 8 Emelyn & Nicole 113.5 5 9 Saeda & Shamus 88 4 10 Ava & John 59.5 3 11 Lucas & Carolina 36 2 12 Maceo & Albert N/A 1 ===Highest and lowest weekly scores=== The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges' 30-point scale are as follows: Week Highest scored dancer(s) Highest score Lowest scored dancer(s) Lowest score 1 Kennedy Mia 25 Ava 18 2 Kamryn 24.5 Connor Lucas 17.5 3 Emily Emelyn 25.5 Connor 20 4 Kamryn 25 Saeda 20.5 5 Avery 26.5 Emelyn 21.5 6 Kamryn 27 Noah 21 7 Kennedy 30 Connor 22.5 8 Emily 30 Kennedy 25.5 9 Emily 30 Mia 25.5 10 Kennedy 30 Emily 27 ===Couples' highest and lowest weekly scores=== Scores are based upon a potential 30-point maximum. Couple Highest score Lowest score Kennedy & Justin 30 (Week 7, 10) 22 (Week 4) Avery & Jack 29 (Week 7) 19 (Week 2) Emily & Anna 30 (Week 8, 9) 22.5 (Week 6) Mia & Crystal 28 (Week 8) 22.5 (Week 2) Kamryn & Adriana 27.5 (Week 8) 22 (Week 1) Connor & Nadya 25.5 (Week 5, 6) 17.5 (Week 2) Noah & Sylvia 24 (Week 5) 20.5 (Week 2) Emelyn & Nicole 25.5 (Week 3) 21.5 (Week 5) Saeda & Shamus 25 (Week 3) 20.5 (Week 4) Ava & John 21 (Week 3) 18 (Week 1) Lucas & Carolina 18.5 (Week 1) 17.5 (Week 2) Maceo & Albert N/A (Week 1) N/A (Week 1) ==Weeks== Individual judges' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Tricia Miranda, Jenna Dewan, Dexter Mayfield. ===Week 1: First Dances=== Due to Albert's foot injury, he and Maceo had to withdraw from the competition. Maceo performed the dance routine during the live show with his choreographer Gabe De Guzman as a stand-in. There was no additional elimination. ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Kennedy & Justin 25 (8, 8.5, 8.5) "Carousel"—Melanie Martinez Safe Emily & Anna 23.5 (7, 8, 8.5) "Rain on Me"—Lady Gaga & Ariana Grande Safe Saeda & Shamus 21 (7, 7, 7) "Control"—Zoe Wees Safe Avery & Jack 21 (7, 6.5, 7.5) "Walking on Sunshine"—Katrina and the Waves Safe Connor & Nadya 21.5 (6.5, 7.5, 7.5) "We Will Rock You"—Queen Safe Kamryn & Adriana 22 (6.5, 7, 8.5) "Grown Woman"—Beyoncé Safe Ava & John 18 (5.5, 6, 6.5) "Ain't No Sunshine"—Eva Cassidy Bottom two Noah & Sylvia 21.5 (6.5, 7, 8) "I'll Be There"—Mac Miller feat. Phonte Safe Mia & Crystal 25 (7.5, 9, 8.5) "Attention"—Todrick Hall Safe Lucas & Carolina 18.5 (5.5, 6.5, 6.5) "L-O-V-E"—Nat King Cole Bottom two Emelyn & Nicole 22 (7, 7.5, 7.5) "Burnitup!"—Janet Jackson feat. Missy Elliot Safe Maceo & Albert N/A "Mama Said Knock You Out"—LL Cool J Withdrew ===Week 2: Pop Night=== ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Avery & Jack 19 (6.5, 6, 6.5) "Uptown Funk"—Mark Ronson feat. Bruno Mars Safe Emelyn & Nicole 22 (7.5, 7, 7.5) "Anytime You Need a Friend"—Mariah Carey Safe Saeda & Shamus 21.5 (7.5, 7, 7) "What a Man Gotta Do"—Jonas Brothers Safe Mia & Crystal 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "Hurts 2B Human"—Pink feat. Khalid Safe Kennedy & Justin 24 (8, 8, 8) "Applause"—Lady Gaga Safe Ava & John 20.5 (6.5, 7, 7) "Rollin'"—Limp Bizkit Safe Kamryn & Adriana 24.5 (8, 8, 8.5) "Up"—Cardi B Safe Connor & Nadya 17.5 (5.5, 5.5, 6.5) "Bad Guy"—Billie Eilish Bottom two Noah & Sylvia 20.5 (6.5, 7, 7) "Heads Will Roll"—Yeah Yeah Yeahs Safe Lucas & Carolina 17.5 (6, 5.5, 6) "Mi Gente"—J Balvin & Willy William Eliminated Emily & Anna 24 (8, 8, 8) "Skyscraper"—Demi Lovato Safe Showout Couple Music Result Connor & Nadya "Bang Bang"—Jessie J, Ariana Grande & Nicki Minaj Winner (2 judge votes) Lucas & Carolina "Bang Bang"—Jessie J, Ariana Grande & Nicki Minaj Loser ;Judges' votes to save *Mayfield: Connor & Nadya *Miranda: Lucas & Carolina *Dewan: Connor & Nadya ===Week 3: Bust a Groove Night=== ;Running order (Part 1) Couple Scores Music Result Emily & Anna 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "Dance Monkey"—Tones and I Safe Kennedy & Justin 25 (8.5, 8.5, 8) "Shake Your Groove Thing"—Peaches & Herb Safe Avery & Jack 21.5 (7, 7.5, 7) "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)"—C+C Music Factory Safe Connor & Nadya 20 (6.5, 7, 6.5) "Dance, Dance"—Fall Out Boy Bottom two Kamryn & Adriana 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "On the Floor"—Jennifer Lopez feat. Pitbull Safe ;Running order (Part 2) Couple Scores Music Result Mia & Crystal 24.5 (8, 8, 8.5) "The Safety Dance"—Men Without Hats Safe Ava & John 21 (7, 7, 7) "Pump Up the Jam"—Technotronic Eliminated Emelyn & Nicole 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "Cheap Thrills"—Sia Safe Noah & Sylvia 21 (7, 7, 7) "Level Up"—Ciara Safe from the Showout (3 judge votes) Saeda & Shamus 25 (8.5, 8.5, 8) "Can't Stop the Feeling!"—Justin Timberlake Safe Showout Couple Music Result Connor & Nadya "Bust a Move"—Young MC Winner (3 judge votes) Ava & John "Bust a Move"—Young MC Loser ;Judges' votes to save *Mayfield: Connor & Nadya *Miranda: Connor & Nadya *Dewan: Connor & Nadya ===Week 4: Picture This=== ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Mia & Crystal 24 (8, 8, 8) "Party Rock Anthem"—LMFAO feat. Lauren Bennett & GoonRock Safe Avery & Jack 21.5 (7.5, 7, 7) "Somewhere Over the Rainbow"—Israel Kamakawiwoʻole Bottom two Noah & Sylvia 23.5 (8, 8, 7.5) "Beautiful"—Snoop Dogg feat. Pharrell Williams & Uncle Charlie Wilson Safe Emelyn & Nicole 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "Me Too"—Meghan Trainor Safe Kamryn & Adriana 25 (8.5, 8, 8.5) "Scars to Your Beautiful"—Alessia Cara Safe Kennedy & Justin 22 (7, 7.5, 7.5) "On Broadway"—George Benson Safe Saeda & Shamus 20.5 (6.5, 7, 7) "Dance with My Father"—Luther Vandross Eliminated Emily & Anna 24.5 (8.5, 8, 8) "Ice Cream"—Blackpink & Selena Gomez Safe Connor & Nadya 24.5 (8.5, 8, 8) "Fight Song"—Rachel Platten Safe Showout Couple Music Result Avery & Jack "Where Are Ü Now"—Jack Ü with Justin Bieber Winner (2 judge votes) Saeda & Shamus "Where Are Ü Now"—Jack Ü with Justin Bieber Loser ;Judges' votes to save *Miranda: Avery & Jack *Mayfield: Saeda & Shamus *Dewan: Avery & Jack ===Week 5: #Throwback=== ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Mia & Crystal 25 (8.5, 8, 8.5) "Le Freak"—Chic Safe Connor & Nadya 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "It Takes Two"—Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock Safe Emily & Anna 26 (8.5, 8.5, 9) "Puttin' On the Ritz"—Robbie Williams Safe Kennedy & Justin 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "Hypnotize"—The Notorious B.I.G. Bottom two Noah & Sylvia 24 (8, 8, 8) "Pray to God"—Calvin Harris feat. Haim Safe Emelyn & Nicole 21.5 (7, 7, 7.5) "Livin' la Vida Loca"—Ricky Martin Eliminated Kamryn & Adriana 24.5 (8, 8, 8.5) "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'"—The Supremes Safe Avery & Jack 26.5 (9, 9, 8.5) "Rock Me Amadeus (Salieri Mix)"—Falco Safe Showout Couple Music Result Kennedy & Justin "Tootsee Roll"—69 Boyz Winner (2 judge votes) Emelyn & Nicole "Tootsee Roll"—69 Boyz Loser ;Judges' votes to save *Mayfield: Kennedy & Justin *Miranda: Emelyn & Nicole *Dewan: Kennedy & Justin ===Week 6: Musical Magic=== Jenna Dewan, along with choreographer Robert Roldan, did a dance to "Falling Slowly" by her fiancé Steve Kazee. ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Kennedy & Justin 25.5 (9, 8.5, 8) "A Brand New Day"—The Wiz: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Safe Mia & Crystal 24 (8, 8, 8) "You Can't Stop the Beat (Medley)"—Hairspray: Original Broadway Cast Recording Safe Connor & Nadya 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "It's Still Rock and Roll to Me"—Billy Joel Safe Emily & Anna 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "The Greatest Show"—Panic! at the Disco Bottom two Avery & Jack 25 (8.5, 8, 8.5) "Seize The Day"—Newsies (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) Safe Noah & Sylvia 21 (7, 7, 7) "Another Day of Sun"—La La Land: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Eliminated Kamryn & Adriana 27 (9, 9, 9) "Hot Honey Rag"—Chicago The Musical (New London Cast Recording (1997)) Safe Showout Couple Music Result Emily & Anna "A Little Party Never Killed Nobody (All We Got)"—Fergie, Q-Tip & GoonRock Winner (3 judge votes) Noah & Sylvia "A Little Party Never Killed Nobody (All We Got)"—Fergie, Q-Tip & GoonRock Loser ;Judges' votes to save *Dewan: Emily & Anna *Miranda: Emily & Anna *Mayfield: Emily & Anna ===Week 7: Jet-Setters=== ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Emily & Anna 26.5 (9, 9, 8.5) "Mambo"—Nikki Vianna Safe Connor & Nadya 22.5 (7.5, 7.5, 7.5) "Dynamite"—BTS Eliminated Mia & Crystal 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "Despacito"—Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee Safe Avery & Jack 29 (10, 9.5, 9.5) "Lights"—Ellie Goulding Safe Kamryn & Adriana 25 (8.5, 8, 8.5) "How Far I'll Go"—Kurt Hugo Schneider & Diamond White Bottom two Kennedy & Justin 30 (10, 10, 10) "Santa María (Del Buen Ayre)"—Gotan Project Safe Showout Couple Music Result Connor & Nadya "Let's Get Loud"—Jennifer Lopez Loser Kamryn & Adriana "Let's Get Loud"—Jennifer Lopez Winner (3 judge votes) ;Judges' votes to save *Mayfield: Kamryn & Adriana *Miranda: Kamryn & Adriana *Dewan: Kamryn & Adriana ===Week 8: Heroes Night=== The contestants and choreographers did an opening dance to "The Business" by Tiësto. ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Avery & Jack 27.5 (9.5, 9, 9) "#thatPOWER"—will.i.am feat. Justin Bieber Safe from the Showout (2 judge votes) Mia & Crystal 28 (9.5, 9.5, 9) "Savage"—Megan Thee Stallion Safe Kennedy & Justin 25.5 (8.5, 8.5, 8.5) "Heroes (We Could Be)"—Alesso feat. Tove Lo Bottom two Emily & Anna 30 (10, 10, 10) "The Light Is Coming"—Ariana Grande feat. Nicki Minaj Safe Kamryn & Adriana 27.5 (9, 9, 9.5) "Technologic"—Daft Punk Eliminated Showout Couple Music Result Kennedy & Justin "Till the World Ends"—Britney Spears Winner (2 judge votes) Kamryn & Adriana "Till the World Ends"—Britney Spears Loser ;Judges' votes to save from the Showout *Dewan: Avery & Jack *Mayfield: Kamryn & Adriana *Miranda: Avery & Jack ;Judges' votes to save *Mayfield: Kamryn & Adriana *Miranda: Kennedy & Justin *Dewan: Kennedy & Justin ===Week 9: Semi- Final (Family Faves)=== The second dances were scored at the end of the show. The judges' separate scores from the second dances were not shown. ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Mia & Crystal 25.5 (8.5, 9, 8) "Sushi"—Merk & Kremont Eliminated Mia & Crystal 25.5 "A Million Dreams"—Pink Eliminated Kennedy & Justin 29 (9.5, 10, 9.5) "Tiny Dancer"—Elton John Safe Kennedy & Justin 28.5 "Dance Like Yo Daddy"—Meghan Trainor Safe Emily & Anna 30 (10, 10, 10) "Bailar (Radio Edit)"—Deorro feat. Elvis Crespo Safe Emily & Anna 28 "Her"—Anne-Marie Safe Avery & Jack 28.5 (9.5, 9.5, 9.5) "I Won't Give Up"—Jason Mraz Safe Avery & Jack 28.5 "Happy"—Pharrell Williams Safe ===Week 10: Grand Finale=== The finalists, judges and choreographers did an opening dance to "Levitating" by Dua Lipa feat. DaBaby. The second dances were scored at the end of the show. The judges' separate scores from the second dances were not shown. ;Running order Couple Scores Music Result Emily & Anna 27 (9, 9, 9) "Ice Cream"—Blackpink & Selena Gomez Third place Emily & Anna 27 "When I Grow Up"—The Pussycat Dolls Third place Kennedy & Justin 30 (10, 10, 10) "Carousel"—Melanie Martinez Winners Kennedy & Justin 30 "The Greatest"—Sia Winners Avery & Jack 28.5 (9.5, 9.5, 9.5) "Rock Me Amadeus (Salieri Mix)"—Falco Runners-up Avery & Jack 29 "By Your Side"—Calvin Harris feat. Tom Grennan Runners-up ==Episodes== ==Reception== Reviewing the show for Decider, Joe Keller found the show entertaining but thought the main improvement might have been a smaller number of contestants to streamline the show. He also praised the overall diversity of the contestants, but pointed out a lack of LGBT representation. Overall, Keller recommended the show, saying that it will "melt your heart." It also received a 4/5 rating from Common Sense Media where Melissa Camacho said it "sends a beautiful message about the fact that dancing is for everyone, regardless of gender, body type, or natural talent." ==International versions== A Belgian version of the show started airing a few weeks before the start of the American version. The first season premiered on Play4 on April 4, 2022, and was hosted by Dutch rapper Gers Pardoel and TikTok star Julie Vermeire. ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2020s American reality television series Category:2022 American television series debuts Category:CBS original programming Category:Dance competition television shows Category:English-language television shows Category:Television series by CBS Studios
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Lilián Annette Garcia (born August 19, 1966) is a Spanish-American ring announcer, singer and podcaster best known for her time with WWE. She is currently announcing for the Professional Fighters League (PFL).Doyle, Dave. "Former WWE ring announcer Lilian Garcia signs with PFL" . MMAJunkie.com. April 29, 2019. == Early life and career == García was born on August 19, 1966, in Madrid, Spain. She spent the first eight years of her life in Spain due to her Puerto Rican father's employment with the American Embassy, and was educated on an American military base, leading her to describe herself as a "military brat". She is fluent in English and Spanish. Upon returning to the United States, Garcia graduated from Irmo High School in Columbia, South Carolina. She went on to attend the University of South Carolina, graduating cum laude. García was a top-ten finalist in the Miss South Carolina beauty pageant. Garcia was also one-half of a popular morning show on radio station WYYS,"YES 97" in Columbia, South Carolina, with Chuck Finley in the early '90s and later had her own drive time show. She was a VJ in Atlanta, Georgia for WTLK-TV. She also served as karaoke host at the Nitelites nightclub in the Embassy Suites Hotel in Columbia, South Carolina. == Singing career == García began singing when she was a child in Madrid, Spain. She participated in singing contests with her sister starting when she was five years old. In her early teens, she sang with a band at clubs around Columbia, South Carolina. Garcia's mother chaperoned so she could sing. She appeared in the 1990 film Modern Love as a singer. In addition to her announcing duties with WWE, García sang the national anthem of the United States of America before most Monday Night Raw shows from February 14, 2000, until her departure on August 1, 2016. She sang "America the Beautiful" at WrestleMania 2000, WrestleMania 21 and WrestleMania XXVIII, joining a list of recording artists that includes Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Reba McEntire, Gladys Knight and Willie Nelson. With her performance at WrestleMania XXVIII, she surpassed Franklin for most musical performances at WrestleMania. Garcia now holds the record for most musical performances at WrestleMania with three. After joining WWE, García became a fixture in professional sports with performances for the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League and Major League Baseball. She also performed at the 1996 Summer Olympics, the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, Live with Regis and Kathie Lee, Dancing with the Stars and as an opening act for James Brown."Lilian Garcia at MySpace Music" . García's first single, "Shout", debuted at No. 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 in October 2002. On her reaction to the news, Garcia said in 2007, "When my single came out years ago, and it was just a single, I remember the very first week it charted No. 69, and I was screaming as I grabbed Billboard, running down the streets of New York, holding it up and screaming, 'I made Billboard! I made Billboard!' I'm dreaming for that moment again." Garcia recorded Torrie Wilson's entrance theme, "Need A Little Time", for WWE Anthology, a compilation album WWE released in November 2002. She co-wrote "You Just Don't Know Me At All" with producers Doug Kistner and Anthony Krizan, which WWE released in January 2004 on the WWE Originals album and became her entrance theme. García began work on a solo album in 2005 with Grammy award-winning record producers George Noriega and Tim Mitchell, who worked with multi-platinum artists such as Shakira, Ricky Martin and Jennifer Lopez. Her album ¡Quiero Vivir!, which is Spanish for "I Want to Live!," got released on October 9, 2007, via Universal Music Latino. Garcia co-wrote 11 songs on the album, including three with Jon Secada, who she duets with on "Adonde". The album features 10 Spanish language tracks, and two English translations; "Under in Love" ("Desenamorada") and "Where Did Love Go?" ("Adonde"). The title track, "¡Quiero Vivir!", became her entrance theme. After leaving WWE in August 2016, García began work on a follow-up album. She reunited with Noriega and Mitchell to record the first song in Miami, Florida in February 2011. Garcia also recorded tracks with Grammy-nominated producer Oh, Hush!. On August 17, 2012, Garcia released an EP titled My Time. The EP features six English tracks: "U Drive Me Loca", "Ur Girl (til the end of the world)", "Fix You", "Over & Over", "Tell Me", and "My Time." To promote the release of My Time, Garcia made her music video debut in December 2011 with "U Drive Me Loca." The second song off the album, "Ur Girl ('Til the End of the World)", was her entrance theme during her return to WWE. She released a music video for the track in March 2012. In January 2013, Garcia released a music video for "Over & Over". Garcia appeared at the 53rd annual Grammy Awards on February 13, 2011, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. Her appearance on the red carpet got shown the following night on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. On May 27, 2014, Garcia announced that she and her band, The Fuse, would be performing at Club Madrid in the Sunset Station Casino in Henderson, Nevada, near Las Vegas. She performed her first show on June 14, 2014. == Discography == * WWE Anthology (2002) * WWE Originals (2004) * ¡Quiero Vivir! (2007) * 2008 Año de Exitos Pop (2008) * My Time (2012) == Professional wrestling career == === World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment === ==== Ring announcing and storyline involvements (1999–2008) ==== García was hired by the World Wrestling Federation as a ring announcer in 1999. She made her debut on the August 23, 1999, episode of Raw is War in Ames, Iowa. She was involved in her first angle on the September 13 episode of Raw is War, when Jeff Jarrett applied a figure four leglock to her after she angered him by announcing his loss by disqualification to Luna Vachon. Garcia's second angle occurred on the December 13, 1999, episode of Raw. Lilian introduced Miss Kitty for a Women's Championship chocolate pudding pool match. After Lilian announced her, Miss Kitty grabbed the mic and informed Lilian that she was now to be known as "The Kat". Her opponent, Tori, came out for their match and right after the two women began, X-Pac came poolside in a skin diving suit complete with snorkel, flippers, and goggles. As he was adjusting his goggles Tori jumped on his back causing both of them to fall into the pool with X-Pac landing up on top of Tori, giving Miss Kitty an easy pinfall. Lilian announced the winner as "Miss Kitty", which infuriated The Kat, who threw Lilian into the pool of pudding. Garcia sang the national anthem of the United States of America for the first time on February 11, 2000, at a house show in Denver, Colorado. After hearing that she did a great job, Chairman and CEO Vince McMahon had her sing the anthem before Raw went on the air on February 14, 2000, in San Jose, California. Impressed with her performance, McMahon then had Garcia sing the anthem every week before Raw. Her first televised performance aired on April 2, 2000, where she opened WrestleMania 2000 in Anaheim, California. Following the September 11 attacks, Garcia sang "The Star-Spangled Banner" on the September 13, 2001, episode of SmackDown!,. In the course of the evening, Garcia commented on the attacks, saying "Well, to say the least, this has been a real roller coaster of a week. And especially because I live in New York City. I have loved ones there, and I'm just very fortunate and very glad that a specific one didn't get to go to his meeting at 8:30 in the morning that he was supposed to be at the Twin Towers, and so I thank God for that, and I still don't know about a lot of my friends. I have, we'll be finding out, I guess, little by little. I pray for everybody there..." In August 2002, García briefly feuded with rival announcer Howard Finkel after Finkel left her to be decimated by 3-Minute Warning, culminating in an "evening gown versus tuxedo match" that Garcia won with the assistance of Stacy Keibler and Trish Stratus. During the Memorial Day episode of Raw on May 26, 2003, Garcia was singing "America the Beautiful" to the crowd when she was interrupted by La Résistance members Sylvain Grenier and René Duprée as they insulted America saying they should've been more like the French and they mocked the American people by calling them "fat and ugly". Just then, Garcia's friend, co-general manager Stone Cold Steve Austin came down to the ring and tossed Grenier out of the ring and delivered a Stunner to Duprée. After the two Frenchmen walked out of the ring, Austin sang "America the Beautiful" with Garcia and the two celebrated with a beer bash. During the November 24 episode of Raw, Garcia announced Trish Stratus as the winner of a bra and panties match over Jackie Gayda. Infuriated, Gayda stripped Garcia down to her black bra. In June 2005, García began an on-screen romance with wrestler Viscera. The angle saw García propose to Viscera, stating that she wanted to marry him during the Vengeance pay-per-view on June 26. The angle ended at Vengeance when Viscera rejected Garcia in favor of The Godfather's Hos. The angle was briefly resurrected eleven months later when Viscera proposed to Garcia on the May 22, 2006, episode of Raw, but was interrupted by Umaga before receiving an answer. García took part in her first major Diva publication in 2005 with the release of the Divas 2005 swimsuit magazine and related DVD Viva Las Divas of the WWE. On the June 5, 2006, episode of Raw, Garcia (legitimately) suffered a sprained wrist when wrestler Charlie Haas inadvertently knocked her to the ground as she stood on the ring apron. One week later, the accident was metamorphosed into a storyline, with Haas incurring the wrath of Viscera. The storyline ended on the July 10, 2006, episode of Raw, when Viscera accidentally performed a Samoan drop on Garcia while confronting Haas. Garcia was removed from television for several weeks in order to sell the Samoan drop. García took part in her second major Diva publication in 2007 with the release of WWE Divas Do San Antonio, in honor of the WWE being in San Antonio for the Royal Rumble. On the April 2, 2007, episode of Raw, García was humiliated in the ring when her blue satin frilled skirt was torn off by Bobby Lashley, revealing her black lycra bikini panties after Vince McMahon attempted to hide his newly shaven bald head under her skirt. The incident resulted in a large surge in searches for Garcia on the Internet, with searches for "Lilian Garcia" jumping 301% and becoming the fourth most searched-for term on the search engine Yahoo!. She returned to announcing on the July 2, 2007, episode of Raw after taking time off to recover from a skiing injury in which she tore the ACL in her right knee. She was not fully recovered as was evident from her only announcing the first two matches from the ring and the rest from the floor. On the August 6, 2007, episode of Raw, Garcia announced her new album entitled "Quiero Vivir". Lilian then started a feud with Jillian Hall, who claimed to be a better singer than Lilian. The next week, she competed in WWE Idol, a parody of American Idol, in which she sang "New York, New York" by Frank Sinatra before being interrupted by Santino Marella. ==== Retirement and part-time appearances (2009–2010) ==== In addition to announcing on Raw and pay-per-view matches, Garcia also announced on WWE Superstars, making her first appearance on April 23, 2009. During the last week of August 2009, Garcia celebrated ten years with WWE, becoming the organization's first and only "Decade Diva". On the September 21, 2009, episode of Raw from Little Rock, Arkansas, Jerry Lawler announced to the live audience that it was Garcia's final night with WWE. Garcia then made an emotional speech in the ring, thanking the fans and all of her colleagues. The final match she announced live featured Randy Orton, Chris Jericho, and Big Show taking on the team of John Cena, Montel Vontavious Porter, and Mark Henry, although a match between Primo and Chris Masters was taped earlier that evening and aired three days later on WWE Superstars, marking her final television appearance. Garcia made a special appearance before the Madison Square Garden audience on November 16, 2009, singing "The Star-Spangled Banner" prior to the evening's Raw telecast. Garcia filled in for Raw ring announcer Justin Roberts on April 19, 2010, due to being stranded in Europe with other WWE Superstars and crew as a result of the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption. Her appearance caused a surge in online searches, resulting in the term "Lilian Garcia" becoming the eighth most searched-for term on Google that evening and into the next day. === Return to WWE: Return as full-time ring announcer (2011–2016) === thumb|right|upright|Garcia in March 2015 On December 5, 2011, WWE announced that Garcia would be returning to ring announcing full-time, appearing on SmackDown. She returned at the December 6 tapings of the show. She also served as the ring announcer for Main Event and pay-per-views. Garcia suffered accidents prior to SmackDown tapings in 2012. While heading to the ring prior to the March 13 taping in Columbus, Ohio, the strap on her left shoe broke. One month later, during the April 17 taping in London, England, she tripped over pyrotechnic equipment on the top of the stage and fell down on the ramp, landing on her knees. On the April 19, 2013, episode of SmackDown, Garcia was instructed dance steps by Fandango and insulted. On the June 6, 2014, episode of SmackDown, she was involved in a confrontation with Alicia Fox after Fox lost a match to Natalya. On October 20, 2014, after Justin Roberts was released from WWE, Garcia returned as the full-time ring announcer for Raw. Lilian returned from knee surgery on May 31 at Elimination Chamber. On August 1, 2016, Garcia announced her departure from WWE due to wanting to care for her ailing father, who was battling two different unidentified types of cancer. On December 26, she announced that her father had died on Christmas Day. === Second return to WWE: Part-time appearances (2016–present) === Garcia made a one-night return on December 14, 2016, at WWE Tribute to the Troops where she sang the American national anthem. She made another special appearance before the Talking Stick Resort Arena audience in Phoenix, Arizona, on July 4, 2017, singing "The Star-Spangled Banner" prior to the evening's SmackDown Live telecast. She was also the ring announcer for the finals of the Mae Young Classic on September 12, 2017. On January 22, 2018, in the Raw 25 Years special episode, Garcia was honored as part of a segment involving women considered legends that contributed to the company's success, including Bella Twins, Maryse, Kelly Kelly, Torrie Wilson, Michelle McCool, Terri Runnels, Maria Kanellis and the Hall of Famers Jacqueline and Trish Stratus. She announced the first-ever WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal in WrestleMania 34's pre-show on April 8, 2018. On October 28, 2018, she announced the first- ever WWE Women's Pay Per View WWE Evolution. On the July 22, 2019, episode of Raw, Garcia made a special appearance at the Raw Reunion. ==Mixed martial arts== ===Professional Fighters League=== Around the end of May 2019, Lilian Garcia announced on her Chasing Glory podcast that she had joined the mixed martial arts organization, the Professional Fighters League (PFL), as a ring announcer. ==Other media== ===Podcasting=== After leaving WWE, Garcia began hosting two podcasts, Making Their Way to the Ring and the Spanish-language Luchando Con Lilian Garcia, distributed by Maria Menounos' AfterBuzz TV network. On July 31, 2017, Garcia debuted her new podcast Chasing Glory with Lilian Garcia on PodcastOne. ===The Price Is Right=== On March 31, 2017, Garcia appeared on CBS daytime game show The Price Is Right as a contestant during the show's College Rivals special (taped February 12, 2017, aired on March 31, 2017) representing her alma mater University of South Carolina. She won a trip to London along with some fashion accessories. == Personal life == Garcia is a devout Catholic. She was previously married for thirteen years, but had the marriage annulled by the Catholic Church.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Garcia married her second husband, Christopher Jozeph, on September 28, 2009. On March 17, 2007, García twisted her knee in heavy snow while skiing in Killington, Vermont, incurring a torn anterior cruciate ligament. She underwent surgery on her knee on April 5, 2007, in New York City under Armin Tehrany. She returned to Raw on July 2. On November 6, 2009, Garcia almost got robbed during the New York Yankees' 2009 World Series ticker-tape parade. She said that a "punk kid" came up to her and tried to steal her phone. When Garcia wouldn't relinquish the phone, the assailant threw her to the ground and ran away. Garcia suffered a scraped elbow. On October 26, 2012, Garcia was struck by a car in Los Angeles, causing multiple contusions and lacerations on the left side of her body. Doctors immobilized Garcia's neck, after which she was said to be in a stable condition. She was released from the hospital two days later. On April 11, 2022, Garcia filed for divorce from Christopher Jozeph. Garcia credits wrestler Molly Holly with reconnecting her with God.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: == References == == External links == * * * * Category:1966 births Category:Living people Category:American beauty pageant winners Category:American women pop singers Category:American women podcasters Category:American podcasters Category:Hispanic and Latino American women singers Category:Musicians from Columbia, South Carolina Category:Singers from New York City Category:People from Madrid Category:Professional wrestling announcers Category:Public address announcers Category:University of South Carolina alumni Category:Singers from South Carolina Category:Spanish expatriates in the United States Category:Spanish emigrants to the United States Category:Spanish people of Puerto Rican descent Category:Spanish Roman Catholics Category:21st-century American women
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Addams Family Values is a 1993 American supernatural black comedy film directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and written by Paul Rudnick, based on the characters created by Charles Addams. It is the sequel to The Addams Family (1991). The film features almost all the main cast members from the original film, including Anjelica Huston, Raul Julia, Christopher Lloyd, Christina Ricci, Carel Struycken, Jimmy Workman, and Christopher Hart. Joan Cusack plays Debbie Jellinsky, a serial killer who marries Fester Addams (Lloyd) intending to murder him for his inheritance, while teenagers Wednesday (Ricci) and Pugsley (Workman) are sent to summer camp. Compared to its predecessor, which retained something of the madcap approach of the 1960s sitcom, Addams Family Values is played more for very dark and macabre laughs. The film was well received by critics, in contrast to its predecessor's mixed critical reception. Commercially however, it did not perform as well as the first film in its theatrical run with a box office grossing of $111 million on a budget of $47 million. The motion picture is also the final film starring actor Raul Julia and was released just months before his death the following year in 1994. ==Plot== Gomez and Morticia Addams hire a nanny named Debbie Jellinsky to take care of their newborn son Pubert after his older siblings (Wednesday and Pugsley's) failed attempts to kill him, for which Gomez and Morticia gently rebuke them. Unbeknownst to them, Debbie is a serial killer who marries rich bachelors and murders them to collect their inheritances. After Debbie seduces Uncle Fester, Wednesday becomes suspicious of her intentions. To maintain her cover, Debbie tricks Gomez and Morticia into believing Wednesday and Pugsley want to go to summer camp. Wednesday and Pugsley are sent to Camp Chippewa, managed by the always cheerful and lively Gary and Becky Granger, where they are singled out by the counselors and popular (and snobbish) girl Amanda Buckman for their macabre appearance and behavior. Joel Glicker, a nerdy bookworm and fellow outcast, becomes attracted to Wednesday. Debbie and Fester become engaged. At her bachelorette party, Debbie is repulsed by the Addams family and their relatives. On their honeymoon, she tries unsuccessfully to kill Fester by throwing a boombox into the bathtub. Frustrated, Debbie forces him to cut ties with his family; when they try to visit Fester and Debbie at their home, they are removed from the premises. The Addams are alarmed to find that Pubert has transformed into a blue-eyed, rosy- cheeked, blond-haired baby. Grandmama diagnoses this as a result of his disrupted family life, and Gomez becomes horribly depressed. At camp, the counselors cast Wednesday as Pocahontas in Gary's Thanksgiving play. When she refuses to participate, she, Pugsley, and Joel are all sent to the camp's "Harmony Hut" and forced to watch hours of wholesome family entertainment movies and television shows. Afterwards, the three feign cheerfulness, and Wednesday agrees to take part. However, during the performance, she reveals her deception and returns to her old self. With help from Joel, Pugsley, and the outcast campers, they capture Amanda, Gary, and Becky and set the camp on fire. Later, Wednesday and Joel share their first kiss before separating, with Joel staying behind to lead their friends to ensure the camp's permanent destruction. Pugsley and Wednesday return home in a stolen camp van. Debbie tries to kill Fester by blowing up their mansion, but he survives. She then pulls a gun and reveals she never loved him and that she was only interested in his money. Thing helps Fester escape by knocking Debbie aside with her own car. Fester apologizes to Gomez upon his return to the Addams mansion, and Wednesday and Pugsley return, successfully reuniting the family. Debbie arrives in another car, holds the family at gunpoint, and straps them into electric chairs with the intent of killing them. As the Addamses listen sympathetically, she admits that she killed her parents and her first two husbands for incredibly frivolous and materialistic reasons. Pubert, now restored to his normal, pale, mustachioed self, escapes from his crib and reaches the rest of the family via a series of improbable events. As Debbie throws the switch to electrocute the family, he connects two loose wires that route the current through her instead. Debbie's body burns to ashes, leaving only her shoes and credit cards intact. Some time later, the Addamses and their relatives gather to celebrate Pubert's first birthday, with Joel also attending. Fester laments Debbie's loss, but soon becomes smitten with Dementia, a nanny whom Cousin Itt and his wife Margaret Alford have hired to care for their child. Out in the family graveyard, Wednesday tells Joel that Debbie was a sloppy killer, and that Wednesday would have scared her victim to death and made sure not to be caught. As Joel lays flowers on Debbie's grave, a hand (implied to be Thing) emerges from the earth and grabs him, prompting Wednesday to smile as he screams. ==Cast== * Anjelica Huston as Morticia Addams * Raul Julia as Gomez Addams * Christopher Lloyd as Fester Addams * Christina Ricci as Wednesday Addams * Christopher Hart as Thing * Carel Struycken as Lurch * Jimmy Workman as Pugsley Addams * Carol Kane as Grandmama Addams (replacing Judith Malina) * John Franklin as Cousin Itt * Joan Cusack as Debbie Jellinsky * Dana Ivey as Margaret Alford-Addams (wife of Cousin Itt Addams) * David Krumholtz as Joel Glicker * Kaitlyn and Kristen Hooper as Pubert Addams * Peter MacNicol as Gary Granger * Christine Baranski as Becky Martin-Granger * Mercedes McNab as Amanda Buckman, a camper at Camp Chippewa (McNab played the Girl Scout in the first film) ===Cameo roles=== * Director Barry Sonnenfeld and Julie Halston as the parents of Joel Glicker. * Nathan Lane as the police desk sergeant. Lane would eventually go on to play Gomez in the Addams Family Broadway musical. * David Hyde Pierce as the delivery room doctor * Peter Graves as America's Most Disgusting Unsolved Crimes anchorman * Sam McMurray and Harriet Sansom Harris as Amanda's parents * Ian Abercrombie as a driver * Chris Ellis as a furniture delivery driver * Tony Shalhoub as Jorge * Cynthia Nixon as a nanny interviewee ==Production== The "family values" in the film's title is a tongue-in-cheek reference by writer Paul Rudnick to a 1992 speech ("Reflections on Urban America") made by then-vice presidential candidate Dan Quayle. In the speech, Quayle controversially blamed the 1992 Los Angeles riots on a breakdown of "family values". According to Anjelica Huston, during the filming of Addams Family Values, it became increasingly clear that Raul Julia's health was deteriorating. He had trouble eating and was losing weight as a result. He died less than a year after the film was released. Sequoia National Park, particularly Sequoia Lake, in the Sierra Nevada of California, was the site of the movie's "Camp Chippewa". ==Music== === Michael Jackson's involvement === Singer Michael Jackson was supposed to feature a song in the film called "Addams Groove/Family Thing". The song is mostly rumored to have been removed due to the child sexual abuse allegations against Jackson; in reality, it was because of contractual differences with Paramount Pictures. The song has since been leaked online. Jackson is referenced in the film via a poster in the Harmony Hut advertising his 1992 single "Heal the World", which horrifies Joel. ==Reception== ===Box office=== Addams Family Values opened at number 1 at the US box office in its opening weekend with a reported gross of $14,117,545. In its second week, the film dropped to number 2 behind Mrs. Doubtfire, and in its third week to number 3 behind Mrs. Doubtfire and A Perfect World. Its final box office gross in the United States and Canada was $48,919,043, a significant decline from the previous film's domestic total of $113,502,426. Internationally it grossed $62 million, for a worldwide total of $110.9 million. In retrospect, Barry Sonnenfeld recalled: "I was disappointed in the box office for the second film. I think the first film is more romantic and the second film is funnier. Part of the reason it didn't do as well is that the marketing of the movie was so similar to the first one that people didn't think it was going to be any value-added and I really wanted to push the Pubert of it all and the Fester of it all. Instead, the whole campaign was back with the original Addams Family, so it wasn't really promising anything new. I think that's in part why it didn't do as well. Many people love it as much or more as the first one". ===Critical response=== Addams Family Values was well received, receiving significantly better reviews than the first film. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 75% based on 114 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "New, well-developed characters add dimension to this batty satire, creating a comedy much more substantial than the original". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, a grade up from the "B" earned by the previous film. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wondered if "the making of this sequel was sheer drudgery for all concerned", then answered herself by writing: "There's simply too much glee on the screen, thanks to a cast and visual conception that were perfect in the first place and a screenplay by Paul Rudnick that specializes in delightfully arch, subversive humor". Leonard Klady of Variety was slightly less enthusiastic than Maslin: "It remains perilously slim in the story department, but glides over the thin ice with technical razzle-dazzle and an exceptionally winning cast". Richard Schickel, writing for Time, was even less enthuastic than Klady, calling the film "an essentially lazy movie, too often settling for easy gags and special effects that don't come to any really funny point". Both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert had disliked the first film. Siskel gave Addams Family Values a mixed review and accused Sonnenfeld of caring more about how the film looks than how the jokes play. Ebert, however, gave the film three stars out of four and thought that, unusually for a sequel, it improved upon its predecessor. He enjoyed the various subplots and recommended the film. ===Accolades=== The film was nominated for an Academy Award in the category Best Art Direction (Ken Adam, Marvin March), but lost to Schindler's List; and Huston was nominated for the 1993 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for her performance as Morticia, a reprise of her Golden Globe-nominated performance in the 1991 original. The film won also a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song for the Tag Team track "Addams Family (Whoomp!)". Addams Family Values was nominated for AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs. In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film #15 on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals. ==Home media== The Addams Family Values video game was produced by Ocean Software. The film was released on VHS and DVD in 2000 with only two theatrical trailers as special features. It was re-released in 2006 with the first film on a single disc, with no new features. In October 2019, the film debuted on the Blu-ray format when Paramount Pictures released double feature of Addams Family and Addams Family Values on Blu-ray in the United States, along with standalone releases. In Australia, the film was released on VHS by Paramount Home Entertainment (Australasia) in 1994. In 2002, the film was released on DVD with theatrical trailers in the extra features. ==Notes== ==References== ===Bibliography=== * ==External links== * * * * Category:1993 films Category:1993 black comedy films Category:1993 comedy films Category:1993 comedy horror films Category:1990s fantasy comedy films Category:1990s screwball comedy films Category:1990s serial killer films Category:1990s supernatural horror films Category:American black comedy films Category:American comedy horror films Category:American fantasy comedy films Category:American screwball comedy films Category:American sequel films Category:American serial killer films Category:The Addams Family films Category:1990s English-language films Category:Films about witchcraft Category:Films based on adaptations Category:Films based on television series Category:Films directed by Barry Sonnenfeld Category:Films produced by Scott Rudin Category:Films scored by Marc Shaiman Category:Films set in country houses Category:Films shot in California Category:Golden Raspberry Award winning films Category:Mariticide in fiction Category:Patricide in fiction Category:Paramount Pictures films Category:Films about summer camps Category:Thanksgiving horror films Category:Films with screenplays by Paul Rudnick Category:1990s American films Category:Films about nannies Category:Films about honeymoons Category:Cultural depictions of Pocahontas
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The North Star Athletic Association (NSAA) is a college athletic conference affiliated with the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) that began play in the 2013–14 school year. The conference currently has seven full member institutions in Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. ==History== ===Chronological timeline=== * 2013 - The North Star Athletic Association (NSAA) was founded. Charter members included Dakota State University, the University of Jamestown, Mayville State University, Presentation College and Valley City State University, effective beginning the 2013-14 academic year. * 2014 - Dickinson State University joined the NSAA, effective in the 2014-15 academic year. * 2014 - Waldorf University joined the NSAA as an affiliate member for football, effective in the 2014 fall season (2014-15 academic year). * 2015 - Bellevue University and Viterbo University joined the NSAA (along with Waldorf upgrading to join for all sports), effective in the 2015-16 academic year. * 2015 - The University of Winnipeg joined the NSAA as an affiliate member for baseball, effective the 2016 spring season (2015-16 academic year). * 2017 - Winnipeg left the NSAA as an affiliate member for baseball as the school dropped the sport, effective after the 2017 spring season (2016-17 academic year). * 2018 - Jamestown left the NSAA to join the Great Plains Athletic Conference (GPAC), effective after the 2017-18 academic year. * 2021 - Iowa Wesleyan University joined the NSAA as an affiliate member for football, men's track and field, and women's track and field, effective the 2021-22 academic year. * 2023 - Presentation (S.D.) left the NSAA as the school closed after the 2022-23 academic year. * 2023 - Iowa Wesleyan left the NSAA as an affiliate member as the school closed after the 2022-23 academic year. ==Member schools== ===Current members=== The NSAA currently has seven full members, three of which are private schools: Institution Location Founded Affiliation Enrollment Nickname Joined Colors Bellevue University Bellevue, Nebraska 1966 Nonsectarian 8,300 Bruins 2015 Dakota State University Madison, South Dakota 1881 Public 3,307 Trojans 2013 Dickinson State University Dickinson, North Dakota 1918 Public 1,800 Blue Hawks 2014 Mayville State University Mayville, North Dakota 1889 Public 1,130 Comets 2013 Valley City State University Valley City, North Dakota 1890 Public 1,423 Vikings 2013 Viterbo University La Crosse, Wisconsin 1923 Catholic 3,088 V-Hawks 2015 Waldorf University Forest City, Iowa 1903 For-profit 720 Warriors 2015 ;Notes: ===Former members=== The NSAA had two former full members, both of which were private schools: Institution Location Founded Affiliation Nickname Joined Left Subsequent conference Current conference Presentation College Aberdeen, South Dakota 1922 Catholic Saints 2013 2023 Closed in 2023 University of Jamestown Jamestown, North Dakota 1883 Presbyterian Jimmies 2013 2017 Great Plains (GPAC) (2018–present) ;Notes: ===Former affiliate members=== The NSAA had two former affiliate members, one was a public school and the other was private: Institution Location Founded Affiliation Nickname Joined Left NSAA sport Current primary conference Conference in former NSAA sport Iowa Wesleyan University Mount Pleasant, Iowa 1842 United Methodist Tigers 2021 2023 football, men's track & field, women's track & field Closed in 2023 University of Winnipeg Winnipeg, Manitoba 1871 Public Wesmen 2015 2017 baseball Canada West (U Sports) dropped program ;Notes: ===Membership timeline=== DateFormat = yyyy ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20 Period = from:2013 till:2025 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal PlotArea = right:5 left:5 bottom:50 top:5 Colors = id:line value:black id:bg value:white id:Full value:rgb(0.7,0.9,0.8) # Use this color to denote a team that is a member in all sports id:FullxF value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.7) # Use this color to denote a team that is a member in all sports except for football id:AssocF value:rgb(0.9,0.7,0.8) # Use this color to denote a team that is a member for football only id:AssocOS value:rgb(0.5,0.691,0.824) # Use this color to denote a team that is a member for another sport only id:AssocO value:rgb(0.988,0.703,0.383) # Use this color to denote a team that is a member for baseball only id:OtherC1 value:rgb(0.996,0.996,0.699) # Use this color to denote a team that has moved in another conference id:OtherC2 value:rgb(0.988,0.703,0.383) # Use this color to denote a team that has moved in another conference when the other color has already been used PlotData = width:15 textcolor:black shift:(5,-5) anchor:from fontsize:s bar:1 color:Full from:2013 till:end text:Dakota State (2013–present) bar:2 color:Full from:2013 till:2018 text:Jamestown (2013–2018) bar:2 color:OtherC1 from:2018 till:end text:GPAC bar:3 color:Full from:2013 till:end text:Mayville State (2013–present) bar:4 color:Full from:2013 till:2023 text:Presentation (2013–2023) bar:5 color:Full from:2013 till:end text:Valley City State (2013–present) bar:6 color:Full from:2014 till:end text:Dickinson State (2014–present) bar:7 color:AssocF from:2014 till:2015 text:Waldorf (2014–present) bar:7 color:Full from:2015 till:end bar:8 color:FullxF from:2015 till:end text:Bellevue (2015–present) bar:9 color:FullxF from:2015 till:end text:Viterbo (2015–present) bar:10 color:AssocO from:2015 till:2017 text:Winnipeg (2015–2017) bar:11 color:AssocO from:2021 till:2023 text:Iowa Wesleyan (2021–2023) ScaleMajor = gridcolor:line unit:year increment:1 start:2014 TextData = fontsize:M textcolor:black pos:(0,25) tabs:(400-center) text:^"North Star Athletic Association membership history" #>If the chart uses more than one bar color, add a legend by selecting the appropriate fields from the following three options (use only the colors that are used in the graphic.) Leave a blank line after the end of the timeline, then add a line with the selected values from the list, separated by a space. <# ==Conference sports== The North Star Athletic Association currently fields 18 sports (9 men's and 9 women's): Conference sports Sport Men's Women's Baseball Basketball Cross Country Football Golf Softball Track & Field - Indoor Track & Field - Outdoor Volleyball === Men's sports === Men's sponsored sports by school School Baseball Basketball Cross country Football Golf Track & field (indoor) Track & field (outdoor) Total NSAA Sports Bellevue 6 Dakota State 7 Dickinson State 7 Mayville State 4 Valley City State 7 Viterbo 6 Waldorf 7 Totals 7 7 6 5 7 6 6 Affiliate Members 0--> Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the North Star Athletic Association which are played by NSAA schools School Soccer Volleyball Wrestling Bellevue CAC — — Dickinson State — — Heart of America Viterbo CCAC CCAC — Waldorf GPAC — Heart of America === Women's sports === Women's sponsored sports by school School Basketball Cross country Golf Softball Track & field (indoor) Track & field (outdoor) Volleyball Total NSAA Sports Bellevue 7 Dakota State 7 Dickinson State 7 Mayville State 4 Valley City State 7 Viterbo 7 Waldorf 7 Totals 7 6 7 7 6 6 7 Affiliate Members 0--> Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the North Star Athletic Association which are played by NSAA schools School Soccer Wrestling Bellevue CAC — Viterbo CCAC — Waldorf GPAC Heart of America ==Conference Championships== ===Football=== ;NSAA championships won or shared per school School Conference Conference School Titles Last Title Dickinson State 8 2022 Valley City State 2 2014 Jamestown 1 2013 Dakota State 0 n/a Iowa Wesleyan 0 n/a Mayville State 0 n/a Presentation 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2013–2022) School W L T Pct Dickinson State 59 4 0 Valley City State 47 18 0 Waldorf 34 29 0 Dakota State 34 32 0 Jamestown 12 18 0 Iowa Wesleyan 3 9 0 Presentation 15 52 0 Mayville State 11 53 0 ;NSAA champions by year Year School Record 2013 Valley City State Jamestown 3-1 2014 Valley City State 6-0 2015 Dickinson State 5-1 2016 Dickinson State 6-0 2017 Dickinson State 8-0 2018 Dickinson State 6-1 2019 Dickinson State 6-1 2020 Dickinson State 9-0 2021 Dickinson State 8-0 2022 Dickinson State 6-0 ===Volleyball=== ;NSAA championships per school School Conference Conference Tournament Tournament School Titles Last Title Titles Last Title Viterbo 6 2022 7 2022 Bellevue 2 2022 0 n/a Jamestown 2 2014 2 2014 Dakota State 0 n/a 0 n/a Mayville State 0 n/a 0 n/a Dickinson State 0 n/a 0 n/a Valley City State 0 n/a 0 n/a Presentation 0 n/a 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2013–2022) School Regular Season Regular Season Regular Season Tournament Tournament School W L Pct W L Jamestown 57 6 8 3 Viterbo 90 20 20 2 Bellevue 86 22 9 8 Dakota State 75 58 7 9 Mayville State 60 71 6 9 Valley City State 53 80 5 9 Presentation 40 92 3 7 Dickinson State 36 87 0 5 Waldorf 25 85 0 4 ;NSAA regular season and tournament champions by year Year Regular Season Tournament 2013 Jamestown 2014 Jamestown 2015 Viterbo 2016 Viterbo 2017 Viterbo 2018 vacated 2019 Viterbo 2020 Bellevue Viterbo 2021 Viterbo 2022 Bellevue Viterbo Viterbo ===Men's basketball=== ;NSAA championships won or shared per school School Conference Conference Tournament Tournament School Titles Last Title Titles Last Title Bellevue 5 2021-22 3 2021-22 Jamestown 3 2016-17 1 2013-14 Dakota State 2 2015-16 2 2015-16 Mayville State 2 2022-23 4 2022-23 Presentation 1 2018-19 0 n/a Dickinson State 1 2016-17 0 n/a Viterbo 1 2021-22 0 n/a Valley City State 0 n/a 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2013-14 to 2022-23) School Regular Season Regular Season Regular Season Tournament Tournament School W L Pct W L Bellevue 78 34 13 5 Jamestown 41 22 6 4 Viterbo 59 50 4 8 Mayville State 72 62 15 5 Dickinson State 67 58 7 10 Dakota State 66 68 11 8 Valley City State 65 68 4 10 Waldorf 40 75 3 8 Presentation 41 94 2 8 ;NSAA regular season and tournament champions by year Year Regular Season Tournament 2013-14 Jamestown 2014-15 Dakota State Jamestown Dakota State 2015-16 Dakota State 2016-17 Bellevue Dickinson State Jamestown Bellevue 2017-18 Bellevue Mayville State 2018-19 Bellevue Presentation Mayville State 2019-20 Bellevue Mayville State 2020-21 Mayville State Bellevue 2021-22 Bellevue Viterbo Bellevue 2022-23 Mayville State ===Women's basketball=== ;NSAA championships won or shared per school School Conference Conference Tournament Tournament School Titles Last Title Titles Last Title Jamestown 5 2017-18 3 2016-17 Mayville State 3 2019-20 3 2022-23 Dakota State 3 2022-23 2 2021-22 Bellevue 2 2019-20 1 2018-19 Valley City State 0 n/a 1 2017-18 Dickinson State 0 n/a 0 n/a Presentation 0 n/a 0 n/a Viterbo 0 n/a 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2013-14 to 2022-23) School Regular Season Regular Season Regular Season Tournament Tournament School W L Pct W L Jamestown 59 3 11 2 Mayville State 91 42 16 7 Bellevue 69 33 10 6 Valley City State 86 47 9 9 Dakota State 77 56 9 8 Dickinson State 55 69 6 8 Viterbo 35 75 2 8 Presentation 30 103 1 9 Waldorf 19 93 0 7 ;NSAA regular season and tournament champions by year Year Regular Season Tournament 2013-14 Jamestown Mayville State Mayville State 2014-15 Jamestown 2015-16 Jamestown 2016-17 Jamestown 2017-18 Jamestown Valley City State 2018-19 Bellevue Mayville State Bellevue 2019-20 Bellevue Mayville State Mayville State 2020-21 Dakota State 2021-22 Dakota State 2022-23 Dakota State Mayville State ===Baseball=== ;NSAA championships won or shared per school School Conference Conference Tournament Tournament School Titles Last Title Titles Last Title Bellevue 6 2023 5 2023 Mayville State 2 2018 3 2021 Jamestown 2 2015 1 2014 Dakota State 0 n/a 0 n/a Dickinson State 0 n/a 0 n/a Presentation 0 n/a 0 n/a Valley City State 0 n/a 0 n/a Viterbo 0 n/a 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a 0 n/a Winnipeg 0 n/a 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2014 to 2023) School Regular Season Regular Season Regular Season Tournament Tournament School W L Pct W L Bellevue 148 20 26 4 Jamestown 77 26 13 8 Mayville State 131 78 26 15 Waldorf 94 78 6 14 Valley City State 99 102 14 18 Dakota State 88 121 7 14 Dickinson State 64 95 13 14 Viterbo 66 109 3 12 Presentation 53 156 4 13 Winnipeg 6 41 0 0 ;NSAA regular season and tournament champions by year Year Regular Season Tournament 2014 Jamestown 2015 Jamestown Mayville State Mayville State 2016 Bellevue 2017 Bellevue Mayville State 2018 Mayville State Bellevue 2019 Bellevue 2020 none 2021 Bellevue Mayville State 2022 Bellevue 2023 Bellevue ===Softball=== ;NSAA championships won or shared per school School Conference Conference Tournament Tournament School Titles Last Title Titles Last Title Bellevue 3 2023 0 n/a Valley City State 3 2021 3 2023 Jamestown 2 2018 1 2017 Dickinson State 1 2016 4 2021 Dakota State 0 n/a 0 n/a Mayville State 0 n/a 0 n/a Viterbo 0 n/a 0 n/a Waldorf 0 n/a 0 n/a Presentation 0 n/a 0 n/a ;NSAA all-time standings (2014 to 2023) School Regular Season Regular Season Regular Season Tournament Tournament School W L Pct W L Bellevue 146 38 17 14 Jamestown 87 23 14 9 Valley City State 152 55 27 13 Dickinson State 132 66 30 11 Mayville State 82 135 9 16 Waldorf 59 116 6 14 Dakota State 73 144 8 16 Viterbo 59 126 4 10 Presentation 66 153 3 16 Great Falls n/a n/a n/a 3 2 ;NSAA regular season and tournament champions by year Year Regular Season Tournament 2014 Valley City State Dickinson State 2015 Jamestown Dickinson State 2016 Dickinson State 2017 Bellevue Jamestown 2018 Jamestown Dickinson State 2019 Valley City State 2020 none 2021 Valley City State Dickinson State 2022 Bellevue Valley City State 2023 Bellevue Valley City State ==References== ==External links== *
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thumb|right|250px|Location of the Franz Josef Archipelago The Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition was an Arctic expedition to find the North-East Passage that ran from 1872 to 1874 under the leadership of Julius Payer and Karl Weyprecht. The expedition discovered and partially explored Franz Josef Land. == Background == The Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition was largely an initiative of geographer August Petermann who was a proponent of a navigable northern Arctic Sea. Petermann had previously been involved in the German North Pole expeditions of 1868-1870 that had failed to find navigable paths on the east coast of Greenland. Petermann then advocated for probing the area between Svalbard and Novaya Zemlya which he assumed would be less obstructed by ice due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. In 1871, a trial expedition took place. Weyprecht and Payer were put in charge. They chartered the Norwegian schooner Isbjørn and hired captain Johan Kjeldsen and a Norwegian crew in Tromsø. Isbjørn sailed to the east coast of Svalbard, in hopes of reaching Gillis Land. They found heavy sea ice however and were not able to advance from the coast of Nordaustlandet. To salvage the otherwise disappointing expedition, Weyprecht and Payer first conducted some exploration of the islands to the south, before sailing eastwards. Here they did find open water and managed to push far into the Barents Sea. These observed favourable ice conditions justified sending the main expedition into the same direction the following year. After being dissatisfied with the Norwegians on the reconnaissance voyage with Isbjørn, Weyprecht decided to use an Austro- Hungarian crew for the main expedition. It was also decided that a steam vessel would be essential. == Preparations == === Plan === The expedition's purpose was to explore the Arctic Ocean to the North of Russia and ideally to find the Northeast Passage. The plan was to travel from Norway to the north coast of Novaya Zemlya and from there via the New Siberian Islands to America, all in 2.5 years. It was also hoped that the exploration of this area might discover land that could be used as a base for reaching the North Pole by sea. === Financing === The total costs of 222,600 florins were covered mostly by private donations, many from Austro-Hungarian nobles. The main sponsor was Count Johann Nepomuk Wilczek who donated ƒ30,000. Count Franz Salm (1819–1887) donated ƒ20,000. From government ministries and the Academy of Sciences the expedition received ƒ10,340 and ƒ10,000 from the crown. Further important patrons included Count Ödön Zichy (1811–1894), banker (1873–1877), Archduke Rainer of Austria, and Baron Maximilian von Sterneck. === Ship === The main ship was the Tegetthoff, named for the Austrian Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, under whom Weyprecht served. It was built for this expedition by Teklenborg & Beurmann in Bremerhaven. It was a three-masted barkentine of 220 tons, 38.34 m long, with a 100 horsepower (75 kW) steam engine. Additionally, Count Wilczek personally chartered the sailing boat Isbjørn again, for laying an emergency depot. === Team === The crew came from all over Austria-Hungary, especially from the Adriatic coast, the primary recruiting area for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. They communicated mainly in Italian. * Karl Weyprecht - commander of the ship (from Michelstadt, Hesse) * Julius Payer - leader of the land journeys (from Teplice, Bohemia) * - 1st officer (from Chomutov, Bohemia) * - 2nd officer (from Nový Jičín, Moravia) * Dr. - ship's doctor (from Vary, Hungary) * Elling Carlsen - ice pilot and harpooneer (from Tromsø, Norway) * Pietro Lusina - boatswain (from Rijeka) * - mechanic and machinist (from Pačlavice, Moravia) * Antonio Vecerina - carpenter (from Draga near Rijeka) * Josef Pospischil - stoker (from Přerov, Moravia) * Johann Oratsch - cook (from Graz, Styria) * - hunter and mountaineer (from the Passeier Valley, Tyrol) * Alexander Klotz - hunter and mountaineer (from the Passeier Valley, Tyrol) Sailors: * Antonio Zaninovich (from Hvar, Dalmatia) * Antonio Catarinich (from Lošinj, Istria) * Antonio Scarpa (from Trieste) * Antonio Lukinovich (from Brač, Dalmatia) * Giuseppe Latkovich (from Plomin, Istria) * Pietro Fallesich (from Rijeka) * Giorgio Stiglich (from Bakar, Croatia-Slavonia) * Vincenzio Palmich (from Volosko, Istria) * Lorenzo Marola (from Rijeka) * Francesco Lettis (from Volosko, Istria) * Giacomo Sussich (from Volosko, Istria) They were accompanied by two dogs from Lappland and six from Vienna, as well as two cats. ==Journey== thumb|The Tegetthoff trapped in the ice thumb|Route of the Tegetthoff, sledge expeditions, and return journey On 20 June 1872, the Isbjørn set sail from the Norwegian port of Tromsø with the goal of laying a supply depot at Cape Nassau on Novaya Zemlya. Aboard were Count Wilczek, Baron von Sterneck, and Johan Kjeldsen as captain. The Tegetthoff with her crew of 24 left Tromsø on 13 July 1872. The two ships met near the Barents Islands off Novaya Zemlya, where the emergency depot was laid, in case Tegetthoff's crew would need supplies on their way back. Having completed her mission, Isbjørn then return to port. Tegetthoff continued northward. At the end of August she got locked in pack ice north of Novaya Zemlya and drifted to hitherto unknown polar regions. For an extended period of time, the ship was under threat of being crushed by ice. The expedition members frequently prepared to abandon ship. On 30 August 1873, after one year in the ice, the explorers discovered an archipelago which they named Franz Josef Land after Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I. Tegetthoff continued to drift until the end of October, when the ship came to a halt by an island in the southeast of Franz Josef Land. In November, several small trips were made to the newly named Wilczek Island, before having to wait out the polar night for further exploration. In February 1874 Weyprecht and Payer decided to abandon the ice- locked ship after completing sledge expeditions to explore the newly discovered lands. The first of these went to Hall Island where the expedition members climbed Cape Tegetthoff and Sonklar glacier. The temperature on the glacier fell as low as . The day after the return of the sledge party, Otto Krisch, who had stayed at the ship, died of tuberculosis. He had already reported suffering from chest pain in November 1872. Dr. Kepes later wrote that his symptoms had been worrying since April 1873. In February 1874 he had additionally contracted scurvy. Scurvy had also been a problem for other crew members but they were able to cure it with canned vegetables, lemon juice, wine, and polar bear meat. Krisch was buried in a crevice on Wilczek Island. The grave was sealed with a rock and fitted with a wooden cross. The second sledge trip took 27 days. During the trip, the men were always running the risk that the sea ice would shift or open up and that they would not be able to return to the ship. They followed the Austrian Strait to the north, Payer surveying at various points along the way. The exploratory work meant that much of the eastern part of Franz Josef Land could be mapped. While crossing Middendorf Glacier on Rudolf Island, Zaninovich, together with the sled and dogs, fell into a crevasse. As an experienced alpinist, Haller was able to descend and rescue Zaninovich, the dogs, and the sledge with most of the equipment. They reached the northernmost point of Franz Josef Land, Cape Fligely () on 12 April 1874. Payer believed to have seen land further north, which he called King Oscar Land and Petermann Land. A third trip to McClintock Island was conducted for additional surveying. On 20 May 1874 they left the ship and tried to reach Novaya Zemlya. They initially took three boats, each mounted on a sled, as well as provisions and equipment for 3–4 months on three additional sledges. Each sledge weighed about . A small dog-sled was also employed. They proceeded by hauling the boat-sleds for some distance, then returning to retrieve the additional sledges. The group made very slow progress over ice full of hummocks, cracks, ridges, and polynyas. Only after eight days had they advanced out of sight of the ship. On 1 July they were unable to advance further and retreated to Lamont Island which they had found on the way. Weyprecht decided to briefly go back to the ship and retrieve a fourth boat while waiting for the ice conditions to improve. On 10 July they continued southwards, sometimes hauling the sledges and sometimes rowing the boats across a polynya. Weyprecht noted some complaints about Payer's behaviour in his diary, but was quite proud of how harmonious and loyal the men were. thumb|Leaving the Ice, drawn by Orel On 14 August 1874 the expedition reached the open sea. The two remaining dogs had to be shot as they became seasick and destabilised the boats. After three days of rowing they reached Novaya Zemlya. They aimed for the depot laid by Wilczek, but after accidentally rowing past it, decided to continue south and rely on the provisions they still had. On 24 August the boats of the Austro-Hungarian expedition met with fishermen from the Russian schooner Nikolai, captained by . They were received warmly by the Russian sailors who were greatly impressed by the expedition's Russian Ukase containing instructions to aid them. Weyprecht and Payer agreed with Voronin to deliver the expedition to Vardø in Northern Norway for 1200 silver rubles, three expedition boats, and two Lefaucheux guns. They reached Vardø on 3 September. The expedition returned to Austria-Hungary by coastal steamer from Vardø and by train from Hamburg. On the journey they were met by crowds and invited to dinners hosted by local dignitaries and geographical societies in Norway, Sweden and Germany. They entered Vienna in triumph, welcomed, according to contemporary newspaper reports, by hundreds of thousands of people. Further festivities followed throughout Austria-Hungary as the individual explorers returned to their homes. ==Significance== thumb|Never go back, painted by Payer The expedition's discoveries and experiences made a significant contribution to polar science, especially the discovery of the Northeast passage by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. They also gave an impetus to International Polar Years, meaning a shift from sports-like races of single expeditions to worldwide scientific cooperation in exploring the polar regions. The expedition yielded various results in the fields of meteorology, astronomy, geodesy, magnetism, zoology, and sightings of Aurora Borealis. They were published by the Academy of Sciences in 1878. There is a book (The Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition 1872-74) and paintings by Payer - probably the only paintings of a polar expedition created by the explorer himself. ==Memory== In Vienna, Graz, and Wiener Neustadt there are several streets and inns that are named after the North Pole, Payer, Weyprecht, Wilczek, and Krisch. Payer was knighted in 1876. Impressed by the expedition, Eduard Strauss composed the "Weyprecht Payer March" in 1875.Sheet music Weyprecht-Payer-Marsch by Eduard Strauss (Op. 120) - via Bayerische Staatsbibliothek. In 1978, Russian scientist Vladimir Serov found a message in a bottle left by Weyprecht on Lamont Island. It is now held by the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The expedition was selected as the main motif for the Austrian Admiral Tegetthoff Ship and The Polar Expedition commemorative coin minted on June 8, 2005. The reverse side of the coin shows two explorers in Arctic gear with the frozen ship behind them. == References == == Bibliography == * * * * (English version: New Lands within the Arctic Circle. Cambridge University Press.) * * Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Hundert Jahre Franz Josef's Land: Katalog einer Ausstellung im Prunksaal der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek (Vienna 1973). * Andreas Pöschek: Geheimnis Nordpol. Die Österreichisch-Ungarische Nordpolexpedition 1872-1874. - Wien: 1999 (download as PDF) * * ==Further reading== * Christoph Ransmayr, The Terrors of Ice and Darkness. ==External links== * The Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition of 1872-74 on istrianet.org * Den østerriksk-ungarske polarekspedisjonen 1872-1874 on polarhistorie.no * Ни за что обратно! или Чёртовы мячи для гольфа! или Самая северная гробница мира! / „Nie zurück!“ oder „Die Golfbälle des Teufels“ oder „Das nördlichste Grab der Welt“ on russwien.weebly.com * Deník Oty Kříže on paclavice.cz ==See also== *Weyprecht Mountains *Payer Mountains Category:19th century in the Arctic Category:Arctic expeditions Category:History of Austria-Hungary Category:History of Franz Josef Land
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Below is a list of selected paintings by Swiss artist Arnold Böcklin. Image Title Date Technique Size (см) Location Note 180px Mountain Lake 1846 Oil on canvas 32.5 × 52 Private collection 180px Landscape study 1846 Oil on cardboard 32 × 42 Lower Saxony State Museum, Hanover 140px Portrait of Alexander Mikhelis 1846 33 × 31.1 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Mound 1847 oil on canvas 60.2 × 77.5 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Landscape with castle ruins 1847 oil on canvas 60 × 78 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Portrait of Jakob Mähly as a student 1848 oil on canvas 32.6 × 24.4 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Landscape with ruins in the moonlight 1849 oil on canvas 24.5 × 32.5 Private collection 180px Mountain landscape with a waterfall c. 1849 oil on canvas 32.8 × 40.8 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Mountain landscape with chamois c. 1849 oil on canvas 32.5 × 41 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px In the Pontic marshes 1851 oil on canvas 73 × 98 Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf 180px Landscape in Campania 1851 oil on canvas 57 × 77 Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe 140px Roman landscape 1852 oil on canvas 74.5 × 72.5 Brooklyn Museum, New York 140px Centaur and Nymph 1855 oil on canvas 88 × 76 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Nymph at a Spring c. 1855 oil on canvas 129.6 × 112.8 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px At the Edge of the Forest c. 1856 oil on canvas 67.5 × 94.5 Private collection 140px Bacchanalia c. 1856 Oil on canvas 50 × 42 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 140px Pan in the Reeds c. 1856–1857 oil on canvas 138 × 99.5 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 140px Teutons Hunting Boar 1858 oil on canvas 103.5 × 83 Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne 180px Nymph in the meadow valley as the personification of the prehistoric era 1858 oil on fabric on hardboard 85 × 125 Private collection 140px Rocky Highlands with a Bridge c. 1858 oil on canvas 42.5 × 34.5 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Pan in the Reeds. 2nd version 1859 oil on canvas 199.7 × 152.7 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 180px Campania c. 1859 oil on canvas 88 × 105 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Abandoned Venus c. 1860 oil on canvas 120 × 95 Kunstmuseum Basel unfinished. 140px Pan Frightens the Shepherd. 2nd version c. 1860 oil on canvas 134.5 × 110.2 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Rocky Landscape with hunting Centaurs c. 1860 oil on canvas ? × ? Schloss Weimar, Germany 180px Piper c. 1860/1862 oil on canvas 49.6 × 73.7 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 140px Portrait of actress Fanny Janauschek 1861 oil on canvas 180 × 104.3 Städel Museum, Frankfurt-am-Main 140px Portrait of chamber singer Karl Wallenreiter c. 1861 oil on canvas 77 × 63 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Self portrait 1862 oil on mahogany 39.5 × 31 Kunstmuseum Basel 140px Wandering light 1862 oil on canvas 81 × 59 Museum of Georg Schaefer, Schweinfurt, Germany 140px Portrait of the artist Franz von Lenbach 1862 oil on canvas 52.5 × 44.5 Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna 140px Sappho. 2nd version 1862 oil on canvas 94.9 × 73.7 Philadelphia Museum of Art 140px Self portrait with wife 1863 oil on canvas 63 × 49 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Angela Böcklin in a red hairnet 1863 wood, tempera and wax 41 × 32 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin frameless|180x180px Head of a Roman 1863 oil on canvas 46.5 x 36.5 Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland 180px Field with bathing girls 1863 oil on canvas 20 × 36 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 140px Portrait of the sculptor Josef von Kopf 1863 cardboard, tempera and wax 40 × 32 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Roman landscape 1863 oil on canvas 44.5 × 35 Hamburg Kunsthalle, Germany 140px Faun, the whistling blackbird 1863 oil on canvas 46.5 × 36 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 180px Villa by the Sea. Sketch c. 1863 oil on canvas 62.1 × 74.3 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 140px Hermit c. 1863 oil on canvas 106 × 57.8 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px The Poet of Petrarch 1863/64 Tempera on canvas 60 × 93 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany 180px Villa by the sea 1864 oil on canvas 124.5 × 174.5 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Shepherdess 1864 oil on canvas 62 × 52.8 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Portrait of Augusto Fratelli c. 1864 oil on canvas 52 × 43 Hamburg Kunsthalle, Germany 140px Faun and whistling Blackbird. 2nd version 1864/65 oil on canvas 48.8 × 49 Lower Saxony State Museum, Hanover 180px Villa by the sea. 2nd version 1865 oil on canvas 123.4 × 173.2 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Portrait of Margaret Antoinette Mähly-Shermar 1865 oil on canvas 28 × 22 Private collection 140px The Shepherd's complaint 1866 oil on canvas 137.9 × 100.4 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Idyll 1866 oil on canvas 73 × 98 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 140px Girl and Boy picking Flowers c. 1866 oil on canvas 62 × 50 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 180x180px The Lamentations of Mary Magdalene on the body of Christ 1867 oil on canvas 84 x 149 Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland 140px Spring of Love (Spring Source) 1868 oil on canvas 220 × 136 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 140px The Birth of Venus 1868/69 oil on canvas 135.5 × 79 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 140px Portrait of Friedrich Weber 1869 oil on canvas 46.5 × 38 Private collection 140px Dragon in a rocky Gorge 1870 oil on canvas 152 × 92.5 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Night. 3rd version 1870 oil on canvas 136 × 79 Private collection 180px The Way to Emmaus 1870 oil on canvas 94 × 139.5 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Ruined house near Kehl 1870 Холст на картоне, масло 20.7 × 35.4 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Killer pursued by the Furies 1870 oil on canvas 80 × 141 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Venus Anadiome c. 1870 Oil on cardboard 59 × 48.2 Heilshof Museum, Worms 180px Italian Villa in Spring c. 1870 oil on canvas 80 × 102 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Mountain Castle with Marching Soldiers 1871 oil on canvas 76 × 109 Aargauer Kunsthaus, Switzerland 140px Perfect spring landscape 1871 oil on canvas 73.5 × 59.6 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Nymph and Satyr 1871 oil on canvas 108 × 154.9 Philadelphia Museum of Art 180px Ride of Death (Autumn and Death) 1871 oil on canvas 79 × 136.5 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Sacred Grove c. 1871 oil on canvas 80.5 × 103.1 Schackgalerie, Munich 180px Villa by the sea. 3rd version 1871–1874 oil on canvas 108 × 154 Städel Museum, Frankfurt- am-Main 140px Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Fiddle 1872 oil on canvas 75 × 61 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Venus Anadiome 1872 oil on wood 59.1 × 45.7 Saint Louis Art Museum 140px Euterpe with Deer 1872 oil on canvas 78 × 58.3 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 140px May Day in Ancient Rome c. 1872 oil on canvas 75.7 × 61.6 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 180px Battle of the Centaurs 1872/1873 oil on canvas 104.2 × 194.3 Kunstmuseum Basel 140px Self portrait 1873 oil on canvas 61 × 48.9 Hamburg Kunsthalle, Germany 180px Adagio 1873 Tempera on canvas 78 × 105.5 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 140px In the Spring 1873 oil on canvas 104.5 × 78 National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne 140px Penitent Mary Magdalene 1873 oil on canvas 58 × 47 Hamburg Kunsthalle, Germany 140px Roger and Angelica 1873 tempera on wood 46 × 37 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 180px Astolf leaves with Orrill's head c. 1873 oil on canvas 54 × 77 Kunstmuseum Basel 140px Vestal 1874 oil on canvas 76 × 61.5 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 140px Two fishing Pans 1874 oil on canvas 74.5 × 54.5 Foundation for Art, Culture and History, Winterthur, Switzerland 180px Triton and Nereid 1874 Tempera on canvas 105.3 × 194 Schackgalerie, Munich 140px Spring 1875 tempera on wood 63 × 50.5 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany 140px Sirens 1875 Tempera on canvas 46 × 31 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 180px Triton and Nereid. 3rd version 1875 oil on wood 41.5 × 66 St. Gallen Museum of Art, St. Gallen, Switzerland 140px Faun blowing a Syrinx 1875 oil on canvas 62.7 × 50.2 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 140px Flora Scattering Flowers 1875 oil on wood 82.5 × 51.5 Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany 180px Mourning under the Cross 1876 tempera on wood 164 × 250 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Songs of Spring 1876 oil on canvas 61.5 × 51.4 Pushkin Museum, Moscow 140px Charon 1876 oil on wood 60 × 46.5 Museum of Georg Schaefer, Schweinfurt, Germany 180px Elysium 1877 Tempera on canvas 37 × 55 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 180px Triton and Nereid. Sketch 1877 tempera on paper on wood 44.5 × 65.5 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 140px Treasure keeper 1877 oil on cardboard 73.5 × 50 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany 180px Sleeping Diana, contemplated by two fauns 1877/1885 oil on canvas 77.4 × 105 Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf 180px Villa by the Sea. 5th version 1878 oil on canvas 110 × 160 Winterthur Museum of Art, Winterthur 140px Honeymoon. 2nd version 1878 Tempera on canvas 79 × 60 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Head of Medusa c. 1878 oil on wood 39 × 37 Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, Germany 180px Spring Evening 1879 oil on wood 67.4 × 129.5 Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest) 140px Sea surf (Sound). 2nd version 1879 oil on wood 121 × 82 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Triton blowing into a Conch Shell 1879 oil on wood 80.8 × 54.5 Lower Saxony State Museum, Hanover 180px Isle of the Dead 1880 oil on canvas 110.9 × 156.4 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Isle of the Dead. 2nd version 1880 oil on wood 73.7 × 121.9 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 180px The Awakening of Spring 1880 Oil on canvas on wood 66 × 130 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 180px Ruin by the Sea 1880 oil on canvas 100.5 × 142 Aargauer Kunsthaus, Switzerland 140px Summer Day 1881 oil on mahogany 61 × 50 Galerie Neue Meister, Dresden 140px Spring in the Gorge 1881 oil on canvas 84.5 × 59.4 Getty Center, Los Angeles 140px Ruin by the Sea 1881 oil on canvas 111 × 82 Cleveland Museum of Art 180px The Adventurer 1882 Tempera on canvas 116 × 150.5 Kunsthalle Bremen, Germany 180px Odysseus and Calypso 1882 oil on mahogany 103.5 × 149.8 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Sacred Grove 1882 oil on canvas 105 × 150.6 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Playing in the Waves 1883 oil on canvas 180 × 238 Neue Pinakothek, Munich 180px In the Sea 1883 oil on wood 86.5 × 115 Art Institute of Chicago 180px Isle of the Dead. 3rd version 1883 oil on wood 80 × 150 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Hermit 1884 oil on wood 90 × 69 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 180px Pan in a Children's Dance 1884 mixed media on mahogany 79 × 100.1 Museum Folkwang, Essen 180px Arable Fields in early Spring 1884 oil on wood 54 × 72 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin unfinished 180px The Sanctuary of Hercules 1884 oil on wood 113.8 × 180.5 National Gallery of Art, Washington 180px God shows Paradise to Adam c. 1884 tempera on wood 87 × 121 Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte, Dortmund, Germany 140px Self portrait with a glass of wine 1885 oil and tempera on wood 98 × 77 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px Silence of the Forest 1885 oil on wood 73 × 58.5 National Museum, Poznań 180px Chained Prometheus. 2nd version 1885 oil on wood 98.5 × 125 Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany 180px Nereid Game 1886 oil on canvas 150.5 × 176.4 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Pirate Attack (Heroic Landscape). 2nd version 1886 oil on mahogany 153 × 232 Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne 180px Isle of the Dead. 5th version 1886 oil on wood 80.7 × 150 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany 180px Sacred Grove. 2nd version 1886 oil on mahogany 100 × 150 Hamburg Kunsthalle, Germany 180px Calm Sea 1886/1887 wood, tempera and enamel 103 × 150 Museum of Fine Arts Bern, Switzerland 180px Homecoming 1887 oil on wood 78.5 × 100 Private collection 180px Sea Idyll 1887 oil on wood 167 × 224 Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna 140px Anthem of the Spring (Three Graces) 1888 tempera on wood 125 × 97 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany 180px Centaur at the Village Blacksmith 1888 oil on wood 78.5 × 100 Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest), Hungary 180px Island of the Living 1888 oil on mahogany 93.3 × 140.1 Kunstmuseum Basel 140px Judith 1888 tempera on wood 46 × 37 Museum of Georg Schaefer, Schweinfurt, Germany 140px Portrait of Gottfried Keller c. 1889 oil on canvas 81.5 × 55.5 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 140px Honeymoon. 3rd version c. 1890 oil on wood 72 × 52.5 Städel Museum, Frankfurt-am-Main 140px Freedom (Helvetia) 1891 oil on wood 96 × 96 Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin 140px In the Garden Gazebo c. 1891 oil on wood 99 × 75 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 140px St. Anthony Preaches to the Fish 1892 oil on canvas 152 × 105 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 140px Self portrait in the Studio 1893 Tempera on canvas 120 × 80.8 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Venus the Ancestor 1895 oil on canvas 105 × 150 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland 140px Paolo and Francesca 1893 oil on canvas 110.5 × 80 Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switzerland 180px Diana the Huntress. 2nd version 1895/1896 oil on canvas 99.5 × 200.5 Musee d'Orsay, Paris 140px War 1896 oil on board 100 × 69.5 Galerie Neue Meister, Dresden, Germany 140px War 1896 oil on wood 222 × 170 Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland unfinished 180px Odysseus and Polyphemus 1896 oil and tempera on wood 66 × 150 Museum of Fine Arts (Boston) 180px Pan and Dryads 1897 oil on canvas 91 × 140 Von der Heydt Museum, Wuppertal, Germany 180px Nessus and Deianeira 1898 oil on wood 104 × 150 Museum Pfalzgalerie, Kaiserslautern 140px Chapel 1898 oil on canvas 94 × 70.5 Private collection 140px Plague 1898 tempera on wood 149.5 × 104.5 Kunstmuseum Basel 180px Self portrait 1898–1899 oil on canvas 40 × 54 Uffizi, Florence 180px Furious Roland 1901 oil and tempera on canvas 103 × 150 Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, Germany unfinished. ==References== * Translated from the equivalent article on Russian Wikipedia Böcklin, Arnold * Category:Lists of paintings
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thumb|Cleveland County, Oklahoma Tornadoes (1950–2022) This is a list of tornadoes reported in Cleveland County, Oklahoma. Cleveland County is located in Tornado Alley and experiences tornadoes frequently. The city of Moore is located within the county and has been impacted by four violent tornadoes in recent history; they struck in 1999, 2003, 2010, and 2013. It is one of two places on earth with the most tornadoes per square mile. According to the National Centers for Environmental Information, since reliable records began in 1950, 119 tornadoes have impacted the county, causing at least $2.77 billion (USD not adjusted for inflation) in damages. Tornadoes before February 1, 2007 are rated on the Fujita scale while tornadoes after February 1, 2007 are rated on the Enhanced Fujita scale. The most recent tornado in Cleveland County was an EF2 tornado on April 19, 2023. == Tornadoes == === Before 2000 === *April 25, 1893: Two tornadoes caused damage in Norman and Moore, with the second tornado killing 31 people and injuring “many” others. The National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma identified this as a “significant” tornado and one of the “five strong/violent” that day in Oklahoma, suggesting the wide tornado was at least equivalent to F2 intensity and possibly F4 or F5 intensity as it “swept away at least 30 homes”. *June 9, 1937: A tornado impacted Canadian County and Cleveland County, specifically Moore, killing four people and injuring seven others. The National Weather Service noted this may have been a tornado family. *February 2, 1951: A tornado rated F0 caused $250 (1951 USD) in damage. *April 5, 1951: A tornado rated F2 caused $25,000 (1951 USD) in damage through Moore, Oklahoma. *March 13, 1953: A strong F2 tornado, during the Tornado outbreak of March 12–15, 1953, moved through rural areas northwest of Etowah and south of Lake Thunderbird, destroying trees and badly demolishing a farmstead. There were no casualties although there was $2,500 (1953 USD) in damage. *May 26, 1955: A tornado rated F1 during the 1955 Great Plains tornado outbreak caused $250 (1955 USD) in damage along a path through the county. *April 28, 1956: A long-track F1 tornado impacted Grady County and McClain County before entering Cleveland County, causing $250 (1956 USD) in damage to Norman, Oklahoma. *September 14, 1957: A short lived F4 tornado that impacted the southern portions of Cleveland County, causing $250,000 (1957 USD) in damage. *April 28, 1960: Four F2 tornadoes impacted the county during the Tornado outbreak of April 28–30, 1960, causing $500,000 (1960 USD) in damage. The first and third tornado impacted Moore, Oklahoma damaging or destroying dozens of structures, while the second tornado destroyed an oil drilling rig in the eastern portion of the county. The fourth tornado was nearly half a mile wide and it killed three people, injured one other person, and caused $25,000 (1960 USD) in damage. *May 4, 1960: A F2 tornado during the May 1960 tornado outbreak sequence impacted Noble, Oklahoma and caused $2,500 (1960 USD) in damage. *May 5, 1960: Three F3 tornadoes impacted the southern and eastern portions of the county during the May 1960 tornado outbreak sequence, causing $750,000 (1960 USD) in damage. *May 19, 1960: An extremely brief and small F2 tornado impacted the city of Moore, causing $25,000 (1960 USD) in damage. The National Weather Service’s storm event details on this tornado mention the path length was less than 1 mile and the tornado had a width of . *May 6, 1961: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted the city of Moore during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 3–9, 1961. *May 7, 1961: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted the city of Moore during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 3–9, 1961. *April 27, 1962: A brief F0 tornado impacted the city of Norman, causing $25,000 (1962 USD) in damage. *September 11, 1963: A brief F1 tornado touched down near Noble, causing $2,500 (1963 USD) in damage. *April 3, 1964: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted Norman. *August 31, 1965: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted Oklahoma City. *May 17, 1966: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted Norman, causing $2,500 (1966 USD) in damage. *July 23, 1966: An brief F0 tornado occurred near Noble which was observed by oil rig workers. *October 5, 1970: A strong F2 tornado occurred south of Slaughterville, causing $25,000 (1970 USD) in damage and leaving one person injured. *June 4, 1973: An extremely brief F0 tornado impacted Norman, causing $2,500 (1973 USD) in damage. *November 19, 1973: Two F3 tornadoes touch down in the county. The first tornado impacts downtown Moore, with winds up to , killing three people, injuring 28 others, and causing $2.5 million (1973 USD) in damage. The second tornado impacts northern Moore and the southern portions of Oklahoma City, causing an additional $2.5 million (1973 USD) in damage. *February 18, 1974: An extremely brief “horseshoe-shaped” F0 tornado occurred and was photographed south of Slaughterville. *August 1, 1974: A brief F1 tornado impacts the city of Moore, causing $250,000 (1974 USD) in damage along it’s path. *March 10, 1977: A F1 tornado impacts downtown Noble, causing $250,000 (1977 USD) in damage as it destroyed two trailers, two outbuildings, and a barn. Five homes, two apartment buildings, and a school were also damaged by the tornado. *May 21, 1977: A brief F0 tornado impacts the north side of Norman, causing $2,500 (1977 USD) in damage as it damaged outbuildings and homes. *April 10, 1979: Two short-lived F2 tornadoes, during the 1979 Red River Valley tornado outbreak, occur south of Noble, with the first tornado causing $2,500 (1979 USD) in damage and the second tornado causing $25,000 (1979 USD) in damage. *August 19, 1979: An extremely brief F0 tornado touched down near Noble, causing $2,500 (1979 USD) in damage as it destroyed a nearly completed barn. *May 17, 1981: Two short-lived F1 tornadoes touch down in the county, with the first tornado impacting the south portion of Norman, close to the University of Oklahoma campus and the second tornado impacting south of Lake Thunderbird, causing $30 (1981 USD) in damage. *June 30, 1981: An extremely brief F1 tornado touched down in Norman, causing $250,000 (1981 USD) in damage as it damaged a city block. A mechanic shop sustained $50,000 in damage and one mechanic was injured by this wide tornado that had a path of . Despite the rating being an F1 tornado, the National Weather Service notes this tornado as a “significant tornado in Cleveland County”, meaning the rating may be at least an F2 on the Fujita scale. *May 13, 1983: An extremely brief F0 tornado occurred north of Lexington. *November 18, 1983: An extremely brief F1 tornado impacted Norman just east of the University of Oklahoma campus, causing an estimated $4,500 (1983 USD) in damage as it overturned two cars and uprooted large trees. *March 28, 1988: An extremely brief F1 tornado impacted Oklahoma City, causing $250,000 (1988 USD) in damage. *September 23, 1988: A F1 tornado occurred in Cleveland County causing damage along a path of . Numerous outbuildings were destroyed and several homes were damaged. One two-story home had its roof completely removed by the tornado and it was shifted off its foundation. *May 2, 1991: A brief F1 tornado impacted Moore, causing an estimated $350,000 (1991 USD) in damage. * March 24, 1996: An F0 tornado occurs in Cleveland County, causing minimal damage. *May 3, 1999: Two tornadoes, during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak, impact Cleveland County. The first tornado, the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado was rated F5 as it caused significant damage across multiple counties in Oklahoma with winds peaking at , the fastest ever recorded on Earth. In Cleveland County, the tornado was F5 intensity as it caused catastrophic damage to Moore. The tornado killed 36 people, injured 583 others, and caused $1 billion in damage (1999 USD), with Moore sustaining $450 million of that damage. The second tornado was a short-lived F0 tornado that caused $1,000 (1999 USD) in damage in the eastern portions of Cleveland County. *May 4, 1999: A F0 tornado, during the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak, touched down east of Moore and caused $1,000 (1999 USD) in damage. === 2000–present === *May 8, 2003: Two tornadoes impact Cleveland County. The first tornado was rated F0 and it caused $500,000 (2003 USD) in damage to the eastern side of Moore. The second tornado, the Moore—Oklahoma City tornado was rated F4 and caused $370 million (2003 USD) in damage across Cleveland County and Oklahoma County. F3 damage occurred in Cleveland County with the F4 damage occurring in Oklahoma County. *June 9, 2004: A brief F0 tornado touched down near Lake Stanley Draper and caused $5,000 (2004 USD) in damage. *May 7, 2008: An EF0 tornado, during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 7–15, 2008, impacted McClain County and Cleveland County south of Norman, causing $25,000 (2008 USD) in damage. *May 13, 2009: A brief EF0 tornado occurred near Lake Stanley Draper, where it damaged trees and caused an unknown amount of damage to a boat dock and small structures. *June 12, 2009: A low-end EF1 tornado impacted the eastern portion of Norman, damaging numerous trees and a few homes sustained an unknown amount of roof damage. *May 10, 2010: Seven tornadoes, during the tornado outbreak of May 10–13, 2010, impacted Cleveland County. The first tornado, the Moore–Choctaw tornado, was a EF4 tornado that impacted Norman and Moore at EF3 intensity, before continuing into Oklahoma County at EF4 intensity. The second tornado was an EF1 tornado that caused damage in Moore. The third tornado caused minor roof and tree damage at EF1 intensity just east of Moore. The fourth tornado, the Norman–Little Axe, Oklahoma tornado, was a EF4 tornado that impacted the souther portion of Norman before moving into Pottawatomie County. The tornado touched down a few hundred yards away from the National Weather Center located on the University of Oklahoma campus. The fifth tornado was an anticyclonic tornado that impacted the southern portion of Norman, near the University of Oklahoma campus at EF1 intensity. The sixth tornado impacted the eastern portion of Cleveland County at EF2 intensity, before moving into Pottawatomie County one minute before the Norman–Little Axe EF4 moved into Pottawatomie County. The seventh tornado caused only tree damage at EF0 intensity in the southeastern portion of Cleveland County. *May 24, 2011: The Chickasha–Blanchard–Newcastle tornado was an EF4 tornado that impacted Grady County, McClain County, and the western portion of Cleveland County. The tornado was dissipating as it entered Cleveland County to the east of Moore, so only some minor EF0 damage to trees, barns, and outbuildings occurred in the county. *April 13, 2012: A wide EF1 tornado, during the tornado outbreak of April 13–16, 2012, impacted downtown Norman, injuring 20 people, causing minor damage to buildings and damage to numerous trees and power lines. *May 19, 2013: The Lake Thunderbird–Bethel Acres-Shawnee tornado was an EF4 tornado that impacted the eastern portion of the county near Lake Thunderbird, significantly damaging numerous homes at EF3 intensity. The tornado then moved into Pottawatomie County and grew to EF4 intensity as it continued damaging or destroying homes and mobile homes. *May 20, 2013: The 2013 Moore tornado was an EF5 tornado that caused catastrophic damage to the city of Moore. This tornado damaged or destroyed hundreds of structures, killed 24 people, and injuring 212 others along a path. This tornado caused an estimated $2 billion (2013 USD) in damage. *May 29, 2013: An extremely brief EF1 tornado, during the tornado outbreak of May 26–31, 2013, that caused $40,000 (2013 USD) in damage a single home in Norman. *May 31, 2013: A brief EF1 tornado, during the tornado outbreak of May 26–31, 2013, impacted the area around South Lakes Park causing $100,000 (2013 USD) in damage to several homes, trees, and power lines. *March 25, 2015: An EF2 tornado impacted southern portions of Oklahoma City and portions of Moore, injuring seven people. The tornado had a discontinuous path of where numerous homes and business sustained minor to moderate damage. This tornado caused $50 million (2015 USD) in damage. *May 5, 2015: Two tornadoes, an EF0 and an EF1, impacted the county during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 5–10, 2015. The first tornado caused only damage to trees and fences. The second tornado impacted the northern portions of Norman and southern portions of Moore, damaging numerous homes, trees, and power lines. HVAC equipment was damaged and light poles were downed at the Norman Healthplex hospital. *May 19, 2015: An EF0 tornado occurred northeast of Lexington and procured no known damage. *May 9, 2016: An EFU tornado occurred near Lake Thunderbird. *October 21, 2017: A short-lived EF0 that impacted the southern portion of Norman near the University of Oklahoma, causing tree damage and $2,000 (2017 USD) in damage to fences. *May 2, 2018: Two tornadoes, an EF1 and an EF0, impacted the county during a tornado outbreak. The EF1 tornado impacted Norman, causing mostly tree damage and $10,000 (2018 USD) in damage to a home and an outbuilding that experienced significant roof damage. The EF0 tornado caused only tree damage north of Lexington. *October 9, 2018: Two short-lived tornadoes, an EF0 and an EF1, impacted the county east of Norman and Moore and caused $95,000 (2018 USD) in damage. A few structures sustained damage with one sustaining significant roof damage and numerous trees were damaged or snapped. *May 21, 2019: Four tornadoes impacted the county during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 2019, with two EF0s and two EF1s that caused $10,000 (2019 USD) in damage. The first tornado, an EF0, impacted Noble and the other three tornadoes impacted east of Norman with all four tornadoes causing mostly tree damage with damage to a barn and an outbuilding. *May 25, 2019: An extremely brief EF0 tornado during the tornado outbreak sequence of May 2019 damaged a few structures, causing $10,000 (2019 USD) in damage and the tornado damaged multiple trees east of Norman. *May 4, 2020: A brief EF1 tornado east of Lexington damaged multiple trees and the roof of a mobile home, causing $20,000 (2020 USD) in damage. *July 11, 2020: An extremely brief EF0 tornado damaged numerous trees and the roof of a home. This tornado was embedded within the large area of damaging winds and NWS meteorologists observed a narrow path of enhanced damage with evidence of a convergence and rotation to determine this was a tornado. *October 26, 2021: An EF1 tornado that damaged the roofs of two barns, damaged the soffit to a carport at a home and damaged trees along a path, which started in Norman. $25,000 (2021 USD) in damage occurred from this tornado. *December 13, 2022: An EF2 tornado, during the Tornado outbreak of December 12–15, 2022, impacted the town of Wayne in McClain County before briefly crossing into Cleveland County. *February 26, 2023: An EF2 tornado impacted Norman injuring 12 people during the February 2023 derecho and tornado outbreak. The tornado would cause $50.2 million (2023 USD) in damage. Another tornado touched down on the NE edge of the county, it would be rated EF1. *April 19, 2023: An EF0 tornado occurs in the northern portion of the county, before moving into Oklahoma County, where it impacts Tinker Air Force Base. A second tornado, an EF2 occurs north of Etowah. == See also == * List of Rhode Island tornadoes * List of Connecticut tornadoes * Tornado outbreak of May 18–21, 2013 == References == Cleveland County, Oklahoma Category:F5 tornadoes by location Category:F4 tornadoes by location Category:F3 tornadoes by location Category:F2 tornadoes by location Category:F0 and F1 tornadoes
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{{Infobox mountain | name = Prospect Hill | native_name = | other_name = | etymology = | photo = Prospecthillsouth.jpg | photo_caption = The southern summit of Prospect Hill in Pemulwuy. | photo_size = | country = Australia | state = New South Wales | region = Greater Western Sydney | district = | district_type = Local government areas | coordinates = | border = | elevation_m = 117 | length_km = 3 | length_orientation = North/South | width_km = | width_orientation = | area_km2 = | geology = Igneous rock Intrusive rock Laccolith Shale | orogeny = | period = Triassic (Wianamatta Shale) Early Jurassic (igneous rock) | map = Australia Sydney | map_caption = Location in Greater metropolitan Sydney | embedded = }} Prospect Hill is a heritage-listed hill in Pemulwuy and Prospect in the greater western region of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Situated about west of central Sydney, the hill is Sydney's largest body of igneous rock and is higher than the ridges of the Cumberland Plain around it, with its present-day highest point being high,NSW Government Architect's Office, Prospect Hill Heritage Landscape Study and Plan, NSW Department of Commerce, 2008, p 31. although before its summit was quarried away it rose to a height of above sea level.Map by Wilshire in: Wallace, I. Prospect and Richmond: Engineering and environmental geology, Sydney, 1976. The site is a former industrial building, agricultural farms, quarry, rural housing, research facility and pastoral property and now industrial building, housing, park, public park, brick quarry and pastoral property. The site is also known as Bellevue (Hill), Mar-Rong Reserve, Greystanes Hill or Mur-rong in 1790.Collins, D., Phillip, A. and Hunter, J., Vocabulary of the language of N S Wales in the neighbourhood of Sydney, MS 41645c in School of Oriental and African Studies library, London, c1788-1791. The property is owned by Boral Limited and CSIRO. The site was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 17 October 2003. Prospect Hill is a “nodal point” of the Cumberland Plain. Its summit affords a “goodly prospect” west to the Blue Mountains and east to the man-made landmarks of central Sydney. People have walked round and over Prospect Hill for 30,000 years and have recognised it as a landmark, a meeting place and a boundary. It was known to local people as Mar-rong. For today's Australians it has historic significance, aesthetic values and commercial values. There are extensive industrial and housing developments on its slopes. The hill has a number of summits, with the Main Summit, now within Marrong Reserve, being the most popular for visitors. Oval in shape, the hill has historical significance as one of the first places in the fledgling Colony of New South Wales where liberated convicts were granted land to farm. Furthermore, the settlements on Prospect Hill were a focus of significant antagonism between the indigenous people and the European settlers throughout the 1790s. For over 180 years quarrying of the igneous rock there, mainly teschenite, for roadstone and other building materials has been an important activity. The hill started to form around 200 million years ago when volcanic material from the Earth's core was thrust upwards and then sideways into joints in the layers of Triassic shales of the Cumberland Plain Woodland.Wilshire, H.G. (1967) The Prospect Alkaline Diabase-Picrite Intrusion New South Wales, Australia. Journal of Petrology 8(1) pp.97-163. ==History== ===Indigenous history=== The area of Prospect Reservoir is an area of known Aboriginal occupation, with favourable camping locations along the Eastern Creek and Prospect Creek catchments, and in elevated landscapes to the south. There is also evidence to suggest that the occupation of these lands continued after European contact, through discovery of intermingled glass and stone flakes in archaeological surveys of the place. The area was settled by Europeans by 1789. ===European discovery=== Very early after first settlement, on 26 April 1788, an exploration party heading west led by Governor Phillip, climbed Prospect Hill. An account by Phillip states that the exploration party saw from Prospect Hill, "for the first time since we landed Carmathen [sic] Hills (Blue Mountains) as likewise the hills to the southward". Phillip's "Bellevue" (Prospect Hill) acquired considerable significance for the new settlers. Prospect Hill provided a point from which distances could be meaningfully calculated, and became a major reference point for other early explorers. Statements that Prospect Hill is the hill named Belle-Vue by Governor Phillip on its ascent by his expedition in April 1788 are unsubstantiated in contemporary record. When Captain- Lieutenant Watkin Tench made another official journey to the west in 1789, he began his journey with reference to Prospect Hill, which commanded a view of the great chain of mountains to the west. A runaway convict, George Bruce, used Prospect Hill as a hideaway from soldiers in the mid-1790s. The first recorded ascent of Prospect Hill by a colonist is that of Tench and his party on 26 June 1789. While there is no documentary evidence of Tench having named Prospect Hill, there is no doubt that it is in fact the hill that was shortly afterwards known by that name. In view of Tench's literary allusions to Milton's Paradise Lost, it seems highly probable that the experience of climbing it reminded him of the "goodly prospect of some forein land first- seen" by Milton's scout and that it was indeed Tench who first named it. The earliest written reference to the name Prospect Hill is probably the account of an after-dinner walk from Parramatta to the hill by Governor Phillip and Lieutenant (later Governor) Philip Gidley King in April 1790. King's account shows that the name Prospect Hill had become established by then. During the initial struggling years of European settlement in NSW, Governor Phillip began to settle time-expired convicts on the land as farmers, after the success of James Ruse at Rose Hill. On 18 July 1791 Phillip placed a number of men on the eastern and southern slopes of Prospect Hill, as the soils weathered from the basalt cap were richer than the sandstone derived soils of the Cumberland Plain. The grants, mostly , encircled Prospect Hill. The settlers included William Butler, James Castle, Samuel Griffiths, John Herbert, George Lisk, Joseph Morley, John Nichols, William Parish and Edward Pugh. ===Aboriginal and European conflict=== The arrival of the first settlers prompted the first organised Aboriginal resistance to the spread of settlement, with the commencement of a violent frontier conflict in which Pemulwuy and his Bidjigal clan played a central role. This ended in violent attacks in February 1798 in which dozens of settlers were killed. Retaliation by Europeans was generally fast and austere with many aboriginals killed who had not been involved in the attacks on Europeans. Eventually, a reconciliation was started by the Aboriginal people, negotiated by their women and one of the Prospect Hill settlers, John Kennedy. On 1 May 1801 Governor King took drastic action, issuing a public order requiring that Aboriginal people around Parramatta, Prospect Hill and Georges River should be "driven back from the settlers" habitations by firing at them'. King's edicts appear to have encouraged a shoot-on-sight attitude whenever any Aboriginal men, women or children appeared. With the death of Pemulwuy, the main resistance leader, in 1802, Aboriginal resistance gradually diminished near Parramatta, although outer areas were still subject to armed hostilities. Prompted by suggestions to the Reverend Samuel Marsden by local Prospect Aboriginal groups that a conference should take place "with a view of opening the way to reconciliation", Marsden promptly organised a meeting near Prospect Hill. At the meeting, held on 3 May 1805, local Aboriginal representatives discussed with Marsden ways of ending the restrictions and indiscriminate reprisals inflicted on them by soldiers and settlers in response to atrocities committed by other Aboriginal clans.Flynn, M., Holroyd History and the Silent Boundary Project, Holroyd City Council, August 1997.Sydney Gazette, 5 May 1805 The meeting was significant because a group of Aboriginal women and a young free settler at Prospect named John Kennedy acted as intermediaries. The conference led to the end of the conflict for the Aboriginal clans around Parramatta and Prospect. This conference at Prospect on Friday 3 May 1805 is a landmark in Aboriginal/European relations. Macquarie's "Native Feasts" held at Parramatta from 1814 followed the precedent set in 1805. The Sydney Gazette report of the meeting is notable for the absence of the sneering tone that characterised its earlier coverage of Aboriginal matters. ===Land use=== In 1791 Governor Phillip started granting plots of land (mostly ) to emancipated convicts. Some convicts had spent years in prison and prison ships in England before being transported. Some of those who were under seven-year sentences had therefore completed them. Thirteen grants of land at Prospect Hill were made in July 1791.Historical Records of New South Wales, Vol 1 Part 2: Phillip 1783–1792, Sydney, 1892, pp 532 ff. In 1799 Ensign William Cummings of the New South Wales Corps was granted at Prospect Hill.Ryan, R. J., Land grants 1788–1809, Sydney, 1981. From its commencement in 1791 with the early settlement of the area, agricultural use of the land continued at Prospect Hill. Much of the land appears to have been cleared by the 1820s and pastoral use of the land was well established by then. When Governor Macquarie paid a visit to the area in 1810, he was favourably impressed by the comfortable conditions that had been created. A change in the interpretation of government policy in 1792 had opened the way for grants of land to officers of the New South Wales Marine Corps. Cummings was the first beneficiary of this change. In 1808 William Lawson was granted on the western slopes of the west ridge where he was to build his home Veteran Hall. He then bought Cummings' grant and it was here that his third son, Nelson Lawson built a magnificent home, Grey Stanes, on the crown of Prospect Hill.Australian Dictionary of Biography, 2006, Vol. 2, pp 96–97. Governor Macquarie confirmed the grant, where William Lawson had built a house, which he called "Veteran Hall", because he had a commission in the NSW Veterans Company. The house was demolished in 1928 and the site is now partly covered by the waters of Prospect Reservoir. Greystanes was approached by a long drive lined with an avenue of English trees - elms (Ulmus procera), hawthorns (Crataegus sp.), holly (Ilex aquifolium), and woodbine (Clematis) mingling with Jacaranda mimosifolia. It had a wide, semi-circular front veranda supported by four pillars. The foundations were of stone, the roof of slate, and the doors and architraves of heavy red cedar. It was richly furnished with articles of the best quality available and was the scene of many glittering soirees attended by the elite of the colony. Honoria Lawson died in 1845, Nelson remarried a year later, but died in 1849, and the property reverted to his father. Greystanes house was demolished in the 1940s.Pollon, 1988, 116, amended Read, S.,2006 - the house can't have been "on the crest" of Prospect Hill as Pollon states, if its site was covered by the Reservoir. Early grazing practices cleared the entire hill of trees. Quarrying in the area began in the 1820s and naturalist Charles Darwin visited Prospect Hill in January 1836, to observe the geology. By the latter part of the nineteenth century coarse-grained picrite, and other doloritic rock types were being extracted from William Lawson's estate on the west and north sides of the Hill. Veteran Hall and its land were resumed when Prospect Reservoir was built as Sydney's main water supply in the 1880s. The land was farmed from 1806 to 1888 when the Prospect Reservoir was built. In 1867, the Governor of New South Wales appointed a Commission to recommend a scheme for Sydney's water supply, and by 1869 it was recommended that construction commence on the Upper Nepean Scheme. This consisted of two diversion weirs, located at Pheasant's Nest and Broughton's Pass, in the Upper Nepean River catchment, with water feeding into a series of tunnels, canals and aqueducts known as the Upper Canal. It was intended that water be fed by gravity from the catchment into a reservoir at Prospect. This scheme was to be Sydney's fourth water supply system, following the Tank Stream, Busby's Bore and the Botany (Lachlan) Swamps. Designed and constructed by the NSW Public Works Department, Prospect Reservoir was built during the 1880s and completed in 1888. Credit for the Upper Nepean Scheme is largely given to Edward Orpen Moriarty, the Engineer in Chief of the Harbours and Rivers Branch of the Public Works Department from 1858 to 1888. By the 1870s, with the collapse of the production of cereal grains across the Cumberland Plain, the Prospect Hill area appears to have largely been devoted to livestock. The dwellings of the earliest settlers largely appear to have been removed by this stage. By the time that any mapping was undertaken in this vicinity, most of these structures had disappeared, making their locations difficult to pinpoint. ===Modern history=== Quarrying of the basalt plug at Prospect Hill was well underway by the mid-nineteenth century. By the early twentieth century, Prospect Hill land had been acquired by quarrying firms anxious to expand their land holdings near this valuable source of raw material. The bulk of the present CSIRO site was acquired by the Commonwealth in 1946, and a further 15 hectares was acquired in 1963. In the early 1950s the site became operational and sheep were pastured for research purposes. Prospect Hill was for many years the primary source of road-stone for the city's expanding infrastructure until the reserves of dolerite were exhausted.Perumal Murphy Wu, 2000 The Greystanes estate was eventually bought by quarrying interests. In 1998 Boral reviewed its holdings with a view to future redevelopment as its quarry neared the end of its life. SEPP59 was gazetted in 1999 applying to a number of Western Sydney holdings including Greystanes Estate, Nelsons Ridge, rezoning land on the hill's west for employment and on the hill's eastern side for housing and regional open space and providing precinct planning controls. Boral developed two precinct plans. Holroyd City Council adopted the residential precinct plan in 2002. The then Minister for Urban Affairs & Planning took over planning powers for the employment area in November 2000 and approved the Employment Precinct Plan in June 2001, approving subdivision and associated works in the northern employment lands later in June 2001. Since, parts of the employment land have been sold and further subdivideed and sold. In 2000, the CSIRO site has an area of and is the primary research centre of the Division of Animal Production, with some 40 buildings and sheds having been constructed over the last forty years. As at 19 February 2001, The southern portion of Prospect Hill, located within the Boral Brickworks site has been extensively quarried; however the CSIRO site has largely retained its original surface form. Archaeological potential high within the CSIRO site. Long-term pastoral use on much of Prospect Hill has ensured the site retains its historical links and archaeological potential. However, Prospect Hill is under immediate threat from development, which has the potential to impact upon the significance of the site. This includes the rezoning of the site as part of SEPP 59 and development for residential/employment purposes, the continual quarrying of the southern portion of the hill; and new development proposals including a proposed flagpole to be erected on Prospect Hill commemorating Federation. Various modifications, extensions and refurbishment of buildings within CSIRO research complex over time. In 2002 Delfin Lend Lease entered a joint venture with Boral to develop the residential lands. This part of the estate is now known as Nelson's Ridge (after Nelson Lawson who owned the Greystanes Estate and commissioned Greystanes House in 1837). Nelson's Ridge is being developed by Lend Lease in two stages with the first comprising the northern employment and northern residential lands and the second comprising the southern equivalents. The former CSIRO site to the north of Nelson's Ridge was vacated in 1/2002 and sold to Stockland in March 2002. SEPP 59 also rezoned it for residential and employment uses. This site has its own precinct plan, now adopted into the Holroyd City Council's Development Control Plan: Part P Pemulwuy Residential Lands. It will eventually be integrated with the Nelson's Ridge development through Driftway Drive as well as cycleways and pedestrian links being established between the two.Whelans InSites, 2010, 5 The land inside the oval-shaped ridge was levelled from 2008 to 2010 and is rapidly filling with large industrial buildings. The gap in the ridge that had previously been created by quarrying has been lowered to the floor level of the quarry and the drainage of the area reversed from its earlier northward flow to empty into Prospect Creek, while a new road, Reconciliation Road, has been driven through the centre of the hill from Prospect Highway and across the gap to Wetherill Park.Holroyd 2007: Holroyd Development Control Plan 2007, (Part G: Former CSIRO Site Pemulwuy Residential Lands – Western Precinct), Holroyd City Council, 2007. On 31 December 2019, a grass fire broke out on the hill's pine forest and the contiguous grey box reserve, where it headed north towards Pemulwuy along the Prospect Highway. About 10 hectare size and burning a number of historic Monterey pine trees, the fire impacted a large industrial area and threatened numerous properties before being brought under control by about 9 pm that day. As of 2021, Boral have begun excavation and preparation of a significant area at the base of the hill for an extension of the housing development of Pemulwuy. The development will sit between the Canal Walkway and the pine forest. ==Geography== Rain that falls on the southern slopes of Prospect Hill flows into Prospect Creek and then via the Georges River into Botany Bay. The northern slopes drain into Girraween Creek and eventually into the Parramatta River and Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour). Close by to the west is Prospect Reservoir and beyond it, Eastern Creek flows north-west into the Nepean-Hawkesbury River, the mighty river that encircles Sydney forming the boundary of the Cumberland Plain and eventually flowing into the sea at Broken Bay. Lying centrally in the Cumberland Plain and dominating the landscape of the area, Prospect Hill is Sydney's largest body of igneous rock and rises to a height of 117 metres above sea level. The hill is located between the south-west corner of CSIRO Division of Animal Production site and the south-east corner of the Boral Resources (NSW) site at Greystanes. The CSIRO portion of Prospect Hill is generally cleared for pasture grasses, with remnant stands of native vegetation along a creek line that runs from north to south along the site. The portion of Prospect Hill located within the Boral site has remnant stands of trees and has been partially used as part of the Boral Brickworks operation. The first settlement of the area occurred in 1791 on the eastern and southern slopes of Prospect Hill, however no buildings dating from the 18th or 19th century remain above ground. A number of the original boundaries of the Prospect land grants of 1791 can be identified when looking east across the CSIRO site from Prospect Hill. On the slope of Prospect Hill, north of the hilltop, is an abandoned quarry dating to the later part of the 19th century. ==Geology== In the Sydney Basin, insignificant igneous activity took place in the Early Jurassic (i.e. 210 million years ago), Late Mesozoic (i.e. 100-90 million years ago) and Cenozoic eras (i.e. 65 million years ago). The Early Jurassic activity resulted in the shaping of the Prospect dolerite intrusion, which unequivocally points that the hill had a volcanic origin. When Australia, then part of the Gondwana supercontinent, began to break up and drift away from Antarctica and Zealandia 80 million years ago, this may have also caused a period of volcanic activity along the east coast, as breakup tension caused deep faults in the continental crust allowing magma to ascent from the mantle regions below the earth's surface.Johnson R. W. (1989). Volcano distribution and classification. In: Johnson R. W., Knutson J. And Taylor S. R. eds. Intraplate Volcanism: In Eastern Australia and New Zealand, pp. 7 11. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. The eroded residue of the volcanic core forms Prospect Hill, which was battered down over millions of years to a small bulge in the generally flat lands of western Sydney.Jones, I., and Verdel, C. (2015). Basalt distribution and volume estimates of Cenozoic volcanism in the Bowen Basin region of eastern Australia: Implications for a waning mantle plume. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 62(2), 255-263. The dome is referred to as a doleritic laccolith.Wilshire: Wilshire, H.G., The Prospect alkaline diabase-picrite intrusion, New South Wales, Australia in Journal of Petrology, Vol. 8 (1), pp 97-163, 1967. The next stage of natural development, which has lasted over 60 million years, has been the slow erosion of the overlying layers of sedimentary rock by the flow of rainwater, which eventually laid bare the edges of the volcanic and metamorphic rocks of the intrusion.Conybeare Morrison, Prospect Hill Conservation Management Plan, Holroyd City Council, 2005Jones, I., Verdel, C., Crossingham, T., and Vasconcelos, P. (2017). Animated reconstructions of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic northward migration of Australia, and implications for the generation of east Australian mafic magmatism. Geosphere, 13(2), 460-481. The hill contains a slender, chilled margin of fine-grained basalt with most of the mass of the intrusion being made up of picrite and dolerite. Volcanic rocks on the hill are predominantly mafic. Minerals, and as well as volcanic material. In the 1960s, small amount of gold was discovered in a sample test, and since then no more has been found.England, B. M. (1994) Minerals of the Prospect Intrusion, New South Wales, Australia. Mineralogical Record 25, pp.185-194. ==Summits== Prospect Hill is a narrow ridge curved round in the shape of an incomplete oval, about one kilometre from west to east and from north to south. The most accurate description of the shape of the ridge is to say that it is J-shaped, with the upright of the J pointing a few degrees east of north. The summits are described in order starting from the top of the "J" and proceeding clockwise round the ridge. *Prospect Lookout: The most northerly summit of Prospect Hill, it is northwards from Greystanes Hill and is clearly visible from the junction of Blacktown Road and the Great Western Highway. It was a popular picnic spot in the 1920s. The ridge between it and Greystanes Hill to the south was cut through by a quarry road, now improved as Butu Wargun Drive but with a barrier to vehicular traffic at the point where it crosses the ridge. Access to this summit is from the Clunies Ross Street, although the gates have been closed since 2017. The hill is above sea level. *Greystanes Hill or Marrong Reserve: Situated just south of Butu Wargun Drive, it is now the highest point of Prospect Hill having an elevation of . The summit area contains a recreational lookout area that features panoramic eastward views of the Sydney CBD, walking tracks, public seating and native plants. From the summit itself there are views of the Blue Mountains to the west. To the east one can see panoramic views of Sydney CBD (including the Sydney Harbour Bridge), Sydney Olympic Park, Parramatta and also the woody North Shore to the north. On its eastern side the ridge descends through steep scrub to Daruga Avenue in Pemulwuy. To the west there is the restituted face of Prospect Quarry. Before quarrying, the hill was high and the then highest point was the site of a trig point named Greystanes by the NSW Department of Lands. A larger area stretching southwards is also designated as Marrong Reserve. To note, this hill is colloquially known as Pemulwuy Lookout.Prospect 9030-2N, Topographic map 1:25 000, Third Edition, Land and Property Information NSW, 2001. *One-Tree Hill: This hill has a prominent Moreton Bay fig tree, dated to be over 150 years old, which was within the precincts of Grey Stanes, the house of Nelson Lawson. Although inaccessible to the public, the hill can be viewed from Prospect Highway south of the M4 or from Daruga Avenue, Pemulwuy. The hill is just to the south of Greystanes Hill. *The South Top: The summit ridge is fairly level but with steep sides. Its highest point is above sea level. The western part of the Lower Prospect Canal Reserve walkway and cycleway runs along the foot of the hill's southeast slopes. The lower slopes feature Pampas grass, Ipomoea cairica, Lantana camara, Acacia longifolia and the upper slopes prominently consist a plantation of Monterey pine treesHorne, R. & Robinson, G.L. 1988. Development of basal area thinning prescription and predictive yield models for Pinus radiata plantations in New South Wales, 1962–1968. Research Paper No. 6. Sydney, Forestry Commission of New South Wales. with a few Grey Box and Casuarina trees. Kangaroos and blind snakes are found on the grassy slopes. The hilltop provides panoramic views to the south of Greater Western Sydney. The summit is observable from the suburbs of Smithfield and Wetherill Park in the City of Fairfield. By car, this summit can be entered from Hyland Road in the southeast or Prospect Highway in the southwest, as the walkway leading to it straddles the highway.Holroyd 2009: Betteridge, C. and M., Heritage Interpretation Plan for Prospect Hill, Holroyd City Council, 2009. *Reservoir Hill: Just to the south of Water Tower Hill, this hill faces Prospect Reservoir and is in the suburb of Prospect within City of Blacktown local government area. Situated in Prospect Nature Reserve, the hill (also known as George Maunder Lookouts) contains scenic picnic spots. The foot of the Hill is accessible via William Lawson Drive during the Prospect Reservoir opening hours. *Water Tower Hill: There are two water towers on the summit and a covered reservoir nearby (one being Prospect Hill Reservoir). It is the second highest summit of Prospect Hill at about Map "based on topography by Cumberland Co Council 1964" in Wilshire, H.G., The Prospect alkaline diabase- picrite intrusion, New South Wales, Australia in Journal of Petrology, Vol. 8 (1), 1967 (the present trig point being at the top of the higher water tower). It is inaccessible to the public. == Heritage listing == As at 19 February 2001, the Prospect Hill area had state significance due to its unique combination of significant landscape feature, potential archaeological site, and association with important historical phases. As a dolerite outcrop rising to a height of , Prospect Hill is a rare geological and significant topographic feature providing expansive views across the Cumberland Plain. The site is significant as a major reference point for early explorers from 1788, and as the site of a number of the earliest farms in New South Wales, which were established in 1791. Prospect Hill is also associated with Aboriginal frontier warfare during the early days of the colony, and as the site of one of the first Aboriginal/ European reconciliation meetings held in 1805 involving Samuel Marsden and Prospect Aboriginal groups. Through its ongoing pastoral and rural use, the site has the potential to provide archaeological evidence of early farming practice and settlement. The landscape of Prospect Hill is likely to be one of the only remaining areas of rural land within the local and regional area that has retained its long-term pastoral use since the earliest days of the colony. ===Criteria=== Prospect Hill was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 17 October 2003 having satisfied the following criteria. > The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural > or natural history in New South Wales. Prospect Hill is historically > significant as the site of a number of the earliest farms in New South > Wales, with a number of time-expired convicts settled on the land in 1791 by > Governor Phillip. As a significant landmark on the Cumberland Plain, > Prospect Hill provided an important reference point for early explorers from > 1788, and played a role in the earliest exploration of the east coast of > Australia. Prospect Hill is also associated with an important phase of > Aboriginal/European contact; firstly through Pemulwuy's guerilla warfare in > the area between 1797 and 1802, and in 1805 as the site of a reconciliation > meeting involving Samuel Marsden. Prospect Hill has historical associations > arising from the use of the site over time; including the Aboriginal > frontier leader Pemulwuy, Samuel Marsden and those earliest former convicts > who settled at Prospect Hill including William Butler, Samuel Griffiths and > William Parish. The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic > characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in > New South Wales. Prospect Hill has aesthetic significance as Sydney's > largest body of igneous rock, which rises to a height of 117 metres and > provides expansive views across the Cumberland Plain. The large dolerite > formation of Prospect Hill is a rare geological and landmark topographic > feature, lying centrally within the Cumberland Plain. Through the long-term > use of the site for pastoral use, the landscape retains an essentially rural > character, which is becoming rare in the locality. The place has strong or > special association with a particular community or cultural group in New > South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. Through its continued > use for research purposes over the last 40 years, the CSIRO complex, which > is located at the foot of Prospect Hill, has significance for those > employees who have worked at the research facility, and in particular for > those scientists who have carried out work which is of importance to > Australia';s cultural history.Perumal Murphy Wu 2000 The place has potential > to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the > cultural or natural history of New South Wales. Through its continual > pastoral/rural use since 1791, Prospect Hill has the potential to provide > archaeological evidence of early historical settlement or agricultural > techniques used. The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of > the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. Prospect Hill is unique > as a significant landmark site, and through its ability to demonstrate > historical links with early European exploration and settlement as well as > Aboriginal conflict and reconciliation, with the landscape retaining its > continual pastoral use since the early days of the colony. ==Gallery== File:Marrongreserve.jpg|Entrance to Marrong Reserve or Prospect Hill Lookout (main summit). File:Pemulwuylookout.jpg|Prospect Hill Lookout, with a view of Parramatta, Chatswood and the Hills District (2017). File:Prospecthillwalk.jpg|A walking and cycling track in The South Top (Prospect Hill Pine Forest), which meanders around the southern summit (2018). File:Prospect_hill.jpg|The southern vicinity of Prospect Hill, as viewed from a neighbourhood in Smithfield (2007). File:Prospectgeorge.jpg|Atop of Reservoir Hill (George Maunder Lookout Upper Level) at Prospect Nature Reserve (2019). == See also == *Prospect, a suburb nearby *Prospect Reservoir, a nearby reservoir *Lower Prospect Canal Reserve *Geography of Sydney == References == ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Attribution === ==External links== *Prospect Hill – Introduction Category:Geography of Sydney Category:Landmarks in Sydney Category:Climbing areas of Australia Category:Hills of New South Wales Category:Nature reserves in New South Wales Category:Parks in Sydney Category:Parks in New South Wales Category:Quarries in Australia Category:Prospect, New South Wales Category:New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Farms in New South Wales Category:Brickworks in Australia Category:Industrial buildings in New South Wales Category:Homesteads in New South Wales Category:Research institutes in Australia Category:Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Landforms of Sydney
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May Harrison (23 August 1890- 8 June 1959) was an English violinist and the oldest of four sisters who were classical musicians in Great Britain during the early 20th century. Each had started out as a child prodigy.Candlin, David. “The Harrison Sisters – Famous English Musicians,” in “The Harrison Sisters' Trust.” East Grinstead, United Kingdom: Hammerwood Park website, retrieved online June 12, 2018.Fountain, Katrina. "In a Surrey Garden: the story of the Harrison sisters", in The Delius Society Journal (The Harrison Sisters Issue), Autumn 1985, No. 87. London, United Kingdom: The Delius Society. == Information == Her sisters, Beatrice (1892-1965), Monica (1897-1983) and Margaret (1899-1995) became, respectively, a cellist, mezzo- soprano, and violinist. All four were reportedly also talented pianists. May Harrison became known for her interpretations of the violin works of Bach, Brahms, Elgar, Glazunov, Grieg, Handel, and Mendelssohn while her sister, Beatrice, was praised by King George V for her outdoor recordings at the Harrison’s home at Foyle Riding in Oxted, Surrey of cello works mingled with nightingale songs. The monarch reportedly thanked her for bringing “the Empire closer together through the song of the nightingale and your cello.”Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters.Candlin, David. "Beatrice Harrison and her duets with Nightingales ." Limpsfield, United Kingdom: St. Peter's Limpsfield Parish News, Autumn 2015, p. 16. According to Katherine Fountain who wrote a biographical sketch of the Harrison sisters:Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. > However much we admire the soloists of today, things will never be the same > as during the lifetime of the Harrison family. They dedicated their lives to > the cause of music, paving the way for a generation of women musicians. They > gained the respect of the leading composers and performers of their day and > set a musical precedent in the history of English music. ==Formative years== Born in India in 1890, May Harrison was a daughter of Colonel John Harrison, an amateur flautistFountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. who was the principal at St. Thomas College of Sappers and Miners. Her sister, Beatrice, was born in 1892 in Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India “in a picturesque valley of the Himalayas,” where her father worked, according to David Candlin.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust.Lashmar, Carole. Ralshams Between the Lines. Lulu.com, 2016.Beatrice Harrison. Find A Grave: Retrieved online June 12, 2018. Their mother, a singer, had studied with Henschel and Garcia at London’s Royal College of Music.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. That same year, the family returned to England, where May Harrison's father was given command of The Royal Engineers Band at Chatham.Lashmar, Ralshams Between the Lines. May Harrison also began her violin studies in 1892 when she was just two years old. Sisters Monica and Margaret were born, respectively, at Redcliffe Square, London in 1897 and Chatham in 1899.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. From 1901 to 1920, May Harrison and her sisters were reared at Cornwall Gardens (with the exception of a brief interruption in 1908).Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. ==Musical training and career== In 1900, May Harrison vied against 3,000 male and female musicians of all ages in the Associated Board's Senior Department, taking home the Gold Medal when she was just ten years old. The next year, she was awarded a scholarship to The Royal College of Music. Her sisters, Beatrice and Margaret, were also accepted to the college, respectively in 1903 and 1904. (At the time of her enrollment, Margaret Harrison was reportedly the youngest student the college had ever accepted.)Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust.Lashmar, Ralshams Between the Lines. From 1902 to 1907, May Harrison trained under Madrid Symphony conductor Fernandez Arbos.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. In 1903, she made her formal debut at St. James Hall. The program, conducted by Henry Wood, included: Bach's Chaconne and E Major Concerto, Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto, and Saint-Saëns' Introduction and Rondo Cappriccioso. In the audience was violinist Fritz Kreisler.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. According to Katrina Fountain, "May's genius, even at the age of fifteen, became apparent to Arbos who invited her in 1906 to make her European debut with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra. This was a great success and, with her mother as chaperone, she went to meet the Spanish Royal family and was presented with a gift of jewels".Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. In 1908, the bulk of the Harrison family relocated to Berlin, Germany for two years, where Beatrice Harrison began studies at the Hochschule für Musik. Meanwhile, May Harrison left England in 1908 to pursue her own studies in Saint Petersburg, Russia with Leopold Auer. She then made her European debut in 1909 in Berlin, Germany. That same year, she replaced Fritz Kreisler at the Mendelssohn Festival in Helsingfors, Finland".Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. Over the next decade, May and Beatrice Harrison increased their fame through performances of Johannes Brahms’ Double-Concerto for Violin and Cello. Following their initial performance of the piece under the baton of Alexander Glazunov in St. Petersburg, they then performed it nearly 60 more times for European audiences, including a concert under the baton of Sir Thomas Beecham at Hallé (Manchester) on 3 December 1914. Inspired by their performance that night, Frederick Delius returned home to pen a Double Concerto, which he then dedicated to the Harrison sisters and which they, in turn, performed in 1920.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. According to May Harrison's sister, Beatrice:Harrison, Beatrice. "Frederick Delius at home", "Delius", and "The cello of the Nightingales", in The Delius Society Journal (The Harrison Sisters Issue), Autumn 1985, No. 87. London, United Kingdom: The Delius Society. > It was a great thrill the first time I met Delius. My sister May (who is a > very fine violinist) and I were playing the Double Brahms Concerto with Sir > Thomas Beecham at Manchester, and after the performance a very charming > looking man came forward, and when Sir Thomas introduced him we were > enchanted to hear that it was Delius in the flesh. I wish I could describe > our delight when he said that he thought our performance was superb, so much > so that he himself was inspired to write a double concerto and dedicate it > to my sister and me. And he did it! Of course we had that marvellous > conductor and a splendid orchestra that evening, and we feel we can never > thank them enough for helping us to inspire Delius to write his glorious > Double. Many critics consider it one of the finest orchestral works". According to May Harrison's sister, Margaret:"Margaret Harrison remembers", in The Delius Society Journal (The Harrison Sisters Issue), Autumn 1985, No. 87. London, United Kingdom: The Delius Society. > We were all very fond of Delius. We knew him from the early war years, and > that was the real Delius. Our friendship really started when he wrote the > Double Concerto, but May was playing Sonata No. 1 with Hamilton Harty > [Aeolian Hall, London, 16 June 1915] even before we knew Delius well.... > Both May and I love Sonata No. 1. I played it a lot. I played both the First > and Second Sonatas to Delius who seemed to enjoy it. He always praised when > one played, he was very good in that. May and Beatrice went to Grez [where > Delius resided] before I did. When we went over we would always play to > Delius.... May went to Grez a lot, especially later when they were doing the > Third Sonata which Delius wrote for her". May Harrison also later described Delius (an a 1945 lecture for the Royal Music Association):Harrison, May. "The music of Delius", in The Delius Society Journal (The Harrison Sisters Issue), Autumn 1985, No. 87. London, United Kingdom: The Delius Society. > To those who love Delius's music it holds a magic so irresistible and a > beauty so individual that the sound at times can bring actual pain. The > playing of Delius's music, I consider, an instinct, an improvisation on the > spur of the moment, and because of this elusive quality, this intangible > something, I maintain that it is practically impossible to teach that music. > No composer, I think, to such an extent on his interpreters, who can make or > mar to such a degree as to change the whole colour and meaning of his work; > and no composer suffered more from indifferent playing than he did. Exact > intonation is one of the greatest difficulties. I have seen him shudder with > agony at bad intonation or insensitive phrasing; and now when I see his > works so often set for examinations I feel I must offer up a prayer that > Delius may be comforted for the performances that are bound to come forth!" In 1922, May Harrison relocated with her family to Foyle Riding in Oxted and Limpsfield, Surrey. According to Candlin, “Their garden was the scene of many social charity garden parties, and received visitors from all over the world to see ‘The Garden of the Nightingales'” (the location where May's sister, Beatrice, made her famed recordings of cello music with nightingale accompaniments).”Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. In 1930, Delius dedicated his Violin Sonata, No. 3 to May Harrison. Four years later, the Harrison sisters suffered multiple losses with the 1934 deaths of their mother and, in June, Delius. Their father, who had also been in declining health then also passed away a short time later.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. Among the friends and colleagues made by the sisters in the musical community, in addition to Beecham, Delius, Elgar, Kreisler, and Glazunov were: Eugen d’Albert, Sir Arnold Bax, Pablo Casals, John Ireland, Zoltán Kodály, Dame Nellie Melba, Ernest John Moeran, Oskar Nedbal, Arthur Nikisch, Roger Quilter, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Freda Swain and Felix Weingartner. Delius and others dedicated several of their compositions to various Harrison sisters over time. Their circle of friends also included the politically well connected, including Eleanor Roosevelt and Princess Victoria, the daughter of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, as well as George Bernard Shaw and other artists and writers.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. Prior to the outbreak of World War II, May Harrison’s performances were frequently heard live in Promenade Concerts and via the BBC Radio. From 1935 to 1947, she was also a member of the faculty at The Royal College of Music.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust. Three of the sisters, -- May, Beatrice and Margaret – performed in the Delius Memorial Concert at Wigmore Hall on 29 May 1946, which helped raise funds to ease the war-related suffering of European children.Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters. ==Death and interment== May Harrison and her sisters remained single until their deaths. Following May Harrison’s death in England on 8 June 1959, and her subsequent burial at St. Peter Churchyard cemetery in Limpsfield, Surrey,May Harrison. Find A Grave: Retrieved online June 12, 2018. the three surviving sisters – Beatrice, Margaret and Monica – lived together in Limpsfield. Beatrice was the next to die, in Limpsfield on 10 March 1965, followed by Monica, died there on 8 December 1983 and Margaret, who died there on Christmas Eve in 1995. All three sisters were laid to rest at the same cemetery where their elder sister, May, had been interred.Candlin, The Harrison Sisters' Trust.Beatrice Harrison, Monica Harrison, and Margaret Harrison. Find A Grave: Retrieved online June 12, 2018. According to Fountain, their mother had also been laid to rest at the same cemetery in 1934. Delius also rests nearby. "On his death in June 1934 Delius was buried at Grez-sur- Loing, but he had once told Mrs. Harrison that he would like to be buried in an English churchyard. Mrs. Harrison herself died earlier that same year (and their father, already ill, died soon after), but the sisters, after consulting Jelka Delius, saw that this wish was carried out, and in May 1935 his [Delius'] body was exhumed and brought over to England to be laid to rest in Limpsfield churchyard, near to the Harrisons’ own mother's grave".Fountain, Katrina. The Harrison sisters."Delius at Rest: Burial in a Surrey Churchyard: Sir Thomas Beecham's Eulogy". London, England: The Times, May 26, 1935. ==References== ==External links== *Candlin, David. "Beatrice Harrison and her duets with Nightingales." Limpsfield, United Kingdom: St. Peter's Limpsfield Parish News, Autumn 2015, p. 16\. *Delius, Frederick. Violin Sonata, No. 1 (recording of performance by May Harrison, violin). Provided to YouTube by NAXOS of America, retrieved online June 12, 2018. *"May Harrison" (memorial). Find A Grave: Retrieved online June 12, 2018. *The Delius Society Journal (The Harrison Sisters Issue) , Autumn 1985, No. 87. London, United Kingdom: The Delius Society, retrieved online June 12, 2018. *The Harrison Sisters, in famous musician burials, in "St. Peter's Churchyard." Limpsfield, United Kingdom: The Limpsfield Net, retrieved online June 12, 2018. Category:Women violinists Category:20th-century English women musicians Category:20th-century English musicians Category:20th-century violinists Category:1890 births Category:1959 deaths
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{{Infobox writer | name = Walter Ansel Strong | image = | caption = | birth_date = | birth_place = Chicago, Illinois | death_date = | death_place = Winnetka, Illinois | occupation = Publisher, Chicago Daily News | spouse = Josephine Webster Strong }} Walter Ansel Strong (1883–1931) was the publisher of the Chicago Daily News during Prohibition and the early days of the Great Depression. He was an innovator in business and a prominent civic leader. ==Early years== Walter Strong was born in Chicago on August 13, 1883, to Dr. Albert Bliss Strong and Ida Cook Strong. His father, a Union Army veteran, taught at Rush Medical College for many years, and later maintained a private medical practice. His mother was a conservatory-trained pianist and singer. She was the adopted daughter of Ansel B. and Helen Cook. Ansel was a stone masonry contractor who served on the Chicago City Council and in the Illinois State Legislature. In retirement, Cook built a large second home in Libertyville, Illinois, thirty miles north of Chicago. Strong's early years were marked by tragedy. Three of his five siblings died of natural causes during childhood. His father had mental health issues, quite possibly bipolar disorder, and needed intermittent institutional care beginning when Walter was twelve years old. The stress of these events caused Strong's mother to leave Chicago in 1895 and move to Libertyville where she had a cottage adjacent to her father's property. A divorce decree, which her husband sought and which she did not oppose, was issued in 1896. In 1898, Strong's mother moved permanently to the Los Angeles, California area, with Strong's youngest brother in her custody. With the break-up of the family and his father's illness, arrangements were made for Strong and his older brother, who were in their father's care, to reside in a group home operated by the West Side YMCA. Walter finished his final year of high school during his first year of residency there, graduating from the West Division Street School in 1899. During that time, family relatives supported the two young boys, particularly after their father's death following involuntary confinement in the State Hospital for the Insane in Kankakee (now Kankakee State Hospital) in March 1900. One of their father's first cousins, Jessie Bradley, had married Victor Lawson, the publisher of the Chicago Daily News. She and her husband were among those who saw to it that Walter and his brother were afforded opportunities they otherwise might not have had. During their first year of residence at the West Side YMCA, Strong and his brother were newsboys for the Daily News, hawking papers after school on Madison Avenue streetcars for food money. Beginning the summer after high school, Walter was given a part-time job as a clerk at Lawson's morning newspaper, the Chicago Record. Walter held this job while he attended night classes at the Lewis Institute (now the Illinois Institute of Technology), which awarded him a degree in civil engineering in 1901. In the fall of 1902, Strong entered Beloit College in Wisconsin as a sophomore. The Lawsons assisted his admission by guaranteeing his tuition. While attending Beloit, Strong supported himself with a variety of part-time jobs, including work at the Beloit Free Press. He also edited the student newspaper, and was art director for the Codex, the semi-annual yearbook. He was active in the Beta Theta Pi fraternity, where he formed lifelong friendships, and participated in a wide range of college sports and organizations. Strong accepted an offer from Mr. Lawson to join the staff at the Chicago Daily News shortly before he graduated. ==Chicago Daily News== thumb|left|Walter Strong as a young clerk at the Chicago Daily News. Courtesy Walter Ansel Strong Papers, The Newberry Library, Chicago|alt= Strong began his three-decade-long career at the Chicago Daily News as an audit clerk in August 1905. In 1908 he accompanied Victor Lawson to Europe as his secretary. Shortly thereafter, he became Lawson's office manager. In addition, Strong was given responsibility for overseeing the Chicago Daily News Fresh Air Fund Sanitarium, established by Jessie Lawson in 1887 for the benefit of poor urban children. Located on the lakefront at Fullerton Avenue, the sanitarium provided free transportation, health care, and meals daily except Sundays throughout the summer. Attendance averaged over 400 children daily, with “no one turned away for reason of class, color or condition.” Strong oversaw the construction of a new home for the sanitarium, a Prairie-style building designed by Dwight H. Perkins, which opened in 1920. When Strong became publisher in 1926, the building was winterized so it could operate year-round. The sanitarium was closed in 1937 and in 1952 it was converted into a theater now known as the Theater on the Lake. In October 1909, Strong began attending evening classes at John Marshall Law School. He graduated in 1912 and was admitted to the bar. One of his law professors was Frank J. Loesch, with whom he would later collaborate on law enforcement and anti-corruption campaigns in Chicago. With the outbreak of WWI, when competition for newspaper readers became fierce, Lawson put Strong in charge of the circulation department of the paper. In recognition of his ability and dedication to the paper, Lawson made Strong business manager in 1921. In the first several decades of Lawson's ownership, the Daily News had become one of the most widely read newspapers in the world, eclipsing its rival the Chicago Tribune. It had a reputation for fairness and honesty, and its international news coverage was second to none. However, after Lawson's wife died in 1913, his attention to the paper began to flag. The couple had no children and Lawson increasingly spent time away from Chicago at the estate and dairy farm his wife had developed and managed for them in Green Lake, Wisconsin. During the war years, Strong urged Lawson to invest in a modern plant so the Daily News could keep pace with its competitors. Initially, Lawson was interested enough to acquire an underused lot for that purpose, but he never followed through on the plan. The property, between Madison and Washington just east of the Chicago River, is where the Civic Opera House is today. In addition to overseeing the business side of operations, in 1922 Strong was instrumental in creating the radio station WMAQ (AM). WMAQ was one of the first stations in Chicago, and among the first owned by a newspaper. Strong decided that a young woman named Judith C. Waller was the right person to manage the station. He called her and said, “I’ve just bought a radio station; come down and run it.” Waller protested that she didn't know anything about running a station. Strong replied “neither do I, but come down and we’ll find out.” Waller was hired in February 1922. She went on to have a long and distinguished career in broadcasting. Strong was also an active participant in annual Radio Conferences organized by then US Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover in 1924 and 1925. As chairman of the National Radio Coordinating Committee, then an influential broadcasting trade association, Strong assisted Hoover in gaining passage of the Radio Act of 1927 – the first law that regulated radio broadcasting as a mass medium. In 1927, WMAQ become a charter affiliate of the Columbia Broadcasting System. In 1930 the station was organized as a separate corporation, Strong becoming chairman of the board of directors. In the same year he launched the radio station, Strong established a corporation to build a paper mill in Chicago that used waste paper stock in the production of newsprint, under contract with the Daily News. This pioneering recycling initiative was in response to wartime shortages, which saw the price of paper (the single biggest expense for newspapers) more than double. Waterway Paper Products was located at Kedzie and 32nd Street. Strong was its president and Emanuel M. Mendelson the vice-president and Treasurer. Waterways Paper Products operated between 1923 and 1930, eventually producing some 30,000 tons of quality newsprint annually. Victor Lawson died in August 1925, leaving no instructions in his will regarding the disposition of the Daily News. Strong spent the rest of the year raising the capital for a corporation he established to buy the Daily News in order to maintain Lawson's staff and preserve the paper's high journalistic standards. As a result of Strong's efforts, the paper was acquired by the Chicago Daily News Corporation, of which he was the major stockholder, for $13.5 million – the highest price paid for a newspaper up to that time. Strong was the president and publisher of the Chicago Daily News Corporation from December 1925 until his death in May 1931. By the end of the 1920s, the paper had a circulation of 430,000, and claimed to employ over 14,000 people around the world. Strong continued his interest in broadcasting. The Daily News experimented with a mechanical television system, which had its inaugural telecast as W9XAP on August 27, 1930. The technology proved unworkable, but the experiment laid the groundwork for WMAQ-TV years later.thumb|Daily News Building, Chicago Once he became publisher, Strong took immediate steps to build a modern newspaper facility. Rejecting the parcel Lawson had chosen as too small, he instead acquired the air rights over railroad tracks that ran along west side of the river opposite the original site. At the time, air rights were still a novelty outside of New York City. Strong's friend Laird Bell represented the Chicago Daily News in the complicated negotiation over these rights (several different railroad companies were involved), and Strong's former law professor, Frank Loesch, represented the railroad companies. A year and one-half of meetings were required to reach an agreement between all parties. Once that was settled, Strong sold the parcel Lawson had reserved for the Daily News to the utility magnate Samuel Insull, with the understanding that he construct a building that would include a new home for the Chicago Civic Opera. Strong commissioned Holabird & Root to design a modern structure with a large open- air plaza fronting the water. The building's bold design and Art Deco façade were widely regarded as a shot fired at the Chicago Tribune, which operated out of the Tribune Tower, a large Neo Gothic building on North Michigan Avenue which had been completed in 1925. Inside, the Daily News building featured a much-admired mural by John W. Norton and outside it had bas-reliefs depicting the history of journalism and a fountain honoring Victor Lawson. The ground- breaking ceremony was held in December 1927, and the Chicago Daily News Building was completed in June 1929. During the dedication ceremony, President Herbert Hoover pressed a button that started the presses. The building was twenty-six stories high, housed 2,000 Daily News employees and provided studio space for WMAQ. Although it has since been renamed Riverside Plaza, according to the Tribune’s architecture critic, the Daily News Building remains “one of Chicago's finest examples of Art Deco architecture and a path-breaking work of engineering and urban design.” Strong also strengthened the newspaper's international news service, which had correspondents in twenty-seven foreign countries and maintained offices in London, Paris, Berlin, Beijing, and Moscow. He expanded the role of the paper's overseas staff, as well, to include facilitating diplomatic initiatives to promote world peace and arms control. For example, Daily News foreign correspondents assisted Salomon Levinson in his quest for an international treaty to make war illegal – an effort that culminated in August 1928, with the adoption of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. Strong also endorsed the peace-seeking initiative of the newspaper's senior foreign correspondent, Edward Price Bell, who succeeded in arranging a five-day meeting between President Hoover and Ramsay MacDonald, the Prime Minister of Great Britain at Rapidan Camp, Hoover's presidential retreat in northwestern Virginia in October 1929. This meeting initiated the process that led to adoption of the London Naval Treaty by Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States in April 1930. ==Business and civic leadership== thumb|left|Walter Strong at the dedication of the Chicago Daily News Building. Courtesy Walter Ansel Strong Papers, The Newberry Library, Chicago.|alt= In addition to being publisher of the Daily News, Strong was the president of the 100,000 Group, which brought together leaders of major U.S. newspapers for the purpose of growing and improving newspaper advertising. He was also a director of the Audit Bureau of Circulations, the American Newspaper Publishers Association, and the Associated Press. In 1930, he was elected chairman of the Advertising Federation of America. Strong gave many speeches on the state of the industry, including an address at the University of Chicago entitled “Newspapers and the New Age.” He was a crusader for honesty in advertising. In recognition of his efforts to promote high standards throughout the advertising industry, he was posthumously named to the Advertising Hall of Fame in 1949, the first year of such awards. Strong was a long-serving trustee of his alma mater, Beloit College. In January 1931, four months prior to his death, he proposed to his fellow trustees that a stadium be built at Beloit's athletic field, presenting a small-scale model of his idea. After his death, his widow, Josephine W. Strong, donated funds to construct that stadium in his honor. Strong Stadium, which was designed by Mrs. Strong's brother architect Maurice Webster, was dedicated on October 13, 1934. It is still in use today. Strong's tenure at the Daily News coincided with Prohibition in the United States. Chicago was racked with mob violence, much of it centering around Al Capone. The city seemed incapable of imposing law and order, in part because the Chicago Mayor Big Bill Thompson, who was supported by newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, maintained mutually beneficial relations with organized crime figures like Al Capone. Hearst published both a morning and an evening newspaper in Chicago at the time. When Thompson declined to run for re-election after two four-year terms as mayor, Strong was active in the successful mayoral campaign of William Emmett Dever, the Democratic Party candidate, a former alderman and judge who was an honest and able public servant. Although Dever served honorably for four years, he was defeated for re-election in 1927 by Thompson, who made a comeback with the support of the Hearst newspapers and anti-prohibition sentiment. It was Strong's vision that the new Chicago Daily News building would become a symbol of renewed civic pride and an agency for a better future for the corruption-plagued, gangster- ridden city. But with the re-election of Thompson and his corrupt political associates, it was clear that to reach that vision, something had to be done before the completion of his new headquarters. In April 1928, with positive coverage and editorial support from the Chicago Daily News, Judge John A. Swanson overwhelmingly defeated the incumbent State's attorney for Cook County, an ally of Thompson. The so-called Pineapple Primary held before the election was marked by political violence – bombings and murder – culminating in the assassination of Octavius C. Granady, a black attorney and Thompson opponent who was a candidate for alderman. When criminal investigations by the lame-duck State's attorney proved fruitless, Strong's friend Frank Loesch was appointed special prosecutor to conduct an independent investigation of election crimes. Later that year, Loesch was elected President of the Chicago Crime Commission, a nonpartisan anti-crime organization he had helped to found in 1919. After the notorious 1929 St. Valentine's Day Massacre, Strong decided to make a private appeal to his friend President Herbert Hoover for federal intervention to stem Chicago's lawlessness and corruption. A secret meeting was arranged at the White House, just two weeks after Hoover's inauguration. On March 19, 1929, Strong, joined by Frank Loesch and Laird Bell, made their case to the President. In his Memoir, Hoover described the meeting and its outcome. > In March, 1929, a committee of prominent Chicago citizens, under the > leadership of Walter Strong, the publisher of the Daily News, and Judge > Frank Loesch, president of the Chicago Crime Commission, called upon me to > reveal the situation in that city. They gave chapter and verse for their > statement that Chicago was in the hands of the gangsters, that the police > and magistrates were completely under their control, that the governor of > the state was futile, that the Federal government was the only force by > which the city’s ability to govern itself could be restored. At once I > directed that all the Federal agencies concentrate upon Mr. Capone and his > allies. This meeting launched a multi-agency attack on Chicago gangsters. Treasury and Justice Departments developed plans for income tax prosecutions against Chicago gangsters, and a small, elite squad of Prohibition Bureau agents (whose members included Eliot Ness) were deployed against bootleggers. In a city accustomed to corruption, these lawmen were incorruptible. Charles Schwarz, a writer for the Daily News, dubbed them The Untouchables. Strong played a key role in gathering and sharing intelligence on the Capone outfit and on other racketeering groups in Chicago. Sadly, Strong did not live long enough to witness Al Capone's conviction on federal tax evasion charges in June 1931. ==Personal life== Strong married Josephine Webster in 1913. The couple settled in Evanston, Illinois, initially living in a converted stable next to the home of his father-in-law Towner K. Webster. They had five children: Walter Ansel Jr. (1914), Jonathan Webster (1917), Robert Kitchell (1919), Anne Haviland (1922), and David Seymour (1925). David would later serve as an infantryman in France, dying in combat in November 1944, just prior to the Battle of the Bulge. In 1926, shortly after becoming publisher of the Daily News, Strong traveled to Europe where he met with French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré, and Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. He returned in 1928 for a two-month tour of Europe with his wife, two older sons and members of the Webster family. During that time, he visited Daily News offices in Berlin, Paris, and London. thumb|Walter Strong at Stronghold. Courtesy Strong Family Collection. It was not uncommon for well-to-do Chicago families to have summer homes. In 1928, Strong bought 360 acres of wooded property in Oregon, Illinois which included a bluff overlooking the Rock River. He was familiar with the area because his father-in-law owned a nearby summer home that he and Josephine often visited. Strong hired his brother-in- law, Maurice Webster, to design a family home on the bluff. The original plan called for a simple barn and silo structure, but it quickly grew into something resembling a castle, with 16 bedrooms, 9 baths, 8 fireplaces and a Great Hall. The construction project, which continued into the Great Depression, lasted two years and cost $85,000. The final design was influenced by Strong's travels to Europe, his English ancestry, and the historical novels of Sir Walter Scott. It had a Tudor style facade, a five-story tower with commanding views of the countryside, a circular library with a movable bookcase that revealed a secret passage, and a dining hall with an oak table so massive that it had to be installed before construction could be completed. The family called the place Stronghold and they spent their first summer there in 1930. Walter Strong scarcely had time to enjoy Stronghold. On May 10, 1931, he died of a heart attack at his home in Winnetka, Illinois. He was 47 years old. Josephine continued to divide her time between her Winnetka home and Stronghold until her death in 1961. Stronghold was sold to the Presbyterian Church and functions today as a camp center and four-season retreat. ==References== Category:1883 births Category:1931 deaths Category:Chicago Daily News people Category:People from Chicago Category:Beloit College alumni
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CBS has televised the Masters in the United States every year since 1956, when it used six cameras and covered only the final four holes. Tournament coverage of the first eight holes did not begin until 1995 because of resistance from the tournament organizers, but by 2007, more than 50 cameras were used. Chairman Jack Stephens felt that the back nine was always more "compelling", increased coverage would increase the need for sponsorship spending, and that broadcasting the front nine of the course on television would cut down on attendance and television viewership for the tournament. USA Network added first- and second-round coverage in 1982. The Masters has been broadcast every year in high-definition television since 2005, one of the first golf tournaments to hold that distinction. In 2008, ESPN replaced USA as broadcaster of early-round coverage. These broadcasts use the CBS Sports production staff and commentators, although then-ESPN personality Mike Tirico previously served as a studio host (replacing Bill Macatee's role under USA Network). ==Coverage overview== ===CBS (1956–present)=== As previously mentioned, CBS has televised the Masters Tournament in the United States every year since 1956, when it used six cameras and covered only the final four holes. Because of resistance from the tournament organizers, 18 hole coverage did not begin until 2002 (coverage generally joining with the final group on the fifth or sixth hole all four days), but by 2006, over 50 cameras were used. USA Network added first- and second-round coverage in 1982, which was also produced by the CBS production team. The previously independent USA Sports became part of NBC Sports through NBCUniversal in 2005, meaning the cable and network coverage of the Masters was split between rival companies. However, USA continued to use its own graphics for sports, and CBS continued to produce their coverage of the Masters, an arrangement that lasted through 2007. ESPN, another rival of CBS Sports, took over in 2008. However, ESPN uses CBS graphics and production with the CBS logo. In 2007, CBS broadcast the tournament with high-definition fixed and handheld wired cameras, as well as standard-definition wireless handheld cameras. that same year, CBS also added "Masters Extra," an hour's extra full-field bonus coverage daily on the internet, preceding the television broadcasts. In 2008, CBS added full coverage of holes 15 and 16 live on the web. While Augusta National Golf Club has consistently chosen CBS as its U.S. broadcast partner, it has done so on successive one-year contracts. Due to the lack of long-term contractual security, as well as the club's limited dependence on broadcast rights fees (owing to its affluent membership), it is widely held that CBS allows Augusta National greater control over the content of the broadcast, or at least perform some form of self-censorship, in order to maintain future rights. The club, however, has insisted it does not make any demands with respect to the content of the broadcast. There are some controversial aspects to this relationship. Announcers refer to the gallery as "patrons" rather than spectators or fans ("gallery" itself is also used), and use the term "second cut" instead of "rough" (however, the second cut is normally substantially shorter than comparable "primary rough" at other courses). Announcers who have been deemed not to have acted with the decorum expected by the club have been removed, notably Jack Whitaker and analyst Gary McCord. Whitaker referred to the gallery at the end of the 18-hole Monday playoff in 1966 as a "mob" and missed five years (1967–1971); McCord last worked on the Masters telecast in 1994, being banned that summer after using the terms bikini wax and body bags in his descriptions. There also tends to be a lack of discussion of any controversy involving Augusta National, such as the 2003 Martha Burk protests. However, there have not been many other major issues in recent years. The final round of the 1994 Masters was the final on-air assignment for Pat Summerall on CBS Sports. CBS had lost the rights to the National Football Conference to Fox (where Summerall and his broadcasting colleague, John Madden would soon move over to) prior to the 1994 NFL season. But much like Vin Scully did in 1982 after calling his final NFL game (the NFC Championship Game between the San Francisco 49ers and Dallas Cowboys), Pat Summerall stayed at CBS a couple more months so he could make the 1994 Masters his final broadcast for CBS, where he was a mainstay for over 30 years. Summerall signed off the broadcast thus, surrounded by the other CBS commentators that were working the tournament: The 2020 Masters Tournament was delayed until November due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Schedule changes were made because of sunset around 5:24 p.m. and legal end of civil twilight at 5:51 p.m. each day. To accommodate CBS's coverage of the NFL Week 10 games (and, additionally, ensure that play will conclude before sunset), the final round will be scheduled so that coverage can begin at 10:00 a.m. ET (similar to the 2019 Masters final round, which was moved up due to the threat of storms) and conclude around 2:30 p.m. ET. CBS was only assigned late-afternoon NFL games (4:05 p.m. ET starts) for that week. Furthermore, CBS's SEC football game, normally a 3:30 p.m. ET game, was assigned for a 6:00 p.m. ET kickoff so that it could air after the conclusion of third round coverage, which will end before sunset. However, the SEC game was postponed due to COVID-19 cases among one of the participating teams, leading to CBS scheduling only College Football Today after the conclusion of coverage, and giving the rest of the game's broadcast window back to affiliates and network programming. On November 12, 2020, Sports Business Journal reported that the conclusion of the final round of the Masters on Sunday, November 15 could be broadcast on ABC, if weather or a playoff extended the action beyond 4 p.m., when CBS would transition to NFL coverage. ===USA Network (1982–2007)=== The USA Network began first and second round Masters coverage in 1982,Ratings For Each Round of The Masters Since '82 (First/Second Rounds Since '99) which was also produced by the CBS production team. This was the first cable coverage for one of the golf majors. Initially, the USA Network provided Thursday and Friday coverage for 2 hours live each day along with a prime time replay. In 1995, USA expanded the Thursday/Friday coverage to 2.5 hours each day. In 2003 and 2004, both CBS and USA televised the Masters commercial-free. In 2005, USA increased the Thursday/Friday coverage to 3 hours. In early 2006, it was announced that USA was outbid by Golf Channel for its early-round PGA Tour rights, with USA's final season being 2006. NBC/Universal, parent company of USA Network, traded away the network's Ryder Cup coverage through 2012 to ESPN for the rights to sign Al Michaels. However, USA did renew its Masters contract for one final year. USA would televise the 2007 Masters before being outbid by ESPN. The 2007 Masters was also the final event for USA Sports, which was dissolved into parent NBC Sports after the tournament. All future sports telecasts on USA would use NBC's graphics and personalities. ===ESPN (2008–present)=== ESPN replaced USA in 2008 as the broadcaster for the early rounds. ESPN originally used Mike Tirico and Curtis Strange as their commentary team inside Butler Cabin. However, Mike Tirico left for NBC Sports in 2016 and was replaced by Scott Van Pelt. ESPN also used Tom Rinaldi for interviews until he left for Fox Sports in 2021. Early round coverage of The Masters continues to be aired by ESPN, however, coverage is produced by CBS and uses CBS announcers and graphics (excluding Van Pelt, Strange, and Rinaldi). ===International coverage=== The BBC has broadcast the Masters in the UK since 1963, and it also provides live radio commentary on the closing stages on Radio Five Live. Coverage was also provided by ITV between 1979-1982 and Channel 4 between 1983 and 1985. BBC Sport held the exclusive TV and radio rights through to 2010. The BBC's coverage airs without commercials because it is financed by a licence fee. From the 2011 Masters, Sky Sports began broadcasting all four days, as well as the par 3 contest in HD and, for the first time, in 3D. The BBC will only have highlights of the first two days' play but will go head to head with Sky Sports, with full live coverage on the final two days of play. From 2020, live coverage moved to Sky on an exclusive basis, with the BBC showing highlights of each days play. In Ireland, Setanta Ireland previously showed all four rounds, and from 2017 until closure in 2021, Eir Sport broadcast all four rounds live having previously broadcast the opening two rounds with RTÉ broadcasting the weekend coverage. Sky Sports now shows the whole event exclusively live in Ireland, like in the UK. In Canada, broadcast rights to the Masters are held by Bell Media, with coverage divided between TSN (cable), which carries live simulcasts and primetime encores of CBS and ESPN coverage for all four rounds, CTV (broadcast), which simulcasts CBS's coverage of the weekend rounds, and RDS, which carries French-language coverage. In Japan, Tokyo Broadcasting System Television is an only broadcaster since 1976. Prior to 2013, Canadian broadcast rights were held by a marketing company, Graham Sanborn Media, which in turn bought time on the Global Television Network, TSN, and RDS (except for 2012 when French-language coverage aired on TVA and TVA Sports) to air the broadcasts, also selling all of the advertising for the Canadian broadcasts. This was an unusual arrangement in Canadian sports broadcasting, as in most cases broadcasters acquire their rights directly from the event organizers or through partnerships with international rightsholders, such as ESPN International (ESPN owns a 20% minority stake in TSN). In 2013, Global and TSN began selling advertising directly, and jointly produced their own preview and highlights shows for Canadian audiences (while still carrying ESPN/CBS coverage for the tournament itself). In Australia, the tournament has been broadcast live on the Nine Network since 2018. In Spain, Canal+ held the Masters rights since the 1990s up until July 2015, when they were transferred to Telefónica after the Spanish telecommunications company bought Canal+. Movistar+' premium golf channel Movistar Golf airs the par 3 contest on Wednesday and live tournament coverage for all four rounds. #Vamos offers partial live coverage in simulcast with Movistar Golf as well as encore coverage shortly after the end of each round. In 2020 and for the first time, Movistar+ will have two separate live broadcasts of the Masters with Movistar Deportes airing live coverage of the Featured Groups, the Amen Corner and the 15th and 16th holes. ==Commentators== ===Play-by-play/anchors=== Announcer Years Network(s) Bob Carpenter 1988-1989 USA John Derr 1956-1982 CBS Dick Enberg 2000-2010 CBS Bob Ferrier 1969-1971 CBS Frank Gifford 1969-1971 CBS Frank Glieber 1968-1985 CBS Henry Longhurst 1966-1975 CBS Verne Lundquist 1983-present CBS Bill Macatee 1990-2007; 2008-present USA/CBS Sean McDonough 1996-1999 CBS Jim McKay 1957-1961 CBS Brent Musburger 1983-1989; 2008-2016 CBS/ESPN Jim Nantz 1986-present CBS Bud Palmer 1956 CBS Chris Schenkel 1956-1964 CBS Ray Scott 1969-1974 CBS Vin Scully 1975-1982 CBS Pat Summerall 1968-1994 CBS Mike Tirico 2008-2016 ESPN Scott Van Pelt 2017-present ESPN Jack Whitaker 1965-1966; 1972-1981 CBS ===Analysts=== Announcer Years Network(s) Nick Faldo 2007-present CBS David Feherty 1997-2015 CBS Gary McCord 1986-1994 CBS Peter Oosterhuis 1997-2014 CBS Ken Venturi 1967-2002 CBS Lanny Wadkins 2003-2006 CBS Ben Wright 1973-1995 CBS Curtis Strange 2008-present ESPN ===On- course reporters=== Announcer Years Network(s) Dottie Pepper 2013-present ESPN/CBS ==See also== *List of PGA Tour on CBS commentators *List of ESPN/ABC golf commentators *PGA Tour on USA#Commentators ==References== ==External links== *CBS ANNOUNCERS AT THE MASTERS (1956–2004) *Masters 57-Year Broadcast History **CBS Masters Announcers 1956–2013 *The Masters Archives – Awful Announcing *SEARCH RESULTS: THE MASTERS (310) - Sports Media Watch Category:CBS Sports Category:USA Network Sports Category:ESPN announcers Broadcasters Category:Lists of golf writers and broadcasters Category:CBS Radio Sports Category:Westwood One
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Mark Joseph Carney (born March 16, 1965) is a Canadian economist and banker who served as the governor of the Bank of Canada from 2008 to 2013 and the governor of the Bank of England from 2013 to 2020. Since October 2020, he is vice chairman and head of Impact Investing at Brookfield Asset Management. He was the chair of the Financial Stability Board from 2011 to 2018. Prior to his governorships, Carney worked at Goldman Sachs as well as the Department of Finance Canada. ==Early life== Carney was born on March 16, 1965, in Fort Smith, Northwest Territories, the son of Verlie Margaret (née Kemper) and Robert James Martin Carney. When Carney was six, his family moved to Edmonton, Alberta. Carney has three siblings — an older brother and sister, Seán and Brenda, and a younger brother Brian. Carney attended St. Francis Xavier High School, Edmonton before studying at Harvard University. Carney graduated from Harvard in 1988 with a bachelor's degree with high honours in economics, before postgraduate studies at the University of Oxford at St Peter's College and Nuffield College, where he received master's and doctoral degrees in the same field in 1993 and 1995, respectively. The title of his DPhil thesis is The Dynamic Advantage of Competition. ==Career== ===Goldman Sachs=== Carney spent 13 years at Goldman Sachs and worked in their Boston, London, New York City, Tokyo, and Toronto offices. His progressively more senior positions included: co-head of sovereign risk; executive director, emerging debt capital markets; and managing director, investment banking. He worked on South Africa's post-apartheid venture into international bond markets, and was involved in Goldman's work with the 1998 Russian financial crisis. In 2003, Carney left Goldman Sachs to join the Bank of Canada as a deputy governor. One year later, he was recruited to join the Department of Finance Canada as senior associate deputy minister, beginning that role on November 15, 2004. ===Department of Finance=== From November 2004 to October 2007, Carney was the senior associate deputy minister and G7 deputy in the Canadian Finance Department. He served under two finance ministers: Ralph Goodale, a Liberal and Jim Flaherty, a Conservative. During this time Carney oversaw the Government of Canada's controversial plan to tax income trusts at source. Carney was also the lead on the federal government's profitable sale of its 19 percent stake in Petro-Canada. ===Governor of the Bank of Canada=== In November 2007, it was announced that Carney would be appointed Governor of the Bank of Canada. He immediately left his position at the Department of Finance to serve as an advisor to the outgoing governor, David Dodge, before formally assuming Dodge's position on February 1, 2008. Carney was selected over Paul Jenkins, the senior deputy governor, who had been considered the front-runner to succeed Dodge. Carney took on this role at the beginning of the 2007 global financial crisis. At the time of his appointment, Carney was the youngest central bank governor among the G8 and G20. ====Financial crisis==== Carney's actions as Governor of the Bank of Canada are said to have played a major role in helping Canada avoid the worst impacts of the financial crisis. The epoch- making feature of his tenure as Governor remains the decision to cut the overnight rate by 50 basis points in March 2008, only one month after his appointment. While the European Central Bank delivered a rate increase in July 2008, Carney anticipated the leveraged-loan crisis would trigger global contagion. When policy rates in Canada hit the effective lower-bound, the central bank combatted the crisis with the non-standard monetary tool "conditional commitment" in April 2009 to hold the policy rate for at least one year, in a boost to domestic credit conditions and market confidence. Output and employment began to recover from mid-2009, in part thanks to monetary stimulus. The Canadian economy outperformed those of its G7 peers during the crisis, and Canada was the first G7 nation to have both its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment recover to pre-crisis levels. The Bank of Canada's decision to provide substantial additional liquidity to the Canadian financial system, and its unusual step of announcing a commitment to keep interest rates at their lowest possible level for one year, appear to have been significant contributors to Canada's weathering of the crisis. Canada's risk-averse fiscal and regulatory environment is also cited as a factor. In 2009 a Newsweek columnist wrote, "Canada has done more than survive this financial crisis. The country is positively thriving in it. Canadian banks are well capitalized and poised to take advantage of opportunities that American and European banks cannot seize." Carney earned various accolades for his leadership during the financial crisis: he was named one of Financial Timess "Fifty who will frame the way forward", and of Time Magazine's 2010 Time 100. In May 2011, Reader's Digest named him "Editor's Choice for Most Trusted Canadian". In October 2012, Carney was named "Central Bank Governor of the Year 2012" by the editors of Euromoney magazine. ===International organization memberships=== On November 4, 2011, Carney was named Chairman of the Basel-based Financial Stability Board. In a statement, Carney credited his appointment to "the strong reputation of Canada's financial system and the leading role that Canada has played in helping to develop many of the most important international reforms". The three-year term was a part-time commitment, allowing Carney to complete his term at the Bank of Canada. While there had been no indication of his priorities as chairman, on the day of his appointment the Board published a list of 29 banks that were considered sufficiently large as to pose a risk to the global economy should they fail. At his first press conference as Chairman of the FSB in January 2012, Carney laid out his key priorities for the board. Carney served as Chairman of the Bank for International Settlements' Committee on the Global Financial System from July 2010 until January 2012. Carney is a member of the Group of Thirty, an international body of leading financiers and academics, and of the Foundation Board of the World Economic Forum. Carney attended the annual meetings of the Bilderberg Group in 2011, 2012 and 2019. ===Governor of the Bank of England=== On November 26, 2012, Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced the appointment of Carney as Governor of the Bank of England. He succeeded Sir Mervyn King on July 1, 2013. He was the first non- Briton to be appointed to the role since the Bank of England was established in 1694. The Bank of England was given additional powers from 2013, such as the ability to set bank capital requirements. Prior to taking up the post, Carney had already indicated disagreement with the Bank of England's Executive Director of Financial Stability Andy Haldane, specifically on leverage ratios and on bank break-ups. He has been quoted as saying that Haldane does not have a "proper understanding of the facts" on bank regulation. He was thought to have been offered a total pay package of about £624,000 ($844,000 USD) per year, approximately £100,000 ($135,000 USD) more per year than his predecessor. === Since 2020 === Carney was appointed as United Nations special envoy for climate action and finance as he prepared to step down as governor of the Bank of England in March 2020. In January 2020, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson appointed Carney to the position of finance advisor for the UK presidency of the COP26 United Nations Climate Change conference in Glasgow; at that time the conference was scheduled for November 2020 but it was later postponed to November 2021. As of October 2020, Carney is vice chairman at Brookfield Asset Management where he leads the firm's environmental, social and governance (ESG) and impact fund investment strategy. In February 2021, Carney had to retract an earlier claim that the $600 billion Brookfield Asset Management portfolio was carbon neutral. He based his claim on the fact that Brookfield has a large renewable energy portfolio and "all the avoided emissions that come with that”. The claim was criticized as accounting tricks as avoided emissions do not counteract the emissions from investments in coal and other fossil fuels responsible for Brookfield's carbon footprint of about 5,200 metric tons of carbon dioxide. In February 2021, Carney joined the board of fintech company Stripe. As of March 2021, Stripe was valued at $95 billion. Carney helped launch the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ) at COP26 in Glasgow in November 2021. He acts as the group's Co-Chair. ==Policy views== ===Risks of increasing wealth inequality=== In December 2016, Carney warned of the societal risk of "staggering wealth inequalities" in a Roscoe Lecture at Liverpool John Moores University: "The proportion of the wealth held by the richest 1% of Americans increased from 25% in 1990 to 40% in 2012 ... Globally, the share of wealth held by the richest 1% in the world rose from one-third in 2000 to one-half in 2010." ===Brexit=== Carney warned many times that Brexit was expected to negatively influence the UK economy. Consequently, Brexit activists accused him of making statements favouring the UK's continued membership of the European Union (EU) before the British EU- membership referendum. He replied that he felt it was his duty to speak up on such issues. In September 2018, Philip Hammond, the chancellor of the Exchequer, confirmed speculation that Carney would remain as Governor until January 2020, in order to ensure a "smooth" transition after the UK was set to leave the EU on March 29, 2019, a departure deadline that was missed. In November 2018, Carney warned that large parts of the British economy were not ready for a no-deal Brexit. Speaking on BBC Radio 4's Today Programme, Carney explained that fewer than half of businesses have initiated contingency plans. In February 2019, speaking about the global economy, Carney provided a less negative perspective on Brexit, stating that globalisation has resulted in "imbalances of democracy and sovereignty", and that Brexit "is the first test of a new global order and could prove the acid test of whether a way can be found to broaden the benefits of openness while enhancing democratic accountability". ===Monetary policy in the 2019 international monetary and financial system=== In his August 23, 2019, speech delivered at the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City's 2019 annual Jackson Hole Economic Symposium at Jackson Lake Lodge, entitled "The Growing Challenges for Monetary Policy in the current International Monetary and Financial System", Carney said that the "widespread use of the US dollar—the dominant currency pricing—in "trade invoicing, in place of the currency of either the producer or the importer" has had a "destablilizing" effect on the global economy, according to Reuters. About 50 percent of international trade relies on the US dollar as the "currency of choice." This represents "five times greater than the US's share in world goods imports, and three times its share in world exports." Dominant currency pricing is not problematic when there is "synchronised growth" globally, Carney said. When "the tide is rising in America while receding elsewhere", the system needs to be revamped. Carney cited an article by Markus K. Brunnermeier, Harold James, and Jean-Pierre Landau on the potential role of digital currency area (DCA) in redefining the international monetary system. Speaking only hours after US President Donald Trump had posted on Twitter that he blamed Federal Reserve Chairman Jerome Powell's policies creating fears of an economic recession—and then threatened China with more retaliatory tariffs—Carney urged central banks to work together to replace the US dollar as reserve currency. He cautioned against choosing another new hegemonic reserve currency like the Renminbi and suggested instead, a "new Synthetic Hegemonic Currency (SHC), such as Libra, which could potentially be provided "through a network of central bank digital currencies," that would decrease the US dollar's "domineering influence" on trade worldwide. Carney also said that the recent increase in the perception that a no-deal Brexit is likely, is "evidenced by betting odds and financial market asset pricing" resulting in the UK now having "the highest FX implied volatility, the highest equity risk premium and lowest real yields of any advanced economy." ===Climate change=== Carney has taken a leading position on the need for climate action. ====Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets (TSVCM)==== In 2020, Carney launched the Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets—an initiative to increase trading of voluntary carbon offsets— with Bill Winters as Group Chief Executive. The TSVCM is sponsored by the Institute of International Finance. Taskforce members include more than "40 leaders from six continents with backgrounds across the carbon market value chain", including representatives from the Bank of America, BlackRock, Bloomberg's New Energy Finance, BNP Paribas, BP, Boeing, Goldman Sachs, Tata Steel, Total, IHS Markit, and LSE. In a December 3, 2020 Financial Times article, Carney said that the voluntary global carbon offset market was an "imperative" to help reduce emissions. The Times article cited Carney saying London would likely be the host of the new "new pilot market for voluntary carbon offsets" which could be "set up" by December 2021. ===Moral to market sentiments=== On December 2, 2020, Carney delivered the first of four Reith Lectures—the BBC's flagship annual series. In "How We Get What We Value – From Moral to Market Sentiments", he said society had come to esteem financial value over human value and moved from market economies to market societies. The series covers a trio of crises—credit, Covid and climate. ==Personal life== Carney met his wife, Diana Fox, a British economist specializing in developing nations, while at the University of Oxford. She is active in various environmental and social justice causes. The couple married in July 1994 while he was finishing his doctoral thesis.General Register Office. England and Wales Civil Registration Indexes. Bullingdon Registration District, Oxfordshire. Volume 699 Page 574. They have four children and lived in Toronto, before moving to the Rockcliffe Park neighbourhood of Ottawa and then moving to London in 2013. They moved back to Ottawa when Mark Carney left his role in the Bank of England. During his Harvard years, Carney was backup goalie for the school's ice hockey team. Carney continued playing the sport with the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club while studying at Nuffield College, Oxford. Carney completed the 2015 London Marathon in 03:31:22, which was 17 minutes faster than his time at the 2011 Ottawa Marathon. Carney speaks fluent French. In addition to his Canadian citizenship, he also holds Irish (two of his grandparents are from County Mayo) and British citizenship. He has distant relatives in Liverpool and is a supporter of the city's Everton F.C. He is also a supporter of the Edmonton Oilers. There was some controversy with Carney's time running the Bank of England. Staff members compared his temper flare-ups to 'being tasered'. He published a book named "Value(s) Building a Better World for All" in 2021. ==Honours and distinctions== * Officer of the Order of Canada (OC) * Freeman of the City of London * Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D) from the University of Manitoba on April 5, 2013. * Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D) from the University of Alberta in Spring 2016. * Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D) from the University of Toronto on June 18, 2018. * Honorary degree from the London Business School on July 16, 2019. ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * Biography from the Bank of England |- |- Category:1965 births Category:Alumni of Nuffield College, Oxford Category:Alumni of St Peter's College, Oxford Category:Businesspeople from Edmonton Category:Honorary Fellows of St Peter's College, Oxford Category:Harvard Crimson men's ice hockey players Category:Canadian expatriates in England Category:Canadian people of Irish descent Category:20th-century Canadian economists Category:Goldman Sachs people Category:Governors of the Bank of Canada Category:Governors of the Bank of England Category:Group of Thirty Category:Harvard College alumni Category:Living people Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:People from Fort Smith, Northwest Territories Category:Canadian ice hockey goaltenders Category:21st-century Canadian economists
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Sauron (pronounced ) is the title character and the primary antagonist, through the forging of the One Ring, of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, where he rules the land of Mordor and has the ambition of ruling the whole of Middle-earth. In the same work, he is identified as the "Necromancer" of Tolkien's earlier novel The Hobbit. The Silmarillion describes him as the chief lieutenant of the first Dark Lord, Morgoth. Tolkien noted that the Ainur, the "angelic" powers of his constructed myth, "were capable of many degrees of error and failing", but by far the worst was "the absolute Satanic rebellion and evil of Morgoth and his satellite Sauron". Sauron appears most often as "the Eye", as if disembodied. Tolkien, while denying that absolute evil could exist, stated that Sauron came as near to a wholly evil will as was possible. Commentators have compared Sauron to the title character of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula, and to Balor of the Evil Eye in Irish mythology. Sauron is briefly seen in a humanoid form in Peter Jackson's film trilogy, which otherwise shows him as a disembodied, flaming Eye. ==Fictional history== ===Before the world's creation=== The Ainulindalë, the cosmological myth prefixed to The Silmarillion, explains how the supreme being Eru initiated his creation by bringing into being innumerable good, immortal, angelic spirits, the Ainur, including Sauron, one of the lesser Ainur, the Maiar. In his origin, Sauron therefore perceived the Creator directly. He was of a "far higher order" than the Maiar who later came to Middle-earth as the Wizards, such as Gandalf and Saruman. The Vala Melkor (later called Morgoth) rebelled against Eru, breaking the cosmic music that Eru had used in the world's creation with discord.The story of the Song of Creation was presented by the Valar "according to our modes of thought and our imagination of the visible world, in symbols that were intelligible to us". So began "the evils of the world", which Sauron continued. ===Sauron's fall in the First Age=== ====Servant of Aulë==== Sauron served Aulë, the smith of the Valar, acquiring much knowledge; he was at first called Mairon ("The Admirable", in Tolkien's invented language of Quenya) until he joined Melkor. In Beleriand, he was called Gorthu "Mist of Fear" and Gorthaur "The Cruel" in Sindarin, another of Tolkien's invented languages.Parma Eldalamberon #17, 2007, p. 183 Sauron was drawn to the power of Melkor, who attracted him by seeming to have power to "effect his designs quickly and masterfully", as Sauron hated disorder. Sauron became a spy for Melkor on the isle of Almaren, the dwelling-place of the Valar. Melkor soon destroyed Almaren, and the Valar moved to the Blessed Realm of Valinor, still not perceiving Sauron's treachery. Sauron left the Blessed Realm and went to Middle-earth, the central continent of Arda, where Melkor had established his stronghold. Sauron openly joined the Valar's enemy. ====Lieutenant of Morgoth==== Sauron became Morgoth's capable servant, helping him in all the "deceits of his cunning". By the time Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor's lieutenant and was given command over the new stronghold of Angband. The Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but Sauron escaped. He hid in Middle-earth, repaired Angband, and began breeding Orcs. Melkor escaped back to Middle-earth with the Silmarils. This conflicts with earlier versions of the story, in which Orcs existed before the wakening of the Elves, as in The Fall of Gondolin, p. 25. Sauron directed the war against the Elves, conquering the Elvish fortress of Minas Tirith (not to be confused with the later city in Gondor of the same name) on the isle of Tol Sirion in Beleriand. Lúthien and Huan the Wolfhound came to this fallen stronghold to save the imprisoned Beren, Lúthien's lover. Sauron, transformed into a werewolf, battled Huan, who took him by the throat; he was defeated and left as a huge vampire bat. Lúthien destroyed the tower and rescued Beren from the dungeons. Eärendil sailed to the Blessed Realm, and the Valar moved against Morgoth in the War of Wrath; he was defeated and cast into the Outer Void beyond the world, but again Sauron escaped. ===The Rings of Power in the Second Age=== thumb|Annatar, Lord of Gifts About 500 years into the Second Age, Sauron reappeared, intent on taking over Middle-earth and ruling it as a God-King. To seduce the Elves into his service, Sauron assumed a fair appearance as Annatar, "Lord of Gifts", befriended the Elven-smiths of Eregion, led by Celebrimbor, and counselled them in arts and magic. With Sauron's assistance, the Elven-smiths forged the Rings of Power. Sauron then secretly forged the One Ring, to rule all other rings, in the volcanic Mount Doom in Mordor. The Elves detected his influence when he put on the One Ring, and removed their Rings. Enraged, Sauron initiated a great war and conquered much of the land west of Anduin. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power. The Three Rings were saved by the Elves, specifically Gil-galad, Círdan, and Galadriel. Sauron besieged Imladris, battled Khazad-dûm and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil- galad's realm. The Elves were saved when a powerful army from Númenor arrived to their aid, defeating Sauron's forces and driving the remnant back to Mordor. Sauron fortified Mordor and completed the Dark Tower of Barad-dûr. He distributed the remaining rings of the Seven and the Nine to lords of Dwarves and Men, respectively. Dwarves proved too resilient to bend to his will, but he enslaved Men as the Nazgûl, his most feared servants. Orcs and Trolls became his servants, along with Easterlings and men of Harad. ====Downfall of Númenor==== Toward the end of the Second Age, Ar-Pharazôn, king of Númenor, led a massive army to Middle-earth. Sauron surrendered, to corrupt Númenor from within. With the One Ring, Sauron soon dominated the Númenóreans. He used his influence to undermine the religion of Númenor, acting as the high priest of Melkor and making people worship Melkor with human sacrifice. Sauron convinced Ar-Pharazôn to attack Aman by sea to steal immortality from the Valar. The Valar laid down their guardianship of the world and appealed to Eru. Eru destroyed the fleet, reshaped the world into a globe, removing Aman from the physical world. Númenor was drowned under the sea, Sauron's body was destroyed in the tumults and he lost the ability to appear beautiful. ====War of the Last Alliance==== Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall; they founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle-earth. Sauron returned to Mordor; Mount Doom again erupted. Sauron captured Minas Ithil and destroyed the White Tree; Elendil's son Isildur escaped down the Anduin. Anárion defended Osgiliath and for a time drove Sauron's forces back to the mountains. Isildur and Anárion formed an alliance and defeated Sauron at Dagorlad. They invaded Mordor and laid siege to Barad-dûr for seven years. Finally Sauron came out to fight Elendil and Gil-galad face to face. When Elendil fell, his sword Narsil broke beneath him. Isildur took up the hilt-shard of Narsil and cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand, vanquishing Sauron. Elrond and Círdan, Gil-galad's lieutenants, urged Isildur to destroy the Ring by casting it into Mount Doom, which would have banished Sauron from Middle-earth for ever, but he refused and kept it for his own. ===Third Age=== A few years after the War of the Last Alliance, Isildur's army was ambushed by Orcs at the Gladden Fields. Isildur put on the Ring and attempted to escape by swimming across Anduin, but the Ring, trying to return to Sauron, slipped from his finger. Isildur was killed by Orc archers. Sauron spent a thousand years as a shapeless, dormant evil. ====The Necromancer of Dol Guldur==== Sauron concealed himself in the south of Mirkwood as the Necromancer, in the stronghold of Dol Guldur, "Hill of Sorcery". The Valar sent five Maiar as Wizards to oppose the darkness, believing the Necromancer to be a Nazgûl rather than Sauron himself. The chief of the Nazgûl, the Witch- king of Angmar, repeatedly attacked the northern realm of Arnor, destroying it. When attacked by Gondor, the Witch-king retreated to Mordor, gathering the Nazgûl there. The Nazgûl captured Minas Ithil, which was renamed Minas Morgul, and seized its palantír, one of the seven seeing stones brought from Númenor. The White Council of Wizards discovered Sauron in Dol Guldur, and drove him from Mirkwood; he returned to Mordor, openly declared himself, rebuilt Barad- dûr, and bred armies of specially large Orcs - the Uruks. (Denethor I died in TA 2477.) ====The War of the Ring==== In 3017, Gandalf identified Bilbo's Ring, now passed down to Bilbo's cousin Frodo, as Sauron's One Ring. He tasked Frodo and his friend Sam Gamgee with taking the Ring to Rivendell. Soon afterward, however, Gandalf discovered Saruman's treachery. Sauron sent the Nazgûl to the Shire; they pursued Frodo, who escaped to Rivendell. There, Elrond convened a council. It determined that the Ring should be destroyed in Mount Doom, and formed the Fellowship of the Ring to achieve this. Saruman attempted to capture the Ring, but his army was destroyed and his stronghold at Isengard was overthrown. The palantír of Orthanc fell into the hands of the Fellowship; Aragorn, Isildur's descendant and heir to the throne of Gondor, used it to show himself to Sauron as if he held the Ring. Sauron, troubled by this revelation, attacked Minas Tirith sooner than he had planned. His army was destroyed at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Meanwhile, Frodo and Sam entered Mordor through the pass of Cirith Ungol. Aragorn diverted Sauron's attention with an attack on the Black Gate of Mordor. Frodo and Sam reached Mount Doom, but at the last minute Frodo was entranced by the Ring and claimed it for himself. Gollum then seized the Ring and fell into the Cracks of Doom, destroying the Ring and himself. Thus Sauron was utterly defeated, and vanished from Middle-earth. Tolkien describes Sauron's destruction: ==Appearance== ===Physical body=== Tolkien never described Sauron's appearance in detail, though he painted a watercolour illustration of him. Sarah Crown, in The Guardian, wrote that "we're never ushered into his presence; we don't hear him speak. All we see is his influence". She called it "a bold move, to leave the book's central evil so undefined – an edgeless darkness given shape only through the actions of its subordinates", with the result that he becomes "truly unforgettable ... vaster, bolder and more terrifying through his absence than he could ever have been through his presence". He was initially able to change his appearance at will, but when he became Morgoth's servant, he took a sinister shape. In the First Age, the outlaw Gorlim was ensnared and brought into "the dreadful presence of Sauron", who had daunting eyes. In the battle with Huan, the hound of Valinor, Sauron took the form of a werewolf. Then he assumed a serpent-like form, and finally changed back "from monster to his own accustomed [human-like] form". He took on a beautiful appearance at the end of the First Age to charm Eönwë, near the beginning of the Second Age when appearing as Annatar to the Elves, and again near the end of the Second Age to corrupt the men of Númenor. He appeared then "as a man, or one in man's shape, but greater than any even of the race of Númenor in stature ... And it seemed to men that Sauron was great, though they feared the light of his eyes. To many he appeared fair, to others terrible; but to some evil." After the destruction of his fair form in the fall of Númenor, Sauron always took the shape of a terrible dark lord. His first incarnation after the Downfall of Númenor was hideous, "an image of malice and hatred made visible". Isildur recorded that Sauron's hand "was black, and yet burned like fire". ===Eye of Sauron=== Throughout The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye" (known by other names, including the Red Eye, the Evil Eye, the Lidless Eye, the Great Eye) is the image most often associated with Sauron. Sauron's Orcs bore the symbol of the Eye on their helmets and shields, and referred to him as the "Eye" because he did not allow his name to be written or spoken, according to Aragorn. The Lord of the Nazgûl threatened Éowyn with torture before the "Lidless Eye" at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Frodo had a vision of the Eye in the Mirror of Galadriel: Later, Tolkien writes as if Frodo and Sam really glimpse the Eye directly. The mists surrounding Barad-dûr are briefly withdrawn, and: This raises the question of whether an "Eye" was Sauron's actual manifestation, or whether he had a body beyond the Eye. Gollum (who was tortured by Sauron in person) tells Frodo that Sauron has, at least, a "Black Hand" with four fingers. The missing finger was cut off when Isildur took the Ring, and the finger was still missing when Sauron reappeared centuries later. Tolkien writes in The Silmarillion that "the Eye of Sauron the Terrible few could endure" even before his body was lost in the War of the Last Alliance. In the draft text of the climactic moments of The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye" stands for Sauron's very person, with emotions and thoughts: Christopher Tolkien comments: "The passage is notable in showing the degree to which my father had come to identify the Eye of Barad-dûr with the mind and will of Sauron, so that he could speak of 'its wrath, its fear, its thought'. In the second text ... he shifted from 'its' to 'his' as he wrote out the passage anew." ==Concept and creation== Since the earliest versions of The Silmarillion legendarium as detailed in the History of Middle-earth series, Sauron underwent many changes. The prototype or precursor Sauron-figure was a giant monstrous cat, the Prince of Cats. Called Tevildo, Tifil and Tiberth among other names, this character played the role later taken by Sauron in the earliest version of the story of Beren and Tinúviel in The Book of Lost Tales in 1917. The Prince of Cats was later replaced by Thû, the Necromancer. The name was then changed to Gorthû, Sûr, and finally to Sauron. Gorthû, in the form Gorthaur, remained in The Silmarillion; both Thû and Sauron name the character in the 1925 Lay of Leithian. The story of Beren and Lúthien also features the heroic hound Huan and involved the subtext of cats versus dogs in its earliest form. Later the cats were changed to wolves or werewolves, with the Sauron-figure becoming the Lord of Werewolves. Before the publication in 1977 of The Silmarillion, Sauron's origins and true identity were unclear to those without access to Tolkien's notes. In 1968, the poet W. H. Auden conjectured that Sauron might have been one of the Valar. ==Interpretations== ===Wholly evil will=== Tolkien stated in his Letters that although he did not think "Absolute Evil" could exist as it would be "Zero", "in my story Sauron represents as near an approach to the wholly evil will as is possible." He explained that, like "all tyrants", Sauron had started out with good intentions but was corrupted by power, and that he "went further than human tyrants in pride and the lust for domination", being in origin an immortal (angelic) spirit. He began as Morgoth's servant; became his representative, in his absence in the Second Age; and at the end of the Third Age actually claimed to be 'Morgoth returned. ===Destructive Dracula-figure=== Gwenyth Hood, writing in Mythlore, compares Sauron to Count Dracula from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula. In her view, both of these monstrous antagonists seek to destroy, are linked to powers of darkness, are parasitical on created life, and are undead. Both control others psychologically and have "hypnotic eyes". Control by either of them represents "high spiritual terror" as it is a sort of "damnation-on-earth". ===Celtic Balor of the Evil Eye=== Edward Lense, also writing in Mythlore, identifies a figure from Celtic mythology, Balor of the Evil Eye, as a possible source for the Eye of Sauron. Balor's evil eye, in the middle of his forehead, was able to overcome a whole army. He was king of the evil Fomoire, who like Sauron were evil spirits in hideously ugly bodies. Lense further compares Mordor to "a Celtic hell", just as the Undying Lands of Aman resemble the Celtic Earthly Paradise of Tír na nÓg in the furthest (Atlantic) West; and Balor "ruled the dead from a tower of glass". ===Antagonist=== The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger writes that if there was an opposite to Sauron in The Lord of the Rings, it would not be Aragorn, his political opponent, nor Gandalf, his spiritual enemy, but Tom Bombadil, the earthly Master who is entirely free of the desire to dominate and hence cannot be dominated. Sauron's opposite, as analysed by Verlyn Flieger Sauron Tom Bombadil Role Antagonist Earthly counterpart Title Dark Lord "Master" Purpose Domination of whole of Middle-earth Care for The Old Forest "No hidden agenda, no covert desire or plan of operation" Effect of the One Ring "Power over other wills" No effect on him "as he is not human", nor does it make others invisible to him, or him to others How he sees the Ring The Eye of Sauron desires to dominate through the Ring Looks right through it, his "blue eye peering through the circle of the Ring" == Adaptations == === Film === In film versions of The Lord of the Rings, Sauron has been left off-screen as "an invisible and unvisualizable antagonist" as in Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version, or as a disembodied Eye, as in Rankin/Bass' 1980 animated adaptation of The Return of the King. In the 2001–2003 film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, Sauron is voiced by Alan Howard. He is briefly shown as a large humanoid figure clad in spiky black armour, portrayed by Sala Baker, but appears only as the disembodied Eye throughout the rest of the storyline. In earlier versions of Jackson's script, Sauron does battle with Aragorn, as shown in the extended DVD version of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. The scene was removed as too large a departure from Tolkien's text and was replaced with Aragorn fighting a troll. Sauron appears as the Necromancer in Jackson's The Hobbit film adaptations, where he is voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch. Sauron appears in the form of his eye in The Lego Batman Movie voiced by Jemaine Clement. He is one of the many pre-existing villains the Joker frees from the Phantom Zone to run amok in Gotham City. === Television === Sauron's rise to power in the Second Age is portrayed in the Amazon Prime prequel series The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power. He appears disguised as the non-canonical character Halbrand, played by Charlie Vickers. === Video games === Sauron appears in the merchandise of the Jackson films, including computer and video games. These include The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II (where he was voiced by Fred Tatasciore), The Lord of the Rings: Tactics, and The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age. In the Lord of the Rings Online (LOTRO) game, he is featured as an enemy. == In culture == The Eye of Sauron is mentioned in The Stand, a post-apocalyptic novel written by Stephen King. The villain Randall Flagg possesses an astral body in the form of an "Eye" akin to the Lidless Eye. The novel itself was conceived by King as a "fantasy epic like The Lord of the Rings, only with an American setting". The idea of Sauron as a sleepless eye that watches and seeks the protagonists also influenced King's epic fantasy series The Dark Tower; its villain, the Crimson King, is a similarly disembodied evil presence whose icon is also an eye. In the Marvel Comics Universe, the supervillain Sauron, an enemy of the X-Men, names himself after the Tolkien character. In the comic series Fables, by Bill Willingham, one character is called "The Adversary", an ambiguous figure of immense evil and power believed to be responsible for much of the misfortune in the Fables' overall history. Willingham has stated "The Adversary", in name and in character, was inspired by Sauron. Interview with Bill Willingham == Notes == == References == === Primary === === Secondary === === Sources === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Bearers of the One Ring Category:The Lord of the Rings characters Category:Characters in The Silmarillion Category:Literary characters introduced in 1937 Category:Fictional characters who use magic Category:Fictional necromancers Category:Fictional torturers Category:Fictional demons and devils Category:Middle-earth Maiar Category:Middle-earth rulers Category:Video game bosses Category:Male characters in literature de:Figuren in Tolkiens Welt#Sauron
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Wilhelm Brasse (3 December 1917 – 23 October 2012) was a Polish professional photographer and a prisoner in Auschwitz during World War II. He became known as the "famous photographer of Auschwitz concentration camp." His life and work were the subject of the 2005 Polish television documentary film The Portraitist (Portrecista), which first aired in the Proud to Present series on the Polish TVP1 on 1 January 2006. Brasse was of mixed Austrian-Polish descent. He learned photography in Katowice at the studio of his aunt. After the 1939 German invasion of Poland and occupation of Brasse's hometown Żywiec, in southern Poland, he was interrogated by the Schutzstaffel (SS). He refused to swear allegiance to Hitler, and was imprisoned for three months. After his release, still refusing to capitulate to the Volksliste and forced membership of German Army, he tried to escape to Hungary and join the Polish Army in France but was captured, along with other young men, at the Polish–Hungarian border and deported to KL Auschwitz-Birkenau as prisoner number 3444. He was assigned to the camp's Erkennungsdienst, which photographed events in the camp, including medical experiments, and created portraits for the inmates' files. Brasse estimated that he took 40,000 to 50,000 "identity pictures" from 1940 until 1945, before being moved to another concentration camp in Austria, where he was liberated by the American forces in May 1945. While many of Brasse's photographs did not survive, some are on display in the Auschwitz- Birkenau State Museum and at Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, Israel's official memorial to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust. ==Personal history== Wilhelm Brasse was born on 3 December 1917 to a descendant of Austrian settlers and a Polish mother in Żywiec, in the Partitioned Poland. His father was a Polish soldier in the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. After the September 1939 invasion of Poland, he was pressured by the Nazis to join them, refused, was repeatedly interrogated by the Gestapo, and tried to escape to France via Hungary, but he was captured at the Polish- Hungarian border and incarcerated for four months. After continuing to refuse to declare his loyalty to Hitler, on 31 August 1940, he was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp, soon after it opened. In February 1941, after having been called to the office of Rudolf Hoess, Auschwitz's commander, along with four others, and tested for "photographic skills", he was selected specifically for his "laboratory skills" and "technical ability with a camera" and for his ability to speak German, and then ordered to document the Nazi prisoners in the camp in the "Erkennungsdienst, the photographic identification unit." A year and a half later, Brasse encountered Josef Mengele, the notorious Nazi doctor who liked his photographs and wanted him to photograph some of the twins and people with congenital disorders moved to his infirmary on whom Mengele was "experimenting". After the Soviets entered Poland, during the Vistula-Oder Offensive, from 12 January to 2 February 1945, Brasse, along with thousands of other Auschwitz prisoners, was forcibly moved to the concentration camp in Ebensee, an Austrian subcamp of the Mauthausen- Gusen concentration camp complex (the last remaining in the area still controlled by the Nazis), where he remained imprisoned until the American forces liberated him in early May 1945. After returning home to Żywiec, a few miles from KL Auschwitz-Birkenau, Brasse tried to start taking pictures again, but found himself haunted by the ghosts of the dead – the subjects of his tens of thousands of Auschwitz pictures – and was unable to resume his work as a portrait photographer. Abandoning photography, he established what became a "moderately prosperous" sausage casing business. Although he later visited the State Museum at Auschwitz-Birkenau to talk with visitors about his experiences, and although he still possessed a small pre-war Kodak camera, he never took another photograph. ==Death== He died in Żywiec at the age of 94. He was married. He had two children and five grandchildren, and lived with his wife until his death. His death was announced by an Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum historian. ==The Auschwitz photographs== Trained before the beginning of World War II as a portrait photographer at his aunt's studio, he was ordered by his SS supervisors to photograph "prisoners' work, criminal medical experiments, [and] portraits of the prisoners for the files." Brasse estimated that he took about 40,000 to 50,000 "identity pictures" from 1940 until 1945, before being forcibly moved to another concentration camp in Austria, where he was liberated by the American forces in early May 1945. (Google Books provides hyperlinked "Preview".) Mengele had insisted that Brasse take the "identity" portraits of Auschwitz prisoners "in three poses: from the front and from each side." After taking hundreds of thousands of such photographs, Brasse and others disobeyed later Nazi orders to destroy them, yet only some of his photos have survived: > although it is hard to say which were Brasse's, since camp photos as a rule > didn't carry the photographer's name[,] ... Jarosław Mensfelt, spokesman of > the Auschwitz-Birkenau museum, says some 200,000 such pictures were taken, > with name, nationality and profession attached. ... About 40,000 of these > pictures are preserved, some with the identification cards, and 2,000 of > these are on display in the museum.... others are at Yad Vashem, the Israeli > Holocaust memorial. Some photographs credited to Brasse are in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's permanent exhibit in Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners. Similar individual "identification photographs" or "mug shots" of prisoners of Auschwitz and other German concentration camps are accessible in the searchable online Photo Archives of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM); biographical-information cards including these photographs and each corresponding to a concentration-camp inmate are also distributed to Holocaust Memorial Museum visitors as they enter. Partially featured on the USHMM official Website is a photograph of the photo mural on a wall of its 3rd floor permanent exhibit. A photograph of an adult female Auschwitz inmate by Wilhelm Brasse is accessible from the USHMM Photo Archives. The USHMM official Website also features similar "identification photographs" credited to the "National Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum" (the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland), but without identifying the photographer (who may or may not be Brasse), as illustrations in "Persecution of Homosexuals in the Third Reich". ==Documentary film: The Portraitist== thumb|right|Portrecista (TVP1, Poland, 2005): The Portraitist Photograph credit: Rekontrplan Film Group A 52-minute Polish documentary film about his life and work, The Portraitist (Portrecista, Poland, 2005), directed by Irek Dobrowolski and produced by Anna Dobrowolska, was first shown on Polish television station TVP1 on 1 January 2006, in the "Proud to present" series,. It premiered at West London Synagogue in London on 19 March 2007, with a second screening by popular demand on 22 April 2007. Updated announcement of screenings of premiere, co-hosted by The Spiro Ark and the London Polish Cultural Institute, at West London Synagogue, London, 19 March 2007 and 22 April 2007 (second screening). (Illustrated.) In the film Brasse relates the "story behind some pictures in the Auschwitz museum archives that he remembers taking." As the synopsis for the film emphasizes, after taking thousands of photographs from 1940 until 1945, documenting "cruelty which goes beyond all words ... for future generations," Brasse could no longer continue with his profession. ==Filmography== *Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State (BBC and PBS, 2005), "Surprising Beginnings" and "Orders & Initiatives" (Episodes 1 & 2) ["Auschwitz: 1940–1945"]. *The Portraitist (Portrecista, TVP1, Poland, 2005). (Original language: Polish; English subtitles.) Oficial Trailer: Portrecista ==See also== *Expulsion of Poles by Germany *The Holocaust *Kidnapping of Polish children by Nazi Germany *Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles *The Portraitist ==Notes== ==References== *"Children during the Holocaust". United States Holocaust Museum Encyclopedia (Holocaust Encyclopedia). Retrieved 28 August 2008. (Feature article.) *Kubica, Helena. The Extermination at KL Auschwitz of Poles Evicted from the Zamość Region in the Years 1942–1943. "New Book from Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum: Memorial Book ... The Expulsion of Polish Civilians from the Zamosc Region". Auschwitz- Birkenau State Museum, Poland. 17 July 2004. Retrieved 29 August 2008. (Press release.) *–––. Nie wolno o nich zapomnieć/Man darf się nie vergessen Najmłodsze ofiary Auschwitz/Die jüngsten Opfer von Auschwitz. Auschwitz- Birkenau State Museum Publications. Państwowe Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau w Oświęcimiu, 2002. (10). (13). (Polish–German version.) ["This new album is devoted to the memory of the children deported to Auschwitz Concentration Camp, the majority of whom were murdered in the camp by the Germans or fell victim to the conditions of life in the camp."] Featured in Auschwitz–Birkenau: Memorial and Museum: A Brief History and Basic Facts. (Web PDF). Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland. 27 pages. (in English) [Also listed as: "Published by Państwowe Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau w Oświęcimiu, 2003. 383 pages; text, illustrations, indexes (including "Register of Names": 373–81). 24,5x31cm; Polish-German version."] *Lucas, Ryan. "Auschwitz Photographer Haunted by Memories". The Los Angeles Times, 5 March 2006: [in print ed.: A-3]. Retrieved 10 October 2008. *Lukas, Richard C. Did the Children Cry? Hitler's War against Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2001. Project InPosterum: Preserving the Past for the Future, projectinposterum.org. Retrieved 28 August 2008. (Excerpts from text.) *–––. Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939–1944. 1986. Rev. ed. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2001. (10). (13). (Rev. by Rooney.) *Painting Czesława Kwoka, by Theresa Edwards (verse) and Lori Schreiner (art) after a series of photographs by Wilhelm Brasse. AdmitTwo (a2), 19 (September 2007). admit2.net. Retrieved 28 August 2008. *The Portraitist (Portrecista, Poland, 2005) – 5th Polish Film Festival Programme. Spiro Ark and the Polish Cultural Institute (UK). West London Synagogue, London. 19 March and 22 April 2007. (In Polish; with English subtitles.) * Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. PublicAffairs, 2006. (10). (13). Google Books. Retrieved 29 August 2008. (Provides hyperlinked "Preview".) [Companion book for Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State.] *Rooney, David "The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939–1944". National Review, 26 September 1986. FindArticles.com. Retrieved 29 August 2008. (Rev. of Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust.) *Struk, Janina. " I will never forget these scenes' ". The Guardian (Guardian Media Group), 20 January 2005. Retrieved 28 August 2008. (Interview with Wilhelm Brasse.) *–––. Photographing the Holocaust: Interpretations of the Evidence. New York and London: I.B.Tauris, 2004. (10). (13). Google Books. Retrieved 29 August 2008. (Provides hyperlinked "Preview".) *Words & Images: A Collaboration. Curators: Stuart Copans and Arlene Distler. Windham Art Gallery, Brattleboro, Vermont, 1 June – 1 July 2007. (Exhibition.) *Zychowicz, Piotr. "The Brothels at Auschwitz: A Little- Known Aspect of the History of the Nazi German Camp". Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland. Rpt. from Rzeczpospolita, 21 July 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2008. [Includes interview with "Wilhelm Brasse (number 3444), the famous photographer of Auschwitz."] ==External links== *Archives. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM). (Description of all its archives, including: "A combined catalog of published materials available in the Museum's Library, and unpublished archival materials available in the Museum's Archives. The published materials include books, serials, videos, CDs and other media. The unpublished archival materials include microfilm and microfiche, paper collections, photographs, music, and video and audio tapes." Among "unpublished" photographs in the USHMM searchable online Photo Archives are some of Wilhelm Brasse's "identification photographs", featured online with identification of Brasse as the photographer, credit to the "National Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum", identification of individual donors, and/or USHMM copyright notices. Those who download any of its archived photographs are directed to write to the USHMM for terms and conditions of use.) *Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland. English version. (Includes Centre for Education About Auschwitz and the Holocaust.) Further reference: "Technical page", with credits and copyright notice, pertaining to the official Website and official publications of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. * "Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum Publications: Albums, Catalogues". (English version; also available in Polish and German.) *"Portraitist" ("Portrecista") – Official Webpage of Rekontrplan Film Group (Distributor). Adobe Flash content, including video clip. (Access: >Productions>Documentaries>Portraitist). Television Documentary film produced for TVP1, "a television channel owned by TVP (Telewizja Polska S.A.)" [Updated "Events/News" re: screenings at Polish film festivals and awards also on site.] (English and Polish language options.) (Original language of film: Polish.) * (2005) – Excerpts from the film, Portrecista, first broadcast on TVP1, Poland, on 1 January 2006, as posted on YouTube, by "skarleee", on 22 August 2007. (In Polish; no subtitles; hyperlinked related Video clips.) (9:45). *"Resources & Collections: About the Photo Archive" at Yad Vashem. Category:1917 births Category:2012 deaths Category:People from Żywiec Category:Polish photographers Category:Auschwitz concentration camp survivors Category:Polish people of Austrian descent Category:Mauthausen concentration camp survivors Category:Holocaust photographers
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U.S. Route 202 (US 202) is a spur route of US 2\. It follows a northeasterly and southwesterly direction stretching from Delaware in the south to Maine in the north and traveling through the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. The highway has borne the number 202 since at least 1936. Before this, sections of the highway were designated U.S. Route 122, as it intersected US 22 in New Jersey. Its current designation is based on its intersection with I-395 and SR 15 near US 2 in Maine. Although it does not have a direct connection with US 2, it does intersect US 302 in Windham, Maine. This highway is considerably longer than the eastern segment of US 2 (although considerably shorter than the combined segments of US 2), making it one of several three-digit U.S. highways to be longer than their parent routes. ==Route description== |- |DE | |- |PA | |- |NJ | |- |NY | |- |CT | |- |MA | |- |NH | |- |ME | |- class="sortbottom" |Total | |} ===Delaware=== US 202 begins at an interchange with US 13/US 40 south of Wilmington. It runs north along the same road as Delaware Route 141, then joins with Interstate 95 through Wilmington. North of the city, it exits the freeway onto Concord Pike, heading north; Delaware Route 202 also continues south from this point. US 202 continues north towards the state line as a six-lane arterial road and is lined with numerous strip malls and "big- box stores". ===Pennsylvania=== US 202 continues north toward West Chester, joining with US 322 after intersecting U.S. Route 1. South of West Chester, US 202/US 322 exits onto a limited-access bypass of the borough; that is the West Chester Bypass, and includes a grade-level intersection at Matlack Street. North of West Chester, US 322 exits, and US 202 continues north as a freeway towards Frazer, where it interchanges with U.S. Route 30 and bends east to head towards Malvern and King of Prussia. In King of Prussia, the highway forms a large, complicated interchange with the Schuylkill Expressway (Interstate 76) the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 76/Interstate 276), and U.S. Route 422. The freeway then transitions into a divided highway, passing the King of Prussia shopping mall and heading northeast through commercial areas before splitting into a one-way pair through the streets of Bridgeport and Norristown, crossing the Schuylkill River in the process. North of Norristown, US 202 continues as a two-lane road heading northeast through the Philadelphia suburbs, passing through Blue Bell and Lower Gwynedd, where it becomes a four-lane highway for about two miles (3 km). East of Lansdale, in Montgomeryville, it turns into an expressway-grade parkway with a parallel trail, which opened in December 2012. It continues northeast toward Doylestown, where it joins an older section of bypass at Pennsylvania Route 611 and proceeds north to the old alignment of US 202 (State Street). It continues as a two-lane road to New Hope, crossing the Delaware River on the New Hope-Lambertville Toll Bridge. ===New Jersey=== thumb|upright=1.1|U.S. Route 202 in New Jersey at the New York/New Jersey state line On the toll bridge, US 202 has two lanes in each direction. It continues a northeasterly course for about as a freeway. This segment of US 202 was earlier called the US 202 bypass (as it bypassed the New Hope-Lambertville area) from its original route. The old section of US 202 between New Hope and Ringoes, New Jersey is now Route 179 which is also Old York Road, the first roadway to connect New York City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1953, this section of Old York Road was renumbered US 202\. A small section of the US 202 bypass was built in 1965 and the old route was renamed Route 179\. When the western section of the bypass was built to the Delaware River, the whole former segment was renamed Route 179\. The section of the new US 202 freeway section ends once it begins to run concurrently with Route 31 in East Amwell Township. The concurrency runs for five miles (8 km), to Flemington. This stretch, and the 13 miles (21 km) between Flemington and Somerville, is a four-lane divided roadway. In Bridgewater Township, just northwest of Somerville, US 202 has a junction with US 22 towards I-287 South. At Somerville, the road merges with US 206 at a now-reconfigured Somerville Circle. Parts of the old traffic circle, which also carries Route 28, remain below the US 202 flyover. US 202 splits northeastward from US 206 at Bedminster Township and again becomes a two-lane road. From here to the state line, US 202 parallels, and has largely been supplanted by, I-287, which during its construction dumped traffic onto US 202\. US 202 continues through Morristown to Morris Plains with an intersection with Route 53\. With a few exceptions, US 202 is maintained by counties rather than the New Jersey Department of Transportation north of Route 53\. The only sections of US 202 in New Jersey north of Route 53 that are state-maintained are at the I-80 interchange, at the US 46 intersection, along the Route 23 concurrency, and at the I-287 interchange in Oakland. US 202 continues past Boonton along the Boonton Turnpike to historic Mountain View in Wayne, where it then picks up Route 23 for about two miles (3 km) and then exits on Black Oak Ridge Road. It then follows the Paterson-Hamburg Turnpike, Terhune Drive on the east side of Pompton Lake (past the former homes of Cecille B. DeMille and Albert Payson Terhune), and Ramapo Valley Road (more or less paralleling the Ramapo River through Oakland) to Mahwah before crossing the New York state line on the Franklin Turnpike. ===New York=== US 202 is mostly designated east–west in New York, owing to its greater coverage in those directions. Franklin Turnpike becomes Orange Avenue in Suffern, and US 202 continues to a block-long wrong-way concurrency with NY 59 before tailing off on Wayne Avenue and heading east toward Haverstraw. Most of this stretch is a two-lane road. At Haverstraw, US 202 makes a sharp left turn north onto US 9W and follows US 9W's path for 13 miles (21 km) towards Bear Mountain and then crosses the Hudson River on the Bear Mountain Bridge, running concurrently with US 6, the Grand Army of the Republic Highway. The two wind around Anthony's Nose, briefly forming New York's only three-way concurrency of U.S. highways with US 9 at Peekskill. Afterwards, the two separate for several miles, with US 202 taking the more southerly route through Somers. The highways reunite at Brewster and become a four-lane road for their last few miles before the state line, taking in NY 121 in the process. ===Connecticut=== At Danbury, US 6 and 202 climb up onto I-84, which had just been joined by the north–south US 7, making a four-way concurrency. US 7 and 202 split from I-84 and US 6 at Exit 7. It is a two-lane road in southern Brookfield as it follows Federal Road. US 202 diverts from U.S. Route 7 at the next exit to a parallel surface route. The US 7 freeway continues for another before it rejoins US 202 at the Brookfield/New Milford town line. The now rejoined US 7 and 202 approach New Milford in bucolic Litchfield County, where they once again split. US 202 continues through Torrington and on to Cherry Brook, where it then runs concurrently with US 44 for several miles before turning northward at Avon. For the run to the state line, US 202 runs concurrently with Route 10. ===Massachusetts=== Unlike elsewhere in New England, US 202 is posted as a north–south highway in Massachusetts, as the highway runs mostly in those directions for its length through the state. US 202 and Route 10 enter the Bay State at the "Congamond Notch" in Southwick, a southward jog in the state line that includes Congamond Lake. North of Westfield, US 202 turns eastward toward Holyoke, crosses the Connecticut River on the Joseph E. Muller Bridge and travels for 1.5 miles as a limited access bypass of South Hadley, traversing MA 116 and MA 33 toward Belchertown. After crossing MA 9, it then heads north along the west side of the Quabbin Reservoir through New Salem toward Athol. This section of US 202 has been dubbed the Daniel Shays Highway, named for a Revolutionary War veteran who led an insurrection against the state government of Massachusetts. US 202 meets Massachusetts Route 2 at Orange, and runs along the two-lane freeway to Phillipston. There, it diverges to the north again as a two-lane road. In Massachusetts, US 202 passes through the municipalities of Southwick, Westfield, Holyoke, South Hadley, Granby, Belchertown, Pelham, Shutesbury, New Salem, Orange, Athol, Phillipston, Templeton, and Winchendon. The stretch of highway through Belchertown, Pelham, Shutesbury, and New Salem opened in 1935 to coincide with the completion and opening of the Quabbin Reservoir. The roadway reaches its closest point to the reservoir itself at the crossing of the Swift River, at the Shutesbury/New Salem town line. Access to the west side of the Quabbin Reservation is made through multiple gates in the three towns. There is no public access, however, to the Prescott Peninsula. ===New Hampshire=== thumb|upright=1.1|Section of US 202 in Henniker, New Hampshire US 202 is posted as an east–west highway in New Hampshire. It remains a two-lane highway for most of its length in the Granite State. It heads north, through Rindge, Jaffrey, and Peterborough, to Hillsborough, where it turns eastward along a concurrency with New Hampshire Route 9. The span of the road between Hillsborough and Hopkinton, which passes through Henniker, is among the most deadly sections of roadway in the state."Crash takes two lives" . Concord Monitor. June 2005. Accessed July 10, 2008. At Concord, New Hampshire, the state capital, US 202 heads north and picks up a concurrency with US 3 for a short time, and then turns eastward again along Interstate 393, a freeway spur that also carries US 4\. The freeway ends short of Chichester, and NH 9 rejoins the two-lane concurrency along with US 4 and 202. At Northwood, US 202 and NH 9 leave US 4\. NH 9 splits off a few miles later, leaving US 202 to continue alone toward Rochester, where the road jumps up onto the Spaulding Turnpike (NH 16) for a short, non-tolled distance. US 202 leaves the turnpike two miles (3 km) before the state line at East Rochester. ===Maine=== US 202 is posted as an east–west highway in Maine. The highway enters the state by crossing the Salmon Falls River at South Lebanon and bridges the Mousam River in Sanford. The highway then passes through Alfred, Waterboro and Hollis before crossing the Saco River at Salmon Falls. The highway passes through Gorham and crosses the Presumpscot River into South Windham. There is a rotary with U.S. Route 302 (US 202 only connection to US 2) at Foster's Corner and an interchange with I-95 at Gray. The highway parallels I-95 through New Gloucester to Auburn and crosses the Androscoggin River into Lewiston, passing near the campus of Bates College. A very short stretch through the latter two cities is four-lane highway, but most of its length in the Pine Tree State consists of two-lane road. Its final miles west of Hampden, including the short overlay on I-395, and concurrency with US 1A also include four-laned segments. The highway passes through Greene, Monmouth, and Winthrop concurrently with Maine Route 11 and Maine Route 100, and becomes concurrent with State Route 17 at Manchester. US 202 runs concurrently with U.S. Route 201 as it crosses the Kennebec River at Augusta, and shortly thereafter it picks up State Route 3 and State Route 9. US 202 then ends at I-395 and SR 15 just a half mile east of US 2 and a half mile west of US 1A Bus in Bangor, Maine. I-395's junction with US 1A just southeast of the eastern terminus of US 202 is just two miles south of central Bangor. ==History== US 122 was created in 1926, connecting US 22 at Whitehouse Station, New Jersey, with US 13 in Wilmington, Delaware. It was extended to Haverstraw, New York in 1931 and became part of US 202 in 1934. US 202 was approved by the AASHO (now AASHTO) in June 1934; the route approved was , from Bangor, Maine, to State Road, Delaware, south of Wilmington. In 1964, the AASHO approved a request by Delaware to eliminate the portion of US 202 between its intersection with I-295 in Farnhurst and State Road; that stretch was carrying US 13/40/301. US 202 was later shortened so that it ended at I-95 just north of Wilmington. Then in 1984, the route numbering committee approved extending US 202 from there to its intersection with US 13/US 40 in Basin Corner, near New Castle. This intersection is US 202's current terminus. US 202's path passes near the sites of various important Revolutionary War battles in Delaware and Pennsylvania, such as Cooch's Bridge, near Newark, Delaware; Brandywine, near Philadelphia; and Valley Forge. In New Hampshire, US 202 passes by a historical marker in Antrim commemorating the last surviving soldier of the Revolutionary War.https://www.nh.gov/nhdhr/markers/documents/markers_bynumber.pdf In Pennsylvania in the early 1960s, a four-lane expressway, the Piedmont Expressway, was proposed that would follow the US 202 corridor. The expressway was to be long, and would cost approximately $146 million. It was to serve as an outer beltway around the Philadelphia area. The project was ultimately cancelled. In its place, the Route 202 Parkway Trail was built. The trail is in length.https://circuittrails.org/sites/default/files/08_Route202.pdf The trail is ultimately expected to connect to the East Coast Greenway via the Neshaminy Creek Trail. Construction began in November 2008 on a parkway project between Pennsylvania Route 63 in Lower Gwynedd and the existing cloverleaf interchange at the US 202 bypass and PA 611 near Doylestown. This parkway was planned to consist of a four-lane stretch between Route 63 and Pennsylvania Route 463 and a two-lane parkway the rest of the way that bypasses the boroughs of Chalfont and New Britain. The parkway opened on December 3, 2012. US 202 originally ended at its junction with US 2/US 1A in Bangor, Maine. In the late 1980s, however, the section of US 202 between I-395 and US 2 was removed from US 202's official routing. Officially, US 202 ends at I-395's exit 3. However, signs designating US 202's termination at US 2 in downtown Bangor, at the corner of Main Street and Hammond Street, still stand today. That intersection is still seen as US 202's end. ==Major intersections== ;Delaware : in Wilmington Manor : in Newport : with a concurrency from Newport to Wilmington : in Newport ;Pennsylvania : in Chadds Ford Township, with a concurrency with US 322 from Chadds Ford Township to West Goshen Township : in East Whiteland Township : in Tredyffrin Township : in Upper Merion Township ;New Jersey : with a concurrency from the Raritan–Bridgewater Township line to Bedminster Township : in Bridgewater Township : in Bridgewater Township : in Bedminster Township : in Parsippany- Troy Hills : in Parsippany-Troy Hills : in Parsippany-Troy Hills : in Boonton : in Montville : in Oakland ;New York : with a concurrency from the Village of Haverstraw to Highlands : with a concurrency from Highlands to Peekskill : with a concurrency from Cortlandt to Peekskill : with a concurrency from Brewster to the Connecticut state line in Southeast ;Connecticut : with a concurrency from the New York state line in Danbury through the city : with a concurrency through Danbury : with a concurrency from Danbury to New Milford : with a concurrency from Canton to Avon ;Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine : ==See also== ===Related routes=== *U.S. Route 2 *U.S. Route 302 *Special routes of U.S. Route 202 ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== *New Jersey section of U.S. Route 202 Straight Line Diagram from the New Jersey Department of Transportation *An enlarged view of road jurisdiction of US 202, NJ 124 and CR 510 in Morristown *Speed Limits for New Jersey State Roads: U.S. Route 202 in New Jersey *Route 202 at New Milford, CT. Photograph 02-2 2 02-2 02-2 02-2
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thumb|Hans Staudinger Hans Staudinger (born 16 August 1889 in Worms, Germany; died 25 February 1980 in New York City, NY) was a politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and an economist, as well as a secretary of state in the Prussian trade ministry from 1929 to 1932. From November 1932 to June 1933 he was a Social Democrat member of the Reichstag. ==Youth== Staudinger was born to the gymnasium (high school) teacher Franz Staudinger and his wife Auguste Staudinger, née Wenck, and was baptised as a Protestant. He had two brothers and one sister. His father was a leading theorist of the cooperative movement and was connected to prominent Social Democrats such as August Bebel and Eduard Bernstein. His friendship with the latter lasted his whole life. Hans Staudinger acquired his Abitur at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt. He started an apprenticeship as a carpenter while still at school, but did not pursue this. He also temporarily worked as an engine stoker. The incentive for this came from his father, who wanted his son to have insight into the world of the working classes. His brother Hermann Staudinger, who received the 1953 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, followed a similar path at the request of his father. ==Studies and World War I== From 1907 to 1908, Staudinger studied at literature and German philology at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. In 1908 he transferred to the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. Here he studied economics and sociology. His most significant university teachers were the brothers Alfred and Max Weber. In 1913 he received his Dr. phil. for a thesis on entitled Individuum und Gemeinschaft in der Kulturorganisation des Vereins (The Individual and the Community in the Cultural Organisation of the Society), being supervised by Alfred Weber. In this thesis, Staudinger investigated the change in musical societies from the Middle Ages to the middle-class community choirs of his time. The underlying claim was that the alienation of the individual would in the near future be overcome by the community life of the workers. What Staudinger saw as the natural form of community life in the Middle Ages would thus be renewed. In his first semester as a student, Staudinger joined the SPD. Until 1914 he also took on a leading role in the Südwestdeutscher Wandervogelbund, and was the leader of a Wandervogelgruppe. From 1913 to 1914 he was the secretary of the Revisionsverband Südwestdeutscher Konsumvereine. He served as an officer in World War I, and received the Iron Cross Second Class in 1916. In the last year of the war Staudinger was severely wounded and lost his sight in one eye. ==Administrative career== After his recovery, in Spring 1918 he was made a head of division in the Kriegsernährungsamt (War Office of Food, based in Berlin), where he remained until July 1919. He then moved to the Ministry of Economics, where he stayed until 1927. From 1920 he was a Vortragender Rat (Expert Councillor). With some economy ministers, he served as their personal advisor. In addition, he functioned as the liaison with the Reichswirtschaftsrat (Economy Council). In the 1920s Staudinger aspired to drive forward the cartelisation of the extractive and energy industries under state control. This policy would make possible a form of social economy, which was supported in the ministry by Rudolf Wissell (SPD) and Wichard von Moellendorff. However, hardly any state direction of these industries came about. The only result of Staudinger's efforts was the publication of a comprehensive study of structural problems of the German economy after the First World War, which was presented by a corresponding committee of inquiry, as proposed by Staudinger in 1925. In 1927 Staudinger became a civil servant in the Prussian trade ministry. There he was responsible for port, transport and electricity industries, from 1929 as a secretary of state. The political situation in the democratic Prussia under Otto Braun and the tradition of state-directed economy in this state offered better chances for social economic plans to be realized. The Preußenschlag of the German government under Franz von Papen in 1932 put an end to Staudinger's government career; he was put on leave whilst his salary continued to be paid. In the government bureaucracy, Staudinger was known since the end of the 1920s as a leading specialist in matters of social economy, and is seen by historians as one of the few distinguished senior civil servants with republican sympathies. In 1932 he published a text in which he presented his thoughts on the economy to a wider audience. This underlined his reputation as an expert on public enterprise. Staudinger held posts in the boards of directors of various state- run businesses. He was for example chairman of the board of the company Preussag, the creation of which he had instigated, and held the same position at VEBA, which he had also worked towards creating. He was deputy chairman of the boards of the Aktiengesellschaft für deutsche Elektrizitätswirtschaft in Berlin and Obere Saale AG in Weimar. He was a member of the board of Elektrowerke AG in Berlin, Duisburg-Ruhrorter Hafen AG, the Thüringische Gasgesellschaft, and the Hamburgisch-Preußischen Hafengemeinschaft GmbH. He also taught at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik. After the Preußenschlag, Staudinger intensified his contacts with the Social Democrats Carlo Mierendorff and Theodor Haubach, who were determined to answer the increasing political violence in the early 1930s with strong social-democratic fighting units for the defence of the Republic. In this context Staudinger was invited by Hamburg Social Democrats around Hans Carl Podeyn and Karl Meitmann to succeed Peter Graßmann in the Hamburg Reichstag constituency as candidate for the elections in November 1932. After initially hesitating, Staudinger agreed, and won the seat for the SPD. He was not able to exert any great influence in the Reichstag, however, as the National Socialists came to power on 30 January 1933. In the following weeks, Staudinger worked hard to organise the Social- Democratic resistance, particularly in Hamburg. In Berlin, he got Fritz Naphtali and Fritz Tarnow released from Gestapo arrest. He did this by impersonating a senior Prussian official, and ordering their release. Hermann Göring tried to persuade him to take a coordinating role of the integrated economy in the Third Reich, but Staudinger rejected this. On 16 June 1933 Staudinger was arrested in Hamburg, along with leading Social Democrats of the city. He remained in "protective custody" until 22 July 1933. Then he fled to Belgium, where he remained until September 1933. Danny Heinemann, the head of the Belgian energy group Sofina, employed him as an adviser. Staudinger's reasons for fleeing Germany were his opposition to National Socialism, his experience of being arrested and his concern for his Jewish wife. After he was forced to return to Germany, he finally emigrated to the United States via Belgium, France and Britain. At the same time, he was offered a post in Ankara advising the Turkish government on matters of economic policy; this he rejected, however. == New School for Social Research == In spring 1934, he was made a professor of economics at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Many emigrants who were either friends or acquaintances of his also worked at this institution, such as Eduard Heimann, Arnold Brecht and Emil Lederer. He received American citizenship in 1940. Staudinger's political and writing experiences in the field of the social economy found an interested specialist audience in the United States. President Roosevelt was trying to overcome the effects of the Great Depression with his New Deal policy. Some of the largest projects were for example the creation of an authority for energy production and regional development, the Tennessee Valley Authority, which was to develop the use of the water power of the Tennessee River as well as the development of the extensive Tennessee Valley. Staudinger was able to show in his publications what kind of employment stimulus could be expected from large electrification programmes, the new room for manoeuvre the government could gain against regional electricity monopolies by setting up public energy suppliers, and what social effects electrification would have on rural areas that had hitherto been overlooked by the electricity suppliers for reasons of costs. In his new academic post, however, his time was spent less on research and publications than on academic administration and teaching. Over several years he influenced the work of the Graduate Faculty of Political und Social Science as its dean, by turning the "University in Exile" into an American academic institution. He became dean in 1939 after the death of economist and sociologist Emil Lederer. Staudinger's wife Else, whom he had married in 1912, had taken her Ph.D. under Lederer's supervision, being the first woman to do so in Heidelberg. Staudinger also worked as dean from 1941 to 1943, from 1950 to 1951 and from 1953 to 1959. He was also active in fundraising, as his faculty was one that frequently suffered under a lack of resources. Hans and Else Staudinger founded a committee to support persecuted scientists and intellectuals, the American Council for Émigrés in the Professions, in the New School for Social Research. In this they co-operated with the prominent religious socialist Paul Tillich and Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of the US President. Until the end of the 1950s, the Council helped more than 3,000 refugees to find jobs. In the United States, Staudinger was in close contact with exiled Social Democrats from Germany, many of whom he had known personally before he emigrated. He belonged to the founders of the German Labour Delegation who included Max Brauer, formerly the mayor of the Prussian town of Altona, his friend Rudolf Katz and the former Prussian Minister of the Interior Albert Grzesinski. In the second half of World War II he turned away from this group however, when they started vehemently arguing against plans for an Allied occupation of Germany, under the influence of Friedrich Stampfer, a member of the SPD leadership. In 1943 Staudinger, Tillich, Paul Hertz and Carl Zuckmayer formed the core of the Council for a Democratic Germany that was officially founded in 1944. In January 1947 Staudinger was amongst the signatories of a declaration by former Social Democratic Reichstag members that was printed in Time and in the Neue Volkszeitung, the leading German-language newspaper in the United States. This declaration argued against mass expulsions, dismantlement of German industry and an occupation of Germany, and demanded a peace treaty, with reference to the Atlantic Charter. After the Second World War, Staudinger became an important link between the United States and Germany in the academic world. On his initiative, on the occasion of Theodor Heuss' visit to the United States in the early 1960s, the Theodor Heuss Chair was created at the New School for Social Research. This was to give young social scientists the opportunity to teach in New York for one year. After 1959, Staudinger worked as editor of the political science journal Social Research. After his retirement, along with his wife Else Staudinger he donated the endowment for a professorial chair at the New School for Social Research in 1965. After Else died, he married Elisabeth Todd in 1967. == Honours == In 1959 Theodor Heuss awarded honours to German emigrants in New York on the occasion of his 75th birthday. In this context Hans Staudinger received the Großes Verdienstkreuz (Great Cross of Merit), as did his wife Else and Hans Simons and Arnold Brecht, two of his colleagues at the New School. On 16 August 1969 the Federal Republic of Germany honoured him again, this time with the Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern (Great Cross of Merit with star). This award of an even higher honour was justified by Staudinger's continuing achievements in furthering American understanding of Germany. The Großkrotzenburg Staudinger Power Station is also named after him. ==External links== *Hans Staudinger Papers Category:1880s births Category:1980 deaths Category:People from Worms, Germany Category:Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians Category:Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic Category:German expatriates in the United States Category:Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:People from Rhenish Hesse
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Jeff Andretti (born April 14, 1964) is a former American race car driver. He competed in CART, and was the series' Rookie of the Year in 1991. ==Personal life== Jeff is the youngest son of Dee Ann (Hoch) and legendary Italian-born 1969 Indy 500 Champion and 1978 Formula 1 World Champion Mario Andretti, younger brother of Michael Andretti, and uncle of Marco Andretti. Jeff is the nephew of Mario's twin Aldo Andretti and cousin of Aldo's sons John Andretti and Adam Andretti. The Andretti family became the first family to have four relatives (Michael, Mario, Jeff, and John) compete in the same series (CART). ==Racing career== In 1983, Jeff was racing in Formula Fords, winning both the USCA Pro Ford Championship and the Skip Barber Formula Ford Eastern Series. After qualifying for his Sports Car Club of America national license in 1984, he won the Northeast Division title in Formula Ford. In the November, he made his Formula Super Vee debut at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. He continued in Formula Super Vee the following season, with the Ralt America outfit, winning the third race of the season, on the Milwaukee Mile. In the CART race at the same event, Mario did the same, marking the first time a father and son had started from pole and won races on the same track, in the same weekend. Jeff would also win in Cleveland and Phoenix, on his way the fifth in the Robert Bosch/Valvoline Championship. 1986 saw Andretti move into the new American Racing Series with Ralph Sanchez Racing. Like his Milwaukee win the previous year, his only race win was a "family affair". He earned his first ARS victory at Pocono, as his father wins the CART race at the same meeting, after his brother, Michael had started from pole, giving the Andretti family a "clean sweep." Jeff would go on and finish second the overall ARS standing. For 1987, Jeff switched to Arciero Racing for another attempt at ARS, winning the opening race of the season, in Phoenix. He would revisit the top step of the podium in the series finale, in the race around Tamiami Park, Miami, snatching second place in the championship away from Tommy Byrne in the process. After in quiet 1988, Andretti took a new challenge for 1989, competing in the Toyota Atlantic, while developing a new chassis. Although the season was winless, he did earn Rookie of the Year honours, on his to sixth in the Atlantic Division. He moved into the CART ranks in 1990, joining his father and brother, making racing history, making it the first time a father has competed against his two sons in a CART race. After failing to qualifier for the Indianapolis 500, he make his race debut with TEAMKAR International in their Lola-Cosworth T89/00 in the Miller Genuine Draft 200 on the Milwaukee Mile, only to suffer mechanical problems and not finish. He sat out the rest of the season, returning in 1991, doing a full season with Bayside Disposal Racing, driving their Texaco Havoline Star sponsored Lola-Cosworth T91/00. With four top ten finishes throughout the season, three of which were the first three races, the best being a 7th place in the Gold Coast IndyCar Grand Prix; the race incidentally won by his cousin, John, earning the CART Rookie of the Year title. In May 1991, Jeff would qualify 11th for the Indianapolis 500, coupled with an outstanding performance before mechanical problems earned him the Indy 500 Rookie of the Year title. He followed his Mario and Michael in making it the first time ever, that three members of the same family have achieved this. Earlier that year, Jeff joined Mario and Michael to race for Jochen Dauer Racing in the SunBank 24 at Daytona. Although their Porsche 962C was classified in fifth place, they failed to finish due to overheating. Without for full-time drive for 1992, Andretti returned to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway with A. J. Foyt Enterprises. Unfortunately, he became yet another victim of the infamous Andretti Curse at the famed race track when on lap 109, a right rear wheel came loose off his car at Turn 2 and he crashed violently head-on into the wall, smashing both his legs. He spent three weeks at the Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis, before the long road to recovery, determined to race again in 1993. It was February 1993, when Andretti set the (then) unofficial closed-course speed record for IndyCars of 234.50 mph, the fastest speed ever recorded at Texas World Speedway, while testing for the Indianapolis 500. This marked his first time back in an IndyCar since the accident the previous year. Andretti's fast run came at the conclusion of two days of testing where he consistently posted laps in the 230 mph range. Andretti's Buick-powered Lola was prepared by Pagan Racing. It was at the Indy, that Jeff made his complete his comeback, only to record a third straight DNF. The accident severely hampered Andretti's career, at least in terms of his competitiveness, since he was never the same afterwards. In 1994, Jeff did a one-off race with Euromotorsports, finishing 17th in the Slick 50 200, held at the Phoenix International Raceway, albeit 21 laps adrift. Come May, Jeff had switched to Hemelgarn Racing, but his bid for a fourth consecutive start failed due to a blown Buick engine. He later managed, however, to come back and race full-time in the Indy Lights with Canaska Racing in 1995, but recorded just one top-ten finish. For 1996, he stepped away from open-wheel racing and joined the tin-top brigade, racing to seventh place overall in the North American Touring Car Championship in a Leitzinger Racing prepared Ford Mondeo. After a gap of three year, he moved to the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series, driving the No. 94 Chevrolet for Enerjetix Motorsports, he raced in three events in 1999, posting a best finish of 30th at the Milwaukee Mile. Andretti is now retired from competitive racing, and works as a driving instructor.Auto-racing.speedtv.com ==Racing record== ===Career highlights=== Season Series Position Team Car 1985 Robert Bosch Formula Super Vee ChampionshipTeamdan.com 5th Ralt American Ralt-Volkswagen RT5 1986 CART American Racing Series 2nd Ralph Sanchez Racing March-Buick 86A/2 1987 CART American Racing Series 2nd Arciero Racing March-Buick 86A 1988 HFC American Racing Series 21st Hemelgarn Racing Agapiou Racing March-Buick 86A 1989 SCCA Toyota Atlantic Championship - Atlantic Division 6th Newman Racing Reynard-Toyota 89H HFC American Racing Series 27th Baci Racing March-Buick 86A 1990 CART PPG Indy Car World Series 38th TEAMKAR International Lola-Cosworth T89/00 1991 CART PPG Indy Car World Series 15th Bayside Disposal Racing Lola-Cosworth T91/00 USAC Gold Crown Series 15th Bayside Disposal Racing Lola-Cosworth T91/00 Camel GT Championship season 29th Jochen Dauer Racing Porsche 962C 1992 USAC Gold Crown Series 18th A. J. Foyt Enterprises Lola-Chevrolet T91/00 CART PPG Indy Car World Series 49th A. J. Foyt Enterprises Lola-Chevrolet T91/00 1993 USAC Gold Crown Series 29th Pagan Racing Lola-Buick T92/00 CART PPG Indy Car World Series 53rd Pagan Racing Lola-Buick T92/00 1994 CART PPG Indy Car World Series 44th Euromotosport Hemelgarn Racing Lola-Ilmor T93/00 Lola-Buick T92/00 1995 PPG/Firestone Indy Lights Championship powered by Buick 19th Camaska Racing Lola-Buick T93/20 1996 North American Touring Car Championship 7th Leitzinger Racing Ford Mondeo Ghia 1999 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series 64th Enerjetix Motorsports Chevrolet Silverado ===SCCA National Championship Runoffs=== Year Track Car Engine Class Finish Start Status 1984 Road Atlanta Swift DB1 Ford Formula Ford 35 2 Retired ===Complete 24 Hours of Daytona results=== Year Team Co-Drivers Car Class Laps 1984 901 Shop Mike Schaefer Nick Nicholson Jeff Refenning Porsche 911 SC GTU 258 43rd (DNF) 12th (DNF) 1988 Buick Momo March Steve Phillips Michael Roe March-Buick 86G GTP 485 53rd (DNF) 14th (DNF) 1991 Jochen Dauer Racing Mario Andretti Michael Andretti Porsche 962C GTP 663 5th (DNF) 3rd (DNF) ===Complete 12 Hours of Sebring results=== Year Team Co-Drivers Car Class Laps 1993 Auto Toy Store Wayne Taylor Morris Shirazi Spice-Chevrolet SE90P GTP 165 37th (DNF) 7th (DNF) ===American Open Wheel racing results=== (key) ====American Racing Series / Indy Lights==== American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results American Racing Series / Indy Lights results Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rank Points 1986 Ralph Sanchez Racing PHX1 5 MIL 3 MEA 10 TOR 10 POC 1 MDO 4 ROA 2 LS 14 PHX2 4 MIA 3 2nd 107 1987 Arciero Racing PHX 1 MIL 11 MEA 2 CLE 4 TOR 8 POC 2 MDO 5 NAZ 3 LS 7 MIA 1 2nd 123 1988 Hemelgarn Racing PHX 14 MIL 11 POR 11 CLE TOR MEA MIA 17 23rd 5 Agapiou Racing POC 14 MDO ROA NAZ LS 1989 Baci Racing PHX LBH MIL DET POR MEA TOR POC MDO ROA NAZ 10 LS 27th 3 1995 Canaska Racing MIA 15 PHX DNS LBH 20 NAZ 10 MIL 19 DET 12 POR TOR 11 CLE 20 NHA 7 VAN LS 19th 12 ====CART==== PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results PPG IndyCar World Series results Year Team Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Rank Points 1990 TEAMKAR International Lola T89/00 Cosworth DFS V8t PHX LBH INDY DNQ MIL 17 DET POR CLE MEA TOR MIS DEN VAN MDO ROA NAZ LAG 37th 0 1991 Bayside Disposal Racing Lola T91/00 Cosworth DFS V8t SRF 7 LBH 9 PHX 10 INDY 15 MIL 11 DET 16 POR 12 CLE 16 MEA 23 TOR 9 MIS 12 DEN 12 VAN 11 MDO 22 ROA 18 NAZ 11 LAG 13 15th 26 1992 A. J. Foyt Enterprises Lola T91/00 Chevrolet 265A V8t SRF PHX LBH INDY 18 DET POR MIL NHA TOR MIC CLE ROA VAN MDO NAZ LAG 49th 0 1993 Pagan Racing Lola T92/00 Buick 3300 V6t SRF PHX LBH INDY 29 MIL DET POR CLE TOR MIC NHA ROA VAN MDO NAZ LAG 53rd 0 1994 Euromotorsports Lola T93/00 Ilmor 265C V8t SRF PHX 17 LBH 44th 0 1994 Hemelgarn Racing Lola T92/00 Buick 3300 V6t INDY DNQ MIL DET POR CLE TOR MIC MDO NHA VAN ROA NAZ LAG 44th 0 ====Indianapolis 500==== Year Chassis Engine Start Finish 1990 Lola T89/00 Cosworth DFS V8t DNQ DNQ 1991 Lola T91/00 Cosworth DFS V8t 11 15 1992 Lola T91/00 Chevrolet 265A V8t 20 18 1993 Lola T92/00 Buick 3300 V6t 16 29 1994 Lola T92/00 Buick 3300 V6t DNQ DNQ ===NASCAR=== (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) ====Craftsman Truck Series==== NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pts 1999 Enerjetix Motorsports 94 Chevy HOM PHO EVG MMR MAR MEM PPR I70 BRI TEX 31 PIR GLN MLW 30 NSV NZH 31 MCH NHA IRP GTY HPT RCH LVS LVL TEX CAL 64th 213 ===North American Touring Car Championship=== (key) North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results North American Touring Car Championship results Year Team No. Car 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Pts 1996 Leitzinger Racing 5 Ford Mondeo LRP LRP DET 5 DET 6 PIR 6 PIR 6 TOR DNS TOR DNS TRV 9 TRV 5 MOH 6 MOH 10 VAN 6 VAN 7 LS 9 LS 5 7th 106 ==References== ==External links== * * Jeff Andretti at Champ Car Stats * Official Andretti family website Category:Living people Category:1964 births Category:Sportspeople from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Category:Racing drivers from Pennsylvania Category:Indianapolis 500 drivers Category:Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year Category:Champ Car drivers Category:Indy Lights drivers Category:Atlantic Championship drivers Category:SCCA Formula Super Vee drivers Category:NASCAR drivers Category:24 Hours of Daytona drivers Category:12 Hours of Sebring drivers Category:IMSA GT Championship drivers Category:American people of Italian descent Jeff Category:SCCA National Championship Runoffs participants Category:Nazareth Area High School alumni Category:A. J. Foyt Enterprises drivers Category:EuroInternational drivers Category:North American Touring Car Championship drivers
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The New South Wales Labor Party, officially known as the Australian Labor Party (New South Wales Branch) and commonly referred to simply as NSW Labor, is the New South Wales branch of the Australian Labor Party. The parliamentary leader is elected from and by the members of the party caucus, comprising all party members in the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council. The party factions have a strong influence on the election of the leader. The leader's position is dependent on the continuing support of the caucus (and party factions) and the leader may be deposed by failing to win a vote of confidence of parliamentary members. By convention, the premier sits in the Legislative Assembly, and is the leader of the party controlling a majority in that house. The party leader also typically is a member of the Assembly, though this is not a strict party constitutional requirement. Barrie Unsworth, for example, was elected party leader while a member of the Legislative Council. He then transferred to the Assembly by winning a seat at a by-election. When the Labor party wins sufficient seats to be able to control a majority in the Legislative Assembly, the party leader becomes the State Premier and Labor will form the government. When Labor is the largest party not in government, the party leader becomes the Leader of the Opposition. To become a premier or opposition leader, the party leader must be or within a short period of time become a member of the Legislative Assembly. ==History== ===Early history=== The NSW branch of the Australian Labor Party, known as the Labor Electoral League of New South Wales from 1891 to 1917, first won 35 of the 141 seats in the NSW parliament at the 1891 election. The initial caucus voted against appointing a leader and the party was directed by a steering committee of five members until, following a request from the party's extra-parliamentary executive, Joseph Cook was elected as the first leader in 1893. Cook left the party in the following year when he was obliged to sign a pledge that he would support all caucus decisions in parliament. James McGowen, who signed the pledge, succeeded Cook as party leader in 1894. At the 1894 state election Labor representation was reduced to 18. After the 1898 election, Labor held the balance of power with George Reid's Free Trade government being dependent on Labor to push through New South Wales' adoption of Federation. McGowen's support for Federation was critical to Labor maintaining its support for the adoption of measures to implement Federation, even though the party remained opposed to the adopted Constitution, which it saw as biased in favour of business interests. The 1904 state election saw Labor become the second largest party and the official opposition for the first time. ===First government in New South Wales and internal divisions=== At the 1910 election, the Labor Party first won government in NSW with a slim majority of 46 of 90 seats; as a result, McGowen was premier from 1910 to 1913. But increasing success was accompanied by increasing tensions within the labour movement: from the 1890s the Australian Workers' Union attempted to assert its influence on the NSW parliamentary party, with little success for many years. Divisions also opened up between state and federal Labor after Andrew Fisher took office as Prime Minister of the first federal Labor government in 1908: William Holman, the NSW party's main parliamentary strategist at the time, presented a policy agenda at state party conferences which differed from that approved by the federal party, in particular in its opposition to the transfer of responsibilities for finance and industrial relations from the state to the Commonwealth government, a dispute in which the AWU sided with the ALP. Tensions continued to rise during McGowen's premiership, as McGowen and Holman refused to support the holding of the 1911 trade and commerce referendum favoured by the ALP: in addition Holman alienated extra-parliamentary Labor members and some of the NSW caucus by appointing a number of new members to the state's Legislative Council, including some who were not Labor members. This ran counter to the state party's platform, which advocated for the abolition of the Council, something which was not attempted by the state Labor governments of the 1910s, and which was a divisive issue in the party at the time. McGowen was deposed by his deputy Holman after McGowen attempted to break a gas workers' strike by threatening to replace strikers with non-union labour. Upon the outbreak of World War I, Holman announced a truce with the state Commonwealth Liberal Party which would take industrial reform off the agenda for the remainder of the war. In addition, the prospect of putting the economy on a war footing increased fears regarding job losses. These developments increased disillusion with Labor among unions and encouraged thinking about new political strategies. In November 1915 Labor affiliated unions in NSW, led by the AWU, formed the Industrial Section, the first formally organised Labor faction in Australia, with the aim of asserting control over the NSW parliamentary party. At the state party conference in April 1916, the Industrial Section, swept the party's internal elections, taking 31 out of 36 offices including the party's presidency. The Industrial Section became a model for later factional organisations in the ALP, both in New South Wales and nationwide. ===Conscription split=== The conscription issue divided the Labor Party and wider Australian community in 1916. While much of the Australian labour movement and general community was opposed to conscription, Australian Labor Prime Minister Billy Hughes and Premier Holman strongly supported conscription, and both crossed the floor to vote with the conservative parties, and both were expelled from the Labor Party. When Hughes met with the executive of NSW Labor in September 1916 to attempt to persuade them to back his conscription plan, he lost the vote 21–5 and was warned that he would be expelled if he continued to press the matter. Ernest Durack became state party leader, while Holman formed a coalition on 15 November 1916 with the leader of the opposition Liberal Reform Party, Charles Wade, with himself as Premier. Following the exodus of pro-conscription MPs from the party, many leaders of the Industrial Section took advantage of the new vacancies to secure selection for open seats. Early in 1917, Holman and his supporters merged with Liberal Reform to form the state branch of the Nationalist Party of Australia, with Holman as leader. At the 1917 election, the Nationalists won a huge victory. During his leadership of the Nationalist government, Holman vigorously defended the government-owned enterprises from his fellow conservatives in power. Durack's leadership lasted only for about three months, and he was succeeded by John Storey in February 1917. In April 1918 the Industrial Section changed its name to the Industrial Vigilance Council, a change in part prompted by a leftward shift in the union movement influenced by the Great War and the Russian Revolution. At this point it was increasingly beset by internal divisions, in particular between the relatively conservative AWU and smaller unions and radicals such as the syndicalist-influenced Sam Rosa. This came to a head during 1919 due to divisions over whether conscription should end following the closing of the First World War and whether the Australian union movement should adopt the syndicalist principle of the One Big Union. The faction was wound up in August 1919, with many of its radicals such as Albert Willis going on to form the Industrial Socialist Labor Party. This left the state party firmly in the control of the AWU At the 1920 election, Holman and his Nationalists were thrown from office in a massive swing, being succeeded by a Labor government led by Storey. Labor won the 1920 election with a majority of one. ===Dooley–Storey era=== On Storey's death in October 1921, James Dooley became leader of the party and premier. His government was defeated on the floor of the House on 13 December 1921, but new Premier George Fuller lost a vote within seven hours of his appointment, and Dooley regained power. He lost the 1922 election to Fuller in a highly sectarian election campaign. As the result of a dispute with a party executive, dominated by the Australian Workers' Union, Dooley was expelled from the party in February 1923 and replaced by Greg McGirr as leader, but the Federal Executive intervened and appointed Bill Dunn as an interim leader until Jack Lang was elected by the caucus,Scott Stephenson. ""Ballot-Faking Crooks and a Tyrannical Executive": The Australian Workers Union Faction and the 1923 New South Wales Labor Party Annual Conference." Labour History, no. 105 (2013): 93–111. with the support of more radical unions, most prominently Albert Willis and his Australian Coal and Shale Employees' Federation. ===Lang era=== Lang led the ALP to victory in the 1925 election and became Premier. His support in the caucus was challenged in 1926 and in that year the party's annual State Conference, which strongly supported Lang, assumed the right to select the leader instead of caucus. The following year Lang and his extra- parliamentary allies drastically altered the party rules so that State Conference delegates and members of the Central Executive were elected in a complicated group system.Scott Stephenson, "The New South Wales Labor Party's 1927 Rules: A case study of democracy and oligarchy within political parties," Australian Journal of Political Science Vol. 50 , Iss. 2, 2015. The ALP was defeated at the 1927 election but won in a landslide at the 1930 election. Lang opposed the Premiers' Plan to combat the Great Depression agreed to by the federal Labor government of James Scullin and the other state Premiers, who called for even more stringent cuts to government spending to balance the budget. In March 1931, the NSW branch of the party was expelled by the Federal Executive in the Federal Conference. In October 1931, Lang's followers in the federal House of Representatives crossed the floor to vote with the conservative United Australia Party and bring down the Scullin government. This action split the NSW Labor Party in two – Lang's followers and the expelled NSW branch became known as Lang Labor, while Scullin's supporters, led by Chifley, became known in NSW as Federal Labor. Most of the party's branches and affiliated trade unions supported Lang. Furthermore, Lang's persistence with his plan led to the Lang Dismissal Crisis in 1931–32 which led to his dismissal as premier by the State Governor on 13 May 1932. The Governor appointed the UAP leader, Bertram Stevens, as premier and Stevens immediately called the 1932 election, at which Labor was heavily defeated. In February 1936, the NSW branch rejoined the Australian Labor Party and became the official NSW branch of the ALP again. Federal Labor was then abolished. Lang's lack of success at state elections eroded his support within the labour movement. He had not won a state election since 1930. This led some members of caucus, including Bob Heffron, to break away to form the Industrial Labor Party. In 1939, following intervention by the Federal Executive, the two factions were reunited at a state conference. This gathering also reversed the "red rules" and returned the power of selecting the party leader to the caucus. Lang was deposed in 1939. ===McKell and post-war era=== William McKell became party leader, reuniting and rejuvenating the party. Under his leadership the extreme left wing of the party had been expelled and had contested the 1941 election as the far left wing State Labor Party. McKell led Labor to a convincing victory and became Premier. State Labor's poor showing had resulted in its dissolution shortly after the election. During World War II McKell became a close collaborator of Labor Prime Ministers John Curtin and Ben Chifley, being a particularly close friend of the latter. Labor unity was again threatened by Jack Lang who had been expelled from the Labor Party in 1943 and formed another version of the Lang Labor Party. On this occasion he received no support from the rest of the caucus and spent the rest of the term as the sole member. At the 1944 election McKell won another victory, the first time a New South Wales Labor government had been re-elected. On early 1947 he resigned and announced acceptance of appointment as Governor General. James McGirr was elected leader and premier and led Labor to another victory at the 1947 election. McGirr nearly lost the 1950 election and was replaced in 1952 by Joseph Cahill. ===Labor in government, 1952–1965=== Cahill decisively won the 1953 election. He was desperate to keep the New South Wales branch of the ALP united despite the sectarian and ideological split that resulted in the formation of the right-wing Democratic Labor Party in 1954. He achieved this by controlling the anti-DLP faction in his party. The DLP did not contest the 1956 election, which Labor won. Cahill was returned in the 1959 election, but died in office later that year. He was succeeded as leader and premier by Bob Heffron. Heffron continued the Labor reign in New South Wales winning the 1962 election. Heffron resigned the leadership and premiership in 1964, and was succeeded by Jack Renshaw, who lost the premiership at the 1965 election ending 24 years of Labor power in the state. ===Opposition, 1965–1976=== Renshaw also lost the 1968 election, after which he resigned the leadership, to be succeeded by Pat Hills. Hills lost the 1971 and 1973 election after which he was deposed by Neville Wran. ===Wran–Unsworth era, 1976–1988=== Wran narrowly won the 1976 election and remained premier until 1986. He was succeeded by Barrie Unsworth who took over the premiership until Labor's loss at the 1988 election, after which he resigned. ===Carr era, 1988–2005=== Bob Carr became leader in 1988 and led Labor to victory in the 1995 election. Carr was premier for 10 years, before resigning in 2005. He was the longest continuous-serving premier in New South Wales. ===Iemma era, 2005–2008=== Carr was succeeded by Morris Iemma. At the time, the state transport network was inferior, and public transport was often criticised as the most stark example of Carr's inaction. Iemma and the Treasurer Michael Costa supported the idea to sidestep the high costs and industrial risks of the existing RailCorp network and instead begin building a new rapid transit rail system in parallel. The new system would incorporate smaller, lighter rolling stock, reducing construction costs, and be operated by the private sector, reducing operating costs. But despite the savings available via the rapid transit option, the costs were still beyond the state's means. Iemma comfortably won the 2007 election with the loss of only four seats. His strategy was to draw a line under the failures of the Carr era and ask the electorate for another chance. The Opposition ran a poor campaign, and the electorate was minded to trust the affable, hard-working new premier. Iemma was returned but with far less political capital than the size of Labor's majority would suggest. ====Proposed electricity privatisation==== Journalist Simon Benson describes a crucial meeting in late 2007 between Iemma and Labor state president Bernie Riordan during the height of the furore over electricity privatisation: > [Iemma] had laid out on his desk a spreadsheet of infrastructure projects … > On the bottom half were all the projects the state needed if it was to avoid > choking on its own congestion within the next decade. It amounted to more > than $25 billion. And that was what they hadn't even announced. > > "This is why I am the Premier," he told Riordan, emphasising his belief that > it was critical for the privatisation to succeed. "These [projects] need to > be done. I need to do these." Immediately following the 2007 election, Iemma and Treasurer Costa secretly plotted their strategy for the next four years, under the heading of "bullets to bite". Both knew that if they were to build the new rapid transit system and address the growing crisis in electricity supply, they would need to bring the private sector into the state's electricity industry first. The federal party's immediate political needs intervened, with the new federal Labor leader Kevin Rudd persuading Iemma to defer his privatisation announcement until after the 2007 federal election. Rudd felt he could ill afford the distraction of a debate over asset sales in the country's most populous state. With the funding source a secret, the rapid transit plan had to be kept under wraps as well. Along with his plan to sell the government's electricity generation and retailing companies, Iemma announced a massive infrastructure scheme involving South West Rail Link, an inner city motorway network, and the Metro Link network, a system of underground, privately operated, single-deck, automated trains. The government planned to use up to $3 billion from the sale of retail electricity to help fund the inner city motorway network, linking the M4 Western Motorway to the CBD and the airport The Electrical Trades Union (ETU) was ideologically opposed to the privatisation of the electricity businesses and led opposition to the plan. The ETU's secretary, Bernie Riordan, was also the president of NSW Labor. The secretary of the Unions NSW, John Robertson, was also a member of the ETU and opposed the privatisation. The party secretary, Karl Bitar, and his deputy, Luke Foley, were less ideologically committed on the issue, but their polling showed that the public was against a sale and – more importantly – tiring of Iemma and his team. They too came down against Iemma's plan. What followed was an extraordinary, year- long struggle by the party's head office and affiliated trade unions to force cabinet and caucus to abandon an already-announced policy. Robertson, Bitar and Foley had the union-dominated party conference pass a motion reminding MPs of the party's notional commitment to democratic socialism. Next, union and party officials began threatening Labor MPs with disendorsement if they voted with the Premier on privatisation. Remembering the promise Rudd had made to him in 2007, Iemma called on the Prime Minister to have the federal party intervene to protect MPs who sided with the Government. Rudd declined. Former Prime Minister Paul Keating, former premiers Carr, Barrie Unsworth and Neville Wran, and former Labor Council secretaries Michael Easson and John McBean came out publicly in support of Iemma. On 3 May 2008, the NSW Labor's State Conference rejected, by 702 to 107 votes, the Iemma government's plans to privatise the state's electricity system. Two members of the party's Socialist Left faction, upper house MPs Lynda Voltz and Ian West, succumbed to the pressure and announced that they would vote against the party on privatisation. Had the vote gone ahead, it would have been the first instance of a Labor MP 'crossing the floor' in 14 years of government. The Liberal Opposition, led by moderate Barry O'Farrell, saw an opportunity to wound Iemma by denying him the opportunity to build the metro. Together, West, Voltz, the Greens and the Opposition had the numbers to defeat the Government in the upper house in August 2008. On 3 September 2008, Deputy Premier and Transport Minister John Watkins announced he was going to retire for family reasons, triggering a cabinet reshuffle. On 4 September 2008, Costa was advised by Iemma that he would no longer be in the forthcoming reshuffle and hence dumped as Treasurer. Iemma had also proposed that other ministers would be dumped, including Health Minister Reba Meagher. Iemma's faction, Centre Unity, supported the sacking of the Treasurer but not the other four Ministers. The following day, right-wing Labor powerbrokers Eddie Obeid and Joe Tripodi told Iemma that he had lost the support of MPs and would not survive a caucus meeting. Nathan Rees also walked into the meeting with a number of Labor MPs announcing he had the numbers to overthrow Iemma. Seeing that he had lost the support of his caucus faction, Iemma resigned as leader and Premier. He was replaced by Rees as leader and Premier. ===Rees and Keneally era, 2008–2011=== Rees was leader and premier for only 15 months before he was deposed by Kristina Keneally, who resigned after Labor was defeated in a landslide at the 2011 election. ===Opposition, 2011–2023=== Keneally was succeeded by John Robertson. He resigned in December 2014, after the 2014 Sydney hostage crisis, after it was revealed that he had had contact with Man Haron Monis, who was one of Robertson's constituents. On 5 January 2015 Luke Foley was elected leader. In the 2015 state election, Labor achieved a 9.9-point two-party- preferred swing, but the Coalition comfortably retained government. Foley resigned in November 2018 in the face of sexual assault allegations, and was succeeded by Michael Daley in the resulting leadership contest. In the 2019 election, the party recorded a small TPP swing in its favour and won two seats, but remained in opposition. On 25 March 2019, Daley announced his intention to step down as leader. Penny Sharpe, who was elected deputy leader in November 2018, served as interim leader until the leadership ballot was held in June; Jodi McKay was elected leader. In May 2021, McKay resigned the leadership, and was replaced by Chris Minns on 4 June 2021. == Attempted party reforms == Between 2009 and 2014, the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) began or completed a series of investigations into the behaviours of a number of Labor politicians, including Angela D'Amore, Tony Kelly, Ian Macdonald, Eddie Obeid, Karyn Paluzzano, and Joe Tripodi. The ICAC made a series of adverse findings against all six politicians, although Paluzzano was the only one to face criminal charges. For bringing the party into disrepute, Kelly had his membership of Labor terminated in 2011; both Macdonald and Obeid had their membership terminated in 2013; and Tripodi suffered the same fate in 2014. Other investigations and criminal charges were laid against Craig Thomson, a federal politician from New South Wales, and Michael Williamson, a senior Labor official, also from New South Wales. Both Thomson and Williamson were adversely implicated in the Health Services Union expenses affair. Their membership of NSW Labor was terminated in 2014. Seeking to stamp out perceived corruption and factional infighting, Senator John Faulkner began a process of reforms that proposed to include rankandfile members in decisions such as the selection of candidates for Senate and Legislative Council vacancies and party tickets, and a vote in the direct election of the New South Wales parliamentary leaders. However, Faulkner's reform proposals were mostly rejected at NSW Labor's 2014 conference. The direct election of party leader gained support with effect from after the 2015 election. Following the suspension of the general secretary of NSW Labor, Kaila Murnain in 2019, the NSW Labor Leader Jodi McKay and federal Labor Leader Anthony Albanese announced a further review into the party. Michael Lavarch conducted the review after Murnain admitted to the Independent Commission Against Corruption (New South Wales) that she was aware that billionaire property developer Huang Xiangmo made an illegal $100,000 donation to NSW Labor in 2016. The Lavarch Review recommended changes to internal governance and oversight mechanisms within NSW Labor including the establishment of a State Executive Board to oversee the existing NSW Labor Administrative Committee. ==Country Labor== Country Labor was a subsection of the ALP, and was used as a designation by candidates contesting elections in rural areas. It functioned as a sort of ginger group within the party, and was somewhat analogous to its youth wing. The Country Labor Party was registered as a separate party in NSW, until 2021 and was also registered with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) for federal elections.Current register of political parties , Australian Electoral Commission. The creation of a separate designation for rural candidates was first suggested at the June 1999 ALP state conference in NSW. In May 2000, following Labor's success at the 2000 Benalla by-election in Victoria, Kim Beazley announced that the ALP intended to register a separate "Country Labor Party" with the AEC;Country Labor: a new direction? , 7 June 2000, retrieved 29 September 2017 this occurred in October 2000. The Country Labor designation is most frequently used in New South Wales. According to the ALP's financial statements for the 2015–16 financial year, NSW Country Labor had around 2,600 members (around 17 percent of the party total), but almost no assets. It recorded a severe funding shortfall at the 2015 NSW state election, and had to rely on a $1.68 million loan from the party proper to remain solvent. It had been initially assumed that the party proper could provide the money from its own resources, but the NSW Electoral Commission ruled that this was impermissible because the parties were registered separately. Instead the party proper had to loan Country Labor the required funds at a commercial interest rate.Near-insolvent Country Labor 'may never repay' $1.68m to party, The Australian, 28 July 2017. The dedicated Country Labor political party was de-registered in October 2021 in a major party reform. Instead of a dedicated political party, the ALP instead pledged to dedicate "30 per cent of winnable seats in upper house ticket to people who live in regional NSW". ==Other Labor-aligned groups== In New South Wales, a number of groups have been formed as associates of the NSW branch. These groups are divided along policy, cultural and professional lines. They include the following: * Sub-Continent Friends of Labor * Arabic Friends of Labor * Chinese Friends of Labor * Labor Action for Multicultural Policy * Labor Science Network * NSW Society of Labor Lawyers * Labor Environment Action Network * Aboriginal Labor Network * Labor for Treaty * Labor for the Arts * Irish Friends of Labor ==List of parliamentary leaders== # Leader Leader Term start Term end Time in office Premier Departure notes 1 Steering Committee of 5 No 2 60px No 3 60px Yes (1910–13) 4 60px Yes (1913–1920) 5 60px No 6 60px Yes (1920–1921) 7 60px Yes (1921–1921, 1921–1922) * 60px No * 60px No 8 60px Yes (1925–1927, 1930–1932) 9 60px Yes (1941–1947) 10 60px Yes (1947–1952) 11 60px Yes (1952–1959) 12 60px Yes (1959–1964) 13 60px Yes (1964–1965) 14 60px 3 December 1973 No 15 60px 3 December 1973 Yes (1976–1986) 16 60px Yes (1986–1988) 17 60px Yes (1995–2005) 18 60px Yes (2005–2008) 19 60px Yes (2008–2009) 20 60px Yes (2009–2011) 21 60px No * 60px No 22 60px No 23 No * 60px No 24 No * 60x60px No 25 60px Incumbent Yes (2023–present) ==List of deputy parliamentary leaders== Deputy leader Deputy leader Term start Term end Time in office Deputy premier Leader Departure notes Unknown Joseph Cook Unknown James McGowen Unknown William Holman Unknown Ernest Durack Unknown John Storey 60px No James Dooley 60px No Greg McGirr No Bill Dunn Jack Lang 60px Yes (1941–1949) William McKell James McGirr 60px Yes (1949–1952) James McGirr 60px Yes (1953–1959) Joseph Cahill 60px Yes (1959–1964) Bob Heffron 60px Yes (1964–1965) Jack Renshaw 60px No Pat Hills 3 December 1973 Yes (1976–1984) Neville Wran Yes (1984–1988) Neville Wran Yes (1984–1988) Barrie Unsworth Yes (1995–2005) Bob Carr Yes (2005–2008) Morris Iemma Yes (2008–2011) Nathan Rees Yes (2008–2011) Kristina Keneally 60px No John Robertson 60px No Luke Foley No Luke Foley 60px No Michael Daley No Jodi McKay 60px incumbent Yes (2023–present) Chris Minns ==Executive leaders== ===Presidents=== President Period Frederick Flowers 1895–1898 Frederick Flowers 1906–1907 Ernest Farrar 1912–1914 Richard Meagher 1914–1915 Jack FitzGerald 1915–1916 Jack Power 1921–1923 Albert Willis 1923–1925 Francis Kelly 1943–1947 John Ferguson 1947–1952 Bill Colbourne 1952–1955 Jim Shortell 1955–1956 Fred Campbell 1956–1960 Charlie Oliver 1960–1971 John Ducker 1971–1979 Paul Keating 1979–1983 John MacBean 1983–1989 Terry Sheahan 1989–1997 Peter Sams 1997–1998 Steve Hutchins 1998–2002 Ursula Stephens 2002–2006 Bernie Riordan 2006–2010 Michael Lee 2010–2014 Mark Lennon 2014–2021 Michelle Rowland 2021–present ===General secretaries=== General Secretary Period Walter Evans 1939–1940 William Dickson 1940–1941 John Stewart 1941–1950 Ernest Gerard Wright 1950–1952 Charles Wilson Anderson 1952–1954 Bill Colbourne 1954–1969 Peter Westerway 1969–1973 Geoff Cahill 1973–1976 Graham Richardson 1976–1983 Stephen Loosley 1983–1990 John Della Bosca 1990–1999 Eric Roozendaal 1999–2004 Mark Arbib 2004–2007 Karl Bitar 2007–2008 Matt Thistlethwaite 2008–2010 Sam Dastyari 2010–2013 Jamie Clements 2013–2016 Kaila Murnain 2016–2019 Bob Nanva 2019–2023 Dominic Offner 2023–present ==Election results== === State elections === Election Leader Seats won ± Total votes % Position 1891 Steering Committee 35 37,216 20.62% Third party 1894 James McGowen 20 33,143 16.49% Third party 1895 James McGowen 3 20,028 13.20% Third party 1898 James McGowen 1 21,556 12.18% Third party 1901 James McGowen 5 35,952 18.44% Third party 1904 James McGowen 1 92,426 23.3% Opposition 1907 James McGowen 7 152,704 33.31% Opposition 1910 James McGowen 14 280,056 48.92% Majority government 1913 William Holman 3 311,747 46.63% Majority government 1917 John Storey 16 262,655 42.63% Opposition 1920 John Storey 10 68,175 43.03% Majority government 1922 John Storey 7 85,361 38.37% Opposition 1925 Jack Lang 10 108,225 45.99% Majority government 1927 Jack Lang 6 488,306 43.00% Opposition 1930 Jack Lang 15 729,914 55.05% Majority government 1932 Jack Lang 31 536,897 40.16% Opposition 1935 Jack Lang 5 532,486 42.42% Opposition 1938 Jack Lang 1 412,063 34.82% Opposition 1941 William McKell 26 706,014 50.8% Majority government 1944 William McKell 2 572,600 45.2% Majority government 1947 James McGirr 4 730,194 45.95% Majority government 1950 James McGirr 2 753,268 46.75% Minority government 1953 Joseph Cahill 11 852,276 55.03% Majority government 1956 Joseph Cahill 7 800,410 47.25% Majority government 1959 Joseph Cahill 1 838,836 49.12% Majority government 1962 Bob Heffron 5 936,047 48.57% Majority government 1965 Jack Renshaw 9 883,824 43.31% Opposition 1968 Jack Renshaw 6 931,563 43.1% Opposition 1971 Pat Hills 6 1,007,538 45.02% Opposition 1973 Pat Hills 1 1,069,614 42.93% Opposition 1976 Neville Wran 6 1,342,038 49.75% Majority government 1978 Neville Wran 13 1,615,949 57.77% Majority government 1981 Neville Wran 6 1,564,622 55.73% Majority government 1984 Neville Wran 11 1,466,413 48.77% Majority government 1988 Barrie Unsworth 15 1,233,612 38.48% Opposition 1991 Bob Carr 3 1,204,066 39.05% Opposition 1995 Bob Carr 4 1,408,616 41.26% Majority government 1999 Bob Carr 5 1,576,886 42.21% Majority government 2003 Bob Carr – 1,631,018 42.68% Majority government 2007 Morris Iemma 3 1,535,872 38.98% Majority government 2011 Kristina Keneally 32 1,061,352 25.55% Opposition 2015 Luke Foley 14 1,500,855 34.08% Opposition 2019 Michael Daley 2 1,516,143 33.31% Opposition 2023 Chris Minns 9 1,738,081 36.97% Minority government === Federal elections === Election Seats won ± Total votes % ± Leader 1901 6 38,822 18.40% 18.40% No leader 1903 1 58,494 21.30% 2.90% Chris Watson 1906 4 133,091 38.50% 17.20% Chris Watson 1910 6 252,194 51.10% 12.60% Andrew Fisher 1913 5 326,326 46.90% 4.20% Andrew Fisher 1914 2 309,862 52.20% 5.30% Andrew Fisher 1917 4 268,584 41.70% 10.50% Frank Tudor 1919 4 306,951 46.00% 4.30% Frank Tudor 1922 1 232,211 42.60% 3.40% Matthew Charlton 1925 2 520,385 46.30% 3.70% Matthew Charlton 1928 3 536,558 52.10% 5.80% James Scullin 1929 6 587,691 51.50% 0.60% James Scullin 1931 17 214,973 16.40% 35.10% James Scullin 1934 2 132,779 9.40% 7.00% James Scullin 1937 10 635,511 45.30% 35.90% John Curtin 1940 1 540,055 35.30% 10.00% John Curtin 1943 9 846,885 53.80% 18.50% John Curtin 1946 2 880,493 51.40% 2.40% Ben Chifley 1949 4 849,033 46.90% 4.50% Ben Chifley 1951 1 898,883 49.10% 2.20% Ben Chifley 1954 1 923,469 52.30% 3.20% H.V. Evatt 1955 4 836,592 49.60% 2.70% H.V. Evatt 1958 1 900,483 47.10% 2.50% H.V. Evatt 1961 5 1,041,238 52.20% 5.10% Arthur Calwell 1963 7 987,228 47.50% 4.70% Arthur Calwell 1966 3 862,631 40.70% 6.80% Arthur Calwell 1969 5 1,074,916 47.70% 7.00% Gough Whitlam 1972 6 1,252,047 51.90% 4.20% Gough Whitlam 1974 3 1,400,255 52.70% 0.80% Gough Whitlam 1975 8 1,260,335 45.50% 7.20% Gough Whitlam 1977 0 1,201,560 42.40% 3.10% Gough Whitlam 1980 1 1,357,557 46.40% 4.00% Bill Hayden 1983 6 1,512,012 50.10% 3.70% Bob Hawke 1984 5 1,458,856 48.26% 1.84% Bob Hawke 1987 1 1,438,985 45.17% 3.09% Bob Hawke 1990 2 1,380,780 41.16% 4.01% Bob Hawke 1993 3 1,714,512 48.36% 7.20% Paul Keating 1996 13 1,453,542 39.56% 8.76% Paul Keating 1998 2 1,489,021 40.12% 0.56% Kim Beazley 2001 2 1,380,822 36.45% 3.67% Kim Beazley 2004 1 1,412,418 36.70% 0.25% Mark Latham 2007 7 1,791,171 44.12% 7.42% Kevin Rudd 2010 2 1,494,490 37.28% 6.84% Julia Gillard 2013 8 1,433,842 34.52% 2.76% Kevin Rudd 2016 6 1,611,549 36.93% 2.41% Bill Shorten 2019 0 1,568,223 34.56% 2.37% Bill Shorten 2022 2 1,475,210 33.47% 1.09% Anthony Albanese ==Notes== ==References== New South Wales branch New South Wales branch of the Australian Labor Party Category:Political parties established in 1891 Labor Labor
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"Sugar" is a song recorded by American band Maroon 5 for their fifth studio album V (2014). It was written by Mike Posner, Adam Levine, Dr. Luke, and Jacob Kasher Hindlin together with its producers Ammo and Cirkut. It was sent to contemporary hit radio in the United States, as the third single from the album on January 13, 2015. "Sugar" is a disco, funk-pop, and soul song that features a wide range of instruments including percussion, keyboards and guitars. Commercially, the song peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became the band's third top 10 single from V, and eighth consecutive top 10 entry. "Sugar" is the 68th song in history to score at least 20 weeks in the top 10 of the Hot 100. The song was certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2022, as their third certified single. Film director David Dobkin, shot the accompanying music video for the single in Los Angeles. Inspired by the 2005 romantic comedy Wedding Crashers, it features Maroon 5 crashing weddings that happened in the city. The video premiered on January 14, 2015, and received its television premiere on January 17. A reality television series based on the music video was released on YouTube in August 2018. The remix versions of the song were released, one featuring rapper Nicki Minaj on March 10, and the other by Matt Medved (also known as Sicarii) on November 9, 2015, respectively. "Sugar" received a nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 58th Grammy Awards. ==Background== Since the release of his debut studio album, 31 Minutes to Takeoff (2010), American singer and songwriter Mike Posner started writing material to be included in his follow-up record, titled Pages. One of the songs set to be included in the album was "Sugar", which Adam Levine heard and wanted to have it on the upcoming Maroon 5 album, but Posner declined. However, in 2014, he switched labels and announced that Pages would not be launched, and instead a new body of music would be released. In an interview with, Billboard, Posner elaborated, "Well, this is just gonna sit on my laptop' so I gave it to them and when they recorded the song Adam added his flavor to it and he wrote on it as well, lyrically and some melodic things, and he really sang it well. I'm a big fan, so I'm glad they did it." The final version of "Sugar" was written by Levine, Posner, Lukasz Gottwald, Jacob Kasher Hindlin, Joshua Coleman and Henry Walter. The production of the song was done by the latter two under their respective production names Ammo and Cirkut. The lead vocals were sung by Levine, with backing vocals provided by Posner. "Sugar" was recorded at Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood, Dr. Luke in the Boo in Malibu and The Mothership in Sherman Oaks while it was mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach. Doug McKean, Clint Gibbs, Noah Passovoy and Jonathan Sher all served as engineers of the song, while John Armstrong, Eric Eylands, Rachael Findlen and Cameron Montgomery helped them finish the engineering, serving as additional engineers. John Hanes was the mixing engineer while all the instrumentation and programming was provided by Maroon 5, Dr. Luke, Ammo and Cirkut. Artie Smith was the instrument technician. "Sugar" was announced to be the third single from V in November 2014. Interscope Records distributed the song to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on January 13, 2015. The same day, the band unveiled the official artwork for the single that features red-colored lips holding a sugar cube; Mike Wass of Idolator called it "candy-colored". ==Music and lyrics== "Sugar" is a disco, funk-pop, and soul song with a length of three minutes and fifty-six seconds. It features guitars provided by James Valentine, Jesse Carmichael and Dr. Luke, bass played by Mickey Madden, and synth bass provided by Dr. Luke. The drums were provided by Matt Flynn and Cirkut while PJ Morton, Jesse Carmichael, Dr. Luke, Ammo, and Cirkut contributed to the keyboards and synthesizers. One writer at Popmatters feels that musically, "Sugar" combines the grooves of the funk and "synth-driven" 1980s music. According to Kobalt Music Publishing's digital sheet music for the song, "Sugar" is composed in the key of D-flat major and set in common time signature, and has a moderate groove of 120 beats per minute. Levine's vocals span from the low note of D♭3 to the high note of F♭5, over one octave higher. Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted the reminiscence of "Sugar" to the music of singer Bruno Mars. Brad Wete of Billboard magazine compared the song's production to that of Katy Perry's 2014 single "Birthday", which was also produced by Cirkut, together with Dr. Luke. Similarly, Rolling Stone's Jon Dolan compared the song to the works of Perry and wrote that the "funk-guitar licks zip across a spry, sun-drunk groove as Levine sings..." Lyrically, Levine sings the lines to his romantic interest, "I just wanna be there where you are/And I gotta get one little taste". The song's lyrics use the word "sugar" to describe coitus. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that on the Levine sounds most lecherous while singing the lyrics "I want that red velvet, I want that sugar sweet." According to him "he croons so cleanly it's possible to imagine that he is truly singing about cake." ==Critical reception== In a review of V, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the best moments on the album "are when Maroon 5 embrace the tuneful, slightly soulful adult contemporary pop band they've always been, as they do on 'Sugar'" among other songs. Alexa Tietjen of VH1 stated that the track is a "radio-friendly pop song". Mike Wass of Idolator labeled the song a "ridiculously catchy jam". Similarly, Saeed Saeed of The National called the song a "highlight" on V and further stated that it "has a bullseye of a chorus that will have you singing along immediately". PopMatters' Annie Galvin praised the song and wrote that it "hits a sweet spot by layering a subtly funky guitar pulse over gossamer synths and multiple tracks of Levine's easy- on-the-ears upper range." On the negative side, Anderson of Entertainment Weekly called the song "simultaneously empty and cluttered". In 2022, Billboard and American Songwriter ranked the song number eight and number nine, respectively, on their lists of the 10 greatest Maroon 5 songs. ==Chart performance== Following the release of V, "Sugar" debuted and peaked at number 13 and number 77 on the South Korean International and South Korean Gaon Chart respectively. After the song and its accompanying video was released, it gathered attention at the digital media outlets. Billboard predicted that in its first week the song is set to debut in the top 25 with digital sales of over 150,000 copies. For the week dated January 31, 2015, "Sugar" debuted at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. It became Maroon 5's third song to debut in the top ten of the chart; their previous singles "Moves like Jagger" (2011) debuted same at number eight and "Payphone" (2012) debuted higher, at number three. Consequently, it became the band's 11th top ten hit and their eighth in row. The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Twitter Top Tracks chart, their second number one after "Maps" (2014). "Sugar" peaked at number two on the chart for four consecutive weeks, behind "Uptown Funk" by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars. The song spent 21 weeks in the top ten of the chart before falling 10–12 on the chart issue dated June 27, 2015. This marks the longest time the band has spent in the top ten of the chart, along with "Moves Like Jagger" and "One More Night" (2012), which also spent 21 weeks in the top ten. They have since surpassed this feat with their "Girls Like You" single featuring Cardi B in 2018, which spent more than 30 weeks in the top ten. As of August 2015, it has sold 3.3 million copies in the United States. ==Music video== ===Development and concept=== In 2014, film director David Dobkin was in Rome, Italy, for the premiere of his film, The Judge. During his stay there, he received an e-mail from Levine asking him to direct the band's new music video, "I’ve known Adam for over a decade. I met him before the first Maroon 5 album came out. My wife's parents are best friends with his grandparents and I spend Christmas with him every year. So we’ve known each other for a long time and always talked about doing something together but were never able to get our schedules lined up." After he agreed to film the video for "Sugar", they started discussing ideas for its concept. Dobkin wanted the video to be about the band's connection with their audience and wanted elements of real people and Los Angeles, Levine's hometown. In an interview with VH1, the director revealed, "Then the idea came up of, what if they went to real weddings and showed up as the surprise wedding band?". When Levine heard the idea, he loved it. In 2005, Dobkin directed the film Wedding Crashers in which Owen Wilson and Vince Vaughn played the characters of John Beckwith and Jeremy Grey. They star as "two dashing rogues who sneak into nuptials in search of lovelorn bridesmaids." The film received positive reviews from movie critics and was a box office success earning over $285 million worldwide. Dobkin revealed, "For 10 years everyone asks me to do something related to that movie. I’ve never wanted to go back there, just because it's something that worked so well. But we locked in on this idea and thought it would be great. And then it was like, holy shit, how do we pull this off?" After the concept was decided on, they started preparing the wedding crashes. At the beginning, Dobkin thought that no one should know about the crash and filming. After some rethinking, however, he decided that at least one person should know about it. So they informed only the grooms and decided to keep the secret from the brides. The grooms were not, however, told the name of the band; they were only told that they are very popular and had won several Grammy Awards. The next step was deciding how, at the beginning of each performance, the band would hide. Dobkin designed and had built a drop- down tent, where a button was pressed, causing the curtains drop to the floor. After that, Dobkin visited many wedding planners in Los Angeles and visited a number of the locations where weddings would be happening, in order to decide which location at the site would be the best for setting up the tent. ===Filming=== The music video was filmed in Los Angeles, California. It was shot at several ballrooms, located at various locations around the city, where weddings were happening. One of the ballrooms was at the Park Plaza Hotel, a very popular location for celebrations and parties. A week before filming the video commenced, Dobkin went to see the band, who were rehearsing for the visual. During the meeting, Levine questioned the concept, "What if people don't like us? What happens if we ruin the bride's moment?" That was the first time they started wondering, "What if we're ruining someone's most special day?" In order to prevent that from happening, Levine got an idea: after performing "Sugar", he and the band's guitarist, James Valentine would perform an acoustic version of their 2004 single "She Will Be Loved" just for the bride and the groom. The dance floor would be cleared of everyone except for the newlyweds and the song would be another traditional "First Dance" for the newlyweds. According to Dobkin, that was a very good idea. "That's awesome. It's just sick romantic." A few days before shooting began, most of the grooms started getting nervous and wanted to cancel the wedding crash. Dobkin met with each of them and talked them out of canceling. At one point, he told them that the mysterious band is in fact Maroon 5. Eventually, it turned out that most of them were fans of Maroon 5 and "Adam from The Voice" and had positive responses for performing "She Will Be Loved" after shooting "Sugar". "There's no way she could be mad at me after that." Prior to the filming of each sequence, the production team had approximately 20 minutes to enter the location and begin building the tent, while the band tried to get in unnoticed. During the first wedding, which was a Jewish wedding, the bride and the groom were sitting in their chairs and while the tent was being constructed, Dobkin received a call on his radio saying that the band was stuck in the elevator. Eventually, they got out of the elevator and had to run up nine flights of stairs to get to the ballroom in time for filming. Dobkin recalled that when the performance of "Sugar" finished, the members of the band looked at him like they wanted to say, "Oh my God. That was awesome! Where's the next one?" ===Release=== In a press release for the video, Levine stated, "It was an out of body experience. I had no idea I would be affected by the overwhelming reactions we received from the couples and guests. Being able to create an unforgettable experience for several people was the highlight of it all." He also spoke with Kevin Frazier of Entertainment Tonight and told him how it was stressful to arrange the whole video. However, the brides and grooms were shocked that the band crashed their wedding. He added, "It was a lot of fun. It felt good to kind of surprise these people and make them happy. Happy that they liked our band too. It would have been a total disaster [if not]." A representative for Duke Photography, who photographed the weddings, has said, "It was an incredible surprise and everyone at the wedding is going to cherish those memories." The video for "Sugar" premiered on January 14, 2015, via the band's Vevo channel on YouTube. It was available for digital download the same day, via the iTunes Store in Canada and the United States. It received its television premiere on January 17 at 9AM (EST) and won VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown. ===Synopsis=== The video starts with the members of Maroon 5 leaving the Carondelet House, with Levine saying, "It's December 6, 2014. We're going to drive across L.A. and hit every wedding we possibly can." After his introduction, Levine gets into the car and starts driving. Subsequently, a van parks near the Park Plaza Hotel where a wedding is taking place in the ballroom. A group gets out of the van, enters the building and starts constructing a secret stage, surprising guests, who wonder what's happening. One stands up and starts anxiously questioning the builders, while scenes are intercut with Maroon 5 driving around the city and Levine singing the song lyrics. The band arrives in front of the hotel and sneaks into the building, ducking behind the white curtains where the instruments are set up. As they finish their preparations, the bride and the groom are asked to stand in front of the stage. The curtain drops to reveal the band playing "Sugar" and the couple screams happily while confused guests look on. Afterwards, the unwitting wedding party audience starts smiling and all the guests get up to dance to the song. Scenes are intercut with the band driving to another wedding and sneaking inside the building where it's taking place. A similar situation occurs as they appear before the guests, who are both surprised and delighted. While the band is driving around Los Angeles, young women pulling up to a traffic light beside them recognize the group and take selfies with Valentine. During the last part of the video, the band crashes five more weddings, leaving the attendees utterly surprised. The video concludes with the wedding guests applauding the band, while Maroon 5's members toast, embrace, and cheer with the newlyweds. ===Analysis and reception=== According to Ryan Reed of Rolling Stone, video showed the band channeling the roles of actors Owen Wilson and Vince Vaughn in Wedding Crashers while surprising the audience with its performance of "Sugar". The Daily Telegraphs Catherine Gee felt the video proved that "not a soul in Los Angeles would mind if the rock band arrived at their reception unannounced and performed their new single". Elias Leight of Billboard noted that the reaction of the people in the weddings ranged from screaming and pointing to shouting, and finally dancing. He also noted that the women were quicker to recognize Levine than the men. Melodi Smith of CNN wrote that the looks of faces in the rooms are "priceless: delight, tears, confusion". Jennifer Maas of Entertainment Weekly noted how every groom should be embarrassed by Levine hugging his bride after the performance and wrote, "All in all, if this is somehow an authentic stunt, the music video director totally stole the thunder of those couples' wedding videographers." Steven Gottlieb of Video Static called the video "fun" and a "gambit" with a goal just to surprise the wedding and not to pick up drunk bridesmaids, a reference to Wedding Crashers. Elizabeth Vanmetre of Daily News wrote that, "Having Adam Levine crash your wedding would be the icing on any wedding cake." Time's Laura Stampler reviewed the video and wrote that although the video will not make you mad like Maroon 5's previous visual for "Animals" in which Levine stalks a woman who is played by his real wife, model Behati Prinsloo, while covered in blood, "but you’ll probably still be annoyed". She further stated that "I do" is the happiest moment in your life, but seeing Levine singing the lyrics "hotter than southern California Bay" to the new wife "is the happiest moment in your life". According to Leigh Weingus of The Huffington Post in the video, Levine made the wedding crashing a lot more "awesome" than Wilson and Vaughn. Paul Grein of Yahoo! Music's Chart Watch labeled the video as a little bit "corny"; however, according to him it's also "cute" and "fun". As of May 2023, the video is YouTube's 14th most viewed video, with over 3.8 billion views and is the group's most viewed video. ===Staging accusations=== Several sources including Life & Style, Rolling Stone and Cosmopolitan reported that the video was allegedly staged and filmed over the course of three days at the same location. According to these sources, the first groom was played by New Zealand actor Nico Evers-Swindell, while actor Eric Satterberg and former America's Next Top Model contestant Raina Hein also played the roles of guest and bride, respectively. Additionally, two of the actors who played the role of parents said, "The Buzz on the internet is whether the Maroon 5 'Sugar' music video is real or staged. We played the parents of the Asian bride and yes, everything was staged." Carly Mallenbaum of USA Today also analyzed the situation and wrote that although it is possible that some of the weddings were staged, at least two of them were real. She spoke to wedding photographer Eric Parsons, who told her he was shooting one of the weddings when Maroon 5 made the surprise appearance: "Sharon [the bride] knew nothing about it. She's the one who mouths 'what the fuck' in the video." Another photographer, Duke Khodaverdian, was shooting another wedding: "Around 10:30, some producer came up and said, 'Ladies and gentlemen, we have a great surprise for you'. Everyone went berserk. The room was electric." The scenes where the band toasts the newlyweds with cognac were filmed at the wedding in which Khodaverdian was taking photos. Video footage on YouTube contains footage of two of the real weddings crashed in the final video, including couple number 5 (Martin and Sharis) and number 7 (Ryan and Melanie). Eric Parsons' published photograph and testimony confirms that the wedding of couple number 4 (Sharon and Steve) was also genuine. The published article confirms that the groom, Steve Weaver, was a friend of the video producer and was in on the setup, though his bride was unaware. ===Fan video=== A fan video version of the song was released on January 21, 2015. It features fans from around the world are lip-syncing and dancing to the song with the use of JamCam app. ==Live performances== thumb|right|Maroon 5 performing live from Los Angeles in 2016. Maroon 5 performed "Sugar" in Puerto Rico for the first edition of Victoria's Secret Swim Special, which aired on February 26, 2015. They also played the song in various appearances, such as the eighth season of The Voice and the television talk shows Jimmy Kimmel Live!; and Alan Carr: Chatty Man, respectively. On November 19, 2016, the band played "Sugar" for the third annual Airbnb Open Spotlight at downtown Los Angeles. The band performed the song live for their worldwide tour, Maroon V Tour (2015–2018). ==In other media== "Sugar" was featured on the television shows, American Housewife, Bull, Stalker, Lip Sync Battle and Dancing with the Stars. It is also featured on the advertisements with two 2015 vehicles namely, the Nissan GT-R and the Toyota Corolla Altis. It appeared in the YouTube Premium web television series of the same name. The song appeared on the band's greatest hits album Singles and the dance rhythm video game Just Dance 2019. ==Awards and nominations== Year Ceremony Category Result 2015 MTV Millennial Awards International Hit of the Year MTV Video Music Awards Best Pop Video MTV Video Music Awards Japan Best Pop Video – International NRJ Music Awards Video of the Year Radio Disney Music Awards So Happy – Best Song That Makes You Smile Teen Choice Awards Choice Music Single: Group Choice Music: Love Song 2016 APRA Awards International Work of the Year ASCAP Pop Music Awards Most Performed Song BMI Pop Awards Award Winning Song Grammy Awards Best Pop Duo/Group Performance ==Track listing== Digital download # "Sugar" – 3:55 Digital download – Remix # "Sugar" (featuring Nicki Minaj) – 3:55 Digital download – Sicarii Remix #"Sugar" (Sicarii Remix) – 3:31 Digital download – Slaptop Remix #"Sugar" (Slaptop Remix) – 4:05 ;Other Versions * 7th Heaven Club Mix - 6:55 * Cahill Extended Mix - 5:33 * Cahill Instrumental - 5:31 * Cahill Radio Edit - 3:40 * Steve Smart Extended Mix - 4:59 * Steve Smart Instrumental - 4:59 * Steve Smart Radio Edit - 3:52 ==Credits and personnel== Credits adapted from the liner notes of V. Locations *Recorded at Conway Recording Studios Hollywood, CA; Luke's in the Boo Malibu, CA; The Mothership Sherman Oaks, CA *Mixed at MixStar Studios, Virginia Beach, VA Personnel *Songwriting – Adam Levine, Joshua Coleman, Lukasz Gottwald, Jacob Kasher Hindlin, Mike Posner, Henry Walter *Production – Ammo, Cirkut *Vocals – Adam Levine *Additional vocals – Mike Posner *Engineering – Doug McKean, Clint Gibbs, Noah Passovoy, Jonathan Sher *Assistant engineers – John Armstrong, Eric Eylands, Rachael Findlen, Cameron Montgomery *Mix engineer – John Hanes *Instruments and programming – Maroon 5, Dr. Luke, Ammo, Cirkut *Guitar – James Valentine, Dr. Luke and Jesse Carmichael *Bass guitar – Mickey Madden *Synth bass – Dr. Luke *Drums – Matt Flynn and Cirkut *Keyboards/synthesizers – Jesse Carmichael, PJ Morton, Dr. Luke, Ammo, Cirkut *Instrument Technician – Artie Smith ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2015–2016) Peak position Bulgaria (IFPI) 2 Iceland (RÚV) 26 Israel (Media Forest) 3 Lebanon (OLT 20) 1 Mexico Airplay (Billboard) 1 Slovenia (SloTop50) 9 South Korea (Gaon Music Chart) 17 ===Year-end charts=== Chart (2015) Position Australia (ARIA) 13 Belgium (Ultratop Flanders) 80 Belgium (Ultratop Wallonia) 52 Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 5 Denmark (Tracklisten) 23 France (SNEP) 38 Hungary (Rádiós Top 40) 38 Hungary (Single Top 40) 23 Israel (Media Forest) 10 Italy (FIMI) 21 Japan (Japan Hot 100) 34 Netherlands (Dutch Top 40) 57 Netherlands (Single Top 100) 35 New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ) 7 Poland (ZPAV) 27 Slovenia (SloTop50) 38 Spain (PROMUSICAE) 23 South Korea (Gaon Music Chart) 9 Sweden (Sverigetopplistan) 68 Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade) 33 UK Singles (OCC) 13 US Billboard Hot 100 5 US Adult Contemporary (Billboard) 2 US Adult Top 40 (Billboard) 4 US Dance/Mix Show Airplay (Billboard) 19 US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard) 5 Chart (2016) Position Argentina (Monitor Latino) 61 US Adult Contemporary (Billboard) 27 ===Decade-end charts=== Chart (2010–2019) Position US Billboard Hot 100 76 ===All-time charts=== Chart (2018) Position US Billboard Hot 100 500 ==Certifications and sales== ==Release history== Region Date Format(s) Version Label(s) United States Contemporary hit radio Original Italy February 20, 2015 Universal Canada Digital download Nicki Minaj Remix United States Slaptop Remix Sicarii Remix ==See also== * List of most- viewed YouTube videos ==References== ==External links== * Category:2015 singles Category:2014 songs Category:Disco songs Category:Maroon 5 songs Category:Nicki Minaj songs Category:Songs written by Adam Levine Category:Songs written by Jacob Kasher Category:Songs written by Cirkut (record producer) Category:Songs written by Ammo (record producer) Category:Songs written by Mike Posner Category:Songs written by Dr. Luke Category:Song recordings produced by Cirkut (record producer) Category:222 Records singles Category:Interscope Records singles Category:South African Airplay Chart number-one singles Category:Songs about dancing Category:Music videos directed by David Dobkin Category:Songs written by Nicki Minaj
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The Kresna–Razlog Uprising (; , Kresna Uprising)Кресненското востание во Македонија 1878 – 1879. Материјали од Научниот собир одржан по повод 100-годишнината од востанието во Берово, 2-4 октомври 1987 година. Македонска академија на науките и уметностите, Скопјe, 1982 година. named by the insurgents as the Macedonian Uprising,Дойно Дойнов, Кресненско-Разложкото въстание, 1878-1879. Принос за неговия обхват и резултати, за вътрешните и външнополитическите условия, при които избухва, протича и стихва. Издателство на Българската Академия на науките. София, 1979, Г. Кацаров и Ив. Кепов. Цит. съч., д. № 87, 88, с. 55. В писмо до Джумайския комитет Д. Попгеоргиев хвърля вината на доброволците. “Комитите ни само на пиенето били юнаци”, а в писмо на Г. М. Николчев от Кресна от 29 октомври още по-определено се казва: “Началникът на щаба на македонското востание г. Д. п. Георгиев задължава мя да Ви явя, че вчерашната победа е наша, сос храбростта на македонските харамии, а доброволците избегаха кой где виде, П. Буховски (поп Константин - б.м.) побегна и дойде да ся бие с нашето полицейско управление, да живеят храбрите харамии с войводите си.” was a Bulgarian uprising that took place in Ottoman Macedonia, predominantly in the areas of today Pirin Macedonia in late 1878 and early 1879, against Ottoman rule.A concise history of Bulgaria, Cambridge concise histories, R. J. Crampton, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 85 .Who Are the Macedonians? by Hugh Poulton, page 49, Indiana University Press, 2000 Stefan Stambolov and the emergence of modern Bulgaria, 1870-1895, Duncan M. Perry, Duke University Press, 1993, , pp. 14-15. The uprising broke out following the protests and spontaneous opposition to the decisions of the Congress of Berlin, which, instead of ceding the Bulgarian-populated parts of Macedonia to the newly reestablished Bulgarian suzerain state per the Treaty of San Stefano, returned them to Ottoman control.Ethnic rivalry and the quest for Macedonia, 1870-1913, Vemund Aarbakke, East European Monographs, 2003, , p. 56. It was prepared by the Unity Committee.Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, , p. 122. The rebellion was supported by detachments which had infiltrated the area from the Principality of Bulgaria.Raymond Detrez, Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, ISBN 1442241802, p. 279. As a result of disagreement within its leadership, the uprising lost its initial successful curse and was crushed by the Ottoman army. == Prelude to the Uprising == thumb|right|250px|The first "Unity" Committee in Tarnovo The revolutionary circles in Bulgaria concurred at once with the idea of inciting an uprising in Macedonia. On 29 August 1878, a meeting of representatives from the Bulgarian revolutionaries was convened in the town of Veliko Tarnovo in order to implement the plan. This meeting resulted in the creation of a committee called Edinstvo (Unity). The initiative for this belonged to Lyuben Karavelov, Stefan Stambolov and Hristo Ivanov. The task of this new committee was to establish similar committees throughout Bulgaria, to maintain strict contact with them, and work toward the same end: "unity of all the Bulgarians" and the improvement of their present political situation.The Macedonian Question - Origin and Development, 1878-1941 Dimiter Minchev, Ph.D. Sofia, 2002. Soon after Edinstvo was formed in Tarnovo, steps were taken to spread it to all towns in Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia and to Russia and Romania as well. People were also sent to Macedonia to personally acquaint themselves with the situation there. Some were also sent to meet with Nathanael, the Ohrid bishop. He was to be told the aim and the task of Edinstvo. Meanwhile, Nathanael was already in the middle of preparations for armed activities in Macedonia. He made his way to Kyustendil to meet with the well-known haiduk leader, Ilyo Voyvoda and his rebels. At this meeting it was decided that Natanail should take over leadership of the hajduk bands. At the same time, Nathanael was able to establish an Edinstvo headquarters in the Kyustendil, one in Dupnitsa and another in Gorna Dzhumaya. The concrete aims of the leaders and organizers of the Kresna–Razlog Uprising were to revoke the decisions of the Berlin Congress, to liberate the regions inhabited by the Bulgarian population, and to unite with the free Principality of Bulgaria. For these reasons Metropolitan Nathanael of Ohrid wrote to Petko Voyvoda: In September 1878, the Rila Monastery hosted a critical meeting attended by Metropolitan Nathanael of Ohrid, Dimitar Pop Georgiev - Berovski, Ilyo Voyvoda, Mihail Sarafov, the voivode Stoyan Karastoilov and other high- ranking figures. The conference led to the formation of an organized insurrectional staff headed by Berovski. The Edinstvo ("Unity") Committee from Sofia aided the insurrectionists with two detachments, one led by the Russian Adam Kalmykov and the other by the Pole Luis Wojtkiewicz. The aim of "Edinstvo Committees" was "...discussing how to help our brothers in Thrace and Macedonia, who will henceforth be separated from Danubian Bulgaria by virtue of the decisions of the Berlin Congress..." Stefan Stambolov and Nikola Obretenov suggested the appointment of "apostles" who would organize the uprising among the masses, but it was decided that only the areas closest to the Principality of Bulgaria would revolt, with a view to detaching them from the Ottoman Empire and joining them to Bulgaria. == Uprising == thumb|right|An act on the organizational arrangement of the Macedonian (Kresna) Uprising from 1878, which regulates the duties of the Headquarters, the chiefs and the rebels Early at dawn on October 5, 1878, 400 insurgents attacked the Turkish army unit stationed at the Kresna Inns and after a battle lasting 18 hours they succeeded in crushing its resistance. This attack and this first success marked the beginning of the Kresna–Razlog Uprising. In the battles that followed, the insurgents succeeded in liberating 43 towns and villages and in reaching Belitsa and Gradeshnitsa to the south. To the south-west they established their sway over almost the entire Karshijak region, while to the south-east the positions of the insurgents were along the Predela, over the town of Razlog. In addition to the direct military operations of the insurgents, there were separate detachments operating in the south and to the west in Macedonia. There were also disturbances, and delegations were sent to the headquarters of the Uprising with requests for arms and for aid. The headquarters of the Uprising, which was organized in the course of the military operations, was headed by Dimiter Popgeorgiev. Elders’ Councils were also set up, as well as local police organs of the revolutionary government who were assigned certain administrative functions in the liberated territories. The Edinstvo Committee in the town of Gorna Dzhoumaya played an important part in organizing, supplying and assisting the Uprising. The committee was headed by Kostantin Bosilkov, who was born in the town of Koprivshtitsa and who had worked for many years as teacher in the Macedonia region. The main goal of the armed struggle though, was expressed most clearly in the letter of the Melnik rebels of December 11, 1878, which they sent to the chief of the Petrich police: "...We took up the arms and will not leave them until we get united with the Bulgarian Principality..."The Macedonian Question - Origin and Development 1878-1941 . Colonel Dimiter Minchev, Ph.D. (Sofia, 2002) This aim was also expressed in the appeal launched by the insurgents on November 10, 1878, which read: "...And so, brothers, the time has come to demonstrate what we are, that we are a people worthy of liberty, and that the blood of Kroum and Simeon is still flowing in our veins; the time has come to demonstrate to Europe that it is no easy task when a people want to cast away darkness."The Kresna-Razlog Uprising of 1878. Sofia, 1970, p. 135. During the military operations in the Kresna region, an uprising broke out on November 8, 1878, in the Bansko-Razlog valley. The detachment of volunteers from Moesia, led by Banyo Marinov, a revolutionary and volunteer from the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), played an important part in that uprising. It was promptly joined by scores of local insurgents and, after a fierce skirmish, it succeeded in liberating the town of Bansko. The setbacks in the autumn of 1878 led to a new organization of the leading body of the Uprising and to the adoption of new tactics. Efforts were now directed toward the setting up of a Central Committee which was to take over the leadership of the Uprising, as well as to organize an uprising in the interior of Macedonia in the spring of 1879. The detachment which crossed into Macedonia in May 1879 could not fulfill its task due to the lack of preliminary organization. These events marked the end of the Kresna–Razlog Uprising. == Significance and consequences == In this manner the Kresna–Razlog Uprising was left without its expected and most reliable reserve – Russia's military, diplomatic and political support, in addition to its being against the interests of Austria- Hungary and Britain. Russia was exhausted both financially and militarily, adopting a firm course of adhering to the decisions of the Berlin Congress in relation to Macedonia. Her strategic aim lay in the preservation of the Bulgarian character of Eastern Roumelia. It encountered yet another strong adversary - the military and political machine of the Ottoman state. The representatives of the Provisional Russian Administration in Principality of Bulgaria, who sympathised with the struggle, were reprimanded by the Russian Emperor in person. These were the decisive reasons for its failure, parallel with reasons of internal and organizational character.THE KRESNA-RAZLOG UPRISING 1878-1879 (Summary) DOYNO DOYNOV. Bulgarian Academy of Science 1978. Typical for the uprising was the scale participation of volunteers - Bulgarians of all parts of the country. Some figures as an illustration: 100 volunteers from Sofia, 27 from Tirnovo, 65 from Pazardzhik, 19 from Troyan, 31 from Pleven, 74 from Orhanye, 129 from the Plovdiv district, 17 from Provadia, 30 from Eastern Rumelia and others. A large number of insurgents and leaders of different parts of Macedonia also participated in the uprising. After the uprising some 30,000 refugees fled to Bulgaria.Дойнов, Д. Кресненско- Разложкото въстание..., с. 84. The failure of the uprising led to the attention of the Bulgarian political and strategic leaders to the liberation of the other parts of the Bulgarian territories and another main strategic objective - unification of the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, the latter being under the Sultan's power, but still having a large autonomy. Macedonia and Thrace should have to wait. == Controversy == The uprising is celebrated today in both Bulgaria and North Macedonia as part of their nations’ struggle against the Ottoman rule. In Bulgaria, it is regarded as a rebellion prepared by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire and the Unity Committee in Bulgaria itself, whose common goal was the unification of Bulgaria and Ottoman Macedonia. In North Macedonia, it is regarded that the rebellion was carried out by two different groups with two different goals. The Unity Committee attempted to subdue the Uprising, fighting in favour of unification of Macedonia with Bulgaria, while one group, centered around Berovski, strived for an independent Macedonia, as seen in the Proclamation of Kresna Uprising. However, the Proclamation is considered to be а forgery by Bulgarian historians. As reasons, they have cited, among other things, the absence of an original, the use of anachronistic language and the stark contradiction of its contents to the other surviving documents.Христо Христов. Писма и оправки - По следите на една историко-документална фалшификация. (Исторически Преглед, 1983, кн. 4, с. 100—106). Hristo Hristov. 1983. Tracking a historical documental falsification. Historical Review 4:100-106, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.In the early 1980s Bulgarian and Macedonian historiography engaged in a serious clash that undermined the prestige of history as a science. As a casus belli served the "Rules of the Macedonian Insurgent Committee", published by Archpriest Dr. Slavko Dimevski. According to his statements it was about an original document of the Kresna-Razlog (Macedonian) Uprising of 1878-1879 kept in the personal archive of the Bulgarian Patriarch Cyril, to which Sl. Dimevski has had access in the 1960s. In 1980 (nine years after the death of the Bulgarian Patriarch) in Skopje came out a collection of studies of Macedonian historians dedicated to the "document" and its importance for the history of the liberation struggles of Macedonia. Bulgarian historiography reacted vigorously to this documentary mystification. On the basis of research in the archive of Patriarch Cyril and the correspondence between him and Sl. Dimevski this article makes the conclusion that there is no such "document" and it has never existed. It was also found that the Macedonian churchman and historian has abused historical truth and scientific morality also on other similar occasions For more see: Елдаров, С. (2019). Through the Bulgarian-Macedonian Historiographical Disputes in the second half of the 20th century: The “Slavko Dimevski Case”. A Historical Investigation. Drinovsky Sbornik, 10, 451-467. https://doi.org/10.7546/DS.2017.10.45 They have also pointed at the existence of an identical document with completely different contents titled "Temporary rules about the organisation of the Macedonian Uprising" prepared by Stefan Stambolov and Nathanael of Ohrid.Дойно Дойнов Кресненско-Разложкото въстание, 1878-1879, София 1979, с. 71, бел. 323, с. 154, с. 163-164, бел. 235 The rest of the preserved documentation left from the insurgents had a Bulgarian character,Macedonian historians refer to some data from the anti-Ottoman movement for national “liberation” which presumably confirm a certain attempt for emancipation vis-à-vis the neighboring nations and a more “ethnic” usage of the term “Macedonians.” The latter is to be found in the so-called “Rules Constitution” of a “Committee of the Macedonian Uprising” as well as in its “Military directives” that are deemed to be composed during the ill-fated uprising of Kresna-Razlog in the autumn of 1878. These documents trace a project of administrative structure of a future autonomous Macedonian state while the Slavs from the region are named “Macedonians” instead of Bulgarians or Serbs. The Bulgarian historians denounce the authenticity of both documents. But even if one assumes that they are authentic, they were literally “excavated” by modern historians: the marginal influence of theirs is confirmed by the fact that they left virtually no trace in the public sphere of the late 19th century. For more: Tchavdar Marinov, We, the Macedonians: The Paths of Macedonian. Supra-Nationalism (1878-1912). pp. 107-137; in: We, the People: Politics of National Peculiarity in Southeastern Europe (2009) Edited by Diana Mishkova, Central European University Press. .Колектив, Македонският въпрос (1968) Историко-политическа справка. Институт за история при БАН. София, стр. 37.; И. Бурилкова, Ц. Билярски (2012) Македонският въпрос в българо-югославските отношения 1968-1989. Част 1-2, Архивите говорят. Том 65-66; Държавна агенция "Архиви", София, стр. 56. moreover distinct Macedonian national identity was not developed at that time.Macedonian historians naturally challenge the unity of the Bulgarian people. They stress the local character of an uprising which was later taken over by the Bulgarians...It is stressed that the uprising was called the Macedonian uprising by the insurgents. Here we encounter the problem that in many sources the population is called Macedonian Bulgarians. In most cases it is not clear if the words Macedonia/Macedonian have anything else than a regional (as opposed to national) sense. For more: Ethnic rivalry and the quest for Macedonia, 1870-1913, Vemund Aarbakke, East European Monographs, 2003, , pp. 57-58. == Related pages == *National awakening of Bulgaria *Razlovtsi insurrection *Liberation of Bulgaria *Bulgarian unification *Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising *Tikveš uprising == Footnotes == == Sources == * Дойно Дойнов. Кресненско-Разложкото въстание, 1878-1879 Принос за неговия обхват и резултати, за вътрешните и външнополитическите условия, при които избухва, протича и стихва. (Издателство на Българската Академия на науките. София, 1979) (Doyno Doynov. Kresna–Razlog uprising 1878-1879: On its scope and results, internal and external political circumstances in which it starts, continues, and ends. Sofia. 1979. Published by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) * BULGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Institute of History Bulgarian Language Institute - MACEDONIA, DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS. Sofia 1978 * БАЛКАНСКИТЕ ДЪРЖАВИ И МАКЕДОНСКИЯТ ВЪПРОС - Антони Гиза.(превод от полски - Димитър Димитров, Македонски Научен Институт, София, 2001) Category:Bulgarian rebellions Category:Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire Category:1878 in Bulgaria Category:1879 in Bulgaria Category:Conflicts in 1878 Category:Conflicts in 1879 Category:19th-century rebellions Category:Macedonia under the Ottoman Empire Category:1878 in the Ottoman Empire Category:Great Eastern Crisis Category:Macedonian Question
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Audrey C. Cohen (May 14, 1931 – March 10, 1996) was the founding president of Metropolitan College of New York, a non-profit, private institution known for its unique curricular structure and commitment to experiential education. An educational visionary, activist, and social entrepreneur, Cohen was convinced that people learn best when they approach their learning with an immediate, concrete purpose directed at improving the world. The college she founded continues today to provide students with a "Purpose-Centered" education that enables them to work towards a degree while developing their skills as counselors, business managers, teachers, community organizers, and human service providers. ==Early life== Audrey Cohen was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and attended Taylor Allderdice High School. Diminutive in stature, smart, and energetic, she went on to the University of Pittsburgh where she majored in Political Science and Education. During her summers off from college she did volunteer work in Washington with the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) – experiences that she later said raised her awareness of social injustice and nurtured her commitment to civic activism. Cohen graduated from college magna cum laude in 1953 and spent the next three years in Japan and Morocco with her husband, Mark Cohen, who was at the time an intelligence officer with the U.S. Navy. The young couple then returned to Washington, D.C. and began raising a family. In 1958 a desire to stay active in the workplace while still caring for her two young daughters prompted Audrey Cohen and another mother to launch Part-Time Research Associates (PTRA), an organization that enabled well-educated married women to work on specific part-time research projects contracted by businesses or government agencies. When Audrey Cohen and her husband moved to New York City, her outreach work for Part-Time Research Associates expanded, and soon the organization was making a profit. But by early 1964 Cohen began to sense that her focus on finding part-time jobs for well-educated women was insufficient. Michael Harrington's exposé of The Other America, Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, and President Lyndon B. Johnson's announcement of a "War on Poverty" in his January 1964 inaugural address contributed to a new social consciousness, and Cohen was eager to become part of the era's efforts to create more just and equitable cities. She and a small group of friends began to organize the Women's Talent Corps (WTC), an organization that would focus on jobs for low -income women who had been left behind in America's post-war economic boom. ==The Women's Talent Corps== For two and a half years Cohen and her associates worked to build support for the new venture. Their aim was to develop an educational institution that would help create above-entry-level jobs in schools, health-care centers, and human service agencies and at the same time provide training for those jobs. Cohen herself engaged in intensive community outreach, visiting low-income neighborhoods in Harlem, Bedford Stuyvesant, and the South Bronx. Making the trips alone and often at night, Cohen spoke to groups of women in their homes, churches, or nearby school auditoriums. She asked them about the kinds of jobs they themselves could imagine doing that would improve the services in their communities, and then she used this information to push city schools and agencies to open new lines of employment. When the funding for her organization was eventually secured, these women became part of the WTC's first student cohort. At first Cohen's project was met with resistance from many of New York City's social service bureaucracies, especially since it was specifically aimed at and directed by women. But with the passage of the federal Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 and the establishment of the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), Cohen saw an opening for support. In July, 1966, her fledgling organization received a Community Action Program grant from the OEO that enabled her to begin accepting students and training them for what are now termed "paraprofessional" jobs in schools, hospitals, and human service agencies throughout the city. ==The College for Human Services== By 1969 the Women's Talent Corps had grown and was successfully improving the employment opportunities of hundreds of inner-city women, many of whom had previously been on public assistance. But Cohen soon saw opportunities for further growth. Building on the Corps Women's own requests for more formal training and wanting also to admit men, Cohen changed the organization's name to the College for Human Services. In 1970, after an arduous struggle, the College succeeded in gaining the authority from the Board of Regents of New York State to grant the Associate degree. From the outset, the College for Human Services was unique. Federal funding required that the College could accept applicants only from families with incomes of less than $3,600, and students were paid a stipend for their fieldwork. The curriculum required that students spent three days in the field assisting at city schools and human service agencies and two full days in the College's classrooms at 201 Varick Street in Lower Manhattan. As a New York Times article pointed out at the time, the academic courses and the human service work were "coordinated." Students' work in the field was informed by their study of social theoreticians such as Erik Erikson, B.F. Skinner, and Marshall McLuhan; in turn students could bring their first-hand knowledge of practices in the field to their reading of social theory."Regents Charter School for Poor: 2-Year College Here Gives ‘Human Service' Training." The New York Times, May 26, 1970. Most faculty members had experience in education, social work, or community organizing and were responsible for classroom instruction and field guidance. By mid-1970 the college was suffering growing pains, and both faculty members and students were complaining about their workload. External rumblings from the student movement and the black power movement were echoed at College meetings and workshops. When an African-American member of the administration was fired for mismanagement of funds in August 1970, the College for Human Services became one of 450 campuses to go on strike that year. After nearly three weeks of picketing on the street in front of the building, a group of about 20 students and faculty members took over Audrey Cohen's office, demanding that she be replaced by a person of color. Cohen stayed calm during the episode, even when, according to a New York Times article reporting on the event, one student called her a "blue-eyed devil."Nancy Moran, "Students Occupy Office of Training School's Chief," The New York Times, September 3, 1970, p. 29. At a meeting with the faculty and students the next day, the administration agreed to some of the protesters' demands, including their demands for more transparency in the administration's operations, and classes resumed. For the next two years, however, the inadequacies of the two-year program became more apparent. Cohen saw that with the increasing professionalization of the city's social service agencies, the College needed to become a fully accredited four- year institution. Again taking a bold and controversial step, Cohen proceeded with the support of her Board of Trustees to dismiss most of the faculty, close down all but the few classes that were needed by the second-year students to graduate, and set up a small task force to engage in a restructuring process that would last for nearly a year. The task force included graduates from Princeton and Harvard, well-known community activists such as Ruth Messinger (who later ran for Mayor of New York), and a project dean from the National Training Laboratories who had a background in curriculum design. After months of meetings, the group came up with a unique curricular grid that has remained the model for all subsequent programs at the College. The curricular grid or matrix consisted of eight semesters, each of which focused on a specific "competency" crucial to human service practitioners. The sequence of competencies (later termed "Purposes") was intersected by the rows of five multidisciplinary "Dimensions" common to each semester's learning. To provide both coherence and a means of assessing field performance each semester, the model also included what Cohen called a "Constructive Action," a project undertaken in the field that relates to that semester's purpose and which, when documented, includes reference to the academic learning covered in all five dimension courses. The originality of the college's curricular model soon attracted the attention of educators nationwide. In 1976 the matrix was adapted by Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, where it remains today as the conceptual framework for a Masters in Human Services program.Lincoln University matrix . In the late 1970s the College for Human Service was the focus of an in-depth study by Gerald Grant and David Riesman that was published in Perpetual Dream: Reform and Experiment in the American CollegeGerald Grant and David Riesman, "The Activist-Radical Impulse: The College for Human Services," in Perpetual Dream: Reform and Experiment in the American College (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), pp. 135-176. and in On Competence: A Critical Analysis of Competency- Based Reforms in Higher Education.Gerald Grant, "Creating a Non-Traditional College for New Careers: The College for Human Services," in Gerald Grant, et al., On Competence: A Critical Analysis of Competency-Based Reforms in Higher Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1979), pp. 299-334. Over the next two decades the college that Cohen founded continued to grow, and she herself became renowned for her educational vision and leadership. By 1979, the CHS had become a tuition-charging institution and was offering bachelor's degrees in the human services. In 1983, CHS initiated a business degree program, and in 1988 it began offering a master's program in public administration. Also in 1983, the college's Purpose-Centered model began to be adapted for elementary and secondary education in several schools around the country. In 1992 the College was renamed Audrey Cohen College after its founder. ==Audrey Cohen College== Up until her death in 1996, Cohen actively promoted the college's visibility and expansion. As a college president she gave numerous speeches at venues ranging from Tufts University, Ramapo College, Bryn Mawr, the University of Iowa, Newport College and UCLA, to the U.S. House of Representatives. She was also a member of a number of professional organizations, including the American Association of Higher Education, the National Vocational Guidance Association, and the National Organization for Women, and she was a member of numerous Boards of Directors. In her later life she became an alumna of the President/Owner Management Program at the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration. Cohen's written output included 11 articles or chapters authored or co-authored during the college's early years. Perhaps the best known of these was "The Citizen as the Integrating Agent: Productivity in the Human Services" that was published in the Human Service Monograph Series and continues to be assigned in courses at the College today.Audrey C. Cohen, "The Citizen as the Integrating Agent: Productivity in the Human Services" Human Service Monograph Series, Project Share, Number 9, September 1978, accessed July 26, 2012. Another important article was entitled "Human Service" and appeared as Chapter 27 in Arthur W. Chickering's The Modern American College: Responding to the New Realities of Diverse Students and a Changing Society.Audrey C. Cohen, "Human Service," in Arthur W. Chickering, The Modern American College: Responding to the New Realities of Diverse Students and a Changing Society (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1981), pp. 512-528. In recognition of her educational work Cohen received numerous honors and awards. She was the only woman invited to serve on the Newman Committee that was funded by the Ford Foundation and sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to study the problems of higher education in the early 1970s. Awards over the years included the Mina Shaughnessy Scholarship Award from the United States Office of Education, the Outstanding Leadership in Higher Education Award from the Committee of Independent Colleges and Universities, the President's Award from the National Organization of Human Service Educators, and a doctorate of humane letters from the University of New England.LaRock, Annie. "Audrey Cohen." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. July 5, 2011. By the mid-1990s Audrey Cohen College had moved into new space at the corner of Varick and Canal Streets, was being advertised in subway stations and on TV, and had grown to over 1,000 students. But by then it also became clear that Cohen's health was in decline. She was diagnosed with ovarian cancer, and despite chemotherapy treatments and transfusions, she died in March, 1996. "Ms. Cohen was a powerhouse of energy when scorning the rigidity and failures of the contemporary educational system and proposing how to reform it," the New York Times obituary stated.New York Times obituary. Cohen had two daughters, Winifred Alisa Cohen and Dawn Jennifer Cohen Margolin, by her first marriage, to Mark Cohen. She was survived by them and her second husband, Dr. Ralph Wharton, a psychiatrist in private practice in New York City. ==Legacy== Cohen's close associate Alida Mesrop succeeded her as College president starting in the mid-1990s, and Mesrop provided strong leadership as the College continued to grow. In 1999, Stephen A. Greenwald was appointed president, and in 2002 the name of the College was changed to Metropolitan College of New York (MCNY) . In 2008 Dr. Vinton Thompson became its president. Today MCNY includes undergraduate and graduate programs in human services, business, urban studies, and education. Together the programs graduate over 400 students a year, most of whom are adult women of color and recent immigrants, many of whom are the first in their families to graduate from college. Among the College's several recent achievements are the accreditation of its masters in education program by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), accreditation of its business programs by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP), and recognition for the College's contributions to "community service" by President Obama's Higher Education Honor Roll. Before her death Ms. Cohen had intended to write a book about her educational aims that would be entitled To Build a Better World. Although she did not live long enough to complete that book, the aim of improving the world through constructive actions in community settings remains an ongoing curricular goal at the college that she founded. ==Audrey Cohen's writings== * A new educational paradigm (an article from the Phi Delta Kappan dated June 1, 1993) * Predictors of public or private employment for business college graduates (an article from Public Personnel Management dated March 22, 1993) * Women and Higher Education: Recommendations for Change (Eric reports; 1971) * The citizen as the integrating agent: Productivity in the Human Services (from the Human Services monograph series; 1978) * The founding of a new profession: the Human Service Professional (1974) * Citizen Empowerment Guide (1977) ==References== ==Further reading== *Grace G. Roosevelt, Creating a College That Works: Audrey Cohen and Metropolitan College of New York, SUNY Press, 2015. ==External links== *Metropolitan College of New York's Web site Category:1931 births Category:1996 deaths Category:20th-century American educators Category:People from Pittsburgh Category:20th-century American Jews Category:Educators from Pennsylvania Category:20th-century American women educators
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The Third Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in the Ashes cricket series between Australia and England. The match was played at Old Trafford in Manchester from 8 to 13 July 1948, with a rest day on 11 July. The match was drawn after the whole of the fourth day and the first half of the fifth day was washed out due to rain; England had the upper hand before the weather intervened. The draw maintained Australia's 2–0 lead in the series, which was established through victories in the first two Tests. As Australia were the holders of The Ashes, the draw meant that England could do no better than level the series 2–2 by winning the last two Tests, and thus Australia retained The Ashes. The Test started amid controversy following the omission of leading England batsman Len Hutton for performing poorly in the previous match. Having largely failed—apart from brief periods—to challenge Australia in the first two Tests, the hosts had made four changes to their team in an attempt to find a combination that could threaten the visitors' supremacy. Australia made their first change for the series, ending the Test career of veteran batsman Bill Brown after two poor matches. England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat. Denis Compton left the field after being bloodied in the head by a Ray Lindwall bouncer. At this stage, the hosts were at 33/2 with an injured player, and they batted defensively for a period to try and regroup. Having received treatment, Compton returned with England in difficulty at 119/5 midway through the day and proceeded to score 145 not out, aided by several dropped catches, helping England to recover to 363 all out on the second afternoon. Compton and seamer Alec Bedser were involved in a mix-up, resulting in the latter being run out and ending a 121-run partnership. Lindwall was the most successful bowler, taking 4/99. During the England innings, Australian opener Sid Barnes, who had gained much attention throughout the season for fielding at point-blank range in front of the batsman on strike, was hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot and had to be carried from the ground and hospitalised. In reply, Australia batted steadily to be 126/3 by the end of the second day but then fell to 172/6—effectively seven wickets down with Barnes unable to bat after collapsing again—before evading the follow on by reaching 221. Australia scored slowly through the innings, finding the hosts' bowlers difficult to negotiate; Bedser took 4/81 and Pollard 3/53. England began their second innings and were strongly placed on 174/3 at the end of the third day, an overall lead of 316 with seven wickets in hand. They had been aided by several dropped chances against Cyril Washbrook, who reached 85 by the close of play. However, rain meant that no play was possible on the fourth day and England did not have the opportunity to capitalise on their favourable position and set Australia a high runchase. Yardley declared on the final morning, but play did not start until mid-afternoon due to continuing inclement weather. The Australian batsman thereafter played for a draw; they batted slowly and reached 92/1 when stumps were drawn, not making an attempt to chase the 317 for victory. Arthur Morris made 54 not out, his second half-century of the match to go with his 51 in the first innings, registering Australia's top- score on both occasions. Despite the fact that 30% of the playing time was lost to rain, the match still managed to set a record for the highest attendance at a Test match in England, surpassing the mark set in the previous Test. == Background == Led by Donald Bradman, Australia had proceeded through the first two months of their 1948 England tour undefeated. After winning 10 of the 12 games before the Tests, eight of these by an innings, they won the First Test by eight wickets. Before the Second Test, they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing with Yorkshire. Bradman's men then crushed England by 409 runs in the Second Test at Lord's. Between Tests, they defeated Surrey by ten wickets and crushed Gloucestershire by an innings and 363 runs, having amassed 774/7 declared, their highest score of the season, and the second highest ever by an Australian team in England. When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test, leading English batsman Len Hutton had been dropped. The reason was said to be Hutton's struggles with Lindwall's short-pitched bowling in the previous Test, during which he scored 20 and 13.Perry (2001), p. 224. Observers noticed Hutton backing away from the fast bowlers. The English selectors believed such a sight would have a negative effect on the rest of the side—which was not in good batting form—as it was a poor example from a key player.Bowes, p. 190. According to journalist and retired Australian Test leg spinner Bill O'Reilly, Hutton's second innings at Lord's had been the worst of his career and gave the impression he had been scared of the Australian pace attack.O'Reilly, p. 83. The omission generated considerable controversy, and pleased the Australians, who felt Hutton was England's best batsman, and thought he had been treated poorly by the selectors. Former Australian batsman Jack Fingleton pointed out that while Hutton had batted erratically and appeared uncomfortable in the previous Test,Fingleton, pp. 128–130. he also had a strong track record against the tourists, having made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead-up matches, and 94, 76 and 122 retired ill in his last three Test innings during the previous Ashes series of 1946–47.Fingleton, p. 126. O'Reilly regarded Hutton's omission as punitive and vindictive. He said if Hutton needed to be shielded from the new ball attack, then England should have reshuffled their batting order to place their beleaguered opener down the order. O'Reilly said that as Hutton had a large range of attacking strokes, he was not a stereotypical, defensive opener who was mainly used to wear down the opening bowlers, and could be used in the middle order as an aggressor.O'Reilly, p. 84. Hutton's opening position was taken by debutant George Emmett, who made 43 and nine for Gloucestershire in Australia's preceding tour match. In that match, two of Australia's leading pacemen, Keith Miller and Bill Johnston, did not bowl. Despite scoring 76 and 92 in the preceding match against Warwickshire, Emmett was not having a prolific season; he ended the summer with an average of 36.11. England made three further changes. Spinner Jack Young and paceman Dick Pollard replaced the spin pair of Doug Wright and Jim Laker in the bowling department, meaning England would only play one slow bowler. Wright and Laker had struggled to penetrate the Australian batting lineup in the Second Test, taking match figures of 2/123 and 2/128 respectively. In contrast, Pollard had taken match figures of 4/85 for Lancashire in a match against Australia earlier in the season, and had taken 27 wickets in four county matches in the past fortnight. The selection was seen as being influenced by the fact the Test was being staged at Lancashire's home ground, where Pollard was familiar with the conditions, and the Australians had a high regard for him.O'Reilly, p. 86. In the month since being dropped for the Second Test in favour of Wright, after taking 1/107 in the First Test, Young had returned to play for Middlesex, taking 27 wickets in five matches. Alec Coxon, the Yorkshire allrounder who made his Test debut in the previous match at Lord's and opened the bowling, taking match figures of 3/172 and scoring 19 and a duck, was replaced by Jack Crapp, a debutant batsman. Crapp had scored 100 not out and 32 for Gloucestershire in the preceding match against the tourists. It was only the third century scored against Australia during the tour,Fingleton, p. 199. and was part of a season in which Crapp had made four centuries and six half-centuries in 16 matches thus far. Coxon's omission was believed to have been caused more by off-field events than sporting merit. There was a story that he punched Denis Compton—whom he disliked and considered self-important—in the dressing room, but Coxon always denied this. However, there was certainly an altercation and Coxon was never selected again. O'Reilly interpreted the omission of the Yorkshiremen Hutton and Coxon at the expense of the Gloucestershire pair of Crapp and Emmett as symptoms of a regional bias in the English selection panel. He pointed out that only one of the four selectors—England captain Norman Yardley, who was also from Yorkshire—was from the north of the country.O'Reilly, pp. 85-86. Australia dropped Bill Brown, who had scored 73 runs at a batting average of 24.33 in three Test innings during the season. Brown was Australia's reserve opener, but Bradman opted to play him out of position in the middle-order, instead of using a specialist. Brown had also struggled in his unfamiliar position in the matches against Worcestershire and the Marylebone Cricket Club, scoring 25 and 26. According to O'Reilly, Brown had appeared out of place in the middle-order because he was used to the opener's classical role of defending against and wearing down the opening bowlers, rather than attacking. He was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton, who had hammered an unbeaten 159—including several sixes—against Gloucestershire,Fingleton, pp. 197–198. and that innings was particularly noted for his quick footwork, which he used to charge and attack the off spin of Tom Goddard.Fingleton, pp. 198–199. == Scorecard == Umpires F Chester D Davies Toss elected to bat first Result Match drawn Series impact leads 5-match series 2–0 ===England innings=== First innings Second innings Batsman Method of dismissal Runs Method of dismissal Runs C. Washbrook b Johnston 11 not out 85 G. M. Emmett c Barnes b Lindwall 10 c Tallon b Lindwall 0 W. J. Edrich c Tallon b Lindwall 32 run out 53 D. C. S. Compton not out 145 c Miller b Toshack 0 J. F. Crapp lbw b Lindwall 37 not out 19 H. E. Dollery b Johnston 1 * N. W. D. Yardley c Johnson b Toshack 22 \+ T. G. Evans c Johnston b Lindwall 34 A. V. Bedser run out 37 R. Pollard b Toshack 3 J. A. Young c Bradman b Johnston 4 Extras 27 17 Total (171.5 overs) 363 (69 overs) 174/3d First innings Second innings Bowler Overs Maidens Runs Wickets Overs Maidens Runs Wickets R. R. Lindwall 40 8 99 4 14 4 37 1 W. A. Johnston 45.5 13 67 3 14 3 34 0 S. J. E. Loxton 7 0 18 0 8 2 29 0 E. R. H. Toshack 41 20 75 2 12 5 26 1 I. W. G. Johnson 38 16 77 0 7 3 16 0 K. R. Miller – – – – 14 7 15 0 ===Australia innings=== First innings Second innings Batsman Method of dismissal Runs Method of dismissal Runs A. R. Morris c Compton b Bedser 51 not out 54 I. W. G. Johnson c Evans b Bedser 1 c Crapp b Young 6 * D. G. Bradman lbw b Pollard 7 not out 30 A. L. Hassett c Washbrook b Young 38 K. R. Miller lbw b Pollard 31 S. G. Barnes retired hurt 1 S. J. E. Loxton b Pollard 36 \+ D. Tallon c Evans b Edrich 18 R. R. Lindwall c Washbrook b Bedser 23 W. A. Johnston c Crapp b Bedser 3 E. R. H. Toshack not out 0 Extras 12 2 Total (93 overs) 221 (61 overs) 92/1 First innings Second innings Bowler Overs Maidens Runs Wickets Overs Maidens Runs Wickets A. V. Bedser 36 12 81 4 19 12 27 0 R. Pollard 32 9 53 3 10 8 6 0 W. J. Edrich 7 3 27 1 2 0 8 0 N. W. D. Yardley 4 0 12 0 – – – – J. A. Young 14 5 36 1 21 12 31 1 D. C. S. Compton – – – – 9 3 18 0 == 8 July: Day One == The match started amid clear weather, a far cry from the previous Ashes Test at the ground in 1938, which was abandoned without a ball being bowled due to continuous rain for several days. The outfield was also smooth and green, a contrast to its state during World War II, when it was left cratered by German bombing raids.Fingleton, p. 130. Yardley won the toss and elected to bat. The change in England's opening pair did not result in an improvement on the scoreboard. A run out was narrowly avoided following a mix-up on the first ball, and Cyril Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that offered early assistance to the bowlers. The Australians started with Ray Lindwall and Bill Johnston taking the new ball, but Bradman had misjudged the breeze and had to swap his bowlers' ends. For this purpose, Loxton bowled a solitary over. He was erratic in his length and bowled three long hops outside leg stump at the debutant Emmett, who ignored the opportunity to attack and let the balls pass.O'Reilly, p. 87. At the other end, Washbrook also played watchfully and avoided any horizontal bat shots, apart from a missed cut against Johnston's bowling. Overall, the English openers appeared comfortable in the first half-hour of play.Arlott, p. 80. With 22 runs on the board after half an hour of play,Fingleton, p. 131. Washbrook played around a yorker from Johnston and was bowled, much to the disappointment of his Lancashire home crowd. Johnston had been bowling from over the wicket, and his left-arm deliveries had generally been swinging back into the right-handed Washbrook. However, the opening batsman did not detect Johnston's variation ball, which was released from wide of the crease and angled across more sharply without curling back in. Washbrook played inside the line of the ball, which hit his stumps. Australia nearly had two wickets in the same over as the new batsman Bill Edrich struggled. He played loosely outside the off stump to the first ball but did not get an edge, and on the third delivery he faced from Johnston, Edrich survived again. Receiving a ball on middle and leg stump, he tried to defend it straight back down the pitch, rather than the conventional stroke to the leg side, and managed to edge the ball past the slips for four.O'Reilly, p. 88. Six runs after the fall of Washbrook, the diminutive Emmett fended a rising ball from Lindwall to Sid Barnes at short leg, leaving England 28/2. Surprised by Lindwall's bouncer, Emmett took his eyes from the ball and fended with one hand on the horizontally-held bat, while ducking his head down below his arms. The ball bounced slowly off the pitch and after hitting Emmett's bat, rebounded gently up in the air for Barnes to collect. In Australia's match against Gloucestershire immediately preceding the Test, Lindwall bowled a bouncer to Emmett, who hesitantly parried it away for a single. Lindwall did not deliver any more bouncers to Emmett during the match, and O'Reilly thought the paceman was quietly waiting until the Tests to expose his opponent's weakness against the short ball. O'Reilly concluded that Australia's pace duo "had again disposed of the English opening batsmen with the minimum amount of effort."O'Reilly, p. 89. Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Denis Compton attempted to establish themselves. He was hurried by the pace of Lindwall and Johnston, making many last-moment movements to either hit the ball or withdraw from a shot. Lindwall bowled a series of short balls. One hit Compton on the arm and the batsman attempted to hook another bouncer, but edged it into his face. Upon hearing the umpire's call of no-ball while the ball was travelling towards him, and knowing he was immune from dismissal, Compton decided to change his stroke. Having initially positioned himself to deflect the ball into the leg side, he then attempted to hook the ball, but could not readjust quickly enough. The velocity of the ball was such that it rebounded from his head and flew more than halfway to the boundary before landing. This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33/2.Pollard (1990), p. 12. After a ten-minute delay, Crapp strode to the centre for his debut innings, and he got off the mark from his first ball, gliding Lindwall past gully for a single. Lindwall then struck Edrich on the hand with another short ball, provoking angry heckling from spectators who compared him to Harold Larwood, a 1930s paceman who targeted batsmen with Bodyline, a strategy of intimidatory bowling.Fingleton, p. 132. Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive play, resulting in one 25-minute period during which only one run was added, as England reached lunch with their total on 57/2. Edrich had made 14 from 90 minutes of batting, while Crapp had made 11 in 60 minutes. One of the motives of batting slowly without taking risks was to ensure the innings lasted long enough that it would still be in progress by the time Compton recovered from his concussion, so he could resume batting.O'Reilly, p. 90. Edrich appeared to be lacking in confidence due to his recent run of low scores, and thus hesitant to play with any attacking intent, whereas Crapp was usually circumspect. For a series of accurate overs from Ernie Toshack, Crapp repeatedly defended a sequence of deliveries to Arthur Morris at silly point. Toshack's first five overs were all maidens.Arlott, p. 82. Upon the resumption, Crapp began to accelerate, hitting a six—which flew directly back over the bowler's head and over the sightscreen—and three driven boundaries from the off spin of Ian Johnson. This was a stark contrast to Johnson's first ten overs before lunch, which had yielded only seven runs. Crapp was eager to use his feet to get to the pitch of Johnson's deliveries, and subsequently dealt with the spin fairly comfortably, whereas many of his compatriots stood in their crease and found matters much more difficult.O'Reilly, pp. 90-91. He then hit Toshack to Barnes at short leg, but the catch was dropped. However, Crapp did not capitalise as Toshack conceded only eight runs in a sequence of eight overs.Arlott, p. 83. Australia took the new ball with the score at 87 and Lindwall trapped Crapp—who did not offer a shot—leg before wicket for 37; the batsman misjudged the line of a straight ball and thought it had pitched and struck his leg outside off stump. Tom Dollery came in and took a single to get off the mark but then missed a Johnston yorker and was bowled. This dismissal mirrored that of Washbrook's in that Dollery failed to detect Johnston's variation ball, and thus played for swing when there was none. England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97/4. Captain Norman Yardley came in and played the fast bowling of Lindwall and Johnston with relative ease, retreating onto the back foot to allow himself more time to play his shots. Edrich was struck on the hand and Yardley edged to Keith Miller in the slips cordon on the half- volley.Fingleton, p. 133. After 170 minutes of slow batting, Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught behind by wicket-keeper Don Tallon. At 119/5, Compton returned to the field, his head wound having been stitched to stop the bleeding. He and Yardley played carefully until the tea break, and only the England captain offered a chance; Barnes was unable to complete the reflex catch at short leg from the bowling of Toshack. After the resumption of play, Yardley on-drove Lindwall for a four, but lofted Ernie Toshack, who had been bowling leg theory, into the packed on-side where he was caught by Johnson at forward square leg. Toshack's defensive bowling had caused the English skipper to lose patience and his departure for 22 left the score on 141/6.O'Reilly, p. 92. This brought wicket-keeper Godfrey Evans to the crease and exposed the hosts' lower-order. The last of the specialist batsmen, Compton nearly departed soon after when he leaned forward to a leg-side delivery from Johnson's off spin. He overbalanced and stumbled forwards, and Tallon removed the bails. There were no television replays to assist the umpires in those days, and although the attempted stumping appeared close to the naked eye, the benefit of the doubt was given to the batsman and the appeal rejected.O'Reilly, p. 93. Compton made use of this and attacked Toshack successfully, forcing Bradman to make a bowling change. In fading light, Compton combined with the gloveman to add 75 runs for the seventh wicket in 70 minutes, before Lindwall removed Evans—who attempted a wild slash—to leave England 216/7. Compton reached stumps on 64, accompanied by Alec Bedser, who was on four, as England ended the day at 231/7. Compton had been dropped one- handed on 50 by Tallon, before being missed on 64 by the wicket-keeper from the bowling of Johnston just before stumps.Fingleton, pp. 133–134. == 9 July: Day Two == England resumed on the second day at 231/7 amid dark skies and the threat of rain; Australia was unable to break through despite taking the new ball. Bedser stubbornly defied the Australians, playing with a straight bat and stretching forward onto the front foot to block the ball.Fingleton, p. 134. Tallon dropped Compton for the third time, off the bowling of Johnston when the batsman was on 73. Lindwall bowled well below his top pace in the morning session and the batsmen slowly accumulated their runs. Bedser was the more defensive of the two Englishmen, and Compton drove Toshack past mid on for a four to register his second century of the series, after 235 minutes of batting. Lindwall then beat Compton in each of his last three overs before lunch, but the Englishman survived. England reached lunch at 323/7 having added 92 runs without losing a wicket. Compton was on 123 and Bedser on 37, having brought up their century partnership.Fingleton, p. 135. Five minutes were lost in the morning session when a stray dog invaded the playing arena and evaded policemen and a number of Australian fielders who attempted to catch it. Immediately subsequent to the resumption, Compton took two boundaries from Lindwall's first over and another from Johnston's subsequent over. He then hit a ball into the covers and Bradman and Loxton collided in an attempt to prevent a run. Compton called Bedser through for a run on the misfield, but Loxton recovered and threw the ball to the wicket-keeper's end with Bedser a long way short of the crease.Fingleton, p. 136. It ended an innings of 145 minutes, in which Bedser scored 37 and featured in a 121-run partnership with Compton. According to O'Reilly, it was the only mistake Compton made in his innings.O'Reilly, pp. 92-93. The stand fell five runs short of England's highest Test partnership for the eighth wicket against Australia, a mark set by Patsy Hendren and Harold Larwood.Arlott, p. 86. Pollard came to the crease and soon pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes, who was standing at short leg. Barnes stood closer than virtually all in that position, with one foot on the edge of the cut strip and he was unable to evade the ball. Barnes "dropped like a fallen tree", and had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination. Throughout the season, Barnes had received a mixed reception for his tactics; it was agreed they had a negative effect on the batsman, and there was a debate as to whether it was in the spirit of the rules.Fingleton, pp. 73–74. Compton hit two fours and Bradman responded by putting all of his men on the boundary to offer Compton a single so Pollard would be on strike and could be attacked. The Australia skipper then brought his men in close during the latter part of the over to prevent Compton from taking a single and regaining the strike for the following over.Arlott, p. 87. Compton was unable to farm the strike as he desired.O'Reilly, p. 97. Toshack then bowled Pollard and Bradman caught Young from Johnston's bowling as England were dismissed for 363. Compton was unbeaten on 145 after 324 minutes of batting, having struck 16 fours. Lindwall took 4/99 and Johnston 3/67. Miller did not bowl, so the four remaining frontline bowlers sent down no less than 38 overs each. thumb|Barnes, pictured here in a photo at the age of 16, was taken to hospital after being hit in the ribs. |alt=A teenage boy leans over his bat, in front of the stumps, in readiness to face a ball. He is wearing a white shirt, trousers and a cap Australia came out to bat halfway through the middle session. Having dropped Brown, Barnes's injury left Australia with only Arthur Morris as a specialist opener. Johnson was thus deployed as Australia's makeshift second opener. He had never opened at Test level, but had once batted at No. 3 when used as a nightwatchman after the fall of the first wicket late on a day's play. He was unable to make an impact—Bedser removed him for one, caught by Evans at chest height off the inside edge from a ball that reared from the pitch.Fingleton, p. 137. It was a difficult catch as Evans was standing up to the stumps and he had little time to react to the ball's change of direction. O'Reilly criticised the use of Johnson as an opener, as vice-captain Lindsay Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach. Johnson's dismissal brought Bradman in to face the new ball. The Australian captain thus had to face Bedser, who had already dismissed him three times in the Tests with a new ball, and Pollard, who had troubled him in the match against Lancashire. Pollard then trapped Bradman lbw with an off cutter that struck the Australian captain on the back foot for seven to leave Australia in trouble at 13/2. This provoked a strong cheer from the crowd in support of Pollard, the Lancashire local. Australia were pinned down as Pollard bowled 17 consecutive overs from his long run, aiming for leg stump to stifle the scoring.Fingleton, p. 138. He was partnered by Bedser, who bowled unchanged for 90 minutes. Morris and vice-captain Lindsay Hassett rebuilt the innings, adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes. They played sedately without trying to take risks. Hassett fell after being beaten in flight by Young. Aiming to break Young's restrictive leg side bowling, Hassett charged down the pitch and lofted a drive for four. However, in attempting a similar lofted drive over cover, he mishit the ball, which was caught by Washbrook at wide mid-off.Fingleton, p. 139.O'Reilly, p. 98. Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126/3 at stumps, with their personal tallies on 23 and 48 respectively. The run rate picked up in the last 50 minutes of the day as the pair added 44 runs; Miller was the more attacking of the Australian duo during this time.Arlott, p. 88. == 10 July: Day Three == The weather was sunny on the third morning, and a large Saturday crowd had arrived from afar to watch proceedings; as a result, the gates were closed by 9:00 am with the ground already filled. The large gallery again encroached on the playing arena, which was not fenced. In the first hour, Australia struggled against the new ball. Miller was beaten three times in one over by Bedser before Pollard trapped him for 31, after Australia had added only nine runs in the first hour. Four runs later, Bedser removed Morris for 51, leaving Australia 139/5. It had been a slow morning for Morris, who took 21 minutes to add to his overnight total and reached his half-century 45 minutes into the day's play, having added only four runs to his overnight score.Fingleton, p. 140. At the same time, Barnes had come out to bat upon Miller's dismissal, despite having collapsed while practising in the nets due to the aftereffects of his rib injury. He batted after refusing to stay in hospital and returning to the ground in spite of his bruised and discoloured ribs. He made a painful single in 25 minutes of batting before the injury became too much and he had to be taken from the ground with the assistance of Bradman among others, before being sent to hospital to be put under observation. Barnes would eventually miss two and a half weeks of cricket. Tallon and Loxton added a further 33 before the former was caught behind from Edrich with the score at 172/6. Lindwall came into bat with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on. He received five consecutive bouncers from Edrich, one of which hit him in the hand and caused visible pain, evoking cheers from the home crowd. Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled by Pollard, leaving Australia 208/7, still five runs behind the follow-on mark. Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow-on before Bedser removed both. Johnston was reprieved in his brief innings when he edged a delivery from Pollard in the direction of Edrich at first slip, but Evans dived across, trying to catch the ball in his right hand. The wicket-keeper could not hold on to the ball at full stretch, and the resulting deflection further to the right wrong-footed Edrich, who was moving the other way, and it went past him. From second slip, Crapp dived left behind Edrich but the ball landed a few centimetres beyond his fingers. However, in the next over Bedser, Johnston edged the ball in the same manner and Crapp caught the ball easily.Arlott, p. 91. Lindwall was the last man out for 23, while Toshack was unbeaten without scoring. Australia were thus bowled out for 221, giving England a lead of 142 runs. Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers, taking 4/81 and 3/53 respectively. At the start of England's second innings, Washbrook took a single from Lindwall, who then removed Emmett for a duck. The paceman pitched an outswinger on the off stump and Emmett edged it to wicket-keeper Tallon, who took it in his right hand while taking a dive.Fingleton, p. 141. Emmett's departure brought Lindwall's tormentor Edrich to the crease. Bradman advised his speedster not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich, fearing such actions would be interpreted as retaliation and provoke a negative media and crowd reaction. After not bowling in the first innings, Miller came on and immediately broke through Washbrook's defences, only to see the ball graze the stumps without dislodging the bails. Washbrook then drove Lindwall for four before Miller bounced him in the next over. After two Miller outswingers had evaded the outside edge of Washbrook, the batsman appeared unsettled. One bouncer was hit over square leg in an uncontrolled manner for a four, and another flew in the air, narrowly evading Loxton at fine leg.O'Reilly, p. 99. Lindwall followed Miller's lead towards Washbrook and was no-balled by umpire Davies for dragging his foot beyond the line. Following a disagreement, Davies threw Lindwall his jumper, but the matter faded away and the bowler was not no- balled again after discussing the matter with Bradman.Fingleton, pp. 141–142. Lindwall then bounced Washbrook again and this time the England opener went for the hook shot. The ball flew high in the air straight towards Hassett at fine leg, who dropped the catch on his third juggled attempt. Having received a life on 21, Washbrook settled down as Loxton replaced Lindwall, while Johnson replaced Miller. Washbrook scored on both sides of the wicket and reached 50 in only 70 minutes as England proceeded to 80/1.Fingleton, p. 142. Lindwall returned for a new spell and almost hit Washbrook in the head. After tea, Edrich hit Miller for four. Although Lindwall did not retaliate for the bouncers he received in the first innings, Miller did so with four consecutive short balls, earning the ire of the crowd.Perry (2005), p. 243. Miller struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened, ordered him to stop,Perry (2005), p. 244. and apologised to Edrich.Fingleton, p. 143. Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124-run partnership in only 138 minutes, England's largest of the series to that point. Edrich hit a four to long on, followed by a lofted off drive for six from the bowling of Toshack, generating momentum in their favour. However, Washbrook called Edrich through for a quick single soon after. The batsmen hesitated and after both Englishmen had paused in the middle of their run,O'Reilly, p. 100. Morris threw down Edrich's stumps from cover, ending the partnership at 125/2. Edrich had struck eight boundaries and a six in his 53. right|130px|thumb|Hassett (pictured left in the late-1930s), dropped Washbrook twice on the third afternoon |alt=Two men in cricket uniforms walk along a paved path, wearing white shirts, trousers and shoes. The man on the left has his sleeves rolled up, while his taller colleague is wearing a woolly sweater. Both have dark hair. Manicured grass is to their left and a pavilion is behind them. Toshack then removed Compton for a duck, caught in the slips by Miller, leaving England three wickets down with the score still on 125. Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball, stopping Australia's fightback as England reached 174 by the close without further loss. Washbrook was unbeaten on 85 and Crapp 19. England were 316 runs in front with two days of play remaining and seven wickets in hand. Their position was aided by the Australian fielders, who dropped Washbrook twice more. The Lancastrian was on 78 when he again hooked Lindwall to long leg and was again dropped by Hassett. The Australian vice-captain responded by borrowing a helmet from a nearby policeman to signify his need for protection from the ball, much to the amusement of the crowd. After adding two more runs, Washbrook was dropped in the slips cordon by Johnson from the bowling of Toshack.Fingleton, p. 144. At the end of the day's play, Washbrook purchased a drink for Hassett in gratitude for the dropped catches. == 13 July: Day Five == The rest day was followed by the fourth day, which was abandoned due to persistent rain. Despite this, 21,000 spectators came in anticipation of the weather clearing so that some play would be possible. However, a northeasterly depression from the Faroe Islands brought ongoing precipitation and prevented any play. Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day after a pitch inspection, leaving Australia a victory target of 317, but the rain kept falling and the entire first session was abandoned. The umpires had decided to start play half an hour later than normal, but this was not possible and they helped the ground staff to clean up the wet surface. Bradman chose to use the light roller and play was supposed to begin as soon as the lunch break ended.Fingleton, p. 145. Further delay meant play began after the tea break, and the pitch played very slowly because of the excess moisture, which also caused there to be little bounce in the surface. With Australia not looking to chase the runs because the time available was not reasonable, Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions.Fingleton, p. 146. In the first half-hour, Australia showed little attacking intent and scored only six runs. Young replaced Pollard and Johnson immediately swept him for four, before edging the next ball to Crapp, who completed the catch. Johnson fell for six to leave Australia at 10/1. Bradman came in and played his first 11 balls from Young without scoring, while Morris hit two streaky shots for four from Bedser. Yardley used the spin of Young and Compton for an hour, while Morris and Bradman made little effort to score. For 105 minutes, Morris stayed at one end and Bradman at the other; neither looked to rotate the strike with singles. Bradman only played eight balls from Morris's main end, and at one point was so startled by his partner's desire for a single that he sent him back. The tourists thereafter batted in an unhurried and defensive manner to ensure a draw, which was sealed by a series of periodic rain interruptions. They ended on 92/1 from 61 overs, a run rate of 1.50, with 35 maidens. It was the slowest innings run rate to date in the series. Morris finished unbeaten on 54, his fourth consecutive half-century of the series. O'Reilly criticised the approach taken by the Australians in the closing stages of the match, attributing it to Bradman's orders. He said the pitch was made so tame by the heavy rain that they could have played in a natural and attractive manner to entertain the spectators, rather than defending carefully. He said Bradman's "unwillingness to take a risk or to accept the challenging call of some particular phase of the game is one of the greatest flaws" in his leadership.O'Reilly, pp. 102-103. The attendance of 133,740 exceeded the previous record for a Test in England, which was set in the preceding match at Lord's even though more than 30% of the playing time had been lost. ==Aftermath== After being aided by rain while in a disadvantageous position during the Third Test, the Australians had only one tour match—a victory over Middlesex—to prepare for the next Test at Headingley. Barnes was unable to recover from his injury in this short space of time, and was replaced by Neil Harvey.Perry (2002), p. 101. Instead of opting to use reserve opener Brown to replace Barnes, Australia played Hassett out of position to partner Morris, while Harvey took a middle-order slot. For England's part, Washbrook's second innings half-century at Old Trafford, aided by multiple dropped catches, was regarded as a major factor in his retention for the Headingley match,Fingleton, pp. 140–144. having scored only 63 runs in the first five innings of the series. He was reunited with Hutton, whose controversial exile lasted only one Test before Emmett was dropped. Dollery, who had made only 38 in three innings in the Second and Third Tests, was replaced by all-rounder Ken Cranston. Despite being productive in domestic matches during the season, Cranston had struggled in his previous outings against the tourists. In two matches against Australia, he had managed only 47 runs in three innings and a total of 2/109. Washbrook and Hutton put on 168 for the first wicket, the first time England had put on more than 42 for opening stand, as the hosts went on to make 496, their highest score for the series. Despite this, Australia's batsmen set a world record by chasing down 404 on the final day to win by seven wickets and take a series-winning 3–0 lead. Following the historic win at Headingley, Australia had five tour matches before the final Test. They won three while two ended in rain-curtailed draws.Fingleton, pp. 190–210. During this period, Barnes returned to action after recuperating from his rib injury. Australia then completed the series in style with a convincing innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4–0 result. The Fifth Test was the last international match, and the tourists only had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman's aim of going through the tour undefeated. Apart from two matches against the South of England and Leveson-Gower's XI, which were washed out after Australia had secured first innings leads of more than 200, Bradman's men had little difficulty, winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings. They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated, earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles.Harte and Whimpress, p. 405. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * Category:The Invincibles (cricket) #3 Ashes 3 Category:Test cricket matches Ashes, 3rd Test
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Software copyright is the application of copyright in law to machine-readable software. While many of the legal principles and policy debates concerning software copyright have close parallels in other domains of copyright law, there are a number of distinctive issues that arise with software. This article primarily focuses on topics particular to software. Software copyright is used by software developers and proprietary software companies to prevent the unauthorized copying of their software. Free and open source licenses also rely on copyright law to enforce their terms. For instance, copyleft licenses impose a duty on licensees to share their modifications to the work with the user or copy owner under some circumstances. No such duty would apply had the software in question been in the public domain. ==National and supranational laws== ===Canada=== In Canada, software is protected as a literary work under the Copyright Act of Canada. Copyright is acquired automatically when an original work is generated; the creator is not required to register or mark the work with the copyright symbol in order to be protected. The rights holder is granted: the exclusive right of reproduction, the right to rent the software, the right to restrain others from renting the software and the right to assign or license the copyright to others. Exceptions to these rights are set out by the terms of Fair Dealing; these exempt users from copyright liability covering usage and reproduction when performed for research, private study, education, parody or satire. Changes to the Copyright Act in regard to digital copyright were debated in the Canadian Parliament in 2008. Bill C-61 proposed alterations of the breadth and depth of exemptions for uses such as personal back-ups, reverse engineering and security testing. ===China=== ===East Germany=== A 1979 East German court ruling found that software was "neither a scientific work nor a creative achievement" and ineligible for copyright protection, legalizing software copying in the country. ===European Union=== ===India=== Software can be copyrighted in India. Copyright in software, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary, vests in the author of the software, even for commissioned works. Copyright can be assigned or licensed through a written document, but under the Indian Copyright Act, in case the period of assignment is not specified, the period is deemed to be 5 years from the date of assignment (section 19(5) of the Copyright Act). In a recent judgement in the case of Pine Labs Private Limited v. Gemalto Terminals India Private Limited the Delhi High Court has laid down that the copyright belongs to the author (in this case, Pine Labs) and as the period of assignment was not specified in the document of assignment (the master service agreement), the copyright in the software reverted to Pine Labs after 5 years. See Assignment of Copyright in Software. ===Pakistan=== Under the provision of Copyright Ordinance 1962, works which fall into any of the following categories: literary, musical, or artistic are protected by Copyright law. The definition of literary work was amended by Copyright Amendment 1992 to include computer software. Section 2(p) of the ordinance defines a computer program as "that is to say programmes recorded on any disc, tape, perforated media or other information storage devices, which, if fed into or located in a computer or computer based equipment is capable of reproducing any information". In event of infringement, civil and/or criminal proceedings can be carried out. According to Chapter XIV of Copyright Ordinance, a person can face a prison of up to 3 years and/or a penalty of up to one hundred thousand rupees if he is found guilty of renting computer software without permission of the owner. According to a study of Business Software Alliance, 84% of software in Pakistan is being used in violation of the Copyright law of Pakistan. ===United States=== Copyright protection attaches to “original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression, now known or later developed, from which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.” (17 U.S.C.A. § 102). Copyright functions by granting the author the right to exclude others. Copyright protects: * literary works * musical works (& accompanying words) * dramatic works (& accompanying music) * pantomimes and choreographed works * pictorial, graphic, & sculptural works * motion pictures & other audiovisual works * sound recordings * architectural works \+ compilations and derivative works 17 USC § 103(a). In the United States, computer programs are literary works, under the definition in the Copyright Act, .Apple v Franklin, 714 F.2d 1240 (3d Cir. 1983) There is a certain amount of work that goes into making copyright successful and just as with other works, copyright for computer programs prohibits not only literal copying, but also copying of "nonliteral elements", such as program's structure, sequence and organization. These non-literal aspects, however, can be protected only "to the extent that they incorporate authorship in programmer's expression of original ideas, as distinguished from the ideas themselves."Computer Assocs. Int'l v. Altai, Inc., 982 F.2d 693 (2d Cir. 1992) In Computer Associates vs Altai, the Second Circuit proposed the Abstraction-Filtration-Comparison test for identifying these protected elements. This test attempts to distinguish copyrightable aspects of a program from the purely utilitarian and the public domain. Copyright attaches only to original works. A work is “created” when it is fixed in a “tangible medium of expression” for the first time. 17 U.S.C. § 101. Circuits differ on what it means for a work to be fixed for the purposes of copyright law and infringement analysis. The graphics, sounds, and appearance of a computer program also may be protected as an audiovisual work; as a result, a program can infringe even if no code was copied.Stern Elecs., Inc. v. Kaufman, 669 F.2d 852, 855 (2d Cir.1982) The set of operations available through the interface is not copyrightable in the United States under Lotus v. Borland, but it can be protected with a utility patent. The law is unclear as to whether transient copies such as those cached when transmitting digital content, or temporary copies in a computer's RAM are “fixed” for the purposes of copyright law.17 U.S.C. § 101. Compare Cartoon Network LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc., 536 F.3d 121, 127 (2nd Cir. 2008). The Ninth Circuit has held that “A derivative work must be fixed to be protected under the Act, but not to infringe.”Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of Am., Inc., 964 F.2d 965, 968 (9th Cir. 1992). In Apple v. Microsoft, the courts established that a look and feel copyright claim must demonstrate that specific elements of a user interface infringe on another work. A program's particular combination of user interface elements is not copyrightable. ==== History ==== Historically, computer programs were not effectively protected by copyrights because computer programs were not viewed as a fixed, tangible object: object code was viewed as a utilitarian good produced from source code rather than as a creative work. Due to lack of precedent, this outcome was reached while deciding how to handle copyright of computer programs. The Copyright Office attempted to classify computer programs by drawing an analogy: the blueprints of a bridge and the resulting bridge compared to the source code of a program and the resulting executable object code.Lemley, Menell, Merges and Samuelson. Software and Internet Law, p. 34 This analogy caused the Copyright Office to issue copyright certificates under its Rule of Doubt. In 1974, the Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (CONTU) was established. CONTU decided that "computer programs, to the extent that they embody an author's original creation, are proper subject matter of copyright."Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corporation Puts the Byte Back into Copyright Protection for Computer Programs in Golden Gate University Law Review Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 3 by Jan L. Nussbaum (January 1984) In 1980, the United States Congress added the definition of "computer program" to and amended to allow the owner of the program to make another copy or adaptation for use on a computer.Lemley, Menell, Merges and Samuelson. Software and Internet Law, p. 35 This legislation, plus court decisions such as Apple v. Franklin in 1983 clarified that the Copyright Act gave computer programs the copyright status of literary works. Many companies began to claim that they "licensed" but did not sell their products, in order to avoid the transfer of rights to the end-user via the doctrine of first sale (see Step- Saver Data Systems, Inc. v. Wyse Technology). These software license agreements are often labeled as end-user license agreements (EULAs). Another impact of the decision was the rise of the shrink-wrap closed source business model, where before a source code driven software distribution schema dominated. In 1998, The United States Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) which criminalizes evasion of copy protection (with certain exceptions), destruction or mismanagement of copyright management information, but includes a clause to exempt ISPs from liability of infringement if one of their subscribers infringes. In addition, the DMCA extends protection to those who copy a program for maintenance, repair or backup as long as these copies are "destroyed in the event that continued possession of the computer program should cease to be rightful." ====EULAs and rights of end users==== The Copyright Act expressly permits copies of a work to be made in some circumstances, even without the authorization of the copyright holder. In particular, "owners of copies" may make additional copies for archival purposes, "as an essential step in the utilization of the computer program", or for maintenance purposes. Furthermore, "owners of copies" have the right to resell their copies, under the first sale doctrine and . These rights only apply to "owners of copies." Most software vendors claim that their products are "licensed, not sold", thus sidestepping . American courts have taken varying approaches when confronted with these software license agreements. In MAI Systems Corp. v. Peak Computer, Inc., Triad Systems Corp. v. Southeastern Express Co., and Microsoft v Harmony,Microsoft Corp. v. Harmony Computers & Elecs., Inc., 846 F. Supp. 208 (E.D.N.Y. 1994) various Federal courts held that "licensed, not sold" language in an EULA was effective. Other courts have held that "no bright-line rule distinguishes mere licenses from sales...The label placed on a transaction is not determinative".Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc., 555 F.Supp.2d 1164 (W.D.Wash. 2008). The Ninth Circuit took a similar view (in the specialized context of bankruptcy) in Microsoft Corp. v. DAK Industries, Inc.Microsoft Corp. v. DAK Indus., Inc., 66 F.3d 1091 (9th Cir. 1995) By contrast, in the European Union the European Court of Justice held that a copyright holder cannot oppose the resale of a digitally sold software, in accordance with the rule of copyright exhaustion on first sale as ownership is transferred, and questions therefore the "licensed, not sold" EULAs in the EU. (mirror on gamasutra.com) ====Fair use==== Fair use is a defense to an allegation of copyright infringement under section 107 of the Copyright Act of 1976. This section describes some of the uses of copyrighted software that courts have held to be fair. In Galoob v. Nintendo, the 9th Circuit held that modification of copyrighted software for personal use was fair. In Sega v. Accolade, the 9th Circuit held that making copies in the course of reverse engineering is a fair use, when it is the only way to get access to the "ideas and functional elements" in the copyrighted code, and when "there is a legitimate reason for seeking such access". The Supreme Court ruled in Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc. (2021) that the reuse of application programming interfaces (APIs) including representative source code can be transformative and fall within fair use, though did not rule if such APIs are copyrightable. ====Copyleft==== A copyleft is a type of copyright license that allows redistributing the work (with or without changes) on condition that recipients are also granted these rights. ==See also== * Copyright infringement of software * Free software license * Software license agreement * Software patent * Copyright on typefaces ==References== Category:Copyright law Category:Software law
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Ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene epochs in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the chimpanzees, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate. Two fossil species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). Initial behavioral analysis indicated that Ardipithecus could be very similar to chimpanzees, however more recent analysis based on canine size and lack of canine sexual dimorphism indicates that Ardipithecus was characterised by reduced aggression, and that they more closely resemble bonobos. Some analyses describe Australopithecus as being sister to Ardipithecus ramidus specifically. This means that Australopithecus is distinctly closer related to Ardipithecus ramidus than Ardipithecus kadabba. Cladistically, then, Australopithecus (and eventually Homo sapiens) indeed emerged within the Ardipithecus lineage, and this lineage is not literally extinct. == Ardipithecus ramidus == A. ramidus was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (G.A.T.C.) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (D.A.B.T.). The name Ardipithecus ramidus stems mostly from the Afar language, in which Ardi means "ground/floor" and ramid means "root". The pithecus portion of the name is from the Greek word for "ape". Like most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how many other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well. Like later hominins, Ardipithecus had reduced canine teeth and reduced canine sexual dimorphism. In 1992–1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first A. ramidus fossils—seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones—from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of Australopithecus, but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, Ardipithecus. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine A. ramidus individuals at As Duma in the Gona area of Ethiopia's Afar Region. The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old. thumb|left|300px|Map showing discovery locations. Ardipithecus ramidus had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350 cm3. This is slightly smaller than a modern bonobo or female chimpanzee brain, but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines like Lucy (~400 to 550 cm3) and roughly 20% the size of the modern Homo sapiens brain. Like common chimpanzees, A. ramidus was much more prognathic than modern humans. The teeth of A. ramidus lacked the specialization of other apes, and suggest that it was a generalized omnivore and frugivore (fruit eater) with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage, fibrous plant material (roots, tubers, etc.), or hard and or abrasive food. The size of the upper canine tooth in A. ramidus males was not distinctly different from that of females. Their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size, as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth. The features of the upper canine in A. ramidus contrast with the sexual dimorphism observed in common chimpanzees, where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females. Of the living apes, bonobos have the smallest canine sexual dimorphism, although still greater than that displayed by A. ramidus. The less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in A. ramidus has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition "compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition." Bonobo canine size and canine sexual dimorphism more closely resembles that of A. ramidus, and as a result, bonobos are now suggested as a behavioural model. A. ramidus existed more recently than the most recent common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (CLCA or Pan-Homo LCA) and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor. Nevertheless, it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees, suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee. After the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged, both underwent substantial evolutionary change. Chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees; A. ramidus feet are better suited for walking. The canine teeth of A. ramidus are smaller, and equal in size between males and females, which suggests reduced male-to-male conflict, increased pair- bonding, and increased parental investment. "Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools," the research team concluded. === Ardi === On October 1, 2009, paleontologists formally announced the discovery of the relatively complete A. ramidus fossil skeleton first unearthed in 1994. The fossil is the remains of a small-brained 50-kilogram (110 lb) female, nicknamed "Ardi", and includes most of the skull and teeth, as well as the pelvis, hands, and feet. It was discovered in Ethiopia's harsh Afar desert at a site called Aramis in the Middle Awash region. Radiometric dating of the layers of volcanic ash encasing the deposits suggest that Ardi lived about 4.3-4.5 million years ago. This date, however, has been questioned by others. Fleagle and Kappelman suggest that the region in which Ardi was found is difficult to date radiometrically, and they argue that Ardi should be dated at 3.9 million years. The fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known, more than a million years before Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 3.2 million years ago, and was discovered in 1974 just away from Ardi's discovery site. However, because the "Ardi" skeleton is no more than 200,000 years older than the earliest fossils of Australopithecus, and may in fact be younger than they are, some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of Australopithecus. Some researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her abductable hallux, that "Ardi" was a facultative biped: bipedal when moving on the ground, but quadrupedal when moving about in tree branches. A. ramidus had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and could not walk or run for long distances. The teeth suggest omnivory, and are more generalised than those of modern apes. File:Ardipithecus (finger bones).jpg|Casts of Ardi's finger bones. == Ardipithecus kadabba == thumb|250px|Ardipithecus kadabba fossils Ardipithecus kadabba is "known only from teeth and bits and pieces of skeletal bones", and is dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago. It has been described as a "probable chronospecies" (i.e. ancestor) of A. ramidus. Although originally considered a subspecies of A. ramidus, in 2004 anthropologists Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Gen Suwa, and Tim D. White published an article elevating A. kadabba to species level on the basis of newly discovered teeth from Ethiopia. These teeth show "primitive morphology and wear pattern" which demonstrate that A. kadabba is a distinct species from A. ramidus. The specific name comes from the Afar word for "basal family ancestor". == Classification == Due to several shared characteristics with chimpanzees, its closeness to ape divergence period, and due to its fossil incompleteness, the exact position of Ardipithecus in the fossil record is a subject of controversy. Primatologist Esteban Sarmiento had systematically compared and concluded that there is not sufficient anatomical evidence to support an exclusively human lineage. Sarmiento noted that Ardipithecus does not share any characteristics exclusive to humans, and some of its characteristics (those in the wrist and basicranium) suggest it diverged from humans prior to the human–gorilla last common ancestor. His comparative (narrow allometry) study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths (which included living primates of similar body size) noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs, and metacarpals are reminiscent of humans, but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great ape-like. Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness (homoplasy). However, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. In 2014, it was reported that the hand bones of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus sediba and A. afarensis have the third metacarpal styloid process, which is absent in other apes. Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic, and a shortened, trapezoidal basioccipital element) in Ardipithecus are also found only in the Australopithecus and Homo. Comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of the earlier Sahelanthropus also indicated strong resemblance, also pointing to inclusion to the human line. Evolutionary tree according to a 2019 study: == Paleobiology == The Ardipithecus length measures are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate Ardipithecus was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground. Its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare. A comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil tooth enamel revealed that Ardipithecus fed both arboreally (on trees) and on the ground in a more open habitat, unlike chimpanzees. In 2015, Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg said that Ardipithecus adults have a facial anatomy more similar to chimpanzee subadults than adults, with a less-projecting face and smaller canines (large canines in primate males are used to compete within mating hierarchies), and attributed this to a decrease in craniofacial growth in favour of brain growth. This is only seen in humans, so they argued that the species may show the first trend towards human social, parenting and sexual psychology. Previously, it was assumed that such ancient human ancestors behaved much like chimps, but this is no longer considered to be a viable comparison. This view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the growth of A.ramidus. The study also provides support for Stephen Jay Gould's theory in Ontogeny and Phylogeny that the paedomorphic (childlike) form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from dissociation of growth trajectories. Clark and Henneberg also argued that such shortening of the skull—which may have caused a descension of the larynx—as well as lordosis—allowing better movement of the larynx—increased vocal ability, significantly pushing back the origin of language to well before the evolution of Homo. They argued that self domestication was aided by the development of vocalization, living in a pro-social society. They conceded that chimps and A. ramidus likely had the same vocal capabilities, but said that A. ramidus made use of more complex vocalizations, and vocalized at the same level as a human infant due to selective pressure to become more social. This would have allowed their society to become more complex. They also noted that the base of the skull stopped growing with the brain by the end of juvenility, whereas in chimps it continues growing with the rest of the body into adulthood; and considered this evidence of a switch from a gross skeletal anatomy trajectory to a neurological development trajectory due to selective pressure for sociability. Nonetheless, their conclusions are highly speculative. According to Scott Simpson, the Gona Project's physical anthropologist, the fossil evidence from the Middle Awash indicates that both A. kadabba and A. ramidus lived in "a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes, swamps and springs nearby," but further research is needed to determine which habitat Ardipithecus at Gona preferred. Anatomically, Ardi is closer to the orangutan than to the chimpanzee, bonobo or gorilla. All three are adapted for knuckle walking on the forest floor and climbing trees. The orangutan spends virtually its entire life in the forest canopy. Its anatomy allows for maximum reach by its upper limbs for overhead branches while its lower limbs have a narrow stance that enables it to balance while walking "foot over foot" on lower branches and vines. Although not as closely related genetically as the knuckle walking apes, this would indicate that Ardi was behaviourly more similar to the orangutan than to the other three great apes. In nature, the orangutan is widely dispersed. There is one dominant male in a territory with wide cheek flaps who maintains contact with others in his territory by vocalizations. The female raises offspring one at a time with a maturation period of about eight years. This is the longest maturation period of any of the apes. During this period, the offspring learns the intricate task of weaving a sleeping platform. Rescue centers are now raising young orangutans that have lost their mother typically from deforestation. They are raised in age cohorts by these centers to learn the necessary skills to be able to be released into the forest. While in these cohorts, they show social behavior reminiscent of age appropriate behavior of human children. This suggests that Ardi was physically preadapted for bipedal locomotion as well as social behavior. == See also == * Australopithecus * Paranthropus * Graecopithecus * List of human evolution fossils * Orrorin * Sahelanthropus == References == == External links == * Science Magazine: Ardipithecus special (requires free registration) * The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program: ** Ardipithecus kadabba ** Ardipithecus ramidus * Ardipithecus ramidus at Archaeology info * Explore Ardipithecus at NationalGeographic.com * Ardipithecus ramidus - Science Journal Article * Discovering Ardi - Discovery Channel * Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016). Category:Hominini Category:Prehistoric primate genera Category:Pliocene primates Category:Transitional fossils Category:Fossil taxa described in 1995 Category:Prehistoric Ethiopia Category:Miocene genus first appearances Category:Zanclean extinctions
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Color guards or Flag corps are teams of performers who perform choreographed dances and routines with various equipment to enhance and interpret the music of a marching band or drum and bugle corps show. Color guard teams can be found in American colleges, universities, high schools, middle schools, and independent drum corps.https://www.dci.org/ They use various equipment including flags, fake (wooden or plastic) rifles, and sabres, along with other props. Most Color Guard groups are of mixed gender but some may also be single gender. They perform using their equipment (flag, rifle, sabre, prop, etc.) and emotional connections (facial expressions and dance and sometimes voice) to the audience to enhance the meaning and feeling of their show. Some color guards perform with marching bands during football games at halftime. During marching band competitions, the guard adds to the overall score of the band and can be judged in many categories, including but not limited to: visual effects, general effect, auxiliary, and color guard. Color guards have since evolved into a separate activity known as winter guard, which is an indoor sport usually performed during the winter or spring, where the guard performs unaccompanied by a marching band to a piece of pre-recorded music indoors. Winter guards compete independently in circuits such as Winter Guard International (WGI), Tournament Indoor Association (TIA), or Keystone Indoor Drill Association (KIDA). There is only one nationally recognized color sorority in the United States: Phi Rho Psi National Color Guard Sorority. It was founded in 2009 at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. == History == A military color guard often traveled with a band, who would play patriotic songs. This way of performing continued into the civilian marching bands, and today a marching band's color guard is usually found carrying equipment descending from those of military color guard: flags, banners, wooden or plastic rifles, and plastic or metal sabres. Modern guards use real sabers as well, but without the sharpened point. One tradition that contributed to color guards in American marching bands is the Swiss art of flag swinging or Fahnenschwingen. The 1936 Olympian Franz Hug of Lucern, Switzerland, came to America and introduced flag swinging in 1937. Leonard Haug, an assistant band director at the University of Wisconsin, was intrigued. Haug created ten flags representing the schools of the Big Ten Conference. When Haug came to the University of Oklahoma the following year, he became the first to introduce the technique in the Southwest and formed a corps of Big Six Conference flag swingers for the Pride of Oklahoma Marching Band. The 1938 squad was all male, but the group was co-ed within two years. By 1940, O.U. flag swingers were participating at basketball games and creating innovative routines with two flags.The Bandsman. 12 December 1940. The OU color guard may be the oldest existing unit of its kind in American marching bands. As Director of the OU band, Haug wrote a training guide for flag swinging and an article for a swing flag brochure, assisting the spread of the trend to other marching bands. In 1965, Haug succeeded in combining the swing flag with a baton. It was an idea on which he had worked for years. He called his invention the "twirl-flag" baton. He wrote that it was "a truly American flag baton idea suitable for solo and corps exhibition."Leonard Haug to Bob Barnard. undated letter. It was a 32" baton with a colored flag at each end that rotated around the shaft to prevent fouling. The invention was first featured by the University of Arkansas marching band at the Cotton Bowl on January 1, 1966, and later manufactured by Kraskin Batons of Minneapolis.Kraskin Batons, Inc. pamphlet. For all of Haug's efforts, however, the "twirl-flag" baton never caught on, but regular flags and batons remained standard for most marching bands. During the 1950s and 1960s, much of the impetus for the evolution of the modern color guard came from the arena of competitive drum and bugle corps. Pioneers from these corps traveled to other areas of the country to teach, introducing color guards to more traditional bands. In 1962, Vincent R. DiNino, Director of the Longhorn Band, "The Showband of the Southwest", at the University of Texas began the use big 4'x6' flags in the school colors (orange and white) as a group marching with the band at halftime shows at football games. Since flags of that type were not then available from any commercial vendors, his wife, Jane DiNino, sewed the flags. The flag poles were made of lightweight dowel wood purchased at a local lumber yard with flag holders purchased from a local army-navy surplus store. Movies of the Longhorn Band taken by the Athletic Department at the University of Texas captured the first use of big flags by a college marching band. Director DiNino charged a band member, Larry Cullison, with the duty of charting movements of the flags and working the flags into the performance of the band during halftime performances. By 1972, there were 16 big flags in use as a part of the Longhorn Marching Band at the University of Texas. The use of big flags spread throughout the Southwest Conference. The band directors at the University of Memphis (Memphis State), Dr. Tom Ferguson and Art Theil, recruited music major Sam Shaw to start one of the first collegiate color guards in the South, the "Bengal Lancers" in 1974. Director of Bands at Northwestern University, John Paynter, was also one of the first to add a color guard to the marching band when he hired Bugle Corp specialist George Parks in 1976. Consequently, color guards spread quickly throughout the country. The visual effect of spinning and shaking flags drew the attention of crowds and quickly caught on. Having visual impact for pieces played when the band stood still added a whole new dimension to the performance. By the late 1970s and into the mid-1980s color guards had been added to most Southwest Conference, Big Ten and Big 8 (Currently Big 12) bands. Once these prominent university bands had color guards, there was widespread inclusion of guards at high schools across the nation in the 1980s and 1990s. The popularity of color guard has grown such that winter guard has gained widespread membership and attention. Color guard was not always accepted among marching band organizations. As Arthur Williams stated in his 1958 book, The College and University Band, "If it actually made no difference to your high school or community whether or not you fronted your band with girl majorettes, baton twirlers, flag swingers, pompom girls, and so on, what would you prefer? Favor use of girl majorettes and so on: 52 percent. Prefer no use of girl majorettes and so on: 48 percent." The University of Wisconsin, where Leonard Haug first introduced conference flags, has since discontinued the practice of having a color guard. == Marching band == In a marching band or a drum and bugle corps, the color guard is a non-musical section that provides additional visual aspects to the performance. The marching band and color guard performance generally takes place on a football field. The color guard performs alongside the marching band at football games and most guards regularly compete in competitions during the fall. The purpose of the color guard is to interpret the music that the marching band or drum and bugle corps is playing via the synchronized work of flags, sabers, rifles, the air blade, by dance, or by non-traditional equipment for example a trident if you were to do an Atlantis Show. The color guard uses different colors and styles of flags like swing flags and tapered flags to enhance the visual effect of the marching band as a whole. Color guard also may use backdrops to bring color and scenery to the field if the concept of the show is hard to interpret. The number of members in a color guard can range from a single person to over 50 members. This is often dependent on the size of the band, school or corps, the allotted budget, and the talent available among the potential members who try out. In drum and bugle corps, there used to be a requirement for a traditional presentation of the colors during the competitive show (called the "Color Pre"), but this fell out of favor around the early 1970s. High school marching bands kept it in until the late '70s. A recent example of a Color Pre in show was the 2002 San Francisco Renegades Sr corps, used during "America the Beautiful" to open their program, but such a presentation was not a required part of the show. There are many different types of spins and tosses that can be done with the flag. Each spin or toss creates a different illusion and can be used for different tempos. Basic color guard moves include Jazz runs (a Jazz dance move used as a graceful way to run across the marching band field or the gym floor), "right shoulder" (positioning the flag with the bottom of the pole by your belly button and your right hand by the flag's silk tape) and "stripping the flag" (holding the flag silk with your fingers so you won't reveal the color(s) of the flag.) Flag poles and silks both come in different sizes, and there are different shapes and textures for silks, as well. Flags frequently have weights -generally 1 in. carriage bolts or the like- in the bottom and top of the pole to make it easier to toss the flag into the air. However, even with the weights, weather conditions such as wind and rain can affect a flag's spin and disrupt a toss if not correctly taken into account. == Winter guard == Winter guard is similar to outdoor color guard (marched with a drum corps or marching band), except the performances are indoors on gymnasium floors through the winter season, and the marching band does not normally perform with the winterguard. The traditional marching band music heard during fall season is replaced with a recording of various musical genres, but sometimes the color guard will just find (a) song(s) to perform to. A common theme in many shows is loss or something that conveys great emotion. The gymnasium floor typically is covered by an individually designed tarp (called a floor mat or floor by members) that generally reflects the show being performed on it. Occasionally the floor only acts as a backdrop so that the audience is drawn towards what the members are doing. The members may perform barefoot, but wearing jazz shoes or modern dance shoes is also common. WGI frequently partners with companies that provide services and products to competing groups, as well as leading educators in other fields to highlight the activity. The organization is promoted using the tagline "Sport of the Arts". There are different types of membership fees that must be paid in order to be a part of WGI, or winter guard (or color guard) in general. Possible scholarships are given out to hardworking performers. There are several winter guard circuits for participating in competitions during the indoor season, including TIA (Tournament Indoor Association), MAIN (Mid-Atlantic Indoor Network), AIA (Atlantic Indoor Association), WGI (Winter Guard International), and many more. === Winter Guard International === Winter Guard International (WGI), known as WGI "Sport of the Arts", in which teams of highly skilled individuals work to create and perform complex sequences of dance, music, and use of special equipment, such as sabres, rifles, and flags, to compete by division. This organization refers to winter guard as the "Sport of the Arts" due to the equally athletic and artistic nature of the activity. Co-founded in 1977 by six people, the goal of WGI was to organize and standardize the activity by creating skill levels, scoring systems, venues, and competitions. Today, groups participating in a WGI event are placed into one of eight categories; Middle School, Regional A, Scholastic A, Independent A, Scholastic Open, Independent Open, Scholastic World, or Independent World. WGI hosts many regional competitions which lead up to the World Championships, a three-day event in which hundreds of winter guard groups come together to compete. WGI Championships is held in Dayton, Ohio. === Adjudication === The judging community is a body of professionals who are working to perpetuate the unique experience WGI Sport of the Arts offers. Many are professionally trained in music, dance and theatre and use that knowledge to enhance the performances through one on one critique meetings after performances. Judges applying for WGI approval must complete a home study process, the Judges' Academy, trialing on guards in every class mentioned above, and participate in a continuing education program that encompasses annual study requirements and clinics. WGI judges are knowledgeable of what is expected from each of the above-mentioned classes. == See also == * Bands of America * Drum Corps International * Winter Guard International * Majorettes == References == == External links == * Color Guard Educators Category:Performing arts Category:Marching bands
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The May 2003 Madrilenian regional election was held on Sunday, 25 May 2003, to elect the 6th Assembly of the Community of Madrid. All 111 seats in the Assembly were up for election. The election was held simultaneously with regional elections in twelve other autonomous communities and local elections all throughout Spain. As a result of the election, the People's Party (PP) lost its absolute majority in the Assembly, thus leaving the way open for a coalition government between the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and United Left (IU) to be formed. A major political scandal ensued after two PSOE deputies—Eduardo Tamayo and María Teresa Sáez—broke party discipline and refused to support PSOE regional leader Rafael Simancas's investiture. The prospective PSOE–IU alliance found itself commanding 54 seats against the 55-strong PP, which would not be able to bring its candidate, Esperanza Aguirre, through an investiture vote as the rebel PSOE MPs would not vote for her either. With no candidate able to obtain the required votes to become President, the regional Assembly was dissolved on 28 August 2003 and a snap election was held in October 2003. ==Overview== ===Electoral system=== The Assembly of Madrid was the devolved, unicameral legislature of the autonomous community of Madrid, having legislative power in regional matters as defined by the Spanish Constitution and the Madrilenian Statute of Autonomy, as well as the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a regional president. Voting for the Assembly was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over 18 years of age, registered in the Community of Madrid and in full enjoyment of their political rights. All members of the Assembly of Madrid were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list proportional representation, with an electoral threshold of five percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied regionally. The Assembly was entitled to one member per each 50,000 inhabitants or fraction greater than 25,000. ===Election date=== The term of the Assembly of Madrid expired four years after the date of its previous election. Elections to the Assembly were fixed for the fourth Sunday of May every four years. The previous election was held on 13 June 1999, setting the election date for the Assembly on Sunday, 25 May 2003. The president had the prerogative to dissolve the Assembly of Madrid and call a snap election, provided that no motion of no confidence was in process, no nationwide election was due and some time requirements were met: namely, that dissolution did not occur either during the first legislative session or within the legislature's last year ahead of its scheduled expiry, nor before one year had elapsed since a previous dissolution. In the event of an investiture process failing to elect a regional president within a two-month period from the first ballot, the Assembly was to be automatically dissolved and a fresh election called. Any snap election held as a result of these circumstances would not alter the period to the next ordinary election, with elected deputies merely serving out what remained of their four-year terms. ==Background== The PP had replaced the PSOE in government after 12 years of Socialist rule as a result of the 1995 election. In the 1999 election, the PP, under Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón, managed to maintain their absolute majority, despite the opposition PSOE recovering lost ground. For the 2003 election, the ruling PP had switched leadership: President Ruiz-Gallardón ran as candidate for the office of Mayor of Madrid, while senator and former minister Esperanza Aguirre was selected to lead the regional list. ==Parties and candidates== The electoral law allowed for parties and federations registered in the interior ministry, coalitions and groupings of electors to present lists of candidates. Parties and federations intending to form a coalition ahead of an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within ten days of the election call, whereas groupings of electors needed to secure the signature of at least 0.5 percent of the electorate in the Community of Madrid, disallowing electors from signing for more than one list of candidates. Below is a list of the main parties and electoral alliances which contested the election. Candidacy Parties and alliances Leading candidate Ideology Previous result Votes (%) Seats PP 50px Esperanza Aguirre Conservatism Christian democracy 51.07% PSOE 50px Rafael Simancas Social democracy 36.43% IUCM 50px Fausto Fernández Socialism Communism 7.69% ==Opinion polls== The table below lists voting intention estimates in reverse chronological order, showing the most recent first and using the dates when the survey fieldwork was done, as opposed to the date of publication. Where the fieldwork dates are unknown, the date of publication is given instead. The highest percentage figure in each polling survey is displayed with its background shaded in the leading party's colour. If a tie ensues, this is applied to the figures with the highest percentages. The "Lead" column on the right shows the percentage-point difference between the parties with the highest percentages in a poll. When available, seat projections determined by the polling organisations are displayed below (or in place of) the percentages in a smaller font; 56 seats were required for an absolute majority in the Assembly of Madrid (52 until 1 January 2003). ; Polling firm/Commissioner Fieldwork date Sample size Turnout 33px|link=People's Party of the Community of Madrid|PP 25px|link=Madrilenian Socialist Federation|PSOE 25px|link=United Left of the Community of Madrid|IUCM LV Lead May 2003 regional election 25 May 2003 69.3 46.7 40.0 7.7 1.4 6.7 Sigma Dos/Antena 3 25 May 2003 ? ? ? ? ? – ? Ipsos–Eco/RTVE 25 May 2003 ? ? ? ? ? – ? Opina/El País 18 May 2003 ? ? 46.0 40.0 7.5 – 6.0 Demoscopia/PP 17 May 2003 ? ? 44.5– 45.5 41.0– 42.0 6.0– 7.0 3.0– 4.0 3.5 Sigma Dos/El Mundo 8–13 May 2003 800 ? 47.8 41.2 7.1 – 6.6 Opina/Cadena SER 11 May 2003 ? ? 47.0 38.0 8.0 – 9.0 Vox Pública/El Periódico 28 Apr 2003 805 ? 44.5– 45.5 42.5– 43.5 6.5– 7.5 – 2.0 CIS 22 Mar–28 Apr 2003 1,190 73.2 43.6 40.6 8.5 – 3.0 Ipsos–Eco/ABC 22–24 Apr 2003 ? ? 42.9 43.2 8.6 – 0.3 Sondaxe/La Voz de Galicia 18 Jan 2003 ? ? 48.3 42.2 7.8 – 6.1 Demoscopia/CEIM 18–25 Oct 2002 2,471 ? 49.5 39.2 5.7 3.5 10.3 CIS 9 Sep–9 Oct 2002 808 70.1 47.1 37.9 7.7 – 9.2 Opina/El País 29 Sep 2002 ? ? 48.0 44.0 5.5 – 4.0 Ipsos–Eco/ABC 6–13 Sep 2002 2,010 ? 47.9 39.2 7.7 – 8.7 Demoscopia/CEIM 27 Aug–10 Sep 2001 1,800 ? 50.9 37.7 8.4 – 13.2 Inner Line/PSOE 5 May–17 Jun 2001 2,100 ? 46.0 41.0 10.0 – 5.0 2000 general election 12 Mar 2000 72.1 52.5 33.1 9.1 0.8 19.4 1999 regional election 13 Jun 1999 60.9 51.1 36.4 7.7 0.7 14.7 ==Results== ===Overall=== ← Summary of the 25 May 2003 Assembly of Madrid election results → center|350px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− People's Party (PP) 1,429,890 46.67 –4.40 55 ±0 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) 1,225,390 39.99 +3.56 47 +8 United Left of the Community of Madrid (IUCM) 235,428 7.68 –0.01 9 +1 The Greens (LV) 42,322 1.38 +0.69 0 ±0 The Greens of the Community of Madrid (LVCM) 28,207 0.92 New 0 ±0 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 6,696 0.22 –0.10 0 ±0 The Phalanx (FE) 4,047 0.13 –0.02 0 ±0 Family and Life Party (PFyV) 3,994 0.13 New 0 ±0 Spanish Democratic Party (PADE) 3,533 0.12 +0.02 0 ±0 National Democracy (DN) 3,285 0.11 New 0 ±0 Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain (PCPE) 2,491 0.08 –0.04 0 ±0 Independent Spanish Phalanx–Phalanx 2000 (FEI–FE 2000) 2,448 0.08 –0.01 0 ±0 Republican Left (IR) 2,342 0.08 New 0 ±0 Party Association of Widows and Legal Wives (PAVIEL) 2,210 0.07 New 0 ±0 Humanist Party (PH) 2,172 0.07 –0.03 0 ±0 Madrilenian Independent Regional Party (PRIM) 2,096 0.07 –0.01 0 ±0 Citizen Unity (UC) 1,943 0.06 –0.01 0 ±0 Commoners' Land–Castilian Nationalist Party (TC–PNC) 1,776 0.06 New 0 ±0 Another Democracy is Possible (ODeP) 1,749 0.06 New 0 ±0 Castilian Left (IzCa) 1,119 0.04 New 0 ±0 Blank ballots 60,942 1.99 –0.11 Total 3,064,080 111 +9 Valid votes 3,064,080 99.55 +0.04 Invalid votes 13,972 0.45 –0.04 Votes cast / turnout 3,078,052 69.27 +8.39 Abstentions 1,365,481 30.73 –8.39 Registered voters 4,443,533 Sources ===Elected legislators=== The following table lists the elected legislators sorted by order of election.: Elected legislators # Name List 1 Esperanza Aguirre Gil de Biedma PP 2 Rafael Simancas Simancas PSOE 3 Miguel Ángel Villanueva González PP 4 Inés Alberdi Alonso PSOE 5 Juan José Güemes Barrios PP 6 Pedro Feliciano Sabando Suárez PSOE 7 Concepción Dancausa Treviño PP 8 Ruth Porta Cantoni PSOE 9 Beatriz Elorriaga Pisarik PP 10 Carlos Westendorp Cabeza PSOE 11 Alberto López Viejo PP 12 Fausto Fernández Díaz IUCM 13 Antonio Germán Beteta Barreda PP 14 María Helena Almazán Vicario PSOE 15 Francisco José Granados Lerena PP 16 Francisco Cabaco López PSOE 17 Luis Eduardo Cortés Muñoz PP 18 María Encarnación Moya Nieto PSOE 19 Rosa María Posada Chapado PP 20 José Antonio Díaz Martínez PSOE 21 María Paloma Adrados Gautier PP 22 María Soledad Mestre García PSOE 23 Luis Peral Guerra PP 24 Eduardo Cuenca Cañizares IUCM 25 José Manuel Franco Pardo PSOE 26 María Carmen Álvarez-Arenas Cisneros PP 27 José Ignacio Echániz Salgado PP 28 María Ángeles Martínez Herrando PSOE 29 Luis Manuel Partida Brunete PP 30 Eduardo Tamayo Barrena PSOE 31 María Gador Ongil Cores PP 32 María Isabel Manzano Martínez PSOE 33 José Ignacio Echeverría Echániz PP 34 José Carmelo Cepeda García PSOE 35 Juan Van-Halen Acedo PP 36 Miguel Ángel Reneses González Solares IUCM 37 Antonio Chazarra Montiel PSOE 38 Fernando Martínez Vidal PP 39 Ana María Arroyo Veneroso PSOE 40 María Cristina Cifuentes Cuencas PP 41 Juan Soler-Espiauba Gallo PP 42 Modesto Nolla Estrada PSOE 43 Pedro Muñoz Abrines PP 44 Francisco Hernández Ballesteros PSOE 45 Paloma Martín Martín PP 46 Lucila María Corral Ruiz PSOE 47 Sylvia Enseñat de Carlos PP 48 Caridad García Álvarez IUCM 49 Francisco Contreras Lorenzo PSOE 50 Luis del Olmo Flórez PP 51 Jorge Gómez Moreno PSOE 52 Regino García-Badell Arias PP 53 María Patrocinio las Heras Pinilla PSOE 54 José María Federico Corral PP 55 María Isabel Martínez-Cubells Yraola PP 56 Francisco Javier Gómez Gómez PSOE 57 Álvaro Ramón Renedo Sedano PP 58 Óscar José Monterrubio Rodríguez PSOE 59 Elena de Utrilla Palombi PP 60 Carmen García Rojas PSOE 61 Margarita María Ferré Luparia IUCM 62 Francisco Javier Rodríguez Rodríguez PP 63 Eustaquio Giménez Molero PSOE 64 Jesús Fermosel Díaz PP 65 Andrés Rojo Cubero PSOE 66 David Pérez García PP 67 Alicia Acebes Carabaño PSOE 68 Benjamín Martín Vasco PP 69 María Carmen Rodríguez Flores PP 70 Eduardo Sánchez Gatell PSOE 71 Álvaro Moraga Valiente PP 72 Rafael Gómez Montoya PSOE 73 Jorge García Castaño IUCM 74 Isabel Gema González González PP 75 María Paz Martín Lozano PSOE 76 Concepción Lostau Martínez PP 77 Marcos Sanz Agüero PSOE 78 Francisco de Borja Sarasola Jáudenes PP 79 Antonio Fernández Gordillo PSOE 80 Pilar Busó Borús PP 81 María Maravillas Martínez Doncel PSOE 82 Laura de Esteban Martín PP 83 Eduardo Oficialdegui Alonso de Celada PP 84 Alejandro Fernández Martín PSOE 85 Luis Suárez Machota IUCM 86 Sonsoles Trinidad Aboín Aboín PP 87 Juan Antonio Ruiz Castillo PSOE 88 Colomán Trabado Pérez PP 89 María Rosa de la Rosa Ignacio PSOE 90 Jesús Adriano Valverde Bocanegra PP 91 Enrique Echegoyen Vera PSOE 92 María Isabel Redondo Alcaide PP 93 Adolfo Piñedo Simal PSOE 94 Pablo Morillo Casals PP 95 María Dolores Rodríguez Gabucio PSOE 96 María Pilar Liébana Montijano PP 97 José Guillermo Fernando Marín Calvo IUCM 98 Carlos Clemente Aguado PP 99 María Antonia García Fernández PSOE 100 Oliva Cristina García Robredo PP 101 Francisco Garrido Hernández PSOE 102 Jacobo Ramón Beltrán Pedreira PP 103 José Luis García Sánchez PSOE 104 Federico Jiménez de Parga Maseda PP 105 Adolfo Navarro Muñoz PSOE 106 Francisco de Borja Carabante Muntada PP 107 María Teresa Sáez Laguna PSOE 108 José Cabrera Orellana PP 109 María de los Reyes Montiel Mesa IUCM 110 Pedro García-Blanco Saceda PSOE 111 Pablo Abejas Juárez PP ==Aftermath== ===Tamayazo scandal=== In the end, the People's Party won the election but fell some 25,000 votes short of a majority, with 55 out of 111 seats. The other two forces in the newly elected Assembly, the PSOE with 47 seats and IU with 9, started negotiations to form a coalition government, which included the election of a favourable President of the Assembly (i.e. Speaker) and Bureau. As part of the deal, Socialists would control the majority of the government, but a disproportionate amount of the budget would be under the responsibility of IU regional ministers. This sparked criticism from some sectors in the Socialist party, but then-leader Rafael Simancas dismissed them as moot, saying "it was time for a government of the left in Madrid". However, when the opening session of the new legislature began and the temporary presidentIn the Spanish system, a newly elected legislature is presided over by the "Age Bureau", made up of the eldest member as Speaker and the youngest as Secretary. This setup lasts until the new Assembly chooses its Speaker, a moment in which he or she takes possession and oversees the rest of the Bureau election. called for the election of the Speaker to start, concern spread through the Socialist ranks: two of their Assembly Members (AMs) were missing,Dos diputados rebeldes del PSOE le dan al PP la Asamblea de Madrid, El Mundo, 10 June 2003 leaving the left-wing coalition with 54 seats against the 55-strong People's Party.Unlike the pair tradition in Westminster-based systems, parliamentary sessions in Spain are strongly contested, and so a party will use any opportunity it has to outnumber its opponents At Mr. Simancas' request, the vote was delayed for 15 minutes but finally the PP forced its commencement.Legislature members are not forced to attend sessions and they cannot be summoned through a Call of the house. However, when a vote is about to start, a bell rings throughout the building and the gates are closed until it ends. The result was the election of the PP AM Concepción Dancausa as Speaker and a PP-favorable Bureau (4 members against 2 Socialists and 1 IU). The scandal swept into the media, making the two "absent" AMs, Eduardo Tamayo and María Teresa Sáez, the most sought-after people in Madrid that day. Suddenly, they granted a TV interview in which they explained their reasons for not showing up: the coalition deal with United Left, they insisted, was not fair to the voters, who had chosen the Socialists over IU more than five to one. Tamayo argued that "90% of the PSOE programme is irreconcilable with that of IU"Eduardo Tamayo: 'El 90% del programa del PSOE es irreconciliable con el de IU' El Mundo, 11 June 2003 Furthermore, both felt their concerns were too quickly dismissed they were raised in the internal party apparatus, which they criticised as being too willing to reach power no matter what the cost. In response, party leader Rafael Simancas, who denied such concerns were actually voiced in party meetings, started the procedure to expel them from the party. He then fired a full round towards the PP, which he accused of bribing the two AMs to prevent a left-wing government in Madrid and "using paychecks to change the election results".Chaves: 'La traición en Madrid responde a intereses económicos y urbanísticos', El Mundo, 12 June 2003 The rival party quickly denied all accusations and sued the PSOE for calumnies.El secretario general del PP de Madrid se querella contra Simancas El Pais, 20 June 2003 The two parties immediately engaged in a political and media dogfight for the whole summer, while the third party in dispute, IU, only mildly criticised the PP and distanced itself from the confrontation. The situation in the Assembly was no better, as the two PSOE AMs continued not to attend: even though the conservatives held a theoretical majority with 55 seats out of 109 and could push some decisions through, neither it nor the rival coalition could command the absolute majority of 56 seats required for the election of the President of Madrid. The People's Party was rumoured to be planning an investiture vote for its candidate Esperanza Aguirre, who called for the dissolution of the Assembly and fresh elections.Aspectos jurídicos del escándalo de la Asamblea de la Comunidad de Madrid, El Pais, 25 June 2003 The proposal was not moot, since the law governing the election of the regional President requires an absolute majority in the first vote, but only a plurality in a second poll, making the left-wing coalition unable to block the election of its arch-rival. Furthermore, the PP requested the legal services of the House to determine whether the "majority" would actually be defined to be 55 seats, since the two socialist AMs had never been sworn into their seats. In response, the two AMs notified the Speaker they would finally enter the Assembly at its next meeting,Los diputados Tamayo y Sáez comunican por carta a la Asamblea su voluntad de apoyar a Simancas, El Mundo 18 June 2003 which created an even more awkward situation: there was no viable majority, since the Socialist party had expelled them, denounced them as "traitors" and refused to accept their votes in an investiture session. Then, Assembly Speaker, PP AM Concepción Dancausa announced that she would be forced to call new elections if no candidate could heed the confidence of the House. In a bid to delay the new elections until after the summer, Socialist leader Rafael Simancas, who had pushed for a parliamentary investigation of the events, requested a vote for his investiture to be scheduled.Dancausa convoca la sesión de investidura de Simancas para el viernes y el sábado, El Mundo 25 June 2003 He claimed not to intend to be elected, even though Tamayo and Sáez had offered their support should the pact with IU be modified. With Tamayo and Saez abstaining, Simancas lost the voteLa abstención de Tamayo y Sáez impide que Simancas sea investido, El Mundo, 29 June 2003 in a session marked by accusations and counter-accusations between the different groupings.Cruces de acusaciones y golpes de efectos en la segunda sesión, El Mundo, 28 June 2003 During the summer, a parliamentary committee was formed and put to work investigating the causes of the "betrayal". The left-wing coalition was cornered in the choice of committee members, since there was no way they could have a majority: either they followed the letter of the Assembly rules and allotted at least a member to each parliamentary group (thus again leaving the majority in the hands of Tamayo and Sáez) or accepted the PP proposal by which the House denied the two AMs representation in the committee on the grounds that they were the actual object of investigation (thus giving the majority to the conservatives). The latter choice was finally implementedThe committee finally had 16 members: 8 PP, 6 PSOE and 2 IU, but the chairman (from the PP) held a casting vote, thus effectively giving that party the majority. and, after a month of 12-hour sessions in which many prominent politicians and businessmen from both sides were summoned and vast amounts of vitriol were served by both mainstream parties, the committee passed a report concluding Tamayo and Sáez were not bribed by PP and placing full blame on the PSOE. The report, however, was defeated in the full House vote, in which the two AMs (who could not then be barred from participating) joined the left-wing coalition in their "no" vote even though they kept defending their innocence. Fresh elections were held on October 26, 2003, with the Socialists centering its campaign on the "stolen elections". Tamayo and Sáez created a new political party called New Socialism, gathering about 6,000 votes and no seats. The new result, with a slightly reduced turnout, was a majority for the PP, which ironically gained two seats (up to 57) from the PSOE (down to 45), while IU raised its voter share and fell just short of getting one more seat (but finally repeated its previous result of 9). About a month later, PP leader Esperanza Aguirre won the investiture vote and was sworn in as the 3rd President of the Autonomous Community of Madrid. ===2003 failed investiture attempt=== Investiture processes to elect the President of the Community of Madrid required for an absolute majority—more than half the votes cast—to be obtained in the first ballot. If unsuccessful, a new ballot would be held 48 hours later requiring of a simple majority—more affirmative than negative votes—to succeed. If none of such majorities were achieved, successive candidate proposals could be processed under the same procedure. In the event of the investiture process failing to elect a regional President within a two- month period from the first ballot, the Assembly would be automatically dissolved and a snap election called. Investiture Rafael Simancas (PSOE) Ballot → 28 June 2003 30 June 2003 Required majority → 56 out of 111 Simple Absentees Sources ==References== ;Opinion poll sources ;Other Category:2003 in the Community of Madrid Madrid Category:Regional elections in the Community of Madrid Category:May 2003 events in Europe
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Frank Gohlke (born April 3, 1942) is an American landscape photographer. He has been awarded two Guggenheim fellowships, two fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, and a Fulbright Scholar Grant. His work is included in numerous permanent collections, including those of Museum of Modern Art, New York; the Metropolitan Museum of Art; and the Art Institute of Chicago. Gohlke was one of ten photographers selected to be part of "New Topographics: Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape," the landmark 1975 exhibition at the International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House (now the George Eastman Museum). During a career spanning nearly five decades, Gohlke has photographed grain elevators in the American midwest; the aftermath of a 1979 tornado in his hometown of Wichita Falls, Texas; changes in the land around Mount St. Helens during the decade following its 1980 eruption; agriculture in central France; and the wild apple forests of Kazakhstan. ==Early life== Frank Gohlke was raised in Wichita Falls, Texas. He bought his first camera as a teenager and was a member of the Wichita Falls camera club during high school, eventually purchasing an enlarger and learning to process gelatin silver prints. His early subjects included family members and models hired by the camera club. Late in high school, Gohlke's interest in photography waned; he sold his enlarger and, save for family snapshots, stopped taking pictures altogether. After graduating high school, Gohlke first attended Davidson College in North Carolina before transferring to the University of Texas at Austin, where he received a B.A. in English Literature in 1964. He went on to complete an M.A. in English Literature at Yale University in 1966. During a period of writer's block while at Yale, Gohlke returned to photography. He began making near-still films with a Super 8 movie camera before transitioning to 35-mm still photography. He eventually showed his work to documentary photographer and then-Yale professor Walker Evans, whose mode of seeing the American vernacular landscape would exert an enduring influence on Gohlke's work. From 1967 to 1968, after leaving Yale, Gohlke studied with the landscape photographer Paul Caponigro, making weekly visits to Caponigro's Connecticut home. ==Career== In 1971, Gohlke relocated to Minneapolis, and a year later, in 1972, he began his first major body of work, documenting the grain elevators of America's central plains. Over the next five years, from 1972 to 1977, the project took Gohlke from Minnesota to Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. From his early aesthetic interest in grain elevators, Gohlke became fascinated by their design, their connection to the surrounding landscape, and their function within the cities and towns they occupied. His photographic practice grew to include a research component whose relationship to the pictures themselves was one of reciprocal influence. A selection of the photographs was eventually published as Measure of Emptiness: Grain Elevators in the American Landscape (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), Gohlke's first monograph. Gohlke was one of ten photographers to be included in the 1975 exhibition “New Topographics: Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape,” organized by William Jenkins, then the assistant curator at the International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House (now the George Eastman Museum). “New Topographics,” which represented a burgeoning movement within landscape photography toward unvarnished consideration of the vernacular landscape, has come to be regarded as a watershed moment in the history of the medium. On April 10, 1979, an F4 tornado struck Gohlke's hometown of Wichita Falls, Texas, killing 42 people, injuring 1,700 more, and significantly damaging an 8 mile-square swath of the city. Shortly thereafter, Gohlke returned home to photograph the wreckage left in the tornado's wake. He returned to rephotograph the same sites a year later, crafting precise reconstructions of his previous views in order to document the city's recovery. . In 1981, several months after the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Skamania County, Washington, Gohlke made his first trip there to photograph the volcano and its environs. In order to convey the enormity of the event, which devastated approximately 250 square miles, Gohlke employed a variety of approaches, including aerial and panoramic views and sequential photography (rephotography) over various periods of time. From 1981 to 1990, Gohlke made five visits to the region, in many cases returning several times to the same location to record its transformation. He authored short didactic texts to accompany the images. In 2004, the Museum of Modern Art in New York mounted “Mt. St. Helens: Photographs by Frank Gohlke,” a solo exhibition (with accompanying catalog), co-organized by Peter Galassi, Chief Curator, Department of Photography, and John Szarkowski, Director Emeritus, Department of Photography. Gohlke has, in his work, dealt consistently with questions of human usage and perception of land. He has photographed farmland in central France (on a commission from la mission photographique de la DATAR); conducted a personal survey of a portion of the line of latitude 42˚30’ N, which bisects Massachusetts; made two series of photographs tracing the courses of the Red River in North Texas and the Sudbury River in Massachusetts; and documented the urban landscape and residential architecture of Queens, NY (conjointly with photographer Joel Sternfeld, on a commission from Queens College). A selection of Gohlke's and Sternfeld's pictures were published as Landscape as Longing (Steidl, 2015). In 2013, Gohlke received a Fulbright travel grant to travel to Kazakhstan in order to document the disappearing wild apple forests surrounding the Kazakh city of Almaty. A mid-career retrospective of Gohlke's work was organized by the Amon Carter Museum (September 22, 2007 – January 6, 2008). The accompanying catalog, entitled Accommodating Nature: The Photographs of Frank Gohlke (Center for American Places and Amon Carter Museum, 2007), includes essays by Gohlke, Rebecca Solnit and John Rohrbach, Senior Curator of Photographs, Amon Carter Museum. Gohlke has taught photography at Middlebury College; Colorado College; the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the Massachusetts College of Art; and at Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. In 2007, Gohlke accepted a teaching position at the University of Arizona College of Fine Arts in Tucson, Arizona, where he now lives and works. ==Exhibitions== ===One- and two-person exhibitions=== *Art Institute of Chicago (with Edward Ranney), 1974 *Light Gallery, New York, NY, 1975, 1978, 1981, 1982 *Amon Carter Museum of Western Art, Ft. Worth, TX, 1975 *Grain Elevators, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY (MoMA) (traveled through 1980), 1978 *University Gallery, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 1980 *Film in the Cities Gallery, St. Paul, MN, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1987 *Mt. St. Helens: Work in Progress, MoMA, New York, NY, 1983 *Daniel Wolf Gallery, New York, NY, 1983, 1986 *Landscapes from the Middle of the World: Photographs 1972-1987, Museum of Contemporary Photography, Columbia College, Chicago, IL (traveled through 1991), 1988 *Two Days in Louisiana, (with Gregory Conniff), Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, WI, 1989 *Franklin Parrasch Gallery, New York, 1992 *Living Water: Photographs of the Sudbury River by Frank Gohlke, DeCordova Museum and Sculpture Park, Lincoln, Massachusetts, 1993 *Mt. St. Helens as a Public Landscape, Gallery of the School of Architecture and Allied Arts, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 1993 *pArts Gallery, Minneapolis, MN (Sudbury River), 1994 *Florida International University, Miami (Mt. St. Helens), 1994 *Conversations in the Park, Reggio Emilia, Italy, 1995 *On Edge: Landscapes 1972-1990, Bonni Benrubi Gallery, New York, 1995 *Blue Sky Gallery, Portland, Oregon (Sudbury River), 1997 *Making Waves: The Sudbury River, New England Science Center, Worcester, Massachusetts, 1997 *The Intimate and the Infinite: Waterscapes by Frank Gohlke and Stuart Klipper, Dorsky Gallery, New York, 1999 *Howard Greenberg Gallery, New York, 2005 *Mount St. Helens, Photographs by Frank Gohlke, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2005 ===Group exhibitions=== *New Topographics, International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House, Rochester, NY, 1975 *Mirrors and Windows: American Photography Since 1960, MoMA (see Bibliography), 1978 *Photographers of the 70's, Art Institute of Chicago, 1979 *American Photographers, traveling exhibition sponsored by the Bell System (catalogue), 1979-1980 *American Landscapes, MoMA (catalogue), 1981 *Photography: A Sense of Order, Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 1981 *An Open Land: Photographs of the Midwest 1852-1982, Art Institute of Chicago (traveling exhibition with catalogue), 1983 *Paris-New York-Tokyo, Tsukuba Museum of Photography, Tsukuba, Japan; Miyagi Museum of Art, Japan (catalogue), 1985 *Variance, MoMA, New York, 1985-1986 *American Dreams, Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, Spain (catalogue), 1987 *The Second Israeli Photography Biennial, Mishkan Le'Omanut, Museum of Art, Ein Harod, Israel (catalogue), 1988 *Tradition and Change: Contemporary American Landscape Photography, Houston Center for Photography, Houston, TX, 1988 *Photography Now, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England, 1989 *Photography Until Now, MoMA, New York, 1989 *More Than One Photography, MoMA, New York, 1992 *Contemporary American Photography, Jingshan Tushuguan, Guangzhou, China, 1993 *Dialogues with Photography: The Monson Collection, The Henry Art Gallery, University of Washington, Seattle, 1994 *Recent Acquisitions, The National Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C., 1994 *From Icon to Irony: German and American Industrial Photography, Boston University Art Gallery, Boston, 1995 *Expanded Visions: the Panoramic Photograph, Addison Gallery of American Art, Andover, Massachusetts, 1998 *Pictures of Europe, DeCordova Museum and Sculpture Park, Lincoln, Massachusetts, 1999 *Photographers, Writers, and the American Scene, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, 2002 *A City Seen: Photographs from The George Gund Foundation Collection, The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2002 **Six from the Seventies, Howard Greenberg Gallery, New York, 2004 **Selektion # 1, Arbeiten in Schwarz/Weiß,* Galerie f5.6, Munich, Germany, 2006 ==Commissions== *The County Courthouse in America, Joseph E. Seagram's & Sons, Inc., Bicentennial Project (book), 1975–1976. *American Images, Bell System American Photography (book), 1978. *16 photographic murals for Tulsa International Airport, 1980–81. *Contemporary Texas: A Photographic Portrait, Texas Historical Foundation (book), 1984. *Photographs for the Mission Photographique de la DATAR, a French government-sponsored agency photographically documenting the French landscape (see Bibliography), 1986–1987 *Installed 6 new murals at Tulsa International Airport, 1988. *Linea di Confine della Provincia di Reggio Emilia: Laboratorio di Fotografia 7. Commission from the Province of Reggio Emilia to photograph in the "Parco del Gigante". (Exhibition and catalogue in 1995.) 1994. *Bahnhof Ost Basel: Art and Architecture. A commission to collaborate with the architects of a new office complex in Basel, Switzerland, on the design of an interior skylit courtyard. (Unbuilt), 1995–1996. *George Gund Foundation Annual Report. A commission to Create a body of work on the Lake Erie shoreline. 1997–1998. *Venezia–Marghera. A commission from the City of Venice to contribute to a project on the transformation of Marghera, the industrial port of Venice. (Book published in 1999–2000.) 1998–1999. *National Millennium Survey, The College of Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1999–2000. *Landscapes of Longing: Queens in the 21st Century. Collaboration with Joel Sternfeld. A commission from Queens College, New York to create a permanent installation of photographs of Queens for Powdermaker Hall, center of the Social Sciences Division. 9 photomurals and 20 small prints each. 2003–2004. *Commission from Vassar College to create a series of photographs of campus trees. 2006. ==Videos== *"Prairie Castles," 1/2 hour special for KTCA, Twin Cities Public Television. Produced by Mark Lowry, written and directed by Gohlke and Lowry. 1980 ==Awards== *1975: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation *1977: Photographer's Fellowship, National Endowment for the Arts *1979: Artist's Fellowship from the Bush Foundation *1983: Film in the Cities Photography Fellowship from the McKnight Foundation *1984: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation *1986: Photographer's Fellowship, National Endowment for the Arts *1999: National Millennium Survey ==Collections== Gohlke's work is held in the following public collections: *Museum of Modern Art, New YorkEntry for Gohlke, MoMA catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Art Institute of ChicagoSearch results, AIC catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *National Gallery of Australia, CanberraSearch results, NGA catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Bibliothèque nationale de France, ParisRecord, BnF catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Victoria and Albert Museum, LondonSearch results, V&A; catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *National Gallery of Canada, OttawaEntry for Gohlke, NGC catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Walker Art Center, MinneapolisEntry for Gohlke, WAC catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Cleveland Museum of ArtSearch results for Gohlke, CMA catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"Smithsonian American Art Museum presents nationally touring retrospective of acclaimed photographer Frank Gohlke", Smithsonian Institution, November 25, 2008. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Smithsonian American Art Museum, WashingtonSearch results, SAAM catalog. Accessed December 8, 2013. *Amon Carter Museum of American Art, Fort WorthSearch results for Gohlke in this search page, ACMMA. Accessed December 8, 2013. *George Eastman House, RochesterChecklist page , GEH. Accessed December 8, 2013. ==References== Category:1942 births Category:Living people Category:Harvard University staff Category:Princeton University staff Category:Massachusetts College of Art and Design faculty Category:Yale University alumni Category:University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni Category:Yale University faculty Category:Lesley University faculty Category:New Topographics photographers
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The BTR-152 is a six-wheeled Soviet armored personnel carrier (APC) built on the chassis and drive train of a ZIS-151 utility truck. It entered service with a number of Warsaw Pact member states beginning in 1950, and formed the mainstay of Soviet motor rifle battalions until the advent of the amphibious BTR-60 series during the 1960s. BTR stands for bronetransportyor ().KAT- orygie-0/24-49-soderzanie. Web.archive.org (3 November 2006). Retrieved on 21 September 2011. BTR-152s were available in several marks, and were manufactured in large numbers for the Soviet military and export. Late production models utilized automotive components from the more reliable ZIL-157 truck. Three primary variants of the BTR-152 appeared between 1950 and 1959: the base armored personnel carrier with a single pintle-mounted 7.62mm or 12.7mm machine gun, an unarmed command vehicle with a higher roofline, and an anti-aircraft variant armed with a ZPU-2 mount. BTR-152s could carry a single infantry squad each, or specialist weapons teams along with their mortars and anti-tank equipment. In Soviet service, a number were also deployed as artillery tractors. ==History== ===Development=== During World War II, Red Army tacticians favored combined arms offensives, which emphasized the deployment of light infantry in concert with tanks. However, the Soviet infantrymen lacked the armored protection and rapid mobility of the tanks, and remained comparatively vulnerable to enemy fire.Perrett, Soviet Armour Since 1945 (1987) p. 65. By the end of the war, the initial Soviet tactic of tank desant, in which the infantry rode into battle atop the tanks they were supporting, had been superseded by the introduction of M3 Half-tracks and M3 White armored cars. These were widely used for troop transport, giving rise to a new doctrine in which armored vehicles capable of keeping pace with tanks brought infantry to an engagement. The infantrymen would then disembark and enter combat on foot.Tucker, Spencer. The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2010. p. 243 Wartime experiences demonstrated that the Red Army had an urgent postwar requirement for more wheeled armored vehicles, and the general staff specified a new reconnaissance vehicle and armored personnel carrier (APC). The APC had to be capable of transporting at least eight troops. A new design bureau at the Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod (GAZ) was set up to study potential concepts accordingly; their final prototype, the Izdeliye 141 (BTR-40), was accepted into service but was regarded as too small to be used in an APC role. Meanwhile, specifications for another APC had been issued, capable of seating 15 to 20 additional passengers and armed with a single heavy machine gun. Existing M3 half-tracks and captured German Sd.Kfz. 251s were studied as potential references for the upcoming pre-production design. Concept work on the new APC began at the Zavod imeni Stalina (ZIS) factory in Moscow, overseen by Soviet engineer Boris Mikhailovich Fitterman, at roughly the same time the Izdeliye 141 was being developed by GAZ. Prototypes were built with automotive components from the ZIS-151 production line; however, the APC chassis incorporated a more powerful engine and a shorter wheelbase than its utility truck counterpart. Design work was carried out by a team of five ZIS employees: Fitterman, K. M. Androsov, A. P. Petrenko, V. F. Rodionov and P. P. Chernyaev. The final prototype was trialed by the Soviet Armed Forces in December 1949 and accepted into service as the BTR-152. Serial production of the BTR-152 under the manufacturer's code ZIS-152 commenced around mid 1950, making it the first mass-produced Soviet APC. Despite being designed around the same time, the BTR-40 did not enter serial production until the end of the year. The BTR-152 was used by the Soviet military as a command and communications vehicle, fire support vehicle, artillery tractor, and general transporter. Being open-topped, the BTR-152's crew was vulnerable to indirect fire. In later years, the vehicle was not ideal for the prospect of a major conventional war in Europe either, as it lacked amphibious capability or NBC countermeasures. However, these early BTRs remained effective as a low-cost option that allowed the Soviets to rapidly motorize their existing infantry divisions. A program in the late 1950s looked at ways to replace the BTR-152 with a more sophisticated APC utilizing a purpose-designed, amphibious chassis. As the BTR-152's six-wheeled configuration was deemed insufficient to reduce ground pressure on the tires and produce optimal cross-country performance, Soviet engineers embarked on an eight-wheeled APC program, which resulted in the BTR-60. Approximately 8,600 BTR-152s of all variants were manufactured in the Soviet Union, with some unlicensed copies being produced in the People's Republic of China as the Type 56. Soviet BTR-152s were produced between 1950 and 1959, being supplemented by the BTR-60 from 1960 onwards. As they became increasingly obsolescent, many were shipped to Soviet client states in Africa and the Middle East; the largest quantity of second- hand BTR-152s were accepted by Arab nations such as Libya, Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. Small quantities were also converted to armored ambulances and combat engineering vehicles for the Soviet Army; these remained in service as late as the 1980s. ===Service=== BTR-152s first saw combat during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, when they were deployed by the 12th Motorized Brigade of the Soviet Internal Troops to crush Hungary's fledgling uprising. The BTRs were deployed in Budapest and other settlements, as well as on the Hungarian border with Austria. A number were damaged or destroyed by insurgents armed with molotov cocktails, which were pitched into the open troop compartments without apparent difficulty. Since they were wheeled, some BTR-152s were also immobilized when their rubber tires caught fire, and had to be abandoned by their crews. Egypt was one of the first major export customers for the BTR-152 outside Eastern Europe; in 1954, it ordered 200 from the Soviet Union, and between 1961 and 1966 it received another 600 in second-hand condition, possibly as military aid. Syria likewise received at least 200 BTR-152s in 1966, and another 300 three years later. These were deployed against the Israel Defense Forces during the Six-Day War. In Syrian service, they were utilized as makeshift infantry fighting vehicles rather than APCs; infantrymen remained on board and used the BTR-152 as a firing platform rather than disembark and fight on foot. Nevertheless, failure to coordinate combined arms maneuvers often left the Syrian motorized infantry separated from their supporting tank formations and vulnerable to Israeli heavy armor. Israel captured over 1,000 BTR-152s from Arab armies during the Six-Day War and the subsequent Yom Kippur War. BTR-152s were deployed by the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) during the First Chadian Civil War, and were instrumental in a motorized assault on Salal in April 1978. The BTRs were knocked out by Panhard AML-90 armored cars of the French Foreign Legion. Libyan mechanized battalions also deployed BTR-152s in Chad during the Chadian-Libyan conflict, often in concert with tank companies or EE-9 Cascavels. Several were destroyed after taking direct hits from AML-90 cannon fire or SS.11 anti-tank missiles. BTR-152s formed the mainstay of mechanized units on both sides during the Ogaden War. The Somali National Defense Force (SNDF) ordered enough BTR-152s from the Soviet Union in the late 1960s to accommodate a massive expansion in its armored and mechanized capabilities, and equip nine new mechanized battalions. About half of Somalia's BTR-152s appear to have been lost in the Ogaden conflict. Soviet weapons deliveries to Ethiopia accelerated after the outbreak of war, and starting in March 1977 included 40 BTR-152s appropriated from the Soviet Army's reserve stocks. These vehicles were mostly BTR-152Vs but also included the BTR-152A anti-aircraft variant. The Soviet Union donated at least six BTR-152s to Mozambique shortly after that country's independence in the mid-1970s. Mozambican BTR-152s were deployed against Rhodesian Security Forces conducting cross-border raids, as well as in search and destroy operations mounted near Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) strongholds. It is likely that all Mozambique's BTR-152s were eliminated by land mines or Rhodesian air strikes; they were not in service long before being superseded by the BTR-60. A second shipment of BTR-152s was delivered to the People's Forces of Liberation of Mozambique (FPLM) in 1983, but it remains unclear whether these were deployed in front- line service. During the Lebanese Civil War, both Lebanese militias and Syrian Army used BTR-152s. ==Description== thumb|left|Troop seating in the BTR-152's rear compartment. Soldiers aim their individual weapons through firing ports. The BTR-152 is a modified truck chassis with an armored hull and an open- topped troop compartment. The sides and rear of the troop compartment are vertical, with corners sloping inwards to deflect shell fragments. There are firing ports on each side of the troop compartment and two rear doors for rapid debarking. Infantrymen can fire their individual weapons from the relative protection of the vehicle, and exit through these doors or by jumping over the sides. The crew consists of a driver and a single passenger, who operates the radios. Two types of seating arrangements were available: the first consists of wooden benches on either side of the troop compartment facing inwards; the second consisted of three rows of seats facing forward. Both the driver and the radio operator seated to his right are provided with individual windscreens and, when in combat, these are covered by twin armored shutters with integral vision blocks. Crew members exit the vehicle through side doors, the tops of which are hinged and fold down for observation purposes. The BTR-152's armor plate is fabricated of welded steel and ranges from to in thickness. This protects the crew and passengers from small arms fire, shell fragments, grenades, and anti-personnel mines, but is ineffective against larger shell fragments or even heavy machine gun fire. Late production hulls may have been manufactured from steel plate with a thickness of up to . The vehicle is sometimes fitted with a winch that has a maximum capacity of 5 tonnes and a 70m cable. Depending on the variant, BTR-152s can tow field artillery, transport 1.9 tonnes of cargo, or carry a half platoon of infantry. Most Soviet BTR-152s were powered by a six-cylinder ZIL-123 in-line water- cooled petrol engine developing 110 hp at 2,900 rpm. Those based on the chassis and components of the ZIL-157 utility truck utilized a slightly different ZIL-137K engine. There are several engine louvers on the front of the hull to prevent overheating; these could be safely closed for short intervals during combat, as long as the driver reduced speed and avoided overtaxing the vehicle. A BTR-152's gearbox comprised five forward gears and one reverse gear with a two-speed transfer box. Fifth gear had an overdrive. The suspension consisted of conventional leaf springs with hydraulic shock absorbers. In the late 1950s, a little over 200 BTR-152s were produced with enclosed hulls, as opposed to the traditionally open-topped design; these were designated BTR-152K and BTR-152K1. They were also known unofficially as "BTR-152 Model D" or "BTR-152 M1961" by some Warsaw Pact armies. The enclosed hull reduced situational awareness but allowed for the installation of central heating and an NBC overpressure system. Two hatches opening to the right were installed on the new roofline. thumb|250px|Driver's position in a BTR-152. The BTR-152 was originally armed with a single pintle-mounted 7.62mm SG-43 Goryunov (SGMB) medium machine gun, fed by 1,250 rounds of stored on-board ammunition. This was mounted behind the driving position. Additional 7.62mm general-purpose machine guns could be mounted on either side of the hull top as needed. The SGMB machine gun could traverse 45 degrees and elevate between -6 and +24 degrees. Some of the BTRs were fitted with single 12.7mm DShK or 14.5mm KPV heavy machine guns in place of the SGMB. Vehicles designated BTR-152A were ground support vehicles with limited air defense capability. BTR-152As carried twin KPVs in a ZPU-2 anti-aircraft mount. Variations included an Egyptian model with a Czechoslovak M53 Quad mounting for four DShKs, which were normally towed on a two-wheeled trailer, and some modified by the Palestine Liberation Organization to accept 23mm ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft guns. Because the original BTR-152 utilized the chassis and engine of the ZIS-151, it shared that truck's maintenance problems and poor cross-country mobility. Later variants, using ZIL-157 components, had more power and larger, single tires that reduced the vehicle's shortcomings but did not eliminate them. Serviceability and reliability remained low. ==Variants== right|thumb|Former East German BTR-152 (SPW-152) at a public exhibition. ===Former Soviet Union=== thumb|right|Two Soviet BTR-152V2s. * BTR-152 (1950) – Basic APC based on ZIS-151 truck, many of which would later be covered and converted for other uses, such as ambulances, radio stations, and engineer vehicles. The basic BTR-152 has no winch, an open top, and no tire pressure control lines. ** BTR-152A (1951) – BTR-152 converted into a SPAAG armed with a double (ZPTU-2) or quadruple (ZPTU-4) KPVT 14.5 mm antiaircraft heavy machine guns (2400 rounds) in a turret manually operated by a single soldier. The entire vehicle crew consisted of eight soldiers in the variant equipped with ZPTU-2 and five soldiers in the variant equipped with ZPTU-4. The turret is placed inside the troop compartment and can be manually operated by a single soldier. It can make a full turn and its guns can elevate between -5 and +80 degrees. ** BTR-152 converted into a minelayer equipped with racks for anti-tank mines. ** BTR-152B (1952) – Artillery command version with a front- mounted winch and external tires pressure regulation system. ** BTR-152C – Communication variant based on BTR-152. ** BTR-152V (1955) – Variant based on ZIL-157 truck with external tires pressure regulation system, a front-mounted winch and night vision devices for the driver. *** BTR-152D (1955) – Armament as BTR-152A, but based on BTR-152V. *** BTR-152I – BTR-152V version for artillery command vehicle. *** BTR-152S – Command and communication post vehicle for infantry commanders. It has a significantly higher full cover roof and additional radios and antennas. *** BTR-152V1 (1957) – Received night vision equipment, winch, open top and improved external tires pressure regulation system. **** BTR-152K (1959) – Received an armored roof with three big hatches on top of it, two of which opened to the right over the troop compartment, an internal tires pressure regulation system and a filtering/ventilating system. The weight of the vehicle has increased, the crew went down from 2+18 to 2+13. ***** BTR-152K converted into an armored ambulance. **** BTR-152E – Armament as BTR-152A, but based on BTR-152V1. **** BTR-152U – Command vehicle based on BTR-152V1 equipped with external tires pressure regulation system. This command vehicle has a significantly higher full cover roof and additional radios and antennas. It has equipment for staff operations. This vehicle normally tows a trailer carrying additional equipment. ***** BTR-152U equipped with internal tire pressure regulation system. ****** BTR-152U with fully armored roof and internal tire pressure regulation system. *** BTR-152V2 – BTR-152V version without winch. It has the internal tire pressure regulation system. **** BTR-152D based on BTR-152V2. **** BTR-152B1 (1958) – Artillery command version with a front-mounted winch, internal tire pressure regulation system and ТВН-2 night vision device for the driver. *** BTR-152V3 – BTR-152V with winch on the front, open top, infrared driving lights, and internal tire pressure regulation system. *** BTR-E152V (1957) – Experimental version; the second pair of wheels was moved toward the center of the vehicle in order to improve off-road performance. ===People's Republic of China=== * Type 56 – Chinese version of BTR-152. right|thumb|BTR-152 TCM-20 at Muzeyon Heyl ha-Avir, Hatzerim, Israel, 2006. ===Egypt=== * BTR-152 converted by Egyptians into a SPAAG armed with Czechoslovak KLAD (Egyptian designation is M58) quadruple DShK 1938/46 12.7 mm anti-aircraft heavy machineguns mounted in the troop compartment. It was withdrawn from service in middle of the 1980s. ===former East Germany=== * SPW-152 – East German version of BTR-152.JED The Military Equipment Directory ** SPW-152 converted into an armored ambulance. ** SPW-152U – East German command version of BTR-152. ===Israel=== * BTR-152 captured from Syrians or Egyptians and modified to fulfil the Israeli Army needs. * BTR-152 TCM-20 – Israeli air defense vehicle based on ex-Syrian or ex-Egyptian BTR-152. It is armed with twin 20 mm cannon in a TCM-20 powered mount. ===Lebanon=== * BTR-152 modified by Lebanese militias. It was fitted with a 23mm ZU-23-2 anti- aircraft gun placed inside the troop compartment. It was used in fire support and anti-aircraft roles. * BTR-152 modified by the South Lebanese Army. It was fitted with a crane inside a cut down troop compartment. One surviving example is at Yad la-Shiryon Museum in Latrun. ===Poland=== * BTR-152 converted to serve as a mobile command post. It has additional radios. * BTR-152 converted into an engineering vehicle. * BTR-152 converted into an armored artillery tractor. ===Vietnam=== * Unknown name for upgraded version carried out by the Vietnam's Institute of Military Vehicle Technology in 2011.Điểm qua một số chương trình nâng cấp vũ khí nổi bật của VN (P3) - 10. Nâng cấp xe thiết giáp BTR-152 Soha.vn The upgraded version uses a diesel engine with a new gearbox, new driving system with hydraulic transmission, additional armored hood, improved suspension and electricity, lights, optics and other modifications. The upgraded BTR-152 is claimed to have higher speed, lower fuel consumption and is easier to use.Nghiệm thu cải tiến, nâng cấp xe thiết giáp BTR-152 Quân Đội Nhân Dân * Armored medevac variant unveiled in October 2018. ==Operators== thumb|360px|Map with BTR-152 operators in blue and former operators in red ===Current operators=== * : 50 * : 30 * : 4 * : Reverse engineered as the Type 56 * : 45; 20 BTR-152 and 25 Type 56 * : 150 * : 10 * * : 100 * : 6 * : 20; Type 56 variant * * : 10 received. Only 1 in service . * : 50 * : 106 * : 6 * : 120 * : 350 * * : 37 * : 600 * : 55, 30 BTR-152 and 25 Type 56 * : 74 * : 160 ===Former operators=== * : 100 * * : 350 * * : 32 * : 759; German designation SPW-152 * : 1,000; likely replaced by the Walid * : 5Armia magazine issue 8/09 * * : 160 * : 250 * : 30 * : 300 * : 200 * : 1,500; captured from Egypt and Syria * * : 20 * : 400 * : 100 * : 265 * : 100 * * : 10 * : 40 * : small number * : 16 ===Former non-state operators=== * 22px Al-Mourabitoun: 5; inherited from the PLOKassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 66.El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks (2008), p. 95.Sex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 193. * FROLINAT * Kataeb Regulatory Forces (KRF): handed over by Israel and SyriaKassis, Véhicules Militaires au Liban/Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2012), pp. 58-60.Yann Mahé, La Guerre Civile Libanese, un chaos indescriptible! (1975-1990), Trucks & Tanks Magazine 41, January–February 2014, , p. 79. * 22px|border Lebanese Forces: inherited from the KRF and the Tigers MilitiaKassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 37. * Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): handed over by the Soviet Union and Syria * 22px/ Progressive Socialist Party/People's Liberation Army (Druze PLA): handed over by SyriaKassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon (2003), p. 58.Abi- Chahine, The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991 (2019), pp. 53; 67. * South Lebanon Army (SLA): handed over by IsraelSex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 179. * 22px SWAPO/People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN): 6; handed over by the Soviet Union and Angola * Tigers Militia: handed over by Israel and SyriaSex & Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond (2021), p. 61. * 22px Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA): 15; handed over by the Soviet UnionTouchard, Guerre dans le bush! Les blindés de l'Armée rhodésienne au combat (1964-1979), p. 70. * Wolfgang Engels: 1, stolen to escape East Germany ==See also== * Bulat (APC) * Nimda Shoet ==References== ==Further reading== *Bassel Abi-Chahine, The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991, Éditions Dergham, Jdeideh (Beirut) 2019. * Bryan Perrett, Soviet Armour Since 1945, Blandford Press, London 1987. * David Markov & Steven J. Zaloga, Soviet/Russian Armor and Artillery Design Practices, 1945 to Present, Andrew Hull. * Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005–2006 * Moustafa El-Assad, Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks, Blue Steel books, Sidon 2008. * Samer Kassis, 30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon, Beirut: Elite Group, 2003. * Samer Kassis, Véhicules Militaires au Liban/Military Vehicles in Lebanon 1975–1981, Trebia Publishing, Chyah 2012. * Samuel M. Katz and Ron Volstad, Battleground Lebanon (1003), Concord Publications, Hong Kong 1990. * Laurent Touchard, Guerre dans le bush! Les blindés de l'Armée rhodésienne au combat (1964-1979), Batailles & Blindés Magazine n.º 72, April–May 2016, pp. 64–75. (in French) * *Zachary Sex & Bassel Abi-Chahine, Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond, Modern Conflicts Profile Guide Volume II, AK Interactive, 2021. ISBN 8435568306073 ==External links== * BTR-152 foto and forum * FAS.org * FAS.org * Photo gallery at armyrecognition.com * Description and photo gallery at Slujba.ru (Russian language) * Description and photo gallery at armoured.vif2.ru (Russian language) * BTR-152 at U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum Category:Armoured personnel carriers of the Soviet Union Category:Armoured personnel carriers of the Cold War Category:Cold War armoured fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union Category:Military vehicles introduced in the 1950s Category:ZiL vehicles Category:Wheeled armoured personnel carriers
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The Royal Rumble is a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) and livestreaming event, produced annually since 1988 by WWE, the world's largest professional wrestling promotion. It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The event is held in late January. After the initial 1988 event was broadcast as a television special on the USA Network, the Royal Rumble has been shown on PPV since the 1989 event. It also became available to livestream on the WWE Network in 2015 and on Peacock in 2022. It is one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Survivor Series, and Money in the Bank, referred to as the "Big Five". The Royal Rumble match is generally contested as the main event match of the annual event. There are some exceptions, such as the 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2013, and 2023 events. In 1988, the main event was a tag team match, while for all the others, it was a men's world championship match. While originally only for men, a women's version of the Royal Rumble match was held as the main event at the 2018 event, which was also the first event to have two Rumble matches on one card. It subsequently became standard to have both a men's and women's Royal Rumble match at the annual event. == History == === Event === The Royal Rumble match was created by wrestler and WWE Hall of Famer Pat Patterson and the event was established by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). After the match was first tested at a house show in October 1987, the first Royal Rumble event took place on January 24, 1988, and was broadcast live as a television special on the USA Network.Ric Flair. Ric Flair: To Be the Man (p.161) The following year, the event started to be broadcast on pay-per-view (PPV), and thus became one of the "Big Four" annual PPVs, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, and SummerSlam, the promotion's four biggest shows of the year.Brian Shields. Main Event: WWE in the Raging 80s (p.166)Ian Hamilton. Wrestling's Sinking Ship: What Happens to an Industry Without Competition (p. 160) From 1993 to 2002, it was considered one of the "Big Five", including King of the Ring, but that PPV event was discontinued after 2002. In August 2021, Money in the Bank became recognized as one of the "Big Five". In May 2002, the WWF was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) following a lawsuit with the World Wildlife Fund over the "WWF" initialism. In April 2011, the promotion ceased using its full name with the "WWE" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. Also in March 2002, the promotion introduced the brand extension, in which the roster was divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform on their respective weekly television shows—ECW became a third brand in 2006. The first brand extension was dissolved in August 2011, but it was reintroduced in July 2016 (other brands, including NXT, NXT UK, and 205 Live, would also be active during this second brand split). The Royal Rumble, along with the other original "Big Four" events, were the only PPVs to never be held exclusively for one brand during either brand split periods. The 2008 Royal Rumble was the first WWE pay-per-view to be available in high-definition. In 2015, the Royal Rumble began to air on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, which launched in February 2014, and in 2022, the event became available on Peacock as the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March 2021. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic that began affecting the industry in March 2020, WWE had to hold its events behind closed doors. The 2021 event was in turn held in WWE's bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome, which at the time was hosted at Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida. WWE resumed live touring in July 2021 and the 2022 event was held at The Dome at America's Center in St. Louis, Missouri. Due to the Rumble matches taking up a large amount of time (most Rumble matches last roughly one hour), the Rumble event tends to have a smaller card than most other pay-per-view events, which routinely have six to eight matches per card though with the Royal Rumble expanding to a five-hour show as well as a two-hour kickoff pre-show starting in 2018, the card then mainly featured anywhere from nine to twelve matches with two or three of those matches taking place on the kickoff show. In 2022, however, WWE phased out the pre-shows with the Rumble returning to around six matches on the card and a runtime of around three to four hours. The men's Royal Rumble match is usually located at the top of the card, though there have been exceptions, such as the 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2013, 2018, and 2023 events. In these cases, 1988's main event was a tag team match, while the others were men's world championship matches, except in 2018. The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to include a women's Royal Rumble match, which was the main event for that year. It was subsequently the first in which two Rumble matches were contested on one card and it is now standard for the event to include both a men's and women's Rumble match. === Match === The Royal Rumble match is based on the classic battle royal, in which a number of wrestlers (traditionally 30) aim at eliminating their competitors by tossing them over the top rope, with both feet touching the floor. The difference between a Royal Rumble and a standard battle royal is that in a standard battle royal, all participants start the match in the ring at the same time, where in a Royal Rumble match, two participants start and then the rest enter at timed intervals. The winner of the match is the last wrestler remaining after all others have been eliminated. Since the 1993 event, the prize for winning is a world championship match at WrestleMania, with the exception of the 2016 event, where the prize of the match was the championship itself as reigning champion Roman Reigns defended the title in the match. According to Hornswoggle, who worked for WWE from 2006 until 2016 and participated in two Rumbles, participants may learn their eliminations by knowing the two wrestlers who are eliminated before them and which wrestlers are entering the Royal Rumble before and after their elimination. == Events and winners == Overview of Royal Rumble events # Event Date City Venue Final match Rumble winner(s) Entry No. Ref. 1 Royal Rumble (1988) January 24, 1988 Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Copps Coliseum The Islanders (Haku and Tama) vs. The Young Stallions (Paul Roma and Jim Powers) in a two out of three falls match Jim Duggan 13 2 Royal Rumble (1989) January 15, 1989 Houston, Texas The Summit 30-man Royal Rumble match Big John Studd 27 3 Royal Rumble (1990) January 21, 1990 Orlando, Florida Orlando Arena Hulk Hogan 25 4 Royal Rumble (1991) January 19, 1991 Miami, Florida Miami Arena 24 5 Royal Rumble (1992) January 19, 1992 Albany, New York Knickerbocker Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship Ric Flair 3 6 Royal Rumble (1993) January 24, 1993 Sacramento, California ARCO Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania IX Yokozuna 27 7 Royal Rumble (1994) January 22, 1994 Providence, Rhode Island Providence Civic Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania X Lex Luger 23 Bret Hart 27 8 Royal Rumble (1995) January 22, 1995 Tampa, Florida USF Sun Dome 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XI Shawn Michaels 1 9 Royal Rumble (1996) January 21, 1996 Fresno, California Selland Arena Bret Hart (c) vs. The Undertaker for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship 18 10 Royal Rumble (1997) January 19, 1997 San Antonio, Texas Alamodome Sycho Sid (c) vs. Shawn Michaels for the WWF Championship Stone Cold Steve Austin 5 11 Royal Rumble (1998) January 18, 1998 San Jose, California San Jose Arena Shawn Michaels (c) vs. The Undertaker in a Casket match for the WWF Championship 24 12 Royal Rumble (1999) January 24, 1999 Anaheim, California Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania XV Mr. McMahon 2 13 Royal Rumble (2000) January 23, 2000 New York City, New York Madison Square Garden 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania 2000 The Rock 24 14 Royal Rumble (2001) January 21, 2001 New Orleans, Louisiana New Orleans Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X-Seven Stone Cold Steve Austin 27 15 Royal Rumble (2002) January 20, 2002 Atlanta, Georgia Philips Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for an Undisputed WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X8 Triple H 22 16 Royal Rumble (2003) January 19, 2003 Boston, Massachusetts FleetCenter 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XIX Brock Lesnar 29 17 Royal Rumble (2004) January 25, 2004 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Wachovia Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XX Chris Benoit 1 18 Royal Rumble (2005) January 30, 2005 Fresno, California Save Mart Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 21 Batista 28 19 Royal Rumble (2006) January 29, 2006 Miami, Florida American Airlines Arena Kurt Angle (c) vs. Mark Henry for the World Heavyweight Championship Rey Mysterio 2 20 Royal Rumble (2007) January 28, 2007 San Antonio, Texas AT&T; Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 23 The Undertaker 30 21 Royal Rumble (2008) January 27, 2008 New York City, New York Madison Square Garden 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXIV John Cena 30 22 Royal Rumble (2009) January 25, 2009 Detroit, Michigan Joe Louis Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXV Randy Orton 8 23 Royal Rumble (2010) January 31, 2010 Atlanta, Georgia Philips Arena 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVI Edge 29 24 Royal Rumble (2011) January 30, 2011 Boston, Massachusetts TD Garden 40-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVII Alberto Del Rio 38 25 Royal Rumble (2012) January 29, 2012 St. Louis, Missouri Scottrade Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII Sheamus 22 26 Royal Rumble (2013) January 27, 2013 Phoenix, Arizona US Airways Center CM Punk (c) vs. The Rock for the WWE Championship John Cena 19 27 Royal Rumble (2014) January 26, 2014 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Consol Energy Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXX Batista 28 28 Royal Rumble (2015) January 25, 2015 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Wells Fargo Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 31 Roman Reigns 19 29 Royal Rumble (2016) January 24, 2016 Orlando, Florida Amway Center Roman Reigns (c) vs. 29 other wrestlers in a 30-man Royal Rumble match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship Triple H 30 30 Royal Rumble (2017) January 29, 2017 San Antonio, Texas Alamodome 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 33 Randy Orton 23 31 Royal Rumble (2018) January 28, 2018 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Wells Fargo Center 30-woman Royal Rumble match for a women's championship match at WrestleMania 34 Shinsuke Nakamura 14 Asuka 25 32 Royal Rumble (2019) January 27, 2019 Phoenix, Arizona Chase Field 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 35 Becky Lynch 28 Seth Rollins 10 33 Royal Rumble (2020) January 26, 2020 Houston, Texas Minute Maid Park 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 36 Charlotte Flair 17 Drew McIntyre 16 34 Royal Rumble (2021) January 31, 2021 St. Petersburg, Florida WWE ThunderDome at Tropicana Field 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 37 Bianca Belair 3 Edge 1 35 Royal Rumble (2022) January 29, 2022 St. Louis, Missouri The Dome at America's Center 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 38 Ronda Rousey 28 Brock Lesnar 30 36 Royal Rumble (2023) January 28, 2023 San Antonio, Texas Alamodome Roman Reigns (c) vs. Kevin Owens for the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship Cody Rhodes 30 Rhea Ripley 1 == Video box set == In March 2007, WWE released a complete DVD box set titled Royal Rumble: The Complete Anthology, which showcases every Royal Rumble event in its entirety, up to the 2007 Royal Rumble. == References == ; General * * * * * * * ; Specific == Further reading == * * * * * * == External links == * * WWE.com: Royal Rumble match description * WWE.com: Royal Rumble Facts & Figures * Royal Rumble History at About.com * WWE Royal Rumble Category:Recurring events established in 1988
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Sajama National Park is a national park located in the Oruro Department, Bolivia. It borders Lauca National Park in Chile. The park is home to the indigenous Aymara people, whose influential ancient culture can be seen in various aspects throughout the park. The park hosts many cultural and ecological sites, and is a hub of ecotourism. Many different indigenous plants and animals are exclusive to this area; therefore its continued conservation is of great ecological importance. Management of the park operates under a co- administrative approach, with local people and park conservationists engaging in a constant dialogue regarding park upkeep and policy. ==History== Sajama National Park is Bolivia's oldest national park. The park lies within the Central Andean dry puna ecoregion. It features a spectacular Andean landscape, with elevations ranging from 4,200 to 6,542 meters (13,780 to 21,463 ft). It contains the snowy cone of the volcano Sajama, the highest mountain in Bolivia at 6542 meters. The park also includes the Payachata volcanic group. The area was declared a nature reserve in 1939 because of the native Queñoa De Altura (Polylepis tarapacana) that grows on the hillsides of this region.Sajama National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre This shrub-like tree has adapted to the high elevations and harsh climate of the Andes. At the time that the area was declared a national park, rampant harvesting of this tree was taking place to create charcoal to supply Bolivian mines. On July 1, 2003, it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List due to its universal cultural and natural significance. ===Aymara people=== The Aymara people are indigenous to the Bolivian and Peruvian altiplano, and make up a quarter of Bolivia's population. Latest estimates predict about 300 families in the affluence zone of the park and about 100 in the park's interior. Much of the Aymara population participates in llama and alpaca herding and yarn spinning. Circular houses, traditional to the Aymara, can still be found today. The Aymara people also have the unique tradition of handing down historic textiles through the generations as inherited wealth. Because the Aymara people rely so heavily on the natural environment, they take on a protectoral role regarding its use. For example, the Aymara recently protested the Dakar Rally, an off- road race taking place through Bolivia's salt flats for the first time. The Aymara cited fears of environmental damage from litter and ruts in the white landscape from the vehicles as cause for concern. The Aymara have traditionally been an underrepresented group since the times of colonialism. Therefore, they fought alongside the victorious liberal party during Bolivia's Civil War of 1899. However, the Aymara are still being targeted. One current example of the struggle between the Aymara and the Bolivian government is the use of the coca plant by the Aymara. The Aymara have grown coca plants for centuries, using the leaves in traditional medicines and rituals. Over the last century, the Bolivian government has done its best to restrict this process due to fears of cocaine production. While coca cultivation for traditional practices is legal in Bolivia, there has still been strife and conflict between the government and the Aymara people due to this plant. When the practices of poor, disenfranchised, or indigenous people is demonized or condemned, there is often heavy dispute and strife between the two sides. By targeting the Aymara's use of the coca plant, the Bolivian government could be helping to create an even bigger problem and contributing to unrest. Small populations with little political power are often viewed as “inferior”, and can easily be blamed for an array of different problems, from political, to social, to environmental. The plight of the Aymara people has further been complicated with the election of Bolivia's first indigenous president, Evo Morales, in 2006. Morales was born into an Aymara family of subsistence farmers. In 2009, Morales helped enact a new constitution. The new constitution names Bolivia as a secular state, rather than a Catholic one as the previous constitution stated. It also recognizes a variety of autonomies at the local and departmental level, which many argue gives people like the Aymara more freedom. However, there has been some backlash against the constitution. Many opposed to it claim that it is "Aymara-centric", and not applicable or appropriate for all Bolivian citizens and is actually ostracizing. ==Attractions== The Sajama National Park includes geological natural wonders like volcanoes, diverse organisms, and thermal springs, and also cultural wonders such as ancient burial buildings, cave paintings, and colonial architecture and art. thumbnail|right|Queñoa trees located in Sajama National Park The Queñoa (sometimes seen as keñua) forests that rise along the slope of the Sajama Mountain in the park are regarded as some of the highest forests in the world. There are numerous geysers and hot springs (Aguas Termales) which are about an hour walk from the village of Sajama. This area of Bolivia also features the Sajama Lines, mysterious lines covering the altiplano, etched into ground over thousands of years by the ancient ancestors of the Aymara people. The lines are estimated to be about 16,000 kilometers in length, roughly three times the breadth of the United States. The lines are thought to have been used as ancient pilgrimage routes. The park is also scattered with cultural treasures and remnants of the Aymara's ancient culture. Chullpas, tall funerary towers devoted to noble Aymara families, dot the landscape. These shrines are thought to have been deliberately placed in visible areas to ensure reverence and remembrance for the dead. Pucaras, ancient fortifications, can also be found. In terms of wildlife, Sajama is home to a unique set of organisms particular to the alpine regions of the Andes. Plants and animals must be able to handle high altitudes with less available oxygen, cold nightly temperatures and frosts well into the spring, little shade or protection from the elements, and arid, dry conditions. One example of unique wildlife in the park is the vicuña, a species of camelid related to the llama and the alpaca. These animals are prized because of their soft and warm, but extremely lightweight fur. Historically, only Incan emperors were allowed to wear their wool. Indigenous populations in the area still continue a rich cultural tradition of myths, legends, and rituals involving the vicuña. Once poached to near extinction because their fine, valuable wool, they are now protected in the area and their numbers are rebounding. The area is also home to armadillos, viscachas, spectacled bears, Andean mountain cats, cougars, Andean condors, pink flamingos, coots (black ducks), hummingbirds, rheas, and many more unique creatures. ===Ecotourism=== Ecotourism can be defined in a variety of ways, but broadly it is travel that has the object of enjoying features of what is seen as the natural, beautiful, and exotic environment. Main themes of ecotourism also involve sustainable activities and behavior that results in minimal negative consequences for the environment. Until recently, tourist activity in the park has been relatively nonexistent. The park is located far from any urban centers, and surrounded by mostly undeveloped land lacking infrastructure. However, a focus area for the co-administrative management committee is the creation of sustainable and responsible income-generating practices. For example, the Tomarapi eco-lodge opened in 2003, and provides local food and lodging for between 2000 and 3000 visitors a year. The lodge is currently managed entirely by native Aymara villagers. The climate in the Bolivian altiplano is not very conducive to productive agriculture. The area is typically very dry, receiving less rainfall than half the climatic demand. There are also very cold nights in this arid region, with frosts occurring well into the typical growing season. Only hearty crops like tubers and grains such as quinoa can grow in this area, and even then they are not extremely successful. Because agriculture would not be a viable source of income for many of the people in this region, they have been forced to look for other income options. Ecotourism can significantly aid natural places with weak economies, and help to generate an economical way to promote preservation. However, certain elements should be provided in order to ensure profitable and safe ecotourism. These elements, which are not exclusive or explicitly limiting, include culturally appropriate opportunities for local people, secure land tenure, and a focus on themes broader than simply provided economic opportunity. Arrangements between the Aymara people and the rest of the management committee for the park have helped to ensure extensive planning and local participation in decisions is taking place, but admittedly plans are not always perfect. Even when using the most optimistic of scenarios, SERNAP concedes that a fair number of indigenous people will have to leave this region in order to assure a minimum livelihood. In situations like these, every cost and benefit of ecotourism must be carefully weighed. ==Management== Bolivian law defines protected areas as “natural areas with or without human intervention, declared under state protection by law, in order to protect and preserve the flora and fauna, genetic resources, natural ecosystems, watersheds and values of scientific, esthetic, historical, economic, and social interest, in order to conserve and protect natural and cultural heritage of the country.” As all protected areas in Bolivia are inhabited, nature conservation is not possible against the will of the local people. It is necessary to take their traditional rights, existing value systems and social organization into account. The reserve is jointly administered by park service officials and the indigenous people, the Aymara. However, the collaborative efforts between the Aymara and the Bolivian national parks authority (Servicio Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, SERNAP) did not begin until 1998, when SERNAP was formed. Sajama National Park did not have a formal administration nor park rangers until 1995, and relations between the Aymara people and this early park administration was essentially nonexistent due to top-down approaches and policies. Sajama's co-administrative Management Committee now includes representatives from each of the communities, the sub- alcaldía (local administration's decentralized office in Sajama village), the mayor of Curahuara de Carangas, a representative of the prefectural administration, and delegates from different NGOs active in the area. From the beginning, this diverse committee laid out fairly detailed plans to ensure that their economic and conservational goals were met. The original committee members believed that the success of the park depended upon the incorporation of three things: planning, participation, and projects. Planning regulations and developing a "horizon" for the park was a long and arduous process, but it brought the diverse group of people closer together. The planning and discussion helped to eradicate previously held prejudices between the Aymara people and the newly instated park rangers. Through dialogue, often new ideas and techniques for management and conservation can surface. From the aspect of planning, municipal, regional, and traditional authorities, as well as community members are required to participate in the management of Bolivia's national parks. This ensures that the voices and views of all stakeholders are clearly acknowledged. This process also increases trust between the different inhabitants of the area, because they know that they are playing a role in the process. Finally, projects are aimed to generate income while offering alternative livelihoods that employ a more sustainable use of biodiversity resources. Besides ecotourism, there have been arrangements to create initiatives for the sustainable management of the park's vicuñas. Vicuña fur is extremely valuable, with scarves of their wool costing well over $1,000. However, it is slow growing and may take anywhere from 2–3 years to regrow to a commercially viable length after shearing. By caring for the vicuñas, the Aymara deepen their connection to their environment and create a continuing means for income. However, the trade of vicuña wool is highly regulated, causing slow trade and sometimes even an inability to trade. While a local management co-administrative approach may seem like a very useful and effective means to protect this land, it also has its detriments. Some challenges to management systems like the one in place in this park are unclear roles, distrust, and poor communication, which has been seen in Sajama. ==Significance== The icy cap of Mount Sajama, Bolivia's highest point, has enabled a variety of scientific endeavors. The recovery of ice cores from the summit in 1998 offered a unique look at historic South American climatic and atmospheric conditions, and marked the first time that this information of this kind has been available for a location with a tropical latitude. Data from these cores indicates an increase in many atmospheric heavy metals, likely caused by anthropogenic sources. The presence of these metals could be due to the production of non-ferrous metal. Significant in countries such as Chile or Peru, the emissions from this industry have decreased in recent times. The Aymara people who have lived in this region since before colonial times have a special bond with the environment and landscape of the park. However, some may question the effectiveness of protected areas when considering socioeconomic impacts on surrounding communities. Regulating the use of protected land may harm the livelihoods and cultures of those people who cherish it the most. However, recent studies in Bolivia have shown no evidence that the establishment of protected areas has exacerbated poverty. If anything, these studies conclude, estimates indicate that communities that are affected by protected areas have experienced greater levels of poverty reduction when compared to similar unaffected communities. Therefore, the presence of Sajama National Park and its management committee may help the Aymara people, giving them power to protect their environment and the organisms that inhabit it. == See also == * Sajama Lines * Waña Quta * Constitution of Bolivia * Ecotourism == References == Category:National parks of Bolivia Category:Geography of Oruro Department Category:Protected areas established in 1939 Category:1939 establishments in Bolivia Category:Tourist attractions in Oruro Department Category:Climbing areas of Bolivia Category:Central Andean dry puna
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DeAndre Rashaun Hopkins (born June 6, 1992), nicknamed DHop, is an American football wide receiver who is a free agent. He played college football at Clemson and was drafted by the Houston Texans in the first round of the 2013 NFL Draft. Hopkins is a five-time Pro Bowler and has also been named to five All-Pro teams. He also played for the Arizona Cardinals. ==Early years== As an infant, Hopkins was given the nickname Nuk by his mother because he frequently chewed through NUK pacifiers. It is pronounced “nuke” (although the pacifier brand is pronounced “nook”). Hopkins attended D. W. Daniel High School in Central, South Carolina, where he played football, basketball, and ran track and field for the Lions athletic teams. During his high school football career, Hopkins had 57 receptions for 1,266 yards and 18 touchdowns on offense and 28 interceptions and five touchdowns on defense. While on the basketball team, he played as a shooting guard and point guard, scoring 1,453 career points. His senior season, 2009–10, the Lions won their third South Carolina State Championship, and Hopkins was named the Independent Mail's player of the year. He was rated as the 12th best wide receiver in the nation and the State of South Carolina. He received various rankings by reputable sports organizations, ESPN ranked him the 29th best athlete. He earned an All-State first-team from the state and The Charlotte Observer. ==College career== Hopkins enrolled in Clemson University, where he played for the Clemson Tigers football team from 2010 to 2012 under head coach Dabo Swinney. ===2010 season=== Hopkins immediately became a massive contributor to the Clemson offense as a freshman in their 6–7 season. Hopkins started his collegiate career with two receptions for 23 receiving yards in a 35–10 victory over North Texas on September 24. The next week, against Presbyterian, he scored his first collegiate receiving touchdown on a nine-yard reception from Tajh Boyd in the 58–21 victory. On November 13, in a road 16–13 loss to Florida State, he had eight receptions for 106 receiving yards. In the final game of the regular season, the Palmetto Bowl against rival South Carolina, he had seven receptions for 124 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 29–7 loss. In the 2010 Meineke Car Care Bowl against South Florida, he had nine receptions for 105 receiving yards in the 31–26 loss to close out his freshman season. Hopkins was Clemson's leading receiver with 52 receptions for 637 receiving yards and four receiving touchdowns. In addition, he played basketball after his freshman season. He played in seven games in the 2010–11 season for the Tigers basketball team. ===2011 season=== Clemson took a major step forward in Hopkins's sophomore year, finishing with a 10–4 mark. Hopkins started the 2011 season with nine receptions for 108 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in two games combined against Troy and Wofford. Against Auburn on September 17, Hopkins had seven receptions for 83 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 38–24 victory. On October 22, against North Carolina, he had nine receptions for 157 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 59–38 victory. Nearly a month later, against NC State, he had five receptions for 124 receiving yards in the 37–13 loss. In the ACC Championship against Virginia Tech, he had seven receptions for 92 receiving yards in the 38–10 victory. In the 2012 Orange Bowl, he had 10 receptions for 107 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the historic 70–33 loss to West Virginia. As a sophomore in 2011, he had 72 receptions for 978 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns. He finished second on the team in the major receiving categories to Sammy Watkins. ===2012 season=== In his junior year, Hopkins helped lead the Tigers to their first 11-win season since 1981. Hopkins started the 2012 season off strong with 13 receptions for 119 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in a 26–19 win over Auburn in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game. With Clemson trailing in the fourth quarter, Hopkins had the go-ahead score. One week later, against Ball State, he had six receptions for 105 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns in a 52–27 victory. Hopkins three touchdowns all came in the second quarter, setting a new school record for touchdowns in a quarter. Dating back to the prior season, this gave Hopkins three consecutive games with 100 receiving yards, tying a school record. On September 29, against Boston College, had had 11 receptions for 197 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 45–31 victory. In the following game, he had seven receptions for 173 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns against Georgia Tech in a 47–31 victory. On November 3, in a game at Duke, he had four receptions for 128 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns in the 56–20 victory. Like his previous three- touchdown game against Ball State, Hopkins recorded all three touchdowns in one quarter, with this performance being the first quarter. He closed out the regular season with one receiving touchdown in each of the last three games against Maryland, North Carolina State, and South Carolina. In the 2012 Chick- fil-A Bowl against LSU, he had 13 receptions for 191 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 25–24 victory. Hopkins's touchdown came with under three minutes remaining to put Clemson down 2. Clemson eventually won the game on 37-yard field goal from Chandler Catanzaro. In his junior season in 2012, Hopkins had one of the best receiving seasons in ACC history, with a conference-best 1,405 yards on 82 catches and a school-record 18 touchdowns earning First-team All-Conference honors. Hopkins, along with junior quarterback Tajh Boyd and wide receiver Sammy Watkins, combined to make one of the most prolific passing offenses in college football and broke many individual and career school records. He scored a touchdown in each of the last ten games of the season, doubling the previous school record for consecutive games with a score. Hopkins left Clemson with career record for receiving yards (3,020) and career touchdown receptions (27). His 206 career receptions were the most by a Clemson receiver since Aaron Kelly had 232 from 2005–2008. On January 10, 2013, Hopkins decided to forgo his senior season at Clemson and enter the NFL Draft. ===College statistics=== DeAndre Hopkins Receiving Season Team GP Rec Yds TD 2010 Clemson 12 52 637 4 2011 Clemson 14 72 978 5 2012 Clemson 13 82 1,405 18 Total 39 206 3,020 27 ==Professional career== Coming out of Clemson, Hopkins was considered a top prospect and received an invitation to the NFL combine. He completed nearly all of the combine drills, but was unable to finish the three-cone drill after suffering an apparent calf injury. After the combine, the hotel room Hopkins shared with Rutgers wide receiver Mark Harrison was found to be left in a state where "urine and feces were found around the bathroom, toothpaste was left on the mirror and partially eaten food was on one of the beds," per ESPN. Both players denied responsibility. On March 7, 2013, he participated in Clemson's pro day. Hopkins attended private workouts or visits with the Dallas Cowboys, Carolina Panthers, New England Patriots, and had two with the St. Louis Rams. At the conclusion of the predraft process, Hopkins was projected to be a first or second round pick by NFL draft experts and scouts. He was ranked as the third best wide receiver prospect by NFL.com draft analyst Josh Norris, the fourth best wide receiver by Sports Illustrated, and was ranked the fifth best wide receiver by NFLDraftScout.com and NFL analyst Mike Mayock. ===Houston Texans=== ====2013 season==== The Houston Texans selected Hopkins in the first round with the 27th overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. He was the second wide receiver selected, behind Tavon Austin (St. Louis Rams, eighth overall). Hopkins was the second wide receiver in franchise history to be drafted in the first round, the first being Andre Johnson who was selected third overall in 2003. It was also just the second time in 10 years that the Texans selected an offensive player (the other selection was left tackle Duane Brown) in the first round. He became the highest wide receiver out of Clemson since Rod Gardner went 15th overall in 2001. On July 24, 2013, Hopkins signed a four- year, $7.62 million contract with the team. The first three years of the contract were fully guaranteed. Hopkins made his NFL debut in the season opener against the San Diego Chargers and made five receptions for 55 yards in the 31–28 victory, a game where the Texans at one point trailed 28–7. His first NFL reception came on a pass from Matt Schaub for no gain in the second quarter. On September 15, Hopkins caught a season-high seven passes for 117 receiving yards and scored his first career touchdown reception on a three- yard pass from quarterback Matt Schaub in the Texans' 30–24 overtime victory against the Tennessee Titans. It was Hopkins's first game with over one hundred receiving yards. Hopkins was named the NFL Rookie of the Month for September. In Week 7, he caught three passes for 76 yards and scored a touchdown on a 29-yard pass from Case Keenum during a 16–17 loss to Kansas City Chiefs. On December 2, 2013, Head coach Gary Kubiak was fired after the Houston Texans posted a 2–11 record. Hopkins finished the season with 52 receptions for 802 receiving yards and two touchdowns. His rookie season was marred by inconsistent quarterback play by Matt Schaub that led to Schaub's benching after nine interceptions in five games. Hopkins was named to the NFL All-Rookie Team for the 2013 season. ====2014 season==== thumb|Hopkins in 2014 Hopkins returned as a starting wide receiver alongside Andre Johnson under new head coach Bill O'Brien to begin the 2014 season. Hopkins started in the season-opening 17–6 victory over the Washington Redskins and caught four passes for 89 yards and scored a new career-long 76-yard touchdown on a pass by quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick. In Week 3, he had six receptions for 116 yards during a 30–14 victory over the New York Giants. In the game, Hopkins had a spectacular one-handed 53-yard catch that was negated by a illegal formation penalty. During a Week 7 matchup against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Hopkins made six receptions for 108 receiving yards in a 23–30 loss. On November 30, 2014, Hopkins caught a season-high nine passes for a season-high 238 receiving yards and two touchdowns as the Texans routed the Tennessee Titans 45–21 in Week 13. Hopkins was the Texans' leading receiver in , recording 76 receptions for 1,210 yards and six touchdowns in 16 games and 16 starts. ====2015 season==== Hopkins was solidified as the Texans' number one receiver to begin the 2015 season after veteran Andre Johnson departed to the Indianapolis Colts in free agency. Hopkins started in the Texans' season- opener against the Kansas City Chiefs and caught nine passes for 98 yards and two touchdowns as the Texans lost 27–20. Two weeks later, he recorded his first 100-yard receiving game of the season, with eight receptions for 101 yards and a touchdown in a 19–9 victory over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Hopkins increased his production the following week, recording nine receptions for 157 yards in a 48–21 loss to the Atlanta Falcons. During Week 6 against the Jacksonville Jaguars he had 10 receptions for 142 yards and two touchdowns to earn his first career AFC Offensive Player of the Week award. During Week 13 against the Buffalo Bills, Hopkins broke the Texans' franchise record for most touchdown receptions in a season, which was formerly held by Andre Johnson, with his tenth score. In the 2015 season, his usage increased to 192 targets, which ranked third among NFL wide receivers, trailing only Antonio Brown of the Pittsburgh Steelers and Julio Jones of the Atlanta Falcons. Hopkins finished the 2015 season with then-career highs in receptions (111), receiving yards (1,521), and touchdowns (11), despite playing with four different quarterbacks (Brian Hoyer, Ryan Mallett, T. J. Yates, and Brandon Weeden). He earned his first career Pro Bowl nomination and was named second-team All-Pro. He was also ranked 19th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016. ====2016 season==== On July 30, 2016, Hopkins did not report to training camp after he announced he was holding out for a new contract. On September 15, 2016, Hopkins was fined $6,076 for an equipment violation regarding improper cleats on his shoes. The cleats were revealed to be Yeezy 350 Boosts cleats designed by Kanye West. In the 2016 season, Hopkins suffered through some small regression as the quarterback play of Brock Osweiler lacked positive consistency. The Texans finished atop the AFC South with a 9–7 record. In the Wild Card Round, against the Oakland Raiders, Hopkins had five receptions for 67 yards and a touchdown in the 27–14 victory. The Texans went on to lose in the Divisional Round of the 2016–17 NFL playoffs to the eventual Super Bowl champion New England Patriots. Hopkins had six receptions for 65 yards in the 34–16 loss. Hopkins had 78 receptions for 954 yards and four touchdowns in the 2016 season, all his lowest totals since his rookie season in 2013. ====2017 season==== On August 31, 2017, the Houston Texans signed Hopkins to a five-year, $81 million contract extension with $49 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $7.5 million. During the season-opening 29–7 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, Hopkins caught the first NFL touchdown pass of quarterback and fellow Clemson Tiger Deshaun Watson's career. He finished with seven receptions for 55 yards and a touchdown. During Week 8 against the Seattle Seahawks, Hopkins posted an impressive performance with eight receptions for 224 receiving yards, which was highlighted by a 72-yard touchdown. However, his performance was overshadowed as the Texans lost on the road by a score of 38–41. On December 19, 2017, Hopkins was named to his second Pro Bowl. Hopkins did not play in Week 17 due to a calf injury. Hopkins finished the 2017 season with 96 receptions for 1,378 yards and a league- leading 13 touchdowns. He led the league in scoring among wide receivers with 78 points. He became the first player in franchise history to lead the league in receiving touchdowns for a single season. He was named as a First-team All- Pro for the 2017 season and was ranked 13th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018. ====2018 season==== During Week 2, Hopkins had six catches for 110 yards and a touchdown in a 20–17 road loss against the Tennessee Titans. During Week 4 against the Indianapolis Colts, he had 10 receptions for 169 yards and a touchdown in the 37–34 overtime victory. In the following game, on Sunday Night Football against the Dallas Cowboys, he had nine receptions for 151 yards, which included a key 49 yard catch-and-run in overtime to help set up the game-winning field goal. Hopkins finished the 2018 season with a career-high 115 catches for a career-high 1,572 receiving yards and 11 touchdowns. He finished third in the league in receptions and second in receiving yards. He was named to his third Pro Bowl and his second straight First-team All-Pro. The Texans won the AFC South win an 11–5 record and earned the #3-seed for the AFC Playoffs. In the Wild Card Round against the Indianapolis Colts, playing with a torn ligament in his shoulder, he finished with five receptions for 37 yards in the 21–7 loss. He was ranked 11th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019. ====2019 season==== In the season-opener against the New Orleans Saints on Monday Night Football, Hopkins had eight receptions for 111 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the narrow 30–28 road loss. Three weeks later against the Carolina Panthers, he caught five passes for 41 receiving yards and threw an interception in a 16–10 loss. During Week 7 against the Indianapolis Colts, Hopkins caught nine passes for 106 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 30–23 road loss. In the next game against the Oakland Raiders, Hopkins caught a season- high 11 passes for 109 receiving yards in the 27–24 victory. During Week 12 against the Colts on Thursday Night Football, Hopkins caught six catches for 94 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 20–17 win. In the next game against the New England Patriots on Sunday Night Football, he caught five passes for 64 receiving yards and threw a six-yard touchdown pass to quarterback Deshaun Watson during the 28–22 win. In the following week's game against the Denver Broncos, Hopkins caught seven passes for 120 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown during the 38–24 loss. During Week 15 against the Tennessee Titans, he had six receptions for 119 receiving yards in the 24–21 road victory. Hopkins did not play in Week 17 due to an illness. Hopkins finished the 2019 season with 104 receptions for 1,165 receiving yards and seven receiving touchdowns. He was ranked 8th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2020. The Texans finished atop the AFC South with a 10–6 record and qualified for the playoffs. In the Wild Card Round against the Buffalo Bills, Hopkins recorded six receptions for 90 receiving yards and a crucial two-point conversion in a 22–19 overtime victory. The two-point conversion put the Texans up 19–16 in regulation. On the Texans' final drive in overtime, Hopkins had a key first down early to set in motion the eventual game-winning field goal. In the Divisional Round against the Kansas City Chiefs, he caught nine passes for 118 receiving yards during the 51–31 road loss. ===Arizona Cardinals=== ====2020 season==== On March 16, 2020, the Texans traded Hopkins and a fourth-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft to the Arizona Cardinals for running back David Johnson, a 2020 second-round pick, and a 2021 fourth-round pick. Reception to the trade was highly critical of the Texans, as well as the head coach at the time, Bill O’Brien, with many sportswriters calling it one of the worst of all time from their perspective, while simultaneously praising the Cardinals for "robbing" the Texans. On September 8, 2020, Hopkins signed a two-year, $54.5 million contract extension with the Cardinals. On September 13, 2020, Hopkins made his debut as a Cardinal against the San Francisco 49ers, recording a career-high 14 receptions for 151 yards in the 24–20 win. In Week 2 against the Washington Football Team, Hopkins caught eight passes for 68 yards and his first receiving touchdown as a Cardinal during the 30–15 win. In Week 3, he recorded ten receptions for 137 receiving yards in the 26–23 loss to the Detroit Lions. In Week 5 against the New York Jets, Hopkins recorded six catches for 131 yards, including a 37-yard touchdown reception, during the 30–10 win. In Week 7 against the Seattle Seahawks on Sunday Night Football, Hopkins recorded 10 catches for 103 yards and a touchdown during the 37–34 overtime win. In Week 10 against the Buffalo Bills, Hopkins recorded seven receptions for 127 yards and the game winning touchdown on a 43-yard Hail Mary pass thrown by Kyler Murray with one second left in the 32–30 win which would later be referred to as Hail Murray. Hopkins leaped over three defenders to catch the touchdown. Hopkins was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance. On November 19, Hopkins became the youngest player to reach 700 catches, a record that was held by his teammate, Larry Fitzgerald, during the 28–21 loss to Seattle. In Week 14 against the New York Giants, Hopkins recorded nine receptions for 136 yards during the 26–7 victory. In Week 15 against the Philadelphia Eagles, Hopkins recorded nine catches for 169 yards and a touchdown during the 33–26 win. In Week 17, against the Los Angeles Rams, Hopkins went over 10,000 receiving yards for his career. He became the youngest player in NFL history to eclipse the mark. Overall, Hopkins finished the season with 115 receptions for 1,407 receiving yards and six receiving touchdowns. His 115 receptions set a new franchise mark for a single season, breaking Larry Fitzgerald's marks in 2015 and 2017. He was ranked 8th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2021. He was named to his fifth Pro Bowl. ====2021 season==== In a Week 1 matchup against the Tennessee Titans, Hopkins had six receptions for 83 yards and two touchdowns in the 38–13 rout. On October 24, a Week 7 game against his former team the Texans, Hopkins caught seven passes for 53 yards and a touchdown in the 31–5 win for the eighth straight defeat and a perfect 7–0 record. After the Thursday Night Football loss to the Green Bay Packers, 24–21, Hopkins missed the next three weeks with a hamstring injury. In Week 14, he suffered a torn MCL and was placed on injured reserve on December 18. He finished the season with 42 catches for 572 yards and eight touchdowns in 10 games. He was ranked 37th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2022. ====2022 season==== On May 2, 2022, the NFL announced that Hopkins would be suspended for the first six games of the season for a violation of the league's performance-enhancing drugs policy. Hopkins returned in Week 7 and had ten receptions for 103 yards in the 42–34 victory over the New Orleans Saints. In Week 8, he had 12 receptions for 159 yards and one touchdown in the 34–26 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. Hopkins appeared in nine games in the 2022 season. He finished with 64 receptions for 717 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns. ==== 2023 season ==== On May 26, 2023, Hopkins was released by the Cardinals. ==NFL career statistics== Legend Led the league Bold Career high === Regular season === Year Team Games Receiving Rushing Fumbles GP GS Rec Yds Avg Lng TD Att Yds Avg Lng TD Fum Lost 2013 HOU 16 16 52 802 15.4 66 2 — — — — — 1 1 2014 HOU 16 16 76 1,210 15.9 76T 6 — — — — — 2 1 2015 HOU 16 16 111 1,521 13.7 61T 11 — — — — — 1 0 2016 HOU 16 16 78 954 12.2 51 4 — — — — — 0 0 2017 HOU 15 15 96 1,378 14.4 72T 13 — — — — — 1 1 2018 HOU 16 16 115 1,572 13.7 49T 11 1 -7 -7.0 0 0 2 2 2019 HOU 15 15 104 1,165 11.2 43T 7 2 18 9.0 12 0 0 0 2020 ARI 16 16 115 1,407 12.2 60 6 1 1 1.0 1 0 3 2 2021 ARI 10 10 42 572 13.6 55 8 — — — — — 0 0 2022 ARI 9 9 64 717 11.2 33T 3 — — — — — 2 1 Career 145 145 853 11,298 13.2 76T 71 4 12 3.0 12 0 12 8 === Postseason === Year Team Games Receiving Rushing Fumbles GP GS Rec Yds Avg Lng TD Att Yds Avg Lng TD Fum Lost 2015 HOU 1 1 6 69 11.5 17 0 — — — — — 0 0 2016 HOU 2 2 11 132 12.0 38 1 — — — — — 0 0 2018 HOU 1 1 5 37 7.4 13 0 — — — — — 0 0 2019 HOU 2 2 15 208 13.9 41 0 — — — — — 2 1 2021 ARI did not play due to injury Career 6 6 37 446 12.1 41 1 0 0 0.0 0 0 2 1 ===Houston Texans franchise records=== *Receiving yards in a single postseason: 208 (2019) *Receptions in a season: 115 (2018) *Receiving touchdowns in a season: 13 (2017) ==Personal life== Hopkins was raised by his single mother, Sabrina Greenlee, with whom he has a strong relationship. He credits her for his success. She held two jobs throughout his childhood and worked at an automotive factory. In July 2002, Greenlee had a boiling concoction of lye and bleach thrown on her by Savannah Grant, age 24. Greenlee had caught her boyfriend having an affair with Grant. The attack resulted in the skin rapidly peeling off her neck, face, and back. Her boyfriend picked her up, placed her in his vehicle, and dropped her off at a nearby gas station. The gas station attendant called 911, and Greenlee was rushed to a hospital and later flown to Augusta, Georgia, where she was placed in a medically induced coma for three weeks and had skin grafts applied to her face. Greenlee suffered burns over 17 percent of her body. Her attacker was charged with assault and battery with intent to kill and received a 20-year sentence. She was incarcerated from 2003 until March 13, 2023. Hopkins' mother was left completely blind as a result of this attack. Hopkins' father, Harris Steve Hopkins, died in a car accident on I-85 when DeAndre was five months old, leaving his mother to raise him and his three siblings. The November 1992 car accident happened when DeAndre's parents were returning from visiting family in Atlanta. The elder Hopkins' Ford Mustang GTS hydroplaned on the rain-soaked road after making a turn and flipped three times before striking a guardrail on the driver's side. While DeAndre's mother escaped with minor injuries and a concussion, the elder Hopkins succumbed to his injuries eight days later. At the time of his death, Harris Hopkins was 25 years old. Hopkins' uncle on his mother's side, Terry Smith, played wide receiver at Clemson and went undrafted before having a brief professional career with the Indianapolis Colts on their practice squad from –. His time in the NFL was marred by knee injuries that ended his career. In 1997, Smith was shot and killed by Atlanta police after forcing his way into his estranged wife's home and stabbing her. Police opened fire after Smith defied multiple orders. Close friends and former teammates said Smith was nonviolent but that his behavior had changed in the months leading up to his death. Smith played for Clemson from 1990-1993 and finished his collegiate career as the all-time leader in catches (162) and receiving yards (2,681). He was named the Tigers' MVP for the 1993 season and was known for his game-winning touchdown in the 1993 Peach Bowl, defeating Kentucky with seconds left. Another uncle on his mother’s side, Russell Smith, died before DeAndre was born, at age 12 in 1985. He died in a car driven by his newly-wed uncle when it flipped while Russell was standing up in the open sunroof. His uncle and other passengers in the car survived. Hopkins also has three siblings, two sisters and one brother. His two older siblings, Kesha and Marcus, are from a previous relationship his mother had. His older sister, Kesha Smith, is a Southern Wesleyan University graduate. In 2014, she moved to Houston where she is a basketball trainer and a slot receiver for the Houston Energy of the Independent Women's Football League. His younger sister, Shanterria Cobb, signed a letter of intent in the spring of 2016 to play basketball at Texas Southern University. She was a three-time all-region selection in basketball at D.W. Daniel High School. His older brother, Marcus Greenlee, was a standout football and basketball player in high school and briefly attended Georgia Military College. Hopkins is a Christian. He grew up going to church with his mother and was baptized one day after practice at Clemson in 2012. Hopkins has said, “My faith is a big, big thing for me. It is a major part of my life.” “No matter how hard life can get, you can never give up. Just work hard, live right, and have faith in the Lord.” During his time at Clemson, Hopkins majored in community recreation and sport & camp management. He also holds a SMOOOTH Back-to-school giveaway that supplies book bags and school supplies for over 2,500 children. SMOOOTH is an acronym that stands for Speaking Mentally Outwardly Opening Opportunities Towards Healing. In 2021, Hopkins went into the cereal business with "DeAndre's Hop Box". A portion of the proceeds of the cereal's sales went to the SMOOOTH Foundation. Growing up, Hopkins idolized his cousin Javis Austin who also played for Clemson. Austin, whose brother died during a pickup basketball game, attempted suicide after falling down Clemson's depth chart. He attempted suicide by shooting himself in the face with a .380 caliber pistol. Austin survived but the gunshot destroyed his right eye and damaged his left, effectively ending his football career. He now works as a special educator at an elementary school in Clemson, South Carolina. In March 2020, Hopkins partnered with Beyond Meat. The partnership started the Feed A Million+ pledge with the intent to donate and distribute more than one million Beyond Burgers across the United States to needy people. In 2021, Hopkins displayed the name of Denmark Vesey on his helmet as a tribute to the alleged mastermind of a thwarted 1822 South Carolina slave revolt. Hopkins chose Vesey due to their South Carolina heritage, to honor Vesey's sacrifice for equality, and to draw attention to a history that is not commonly taught. == References == == External links == *Arizona Cardinals bio *Clemson Tigers bio * Category:1992 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century African- American sportspeople Category:African-American players of American football Category:American Conference Pro Bowl players Category:American football wide receivers Category:American men's basketball players Category:Arizona Cardinals players Category:Basketball players from South Carolina Category:Clemson Tigers football players Category:Clemson Tigers men's basketball players Category:Houston Texans players Category:National Conference Pro Bowl players Category:People from Central, South Carolina Category:Players of American football from South Carolina Category:Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
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Paragliding is the recreational and competitive adventure sport of flying paragliders: lightweight, free-flying, foot-launched glider aircraft with no rigid primary structure. The pilot sits in a harness or lies prone in a cocoon-like 'pod' suspended below a fabric wing. Wing shape is maintained by the suspension lines, the pressure of air entering vents in the front of the wing, and the aerodynamic forces of the air flowing over the outside. Despite not using an engine, paraglider flights can last many hours and cover many hundreds of kilometres, though flights of one to five hours and covering some tens of kilometres are more the norm. By skillful exploitation of sources of lift, the pilot may gain height, often climbing to altitudes of a few thousand metres. ==History== In 1966, Canadian Domina Jalbert was granted a patent for a multi-cell wing type aerial device—"a wing having a flexible canopy constituting an upper skin and with a plurality of longitudinally extending ribs forming in effect a wing corresponding to an airplane wing airfoil... More particularly the invention contemplates the provision of a wing of rectangular or other shape having a canopy or top skin and a lower spaced apart bottom skin", a governable gliding parachute with multi-cells and controls for glide. In 1954, Walter Neumark predicted (in an article in Flight magazine) a time when a glider pilot would be "able to launch himself by running over the edge of a cliff or down a slope ... whether on a rock- climbing holiday in Skye or skiing in the Alps."Walter Neumark, "The Future of Soaring", Flight magazine, 14 May 1954 In 1961, the French engineer Pierre Lemongine produced improved parachute designs that led to the Para-Commander (PC). The Para-Commander had cutouts at the rear and sides that enabled it to be towed into the air and steered, leading to parasailing/parascending. Domina Jalbert invented the parafoil, which had sectioned cells in an aerofoil shape; an open leading edge and a closed trailing edge, inflated by passage through the air – the ram-air design. He filed US Patent 3131894 on January 10, 1963. thumb|right|Paragliding with instructor over Lake Sils St Moritz (approx ) 2018 About that time, David Barish was developing the sail wing (single- surface wing) for recovery of NASA space capsules—"slope soaring was a way of testing out... the Sail Wing." After tests on Hunter Mountain, New York, in September 1965, he went on to promote slope soaring as a summer activity for ski resorts.Note: apparently without great success Author Walter Neumark wrote Operating Procedures for Ascending Parachutes, and in 1973 he and a group of enthusiasts with a passion for tow-launching PCs and ram-air parachutes broke away from the British Parachute Association to form the British Association of Parascending Clubs (which later became the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association). In 1997, Neumark was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Aero Club of the UK. Authors Patrick Gilligan (Canada) and Bertrand Dubuis (Switzerland) wrote the first flight manual, The Paragliding Manual in 1985, coining the word paragliding. These developments were combined in June 1978 by three friends, Jean-Claude Bétemps, André Bohn and Gérard Bosson, from Mieussy, Haute-Savoie, France. After inspiration from an article on slope soaring in the Parachute Manual magazine by parachutist and publisher Dan Poynter, they calculated that on a suitable slope, a "square" ram-air parachute could be inflated by running down the slope; Bétemps launched from Pointe du Pertuiset, Mieussy, and flew 100 m. Bohn followed him and glided down to the football pitch in the valley 1000 metres below.Jean-Claude Bétemps: “J’ai inventé le parapente” Parapente ( being French for 'slope') was born. thumb|left|Land-based practice: Kiting From the 1980s, equipment has continued to improve, and the number of paragliding pilots and established sites has continued to increase. The first (unofficial) Paragliding World Championship was held in Verbier, Switzerland, in 1987, though the first officially sanctioned FAI World Paragliding Championship was held in Kössen, Austria, in 1989. Europe has seen the greatest growth in paragliding, with France alone registering in 2011 over 25,000 active pilots. In 2022, feasibility study of paragliding from above 8000 meter is in progress in Nepal in the Everest region. It would be the paragliding from highest altitude in the world. == Equipment == === Wing === thumb|alt=Cross section of a paraglider|Transverse cross section showing parts of a paraglider: The paraglider wing or canopy is usually what is known in engineering as a ram-air airfoil. Such wings comprise two layers of fabric that are connected to internal supporting material in such a way as to form a row of cells. By leaving most of the cells open only at the leading edge, incoming air keeps the wing inflated, thus maintaining its shape. When inflated, the wing's cross-section has the typical teardrop aerofoil shape. Modern paraglider wings are made of high-performance non-porous materials such as ripstop nylon.e.g. Gelvenor OLKS In most modern paragliders (from the 1990s onwards), some of the cells of the leading edge are closed to form a cleaner aerodynamic profile. Holes in the internal ribs allow a free flow of air from the open cells to these closed cells to inflate them, and also to the wingtips, which are also closed.Paraglider wing information; para2000.org Almost all modern paragliders follow a sharknose design of the leading edge, by which the inflation opening is not at the front of the wing, but slightly backwards on the underside of the wing, and following a concave shape. This design, resembling the nose of a shark, is increases wing stability and stall resistance. In modern paragliders, semi-flexible rods made out of plastic or nitinol are used to give extra stability to the profile of the wing. In high-performance paragliders, these rods extend through most of the length of the upper wing. The pilot is supported underneath the wing by a network of suspension lines. These start with two sets of risers made of short () lengths of strong webbing. Each set is attached to the harness by a carabiner, one on each side of the pilot, and each riser of a set is generally attached to lines from only one row of its side of wing. At the end of each riser of the set, there is a small delta maillon with a number (2–5) of lines attached, forming a fan. These are typically long, with the end attached to 2–4 further lines of around m, which are again joined to a group of smaller, thinner lines. In some cases this is repeated for a fourth cascade. thumb|left|alt=3d CAD drawing of a paraglider|3d CAD drawing of a paraglider showing the upper surface in green, the lower surface in blue and the leading edge openings in pink. Only the left half of the suspension cone is shown. The top of each line is attached to small fabric loops sewn into the structure of the wing, which are generally arranged in rows running span-wise (i.e., side to side). The row of lines nearest the front are known as the A lines, the next row back the B lines, and so on. A typical wing will have A, B, C and D lines, but recently, there has been a tendency to reduce the rows of lines to three, or even two (and experimentally to one), to reduce drag. Paraglider lines are usually made from UHMW polythene or aramid. Although they look rather slender, these materials are strong and subject to load testing requirements. For example, a single 0.66 mm-diameter line (about the thinnest used) can have a breaking strength of . Paraglider wings typically have an area of with a span of and weigh . Combined weight of wing, harness, reserve, instruments, helmet, etc. is around . The glide ratio of paragliders ranges from 9.3 for recreational wings to about 11.3 for modern competition models,FAI Website reaching in some cases up to 13.U6 at glide ratio competition 2013 http://www.aircross.eu/net/u6-made-longest-flight-at-glide-ratio- competition-2013/?lang=en For comparison, a typical skydiving parachute will achieve about 3:1 glide. A hang glider ranges from 9.5 for recreational wings to about 16.5 for modern competition models. An idling (gliding) Cessna 152 light aircraft will achieve 9:1. Some sailplanes can achieve a glide ratio of up to 72:1. The speed range of paragliders is typically , from stall speed to maximum speed. Achieving maximum speed requires the use of speedbar, or trimmers. Without these, and without applying brakes, a paraglider is at its trim speed, which is typically and often at the best glide ratio, too. High- performance paragliders meant for competitions may achieve faster accelerated flight, as do speedwings, due to their small size and different profile. For storage and carrying, the wing is usually folded into a stuffsack (bag), which can then be stowed in a large backpack along with the harness. Some modern harnesses include the ability to turn the harness inside out such that it becomes a backpack, saving weight and space. Paragliders are unique among human-carrying aircraft in being easily portable. The complete equipment packs into a rucksack and can be carried easily on the pilot's back, in a car, or on public transport. In comparison with other air sports, this substantially simplifies travel to a suitable takeoff spot, the selection of a landing place and return travel. Tandem paragliders, designed to carry the pilot and one passenger, are larger but otherwise similar. They usually fly faster with higher trim speeds, are more resistant to collapse, and have a slightly higher sink rate compared to solo paragliders. === Harness === thumb|upright|A pilot with harness (light blue), performing a reverse launch The pilot is loosely and comfortably buckled into a harness, which offers support in both the standing and sitting positions. Most harnesses have protectors made out of foam or other materials underneath the seat and behind the back to reduce the impact on failed launches or landings. Modern harnesses are designed to be as comfortable as a lounge chair in the sitting or reclining position. Many harnesses even have an adjustable lumbar support. A reserve parachute is also typically connected to a paragliding harness. Harnesses also vary according to the need of the pilot, and thereby come in a range of designs, mostly: * open harnesses, ranging from training harness for beginners to all-round harnesses * pod harnesses for long-distance cross-country flights * competition harnesses, which are pod harnesses with the capacity to carry two reserve parachutes * acro harnesses, a type of open harness, designed for acrobatic paragliding, with the capacity for two or three reserve parachutes * hike&fly; harnesses, which are designed to be lightweight and compact when folded away for hiking * harnesses for tandem pilots and passangers * kids tandem harnesses are also now available with special child-proof locks Harnesses have a substantial influence on the flying characteristics; for instance, acro harnesses lead to more agile handling, which is desirable for flying acrobatics, but may be unsuitable for beginners or XC pilots looking for more stability in flight. While pod harnesses offer more stability and aerodynamic properties, they increase the risk of riser twist, and are hence not suitable for beginners. The standard harness is an open harness, which features a sitting, slightly reclined body position. === Instruments in paragliding === Most pilots use variometers, radios, and, increasingly, GNSS units when they are flying. ;Variometer The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the "core" of a thermal to maximise height gain and, conversely, to indicate when a pilot is in sinking air and needs to find rising air. Humans can sense the acceleration when they first hit a thermal, but cannot detect the difference between constant rising air and constant sinking air. Modern variometers are capable of detecting rates of climb or sink of 1 cm per second. A variometer indicates climb rate (or sink-rate) with short audio signals (beeps, which increase in pitch and tempo during ascent, and a droning sound, which gets deeper as the rate of descent increases) and/or a visual display. It also shows altitude: either above takeoff, above sea level, or (at higher altitudes) flight level. ;Radio Radio communications are used in training, to communicate with other pilots, and to report where and when they intend to land. These radios normally operate on a range of frequencies in different countries—some authorised,USHPA Frequencies , Authorized USHPA frequenciesUSHPA Radio Authorizations, USHPA Handbook some illegal but tolerated locally. Some local authorities (e.g., flight clubs) offer periodic automated weather updates on these frequencies. In rare cases, pilots use radios to talk to airport control towers or air traffic controllers. Many pilots carry a cell phone so they can call for pickup should they land away from their intended point of destination. ;GNSS GNSS is a necessary accessory when flying competitions, where it has to be demonstrated that way-points have been correctly passed. The recorded GNSS track of a flight can be used to analyze flying technique or can be shared with other pilots. GNSS is also used to determine drift due to the prevailing wind when flying at altitude, providing position information to allow restricted airspace to be avoided and identifying one's location for retrieval teams after landing out in unfamiliar territory. GNSS is integrated with some models of variometer. This is not only more convenient, but also allows for a three- dimensional record of the flight. The flight track can be used as proof for record claims, replacing the old method of photo documentation. Increasingly, smart phones are used as the primary means of navigation and flight logging, with several applications available to assist in air navigation. They are also used to co-ordinate tasks in competitive paragliding and facilitate retrieval of pilots returning to their point of launch. External variometers are typically used to assist in accurate altitude information. == Ground handling == Paraglider ground handling, also known as kiting, is the practice of handling the paraglider on land. The primary purpose of ground handling is to practice the skills necessary for launching and landing. However, ground handling could be considered a fun and challenging sport in and of itself. Ground handling is considered an essential part of most paragliding wing management training. It needs to be remembered that in any sort of stumble or tumble, the head is at risk and a helmet is therefore always advisable. It is highly recommended that low hour pilots, ground-handling, should be wearing a formal harness with leg and waist straps firmly fitted and fastened. Since 2015 the standard harness has become an inflatable type. This forms a protective cushion when, during flight, air is forced through a check valve and retained in a chamber behind and under the pilot. In ground-handling practice the amount of air passing through the check valve may be very slight. In an accident where the pilot has been lifted and dumped while facing downwind, the protection offered by an inflatable harness is likely to be minimal. The old fashioned foam type of harness has a special value in that sort of situation. === Location === The ideal launch training site for novices with standard wings has the following characteristics: * Measured steady wind strength: 1 m/s to 4 m/s (3.6-14 km/h: 1.9-7.7 knots: 2.2-8.9 mph) * The even, flat, surface should slope slightly downwards (2 or three degrees) from down- wind to up-wind (providing a small vertical lift component). * The site must be isolated from uninvolved visitors. * Free of obstructions that might create a trip or snag hazard. * Soft surface, such as grass or sand, to reduce damage to the handler and wing in case of falls. * Novices should wear a harness and helmet and be accompanied by an appropriate adult. As pilots progress, they may challenge themselves by kiting over and around obstacles, in strong or turbulent wind, and on greater slopes. == Flying == === Launching === As with all aircraft, launching and landing are done into wind. The wing is placed into an airstream, either by running or being pulled, or an existing wind. The wing moves up over the pilot into a position in which it can carry the passenger. The pilot is then lifted from the ground and, after a safety period, can sit down into his harness. Unlike skydivers, paragliders, like hang gliders, do not jump at any time during this process. There are two launching techniques used on higher ground and one assisted launch technique used in flatland areas: ==== Forward launch ==== In low winds, the wing is inflated with a forward launch, where the pilot runs forward with the wing behind so that the air pressure generated by the forward movement inflates the wing. It is often easier, because the pilot only has to run forward, but the pilot cannot see his wing until it is above him, where he has to check it in a very short time for correct inflation and untangled lines before the launch. ==== Reverse launch ==== In higher winds, a reverse launch is used, with the pilot facing the wing to bring it up into a flying position, then turning around under the wing and running to complete the launch. Reverse launches have a number of advantages over a forward launch. It is more straightforward to inspect the wing and check if the lines are free as it leaves the ground. In the presence of wind, the pilot can be tugged toward the wing, and facing the wing makes it easier to resist this force and safer in case the pilot slips (as opposed to being dragged backwards). However, the movement pattern is more complex than forward launch, and the pilot has to hold the brakes in a correct way and turn to the correct side so he does not tangle the lines. These launches are normally attempted with a reasonable wind speed, making the ground speed required to pressurise the wing much lower. The launch is initiated by the hands raising the leading edge with the As. As it rises the wing is controlled more by centring the feet than by use of the brakes or Cs. With mid level wings (EN C and D) the wing may try to "overshoot" the pilot as it nears the top. This is checked with Cs or brakes. The wing becomes increasingly sensitive to the Cs and brakes as its internal air pressure rises. This is usually felt from increasing lift of the wing applying harness pressure to the seat of the pants. That pressure indicates that the wing is likely to remain stable when the pilot pirouettes to face the wind. The next step in the launch is to bring the wing into the lift zone. There are two techniques for accomplishing this depending on wind conditions. In light wind this is usually done after turning to the front, steering with the feet towards the low wing tip, and applying light brakes in a natural sense to keep the wing horizontal. In stronger wind conditions it is often found to be easier to remain facing downwind while moving slowly and steadily backwards into the wind. Knees bent to load the wing, foot adjustments to remain central and minimum use of Cs or Brakes to keep the wing horizontal. Pirouette when the feet are close to lifting. This option has two distinct advantages. a) The pilot can see the wing centre marker (an aid to centring the feet) and, if necessary, b) the pilot can move briskly towards the wing to assist with an emergency deflation. With either method it is essential to check "traffic" across the launch face before committing to flight. The A's and C's technique described above is well suited to low-hours pilots, on standard wings, in wind strengths up to 10 knots. It is particularly recommended for kiting. As wind speed increases (above ten knots), especially on steep ridges, the use of the C's introduces the potential to be lifted before the wing is overhead due to the increased angle of attack. That type of premature lift often results in the pilot's weight swinging downwind rapidly, resulting in a frontal tuck (due to excess A line loads). In that situation the pilot commonly drops vertically and injuries are not uncommon. In ridge soaring situations above ten knots it is almost always better to lift the wing with A's only and use the brakes to stop any potential overshoot. The brakes do not usually increase the angle of attack as much C's. As wind strength increases it becomes more important than ever for the pilot to keep the wing loaded by bending the knees and pushing the shoulders forward. Most pilots will find that when their hands are vertically under the brake line pulleys they are able reduce trailing edge drag to the absolute minimum. That is not so easy for most, when the arms are thrust rearwards. ==== Towed launch ==== In flatter countryside, pilots can also be launched with a tow. Once at full height (towing can launch pilots up to altitude), the pilot pulls a release cord, and the towline falls away. This requires separate training, as flying on a winch has quite different characteristics from free flying. There are two major ways to tow: pay-in and pay-out towing. Pay-in towing involves a stationary winch that winds in the towline and thereby pulls the pilot in the air. The distance between winch and pilot at the start is around or more. Pay-out towing involves a moving object, like a car or a boat, that pays out line slower than the speed of the object, thereby pulling the pilot up in the air. In both cases, it is very important to have a gauge indicating line tension to avoid pulling the pilot out of the air. Another form of towing is static line towing. This involves a moving object, like a car or a boat, attached to a paraglider or hang glider with a fixed-length line. This can be very dangerous, because now the forces on the line have to be controlled by the moving object itself, which is almost impossible to do, unless stretchy rope and a pressure/tension meter (dynamometer) is used. Static line towing with stretchy rope and a load cell as a tension meter has been used in Poland, Ukraine, Russia, and other Eastern European countries for over twenty years (under the name Malinka) with about the same safety record as other forms of towing. One more form of towing is hand towing. This is where 1−3 people pull a paraglider using a tow rope of up to . The stronger the wind, the fewer people are needed for a successful hand tow. Tows up to have been accomplished, allowing the pilot to get into a lift band of a nearby ridge or row of buildings and ridge-soar in the lift the same way as with a regular foot launch. === Landing === Landing a paraglider, as with all unpowered aircraft which cannot abort a landing, involves some specific techniques and traffic patterns. Paragliding pilots most commonly lose their height by flying a figure 8 over a landing zone until they reach the correct height, then line up into the wind and give the glider full speed. Once the correct height (about a metre above ground) is achieved the pilot will stall the glider in order to land. thumb|right|Landing figure 8 pattern ==== Traffic pattern ==== Unlike during launch, where coordination between multiple pilots is straightforward, landing involves more planning, because more than one pilot might have to land at the same time. Therefore, a specific traffic pattern has been established. Pilots line up into a position above the airfield and to the side of the landing area, which is dependent on the wind direction, where they can lose height (if necessary) by flying circles. From this position, they follow the legs of a flightpath in a rectangular pattern to the landing zone: downwind leg, base leg, and final approach. This allows for synchronization between multiple pilots and reduces the risk of collisions, because a pilot can anticipate what other pilots around him are going to do next. ==== Techniques ==== thumb|left|Paragliding landing pattern Landing involves lining up for an approach into wind and, just before touching down, flaring the wing to minimise vertical and/or horizontal speed. This consists of gently going from 0% brake at around two metres to 100% brake when touching down on the ground. During the approach descent, at around four metres before touching ground, some momentary braking (50% for around two seconds) can be applied then released, thus using forward pendular momentum to gain speed for flaring more effectively and approaching the ground with minimal vertical speed. In light winds, some minor running is common. In moderate to medium headwinds, the landings can be without forward speed, or even going backwards with respect to the ground in strong winds. Landing with winds which force the pilot backwards are particularly hazardous as there is a potential to tumble and be dragged. While the wing is vertically above the pilot there is potential for a reduced risk deflation. This involves taking the leading edge lines (As) in each hand at the mallion/riser junction and applying the pilot's full weight with a deep knee bend action. In almost every case the wing's leading edge will fly forward a little and then tuck. It is then likely to collapse and descend upwind of the pilot. On the ground it will be restrained by the pilot's legs. Landing in winds which are too strong for the wing is to be avoided wherever possible. During approach to the intended landing site this potential problem is often obvious and there may be opportunities to extend the flight to find a more sheltered landing area. On every landing it is desirable to have the wing remain flyable with a small amount of forward momentum. This makes deflation much more controllable. While the midsection lines (Bs) are vertical there is much less chance of the wing moving downwind fast. The common deflation cue comes from a vigorous tug on the rear risers' lines (Cs or Ds). Promptly rotate to face down wind, maintain pressure on the rear risers and take brisk steps towards the wing as it falls. With practice there is potential for precision enabling safe trouble-free landing. For strong winds during the landing approach, flapping the wing (symmetrical pulsing of brakes) is a common option on final. It reduces the wing's lift performance. The descent rate is increases by the alternate application and release of the brakes about once per second. (The amount of brake applied in each cycle being variable but about 25%.) The system depends on the pilot's wing familiarity. The wing must not become stalled. This should be established with gentle applications in flight, at a safe height, in good conditions and with an observer providing feedback. As a rule the manufacturer has set the safe-brake-travel-range based on average body proportions for pilots in the approved weight range. Making changes to that setting should be undertaken in small increases, with tell-tale marks showing the variations and a test flight to confirm the desired effect. Shortening the brake lines can produce the problematic effect of making the wing sluggish. Lengthening brakes excessively can make it hard to bring the wing to a safe touchdown speed. Alternative approach techniques for landing in strong winds include the use of a speed bar and big ears. A speed bar increases wing penetration and adds a small increase in the vertical descent rate. This makes it easier to adjust descent rates during a formal circuit. In an extreme situation it might be advisable to stand on the speed bar, after shifting out of the harness, and stay on it till touchdown and deflation. Big ears are commonly applied during circuit height management. The vertical descent speed is increased and that advantage can be used to bring the glider to an appropriate circuit joining height. Most manufacturers change the operation technique for big ears in advanced models. It is common for Big Ears in C-rated gliders to remain folded in after the control line is released. In those cases the wing can be landed with reasonable safety with big ears deployed. In those wing types it usually takes two or three symmetrical pumps with brakes, over a second or two, to re- inflate the tips. In lower rated wings the Big Ears need the line to remain held to hold the ears in. While they are held-in the wing tends to respond to weight shift slightly better (due to reduced effective area) on the roll axis. They auto re-inflate when the line is released. In general those wings are better suited to the situation where the ears are pulled in simply to get rid of excess height. Full-wing flight should then be resumed during base leg or several seconds before touch down. Wing familiarity is a key ingredient in applying these controls. Pilots should practise in medium conditions in a safe area, at a safe height and with options for landing. === Control === right|thumb|upright|Speedbar mechanism Brakes: controls held in each of the pilot's hands connect to the trailing edge of the left and right sides of the wing. These controls are called brakes and provide the primary and most general means of control in a paraglider. The brakes are used to adjust speed, to steer (in addition to weight shift), and to flare (during landing). Weight shift: in addition to manipulating the brakes, a paraglider pilot must also lean in order to steer properly. Such weight shifting can also be used for more limited steering when brake use is unavailable, such as when under "big ears" (see below). More advanced control techniques may also involve weight shifting. Speed bar: a kind of foot control called the speed bar (also accelerator) attaches to the paragliding harness and connects to the leading edge of the paraglider wing, usually through a system of at least two pulleys (see animation in margin). This control is used to increase speed and does so by decreasing the wing's angle of attack. This control is necessary because the brakes can only slow the wing from what is called trim speed (no brakes applied). The accelerator is needed to go faster than this. More advanced means of control can be obtained by manipulating the paraglider's risers or lines directly. Most commonly, the lines connecting to the outermost points of the wing's leading edge can be used to induce the wingtips to fold under. The technique, known as "big ears", is used to increase the rate of descent (see picture and the full description below). The risers connecting to the rear of the wing can also be manipulated for steering if the brakes have been severed or are otherwise unavailable. For ground-handling purposes, a direct manipulation of these lines can be more effective and offer more control than the brakes. The effect of sudden wind blasts can be countered by directly pulling on the risers and making the wing unflyable, thereby avoiding falls or unintentional takeoffs. ==== Fast descents ==== Problems with getting down can occur when the lift situation is very good or when the weather changes unexpectedly. There are three possibilities for rapidly reducing altitude in such situations, each of which has benefits and issues to be aware of. The "big ears" manoeuvre induces descent rates of 2.5 to 3.5 m/s, 4–6 m/s with additional speed bar. It is the most controllable of the techniques and the easiest for beginners to learn. The B-line stall induces descent rates of 6–10 m/s. It increases loading on parts of the wing (the pilot's weight is mostly on the B-lines, instead of spread across all the lines). Finally, a spiral dive offers the fastest rate of descent, at 7–25 m/s. It places greater loads on the wing than other techniques do and requires the highest level of skill from the pilot to execute safely. ;Big ears thumb|left|Paraglider in "Big Ears" manoeuvre :Pulling on the outer A-lines during non-accelerated, normal flight folds the wing tips inwards, which substantially reduces the glide angle with only a small decrease in forward speed. As the effective wing area is reduced, the wing loading is increased, and it becomes more stable. However, the angle of attack is increased, and the craft is closer to stall speed, but this can be ameliorated by applying the speed bar, which also increases the descent rate. When the lines are released, the wing re-inflates. If necessary, a short pumping on the brakes helps reentering normal flight. Compared to the other techniques, with big ears, the wing still glides forward, which enables the pilot to leave an area of danger. Even landing this way is possible, e.g., if the pilot has to counter an updraft on a slope. ;B-line stall :In a B-line stall, the second set of risers from the leading- edge/front (the B-lines) are pulled down independently of the other risers, with the specific lines used to initiate a stall. This puts a spanwise crease in the wing, thereby separating the airflow from the upper surface of the wing. It dramatically reduces the lift produced by the canopy and thus induces a higher rate of descent. This can be a strenuous manoeuvre, because these B-lines have to be held in this position, and the tension of the wing puts an upwards force on these lines. The release of these lines has to be handled carefully not to provoke a too fast forward shooting of the wing, which the pilot then could fall into. This is less popular now as it induces high loads on the internal structure of the wing. ;Spiral dive :The spiral dive is the most rapid form of controlled fast descent; an aggressive spiral dive can achieve a sink rate of 25 m/s. This manoeuvre halts forward progress and brings the flier almost straight down. The pilot pulls the brakes on one side and shifts his weight onto that side to induce a sharp turn. The flight path then begins to resembles a corkscrew. After a specific downward speed is reached, the wing points directly to the ground. When the pilot reaches his desired height, he ends this manoeuvre by slowly releasing the inner brake, shifting his weight to the outer side and braking on this side. The release of the inner brake has to be handled carefully to end the spiral dive gently in a few turns. If done too fast, the wing translates the turning into a dangerous upward and pendular motion. :Spiral dives put a strong G-force on the wing and glider and must be done carefully and skilfully. The G-forces involved can induce blackouts, and the rotation can produce disorientation. Some high-end gliders have what is called a "stable spiral problem". After inducing a spiral and without further pilot input, some wings do not automatically return to normal flight and stay inside their spiral. Serious injury and fatal accidents have occurred when pilots could not exit this manoeuvre and spiralled into the ground. The rate of rotation in a spiral dive can be reduced by using a drogue chute, deployed just before the spiral is induced. This reduces the G forces experienced. === Soaring === right|thumb|upright|Ridge soaring along the California coast Soaring flight is achieved by using wind directed upwards by a fixed object such as a dune or ridge. In slope soaring, pilots fly along the length of a slope feature in the landscape, relying on the lift provided by the air, which is forced up as it passes over the slope. Slope soaring is highly dependent on a steady wind within a defined range (the suitable range depends on the performance of the wing and the skill of the pilot). Too little wind, and insufficient lift is available to stay airborne (pilots end up scratching along the slope). With more wind, gliders can fly well above and forward of the slope, but too much wind, and there is a risk of being blown back over the slope. A particular form of ridge soaring is called condo soaring, where pilots soar a row of buildings that form an artificial ridge. This form of soaring is particularly used in flat lands where there are no natural ridges, but there are plenty of man-made building ridges. === Thermal flying === When the sun warms the ground, the ground will radiate some of its heat to a thin layer of air situated just above it. Air has very poor thermal conductivity and most of the heat transfer in it will be convective - forming rising columns of hot air, called thermals. If the terrain is not uniform, it will warm some features more than others (such as rock faces or large buildings) and these thermals will tend to always form at the same spot, otherwise they will be more random. Sometimes these may be a simple rising column of air; more often, they are blown sideways in the wind and will break off from the source, with a new thermal forming later. Once a pilot finds a thermal, he begins to fly in a circle, trying to centre the circle on the strongest part of the thermal (the "core"), where the air is rising the fastest. Most pilots use a vario-altimeter ("vario"), which indicates climb rate with beeps and/or a visual display, to help core in on a thermal. Often there is strong sink surrounding thermals, and there is also strong turbulence resulting in wing collapses as a pilot tries to enter a strong thermal. Good thermal flying is a skill that takes time to learn, but a good pilot can often core a thermal all the way to cloud base. === Cross-country flying === Once the skills of using thermals to gain altitude have been mastered, pilots can glide from one thermal to the next to go cross country. Having gained altitude in a thermal, a pilot glides down to the next available thermal. Potential thermals can be identified by land features that typically generate thermals or by cumulus clouds, which mark the top of a rising column of warm, humid air as it reaches the dew point and condenses to form a cloud. Cross-country pilots also need an intimate familiarity with air law, flying regulations, aviation maps indicating restricted airspace, etc. === In-flight wing deflation (collapse) === Since the shape of the wing (airfoil) is formed by the moving air entering and inflating the wing, in turbulent air, part or all of the wing can deflate (collapse). Piloting techniques referred to as active flying will greatly reduce the frequency and severity of deflations or collapses. On modern recreational wings, such deflations will normally recover without pilot intervention. In the event of a severe deflation, correct pilot input will speed recovery from a deflation, but incorrect pilot input may slow the return of the glider to normal flight, so pilot training and practice in correct response to deflations are necessary. For the rare occasions when it is not possible to recover from a deflation (or from other threatening situations such as a spin), most pilots carry a reserve (rescue, emergency) parachute (or even two); however, most pilots never have cause to "throw" their reserve. Should a wing deflation occur at low altitude, i.e., shortly after takeoff or just before landing, the wing (paraglider) may not recover its correct structure rapidly enough to prevent an accident, with the pilot often not having enough altitude remaining to deploy a reserve parachute [with the minimum altitude for this being approximately , but typical deployment to stabilization periods using up of altitude] successfully. Different packing methods of the reserve parachute affect its deploying time. Low-altitude wing failure can result in serious injury or death due to the subsequent velocity of a ground impact whereas a higher altitude failure may allow more time to regain some degree of control in the descent rate and, critically, deploy the reserve if needed. In-flight wing deflation and other hazards are minimized by flying a suitable glider and choosing appropriate weather conditions and locations for the pilot's skill and experience level. == As a competitive sport == There are various disciplines of competitive paragliding: * Cross- country flying is the classical form of paragliding competitions with championships in club, regional, national and international levels (see PWC). * Aerobatic competitions demand the participants to perform certain manoeuvres. Competitions are held for individual pilots as well as for pairs that show synchronous performances. This form is the most spectacular for spectators on the ground to watch. * Hike & Fly competitions, in which a certain route has to be flown or hiked only over several days: Red Bull X-Alps—the unofficial world championship in this category of competition—first launched in 2003 and has since taken place every other year. In addition to these organized events it is also possible to participate in various online contests that require participants to upload flight track data to dedicated websites like OLC. == Safety == Paragliding, like any adventure sport, is a potentially dangerous activity. In the United States, for example, in 2010 (the last year for which details are available), one paraglider pilot died. This is an equivalent rate of one in 5,000 pilots. In 2019, YouTube personality Grant Thompson of The King Of Random died in a paraglider accident. Over the years 1994−2010, an average of seven in every 10,000 active paraglider pilots have been fatally injured, though with a marked improvement in recent years. In France (with over 25,000 registered fliers), two of every 10,000 pilots were fatally injured in 2011 (a rate that is not atypical of the years 2007−2011), although around six of every 1,000 pilots were seriously injured (more than two-day hospital stay). The potential for injury can be significantly reduced by training and risk management. The use of proper equipment such as a wing designed for the pilot's size and skill level, as well as a helmet, a reserve parachute, and a cushioned harness also minimize risk. Pilot safety is influenced by an understanding of the site conditions such as air turbulence (rotors), strong thermals, gusty wind, and ground obstacles such as power lines. Sufficient pilot training in wing control and emergency manoeuvres from competent instructors can minimize accidents. Many paragliding accidents are the result of a combination of pilot error and poor flying conditions. SIV, short for Simulation d’Incident en Vol (simulation of incident in flight) instruction offers training in managing and preventing unstable and potentially dangerous situations such as collapses, full stalls, and cravattes. These courses are typically led by a specially trained instructor over large bodies of water, with the student usually being instructed via radio. Students will be taught how to induce dangerous situations, and thus learn how to both avoid and remedy them once induced. This course is recommended to pilots who are looking to move to more high performance and less stable wings, which is a natural progression for most pilots. In some countries a SIV course is a basic requirement of initial pilot training. In the event of an unrecoverable manoeuvre resulting in water landing, a rescue boat is typically dispatched to collect the pilot. Other added safety features may include buoyancy aids or secondary reserve parachutes. These courses are not considered essential for novice level flying. ==Fitness and age== Paragliding in ordinary circumstances is not especially demanding in terms of strength. It sometimes needs a Pilot to walk with equipment to and from a launch site and this occasionally requires assistance from a friend or colleague. Age is more significant in people past their fifties. This especially relates to those with artificial joints. An unexpected or heavy landing can put enormous pressure on the bones which serve as anchors for hips and knee joints. Due to increasing loss of bone density in senior pilots, there is an increased risk that during a bad landing a bone may shatter and this considerably complicates moving to an appropriate treatment centre. Currently surgeons often rate these prosthetic joints as being suitable only for smooth, steady, work loads. But even for those with ordinary knees and hips there is often a stiffness in walking and running which has a negative effect on launching. Pilots who recognise this minor debility usually avoid strong wind launches, which may demand the pilot to move briskly towards the wing during inflation. There are pilots still flying while in their nineties but these are exceptional and they may very well depend on specific assistance. It is important that you consult your doctor if you have any doubts about your continued flying following any serious health event. It is especially important to carry, in your flight pack, an up to date list of details relating to medications and major health issues. [primary source?] ==Instruction== Most popular paragliding regions have a number of schools, generally registered with and/or organized by national associations. Certification systems vary widely between countries, though around 10 days instruction to basic certification is standard. There are several key components to a paragliding pilot certification instruction program. Initial training for beginning pilots usually begins with some amount of ground school to discuss the basics, including elementary theories of flight as well as basic structure and operation of the paraglider. Students then learn how to control the glider on the ground, practising take-offs and controlling the wing 'overhead'. Low, gentle hills are next where students get their first short flights, flying at very low altitudes, to get used to the handling of the wing over varied terrain. Special winches can be used to tow the glider to low altitude in areas that have no hills readily available. As their skills progress, students move on to steeper/higher hills (or higher winch tows), making longer flights, and learning to turn the glider, control the glider's speed, then moving on to 360° turns, spot landings, ‘big ears’ (used to increase the rate of descent for the paraglider), and other more advanced techniques. Training instructions are often provided to the student via radio, particularly during the first flights. A third key component to a complete paragliding instructional program provides substantial background in the key areas of meteorology, aviation law, and general flight area etiquette. To give prospective pilots a chance to determine if they would like to proceed with a full pilot training program, most schools offer tandem flights, in which an experienced instructor pilots the paraglider with the prospective pilot as a passenger. Schools often offer pilot's families and friends the opportunity to fly tandem, and sometimes sell tandem pleasure flights at holiday resorts. Most recognised courses lead to a national licence and an internationally recognised International Pilot Proficiency Information/Identification card. The IPPI specifies five stages of paragliding proficiency, from the entry level ParaPro 1 to the most advanced stage 5. Attaining a level of ParaPro 3 typically allows the pilot to fly solo or without instructor supervision. == World records == FAI (Fédération Aéronautique Internationale) world records: * Free Distance (previously titled "Straight Distance" prior to May 2020) – : Sebastien Kayrouz (USA), Del Rio, Texas (USA) – Claude, Texas (USA) – 20 June 2021 flying an Ozone Enzo 3 * Straight distance (female) – : Yael Margelisch (Switzerland); Caicó (Brazil) – 12 October 2019 flying an Ozone Enzo 3 * Straight distance to declared goal – : Sebastien Kayrouz (USA), Del Rio, Texas (USA) – Claude, Texas (USA) – 20 June 2021 flying an Ozone Enzo 3 * Straight distance to a declared goal (female) - 457,3 km (284,15 mi): Marcella Pomarico Uchoa (BRA) - 14 Oct 2022 flying an Ozone Enzo 3 (location Caicó (Brazil)) * Gain of height – : Antoine Girard (France); Aconcagua (Argentina); 15 February 2019, flying an Ozone LM6 Others: * Highest flight – : Ewa Wisnierska; between Barraba and Niagra (Australia). ==Related activities== ===Sky diving=== Parachutes have the most resemblance with paragliders but the sports are very different. Whereas with sky diving the parachute is a tool to safely return to earth after free fall, the paraglider allows longer flights and the use of thermals. ===Hang gliding=== Hang gliding is a close cousin, and hang glider and paraglider launches are often found in proximity to one another. Despite the considerable difference in equipment, the two activities offer similar pleasures, and some pilots are involved in both sports. ===Powered hang glider=== Foot-launched powered hang gliders are powered by an engine and propeller in pusher configuration. An ordinary hang glider is used for its wing and control frame, and the pilot can foot-launch from a hill or from flat ground. ===Powered paragliding=== Powered paragliding is the flying of paragliders with a small engine known as a paramotor attached. Powered paragliding is known as paramotoring and requires extra training alongside regular paragliding training. It is often recommended to become competent in paragliding prior to learning to paramotor in order to know fully what one is doing. ===Speed flying=== Speed flying, or speed riding, is the separate sport of flying paragliders of a reduced size. These wings have increased speed, though they are not normally capable of soaring flight. The sport involves taking off on skis or on foot and swooping rapidly down in close proximity to a slope, even periodically touching it if skis are used. These smaller wings are also sometimes used where wind speeds are too high for a full-sized paraglider, although this is invariably at coastal sites where the wind is laminar and not subject to as much mechanical turbulence as inland sites. ===Gliding=== thumb|right|Winter paragliding Just like sailplanes and hang gliders, paragliders use thermals to extend the time in the air. Air speed, glide ratio and flight distances are superior to the ones achieved by paragliders. Paragliders on the other hand are able to also facilitate thermals that are too small (because of the much larger turn radius) or too weak for gliding. Paragliding can be of local importance as a commercial activity. Paid accompanied tandem flights are available in many mountainous regions, both in the winter and in the summer. In addition, there are many schools offering courses and guides who lead groups of more experienced pilots exploring an area. Finally, there are the manufacturers and the associated repair and after-sales services. Paraglider-like wings also find other uses, for example, in ship propulsion and wind energy exploitation, and are related to some forms of power kite. Kite skiing uses equipment similar to paragliding sails. ==National organizations== * United States Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association (USHPA) – United States * British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association (BHPA) – United Kingdom ** Flyability – BHPA associated charity for disabled paragliding and hang gliding * (FFVL) – France * Association of Paragliding Pilots and Instructors (APPI) * Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association of Canada (HPAC) – Canada * (FAVL) – Argentina * (DHV) (Eng. German hang gliding association) – Germany * Sports Aviation Federation of Australia (SAFA), previously known as the Hang Gliding Federation of Australia (HGFA) – Australia * Swiss Hang Gliding Association (SHV/FSVL) – Switzerland * Georgian Paragliding Federation (GPF) – Georgia * South African Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association - SAHPA – South Africa * Asociacion Uruguaya de Parapentes - ASUP – Uruguay * Paragliding Federation of Ukraine (PFU) - Ukraine * The Hungarian Free Flying Association (HFFA) - Hungary ==Notes== == References == ==Further reading== *Les visiteurs du ciel – Guide de l'air pour l'homme volant. Hubert Aupetit. ==External links== * Category:Adventure travel Category:Aircraft configurations Category:Gliding technology Category:Individual sports Category:Articles containing video clips
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In the fields of Big Bang theory and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused electrically neutral atoms in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the "dark ages". Reionization is the second of two major phase transitions of gas in the universe (the first is recombination). While the majority of baryonic matter in the universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, reionization usually refers strictly to the reionization of hydrogen, the element. It is believed that the primordial helium also experienced the same phase of reionization changes, but at different points in the history of the universe. This is usually referred to as helium reionization. == Background == thumb|upright=1.4|Schematic timeline of the universe, depicting reionization's place in cosmic history. The first phase change of hydrogen in the universe was recombination, which occurred at a redshift z = 1089 (379,000 years after the Big Bang), due to the cooling of the universe to the point where the rate of recombination of electrons and protons to form neutral hydrogen was higher than the reionization rate. The universe was opaque before the recombination, due to the scattering of photons (of all wavelengths) off free electrons (and free protons, to a significantly lesser extent), but it became increasingly transparent as more electrons and protons combined to form neutral hydrogen atoms. While the electrons of neutral hydrogen can absorb photons of some wavelengths by rising to an excited state, a universe full of neutral hydrogen will be relatively opaque only at those absorbed wavelengths, but transparent throughout most of the spectrum. The Dark Ages of the universe start at that point, because there were no light sources other than the gradually redshifting cosmic background radiation. The second phase change occurred once objects started to condense in the early universe that were energetic enough to re-ionize neutral hydrogen. As these objects formed and radiated energy, the universe reverted from being composed of neutral atoms, to once again being an ionized plasma. This occurred between 150 million and one billion years after the Big Bang (at a redshift 20 > z > 6). At that time, however, matter had been diffused by the expansion of the universe, and the scattering interactions of photons and electrons were much less frequent than before electron-proton recombination. Thus, the universe was full of low density ionized hydrogen and remained transparent, as is the case today. == Detection methods == Looking back so far in the history of the universe presents some observational challenges. There are, however, a few observational methods for studying reionization. ===Quasars and the Gunn- Peterson trough=== One means of studying reionization uses the spectra of distant quasars. Quasars release an extraordinary amount of energy, in fact they are among the brightest objects in the universe. As a result, some quasars are detectable from as far back as the epoch of reionization. Quasars also happen to have relatively uniform spectral features, regardless of their position in the sky or distance from the Earth. Thus it can be inferred that any major differences between quasar spectra will be caused by the interaction of their emission with atoms along the line of sight. For wavelengths of light at the energies of one of the Lyman transitions of hydrogen, the scattering cross-section is large, meaning that even for low levels of neutral hydrogen in the intergalactic medium (IGM), absorption at those wavelengths is highly likely. For nearby objects in the universe, spectral absorption lines are very sharp, as only photons with energies just sufficient to cause an atomic transition can cause that transition. However, the distances between quasars and the telescopes which detect them are large, which means that the expansion of the universe causes light to undergo noticeable redshifting. This means that as light from the quasar travels through the IGM and is redshifted, wavelengths which had been below the Lyman Alpha limit are stretched, and will in effect begin to fill in the Lyman absorption band. This means that instead of showing sharp spectral absorption lines, a quasar's light which has traveled through a large, spread out region of neutral hydrogen will show a Gunn-Peterson trough. The redshifting for a particular quasar provides temporal (time) information about reionization. Since an object's redshift corresponds to the time at which it emitted the light, it is possible to determine when reionization ended. Quasars below a certain redshift (closer in space and time) do not show the Gunn-Peterson trough (though they may show the Lyman-alpha forest), while quasars emitting light prior to reionization will feature a Gunn-Peterson trough. In 2001, four quasars were detected (by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey) with redshifts ranging from z = 5.82 to z = 6.28. While the quasars above z = 6 showed a Gunn-Peterson trough, indicating that the IGM was still at least partly neutral, the ones below did not, meaning the hydrogen was ionized. As reionization is expected to occur over relatively short timescales, the results suggest that the universe was approaching the end of reionization at z = 6. This, in turn, suggests that the universe must still have been almost entirely neutral at z > 10\. ===CMB anisotropy and polarization=== The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background on different angular scales can also be used to study reionization. Photons undergo scattering when there are free electrons present, in a process known as Thomson scattering. However, as the universe expands, the density of free electrons will decrease, and scattering will occur less frequently. In the period during and after reionization, but before significant expansion had occurred to sufficiently lower the electron density, the light that composes the CMB will experience observable Thomson scattering. This scattering will leave its mark on the CMB anisotropy map, introducing secondary anisotropies (anisotropies introduced after recombination). The overall effect is to erase anisotropies that occur on smaller scales. While anisotropies on small scales are erased, polarization anisotropies are actually introduced because of reionization. By looking at the CMB anisotropies observed, and comparing with what they would look like had reionization not taken place, the electron column density at the time of reionization can be determined. With this, the age of the universe when reionization occurred can then be calculated. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe allowed that comparison to be made. The initial observations, released in 2003, suggested that reionization took place from 30 > z > 11. This redshift range was in clear disagreement with the results from studying quasar spectra. However, the three year WMAP data returned a different result, with reionization beginning at z = 11 and the universe ionized by z = 7. This is in much better agreement with the quasar data. Results in 2018 from Planck mission, yield an instantaneous reionization redshift of z = 7.68 ± 0.79. The parameter usually quoted here is τ, the "optical depth to reionization," or alternatively, zre, the redshift of reionization, assuming it was an instantaneous event. While this is unlikely to be physical, since reionization was very likely not instantaneous, zre provides an estimate of the mean redshift of reionization. ===21-cm line=== Even with the quasar data roughly in agreement with the CMB anisotropy data, there are still a number of questions, especially concerning the energy sources of reionization and the effects on, and role of, structure formation during reionization. The 21-cm line in hydrogen is potentially a means of studying this period, as well as the "dark ages" that preceded reionization. The 21-cm line occurs in neutral hydrogen, due to differences in energy between the spin triplet and spin singlet states of the electron and proton. This transition is forbidden, meaning it occurs extremely rarely. The transition is also highly temperature dependent, meaning that as objects form in the "dark ages" and emit Lyman-alpha photons that are absorbed and re- emitted by surrounding neutral hydrogen, it will produce a 21-cm line signal in that hydrogen through Wouthuysen-Field coupling. By studying 21-cm line emission, it will be possible to learn more about the early structures that formed. Observations from the Experiment to Detect the Global Epoch of Reionization Signature (EDGES) points to a signal from this era, although follow-up observations will be needed to confirm it. Several other projects hope to make headway in this area in the near future, such as the Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization (PAPER), Low Frequency Array (LOFAR), Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT), Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature (MIST), the Dark Ages Radio Explorer (DARE) mission, and the Large-Aperture Experiment to Detect the Dark Ages (LEDA). ==Energy sources== While observations have come in which narrow the window during which the epoch of reionization could have taken place, it is still uncertain which objects provided the photons that reionized the IGM. To ionize neutral hydrogen, an energy larger than 13.6 eV is required, which corresponds to photons with a wavelength of 91.2 nm or shorter. This is in the ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which means that the primary candidates are all sources which produce a significant amount of energy in the ultraviolet and above. How numerous the source is must also be considered, as well as the longevity, as protons and electrons will recombine if energy is not continuously provided to keep them apart. Altogether, the critical parameter for any source considered can be summarized as its "emission rate of hydrogen-ionizing photons per unit cosmological volume." With these constraints, it is expected that quasars and first generation stars and galaxies were the main sources of energy. === Dwarf galaxies === Dwarf galaxies are currently the primary source of ionizing photons during the epoch of reionization. For most scenarios, this would require the log-slope of the UV galaxy luminosity function, often denoted α, to be steeper than it is today, approaching α = -2. In 2014, two separate sources have identified two Green Pea galaxies (GPs) to be likely Lyman Continuum (LyC)-emitting candidates. This suggests that these two GPs are low-redshift analogs of high- redshift Lyman-alpha and LyC emitters, only two others of which are known: Haro 11 and Tololo-1247-232. Finding local LyC emitters is crucial to the theories about the early universe and the epoch of reionization. These two GPs have SDSS DR9 reference numbers: 1237661070336852109 (GP_J1219) and 1237664668421849521. A new study shows that dwarf galaxies contributed nearly 30% of the ultraviolet light during the process of reionization. The dwarfs had such a big impact because a larger fraction of ionizing photons are able to escape dwarf galaxies (clocking in at 50%) as opposed to larger galaxies (clocking in at a mere 5%). Quoting J. H. Wise from an interview with Sky and Telescope: "The smallest galaxies first dominate at early times; however, they basically kill themselves off by blowing out their gas through their own supernovae and heating their environment. Afterwards, larger galaxies (but still much smaller than the Milky Way by about 100 times in mass) take over the job of reionizing the universe." ===Quasars=== Quasars, a class of active galactic nuclei (AGN), were considered a good candidate source because they are highly efficient at converting mass to energy, and emit a great deal of light above the threshold for ionizing hydrogen. It is unknown, however, how many quasars existed prior to reionization. Only the brightest of quasars present during reionization can be detected, which means there is no direct information about dimmer quasars that existed. However, by looking at the more easily observed quasars in the nearby universe, and assuming that the luminosity function (number of quasars as a function of luminosity) during reionization will be approximately the same as it is today, it is possible to make estimates of the quasar populations at earlier times. Such studies have found that quasars do not exist in high enough numbers to reionize the IGM alone, saying that "only if the ionizing background is dominated by low- luminosity AGNs can the quasar luminosity function provide enough ionizing photons." ===Population III stars=== Population III stars were the earliest stars, which had no elements more massive than hydrogen or helium. During Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the only elements that formed aside from hydrogen and helium were trace amounts of lithium. Yet quasar spectra have revealed the presence of heavy elements in the intergalactic medium at an early era. Supernova explosions produce such heavy elements, so hot, large, Population III stars which will form supernovae are a possible mechanism for reionization. While they have not been directly observed, they are consistent according to models using numerical simulation and current observations. A gravitationally lensed galaxy also provides indirect evidence of Population III stars. Even without direct observations of Population III stars, they are a compelling source. They are more efficient and effective ionizers than Population II stars, as they emit more ionizing photons, and are capable of reionizing hydrogen on their own in some reionization models with reasonable initial mass functions. As a consequence, Population III stars are currently considered the most likely energy source to initiate the reionization of the universe, though other sources are likely to have taken over and driven reionization to completion. In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at . Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it. ==See also== * Big Bang * Chronology of the universe * Galaxies in the local universe that 'leak' Lyman continuum photons. ** Haro 11 – first of two galaxies ** Tololo-1247-232 – second of two galaxies * List of the most distant astronomical objects * Pea galaxy * Quasars * Strömgren sphere ==Notes and references== ==External links== * End of the Dark Ages * LOFAR EoR, website of the group researching Epoch of Reionization using LOFAR. * Official website of PAPER, the Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization * Website of MIST, Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature Category:Big Bang Category:Astrophysics Category:Space plasmas Category:Physical cosmology
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Cantabrian (, in Cantabrian) is a group of dialects belonging to Astur- Leonese. It is indigenous to the territories in and surrounding the Autonomous Community of Cantabria, in Northern Spain. Traditionally, some dialects of this group have been further grouped by the name ('from the Mountain'), ('the Mountain') being a traditional name for Cantabria due to its mountainous topography. == Distribution == thumb|280px| These dialects belong to the Northwestern Iberian dialect continuum and have been classified as belonging to the Astur-Leonese domain by successive research works carried out through the 20th century, the first of them, the famous work , by Ramón Menéndez Pidal. This dialect group spans the whole territory of Cantabria. In addition, there is historical evidence of traits (such as toponyms, or certain constructions) linking the speech of some nearby areas to the Cantabrian Astur-Leonese group: * The western part of Las Encartaciones, in Biscay. * Bordering areas with Burgos: especially the upper valleys of Espinosa de los Monteros, where Pasiegu dialect was spoken. * Bordering areas with Palencia * Valleys of Peñamellera Baja, Peñamellera Alta, eastern Llanes and Ribadedeva, in the easternmost part of Asturias. Some of this areas had historically been linked to Cantabria before the 1833 territorial division of Spain, and the creation of the Province of Santander (with the same territory as the modern- day Autonomous Community). === Dialects === Based on the location where dialects are spoken, we find a traditional dialectal division of Cantabria, which normally corresponds to the different valleys or territories: Traditional dialects of Cantabria Autoglottonym Area of usage Meaning of name Montañés La Montaña, i.e. Coastal and Western parts of Cantabria of or pertaining to the people of La Montaña Pasiegu Pas, Pisueña and upper Miera valleys of or pertaining to the people of Pas Pejín Western coastal villages from peje "fish". Pejinu Eastern coastal villages from peji "fish". Tudancu Tudanca of or pertaining to the people of Tudanca However, based on linguistic evidence, R. Molleda proposed what is today the usual division of dialectal areas in Cantabria. Molleda proposed to take the isogloss of the masculine plural gender morphology, which seems to surround a large portion of Eastern Cantabria, running from the mouth of the Besaya River in the North, and along the Pas-Besaya watershed. He then proceeded to name the resulting areas Western and Eastern, depending on the location to the West or East of the isogloss. This division has gained support due to the fact that, although masculine morphology by itself is not a very important difference, many other isoglosses draw the same line. == Linguistic description == There are many features in common with Spanish. Cantabrian's set of consonants is nearly identical to that of Northern Iberian Spanish. In the Valles Pasiegos, becomes before voiced consonants. citing This has also occurred in the names of the rivers Arlanza and Arlanzón in Burgos. This type of change is also the source of the Spanish word , from earlier . Also in the Valles Pasiegos, syllable- final word-internal and are frequently confused. In Tudanca and neighboring zones, can be aspirated, that is, pronounced as , when before consonants, or at the end of a word and before another word which begins with a vowel, as in 'the ears'. That said, cannot be aspirated before a pause in this zone. Similar patterns of -aspiration have been found in some other Astur-leonese zones as well. An important difference is preservation of the voiceless glottal fricative (/h/) as an evolution of Latin's word initial f- as well as the [x-h] mergers; both features are common in many Spanish dialects, especially those from Southern Spain and parts of Latin America. The preservation of the voiceless glottal fricative was usual in Middle Spanish, before the /h/ in words like /humo/, from Latin fumus, resulted in Modern Spanish /umo/. Every Cantabrian dialect keeps /f/ before consonants such as in /'fɾi.u/ (cold), just as Spanish and Astur-Leonese do. Results of Latin initial /f/ in Cantabrian Dialects Feature Western Dialects Eastern Dialects Gloss Coastal Valleys Inner Valleys f+C /f/ /'fɾi.u/ frigĭdus cold f+w /h/ /'hue.gu/ /f/ /'fue.gu/ /f/ or /x/ /'hue.gu/ or /'xue.gu/ focus hearth, later fire f+j /h/ /'hie.ru/ Ø /'ie.ru/ ferrum iron f+V /h/ /ha'θeɾ/ Ø /a'θeɾ/ facĕre to do (verb) The [x - h] merger is typical in most Western and Eastern Coastal dialects, where [x] merges into [h]. However, the Eastern dialects from the Inner Valleys have merged [h] into [x]; moreover, there are older speakers that lack any kind of merger, fully distinguishing the minimal pair /huegu/ - /xuegu/ (fire - game). [x - h] merger in Cantabrian Dialects Western dialects Eastern dialects Gloss Coastal Valleys Inner Valleys [h] ['hue.ɣ̞u] [h] ['hue.ɣ̞u] no, or [x] ['xue.ɣ̞u] iocus joke, later game Other features are common to most Astur-Leonese dialects; some of these are: *Use of /u/ as masculine singular gender morpheme: most dialects use a closed central rounded vowel [ʉ], as masculine morpheme, although only eastern dialects have shown [ʉ] - [u] contrast. *Opposition between singular and plural masculine gender morphemes. The dialectal boundaries of this feature are usually used to represent the western and eastern dialects: ** Western Dialects oppose /u/ masculine singular marker to /os/ masculine plural marker. E.g. perru (dog) but perros (dogs). ** Eastern Dialects used to oppose /ʉ/+metaphony (masc. sing.) to /us/ (masc. plural). E.g. pirru ['pɨ.rʉ] (dog) but perrus (dogs). This opposition is nearly lost and only few speakers of the Pasiegu dialect still use it. Nowadays, the most common situation is the no-opposition, using /u/ as a masculine morpheme both in singular and plural. *Mass neuter: this feature marks uncountableness in nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives and quantifiers. As in general Astur- Leonese, the neuter morpheme is /o/, rendering an opposition between pelo (the hair) and pelu (one strand of hair), however the actual development of this feature changes from dialect to dialect: ** Most western dialects have recently lost this distinction in nominal and adjectival morphology, merging masculine and neuter morphology (pelu for both previous examples), although keeping this distinction in pronouns, quantifiers and articles, so lo (it, neuter) would refer to pelu (the hair, uncountable), but lu (it, masculine) would refer to 'pelu (hair strand, countable). ** Eastern dialects show a more complex behaviour, with metaphony as the main mechanism for neuter distinction. Due to this, word-final morphology was not so important, and the mutations in stressed and previous syllables play a more important role. Thus, these would have ['pɨ.lʉ] (strand of hair, countable) and ['pe.lu] (the hair, uncountable), the same applied for adjectives. Likewise, eastern dialects modified their pronoun systems in order to avoid misunderstandings, replacing lu with li (originally dative pronoun) as third person singular accusative pronoun, and using lu for mass neuter. However, this distinction has been gradually lost and is now only retained in some older speakers of Pasiegu dialect. A unique feature of these dialects is the use of feminine agreeing quantifiers with neuter nouns, such as: mucha pelu (much hair). *Dropping of the -r from verb infinitives when clitic pronouns are appended. This results in cantar (to sing) +la (it, feminine) = cantala. *Preference of simple verbal tenses over complex (compound) tenses, e.g. "ya acabé" (I already finished) rather than "ya he acabáu" (I have already finished). == Threats and recognition== In 2009, Cantabrian was listed as a dialect of the Astur-Leonese language by UNESCO's Red Book of the World's Languages in Danger, which was in turn classified as a definitely endangered language.UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger , where Cantabria is listed as a dialect of the Astur-Leonese language. == Comparative tables == Latin etyma Gloss Latin Asturian West. Cantabrian Montañés East. Cantabrian Pasiegu Spanish Features "high" ALTUM altu altu altu alto ALTUM > altu "to fall" CADĔRE cayer cayer cayer caer Before short e, /d/ → /j/. "to say" DĪCERE dicir dicir/icir dicir/dicer/icir decir Conjugation shift -ERE → -IR "to do" FACERE facer/facere ḥacer hacer hacer Western /f/→[h]. Eastern /f/→∅. "iron" FERRUM fierro ḥierru yerru hierro Western . Eastern . "flame" FLAMMAM llama llapa llama llama Palatalization /FL-/ > (or , due to western yeismo) "fire" FOCUM fueu/fuegu ḥueu ḥuigu/ḥuegu fuego Western: FOCUM > . Eastern: FOCUM > (metaphony). "fireplace" LĀR llar llar lar lar Western: Palatalization of ll-, yeísmo. "to read" LEGERE lleer leer leyer leer Eastern: survival of -g- as -y-. "loin" LUMBUM llombu lombu/llombu lumu/lomu lomo Western: conservation of -MB- group. Eastern: metaphony. "mother" MATREM madre/ma madre madri madre Eastern: closing of final -e. "blackbird" MIRULUM mierbu miruellu miruilu mirlo Westen: palatalization of -l-. Eastern: metaphony. "to show" MOSTRARE amosar amostrar mostrar mostrar Western: prothesis. "knot" *NODUS ñudu ñudu ñudu nudo Palatalization of Latin N- "ours" NOSTRUM nuestru/nuesu nuestru muistru nuestro Eastern: metaphony and confusion between Latin pronoun nos and 1st person plural ending -mos. "cough" TUSSEM tus tus tus tos "almost" QUASI cuasi cuasi casi casi "to bring" TRAHĔRE trayer trayer trayer traer Conservation of Latin -h- by -y-. "to see" VIDĒRE ver veer veyer ver Eastern: before short e, /d/ → /y/. Non-Latin etyma Gloss Asturian West. Cantabrian Montañés East. Cantabrian Pasiegu Spanish Features "photo" foto ḥotu afutu foto Western shows [f] > [h], while Eastrn prefers prothesis. "dog/dogs" perru/perros perru/perros pirru/perrus perro/perros Western masculine singular -u, plural -os. Eastern masculine singular -u + metaphony, plural -us. The following notes only apply for the Cantabrian derivatives, but might as well occur in other Astur-Leonese varieties: : Many verbs keep the etymological -h- or -d- as an internal -y-. This derivation is most intense in the Pasiegan Dialect. : Latin -MB- group is only retained in the derivatives of a group containing few, but very used, Latin etyma: lumbum (loin), camba (bed), lambere (lick), etc. however, it has not been retained during other more recent word derivations, such as tamién (also), which comes from the -mb- reduction of también a compound of tan (as) and bien (well). : In Pasiegan dialect, all masculine singular nouns, adjectives and some adverbs retain an ancient vowel mutation called Metaphony, thus: lumu (one piece of loin) but lomu (uncountable, loin meat), the same applies for ḥuigu (a fire/campfire) and ḥuegu (fire, uncountable) and muistru and muestru (our, masculine singular and uncountable, respectively). : Most Western Cantabrian Dialects retain the ancient initial F- as an aspiration (IPA [h]), so: FACERE > /haθer/. This feature is still productive for all etyma starting with [f]. An example of this is the Greek root phōs (light) which, through Spanish foto (photo) derives in ḥotu (IPA: [hotu])(photography). : All Eastern Dialects have mostly lost Latin initial F-, and only keep it on certain lexicalized vestiges, such as: ḥumu (IPA: [xumu]). Thus: FACERE > /aθer/. : Prothesis: some words derive from the addition of an extra letter (usually /a/) at the beginning of the word. arradiu, amotu/amutu, afutu. : Yeísmo: Most Cantabrian dialects do not distinguish between the /ʝ/ (written y) and /ʎ/ (written ll) fonemes, executing both with a single sound [ʝ]. Thus, rendering poyu and pollu (stone seat and chicken, respectively) homophones. : Lleísmo: Pasiegan Dialect is one of the few Cantabrian Dialects which does distinguish /ʝ/ and /ʎ/. Thus, puyu and pullu (stone seat and chicken, respectively) are both written and pronounced differently. : Palatalization: Cantabrian Dialects do mostly not palatalize Latin L-, however, some vestiges might be found in Eastern Cantabrian Dialects, in areas bordering Asturias (Asturian a very palatalizing language). This vestiges are often camouflaged due to the strong Yeísmo. Palatalization of Latin N- is more common, and words such as ñudu (from Latin nudus), or ñublu (from Latin nubĭlus) are more common. == Sample text == === Central Cantabrian === Extracted from , === Spanish === === English (approximate-literal translation) === Nothing, we tipped over, and I ended up on the ground and with some cramps that invaded me with tremors... The axis was far away, totally torn apart; the broken stakes... But even so, I was almost grateful for the header, because my heifers — which after the fall should have been left to bury – were hardly hurt. In total: Some scratches like nothing! == Footnotes == == References == * * * * == External links == * Cantabrian-Spanish Dictionary in the Asturian wiktionary (in Cantabrian). * Alcuentros, Cantabrian magazine of minority languages (in Cantabrian/Spanish) * Proyeutu Depriendi Distance learning of Cantabrian (in Cantabrian/Spanish) Category:Cantabrian culture Category:Astur-Leonese languages
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The phonology of Portuguese varies among dialects, in extreme cases leading to some difficulties in intelligibility. Portuguese is a pluricentric language and has some of the most diverse sound variations in any language. This article on phonology focuses on the pronunciations that are generally regarded as standard. Since Portuguese is a pluricentric language—and differences between European Portuguese (EP), Brazilian Portuguese (BP), and Angolan Portuguese (AP) can be considerable—varieties are distinguished whenever necessary. ==Consonants== The consonant inventory of Portuguese is fairly conservative. The medieval Galician-Portuguese system of seven sibilants (, , , and apicoalveolar ) is still distinguished in spelling (intervocalic c/ç z, x g/j, ch, ss -s- respectively), but is reduced to the four fricatives by the merger of into and apicoalveolar into either or (depending on dialect and syllable position), except in parts of northern Portugal (most notably in the Trás-os-Montes region). These changes are known as deaffrication. Other than this, there have been no other significant changes to the consonant phonemes since Old Portuguese. However, several consonant phonemes have special allophones at syllable boundaries (often varying quite significantly between European and Brazilian Portuguese), and a few also undergo allophonic changes at word boundaries. Consonant phonemes of Portuguese: "A conclusão será que nos encontramos em presença de dois segmentos fonológicos /kʷ/ e /ɡʷ/, respetivamente, com uma articulação vocálica. Bisol (2005:122), tal como Freitas (1997), afirma que não estamos em presença de um ataque ramificado. Neste caso, a glide, juntamente com a vogal que a sucede, forma um ditongo no nível pós-lexical. Esta conclusão implica um aumento do número de segmentos no inventário segmental fonológico do português.": "A proposta é que a sequencia consoante velar + glide posterior seja indicada no léxico como uma unidade monofonemática /kʷ/ e /ɡʷ/. O glide que, nete caso, situa-se no ataque não- ramificado, forma com a vogal seguinte um ditongo crescente em nível pós lexical. Ditongos crescentes somente se formam neste nível. Em resumo, a consoante velar e o glide posterior, quando seguidos de a/o, formam uma só unidade fonológica, ou seja, um segmento consonantal com articulação secundária vocálica, em outros termos, um segmento complexo." Labial Dental/ Alveolar Palatal Velar/Uvular Labial Dental/ Alveolar Palatal Nasal Nasal Plosive () Plosive () Fricative Fricative Approximant Approximant Liquid Phonetic notes * Semivowels contrast with unstressed high vowels in verbal conjugation, as in (eu) rio 'I laugh' and (ele) riu 'he (has) laughed.' Phonologists debate whether their nature is vowel or consonant. In intervocalic position semivowels are ambisyllabic, they are associated to both the previous syllable and the following syllable onset. * In Brazil and Angola, the consonant hereafter denoted as is realized as a nasal palatal approximant , which nasalizes the vowel that precedes it: ninho ( in Brazil, in Angola) 'nest'. * is often the pronunciation of a sequence of followed by in a rising diphthong in Brazil, forming a minimal pair between sonha and Sônia ; menina, "girl" . * is often the pronunciation of a sequence of followed by in a rising diphthong in Brazil; e.g. limão, "lemon" ; sandália, "sandal" . * The consonant hereafter denoted as has a variety of realizations depending on dialect. In Europe, it is typically a voiced uvular fricative . There is also a realization as a voiceless uvular fricative , and the original pronunciation as an alveolar trill also remains very common in various dialects. A common realization of the word-initial in the Lisbon accent is a voiced uvular fricative trill . In Brazil, can be velar, uvular, or glottal and may be voiceless unless between voiced sounds; it is usually pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative , a voiceless glottal fricative or voiceless uvular fricative . See also Guttural R in Portuguese. All those variants are transcribed with in this article. * and are normally , as in English. However, a number of dialects in northern Portugal pronounce and as apico-alveolar sibilants which are exactly the same as the ones found in Catalan and Northern European Spanish. Those apico-alveolars sound like duller versions of and , but they are kept apart from (written ch/x and j/g) which are laminal postalveolar. Very few northeastern Portugal dialects still maintain the medieval distinction between apical and laminal sibilants (written s/ss and c/ç/z, respectively). This distinction is also found in Mirandese. An analogical distinction also occurs in European Spanish, see distinción. * As phonemes, and occur only in loanwords (e.g. tchau and dee jay), with a tendency for speakers to substitute into fricatives in Portugal. However in most Brazilian dialects d and t are pronounced as and before . * In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops , , are usually lenited to fricatives , , and respectively, except at the beginning of words, or after nasal vowels; a similar process occurs in Spanish. * In large parts of northern Portugal, e.g. Trás-os-Montes, and also in East Timor and the islands os Flores, and are merged, both pronounced , as in Spanish. ===Consonant elision=== There is a variation in the pronunciation of the first consonant of certain clusters, most commonly C or P in cç, ct, pç and pt. These consonants may be variably elided or conserved. For some words, this variation may exist inside a country, sometimes in all of them; for others, the variation is dialectal, with the consonant being always pronounced in one country and always elided in the other. This variation affects 0.5% of the language's vocabulary, or 575 words out of 110,000.according to the "Nota Explicativa do Acordo Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa", written by the Academia Brasileira de Letras and by the Academia de Ciências de Lisboa In most cases, Brazilians variably conserve the consonant while speakers elsewhere have invariably ceased to pronounce it (for example, detector in Brazil versus detetor in Portugal). The inverse situation is rarer, occurring in words such as fa(c)to and conta(c)to (consonants never pronounced in Brazil, pronounced elsewhere). Until 2009, this reality could not be apprehended from the spelling: while Brazilians did not write consonants that were no longer pronounced, the spelling of the other countries retained them in many words as silent letters, usually when there was still a vestige of their presence in the pronunciation of the preceding vowel. This could give the false impression that European Portuguese was phonologically more conservative in this aspect, when in fact it was Brazilian Portuguese that retained more consonants in pronunciation. Examples Example Gloss fa(c)to 'fact' pacto 'pact' ta(c)to 'tact' ca(c)to 'cactus' === Consonant phonotactics === Syllables have the maximal structure of (C)(C)V(C). The only possible codas in European Portuguese are , and and in Brazilian Portuguese and (or, in a minority of dialects, or any combination of the former with the latter). * The consonants and only occur in the middle of a word between vowels, and only rarely occur before . * Although nasal consonants do not normally occur at the end of syllables, syllable-final may be present in rare learned words, such as abdomen ( 'abdomen'). In Brazilian varieties, these words have a nasal diphthong (, spelled as abdomen). Word- initial occurs in very few loanwords. * While the sibilant consonants () contrast word-initially and intervocalically, they appear in complementary distribution in the syllable coda. For many dialects (i.e., those of Portugal and of Rio de Janeiro and the northeast of Brazil and certain other areas in Brazil), the sibilant is a postalveolar in coda position (e.g., pasto 'pasture'; futurismo 'futurism'; paz 'peace'). In many other dialects of Brazil (e.g., some of the Southeast, Northeast, and North), the postalveolar variant occurs in some or all cases when directly preceding a consonant, including across word boundaries, but not word-finally (e.g., , , ). In a number of Brazilian dialects, this "palatalization" is absent entirely (e.g., , , ). Voicing contrast is also neutralized, with or occurring before voiced consonants and or appearing before voiceless consonants and before a pause (e.g., pasta or , 'paste'; Islão (or Islã) or , 'Islam'). In the vast majority of dialects, however, word-final "s" and "z" are pronounced /z/ before vowels (e.g. os ovos , "the eggs", temos hoje , "we have today", faz isso , "do that"). In European dialects, the postalveolar fricatives are only weakly fricated in the syllable coda. *The consonant is velarized in all positions in European Portuguese, even before front vowels. In Portugal, the unvelarized lateral appears only in non-standard dialects. In most Brazilian dialects, is vocalized to at the end of syllables, but in the dialects of the extreme south, mainly along the frontiers with other countries (especially Uruguay), it has the full pronunciation or the velarized pronunciation. In some caipira registers, there is a rhotacism of coda to retroflex . In casual BP, unstressed il can be realized as , as in fácil ('easy'). *For speakers who realize as an alveolar trill , the sequence (as in e.g., os rins) can coalesce into a voiced alveolar fricative trill . * proposes that Portuguese possesses labio-velar stops and as additional phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and . This is because, before another vowel, the is always realized as a semi-vowel. It's never an in hiatus with the following vowel. *The semivowels and do not occur before and respectively, and only contrast in some diphthongs like in pai versus pau . Otherwise they are the non-syllabic allophones of and in unstressed syllables. *Unlike its neighbor and relative Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese lacks a tendency to elide any stop, including those that may become a continuant (always fricative in Portuguese) by lenition ( > , > , > ), but it has a number of allophones to it. ===Rhotics=== The two rhotic phonemes and contrast only between oral vowels, similar to Spanish. Elsewhere, their occurrence is predictable by context, with dialectal variations in realization. The rhotic is "hard" (i.e., ) in the following circumstances: *Word-initially (e.g., rosa 'rose'); *Syllable-initially preceded by or (e.g., guelra 'gill', Israel); *Following a nasal vowel (e.g., honrar 'to honor'); *In most Brazilian and some African dialects, syllable-finally (i.e., preceded but not followed by a vowel); *When written with the digraph "rr" (e.g., carro 'car'). It is "soft" (i.e., ) when it occurs in syllable onset clusters (e.g., atributo), and written as a single 'r' between vowels (e.g., dirigir 'to drive') The realization of the "hard" rhotic varies significantly across dialects. This restricted variation has prompted several authors to postulate a single rhotic phoneme. and see the soft as the unmarked realization and that instances of intervocalic result from gemination and a subsequent deletion rule (i.e., carro > > ). Similarly, argue that the hard is the unmarked realization. ====Brazilian rhotics==== In addition to the phonemic variation between and between vowels, up to four allophones of the "merged" phoneme /R/ are found in other positions: #A "soft" allophone in syllable-onset clusters, as described above; #A default "hard" allophone in most other circumstances; #In some dialects, a special allophone syllable-finally (i.e., preceded but not followed by a vowel); #Commonly in all dialects, deletion of the rhotic word-finally. The default hard allophone is some sort of voiceless fricative in most dialects, e.g., , although other variants are also found. For example, an alveolar trill is found in certain conservative dialects down São Paulo, of Italian-speaking, Spanish-speaking, Arabic-speaking, or Slavic-speaking influence. A uvular trill is found in areas of German-speaking, French- speaking, and Portuguese-descended influence throughout coastal Brazil down Espírito Santo, most prominently Rio de Janeiro. The syllable-final allophone shows the greatest variation: *Many dialects (mainly in Brasília, Minas Gerais and Brazilian North and Northeast) use the same voiceless fricative as in the default allophone. This may become voiced before a voiced consonant, esp. in its weaker variants (e.g., dormir 'to sleep'). *The soft occurs for many speakers in Southern Brazil and São Paulo city. *An English-like approximant or vowel (R-colored vowel) occurs elsewhere in São Paulo as well as Mato Grosso do Sul, southern Goiás, central and southern Mato Grosso and bordering regions of Minas Gerais, as well as in the urban areas in the Sinos river valley. This pronunciation is stereotypically associated with the rural "caipira" dialect. Throughout Brazil, deletion of the word-final rhotic is common, regardless of the "normal" pronunciation of the syllable-final allophone. This pronunciation is particularly common in lower registers, although found in most registers in some areas, e.g., Northeast Brazil, and in the more formal and standard sociolect. It occurs especially in verbs, which always end in R in their infinitive form; in words other than verbs, the deletion is rarer and seems not to occur in monosyllabic non-verb words, such as mar. Evidence of this allophone is often encountered in writing that attempts to approximate the speech of communities with this pronunciation, e.g., the rhymes in the popular poetry (cordel literature) of the Northeast and phonetic spellings (e.g., amá, sofrê in place of amar, sofrer) in Jorge Amado's novels (set in the Northeast) and Gianfrancesco Guarnieri's play Eles não usam black tie (about favela dwellers in Rio de Janeiro). citing The soft realization is often maintained across word boundaries in close syntactic contexts (e.g., mar azul 'blue sea'). ==Vowels== thumb|Monophthongs of European Portuguese as they are pronounced in Lisbon, from . The vowel transcribed on this chart appears only in unstressed syllables and corresponds to the symbol in this article. thumb|Monophthongs of Brazilian Portuguese as they are pronounced in São Paulo, from . The vowels appear only in unstressed syllables. Portuguese has one of the richest vowel phonologies of all Romance languages, having both oral and nasal vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs. A phonemic distinction is made between close-mid vowels and the open-mid vowels , as in Italian, Catalan and French, though there is a certain amount of vowel alternation. European Portuguese has also two central vowels, one of which tends to be elided like the e caduc of French. The central closed vowel only occurs in European Portuguese when e is unstressed, e.g. presidente , as well as in Angola; where unlike Portugal, it only occurs in final syllables, e.g. presidente . However, does not exist in Brazil, e.g. presidente . In Angola, and merge to , and appears only in final syllables rama . The nasal becomes open . {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" Front Central Back Close () Close-mid Open-mid Open === Vowel classification === In some cases, Portuguese uses vowel height to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables: * In Portugal, unstressed tend to be raised to , whereas remain unchanged. In final syllables, only appear. * In Brazil, unstressed are raised to , whereas remain unchanged. In final syllables, only appear. * In Angola, unstressed remain unchanged. In final syllables, only appear. See below for details. The dialects of Portugal are characterized by reducing vowels to a greater extent than others. Falling diphthongs are composed of a vowel followed by one of the high vowels or ; although rising diphthongs occur in the language as well, they can be interpreted as hiatuses. European Portuguese possesses quite a wide range of vowel allophones: * All vowels are lowered and retracted before : . * All vowels are raised and advanced before alveolar, palato-alveolar and palatal consonants: . Those are the vowels shown on the chart. The diphthong is an exception to that as it is often pronounced in Lisbon, with a back onset. Furthermore, Cruz-Ferreira gives voiceless allophones of , , in the unstressed word-final position. The exact realization of the varies somewhat amongst dialects. In Brazil, the vowel can be as high as in any environment. It is typically closer in stressed syllables before intervocalic nasals than word-finally, reaching as open a position as in the latter case, and open-mid before nasals, where can be nasalized. In European Portuguese, the general situation is similar, except that in some regions the two vowels form minimal pairs in some European dialects. In central European Portuguese this contrast occurs in a limited morphological context, namely in verbs conjugation between the first person plural present and past perfect indicative forms of verbs such as pensamos ('we think') and pensámos ('we thought'; spelled in Brazil). Spahr proposes that it is a kind of crasis rather than phonemic distinction of and . It means that in falamos 'we speak' there is the expected prenasal -raising: , while in falámos 'we spoke' there are phonologically two in crasis: (but in Brazil both merge, falamos ). Close- mid vowels and open-mid vowels ( and ) contrast only when they are stressed. In unstressed syllables, they occur in complementary distribution. In Brazilian Portuguese, they are raised to close after a stressed syllable, or in some accents and in general casual speech, also before it. According to Mateus and d'Andrade (2000:19), in European Portuguese, the stressed only occurs in the following three contexts: * Before a palatal consonant (such as telha ) * Before the palatal front glide (such as lei ) * Before a nasal consonant (such as cama ) English loanwords containing stressed or are usually associated with pre-nasal as in rush,rush in Aulete dictionaryrush in Priberam dictionary or are influenced by orthography as in clube (club),clube in Aulete dictionaryclube in Priberam dictionary or both, as in surf/surfe.surf and surfe in Priberam dictionary === European Portuguese "e caduc" === European Portuguese possesses a near-close near-back unrounded vowel, transcribed in this article. It occurs in unstressed syllables such as in pegar ('to grip'). *Traditionally, all instances of are pronounced; e.g. verdade , perigo , estado . *In modern European Portuguese, the initial is fronted to ; e.g. energia → . *In traditional EP, was never retracted to . In modern EP, it happens when it is surrounded by , so that ministro , príncipe and artilhar are usually pronounced , and . *When "e" is surrounded by another vowel, it becomes ; e.g. real . *However, when the e caduc is preceded by a semi-vowel, it may be given the unreduced pronunciation of the letter , that is or : poesia , quietude . * Regardless of the underlying phoneme, a phonetic can be elided, affecting syllabification and sometimes even producing a syllabic consonant; e.g. verdade → , perigo → , estado → , energia → , ministro → , príncipe → , artilhar → , caminhar → , pistola → (here, stands for a syllabic alveolar trill with one contact, the syllabic counterpart of ). This can result in complex syllable onsets that are typical of Slavic languages. * Whenever is elided, obstruents in the resulting consonant cluster often agree in voicing, so that the most reduced form of desistiu '(he) gave up' surfaces as . , a phonological sonorant, behaves like an obstruent in this case and can also be devoiced in voiceless clusters, as in reconhecer 'to recognize' (phonemically ). There are very few minimal pairs for this sound: some examples include pregar ('to nail') vs. pregar ('to preach'; the latter stemming from earlier preegar < Latin praedicāre), sê ('be!') vs. sé ('see/cathedral') vs. se ('if'), and pêlo ('hair') vs. pélo ('I peel off') vs. pelo ('for the'), after orthographic changes, all these three words are now spelled pelo. ===Oral diphthongs=== Diphthongs are not considered independent phonemes in Portuguese, but knowing them can help with spelling and pronunciation. Diphthong Usual spelling Example Meaning Notes and variants ai, ái pai 'father' In Brazil, it may be realized as before a post-alveolar fricative , making baixo realized as . ai, âi plaina 'jointer' In several Brazilian dialects; it occurs before nasal consonants and can be nasalised, as in plaina . ei, éi, êi leite 'milk' In Greater Lisbon (except by Setúbal) can be centralized to before palatals .; e.g. roupeiro , brenha , texto , vejo , coelho , anéis . Before , it is often a back vowel : etc. ei, êi rei 'king' In several vernacular dialects (most of Portugal, Brazil and Lusophone Africa), "ei" may be realized essentially as in unstressed syllables. Words ending on either -eiro or -eira (like roupeiro , bandeira , brasileiro , brasileira , etc.), when ei precedes a palatal sound (like queijo , deixa , etc.), or when ei precedes a consonant in general (like manteiga , beiço ) are optionally monophthongized, depending on the speaker and region (comparable to Spanish ropero, bandera, brasilero, brasilera, queso, deja, manteca, bezo). However, notice that when ei makes up part of a Greco-Latin loanword (like diarreico, anarreico, etc.), as well as nouns ending on -ei (like rei , lei ) and seis, reino keep their palatal sound (, in case of -eico ending nouns and adjectives). In most stressed syllables, the pronunciation is . There are very few minimal pairs for and , all of which occur in oxytonic words. In Greater Lisbon, however, it is always pronounced . ei, éi geleia, anéis 'jelly', 'rings' It only occurs in -el plurals like anéis (plural of anel 'ring'). In Greater Lisbon, however, it is always pronounced [ɐj]. oi, ôi dois 'two' oi, ói dói, destrói 'hurts', 'destroys' Pronounced as mostly on -oi ending words like herói 'hero', as well as some verbal conjugations. ui fui 'I went' Usually stressed. au, áu mau 'bad' au, âu saudade, trauma 'to miss', 'trauma' In EP, when unstressed. In several Brazilian dialects; it occurs before nasal consonants and can be nasalised, as in trauma . eu, êu seu 'your'/'yours' There are very few minimal pairs for and , all occurring in oxytonic words. eu, éu céu 'sky' iu viu 'he saw' Usually stressed. ou ouro 'gold' Merges optionally with in most of modern Portuguese dialects, excluding some regions in northern Portugal.From the 1911 Orthographic Formulary: "No centro de Portugal o digrama ou, quando tónico, confunde-se na pronunciação com ô, fechado. A diferença entre os dois símbolos, ô, ou, é de rigor que se mantenha, não só porque, histórica e tradicionalmente, êles sempre foram e continuam a ser diferençados na escrita, mas tambêm porque a distinção de valor se observa em grande parte do país, do Mondego para norte." Available in http://www.portaldalinguaportuguesa.org/acordo.php?action=acordo&version;=1911 There are also some words with two vowels occurring next to each other like in iate and sábio may be pronounced both as rising diphthongs or hiatus. – The unique kind of diphthong which does not swap with hiatus is that preceded by velar stops such as that in quando and água.The syllabic separation given by the dictionaries of Portuguese indicates these vowels in and can be pronounced both as diphthong or hiatus. In these and other cases, other diphthongs, diphthong-hiatus or hiatus-diphthong combinations might exist depending on speaker, such as or even for suo ('I sweat') and or even for fatie ('slice it'). and are non-syllabic counterparts of the vowels and , respectively. At least in European Portuguese, the diphthongs tend to have more central second elements (as stated above, the starting point of is typically back) – note that is also more weakly rounded than the monophthong. ===Nasal vowels=== Nasal vowel Usual spelling Example Meaning ã, am, an rã, canto 'frog', 'I sing' or 'corner' em, en entro 'I enter' im, in vim 'I came' õ, om, on sombra 'shadow' um, un mundo 'world' Portuguese also has a series of nasalized vowels. analyzes European Portuguese with five monophthongs and five diphthongs, all phonemic: . Nasal diphthongs occur mostly at the end of words (or followed by a final sibilant), and in a few compounds. As in French, the nasal consonants represented by the letters ⟨m n⟩ are deleted in coda position, and in that case the preceding vowel becomes phonemically nasal, e.g. in genro ('son-in-law'). But a nasal consonant subsists when it is followed by a plosive, e.g. in cantar ('to sing'). Vowel nasalization has also been observed non-phonemically as result of coarticulation, before heterosyllabic nasal consonants, e.g. in soma ('sum'). Hence, there is a difference between phonemic nasal vowels and those that are allophonically nasalized. Additionally, a nasal monophthong written ⟨ã⟩ exists independently of these processes, e.g. in romã ('pomegranate'). Brazilian Portuguese is seen as being more nasal than European Portuguese due to the presence of these nasalized vowels. Some linguists consider them to be a result of external influences, including the common language spoken at Brazil's coast at time of discovery, Tupi. The and distinction does not happen in nasal vowels; ⟨em om⟩ are pronounced as close-mid. In BP, the vowel (which the letter ⟨a⟩ otherwise represents) is sometimes phonemically raised to when it is nasal, and also in stressed syllables before heterosyllabic nasal consonants (even if the speaker does not nasalize vowels in this position): compare for instance dama sã (PT) or (BR) ('healthy lady') and dá maçã (PT) or (BR) ('it gives apples'). may also be raised slightly in word-final unstressed syllables. Nasalization and height increase noticeably with time during the production of a single nasal vowel in BP in those cases that are written with nasal consonants ⟨m n⟩, so that may be realized as or . This creates a significant difference between the realizations of ⟨am⟩ and ⟨ã⟩ for some speakers: compare for instance ranço real (PT) or (BR) ('royal rancidness') and rã surreal (PT) or (BR) ('surreal frog'). (Here means a velar nasal approximant.) At the end of a word ⟨em⟩ is always pronounced with a clear nasal palatal approximant (see below). Whenever a nasal vowel is pronounced with a nasal coda (approximant or occlusive) the (phonetic) nasalization of the vowel itself is optional. The following examples exhaustively demonstrate the general situation for BP. * romã ('pomegranate') : : final vowel is (phonemically) "nasal" and nasal approximants may not be pronounced. * genro ('son-in-law') : or or : nasal consonant deleted; preceding vowel is (phonemically) "nasal" and nasal approximants may be pronounced. * cem ('a hundred') : : nasal approximant must be pronounced. * cantar ('to sing') : : nasal consonant remains because of the following plosive; preceding vowel is raised and nasalized non-phonemically. (This is traditionally considered a "nasal" vowel by textbooks.) * cano ('pipe') : or : first vowel is necessarily raised, and may be nasalized non- phonemically. * tomo ('I take') : or : first vowel may be nasalized non- phonemically. It follows from these observations that the vowels of BP can be described simply in the following way. *BP has eight monophthongs——whose phonetic realizations may be affected by a nasal archiphoneme . The vowel is typically nasalized (in every position), but this is not phonemic. *All eight vowels are differentiated in stressed and unstressed positions. But in word- final unstressed position and not followed by , they reduce to three vowels——in most dialects. In this position, has a free variation and this fatally impairs distinction. (For instance: the word ímã ('magnet') is effectively pronounced as either ima or ímam, depending on speaker.) *Like the ん of Japanese, the archiphoneme is a nasal archiphoneme of syllabic codas and its actual place of articulation is determined by the following sound: **=; **=; **=; **otherwise it becomes a nasal approximant (as in Japanese kan'i [かんい], etc.). After the vowels this approximant may also be pronounced as ; and after as (free variations). *The system of eight monophthongs reduces to five——before and also in stressed syllables before heterosyllabic nasal consonants. The grapheme ⟨a⟩ stands for in these cases. * is not allowed at word-final position because ⟨em⟩ stands for in this case. (Here means the same phoneme that ⟨nh⟩ represents; and may be nasalized non-phonemically.) This is the only case of in coda-position. With this description, the examples from before are simply . But there is no commonly accepted transcription for Brazilian Portuguese phonology. Vowel nasalization in some dialects of Brazilian Portuguese is very different from that of French, for example. In French, the nasalization extends uniformly through the entire vowel, whereas in the Southern-Southeastern dialects of Brazilian Portuguese, the nasalization begins almost imperceptibly and then becomes stronger toward the end of the vowel. In this respect it is more similar to the nasalization of Hindi-Urdu (see Anusvara). In some cases, the nasal archiphoneme even entails the insertion of a nasal consonant such as (compare ), as in the following examples: * banco * tempo * pinta * sombra * mundo * fã * bem * vim * bom * um * mãe * pão * põe * muito ===Nasal diphthongs=== Nasal diphthong Usual spelling Example Meaning Notes and variants am, ão falam, mão 'they speak', 'hand' The spelling am is used in unstressed syllables (falaram , 'they spoke'), whereas ão is for stressed syllables (falarão , 'they will speak') ãe, ãi mãe, cãibra 'mom', 'cramp' In Central and Southern Portugal, it is also the colloquial pronunciation of /ẽj/, which means mãe and bem rhyme. em bem 'well' In Greater Lisbon, it merges to , which means mãe and bem rhyme. om bom 'good' The diphthongation of such nasal vowel is controversial. õe põe '(he/she) puts' ui muito 'very', 'much' Only nasalized in words derived from muito (including mui). Most times nasal diphthongs occur at the end of the word. They are: * -ãe . It occurs in mãe(s) ('mother[s]') and in the plural of some words ending in -ão, e.g., cães ('dogs'), pães ('breads'); and exceptionally non-finally in cãibra ('cramp'). In Central European Portuguese, it occurs also in all words ending in -em, like tem ('he/she/it has'), bem ('well', 'good', as a noun), mentem (they lie), etc. * -em . It occurs, both stressed and unstressed, in Brazilian Portuguese and in European Portuguese (northern and southern dialects) in word-final syllables ending in -em and -ém like bem, sem, além, as well as in verbs ending in -em (3rd person plural present indicative or verbs in -er and -ir). In Greater Lisbon, has merged with ; and it occurs duplicated in têm or (3rd person plural present indicative of ter, originally tẽem), which in Brazilian is homophonous with tem (the 3rd person singular). * -õe . It occurs: ** in the present indicative of pôr and its derivatives; in the 2nd person singular (pões , opões, compões, pressupões), in the 3rd person singular (põe , opõe etc.), and non-finally in the 3rd person plural (põem , opõem etc.). **in the plural of many words ending in-ão, e.g., limões ('lemons'), anões ('dwarfs'), espiões ('spies'), iões ('ions'), catiões ('cations'), aniões ('anions'), eletrões ('electrons'), neutrões ('neutrons'), protões ('protons'), fotões ('photons'), positrões ('positrons') and the plurals of all words with the suffix -ção (compare English -tion, like in communication), like comunicações ('communications'), provocações ('provocations'). * -uim or -uin Example: pinguim ('penguin'). * ui occurs only in the words muito and the uncommon mui . The nasalisation here may be interpreted as allophonic, bleeding over from the previous m (compare mãe with the same bleeding of nasality). * -ão or -am. . Examples: pão ('bread'), cão ('dog'), estão ('they are'), vão ('they go'), limão ('lemon'), órgão ('organ'), Estêvão ('Steven'). When in the -am form (unstressed) they are always the 3rd person of the plural of a verb, like estavam ('they were'), contam ('they account'), escreveram ('they wrote'), partiram ('they left'). * -om . It occurs in word-final syllables ending in -om like bom and som. However, it may be also monophthongized to . and are nasalized, non-syllabic counterparts of the vowels and , respectively. In European Portuguese, they are normally not fully close, being closer to . As with the oral , the nasal is not only more central but also more weakly rounded than the monophthong. This is not transcribed in this article. ===Vowel alternation=== The stressed relatively open vowels contrast with the stressed relatively close vowels in several kinds of grammatically meaningful alternation: * Between the base form of a noun or adjective and its inflected forms: ovo ('egg'), ovos ('eggs'); novo , nova , novos , novas ('new': masculine singular, feminine singular, masculine plural, feminine plural); * Between some nouns or adjectives and related verb forms: adj. seco ('dry'), v. seco ('I dry'); n. gosto ('taste'), v. gosto ('I like'); n. governo ('government') v. governo ('I govern'); * Between different forms of some verbs: pôde ('he could'), pode ('he can'); * Between some pairs of related words: avô ('grandfather'), avó ('grandmother'); * In regular verbs, the stressed vowel is normally low , but high before the nasal consonants , , (the high vowels are also nasalized, in BP); * Some stem- changing verbs alternate stressed high vowels with stressed low vowels in the present tense, according to a regular pattern: cedo, cedes, cede, cedem ; movo, moves, move, movem (present indicative); ceda, cedas, ceda, cedam ; mova, movas, mova, movam (present subjunctive). (There is another class of stem-changing verbs which alternate with according to the same scheme); * In central Portugal, the 1st. person plural of verbs of the 1st. conjugation (with infinitives in -ar) has the stressed vowel in the present indicative, but in the preterite, cf. pensamos ('we think') with pensámos ('we thought'). In BP, the stressed vowel is in both, so they are written without accent mark. There are also pairs of unrelated words that differ in the height of these vowels, such as besta ('beast') and besta ('crossbow'); mexo ('I move') and mecho ('I highlight [hair]'); molho ('sauce') and molho ('bunch'); corte ('cut') and corte ('court'); meta ('I put' subjunctive) and meta ('goal'); and (especially in Portugal) para ('for') and para ('he stops'); forma ('mold') and forma ('shape'). There are several minimal pairs in which a clitic containing the vowel contrasts with a monosyllabic stressed word containing : da vs. dá, mas vs. más, a vs. à , etc. In BP, however, these words may be pronounced with in some environments. ====Unstressed vowels==== Some isolated vowels (meaning those that are neither nasal nor part of a diphthong) tend to change quality in a fairly predictable way when they become unstressed. In the examples below, the stressed syllable of each word is in boldface. The term "final" should be interpreted here as at the end of a word or before word- final -s. Spelling Stressed Unstressed, not final Unstressed and final a or (BR, EP) (AP) parto pensamos (BR, EP); (AP) or (EP) (AP, BP) partir (BR, AP); (EP) ação pensa ai or (BR) (EP, AP) pai plaina (BR); (EP, AP) (BR, AP) (EP) apaixonar (BR, AP); (EP) – – au or (BR) (EP, AP) pau fauna (BR); (EP, AP) (BR, AP) (EP) automático (BR, AP); (EP) – – e or mover pega (BR) or (EP) or (AP) pregar (BP, AP); (EP) (to nail) pregar (BP); (EP, AP) (to preach, to advocate) (BR) (EP, AP) move (BP); (EP, AP) ei or (Lisbon) peixe ; (Lisbon) anéis ; (Lisbon) (Lisbon) eleição ; (Lisbon) (Lisbon) possíveis ; (Lisbon) eu or meu céu europeu – – o or pôde pode (BP) or (EP) or (AP) poder (BP, AP); (EP) você (BP); (EP, AP) pato oi or coisa dói oitavo – – ou ouro dourado – – With a few exceptions mentioned in the previous sections, the vowels and occur in complementary distribution when stressed, the latter before nasal consonants followed by a vowel, and the former elsewhere. In Brazilian Portuguese, the general pattern in the southern and western accents is that the stressed vowels , , neutralize to , , , respectively, in unstressed syllables, as is common in Romance languages. In final unstressed syllables, however, they are raised to , , . In casual BP (as well as in the fluminense dialect), unstressed and may be raised to , on any unstressed syllable, as long as it has no coda. However, in the dialects of Northeastern Brazilian (as spoken in the states of Bahia and Pernambuco), non- final unstressed vowels are often open-mid , , , independent of vowel harmony with surrounding lower vowels. European Portuguese has taken this process one step further, raising , , to , , in almost all unstressed syllables. The vowels and are also more centralized than their Brazilian counterparts. The three unstressed vowels are reduced and often voiceless or elided in fast speech. However, Angolan Portuguese has been more conservative, raising , , to , , in unstressed syllables; and to , , in final unstressed syllables. Which makes it almost similar to Brazilian Portuguese (except by final , which is inherited from European Portuguese). There are some exceptions to the rules above. For example, occurs instead of unstressed or , word-initially or before another vowel in hiatus (teatro, reúne, peão). is often deleted entirely word- initially in the combination becoming . Also, , or appear in some unstressed syllables in EP, being marked in the lexicon, like espetáculo (spectacle) ; these occur from deletion of the final consonant in a closed syllable and from crasis. And there is some dialectal variation in the unstressed sounds: the northern and eastern accents of BP have low vowels in unstressed syllables, , instead of the high vowels . However, the Brazilian media tends to prefer the southern pronunciation. In any event, the general paradigm is a useful guide for pronunciation and spelling. Nasal vowels, vowels that belong to falling diphthongs, and the high vowels and are not affected by this process, nor is the vowel when written as the digraph (pronounced in conservative EP). ==== Epenthesis ==== In BP, an epenthetic vowel is sometimes inserted between consonants, to break up consonant clusters that are not native to Portuguese, in learned words and in borrowings. This also happens at the ends of words after consonants that cannot occur word-finally (e.g., , , ). For example, psicologia ('psychology') may be pronounced ; adverso ('adverse') may be pronounced ; McDonald's may be pronounced . In northern Portugal, an epenthetic may be used instead, , , but in southern Portugal there is often no epenthesis, , . Epenthesis at the end of a word does not normally occur in Portugal. The native Portuguese consonant clusters, where there is not epenthesis, are sequences of a non-sibilant oral consonant followed by the liquids or , and the complex consonants . Some examples: flagrante , complexo , fixo (but not ficção ), latex , quatro , guaxinim , ====Further notes on the oral vowels==== *Some words with in EP have in BP. This happens when those vowels are stressed before the nasal consonants , , followed by another vowel, in which case both types may occur in European Portuguese, but Brazilian Portuguese for the most part allows only mid or close-mid vowels. This can affect spelling: cf. EP tónico, BP tônico "tonic". *In most BP, stressed vowels have nasal allophones, , , , , , etc. (see below) before one of the nasal consonants , , , followed by another vowel. In São Paulo, Southern Brazil,. and EP, nasalization is nearly absent in this environment, other than in compounds such as connosco, comummente (spelled conosco, comumente in BP). *Most BP speakers also diphthongize stressed vowels in oxytones to , , , , , , etc. (sometimes ), before a sibilant coda (written s or z). For instance, Jesus ('Jesus'), faz ('he does'), dez ('ten'). This has led to the use of meia (from meia dúzia 'half a dozen") instead of seis ('six') when making enumerations, to avoid any confusion with três ('three') on the telephone.Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa, p. 1882 *In Greater Lisbon, is pronounced when it comes before a palatal consonant , , or a palato- alveolar , , followed by another vowel; as well as is pronounced . ==Sandhi== When two words belonging to the same phrase are pronounced together, or two morphemes are joined in a word, the last sound in the first may be affected by the first sound of the next (sandhi), either coalescing with it, or becoming shorter (a semivowel), or being deleted. This affects especially the sibilant consonants , , , , and the unstressed final vowels , , . ===Consonant sandhi=== As was mentioned above, the dialects of Portuguese can be divided into two groups, according to whether syllable-final sibilants are pronounced as postalveolar consonants , or as alveolar , . At the end of words, the default pronunciation for a sibilant is voiceless, , but in connected speech the sibilant is treated as though it were within a word (assimilation): * If the next word begins with a voiceless consonant, the final sibilant remains voiceless ; bons tempos or ('good times'). * If the next word begins with a voiced consonant, the final sibilant becomes voiced as well ; bons dias or ('good days'). * If the next word begins with a vowel, the final sibilant is treated as intervocalic, and pronounced ; bons amigos or ('good friends'). When two identical sibilants appear in sequence within a word, they reduce to a single consonant. For example, nascer, desço, excesso, exsudar are pronounced with by speakers who use alveolar sibilants at the end of syllables, and disjuntor is pronounced with by speakers who use postalveolars. But if the two sibilants are different they may be pronounced separately, depending on the dialect. Thus, the former speakers will pronounce the last example with , whereas the latter speakers will pronounce the first examples with if they are from Brazil or if from Portugal (although in relaxed pronunciation the first sibilant in each pair may be dropped). This applies also to words that are pronounced together in connected speech: * sibilant + , e.g., as sopas: either (most of Brazil); (Portugal, standard) * sibilant + , e.g., as zonas: either (mostly in Brazil); (Portugal, standard) * sibilant + , e.g., as chaves: always ; * sibilant + , e.g., os genes: always . ===Vowel sandhi=== Normally, only the three vowels , (in BP) or (in EP), and occur in unstressed final position. If the next word begins with a similar vowel, they merge with it in connected speech, producing a single vowel, possibly long (crasis). Here, "similar" means that nasalization can be disregarded, and that the two central vowels can be identified with each other. Thus, * → (henceforth transcribed ); toda a noite or ('all night'), nessa altura or ('at that point'). * → ) (henceforth transcribed ); a antiga ('the ancient one') and à antiga ('in the ancient way'), both pronounced or . The open nasalized appears only in this environment. * → (henceforth transcribed ); de idade or ('aged'). * → ; fila de espera ('waiting line') (EP only). * → (henceforth transcribed ); todo o dia or ('all day'). If the next word begins with a dissimilar vowel, then and become approximants in Brazilian Portuguese (synaeresis): * + V → ; durante o curso ('during the course'), mais que um ('more than one'). * + V → ; todo este tempo ('all this time') do objeto ('of the object'). In careful speech and in with certain function words, or in some phrase stress conditions (see Mateus and d'Andrade, for details), European Portuguese has a similar process: * + V → ; se a vires ('if you see her'), mais que um ('more than one'). * + V → ; todo este tempo ('all this time'), do objeto ('of the object'). But in other prosodic conditions, and in relaxed pronunciation, EP simply drops final unstressed and (elision)(significant dialectal variation): * durante o curso ('during the course'), este inquilino ('this tenant'). * todo este tempo ('all this time'), disto há muito ('there's a lot of this'). Aside from historical set contractions formed by prepositions plus determiners or pronouns, like à/dà, ao/do, nesse, dele, etc., on one hand and combined clitic pronouns such as mo/ma/mos/mas (it/him/her/them to/for me), and so on, on the other, Portuguese spelling does not reflect vowel sandhi. In poetry, however, an apostrophe may be used to show elision such as in d'água. ==Stress== Primary stress may fall on any of the three final syllables of a word, but mostly on the last two. There is a partial correlation between the position of the stress and the final vowel; for example, the final syllable is usually stressed when it contains a nasal phoneme, a diphthong, or a close vowel. The orthography of Portuguese takes advantage of this correlation to minimize the number of diacritics. Practically, for the main stress pattern, words that end with: "a(s)", "e(s)", "o(s)", "em(ens)" and "am" are stressed in the penultimate syllable, and those that don't carry these endings are stressed in the last syllable. In the case a word doesn't follow this pattern, it takes an accent according to Portuguese's accentuation rules (these rules might not be followed everytime when concerning personal names and non-integrated loanwords). Because of the phonetic changes that often affect unstressed vowels, pure lexical stress is less common in Portuguese than in related languages, but there is still a significant number of examples of it: : dúvida 'doubt' vs. duvida 's/he doubts' : ruíram 'they collapsed' vs. ruirão 'they will collapse' :falaram 'they spoke' vs. falarão 'they will speak' (Brazilian pronunciation) :ouve 'he hears' vs. ouvi 'I heard' (Brazilian pronunciation) :túnel 'tunnel' vs. tonel 'wine cask' (European pronunciation) ==Prosody== Tone is not lexically significant in Portuguese, but phrase- and sentence-level tones are important. As in most Romance languages, interrogation on yes-no questions is expressed mainly by sharply raising the tone at the end of the sentence. An exception to this is the word oi that is subject to meaning changes: an exclamation tone means 'hi/hello', and in an interrogative tone it means 'I didn't understand'. ==See also== *Differences between Spanish and Portuguese *History of Portuguese *Portuguese orthography, for further information on spelling *Portuguese dialects *Portuguese alphabet ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * Omniglot's page on Portuguese Includes a recording of the phonemes and diphthongs (Brazilian Portuguese). * The pronunciation of the Portuguese of Portugal * Phoneme summary, with samples * The pronunciation of each vowel and consonant letter in European Portuguese Phonology, Portugues Category:Italic phonologies he:פורטוגזית#הגייה וכתיבה
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Thatcherism is a form of British conservative ideology named after Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher that relates to not just her political platform and particular policies but also her personal character and style of management while in office. Proponents of Thatcherism are referred to as Thatcherites. The term has been used to describe the principles of the British government under Thatcher from the 1979 general election to her resignation in 1990, but it also receives use in describing administrative efforts continuing into the Conservative governments under John Major and David Cameron throughout the 1990s and 2010s. In international terms, Thatcherites have been described as a part of the general socio-economic movement known as neoliberalism, with different countries besides the United Kingdom (such as the United States) sharing similar policies around expansionary capitalism. Thatcherism represents a systematic, decisive rejection and reversal of the post-war consensus inside Great Britain in terms of governance, whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism, the welfare state, nationalised industry, and close regulation of the British economy before Thatcher's rise to prominence. Under her administration, there was one major exception to Thatcherite changes: the National Health Service (NHS), which was widely popular with the British public. In 1982, Thatcher promised that the NHS was "safe in our hands". The exact terms of what makes up Thatcherism and its specific legacy in British history over the past decades are controversial. Ideologically, Thatcherism has been described by Nigel Lawson, Thatcher's Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1983 to 1989, as a political platform emphasising free markets with restrained government spending and tax cuts that gets coupled with British nationalism both at home and abroad. Thatcher herself rarely used the word "Thatcherism". However, she gave a speech in Solihull during her campaign for the 1987 general election and included in a discussion of the economic successes there the remark: "that's what I call Thatcherism". The Daily Telegraph stated in April 2008 that the programme of the next non-Conservative government, with Tony Blair's "New Labour" organisation governing the nation throughout the 1990s and 2000s, basically accepted the central reform measures of Thatcherism such as deregulation, privatisation of key national industries, maintaining a flexible labour market, marginalising the trade unions and centralising power from local authorities to central government. While Blair distanced himself from certain aspects of Thatcherism earlier in his career, in his 2010 autobiography A Journey, he argued both that "Britain needed the industrial and economic reforms of the Thatcher period" and as well that "much of what she wanted to do in the 1980s was inevitable, a consequence not of ideology but of social and economic change." == Overview == Thatcherism attempts to promote low inflation, the small state and free markets through tight control of the money supply, privatisation and constraints on the labour movement. It is often compared with Reaganomics in the United States, economic rationalism in Australia and Rogernomics in New Zealand and as a key part of the worldwide economic liberal movement. Nigel Lawson, Thatcher's Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1983 to 1989, listed the Thatcherite ideals as "free markets, financial discipline, firm control over public expenditure, tax cuts, nationalism, 'Victorian values' (of the Samuel Smiles self-help variety), privatisation and a dash of populism". Thatcherism is thus often compared to classical liberalism. Milton Friedman said that "Margaret Thatcher is not in terms of belief a Tory. She is a nineteenth-century Liberal". Thatcher herself stated during a speech in 1983: "I would not mind betting that if Mr Gladstone were alive today he would apply to join the Conservative Party". In the 1996 Keith Joseph memorial lecture, Thatcher argued: "The kind of Conservatism which he and I [...] favoured would be best described as 'liberal', in the old-fashioned sense. And I mean the liberalism of Mr Gladstone, not of the latter day collectivists". Thatcher once told Friedrich Hayek: "I know you want me to become a Whig; no, I am a Tory". Hayek believed "she has felt this very clearly". The relationship between Thatcherism and liberalism is complicated. Thatcher's former defence secretary John Nott claimed that "it is a complete misreading of her beliefs to depict her as a nineteenth-century Liberal". As Ellen Meiksins Wood has argued, Thatcherite capitalism was compatible with traditional British political institutions. As prime minister, Thatcher did not challenge ancient institutions such as the monarchy or the House of Lords, but some of the most recent additions, such as the trade unions. Indeed, many leading Thatcherites, including Thatcher herself, went on to join the House of Lords, an honour which William Ewart Gladstone, for instance, had declined. Thinkers closely associated with Thatcherism include Keith Joseph, Enoch Powell, Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman. In an interview with Simon Heffer in 1996, Thatcher stated that the two greatest influences on her as Conservative leader had been Joseph and Powell, who were both "very great men". Thatcher was a strong critic of communism, Marxism and socialism. Biographer John Campbell reports that in July 1978, when asked by a Labour MP in Commons what she meant by socialism, "she was at a loss to reply. What in fact she meant was Government support for inefficient industries, punitive taxation, regulation of the labour market, price controlseverything that interfered with the functioning of the free economy". === Thatcherism before Thatcher === Several commentators have traced the origins of Thatcherism in post-war British politics. The historian Ewen Green claimed there was resentment of the inflation, taxation and the constraints imposed by the labour movement, which was associated with the so-called Buttskellite consensus in the decades before Thatcher came to prominence. Although the Conservative leadership accommodated itself to the Clement Attlee government's post-war reforms, there was continuous right-wing opposition in the lower ranks of the party, in right-wing pressure groups like the Middle Class Alliance and the People's League for the Defence of Freedom and later in think tanks like the Centre for Policy Studies. For example, in the 1945 general election, the Conservative Party chairman Ralph Assheton had wanted 12,000 abridged copies of The Road to Serfdom (a book by the anti-socialist economist Friedrich Hayek later closely associated with Thatcherism), taking up one-and- a-half tons of the party's paper ration, distributed as election propaganda. The historian Christopher Cooper traced the formation of the monetarist economics at the heart of Thatcherism back to the resignation of the Conservative chancellor of the Exchequer, Peter Thorneycroft, in 1958. As early as 1950, Thatcher accepted the consensus of the day about the welfare state, claiming the credit belonged to the Conservatives in a speech to the Conservative Association annual general meeting. Biographer Charles Moore states: Historian Richard Vinen is sceptical about there being Thatcherism before Thatcher. === Ideological definition === Thatcher saw herself as creating a libertarian movement, rejecting traditional Toryism. Thatcherism is associated with libertarianism within the Conservative Party, albeit one of libertarian ends achieved by using strong and sometimes authoritarian leadership. British political commentator Andrew Marr has called libertarianism the "dominant, if unofficial, characteristic of Thatcherism". Whereas some of her heirs, notably Michael Portillo and Alan Duncan, embraced this libertarianism, others in the Thatcherite movement such as John Redwood sought to become more populist. Some commentators have argued that Thatcherism should not be considered properly libertarian. Noting the tendency towards strong central government in matters concerning the trade unions and local authorities, Andrew Gamble summarised Thatcherism as "the free economy and the strong state". Simon Jenkins accused the Thatcher government of carrying out a nationalisation of Britain. Libertarian political theorist Murray Rothbard did not consider Thatcherism to be libertarian and heavily criticised Thatcher and Thatcherism, stating that "Thatcherism is all too similar to Reaganism: free- market rhetoric masking statist content". Stuart McAnulla said that Thatcherism is actually liberal conservatism, a combination of liberal economics and a strong state. === Thatcherism as a form of government === Another important aspect of Thatcherism is the style of governance. Britain in the 1970s was often referred to as "ungovernable". Thatcher attempted to redress this by centralising a great deal of power to herself as prime minister, often bypassing traditional cabinet structures (such as cabinet committees). This personal approach also became identified with personal toughness at times, such as the Falklands War in 1982, the IRA bomb at the Conservative conference in 1984 and the miners' strike in 1984–85. Sir Charles Powell, the foreign affairs private secretary to the Prime Minister (1984–1991 and 1996), described her style as such: "I've always thought there was something Leninist about Mrs Thatcher which came through in the style of government: the absolute determination, the belief that there's a vanguard which is right and if you keep that small, tightly knit team together, they will drive things through ... there's no doubt that in the 1980s, No. 10 could beat the bushes of Whitehall pretty violently. They could go out and really confront people, lay down the law, bully a bit". ===Criticism=== By 1987, after Thatcher's successful third re-election, criticism of Thatcherism increased. At the time, Thatcher claimed it was necessary to tackle the "culture of dependency" by government intervention to stop socialised welfare. In 1988, she caused controversy when she made the remarks, "You do not blame society. Society is not anyone. You are personally responsible" and, "Don't blame society – that's no one." These comments attracted significant criticism, including from other conservatives due to their belief in individual and collective responsibility. In 1988, Thatcher told the party conference that her third term was to be about 'social affairs'. During her last three years in power, she attempted to reform socialised welfare, differing from her earlier stated goal of "rolling back the state". == Economic positions == === Thatcherite economics === Thatcherism is associated with the economic theory of monetarism, notably put forward by Friedrich Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty which Thatcher had banged on a table while saying "this is what we believe". In contrast to previous government policy, monetarism placed a priority on controlling inflation over controlling unemployment. According to monetarist theory, inflation is the result of there being too much money in the economy. It was claimed that the government should seek to control the money supply to control inflation. By 1979, it was not only the Thatcherites arguing for stricter inflation control. The Labour Chancellor Denis Healey had already adopted some monetarist policies, such as reducing public spending and selling off the government's shares in BP. Moreover, it has been argued that the Thatcherites were not strictly monetarist. A common theme centres on the Medium Term Financial Strategy, issued in the 1980 budget, which consisted of targets for reducing the growth of the money supply in the following years. After overshooting many of these targets, the Thatcher government revised the targets upwards in 1982. Analysts have interpreted this as an admission of defeat in the battle to control the money supply. The economist C. F. Pratten claimed that "since 1984, behind a veil of rhetoric, the government has lost any faith it had in technical monetarism. The money supply, as measured by M3, has been allowed to grow erratically, while calculation of the public sector borrowing requirement is held down by the ruse of subtracting the proceeds of privatisation as well as taxes from government expenditure. The principles of monetarism have been abandoned". Thatcherism is also associated with supply-side economics. Whereas Keynesian economics holds that the government should stimulate economic growth by increasing demand through increased credit and public spending, supply-side economists argue that the government should instead intervene only to create a free market by lowering taxes, privatising state industries and increasing restraints on trade unionism. === Trade union legislation === Reduction in the power of the trades unions was made gradually, unlike the approach of the Edward Heath government, and the most significant single confrontation with the unions was the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) strike of 1984–1985, in which the miners' union was eventually defeated. Evidence shows that the Conservative Party and the NUM anticipated this confrontation with the trade unions. The outcome contributed to the resurgence of the power of capital over labour. == Domestic and social positions == === Thatcherite morality === Thatcherism is associated with a conservative stance on morality. argues that Thatcherism married conservatism with free-market economics. Thatcherism did not propose dramatic new panaceas such as Milton Friedman's negative income tax. Instead, the goal was to create a rational tax-benefit economic system that would increase British efficiency while supporting a conservative social system based on traditional morality. There would still be a minimal safety net for the poor, but the major emphasis was on encouraging individual effort and thrift. Thatcherism sought to minimise the importance of welfare for the middle classes and reinvigorate Victorian bourgeois virtues. Thatcherism was family centred, unlike the extreme individualism of most neoliberal models. It had its roots in historical experiences such as Methodism and the fear of the too-powerful state that had troubled Hayek. Norman Tebbit, a close ally of Thatcher, laid out in a 1985 lecture what he thought to be the permissive society that conservatives should oppose: Despite her association with social conservatism, Thatcher voted in 1966 to legalise homosexuality, one of the few Conservative MPs to do so. That same year, she also voted in support of legal abortion. However, in the 1980s during her time as prime minister, the Thatcher government enacted Section 28, a law that opposed the "intentional promotion" of homosexuality by local authorities and "promotion" of the teaching of "the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship" in schools. In her 1987 speech to the Conservative Party conference, Thatcher stated: The law was opposed by many gay rights advocates such as Stonewall and OutRage!. Tony Blair's Labour government repealed it in 2000 (in Scotland) and 2003. Conservative prime minister David Cameron later issued an official apology for previous Conservative policies on homosexuality, specifically the introduction of the controversial Section 28 laws from the 1980s, viewing past ideological views as "a mistake" with his ideological direction. Regarding feminism Thatcher said "The feminists hate me, don't they? And I don't blame them. For I hate feminism. It is poison" and "I owe nothing to Women's lib". === Sermon on the Mound === In May 1988, Thatcher gave an address to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. In the speech, Thatcher offered a theological justification for her ideas on capitalism and the market economy. She said, "Christianity is about spiritual redemption, not social reform", and she quoted St. Paul by saying, "If a man will not work he shall not eat". Choice played a significant part in Thatcherite reforms, and Thatcher said that choice was also Christian, stating that Jesus Christ chose to lay down his life and that all individuals have the God-given right to choose between good and evil. == Foreign policy == === Atlanticism === Whilst Thatcher was prime minister, she greatly embraced transatlantic relations with US president Ronald Reagan. She often publicly supported Reagan's policies even when other Western allies were not as vocal. For example, she granted permission for American planes to use British bases for raids, such as the 1986 United States bombing of Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and allowed American cruise missiles and Pershing missiles to be housed on British soil in response to Soviet deployment of SS-20 nuclear missiles targeting Britain and other Western European nations. === Europe === While Euroscepticism has for many become a characteristic of Thatcherism, Thatcher was far from consistent on the issue, only becoming truly Eurosceptic in the last years of her time as prime minister. Thatcher supported Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973, campaigned for a "Yes" vote in the 1975 referendum and signed the Single European Act in 1986. Towards the end of the 1980s, Thatcher (and so Thatcherism) became increasingly vocal in its opposition to allowing the European Community to supersede British sovereignty. In a famous 1988 Bruges speech, Thatcher declared: "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them reimposed at a European level, with a European superstate exercising a new dominance from Brussels". == Dispute over the term == It is often claimed that the word Thatcherism was coined by cultural theorist Stuart Hall in a 1979 Marxism Today article. However, this is not true as Tony Heath first used the term in an article he wrote that appeared in Tribune on 10 August 1973. Writing as Tribunes education correspondent, Heath wrote: "It will be argued that teachers are members of a profession which must not be influenced by political considerations. With the blight of Thatcherism spreading across the land that is a luxury that only the complacent can afford". Although the term had been widely used before then, not all social critics have accepted the term as valid, with the High Tory journalist T. E. Utley believing "There is no such thing as Thatcherism". Utley contended that the term was a creation of Thatcher's enemies who wished to damage her by claiming that she had an inflexible devotion to a particular set of principles and also by some of her friends who had little sympathy for what he called "the English political tradition" because it facilitated "compromise and consensus". Utley argued that a free and competitive economy, rather than being an innovation of Thatcherism, was one "more or less permanent ingredient in modern Conservative philosophy": > It was on that principle that Churchill fought the 1945 election, having > just read Hayek's Road to Serfdom. [...] What brought the Tories to 13 years > of political supremacy in 1951 was the slogan 'Set the people free'. [...] > There is absolutely nothing new about the doctrinal front that she presents > on these matters. [...] As for 'privatisation', Mr. Powell proposed it in > [...] 1968. As for 'property-owning democracy', I believe it was Anthony > Eden who coined the phrase. In foreign policy, Utley claimed Thatcher's desire to restore British greatness did not mean "primarily a power devoted to the preservation of its own interests" but that she belonged "to that militant Whig branch of English Conservatism...her view of foreign policy has a high moral content". In practical terms, he claimed this expressed itself in her preoccupation with "the freedom of Afghanistan rather than the security of Ulster". Such leftist critics as Anthony Giddens claim that Thatcherism was purely an ideology and argue that her policies marked a change which was dictated more by political interests than economic reasons: The Conservative historian of Peterhouse, Maurice Cowling, also questioned the uniqueness of "Thatcherism". Cowling claimed that Thatcher used "radical variations on that patriotic conjunction of freedom, authority, inequality, individualism and average decency and respectability, which had been the Conservative Party's theme since at least 1886". Cowling further contended that the "Conservative Party under Mrs Thatcher has used a radical rhetoric to give intellectual respectability to what the Conservative Party has always wanted". Historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s, Britons were keen on defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it. They argue that this shift in concerns had helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into its appeal. == Criticism == thumb|upright=1.2|Trends in UK income inequality, 1979–2006 Critics of Thatcherism claim that its successes were obtained only at the expense of great social costs to the British population. There were nearly 3.3 million unemployed in Britain in 1984, compared to 1.5 million when she first came to power in 1979, though that figure had reverted to some 1.6 million by the end of 1990. While credited with reviving Britain's economy, Thatcher also was blamed for spurring a doubling of the relative poverty rate. Britain's childhood-poverty rate in 1997 was the highest in Europe. When she resigned in 1990, 28% of the children in Great Britain were considered to be below the poverty line, a number that kept rising to reach a peak of nearly 30% during the government of Thatcher's successor, John Major. During her government, Britain's Gini coefficient reflected this growing difference, going from 0.25 in 1979 to 0.34 in 1990, at about which value it remained for the next 20 years, under both Conservative and Labour governments. == Thatcher's legacy == The extent to which one can say Thatcherism has a continuing influence on British political and economic life is unclear. It could be said that a "post-Thatcherite consensus" exists in modern British political culture, especially regarding monetary policy. In the 1980s, the now defunct Social Democratic Party adhered to a "tough and tender" approach in which Thatcherite reforms were coupled with additional welfare provisions. Neil Kinnock, leader of the Labour Party from 1983 to 1992, initiated Labour's rightward shift across the political spectrum by largely concurring with the economic policies of the Thatcher government. The New Labour governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown were described as "neo-Thatcherite" by some on the left since many of their economic policies mimicked those of Thatcher. In 1999, twenty years after Thatcher had come to power, the Conservative Party held a dinner in London Hilton to honour the anniversary. During the dinner, several speeches were given. To Thatcher's astonishment, the Conservatives had decided that it was time to shelve the economic policies of the 1980s. The Conservative Party leader at the time, William Hague, said that the party had learnt its lesson from the 1980s and called it a "great mistake to think that all Conservatives have to offer is solutions based on free markets". His deputy at the time Peter Lilley elaborated and said, "belief in the free market has only ever been part of Conservatism". In 2002, Peter Mandelson, who had served in Blair's Cabinet, famously declared that "we are all Thatcherites now". Most major British political parties today accept the trade union legislation, privatisations and general free market approach to government that Thatcher's governments installed. Before 2010, no major political party in the United Kingdom had committed to reversing the Thatcher government's reforms of the economy, although in the aftermath of the Great Recession from 2007 to 2012, the then Labour Party leader Ed Miliband had indicated he would support stricter financial regulation and industry-focused policy in a move to a more mixed economy. Although Miliband was said by the Financial Times to have "turned his back on many of New Labour's tenets, seeking to prove that an openly socialist party could win the backing of the British electorate for the first time since the 1970s", in 2011 Miliband had declared his support for Thatcher's reductions in income tax on top earners, her legislation to change the rules on the closed shop and strikes before ballots, as well as her introduction of Right to Buy, saying Labour had been wrong to oppose these reforms at the time. Moreover, the UK's comparative macroeconomic performance has improved since implementing Thatcherite economic policies. Since Thatcher resigned as British prime minister in 1990, British economic growth was, on average, higher than the other large European economies (i.e. Germany, France and Italy). Such comparisons have been controversial for decades. Tony Blair wrote in his 2010 autobiography A Journey that "Britain needed the industrial and economic reforms of the Thatcher period". He described Thatcher's efforts as "ideological, sometimes unnecessarily so" while also stating that "much of what she wanted to do in the 1980s was inevitable, a consequence not of ideology but of social and economic change." Blair additionally labelled these viewpoints as a matter of "basic fact". On the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Thatcher's 1979 election victory, the BBC surveyed opinions which opened with the following comments: From the viewpoint of late 2019, the state of British politics showed that Thatcherism had suffered a "sad fate," according to The Economist Bagehot column. As a political-economic philosophy, Thatcherism was originally built upon four components: commitment to free enterprise; British nationalism; a plan to strengthen the state by improving efficiency; and a belief in traditional Victorian values especially hard work and civic responsibility. The tone of Thatcherism was establishment bashing, with intellectuals a prime target, and that tone remains sharp today. Bagehot argues that some Thatcherisms have become mainstream, such as a more efficient operation of the government. Others have been sharply reduced, such as insisting that deregulation is always the answer to everything. The dream of restoring traditional values by creating a property-owning democracy has failed in Britain – ownership in the stock market has plunged, as has the proportion of young people who are homebuyers. Her privatisation programme became suspect when it appeared to favour investors rather than customers. Recent developments in Britain reveal a deep conflict between Thatcherite free enterprise and Thatcherite nationalism. She wanted to reverse Britain's decline by fostering entrepreneurship – but immigrants have often played an important role as entrepreneurial leaders in Britain. Bagehot says Britain is "more successful at hosting world-class players than producing them." In the course of the Brexit process, nationalists have denounced European controls over Britain's future, while business leaders often instead prioritise the maintenance of their leadership of the European market. Thatcher herself showed a marked degree of Euroscepticism when she warned against a "European superstate." Evaluating whether or not political conservatives of the 2020s continue the neoliberal legacy of prior years, Theresa May's Conservative Party election manifesto has attracted attention due to its inclusion of the lines: "We do not believe in untrammelled free markets. We reject the cult of selfish individualism. We abhor social division, injustice, unfairness and inequality." Journalists such as Ross Gittins of The Sydney Morning Herald have cited this as a move away from the standard arguments made historically by Thatcherites and related advocates. == See also == * Blairism * Brownism * Gladstonian liberalism * History of the Conservative Party (United Kingdom) * Liberal conservatism * Neoliberalism * New Public Management * Orbanomics * Pinochetism * Political positions of David Cameron * Powellism * Reaganomics * Right-wing populism == References == === Notes === === Bibliography === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * == Further reading == * * * * == External links == * * What is Thatcherism? (BBC News Online) * What is Thatcherism? (Britpolitics.co.uk) Category:1970s economic history Category:1980s economic history Category:1990s economic history Category:1970s neologisms Category:British nationalism Category:Conservative Party (UK) factions Category:Eponymous political ideologies Category:Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom Category:Margaret Thatcher Category:Neoliberalism Category:History of the Conservative Party (UK) Category:History of libertarianism Category:Liberal conservatism Category:Libertarian theory Category:Libertarianism in the United Kingdom Category:Politics of the United Kingdom Category:Right-libertarianism Category:Right-wing ideologies Category:Right-wing politics in the United Kingdom Category:Right-wing populism in the United Kingdom
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Ethanol is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid that acts as a central nervous system depressant.Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary Ethanol can impair different types of memory. thumb|alt=Ethanol-structure.svg|Ethanol thumb|alt=Alcoholic_beverages.jpg|Alcoholic beverages ==Mode of actions== ===Effects on the hippocampus=== Alcohol acts as a general central nervous system depressant, but it also affects some specific areas of the brain to a greater extent than others. Memory impairment caused by alcohol has been linked to the disruption of hippocampal function—particularly affecting gamma- Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) neurotransmission which negatively impacts long-term potentiation (LTP). The molecular basis of LTP is associated with learning and memory. Particularly, damage to hippocampal CA1 cells adversely affects memory formation, and this disruption has been linked to dose-dependent levels of alcohol consumption. At higher doses, alcohol significantly inhibits neuronal activity in both the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cell layers of the hippocampus.Ryabinin AE, Criado JR, Henriksen SJ, Bloom FE, Wilson MC (1997). Differential sensitivity of c-Fos expression in hippocampus and other brain regions to moderate and low doses of alcohol. Mol Psychiatry, (1),32-43. This impairs memory encoding, since the hippocampus plays an important role in the formations of new memories.thumb|A hippocampal pyramidal cell ===Molecular effects on GABA and NMDA receptors=== thumb|A GABAA receptor Alcohol also acts as a positive allosteric modulator of GABA receptors, specifically type GABAA.. Upon activation, these GABA receptors conduct Cl-, resulting in neuronal hyperpolarization. This hyperpolarization decreases the chance of an action potential occurring and thus, it has an inhibitory effect on neurotransmission in the central nervous system. GABAA receptor subtypes vary in their sensitivities to dosage of alcohol consumed. Furthermore, acute alcohol intake promotes GABAergic neurotransmission via the presynaptic release of GABA, the dephosphorylation of GABAA receptors (increasing GABA sensitivity), and the elevation of endogenous GABAergic neuroactive steroids. Protein kinase C (PKC) has been implicated in differentially modulating the response of the GABAA receptor to alcohol, with effects depending on the PKC isozyme. Alcohol effects have also implicated protein kinase A in affecting GABAA receptor function, such as promoting sensitivity. Enhancement of GABAergic transmission due to alcohol consumption can also be brought about by neuroactive steroids, such as allopregnanolone, which act as GABAA receptor agonists. Both chronic alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence are correlated with the altered expression, properties, and functions of the GABAA receptor that may contribute to alcohol tolerance. There is still much yet to be discovered about alcohol's specific and varying effects on both the GABAA receptor and its subtypes. At higher doses, ethanol also affects NMDA receptors (NMDARs) by inhibiting the ion current induced by NMDA, a glutamate receptor agonist. This inhibition of synaptic excitation by alcohol has been shown to be dose-dependent (up to a certain point, after which it did not differ by much). Alcohol appears to produce this inhibition by using a site of the NMDAR that is accessible from the extracellular environment. Therefore, this inhibition of an ion current usually produced by NMDAR activation leads to decreased LTP in hippocampal areas. Alcohol negatively affects LTP to a greater degree in immature versus mature animals. In adolescents, alcohol decreases the expression of both the NMDAR NR2A subunit in the hippocampus and the NR1 subunit in the prefrontal cortex. Studies have also found that a decrease in phosphorylation of 2B subunit in the prefrontal cortex, the hippocampus, the nucleus accumbens, and the striatum. NMDARS may be affected by PKA regulation due to the actions of alcohol. Alcohol's effects on GABAA neurotransmission may indirectly inhibit the activity of the NMDAR, and they may contribute to its blockade of LTP induction; however, alcohol's direct effects on NMDAR alone are sufficient for the inhibition of LTP. The varying dose-dependent response to alcohol relies on the combined interactions and responses of the GABAA receptors, NMDARs, and metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5 (mGluR5). These changes prevent excitatory synaptic transmissions from occurring, affecting synaptic plasticity and, in turn, memory and learning. However, there is still much yet to be elucidated concerning specific molecular mechanisms of how alcohol affects memory formation. ===Effects on other brain regions=== Alcohol also impairs and alters the functioning in the cerebellum, which affects both motor function and coordination. It has a notable inhibitory effect on the neurons of the cerebral cortex, affecting and altering thought processes, decreasing inhibition, and increasing the pain threshold. It also decreases sexual performance by depressing nerve centers in the hypothalamus. Alcohol also has an effect on urine excretion via inhibition of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion of the pituitary gland. Lastly, it depresses breathing and heart rate by inhibiting neuronal functioning of the medulla. ==Long-term memory== Long-term memory (LTM) has both a long duration and a large capacity.Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W. and Anderson, M.C. (2009). Memory. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Memories that are stored in LTM can last from a few days to a lifetime. LTM consists of both explicit memory (requiring conscious awareness) and implicit memory (unconscious awareness). Information selected for LTM goes through three processes. First of all, in the encoding stage, information from the senses is incorporated into mental activity in the form of a memory. Secondly, storage involves taking this information and holding it indefinitely in memory. Lastly, retrieval is the ability to recall information from the long-term memory storage. Each of these processes can be affected by alcohol. thumb|alt=Hippocampus.gif|Animation: Hippocampus (red) ===Explicit memory=== Explicit memory requires conscious and intentional effort for recall. It includes both episodic memory (for specific events, such as a party) and semantic memory (for general information, such as one's name). Alcohol impairs episodic encoding, specifically for cued recall, recognition of completed word fragments, and free recall. A blackout is an example of a difficulty in encoding episodic memories due to alcohol. Blackouts are caused by a rapid increase in blood alcohol concentration (BAC) which in turn distorts the neurons in the hippocampus. This distortion impairs a person's ability to form new episodic memories. High doses of alcohol severely disrupt the storage process of semantic memories. Alcohol was found to impair the storage of novel stimuli but not that of previously learned information. Since alcohol affects the central nervous system, it hinders semantic storage functioning by restricting the consolidation of the information from encoding. Retrieval of explicit memory is significantly impaired by alcohol. When compared to sober participants, intoxicated participants performed quite poorly on a recall task for everyday events (i.e., episodic memory). Intoxicated participants are also slower to respond in reaction time tasks. Alcohol also impairs retrieval in word recognition tasks. When both encoding and retrieval take place during intoxication, there are surprisingly more impairments for cued recall than for free recall. In terms of gender differences in retrieval processes, females tend to score lower than males on recall tasks when intoxicated. ===Implicit memory=== Implicit memory does not require conscious effort or intention for recall. It occurs when previous experience influences performance on a certain task. This is evident in priming experiments. Implicit memory includes procedural memory, which influences our everyday behaviours, such as riding a bike or tying shoes. People can perform these abilities without even thinking about them, which means procedural memory functions automatically. While retrieval of explicit memory is severely impaired by alcohol, retrieval of implicit memory is not. Intoxicated subjects score higher on recognition tasks (involving implicit memory) than they can on recall tasks (involving explicit memory). ==Short-term memory== Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of small amounts of information over short delays. Digit span refers to the proposed number of pieces of information (5-9) that can be held in short-term memory. This is also referred to as the magic number seven—plus or minus two. Any more pieces of information than this, and newer items replace previous items. Alcohol intoxication has been found to have dissociative effects on both short-term memory and cognitive functioning. thumb|alt=Gray727_anterior_cingulate_cortex.png|Anterior cingulate cortex (yellow) thumb|alt=Parietal_lobe_animation_small.gif|Animation: Parietal lobe (red) ===Brain areas affected by alcohol=== Alcohol affects the functioning of the brain. Neurochemical changes occurring in the anterior cingulate are correlated with altered short-term memory functions in the brains of young alcoholic men. fMRIs of alcohol-dependent women displayed significantly less blood oxygen in the frontal and parietal regions, especially in the right hemisphere. This is supported by findings of short-term memory impairment by lesions of both the parietal lobe and the prefrontal cortex. Associations between third ventricle volume and cognitive performance on memory tests have been found in alcoholics. Specifically, increases in third ventricular volume correlate with a decline in memory performance. ===Tasks and intoxication findings=== Short-term memory is commonly tested with visual tasks. Short-term memory, especially for non-verbal and spatial material, are impaired by intoxication. Alcohol decreases iconic memory (a type of visual short-term memory). With BACs between 80–84 mg/dl, more intrusion errors occur in a delayed recall task compared to a control group. Intrusion errors, which represent reflective cognitive functioning, occur when irrelevant information is produced. Alcoholics have less control of inhibiting intrusions. Acute alcohol intoxication in social drinkers caused more intrusion errors in delayed recall tasks than in immediate free recall tasks. Acute alcohol intoxication increases the susceptibility to interference, which allows for more intrusion errors when there is a short delay. Free recall (given list of words then asked to recall list) is significantly lower and therefore impaired by alcohol intoxication. Encoding deficits were found in verbal free recall and recognition tasks under the influence of alcohol. A discrimination task found significant alcohol-related impairments both in depth perception and in visual short-term memory. State-dependent learning and relearning studies in male heavy drinkers demonstrate that the condition of intoxication while learning and sobriety when tested caused a performance deficit in free recall tasks. These findings are supportive of alcohol-induced storage deficits (not retrieval deficits). The effects of acute alcohol consumption on visual short- term memory, stereoscopic depth perception, and attention were all studied. A 33% alcohol condition showed significant impairments both in depth perception and in visual short-term memory (assessed by the vernier discrimination task). thumb|alt=Working_memory_model.svg|Working Memory Model. Alcohol intoxication can disrupt rehearsal strategies which may involve the phonological loop and/or the visuospatial sketchpad. ==Effects on working memory== Working memory allows one to keep things in mind while simultaneously performing complex tasks. It involves a system for both the temporary storage and the manipulation of information, subsequently forming a crucial link between perception and controlled action.Baddeley, A. (1998) Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences – Série III, 321(2-3), 167-173. Evidence suggests that working memory involves three components: the central executive which controls attention, the visuo-spatial sketchpad which holds and manipulates spatial information, and the phonological loop which performs a similar function for auditory and speech-based information. ===In the short term=== Alcohol consumption has substantial, measurable effects on working memory, although these effects vary greatly between individual responses. Not much is really known about the neural mechanisms that underlie these individual differences.Paulus, Martin P, Tapert, Susan F, Pulido, Carmen, & Schuckit, Marc A. (2006). Alcohol attenuates load-related activation during a working memory task: Relation to level of response to alcohol. Dept of Psychiatry, University of California. PP 2 It is also found that alcohol impairs working memory by affecting mnemonic strategies and executive processes rather than by shrinking the basic holding capacity of working memory. Isolated acute- moderate levels of alcohol intoxication do not physically alter the structures that are critical for working memory function, such as the frontal cortex, the parietal cortex, the anterior cingulate, and parts of the basal ganglia. One finding regarding the effects of alcohol on working memory points out that alcohol reduces working memory only in individuals with a high baseline working memory capacity, which suggests that alcohol might not uniformly affect working memory in many different individuals. Alcohol appears to impair the capacity of working memory to modulate response inhibition. Alcohol disinhibits behaviour, but it only does so in individuals with a low baseline working memory capacity. An interesting finding is that the incentive to perform well with working memory measurement tasks while under the influence of alcohol 'does, in fact, have some effect on working memory, as it boosts scores in the rate of mental scanning and reaction time to stimulus; however, it did not reduce the number of errors as opposed to subjects with no incentive to perform well.Grattan-Miscio, K.E. and Vogel-Sprott, M. (2005) Effects of alcohol and performance incentives on immediate working memory. Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 188-196 Even acute alcohol intoxication (a blood alcohol concentration of 0.08-0.09%) produces a substantial impairment of working memory processes that require mnemonic rehearsal strategies. It is less likely for alcohol to impair a working memory task that does not rely on memory rehearsal or associated mnemonic strategies. Because of this, working memory is very susceptible to falter when an individual participates in tasks involving retention concerning both auditory and visual sequences. An interesting example of this is the failure of guitarists or other musicians performing concerts to cue in on auditory patterns and make it known that their performance is hindered by intoxication, whereas professional basketball (a less sequence-heavy activity for working memory) standout Ron Artest admitted in an interview with Sporting News to drinking heavily during half- time early in his career and the fact that it had little—if not any recognizable—effect on his working memory. His former coach Fran Fraschilla has gone on record saying: ===In the long term=== Alcohol has been shown to have just some long-term effects on working memory. Findings have shown that in order for working memory to be substantially affected, long-term heavy drinking must be sustained over a long period of time, as up to one drink per day does not impair any cognitive function and may actually decrease the risk of a cognitive decline. Furthermore, chronic alcoholism is associated with the impairment in both sustained attention and visual working memory. As a result, alcoholics have reduced ability, but not necessarily inability, to perform these executive tasks. This is assumed to be subserved by regions of the prefrontal cortex. While it may not serve as a surprise that chronic alcoholism is linked to any decreased cognitive function such as working memory, one surprising finding is not only that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were shown to have an adverse effect on the child's working memory when tested at 7.5 years of age, but also that working memory may be the most important aspect of attention that is adversely affected by prenatal alcohol exposure. ==Prospective memory== Prospective memory involves remembering to carry out an intended action in the future without an explicit reminder. Alcohol has been found to impair this ability. Chronic heavy alcohol users report significantly more prospective forgetting compared to low-dose and alcohol-free controls. The Prospective Memory Questionnaire assesses short-term habitual prospective memory, long-term episodic prospective memory, and internally cued prospective memory. Chronic heavy alcohol users reported significantly greater deficits for all three aspects of prospective memory. Individuals that report heavy alcohol use report 24% more difficulties with prospective memory than those who report that they are light drinkers and 30% more difficulties than those who report that they never drink. The effects of alcohol on prospective memory can also be assessed in the laboratory by simulating prospective memory tasks that individuals face in everyday life. Individuals who are given 0.6 g/kg alcohol prior to performing prospective memory tasks do significantly poorer than a placebo group. Alcohol can damage the prefrontal and frontal areas of the brain, and this may be responsible for prospective memory impairments since prospective memory performance is highly correlated with frontal executive functions. ==In popular culture== The memory inhibiting effects of alcohol are often a prominent topic in popular culture. It appears in movies, books, and television shows. Several movies show characters drinking alcohol to the point of memory loss and awakening the next morning with a host of problems due to actions they performed while intoxicated. One example is The Hangover, where three groomsmen lose the groom during a bachelor party in Las Vegas, so they retrace their steps to find him."The Hangover" (2009). Retrieved from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1119646/. The characters still had functioning implicit/procedural memory, which allowed them to carry out the many acts they performed that night, but their episodic memory was impaired and thus they had no recollection of the events occurring. In addition to alcohol the characters were also under the influence of flunitrazepam. Another movie is What Happens in Vegas. After an intoxicated night in "Sin City," two people wake-up to find they got married."What Happens in Vegas" (2008). Retrieved from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1033643/plotsummary. Songs such as Waking Up in Vegas by Katy Perry"YouTube – Waking Up in Vegas Lyrics – Katy Perry" (2009). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06Qf7GdAF70 and Last Name by Carrie Underwood"YouTube – Carrie Underwood – Last Name" (2009). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f27zNlmRMWU also depict characters waking up and not remembering the night before due to alcohol consumption. By some accounts, popular culture makes light of the memory problems that can result from alcohol consumption. The court case R. v. Daviault [1994] concerned the viability of a legal defense based on intoxication. ==See also== * Confabulation * Effects of alcohol on visual memory * Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome ==References== Category:Memory Category:Health effects of alcohol Category:Hippocampus (brain)
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Viernheim () is a midsize industrial town on Mannheim's outskirts and is found in the Rhine Neckar agglomeration and economic area. It is the second biggest town in Bergstraße district in Hesse, Germany. Since 1994 it has also borne the title Brundtlandstadt, as it has been taking part in an energy conservation pilot project. In 1968, the town hosted the eighth Hessentag state festival. ==Geography== ===Location=== Viernheim lies in the Rhine rift, and although it also lies in Hesse, it is bounded on the west, south and east by Baden-Württemberg. North of the Viernheim woods, in Lampertheim, begins the Hessisches Ried. East of Viernheim lies the town of Weinheim, which is where the district’s namesake Bergstraße begins, and which also marks the beginning of the Odenwald. The town lies roughly northeast of Mannheim, east of the Rhine and west of the Bergstrasse. ===Neighbouring communities=== Viernheim borders in the north on the town of Lampertheim (in Hessen), in the northeast on the towns of Hemsbach and Weinheim, in the south on the community of Heddesheim (all three in the Rhein-Neckar-Kreis), and in the west on the district-free city of Mannheim (all in Baden-Württemberg). ===Constituent communities=== Viernheim is divided into several sections. It has been the local, everyday speech and town expansions, though, that have yielded most of the divisions. They therefore have no precisely defined bounds. The Stadtkern, or town core, is made up of the Innenstadt ("Inner Town") and the Altstadt ("Old Town") lying around it. Among the other neighbourhoods are the Nordstadt ("North Town", north of Nibelungenstraße and Wormser Straße), the Nordweststadt ("Northwest Town", west of Kreuzstraße and Am Königsacker), the Tivoli (in the south at the Rhein-Neckar-Zentrum), Hinter den Zäunen (“Behind the Fences”, south of the OEG tracks), Gewerbegebiet Eins ("Commercial Area One", in the northeast, north of Friedrich-Ebert-Straße and east of Lorscher Straße) and the new development that has sprung up over the last few years, Bannholzgraben, east of Janusz-Korczak-Allee (L 3111). Moreover, there are also the Sportgebiet West (“Sport Area West”, west of the A 6), the two outlying centres which are each made up of only one road, Neuzenlache and Ziegelhütte (south of the A 659 and the outlying farms northeast of town. ==History== Viernheim grew out of a Carolingian king's court. Viernheim had its first documentary mention in 777 in the Lorsch codex, the Lorsch Abbey's book of documents. Through donations, it ended up in the Abbey’s ownership. In 1232, the Abbey’s holdings were given to the Archbishops of Mainz, but only in 1308 did Viernheim pass to Mainz. In 1439, however, the town was pledged to the Schönau Abbey, who in turn sold it to the Electorate of the Palatinate. After the Thirty Years' War, it passed back to Mainz, and thence under the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss in 1803 to the Grand Duchy of Hesse, out of which came the People's State of Hesse in 1918. Once in the People's State, the town was assigned first to the Amtsvogtei of Lorsch. When Landratsbezirke – another kind of administrative division – were created in 1821, Viernheim was assigned to Heppenheim. From 1832 to 1839 came a spell under Bensheim's jurisdiction. From 1848, the town then belonged to Heppenheim district, which in 1938 was merged with Bensheim district to form today’s Bergstraße district. In 1948, Viernheim was granted town rights by the newly founded Land of Hesse. During the 19th century the tobacco industry gained some importance, since several small tobacco manufacturers were founded. Rolling cigars provided additional income for farmers or peasants and their families during the winter. Until the end of the 19th century, Viernheim was a farming village. Bad harvests and widespread hunger in 1852 led to 458 inhabitants emigrating in this year to North America. With industrialization and the opening of the Oberrheinische Eisenbahn (a regional narrow-gauge railway still serving a roughly triangular route among Weinheim, Mannheim and Heidelberg) in 1887, the town began to become more of a workers’ residential community as many inhabitants found work in the factories in nearby Mannheim and Weinheim. Many workers, however, kept farming as a sideline. The location of industry in Viernheim itself began with the opening of the Weinheim-Worms railway (now mostly derelict) in 1905, and further strengthened after the Second World War, bringing along with it a sharp rise in population. Given the town's favourable road links to three Autobahnen, it grew into a midsize industrial town. In 1994 came its designation as a “Brundtland Town”, and its attendant participation in an energy conservation pilot project. During the World War II, Viernheim did not suffer severe damage, since the town had no strategic or industrial importance. So the Viernheim railway station served for a while as Mannheim station, after the Mannheim Central Station was destroyed in an air- raid in 1942. On 23 June 2016, a hostage incident occurred within a cinema in the town. No hostages were injured and the gunman was shot and killed by the Spezialeinsatzkommando. ==Population development== {| class="wikitable" Year Inhabitants 1609 800 1655 < 200 1666 206 1703 500 1806 1,900 1818 1,818 1832 2,800 1845 3,135 ===Religion=== thumb|St. Aposteln For a long time, Viernheim belonged to the Archbishopric of Mainz. Owing to changing lords in the 15th and 16th centuries, the townsfolk had to convert seven times because of the Peace of Augsburg. When the town passed back to the Electorate of Mainz, however, Roman Catholicism kept its place as the local denomination. In the early 20th century, the Lutheran townsfolk who had by now been drawn to the town got their own church in Viernheim. ===Churches=== Today in Viernheim, there are three Catholic parishes, St. Michael, St. Hildegard merged in 2015,Fusion in Viernheim St. Marien and St. Aposteln, which belong to the deanery of Bergstraße-West of the Bishopric of Mainz, and two Lutheran parishes, Auferstehungskirche ("Church of the Resurrection") and Christuskirche, which both belong to the deanery of Bergstraße-Süd of the Lutheran Church in Hesse and Nassau. Besides the two big churches, the Bund Freier evangelischer Gemeinden in Deutschland ("League of Free Evangelical Parishes in Germany") has a parish, as do the Evangeliumschristen-Baptisten ("Gospel Christian Baptists"), the New Apostolic Church and the Jehovah's Witnesses. There has been no Jewish community in town since National Socialist times. The synagogue on Hügelstraße, consecrated on 31 August 1827, was destroyed by the SA along with some locals on 10 November 1938 during the Kristallnacht pogrom. ==Politics== ===Town council=== The municipal election held on 27 March 2011 yielded the following results: Parties and voter communities % 2011 seats 2011 % 2006 seats 2006 % 2001 'seats 2001 SPD Social Democratic Party of Germany 44.3 20 43.9 20 42.5 19 CDU Christian Democratic Union of Germany 38.4 17 48.5 22 50.0 23 Greens Bündnis 90/Die Grünen 12.9 6 5.4 2 5.6 2 The Left Die Linke Viernheim 3.7 2 – – – – FDP Free Democratic Party 0,7 0 – – – – VL VIERNHEIM LIST – – 2.1 1 1.9 1 Total 100 45 100 45 100 45 Turnout in Percent 41.6 40.3 44.9 ===Mayors=== Heading the town is the Mayor (Bürgermeister) who is directly elected by the people for a term of six years. Mayor Matthias Baaß (SPD) has been in office since 1997 and was re-elected on 7 June 2009 to his third term with 72.1% of the vote. The next mayoral election is planned for 2015. At his side is the First Town Councillor (Erster Stadtrat), along with 11 part-time councillors. They are all chosen by the town assembly (Stadtverordnetenversammlung) for terms of six and five years respectively and reflect the assembly's political makeup at the time of their appointments. The Mayor, the First Town Councillor and the 11 part-time councillors together form the town's executive (Magistrat). Following is a list of the town's mayors since 1822 (from 1649 to 1822, eight Schultheißen – roughly "sheriffs" – are known to history): * 1822–1824: Joh. Jakob Georgi * 1825–1842: Johann Beikert * 1842–1847: Georg Kühner * 1848–1853: Peter Minnig * 1853–1862: Johann Kempf * 1862–1873: Michael Keller * 1873–1875: Johann Winkler 5. * 1875–1895: Johann Bläß 1. * 1895–1904: Georg Pfützer 2. * 1904–1913: Gg. Friedrich Kühlwein * 1913–1933: Jean Lamberth (Centre Party) * 1933–1945: Hanns Bechtel (NSDAP) * 1945: Martin Alter * 1945–1946: Nikolaus Schlosser * 1946–1960: Lorenz Neff (SPD) * 1960–1975: Hans Mandel (SPD) * 1975–1981: Erwin Bugert (SPD) * 1981–1987: Josef Baumgärtner (CDU) * 1987–1997: Norbert Hofmann (SPD) * since 1997: Matthias Baaß (SPD) ===Coat of arms=== The town's arms might be described thus: Party per fess, above azure the Lion of Hesse armed and crowned Or and langued gules, below party per pale gules a six-spoked wheel argent and Or a Gothic four sable. The arms were introduced in 1926. The charge in the upper part of the escutcheon is the Lion of Hesse, which expresses the town's longstanding status as part of Hesse. Below the fess line on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side is the Wheel of Mainz, which stands for the town's former allegiance to the Electorate of Mainz. On the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side is a Gothic figure of four, which used to be the local logo, making the arms canting, that is to say, suggestive of the town's name, since the German word for “four” is vier. Although it sounds rather like the first syllable in the town's name, it seems likelier that this comes from the Old High German firni (“old”, “from long ago”) or the Celtic vernos (“alder”). The Viernheim town flag is blue-white-red. ==Twin towns – sister cities== Viernheim is twinned with: * Franconville, France (1966) * Potters Bar, United Kingdom (1972) * Rovigo, Italy (1991) * Silly, Burkina Faso (1994) * Mława, Poland (2019) ==Economy and infrastructure== ===Transport=== thumb|Viernheimer Stadtbus thumb|OEG cars at the Rhein-Neckar- Zentrum ====Road transport==== Viernheim lies on the A 659, which leads directly to Mannheim and Weinheim, and also affords a direct link to three further Autobahnen, the A 5, the A 6 and the A 67\. Because of the two Autobahn junctions, the Viernheimer Kreuz and the Viernheimer Dreieck, Viernheim is also well known to many drivers. ====Local public transport==== Viernheim is linked to the surrounding cities by a narrow-gauge railway and a busline. The electric narrow-gauge railway (Oberrheinische Eisenbahn, OEG), nowadays designated line 5R, is usually regarded as an interurban. Since 1887 it has run to Mannheim, Weinheim and Heidelberg, and is run by the Rhein- Neckar-Verkehr GmbH (RNV). A regional busline of Busverkehr Rhein-Neckar runs to Weinheim as well as Lampertheim and Worms. There are also two town buslines run by the RNV daughter company V-Bus. All public transport is integrated into the Rhine-Neckar Transport Association. ====Rail transport==== Viernheim is the endpoint of the Weinheim–Viernheim railway line built in 1905, which originally ran on by way of Lampertheim to Worms to afford a link with the Weschnitztalbahn there. Owing to low demand, however, passenger service was discontinued in 1960 on the whole line and replaced with a bus service, while the tracks between Viernheim and Lampertheim were torn up (the right-of-way can still be discerned in the woods today as a broad lane). Only goods service was continued between Weinheim and Viernheim by Deutsche Bahn, until it, too, ceased. It was, however, revived in July 2004 by the MVV GmbH daughter company ConTrain. The old railway station today houses a municipal leisure and meeting place bearing the name Treff im Bahnhof (“Meeting in the Railway Station”). ===Established businesses=== Viernheim has four industrial area with many middle-class businesses. Many well known firms, such as Pfenning Logistics, have their warehouses in Viernheim and Buderus has its distribution centre there. Plisch GmbH and Hommel Hercules Werkzeuge also have their head offices in the town. The Rhein-Neckar-Zentrum shopping centre, opened in 1972, is nationally famous and probably the most well known. ===Media=== In Viernheim there are two regional daily newspapers: * Viernheimer Tageblatt, founded in 1883, * Mannheimer Morgen as Südhessen Morgen with a Viernheim regional edition The following free advertising fliers are distributed weekly: * Viernheimer Volksblatt * Wochenblatt Mannheim * Bergsträßer Anzeigen-Zeitung (BAZ) The following regional media see Viernheim as part of their feeder and distribution area: * Hessischer Rundfunk, Südwestrundfunk (Kurpfalz-Radio within the framework of SWR4 Baden-Württemberg) * Rhein-Neckar Fernsehen (television) * Radio Regenbogen, Hit Radio FFH, Radio RPR, sunshine live, bigFM, bermuda.funk * Bild Rhein-Neckar * Meier (magazine) ===Education=== * Primary schools: ** Schillerschule ** Goetheschule ** Nibelungenschule ** Friedrich-Fröbel-Schule * Primary school/Hauptschule/Realschule: ** Friedrich- Fröbel-Schule * comprehensive school Hauptschule/Realschule/Gymnasium: ** Alexander-von-Humboldt-Schule * Gymnasium: ** Albertus-Magnus-Schule – Gymnasium sponsored by the Bishopric of Mainz * Special school: ** Albert- Schweizer-Schule Further schools with specific profiles are to be found in the neighbouring cities. The nearest colleges and universities are found in nearby Mannheim and Heidelberg. ==Culture and sightseeing== ===Museums and galleries=== * Europäisches Fotozentrum für junge Fotografie * Heimatmuseum (local history) * Humboldt-Galerie * Kunsthaus Viernheim (art) * Kunstverein Viernheim (art club) ===Churches=== * Evangelische Auferstehungskirche, Berliner Ring (Church of the Resurrection) * Evangelische Christuskirche, Saarlandstaße * Kapelle St. Josef, Bürgermeister Neff-Straße 15 (Tridentine Mass) * Neuapostolische Kirche, Maria-Mandel-Straße* St. Apostel Kirche * St. Hildegard * St. Marien Kirche * St. Michael ===Parks=== * Tivoli Park * Viernheimer Vogelpark ===Bodies of water=== * Bannholzgraben * Schwarzer brook * Waldsee (popularly "Anglersee"), a large artificial pond and recreation area. ===Buildings=== * Marienkirche * Various other churches of Germany's two predominant denominations: ** Evangelical *** Auferstehungskirche *** Christuskirche *** Freie Evangelische Gemeinde ** Catholic *** Kapelle St. Josef *** Kirche St. Aposteln *** Kirche St. Hildegard *** Kirche St. Marien *** Kirche St. Michael * Warriors' Memorial on Weinheimer Straße ===Sport=== * Badminton Club Viernheim * Balettschule Heide Heidt (ballet school) * ERC Viernheim (artistic roller skating) * Golf Club Mannheim-Viernheim * Ski Club Viernheim * TSV Amicitia Viernheim * Turnverein von 1893 Viernheim (TV 1893, gymnastic club) * 1.Viernheimer Karate Dojo * Viernheimer Billiard Club 1967 * Viernheimer SV (swimming club) ===Regular events=== * February: Carnival parade or Street Carnival (alternating each year) * May: 1 May Labour Day: German Confederation of Trade Unions celebration * May: Tanz in den Mai; Traditionelles May Day at the fire station, Brundtlandfest * July: first weekend, traditional community festival of community association, Viernheim * July: CdG-Sommerfest in Bavarian style* August: MGV- Gartenfest (first weekend in August) * August: MGV- Gartenfest (first weekend in August) * August: Viernheimer Triathlon (1,5 / 46 / 10) * September: Innenstadtfest (downtown festival) * September: Südhessische Akkordeontage * November: Kerwe (church consecration festival) * December: Christmas Market * 24-hour walk, St. Michael's parish * Parish festivals * Seifenkistenrennen (soapbox race) of the Viernheim scouts ==Notable people== * Jakob Keller (1873–1961), judge, politician, Member of Landtag (centre) * Joachim Jung (born 1954), actor and screenwriter * Ulrich Tukur (born 1957), actor and musician * Claudia Tonn (born 1981), heptathlete * Kaya Kinkel (born 1987), politician ===Honorary citizens=== * 1948: Prof. Dr. Ludwig Bergsträsser, chairman of the first postwar Hessian government (1883–1960) * 1948: Hans Mayr, rector (1864–1958), editor of the "Chronik der Stadt Viernheim" * 1949: Dr. Karl Alter, Archbishop of Cincinnati (1885–1977) * 1965: Dr. Nikolaus Hattemer, deacon (1900–1970) * 1973: Anton Darmstadt, clergyman (1900–1981) * 1975: Hans Mandel, mayor (1917–2010) * 1975: Michael Bugert, honorary town councillor (1905–1989) ==Clubs== * Spvgg. Amicitia 09 – football * Club der Gemütlichen – Carnival club * Große Drei – Carnival club * Turnverein von 1893 e. V. Viernheim – gymnastics * KJG – St. Michael, St. Aposteln, St. Marien, St. Hildegard * TSV Viernheim – sport club * Herolde – music * TC Viernheim – tennis * Kunstverein Viernheim – art * Kerweverein Viernheim – church consecration festival club * Evangelischer Posaunenchor Viernheim – choir * ASV Viernheim 1968 e. V. – Angelsport-Verein – angling * SRC -Stemm- und Ringclub Viernheim e. V. * Stadtnetz und Internet Freunde Viernheim e. V. * Frauenchor 1947 Viernheim e. V. – women's choir * Männergesangverein 1846 Viernheim e. V. – men's choir * Sportschützenverein Viernheim 1953 e. V. – shooting * Siedlergemeinschaft Viernheim e. V. – community association ==Further reading== * Heinrich Loew, Festschrift zur Jahrhundertfeier des Synagogenbaues, Viernheim 1927 * Franz Josef Haas, Adam Haas: Der Geländeraub in Viernheim 1934 (Wegnahme der Allmend), Denkschrift zur Frage der Wiederherstellung der Allmende in der Gemeinde Viernheim, Kommission zur Wiedergutmachung des Unrechts von 1934 (publisher), edited by Franz Josef Haas 1. and Adam Haas 6., Viernheim 1948 * Hans Knapp: Viernheimer Wörterbuch "Wie gered't sou gebabblt", 1972 * Hans Mayr: Chronik der Stadt Viernheim, Mannheim 1949 * 1200 Jahre Viernheim 777–1977, Hg. Magistrat der Stadt Viernheim * Brigitte Perker: Viernheim zwischen Weimar und Bonn - Demokratie und Diktatur in einer deutschen Kleinstadt - 1918–1949. publisher Magistrat der Stadt Viernheim. Viernheim, 1988. * Gisela Wittemann: Illustrierte Geschichte Stadt Viernheim, 160 pages. Verlag: Edition Quadrat Bernhard Wipfler, 1998. * Werner Nägel et al.,100 Jahre Standesamt Viernheim, 1876–1976, 92 pages, Viernheim 1976, publisher Standesamt Viernheim * Claudia Reinhardt: No Place like Home, photographs and texts about Viernheim, Verbrecher Verlag Berlin 2005, * Heinz Klee/Walter Sauer: De Vernema Struwwelpejda. Edition Tintenfaß, Neckarsteinach, 2009. . ==References== ==External links== *Official webpage * *More interesting views in the "Viernheim Foto-Galerie" Category:Towns in Hesse Category:Bergstraße (district)
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Fort Smith ( "beside the rapids") is a town in the South Slave Region of the Northwest Territories (NWT), Canada. It is located in the southeastern portion of the Northwest Territories, on the Slave River and adjacent to the Alberta border along the 60th parallel north. == History == Fort Smith was founded around the Slave River. It served a vital link for water transportation between southern Canada and the western Arctic. Early fur traders found a portage route, long established by indigenous peoples, from what is now Fort Fitzgerald on the western bank of the Slave River to Fort Smith. This route allowed its users to bypass the four sets of impassable rapids (Cassette Rapids, Pelican Rapids, Mountain Rapids, and Rapids of the Drowned). The portage trail had been traditionally used for centuries by generations of local Indigenous peoples. The make up of the Indigenous population of the region shifted as the fortunes of the tribes changed. By 1870, the Slavey had moved north and the Cree had occupied the Slave River Valley. The Chipewyan had also begun moving into the area. Peter Pond of the North West Company was the first white trader recorded to have traveled on the Slave River and made contact with Indigenous peoples in this region. In the 1780s he established a post on Lake Athabasca called Fort Chipewyan, at the head of the Slave River. thumb|left|Portage on the Slave River circa 1900 thumb|left|Boats landing at Mountain Portage on the Slave River circa 1900 Dominated by the activities of the Hudson's Bay Company, the fur trade penetrated more deeply into the Mackenzie River district in the 19th century. York boats were used to run the Slave River rapids and, where needed, small portages were established to bypass the most dangerous areas. Nonetheless, serious mishaps were bound to happen. This section of the Slave River became known as 'The Rapids of the Drowned'. In 1872, the Hudson's Bay Company built an outpost called Smith's Landing (Fort Fitzgerald) at the most southern set of the Slave River rapids. In 1874, another outpost was constructed at the most northern set of rapids. It was called Fort Smith. Both posts were named in honour of Donald Alexander Smith, who in August 1897, was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as The 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal. In 1876, the Roman Catholic Mission was moved from Salt River to Fort Smith while the community was prospering. In 1886, the Hudson's Bay Company launched the steam-propelled vessel SS Wrigley to run from Fort Smith to the Mackenzie River. The steamer ran the Slave River from Fort McMurray to the head of the rapids at Smith's Landing beginning in 1882. In 1898, the Yukon Gold Rush brought many gold seekers over the portages and through Fort Smith. In 1908, a new HBC steamer paddlewheeler, SS Mackenzie River, was launched to operate on the Slave and Mackenzie rivers below Fort Smith (see boats of the Mackenzie River watershed). In 1911, government was established in Fort Smith when Ottawa sent an Indian agent and a regional medical doctor, and the Royal Northwest Mounted Police opened a detachment. With these developments, Fort Smith became not only the transportation centre for the western Arctic but the administrative centre as well. The mission sawmill produced lumber for the first hospital, St. Anne's, built in 1914 for the Grey Nuns. The sawmill also supplied the lumber for the first school, built in 1915. The Roman Catholic Mission also operated St. Bruno's Farm, which supplied produce, meat, and dairy products. Until it was closed in the 1920s, the farm supplied all the church's missions in the western Arctic. Its workers maintained a herd of more than 140 cattle. Horse-drawn freight services were complemented by tractors in 1919, when the Alberta & Arctic Transportation Company, a subsidiary of Lamson & Hubbard Trading Company, commissioned two tractors on the Slave River portage to haul commercial freight from one side of the rapids to the other. With the discovery of oil at Norman Wells in 1920, a federal government administration building was constructed to house the new Northwest Territories branch and the first court of justice in the Mackenzie District. The Union Bank of Canada, making use of a tent, opened the first bank in the Northwest Territories in Fort Smith in June 1921.As Long as this Land Shall Last: A History of Treaty 8 and Treaty 11, 1870-1939Union Bank of Canada, Fort Smith, North West Territories, 1921 thumb|left|Northern Trading Co. at Fort Smith thumb|HBC transport loaded with fur, Fort Smith circa 1900 In 1920 the Lamson & Hubbard Trading Company launched Distributor to service its trading posts along the Mackenzie River. This group was taken over by the HBC in 1924. By the 1930s, a significant part of the Fort Smith economy was centred around ship and barge building. The HBC and Northern Transportation Company Limited (NTCL) established shipyards below Fort Smith. Wood Buffalo National Park was established in 1922; its operations and administration headquarters were in Fort Smith. In 1924, Fort Smith received the first of the Northwest Territories and Yukon Radio System installed by the Royal Canadian Corps of Signals. In 1928, Fort Smith Airport was built. The discovery of gold in Yellowknife in 1938 was a catalyst for an economic boost to Fort Smith, as many prospectors came passing through and bought supplies at the post. In the same year, an Anglican Mission house was built; a church was built in 1939. In 1942–1943, Fort Smith played a small part in the war effort when huge armies raged across the globe in the Second World War. With a population of 250, Fort Smith hosted 2,000 United States Army soldiers who were en route to the Canol Oil Pipeline Project at Norman Wells and the Canol Road. They brought hundreds of barge loads of supplies; and in order to move these, they built a tractor road from Fort Smith to Hay River and even farther north. The continued gold fever that fuelled Yellowknife's growth also stimulated the five-fold growth of Fort Smith's population in the decade following 1945. Government administrative facilities were increased to keep up with population needs and the village developed as a transportation hub for the Mackenzie District. Fort Smith was incorporated as a village in 1964; two years later, with a population of 2,130, the village became a town on October 1, 1966. The all- weather road to Hay River was officially completed in 1966, permanently linking Fort Smith to the south. The completion of a southern rail link to Hay River in 1964 meant that Fort Smith's role as the transportation hub was largely negated. Shipping operations on the Slave River ceased in 1968. When Yellowknife was designated as the territorial capital in 1967, Fort Smith was kept as the administrative centre of the government of the Northwest Territories' vast region. See history of Northwest Territories capital cities. On Friday August 9, 1968, disaster struck Fort Smith when a landslide some broke away from the riverbank; it caused property damage and killed one person. The riverbank area has since been sloped to stabilize it. Reshaped as a gentle hillside, it is known as Riverbank Park, and features groomed trails, picnic areas, and a viewing platform to oversee the Rapids of the Drowned.On the Banks of the Slave: A History of the Community of Fort Smith, Northwest Territories. Tourism Committee of Fort Smith, Department of Education Northwest Territories, 1979. In 1970, the Adult Vocational Training Centre was opened. Its operations were later expanded and in 1981 it became Thebacha College. A few years later, Arctic College was created by the government of the Northwest Territories. The Thebacha Campus was home to government headquarters offices. In 1995, the college changed its name to Aurora College in order to allow Nunavut the use of the Arctic College name for their tribal college. Today, Fort Smith's economy is based on the federal, territorial, and aboriginal governments, along with education and tourism. In 2008, interest began to develop to re-establish a portage route to supply the Fort McMurray oilsands operations by river. == Geography == The town is approximately southeast of Yellowknife, the territorial capital. The park headquarters for Wood Buffalo National Park is located in Fort Smith. The headquarters and Thebacha Campus of Aurora College is located in Fort Smith; it is the largest of the three campus locations in the Northwest Territories. Fort Smith is located in the South Slave Region (administrative) and Region 5, Northwest Territories (census division). The town was previously in the Fort Smith Region census division. Fort Smith is accessible all year long via the Fort Smith Highway. A winter road operates for several months to connect Fort Smith to Fort Chipewyan and from there to Fort McMurray. An all-weather road named Pine Lake Road links Fitzgerald. === Climate === Fort Smith has a dry continental subarctic climate (Koppen: Dfc) with very long winters combined with warm but relatively short summers. The highest temperature ever recorded in Fort Smith was on June 30, 2021. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on December 26, 1917. These are both the hottest and coldest temperatures ever recorded in the Northwest Territories. == Demographics == In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Fort Smith had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. According to the 2016 census, the majority of people in Fort Smith (1,645) were Indigenous of which 920 were First Nations, 585 were Métis and 135 Inuit. The main languages are English, Chipewyan (Dene), Cree, Dogrib (Tłı̨chǫ), Slavey- Hare, Inuinnaqtun (Inuvialuktun) and Inuktitut. == Government == Fort Smith federal election results Year Liberal Conservative New Democratic Green 2021 31% 183 11% 68 43% 258 4% 24 2019 36% 264 19% 139 40% 293 5% 37 Local government consists of the Town of Fort Smith Council with 9 members (7 councillors, deputy mayor and mayor). The mayor works part-time and council is elected every three years. As of 2021 the current mayor of Fort Smith is Fred Daniels. Fort Smith is represented by the Salt River First Nation #195 and are part of the Akaitcho Territory Government. As of June 2012, the Salt River First Nation had given the Akaitcho Territory Government the mandatory six months notice that they would be separating from the organization. The Fort Smith Métis Council is the local representation for members of the Northwest Territory Métis Nation. In 1996, a framework agreement was signed with the government of the Northwest Territories and the government of Canada to commence negotiations on land, resources and self-government. == Attractions == thumb|Pelicans on the Rapids of the Drowned Fort Smith is the home of the Northern Life Museum and home of the museum ship Radium King. Every year the South Slave Friendship Festival, a music and arts festival, occurs in Fort Smith, usually in August. Musicians and artists from across the Northwest Territories and many other faraway places come to interact with other artists and show off their talents to the public. Many tourists come to see the world- class Slave River and many kayakers try its rapids. Fort Smith Mission Park is a popular tourist attraction featuring historic buildings and a grotto from the Oblate Catholic Mission. In the summer months, pelicans can be seen nesting on the various rapids near Fort Smith. Whooping cranes, an endangered species, also nest in the area during the summer and can be viewed via air charters as ground access is prohibited. == Education == There are a number of educational facilities in Fort Smith including Joseph Burr Tyrrell Elementary School, Paul William Kaeser High School and the Thebacha Campus of Aurora College. Additionally, the main office of the South Slave Divisional Education Council is located in the town. == Notable residents == Fort Smith is the birthplace of Mark Carney, former governor of both the Bank of England and the Bank of Canada. == See also == *List of municipalities in the Northwest Territories *Fort Smith (District) Heliport == References == === Notes === == External links == * Category:Towns in the Northwest Territories Category:Communities in the South Slave Region Category:Hudson's Bay Company forts
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This article lists the major and recurring fictional characters created by Joss Whedon for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. For detailed descriptions, see individual character pages. ==Cast== ===Main cast=== The following characters were featured in the opening credits of the program. Actor Character Count Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sarah Michelle Gellar Buffy Summers 144 colspan=7 Nicholas Brendon Xander Harris 143 colspan=7 Alyson Hannigan Willow Rosenberg 144 colspan=7 Charisma Carpenter Cordelia Chase 54 colspan=3 colspan=4 Anthony Stewart Head Rupert Giles 121 colspan=5 colspan=2 David Boreanaz Angel 57 colspan=2 colspan=2 Seth Green Oz 39 colspan=2 colspan=3 James Marsters Spike 96 colspan=4 Marc Blucas Riley Finn 31 colspan=3 colspan=2 Emma Caulfield Anya Jenkins 81 colspan=2 colspan=2 colspan=3 Michelle Trachtenberg Dawn Summers 66 colspan=4 colspan=3 Amber Benson Tara Maclay 47 colspan=3 colspan=2 ===Recurring cast=== Actor Character Count Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mark Metcalf The Master 8 colspan="3" Kristine Sutherland Joyce Summers 58 colspan="5" colspan="2" Julie Benz Darla 5 colspan="2" colspan="2" Andrew J. Ferchland The Anointed One 6 colspan="5" Robia LaMorte Jenny Calendar 14 colspan="4" Armin Shimerman Principal Snyder 19 colspan="2" colspan="3" Juliet Landau Drusilla 17 colspan="2" Danny Strong Jonathan Levinson 29 colspan="2" colspan="2" Bianca Lawson Kendra 3 colspan="5" Larry Bagby Larry Blaisdell 7 colspan="4" Jason Hall Devon MacLeish 8 colspan="3" K. Todd Freeman Mr. Trick 5 colspan="2" colspan="4" Fab Filippo Scott Hope 3 colspan="2" colspan="4" Eliza Dushku Faith Lehane 20 colspan="2" colspan="2" Harry Groener Mayor 14 colspan="2" colspan="2" Mercedes McNab Harmony Kendall 15 colspan="2" colspan="3" colspan="2" Alexis Denisof Wesley Wyndam-Pryce 9 colspan="2" colspan="4" Lindsay Crouse Maggie Walsh 9 colspan="3" colspan="3" Phina Oruche Olivia 3 colspan="3" colspan="3" Adam Kaufman Parker Abrams 5 colspan="3" colspan="3" Paige Moss Veruca 3 colspan="3" colspan="3" Bailey Chase Graham Miller 13 colspan="3" colspan="2" colspan="2" Leonard Roberts Forrest Gates 12 colspan="3" colspan="3" George Hertzberg Adam 10 colspan="3" colspan="2" Charlie Weber Ben 14 colspan="4" colspan="2" Clare Kramer Glory 13 colspan="4" Troy T. Blendell Jinx 6 colspan="4" colspan="2" Joel Grey Doc 3 colspan="4" colspan="2" Todd Duffey Murk 6 colspan="4" colspan="2" Adam Busch Warren Mears 16 colspan="4" colspan="2" Tom Lenk Andrew Wells 27 colspan="4" colspan="2" James Charles Leary Clem 8 colspan="5" Elizabeth Anne Allen Amy Madison 8 colspan="4" Kali Rocha Halfrek 7 colspan="4" D. B. Woodside Robin Wood 14 colspan="6" Sarah Hagan Amanda 10 colspan="6" Camden Toy Ubervamp 4 colspan="6" Iyari Limon Kennedy 13 colspan="6" Clara Bryant Molly 5 colspan="6" Indigo Rona 8 colspan="6" Felicia Day Vi 8 colspan="6" Kristy Wu Chao-Ahn 6 colspan="6" Nathan Fillion Caleb 5 colspan="6" Mary Wilcher Shannon 3 colspan="6" Dania Ramirez Caridad 3 colspan="6" ===Notable guest cast=== Actor Character Count Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Eric Balfour Jesse McNally 2 colspan="6" Dean Butler Hank Summers 4 colspan="2" colspan="2" colspan="2" Robin Sachs Ethan Rayne 4 colspan="3" colspan="3" Julia Lee Anne Steele 2 colspan="2" colspan="4" Saverio Guerra Willy the Snitch 5 colspan="3" colspan="3" Harris Yulin Quentin Travers 3 colspan="2" Andy Umberger D'Hoffryn 4 colspan="2" colspan="2" colspan="2" Sharon Ferguson First Slayer 4 colspan="3" colspan="2" K. D. Aubert Nikki Wood 3 colspan="4" Amelinda Embry Katrina Silber 3 colspan="4" colspan="2" Azura Skye Cassie Newton 2 colspan="6" Lalaine Chloe 2 colspan="6" ;Note ==Main characters== ===Buffy Summers=== * Portrayed by Sarah Michelle Gellar The show's titular protagonist, Buffy, is "The Slayer", one in a long line of young girls chosen by fate to battle evil forces in the form of vampires and demons. The Slayer has no jurisdiction over human crime. This calling mystically endows her with a limited degree of clairvoyance, usually in the form of prophetic dreams, as well as dramatically increased physical strength, endurance, agility, intuition, and speed and ease of healing. Traditionally, there has been only one Slayer alive at any given moment, with a new one called upon the event of her death. ===Xander Harris=== * Portrayed by Nicholas Brendon Xander is a close friend of Buffy. Possessing no supernatural skills, Xander provides comic relief as well as a grounded, everyman perspective in the supernatural Buffyverse. In another departure from the usual conventions of television, Xander is notable for being an insecure and subordinate male in a world dominated by powerful females. ===Willow Rosenberg=== * Portrayed by Alyson Hannigan Willow was originally a nerdy girl who contrasted Buffy's cheerleader personality but also shared the social isolation Buffy suffered after becoming a Slayer. As the series progressed, Willow became a more assertive and even sensual character; in particular, she realized that she was a lesbian and became a powerful Wiccan. Willow is Buffy's best friend through everything that happens and maintains her humanity and kindness to others throughout. ===Cordelia Chase=== * Portrayed by Charisma Carpenter (seasons 1–3) Cordelia is originally an archetypal popular, shallow, mean-spirited cheerleader. She is tactless, but direct and honest, and she becomes a reluctant ally of the Scooby Gang, even after her relationship with Xander disintegrates. After season 3, she joins Angel in L.A., where she abandons her attempts at acting to fight evil at his side. thumb|250px|Tom Lenk, Emma Caulfield, Alexis Denisof, Alyson Hannigan, Anthony Stewart Head, Joss Whedon, Michelle Trachtenberg ===Rupert Giles=== * Portrayed by Anthony Stewart Head Giles, rarely referred to by his first name, is a Watcher and a member of the Watchers' Council, whose job is to train Slayers. In the earlier seasons, Giles researched the supernatural creatures that Buffy must face, offered insights into their origins and advice on how to kill them. Throughout the series, he became a father-figure to Buffy, Willow, Xander, and the others, giving them advice not only on the supernatural world, but on life issues as well. ===Angel=== * Portrayed by David Boreanaz (seasons 1–5, 7) Angel, a vampire, formerly known as Angelus, was a cruel killer until he was re-ensouled by a Romani curse. After decades of guilt over his past atrocities, he allies himself with Buffy and they fall in love. The consummation of their relationship brings him a moment of true happiness, breaking the curse and releasing Angelus upon Sunnydale. Buffy is forced to send him to a hell dimension to save the world. After his release from hell, Buffy and Angel continue to struggle with their ongoing love. Angel breaks off their relationship and moves to L.A. (after season 3) to give her a chance at a more normal life. There, he gathers new allies in his own fight against evil in the five-season spin-off, Angel. ===Oz=== * Portrayed by Seth Green (seasons 2–4) Oz is a brilliant (yet generally unmotivated) student, and part- time rock guitarist. He is Willow's first and only boyfriend, and an active member of Buffy's inner circle, despite the fact that he has recently become a werewolf. Portrayed as taciturn and unflappable, the contrast between his outward coolness and his violent animal episodes is an example of the show's efforts to subvert usual character expectations, as well as to display double- personalities (like Angel/Angelus). As an unusual side-note, the actor Seth Green went on to co-design and supervise the creation of the acclaimed line of Buffy the Vampire Slayer action figures. ===Spike=== * Portrayed by James Marsters (seasons 2–7) Spike is a vampire character whose role varies dramatically through the course of the series, ranging from a major villain to "love's bitch", to the sarcastic comic relief, to Buffy's romantic interest in a relationship that grows from miserable lust to a friendship, and eventually to a self-sacrificing hero, dying as a Champion at the Hellmouth. His path to redemption subsequently resumes in L.A. (in season five of Angel), where his resurrected character continues to develop into a selfless hero and reconciles with his former nemesis and love rival, Angel, and occasionally works with him. Spike is known for his Billy Idol platinum hair (Buffy mentions in one episode that Spike doesn't style his hair like Idol's, but the other way around), his catch-phrase "bloody hell", and his black leather duster, which he acquired after killing his second Slayer. ===Anya Jenkins=== * Portrayed by Emma Caulfield (seasons 3–7) Anya is a 1,120-year-old former vengeance demon (Anyanka) who specialized in avenging scorned women. After being forcibly stripped of her demonic powers by Giles, the character is forced to re-learn how to be an ordinary human, a journey which is portrayed as both comical (e.g., her fear of rabbits and her love of money) and poignant (e.g. her grief over Joyce's death). Her story is largely focused on her romantic relationship with Xander, and like many characters on the show, she is portrayed as morally ambivalent. ===Riley Finn=== * Portrayed by Marc Blucas (seasons 4–6) Riley is Buffy's first serious boyfriend after Angel. He is initially an operative in a military organization called "The Initiative" that uses science and military technology to hunt down HSTs or "hostile sub-terrestrials" (demons). Riley is Angel's opposite, an Iowa-born-and-raised man whose strength lies in his military secret identity. Buffy's superior physical strength causes him insecurity, particularly after his medically enhanced powers were removed. This, combined with Buffy's inability to truly emotionally connect with him, eventually causes him to leave in the middle of Season 5. ===Dawn Summers=== * Portrayed by Michelle Trachtenberg (seasons 5–7) Dawn is introduced in Season 5 as Buffy's fourteen-year-old younger sister, sent to Buffy in human form as a disguise for the Key, a dangerous magical artifact sought by a hellgod. Although Dawn's genesis is magical, she functions as a complete and normal teenage girl, and, after her true nature has been revealed, she is accepted and loved as a sister, daughter, and friend. Although Buffy initially tries to shelter Dawn from her work as Slayer, Dawn later becomes a useful member of the Scooby Gang. ===Tara Maclay=== * Portrayed by Amber Benson (seasons 4–6) Tara is introduced first as a fellow member of a Wicca group during Willow's first year of college. Their close friendship evolves into an ongoing romantic relationship; their relationship attracted significant attention as one of few featured same-sex relationships on television at that time. Tara uses her magical skills to assist the Scooby Gang in their fight against evil, and she struggles with how to deal with Willow's growing addiction to magic. Tara is killed by a bullet intended for Buffy, her death triggering Willow's transformation into "Dark Willow". ==Supporting characters== ===Introduced in season one (1997)=== * The Master, portrayed by Mark Metcalf (seasons 1, 3, 7): The Master is one of the oldest living vampires, and the first Big Bad that Buffy faces in Sunnydale. The Master was trapped in a church which collapsed in an earthquake and he became trapped in the Hellmouth when he tried to open it. Prophecy foretells that he will kill Buffy; he bites her and she drowns, but is revived by Xander. She kills him, and he turns to dust, leaving only his bones. When she is faced with the threat of his resurrection, Buffy later smashes them with a sledgehammer. The Master appears again in the season 3 episode "The Wish", which is set in an alternative reality where Buffy never came to Sunnydale. He is resurrected in season 8 by the Seed of Wonder to protect it. * Joyce Summers, portrayed by Kristine Sutherland: Buffy's mother is an anchor of normality in the Scoobies' lives, even after she learns of Buffy's role in the supernatural world ("Becoming, Part Two"). In "Lovers Walk", she lends a sympathetic ear to Spike's heartbreak, a gesture that he never forgot. In season 5, she dies of an aneurysm after a tumor is removed from her brain in "I Was Made to Love You". (In the first episode of season 4, Buffy jokes "Can't wait till mom gets the bill for these books; I hope it's a funny aneurysm.") Joyce is one of the only two Buffyverse deaths from natural (neither magical nor violent) causes. She returns for one Season 6 episode, "Normal Again", as a hallucination (or possibly as herself in an alternate reality). She also returns in some Season 7 episodes, either as a manifestation of The First Evil or as a ghost. * Darla, portrayed by Julie Benz (seasons 1–2, 5) * The Anointed One/Collin, portrayed by Andrew J. Ferchland (seasons 1–2) * Jenny Calendar, portrayed by Robia LaMorte (seasons 1–3): High school computer teacher, whose real name is Janna Kalderash. She becomes Giles' love interest and a mentor to Willow. In the episodes "Surprise" and "Innocence", it is revealed that she is a descendant of the Romani tribe who cursed Angelus by restoring his soul, and is in Sunnydale to watch and try to prevent the development of the relationship between Angel and Buffy so that Angel continues to suffer. After Angel loses his soul, she tries to find a way to restore it, but is killed by Angelus in "Passion" just as she's figured out how to do it. Jenny Calendar was the first prominent character to be killed in the series (although the recurring character Principal Flutie had been killed in Season 1), and Joss Whedon noted the significance of this as a sign of his seriousness about emphasizing the genuine danger his characters are in. She returns in season 3, but as the First Evil, who has assumed her form. * Principal R. Snyder, portrayed by Armin Shimerman (seasons 1–4) * Harmony Kendall, portrayed by Mercedes McNab (seasons 1–5): A vapid high school companion to Cordelia Chase, who becomes a humorously inept vampire in later seasons, and goes on to be a regular character on Angel. Harmony is the only character other than Angel to appear in both the first episode of Buffy and the final episode of Angel. Additionally, she appears in the unaired Buffy pilot. She returns again in Season 8, where she informs everyone that vampires exist on her reality show. * Amy Madison, portrayed by Elizabeth Anne Allen (seasons 1–4, 6–7): A student at Sunnydale High and witch who encounters the gang. Later Amy turns herself into a rat to save herself from being burned at the stake and is stuck in this form for a few seasons until season six (with the exception of a few seconds in season four when Willow unknowingly turns Amy from rat to human then back to rat). She ultimately resents the Scoobies for how they treat and handle Willow after she goes "bad", yet cannot seem to have the same sympathy for her. She ultimately betrays Willow in Season 7. In the Dark Horse comic book series "Season 8", she takes on the role as a big bad in the first arc, partnered up with her "boyfriend" (Warren Mears) to seek revenge on Willow and Buffy. * Jesse McNally, portrayed by Eric Balfour (season 1) is Xander Harris' best friend and has a crush on Cordelia Chase. He is turned into a vampire to lure Buffy to the Master, but is later staked by Xander. * Hank Summers, portrayed by Dean Butler (seasons 1–2, 5–6): Buffy's father. ===Introduced in season two (1997–1998)=== * Drusilla, portrayed by Juliet Landau (seasons 2, 5, 7): Drusilla is a beautiful young seer who was driven insane by Angelus, her sire and later her lover. Her insanity continued after she became a vampire, and she wreaked havoc on Europe and Asia for years. After a debilitating beating from an angry mob in Prague, Drusilla is healed in a ritual that nearly sacrifices Angel; when he reverts to Angelus, she embraces his plot to destroy the world. Drusilla is the long-time paramour and sire of Spike, although she becomes disillusioned with him after their year in Sunnydale (Season 2). She has clairvoyance and hypnotic powers in addition to her vampire abilities. She frequently speaks in riddles (relating what the pixies in her head tell her) and watches the stars through the ceiling. She reappears in various guises throughout the series. She is still at large. * Jonathan Levinson, portrayed by Danny Strong (seasons 2–4, 6–7): A hapless high school nobody, introduced in the second season and frequently included in brief comic appearances in seasons 2–3; featured heavily in the noteworthy episodes "Earshot" and "Superstar" and as a major character in season 6, when he teams up with Warren Mears and Andrew Wells to take over Sunnydale. He is killed by Andrew early in season seven as a sacrifice to open the Hellmouth. * Kendra Young, portrayed by Bianca Lawson (season 2): A slayer that was called, after Buffy's short-termed death in the season one finale. She ends up getting killed by Drusilla. She appears in both two-part episodes, "What's My Line?" and "Becoming". She is succeeded by Faith Lehane. * Larry Blaisdell, portrayed by Larry Bagby (seasons 2–3) first appears as a stereotypical sexist high school bully. When Buffy and her friends search for a werewolf in Sunnydale, they realize that Larry is hiding something. Xander finds out that Larry hides that he is gay, which leads to Larry's coming out. Later, Larry tells Xander he is comfortable with his sexual identity and that his grandmother tries to find a boyfriend for him. Larry turns out to be a good guy fighting for the good. He is killed by the Mayor in the season three finale. Larry is the first openly gay character in the tv shows created by Joss Whedon. * Devon MacLeish, portrayed by Jason Hall (seasons 2–4) * Ethan Rayne, portrayed by Robin Sachs (seasons 2–4) * Chantarelle/Lily/Anne Steele, portrayed by Julia Lee (seasons 2–3) first appears as Chantarelle, a woman who wants to become a vampire. She is saved from the vampires by Buffy (Buffy S2E7 "Lie to Me"). Later she calls herself Lily and lives in L.A. with her boyfriend Rickie. There she also meets Buffy, who has left Sunnydale and works there as the waitress Anne. Buffy saves Lily from monsters once again. Then Lily takes over Buffy's second name, Anne (Buffy S3E1 "Anne"), following which she works in a shelter for teen runaways and calls herself Anne Steele. (Angel S2E12 "Blood Money & S5E22 "Not Fade Away"). In her part of growing up, Anne changes her identity and name several times until she finally feels comfortable to remain in her chosen role. The script of the Buffy episode "Lie to Me" reveals her original name to be Joan Appleby. * Willy the Snitch, portrayed by Saverio Guerra (seasons 2–4) * Merrick portrayed by Donald Sutherland (movie) and Richard Riehle (series) is Buffy's first watcher. He first appeared in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer movie where he is helping Buffy killing the first vampires. The vampire Lothos kills him, to turn Merrick into a vampire. Merrick stakes himself, so that he doesn't become a danger to Buffy. In the series he appears in a flashback, in the season two finale, where he tells Buffy about vampires. Joss Whedon announced, that he didn't like the film Merrick who was portrayed by Donald Sutherland, he preferred the Merrick from the series portrayed by Richard Riehle. Later Merrick reappeared in the Buffy comic book The Origin where the character was based on Richard Riehle's appearance and performance. In the comic book, Merrick's character resembles Giles and becomes a fatherly figure to Buffy. In the Buffy novels Slayer and Chosen by Kiersten White, Merrick is the father of the slayer and main character Nina as well as her twin sister, Artemis. ===Introduced in season three (1998–1999)=== * Mr. Trick, portrayed by K. Todd Freeman (season 3) * Scott Hope, portrayed by Fab Filippo (season 3) * Faith Lehane, portrayed by Eliza Dushku (seasons 3–4, 7): Faith, a Slayer, is called when Kendra is killed by the vampire Drusilla. When she arrives in Sunnydale, she fights alongside Buffy and the Scooby Gang. After accidentally committing murder, she indulges her violent tendencies and joins forces with the Mayor. Buffy stabs Faith, who falls into a coma; eight months later she wakes up and swaps bodies with Buffy. After being defeated, she flees to Los Angeles and accepts a contract to kill Angel. Angel is able to rehabilitate her, and she confesses to her crimes and goes to prison. Three years later, she breaks out to capture Angelus when Wesley Wyndam-Pryce informs her that he has been released. After Angel is re-ensouled, Faith reluctantly returns to Sunnydale to stand with Buffy against the First Evil. She temporarily leads both the Scoobies and the Potentials when the general faith in Buffy dissolves. Throughout the series, Faith displays a much darker, dangerously fun-seeking approach to both slaying and murder; she is the dark side of a Slayer's personality. * Mayor Richard Wilkins III, portrayed by Harry Groener (seasons 3–4, 7): The affable yet sinister Mayor Wilkins founded the city of Sunnydale on the Hellmouth as a haven for demons to feed. He sold his soul in the 19th century so that he could eventually ascend to pure demon form. Buffy and the Scoobies face the threat of his impending Ascension in Season 3. * Wesley Wyndam-Pryce, portrayed by Alexis Denisof (season 3): A second Watcher originally sent to replace Giles. Fired as a watcher, he appears in Los Angeles on Angel as a "rogue demon hunter", and becomes Angel Investigations' expert in occult lore. * Quentin Travers, portrayed by Harris Yulin (seasons 3, 5, 7) * D'Hoffryn, portrayed by Andy Umberger (season 3–4, 6–7) * The First Evil, portrayed by various actors (seasons 3, 7): The source and embodiment of all that is evil. It can appear in the form of anyone who has died (including Buffy or any vampire). In the final season, it attempted to eliminate not only Buffy and Faith, but every Potential Slayer on Earth, with the help of Caleb and an army of Turok-Han "ubervamps". ===Introduced in season four (1999–2000)=== * Professor Maggie Walsh, portrayed by Lindsay Crouse (season 4): Walsh is Buffy's psychology professor and the leader of The Initiative. She deceives Riley and tries to kill Buffy when Buffy asks too many questions about her secret project. She is stabbed and killed by her own creation, Adam, and her body is later re-animated. * Olivia Williams, portrayed by Phina Oruche (season 4) * Parker Abrams, portrayed by Adam Kaufman (season 4) * Veruca, portrayed by Paige Moss (season 4) * Graham Miller, portrayed by Bailey Chase (seasons 4–5): One of Riley's peers in the Initiative. * Forrest Gates, portrayed by Leonard Roberts (season 4): One of Riley's peers in the Initiative. * Adam, portrayed by George Hertzberg (seasons 4, 7): Adam is a part-cyborg, part-demon, part-human creation of The Initiative (under Maggie Walsh). He has no conscience, and he is violently curious in how things work, killing in order to study his victims' bodies. He is nearly unstoppable, and he plans to create a supreme race of Human/Demon/Android hybrids. Buffy eventually defeats him by ripping out the uranium core that powers him. * First Slayer, portrayed by Sharon Ferguson (seasons 4–5, 7) ===Introduced in season five (2000–2001)=== * Ben (also Benjamin Wilkinson), portrayed by Charlie Weber (season 5) * Glory, portrayed by Clare Kramer (seasons 5, 7): Glory, also known as "the great and wonderful Glorificus", is an evil hellgod who has been exiled from her dimension by other hellgods. She is forced to occupy the body of a human named Ben, which reduces her powers. She regularly becomes disoriented and unstable and must drain the minds of humans in order to maintain her cognitive processes, leaving her human victims insane. She seeks the Key to return to her home dimension, not caring that her actions threaten to destroy the fabric of reality separating all dimensions. * Jinx, portrayed by Troy Blendell (season 5) * Doc, portrayed by Joel Grey (season 5) * Murk, portrayed by Todd Duffey (season 5) * Warren Mears, portrayed by Adam Busch (seasons 5–7): The leader of "the Trio", the main villains in the 6th season before Dark Willow becomes the actual "Big Bad". He first appears to be a fairly normal nerd, but becomes a violent, power-driven timebomb who tries to gain respect by instilling fear in others. He commits evil deeds such as killing his girlfriend Katrina after his unsuccessful rape attempt. He also shoots Buffy and (accidentally) kills Tara in Buffy's own backyard. Warren is tortured, skinned alive and killed by Dark Willow ("Villains"). He later appears in Season 8, resurrected by Amy Madison (though still skinless), and seeks revenge on Buffy and Willow. * Andrew Wells, portrayed by Tom Lenk (seasons 5–7): A nerd who becomes a foe of Buffy, mainly through peer pressure, bad judgment, and a secret love for Warren Mears. After he's captured and held by the Scooby Gang, he eventually starts helping. He does try to redeem himself throughout season seven. There are several humorous hints that he is gay. His character continues to grow and develop after the end of the seventh season of Buffy, as evidenced by his guest appearances on Angel. During Season 8, he resides in Italy being the Watcher of many vampire slayers. Buffy calls Andrew part of the family in Predators and Prey, Part 3. * Halfrek/Cecily Addams/Cecily Underwood, portrayed by Kali Rocha (seasons 5–7) * Katrina Silber, portrayed by Amelinda Embry (seasons 5–6) * Dracula, portrayed by Rudolf Martin (season 5) is a vampire, that Buffy meets in season five. When Buffy questions her identity, Dracula shows her her own darkness, claiming that "darkness" is her "gift". He envisions her as a vampire. Originally Dracula was planned to be just another "cool" vampire "who rode a horse". But then script writer Marti Noxon and Joss Whedon realized, that this vampire could also be Dracula. * Nikki Wood, portrayed by April Weeden (season 5) and K. D. Aubert (season 7) is a Slayer in the 1970s. She is the mother of Robin Wood and is killed by the vampire Spike. Joss Whedon mentioned that he has based Nikki Wood's first appearance in the subway on the fictional character Blade by Marvel Comics. ===Introduced in season six (2001–2002)=== * Clem, portrayed by James Charles Leary (seasons 6–7) ===Introduced in season seven (2002–2003)=== * Principal Robin Wood, portrayed by D. B. Woodside (season 7): The son of a past Slayer, Nikki Wood (killed by Spike), who becomes a Buffy ally in the final season. He becomes the love interest of Faith. * Amanda, portrayed by Sarah Hagan (season 7) * Ubervamp, portrayed by Camden Toy (season 7) * Kennedy, portrayed by Iyari Limon (season 7): One of the Potential Slayers who comes to Sunnydale during the last season. She comes from a rich background, freely describing herself as a brat, and is openly gay, becoming Willow's second girlfriend. As a result of this and being the oldest and most well-trained, she sometimes takes on a leadership role among the Potentials and consults with the Scooby Gang apart from them. She is among those activated as a Slayer in the series finale. * Molly, portrayed by Clara Bryant (season 7) * Rona, portrayed by Indigo (season 7) * Vi, portrayed by Felicia Day (season 7) * Chao-Ahn, portrayed by Kristy Wu (season 7) * Caleb, portrayed by Nathan Fillion (season 7): An arrogant, misogynistic preacher who served as a vessel and agent of the First Evil. He is emasculated and sliced in two by Buffy in the series' finale "Chosen". * Shannon, portrayed by Mary Wilcher (season 7) * Caridad, portrayed by Dania Ramirez (season 7) * Cassie Newton, portrayed by Azura Skye (season 7) is a student at Sunnydale High School, that Buffy meets during her work as a school counselor. Cassie tells Buffy that she foresees her own death. Buffy tries to prevent it, but just when it seems like Buffy has saved Cassie, the girl dies. Her death makes Buffy realize that she can not save everyone, no matter how hard she tries. Cassie's death also made a big impression on the audience, being remembered as one of the most brutal deaths in Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Cassie's website, which included her poetry and was shown in the series, existed in real life.http://www.geocities.com/newcassie/. The poetry was written by Rebecca Rand Kirshner. * Chloe, portrayed by Lalaine (season 7) ===Introduced in seasons eight to twelve (2011–2018)=== * Renee (Season 8) * Simone Doffler (Season 8) * Satsu (Season 8) * Severin the Siphon (Season 8) first shows up in season eight's final storyarc as an evil looking "guy in John Lennon glasses". He becomes a main villain in season 9. Artist Georges Jeanty had modelled him after the young Professor X in X-Men: First Class. * Maloker (Season 9) * Joanna Wise (Season 11) * Melaka Fray (Fray) * Harth Fray (Fray) ==Notable villains== The following characters are commonly referred to within the show as Big Bads, usually the principal antagonist for a season, though some seasons have multiple Big Bads. The sixth season documentaries often refer not only to Dark Willow as the season's Big Bad, but life itself. * Season 1: The Master * Season 2: Spike, Drusilla, Angelus * Season 3: Mayor Wilkins, Mr. Trick, Faith * Season 4: Professor Maggie Walsh, Adam * Season 5: Glory * Season 6: The Trio (Warren Mears, Jonathan Levinson, Andrew Wells), Dark Willow * Season 7: The First Evil, Caleb ==See also== * List of Buffyverse villains and supernatural beings == References == Category:Lists of Buffyverse characters Buffy the Vampire Slayer
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thumb|right|CAD model tracing of a tractor mounted loader mechanism thumb|right|CAD model tracing of a skid loader mechanism A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move or load materials such as soil, rock, sand, demolition debris, etc. into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car). There are many types of loader, which, depending on design and application, are variously called a bucket loader, front loader, front-end loader, payloader, high lift, scoop, shovel, skip loader, wheel loader, or skid-steer. ==Description== A loader is a type of tractor, usually wheeled, sometimes on tracks, that has a front-mounted wide bucket connected to the end of two booms (arms) to scoop up loose material from the ground, such as dirt, sand or gravel, and move it from one place to another without pushing the material across the ground. A loader is commonly used to move a stockpiled material from ground level and deposit it into an awaiting dump truck or into an open trench excavation. The loader assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools—for example, many can mount forks to lift heavy pallets or shipping containers, and a hydraulically opening "clamshell" bucket allows a loader to act as a light dozer or scraper. The bucket can also be augmented with devices like a bale grappler for handling large bales of hay or straw. Large loaders, such as the Kawasaki 95ZV-2, John Deere 844K, ACR 700K Compact Wheel Loader, Caterpillar 950H, Volvo L120E, Case 921E, or Hitachi ZW310 usually have only a front bucket and are called front loaders, whereas small loader tractors are often also equipped with a small backhoe and are called backhoe loaders or loader backhoes or JCBs, after the company that first claimed to have invented them. Other companies like CASE in America and Whitlock in the UK had been manufacturing excavator loaders well before JCB. The largest loader in the world is LeTourneau L-2350. Currently these large loaders are in production in the Longview, Texas facility. The L-2350 uses a diesel-electric propulsion system similar to that used in a locomotive. Each rubber tired wheel is driven by its own independent electric motor. Loaders are used mainly for loading materials into trucks, laying pipe, clearing rubble, and digging. A loader is not the most efficient machine for digging as it cannot dig very deep below the level of its wheels, like a backhoe or an excavator can. The capacity of a loader bucket can be anywhere from 0.5 to 36 m3 depending upon the size of the machine and its application. The front loader's bucket capacity is generally much bigger than a bucket capacity of a backhoe loader. thumb|left|Traction chains on a wheel loader Unlike most bulldozers, most loaders are wheeled and not tracked, although track loaders are common. They are successful where sharp-edged materials in construction debris would damage rubber wheels, or where the ground is soft and muddy. Wheels provide better mobility and speed and do not damage paved roads as much as tracks, but provide less traction. In construction areas loaders are also used to transport building materials such as bricks, pipe, metal bars, and digging tools over short distances. Front- loaders are commonly used to remove snow especially from sidewalks, parking lots, and other areas too small for using snowplows and other heavy equipment. They are sometimes used as snowplows with a snowplow attachment but commonly have a bucket or snow basket, which can also be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck. High-tip buckets are suitable for light materials such as chip, peat and light gravel and when the bucket is emptied from a height. thumb|right|Close-up of articulated steering apparatus Unlike backhoes or standard tractors fitted with a front bucket, many large loaders do not use automotive steering mechanisms. Instead, they steer by a hydraulically actuated pivot point set exactly between the front and rear axles. This is referred to as "articulated steering" and allows the front axle to be solid, allowing it to carry greater weight. Articulated steering provides better maneuverability for a given wheelbase. Since the front wheels and attachment rotate on the same axis, the operator is able to "steer" his load in an arc after positioning the machine, which can be useful. The tradeoff is that when the machine is "twisted" to one side and a heavy load is lifted high, it has a greater risk of turning over to the "wide" side. Front loaders gained popularity during the last two decades, especially in urban engineering projects and small earthmoving works. Heavy equipment manufacturers offer a wide range of loader sizes and duties. The term "loader" is also used in the debris removal field to describe the boom on a grapple truck. == Major components == The major components included in a loader are the engine (diesel in almost all cases), the hydraulic components (such as pumps, motors and valves) and the transmission components (gearbox, axles, wheels/tracks, pumps, motors, etc.). The engine runs both the hydraulics and the transmission, and these in turn move the front attachment (a bucket, forks, sweeper, etc.) to manipulate the material being handled, and the wheels or tracks to move the machine around the jobsite. ==Wheel loaders== The first wheel loader was invented by Volvo Construction Equipment in 1954, it was called H10. Back then it was based on a tractor and had a rear wheel drive. Today wheel loaders are articulated and the rear and front wheels are the same dimensions. === Armored wheel loaders === thumb|Armored wheel loader of the Israeli Defense Forces The Israeli Combat Engineering Corps uses armored Caterpillar 966 wheel loaders for construction and combat engineering missions in militarily occupied territories such as the West Bank. They are often seen building or removing road blocks and building bases and fortifications. Since 2005, they have also been used to demolish small houses. The Israel Defense Forces added armor plating to the loader to protect it against rocks, stones, molotov cocktails, and light gunfire. Rio de Janeiro's police elite squad Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais (BOPE) has acquired one wheel loader designed for military use to open routes and make way for the police in Rio de Janeiro's slums, which are controlled, and blocked, by drug dealers. Several if not most countries have similar equipment. The Dutch armed forces for instance use models like the Werklust WG18Edef, which weighs 15 tons, 2 more than the corresponding unarmored civilian model. In addition, the Dutch military previously used extra armor modules covering most of the window surface with steel for extra protection. These were however not popular with the crews due to low visibility. The Turkish Army and Turkish Police use remote controlled armored wheel loader Tosun during the building of the Syria–Turkey barrier, the Operation Euphrates Shield, Operation Idlib Shield) and Operation Olive Branch. ==Tractor front loaders== These loaders are a popular addition to tractors from 50 to 200 hp. Its current 'drive-in' form was originally designed and developed in 1958 by a Swedish company named Ålö when they launched their Quicke loader. Tractor loaders were developed to perform a multitude of farming tasks, and are popular due to their relatively low cost (compared to Telehandler) and high versatility. Tractor loaders can be fitted with many attachments such as hydraulic grabs and spikes to assist with bale and silage handling, forks for pallet work, and buckets for more general farm activities. Industrial tractor loaders equipped with box graders are marketed to contractors as skip loaders.Doyle, Marcia - Caterpillar intros 415F2 IL skip loader: a backhoe-turned-compact-grader aimed at the West Coast Equipment World, March 4, 2016 ==Compact front end loaders== Abram Dietrich Thiessen of Eyebrow Saskatchewan in the 1940s built the first quick attach front end loader. thumb|right|Semi-curved compact loader on a John Deere compact utility tractor thumb|right|Visibility comparison of different loader designs Front-end loaders (FELs) are popular additions to compact utility tractors and farm tractors. Compact utility tractors, also called CUTs, are small tractors, typically with 18 to and used primarily for grounds maintenance and landscape chores. There are 2 primary designs of compact tractor FELs, the traditional dogleg designed style and the curved arm style. John Deere manufactures a semi-curved loader design that does not feature the one piece curved arm, but also is not of the traditional two piece design. New Holland introduced a compact loader with a one piece curved arm on its compact utility tractors, similar one piece curved arm loaders are now available on compact tractors on many brands including Case IH/Farmall, and some Montana and Kioti tractors. Kubota markets traditional loader designs on most of its compact tractors but now features a semi-curved loader design similar to the John Deere loader design on several of its small tractors. While the front-end loaders on CUT size tractors are capable of many tasks, given their relatively small size and low capacities when compared to commercial loaders, the compact loaders can be made more useful with some simple options. A toothbar is commonly added to the front edge of a loader bucket to aid with digging. Some loaders are equipped with a quick coupler, otherwise known as a quick attach (QA) system. The QA system allows the bucket to be removed easily and other tools to be added in its place. Common additions include a set of pallet forks for lifting pallets of goods or a bale spear for lifting hay bales. LHD (Load, Haul, Dump machine) is also a front end loader but meant to be used for mine compact conditions, can handle various range of loads with varying size of buckets, and can be driven with electric motors as well as diesel engines. == Skid loaders and track loaders == A skid loader is a small loader utilizing four wheels with hydraulic drive that directs power to either, or both, sides of the vehicle. Very similar in appearance and design is the track loader, which utilizes a continuous track on either side of the vehicle instead of the wheels. Since the expiration of Bobcat's patent on its quick-connect system, newer tractor models are standardizing that popular format for front end attachments. == Swingloaders == A swingloader is a rigid frame loader with a swinging boom. The boom can swing 180 degrees or more. Swingloaders are primarily used by the railroad industry to lay rail. Like other loaders many attachments can be attached to the boom such as magnets, forks, and buckets. Smaller swingloaders are used in farming applications for loading out. A swinging boom is advantageous where space is limited. The loader is able to lift on all sides and dump off on all sides. ==Gallery== File:Hanomag loader.jpg|A Hanomag loader File:Compact-Utility-Tractor+Too.jpg|DK45 with and without a toothbar on the bucket File:UNIMOG excavator.JPEG|UNIMOG with front loader and excavator attachment (backhoe loader) File:Atlas AR55 l.jpg|A relatively small front loader File:Log loader.jpg|A loader with a specialized claw used to move logs at a sawmill File:Caterpillar 930G Side View.jpg|A Caterpillar 930G fitted with a loader rake on a residential construction site in South Florida. File:Caterpillar 930G Front View.jpg|The front of a Caterpillar 930G fitted with loader rake. File:Building Fairs Brno 2011 (034).jpg|Wacker Neuson wheel loaders at a trade fair File:Deutz- Fahr-40hp+1950.jpg|Compact utility tractor with a front loader showing two different measurement points for loader capacities File:Swingmaster 181TC Swingloader.JPG|Swingmaster Swingloader File:Liugong ZL50A in Guilin East Railway Station 20100713 02.jpg|A Liugong ZL50A in Guilin East Railway Station, Guilin, Guangxi, China File:Knick-Radlader VOLVO L60H.jpg|VOLVO L60H Articulated loader == Notable manufacturers == * 14. oktobar * Bobcat * BelAZ * Case * Caterpillar * Doosan Infracore (formerly Daewoo Heavy Industries & Machinery)—including Solar brand * HEPCO * Hitachi * Hyundai * JCB * John Deere * Kawasaki * Komatsu * Kramer * Kubota * Larsen & Toubro * MoAZ * Liebherr * LiuGong * Manitou * Navistar International * New Holland * Volvo Construction Equipment * Wacker Neuson * XCMG * Yanmar ==See also== *Backhoe loader *Bulldozer *Compactor *Crane *Excavator *Grader *LHD (load, haul, dump machine) *Skid loader *Tractor *Telescopic handler ==References== Category:Heavy equipment Category:Construction equipment Category:Agricultural machinery Category:Engineering vehicles Category:Mining equipment Category:Snow removal
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Mohamed Manjee Keshavjee is an international cross-cultural specialist on mediation, with a focus on Islamic Law"Perkins Center for Evangelism and Missional Church Studies to sponsor lecture by Islamic law expert Mohamed Keshavjee", SMU (Southern Methodist University) World Changers, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., March 12, 2014 and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)."Interview with Dr Mohamed Keshavjee on Islam, Sharia and Alternative Dispute Resolution", The Institute of Ismaili Studies, October 4, 2013Albie Sachs in conversation with Mohamed Keshavjee, October 24, 2021. Dr Keshavjee works with PABASA (Pan African Bar Association of South Africa), a Black and Women's Empowerment lawyers group in South Africa ==Early life== Keshavjee was born in Pretoria, South Africa in 1945, to Indian parents, father Nazarali Manjee Keshavjee, and mother Koolsam Kanji Kana."Understanding Sharia Islamic law in a globalised world", by M. Keshavjee, book review by Zubeida Jaffer, Mail & Guardian, Africa's Best Read, June 15, 2019 Due to increasing political unrest and segregation in South Africa Rough Cut - "Uganda: The Return. Asians back in Africa" by Omar Sachedina, May 10, 2007. https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/05/uganda_the_retu.html his family felt pressured to leave Pretoria for Kenya in 1962, searching for a better life. At first, conditions were better in Kenya, but that eventually changed with Idi AminPresident Idi Amin Dada of Uganda: A Bibliography, M. O. Afolabi First Published June 1, 1978 and, after returning to Kenya from England where he had obtained his law degree in 1969, Keshavjee found himself restricted from employment, even without pay."Into that Heaven of Freedom: The impact of Apartheid on an Indian family's diasporic history", Mohamed M Keshavjee, 2015, by Mawenzi House Publishers, Ltd., Toronto, ON, Canada. In 1972 his family then relocated to Canada. In his book, "Into That Heaven of Freedom" (with a foreword by Ahmed Kathrada, the second longest-serving political prisoner in the world after Nelson Mandela,Ahmed Kathrada Keshavjee describes the history of Indian migration to Africa in the 19th century and their struggles under Apartheid, using his own family's story as a backdrop, highlighting the early racial struggle of Mohandas Gandhi years before he gained the honorific of Mahatma"Gandhi Before India", by Ramachandra Guha, Oct. 2013 ==Achievements== In 2016, Dr Keshavjee was awarded the Gandhi, King, Ikeda Peace Award by the Martin Luther King Jr. International Chapel at Morehouse College, Atlanta, Georgia, for his work on mediation, peace and human rights education. Keshavjee was the first Canadian and also the first Asian from Africa to be awarded this prize. At his acceptance of this prize, Keshavjee gave the speech, "Cosmopolitan Ethics: How we treat each other in today’s globalized world". He lectures on mediation https://pabasa.co.za/albie-sachs-registration/ Monday, Sept. 20, 2021 methods needed in the face of major upheavals due to rapid globalization, accelerated technological growth, and massive climate change."Mediating in the Face of Major Upheavals", Alternative Dispute Resolution Symposium, Edmonton, Alberta, May 15 & 16, 2018 His book, Islam, Sharia and Alternative Dispute Resolution, deals with how Muslims engage with sharia customary practices and the laws of the United Kingdom.Book review in European Journal of Comparative Law and Governance, by Werner Menski, Sept. 4, 2015, Vol. 2, Issue 3, p. 263-264, 2015 He has spoken on ADR at conferences in Europe, North America and Asia, and has trained family mediators in the EU countries and imams and pastors in mosque and church conflicts in the UK and the US, respectively. Dr Keshavjee has practised law in Kenya, Canada and the United Kingdom. He has spent three decades working with the secretariat of the Aga Khan in France on programs aimed at improving the quality of life of people in some of the poorest areas of the world through the Ismaili Imamat and the Aga Khan Development Network."Meet the Indo-Canadian who will be honoured with top US peace award", Press Trust of India, March 27, 2016 He has written books and articles on the Indian diaspora in Africa. In London, he helped to process the immigration files of East African Asians and has interviewed refugees from Uganda and other countries.AWAAZ Voices, Volume 19, Issue 2, 2022 In 2021, he was invited by the Pan African Bar Association of South Africa (PABASA) to train members of the judiciary in mediation with a team of some 20 trainers from six countries.Justice Albie Sachs in Conversation with Dr Mohamed Keshavjee, "Disconcerting Moments in a Judge's Life!" Oct. 7, 2021, Albie Sachs, the founding member of the Constitutional Court of South Africa opened the conference with a keynote presentation. In 2022, he led an international team to South Africa and was received by Ela Gandhi at the Phoenix settlement where Mahatma Gandhi started his first printing press 1890s. In 2021, Dr. Keshavjee was appointed on the BUA 50 Steering Committee https://www.bua50.org/objectives/steering-group where he played an educational role in shaping the programme. This included a major programme with the National Archives of the U.K. He contributed an article on the Ugandan expulsion of 1972 to Awaaz publication of Kenya, which did a 50-year retrospect, conceptualised and moderated a programme for the Ismaili Tariqah and Religious Education Board https://the.ismaili/mozambique/ismaili-tariqah- and-religious-education-board capturing the Ismaili experience of the expulsion and resettlement, and presented a lecture in Durban South Africa highlighting the expulsion. This lecture was attended by both Ela Gandhi and Navanethem Pillay, former UN Commissioner for Human Rights."Ela Gandhi receives international mediation team in Durban, South Africa, to discuss post-conflict rehabilitation", by Ismailimail, November 3, 2022 In 2022, he spoke as a keynote with Albie Sachs as cameo at the ADRBC on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on what Canada could do to make effective reparations to the indigenous people due to the residential schools' episode https://adrbc.com/2022-speakers On November 15, 2022, he spoke on the Ugandan Expulsion of 1972 at Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.The Ugandan Asian Expulsion: Lessons for Asian Minorities in Africa ==Education and training== 1969 Honourable Society of Gray's Inn London: Barrister at Law; 1970 Admitted as Advocate of the High Court of Kenya in Nairobi; 1976 LLB from Queen's University, Kingston, Canada; 1977 Admitted as Barrister and Solicitor and Member of The Law Society of Upper Canada at Osgoode Hall, Toronto; 2000 LLM (honours) and 2009 PhD School of Oriental and African Studies, London University Faculty of Law: Thesis "Alternative Dispute Resolution in a Diasporic Muslim Community in the United Kingdom".On British Islam: Religion, Law, and Everyday Practice in Shariʿa Councils" Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics Book 62, by John R. Bowen, Princeton University Press, March 15, 2016, , index Attended certification courses at The Hague Academy of Public International Law, Harvard Program in Mediation (under Frank Sander), Berghof Foundation in Berlin, and Child Focus in Belgium where he lectured to EU Hague Mediation Trainees. ==Awards and honors== The Gandhi-King Award"Dr Mohamed Keshavjee, lawyer, author, and recipient of the Gandhi, King, Ikeda Peace Award spoke in Edmonton and Calgary Jamatkhanas about globalization and cosmopolitan ethics", The Ismaili, Anar Jamal and Salimah Khoja, September 22, 2017, Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaIIS Governor Receives Prestigious Gandhi King Ikeda Award for Peace, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., The Institute of Ismaili Studies, Aga Khaninfo-icon Centre, 10 Handyside St, King's Cross, London, UK, April 20, 2016."Indo-Canadian to be honoured with top US peace award", Press Trust of India, Johannesburg, March 22, 2016."Dr Mohamed Keshavjee will be honoured at the Morehouse College "A Day of Peace" Awards, Khabar Inc., Duluth, GA, Your Passport to the Indian-American Community, May 4, 2016 ==Published works== * "Islam, Sharia and Alternative Dispute Resolution: Mechanisms for Legal Redress in the Muslim Community", published June 30, 2013, London, UK: IB Tauris & Co. reviewed by the Honourable Marion Boyd. https://www.queensu.ca/lawjournal/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.qljwww/files/files/issues/pastissues/Volume39-2/12-Boyd.pdfSajoo, Amyn B. "Mohamed M Keshavjee: Islam, the Shari'a and Alternative Dispute Resolution: Mechanisms for legal redress in the Muslim community." International Journal, vol. 69, no. 2, 2014, p. 264+. Academic OneFile, Accessed 18 July 2019Ecclesiastical Law Journal, Volume 16, Issue 2 May 2014, pp. 238-240, Mark Hill, Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 April 2014 * "Into that Heaven of Freedom: The impact of apartheid on an Indian family's diasporic history", Mohamed M Keshavjee, 2015, by Mawenzi House Publishers, Ltd., Toronto, ON, Canada. Dubai, 20 November 2016 — A book launch was held for Into that Heaven of Freedom, written by Dr Mohamed Keshavjee, a renowned South African-born scholar and winner of the prestigious Gandhi King Ikeda Award for Peace. The event was held at the Ismaili Centre, Dubai in collaboration with the Consulate General of India in Dubai. His Excellency Manabile Shogole, South African Consul General in Dubai, also attended the event. Ismaili Centre, Dubai, Nov. 9, 2016 * "Understanding Sharia: Islamic Law in a Globalised World", by Raficq S Abdulla and Mohamed M Keshavjee, published October 31, 2018, "Mohamed M Keshavjee", Mail & Guardian, Africa's Best Read, Arts and Culture, by Zubeida Jaffer, July 18, 2019"A lucid defence of the evolution of Islam’s religious jurisprudence", "Understanding Sharia: Islamic Law in a Globalised World", by Raficq S Abdulla and Mohamed M Keshavjee, Financial Times, England, Review by David Gardner MARCH 18, 2019 * "Diasporic Distractions: New faces in new places", Kuala Lumpur, Silverfish Books, 2017, 212 p., Mohamed Keshavjee: The ‘diasporic distractions’ of a short-story teller – Book Review by leading Malaysian Literary Journal, by Ismaili Mail, October 2, 2017. * "The Ugandan Expulsion at 50 and Beyond: A Time for Reflection", AWAAZ Voices, Vol 19, Issue 2, 2022. Contributed chapters to: * "Dispute resolution", In A. Sajoo (Ed.), "A companion to Muslim ethics", London/New York: IB Tauris, Keshavjee, M. (2002) * "Cross-border family mediation. In C. Paul & S. Kieswetter (Eds.), International parental child abduction, custody and access cases", Frankfurt: Wolfgang Metzner Verlag, Keshavjee, M. (2013) * "Reflective learning from the training programmes of the Ismaili Muslim conciliation and arbitration boards globally", UK College of Mediators Journal (December), 23–8. Keshavjee, M., & Whatling, T. (2005). Available at http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp? * "The State of Social Progress of Islamic Society; Social, Economic, Political, and Ideological Challenges", H. Tiliouine, R. J. Estes (Ed.). Springer. (2016). Available at https://link-springer- com.bris.idm.oclc.org/book/10.1007/978-3-319-24774-8. * Co-authored "The Sharia; History, Ethics and Law", In A. Sajoo (Ed.), London: IB Tauris, Keshavjee, M and Abdulla, R (2018). Available at: https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/sharia-9781786724045/ * "Comparative Dispute Resolution. In M. Moscati, M. Palmer, M. Roberts (Ed). London: Edward Elgar. (2020). Available at: https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/gbp/comparative-dispute- resolution-9781786433022.html Book Reviews: * "A Lawyer’s Odyssey: Apartheid, Mandela and Beyond", by Henry Brown (Otterley Press, Pietermaritzburg 2020), review By Mohamed M Keshavjee. * "A Life of Ups and Downs: Population expulsions, state expropriation of private property, the mass movement of ethnic, tribal or religious groups, dispossession, enforced…" reviewer: Mohamed M Keshavjee, December 5, 2022, in AWAAZ. ==Personal life== In 1977, Keshavjee married Dr (now Professor) Amina Jindani in Toronto, Canada. Dr Jindani's life's work has been conducting clinical trials aimed at decreasing the length of time required to treat tuberculosis."Dr. Amina Jindani: Ibn Sina Award for Medicine conferred on a world-renowned specialist for life-long commitment to the eradication of tuberculosis", Top UK Award for Lifelong Champion of Tuberculosis Eradication By Raficq Abdulla, MA (Oxon.), MB, April 23, 2018,"Once-weekly treatment effective as a daily treatment in TB continuation phase", Infectious Disease News, April 2013 Jindani, A. Presented at the 2013 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; March 3–6, 2013; Atlanta"Professor Amina Jindani: Global Award for Champion of Tuberculosis Eradication @UnionConference @AKUGlobal @SKMCH @StGeorgesUni @wwtb_uk: By Russell Harris- Writer / Curator, London, U.K., Ismailimail, Nov. 14, 2019. ==References== ==External links== * https://southasia.berkeley.edu/mohamed-keshavjee * https://www.hcch.net/search-results#stq=keshavjee&stp;=1 * https://ismailimail.blog/tag/mohamed-keshavjee/ * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l373Hy2KdfU * https://pabasa.co.za/2021/10/24/justice-albie-sachs-in-conversation-with-dr- mohamed-keshavjee * http://www.theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/keshavjee_mohamed/ * https://the.ismaili/global/news/institutional-news/mawlana-hazar-imam- appoints-new-iis-board-governors * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1dg5pfmEoA * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyWt5yaUHDk * https://pabasa.co.za/albie- sachs-registration/ Monday, Sept. 20, 2021 * https://carleton.ca/uganda- collection/program/ * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WmLha0bSxA * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyWt5yaUHDk&t;=704s * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_S_fHpFrekU * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXICNUqjLNQ Category:Aga Khan Development Network Category:Canadian anti-racism activists Category:Muslim South African anti-apartheid activists Category:South African anti-racism activists Category:Canadian educators Category:Canadian expatriates in England Category:Immigration lawyers Category:Canadian people of Indian descent Category:Canadian Ismailis Category:Kenyan people of Indian descent Category:Living people Category:Kenyan emigrants to Canada Category:Kenyan Ismailis Category:Indian political writers Category:20th-century Indian historians Category:Indian autobiographers Category:Ismailis Category:Muslim writers Category:Minority rights activists Category:People from Pretoria Category:Queen's University at Kingston alumni Category:Recipients of the Gandhi Peace Prize Category:South African expatriates in Canada Category:South African Muslims Category:South African people of Gujarati descent Category:Alumni of the University of London Category:1945 births Category:Writers about Africa
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300px|thumb|alt=A woman wearing a golden costume mermaid tail and a bikini lies on the beach.|Woman wearing a costume mermaid tail. 300px|thumb|A mermaid performance in Jakarta, Indonesia Mermaiding (also referred to as artistic mermaiding, mermaidry, or artistic mermaid performance) is the practice of wearing, and often swimming in, a costume mermaid tail. In the beginning of the twentieth century mermaiding was sometimes referred to as water ballet, but it is not currently a term that is commonly used. Mermaiding should not be confused with modern synchronized swimming, although there can be some overlap if a mermaid performance troupe is performing a synchronized routine. It is difficult to determine exactly where the term "mermaiding" was coined; but some of the first professional freelance mermaids appeared on the world scene around 2004, such as Hannah Mermaid, Mahina Mermaid, and Mermaid Linden, who were all playing with the term. A little later on, the term was brought to a wider use and community by Iona the Mermaid, co-founder of MerNetwork.com. Newer professional mermaids like Mermaid Elle have made mermaiding more popular and mainstream by performing at celebrity events and featured on TV, music videos and magazines. Mermaiding is both a profession and a hobby. Professional mermaids will often swim in live, filmed, or photographed productions or shows and can be hired for special events. Nonprofessional enthusiasts swim in tails at their local pools if the pool allows it, lakes, rivers, and seashores, or take part in mermaid-themed photo shoots, birthday parties, or mermaid meetings with other Mers. Mermaiding is popular with all ages and genders. Mermaiding practitioners are sometimes called mermaids, professional mermaids, or occasionally, water ballerinas. Within the community, mermaid or merfolk can be shortened to "mer." Mermaiding is often seen as a form of extreme cosplay due to the nature of crafting the tails and other prosthetics used by practitioners. There are several tail-making companies supplying the community with everything from fabric tails to full SFX prostheses costing thousands of dollars. ==History== ===Annette Kellerman=== Annette Marie Sarah Kellerman (6 July 1886 – 6 November 1975) was an Australian professional swimmer, vaudeville star, film actress and writer. She was one of the first women to wear a one-piece bathing costume, instead of the then-accepted pantaloons, and inspired others to follow her example.Reader's Digest Services, "Record-breaking swimmers", Australia's Yesterdays: a Look at Our Recent Past, 2nd edition, 1974 p.193 In 1902, Kellerman decided to take her swimming seriously and subsequently won the ladies' 100 yards and mile championships of New South Wales in the record times of 1 minute, 22 seconds and 33 minutes, 49 seconds respectively. In that same year, her parents decided to move to Melbourne, and she was enrolled at Mentone Girls' Grammar School where her mother had accepted a music teaching position.Walsh, G. P., 'Kellermann, Annette Marie Sarah (1886–1975)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University accessed 24 March 2012 During her time at school, Kellerman gave exhibitions of swimming and diving at the main Melbourne baths, performed a mermaid act at Princes Court entertainment centre and did two shows a day swimming with fish in a glass tank at the Exhibition Aquarium. In June–July 1903 Kellermann performed sensational high dives in the Coogee scene of Bland Holt's spectacular, The Breaking of the Drought, at the Melbourne Theatre Royal. She is often credited with inventing the sport of synchronized swimming after her 1907 performance of the first water ballet in a glass tank at the New York Hippodrome. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The majority of Kellerman's films had themes of aquatic adventure. She performed her own stunts including diving from ninety-two feet into the sea and sixty feet into a pool of crocodiles. Many times she would play mermaids named Annette or variations of her own name. Her "fairy tale films", as she called them, started with The Mermaid (1911), in which she was the first actress to wear a swimmable mermaid costume on film. She designed her own mermaid swimming costumes and sometimes made them herself. Similar designs are still used by The Weeki Wachee Springs Mermaids, including her aquatic fairy costume first introduced in Queen of the Sea (1918). ===Esther Williams=== Esther Jane Williams (8 August 1921 – 6 June 2013) was an American competitive swimmer and actress. Williams set multiple national and regional swimming records in her late teens as part of the Los Angeles Athletic Club swim team. Unable to compete in the 1940 Summer Olympics because of the outbreak of World War II, she joined Billy Rose's Aquacade, where she took on the role vacated by Eleanor Holm after the show's move from New York City to San Francisco. While in the city, she spent five months swimming alongside Olympic gold medal winner and Tarzan star, Johnny Weissmuller. Williams caught the attention of MGM scouts at the Aquacade. After appearing in several small roles, alongside Mickey Rooney in an Andy Hardy film, and future five-time co-star Van Johnson in A Guy Named Joe, Williams made a series of films in the 1940s and early 1950s known as "aquamusicals", which featured elaborate performances with synchronized swimming and diving. In 1952, Williams appeared in her only biographical role, as Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman in Million Dollar Mermaid, which went on to become her nickname while at MGM. Williams left MGM in 1956 and appeared in a handful of unsuccessful feature films, followed by several extremely popular water-themed television specials, including one from Cypress Gardens, Florida. Many of her MGM films, such as Million Dollar Mermaid and Jupiter's Darling, contained elaborately staged synchronized swimming scenes, with considerable risk to Williams. She broke her neck filming a 115 ft dive off a tower during a climactic musical number for the film Million Dollar Mermaid and was in a body cast for seven months. She subsequently recovered, although she continued to suffer headaches as a result of the accident. Her many hours spent submerged in a studio tank resulted in ruptured eardrums numerous times. She also nearly drowned after not being able to find the trap door in the ceiling of a tank. The walls and ceiling were painted black and the trap door blended in. Williams was pulled out only because a member of the crew realized the door was not opening. ===Weeki Wachee Mermaids=== Located an hour north of Tampa on Florida's Gulf Coast, Weeki Wachee Springs has hosted a mermaid show since 1947. Swimmers, trained by Newton Perry, performed synchronised ballet in the natural springs at the site. The resort was purchased and promoted by the American Broadcasting Co. (ABC) in 1959. In 2008, Weeki Wachee Springs was incorporated into the State of Florida Park system. ===Film=== Miranda is a 1948 British comedy film, directed by Ken Annakin and written by Peter Blackmore, who also wrote the play of the same name from which the film was adapted. Denis Waldock provided additional dialogue. A light comedy, the film is about a beautiful and playful mermaid played by Glynis Johns and her effect on Griffith Jones. Googie Withers and Margaret Rutherford are also featured in the film. Glynis Johns and Margaret Rutherford reprised their roles in the 1954 sequel, Mad About Men. Miranda is the story of a fisherman who brings home a mermaid disguised as an invalid in a wheelchair. Her flirting causes some chaos and eventually she returns to the sea. Mr. Peabody and the Mermaid is a 1948 fantasy film starring William Powell and Ann Blyth in the title roles. Irene Hervey played Mr. Peabody's wife. The film was based on the 1945 novel Peabody's Mermaid by Guy and Constance Jones. Sequences were shot at the Weeki Wachee Springs in Florida. Arthur Peabody, while in the midst of a mid-life crisis, captures a mermaid while on vacation with his wife. After hiding her in the resort's fish pond, hijinks ensue. Million Dollar Mermaid (also known as The One Piece Bathing Suit in the UK) is a 1952 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer biographical musical film of the life of Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman, played by Esther Williams. It was directed by Mervyn LeRoy and produced by Arthur Hornblow Jr. from a screenplay by Everett Freeman. The music score was by Adolph Deutsch, the cinematography by George J. Folsey and the choreography by Busby Berkeley. "Million Dollar Mermaid" not only became Esther Williams' nickname around Hollywood, but it became the title of her autobiography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), co-written with Digby Diehl. Williams has often called this her favorite film.The Million Dollar Mermaid: An Autobiography, By Esther Williams, Digby Diehl, Published by Harcourt Trade, 2000, , ===Cinema and television post-1980=== For simplicity's sake, this section focuses on film and shows with live-action swimmers and tails as the main characters. For an exhaustive list of mermaids in media, please see Mermaids in popular culture. Cinema Splash (1984): starring Daryl Hannah and Tom Hanks, Hannah played a mermaid who falls in love with a human. She could walk on dry land in human form, but her legs changed into a fish tail whenever she got wet. Much of the movie revolves around her humorous attempts to conceal her true identity from her lover. A made-for-television sequel, Splash, Too,Splash, Too (1988) (TV) followed in 1988, starring Amy Yasbeck and Todd Waring. Immensely popular, the film precipitated a surge in popularity of mermaids in general and mermaiding in particular, as it inspired many people to buy tails and get into the water. Daryl Hannah's mermaid tail was designed and created by Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. The tail was fully functional. Hannah swam with the mermaid tail so fast that her safety team could not keep pace with her. According to the DVD documentary, Hannah had been swimming "mermaid" style with her legs bound together since she was a child, due to her fascination with Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" story. However, by the standards of swimmable mermaid tails, the exceptionally detailed film tail was difficult to remove. For the sake of efficiency, Hannah at first kept it on while the cast had lunch. In the documentary contained on the 20th-anniversary Splash! DVD, Tom Hanks recalled how the other cast members would drop French fries over the side of the tank to her as though she were a trained sea mammal, for she could not leave the water while her legs were "shrink-wrapped." Mermaid Got Married (1994): this Hong Kong romantic-comedy tells the story of a school teacher who falls in love with a mermaid who'd rescued him as a young boy. The film stars Asian cinema idols Ekin Cheng, Christy Chung, and Takeshi Kaneshiro. The film is loosely based on Splash. The Thirteenth Year (1999): a teen learns that his birth mother is a mermaid after he begins to grow fins and slimy scales on his thirteenth birthday. Mermaids (2003): this 2003 television film was directed by Ian Barry and stars Serah D'Laine, Nikita Ager and Australian model Erika Heynatz as a trio of mermaid sisters who band together to avenge their father's death. The film is also known in other languages as Sereias (Brazil), Três Sereias (Portugal), Mermaids – Las sirenas (Spain), Oi treis gorgones (Greece), Seireenisiskokset (Finland), Sirènes (France), and Sirenas (Argentina). Some of the tails used in the production have been sold to professional mermaids. Aquamarine (2006): the title character is a mermaid (Sara Paxton) who is washed ashore after a violent storm. She decides to search for true love on land, and makes two good friends (Joanna "JoJo" Levesque and Emma Roberts) along the way. The film, loosely based on a children's book of the same name by Alice Hoffman, and directed by American director Elizabeth Allen, was filmed in Queensland, Australia. There were three different tails used in the production, including an animatronic model that was operated remotely. At least one of the others was a fully swimmable tail worn by the actress. Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011): during his search for the Fountain of Youth, Jack Sparrow encounters several mermaids. This film is included in this list because, like Splash, it accounted for an increase in mermaid popularity upon its release, and includes a central mermaid character. However, no actual tails were used during filming; they were added during the editing process with CGI. On Stranger Tides employed 1,112 shots of computer-generated imagery, which were done by ten visual effects companies. Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley-Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D: "Rotoscoping is tricky. Cleaning up plates is double the work, and tracking has to be spot on." The lead companies, with over 300 effects each, were Industrial Light & Magic—responsible for, among others, the mermaids and most water effects—and Moving Picture Company, who created digital ships and environment extensions, such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls. Filming the mermaids involved eight model-actresses, who portrayed them outside the water, as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen, both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids. Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models. The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature, instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus. To make the mermaids more menacing underwater, the faces of the actresses had some digital touch-ups on the underwater scenes, adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin. H2O: Just Add Water (2006): this TV series involves three teenage girls who, after encountering a mysterious island grotto, transform into mermaids whenever water touches any part of their bodies. A spin-off series, Mako: Island of Secrets, was released on 26 July 2013. Three different types of mermaid tails are used on the show: custom-fitted tails that the girls swim in, a "floppy tail" used for stationary shots, and a "hard tail" for stunts. The custom costumes took six months to build, with the tails and tops made from body casts and comprising individually hand-crafted scales. The finished product weighs between . Inside the tail are leg straps where the girls are strapped up and then zipped up. Once in costume, the girls have to be lifted into the water. Attempts were made to minimise the on-screen visibility of the zips on the tails, such as adding extra scales and crafting a ridge of material around the length of the zip. The tail fin itself was designed with a foot pedal to assist the actresses with swimming. This, along with the fin, adds some to the length of the costume. Dyesebel is a mermaid character based on graphic novelist Mars Ravelo's creation in GMA Network in the Philippines. The story was adapted into five films and a spin-off between 1953 and 1996.Mars Ravelo Tripod marsravelodarna.tripod.com ==Modern use== With the 1984 motion picture Splash, mermaiding caught the popular culture wave. Splash tailmaker Thom Shouse's website offered tails for a fee, but also inspired a do it yourself movement. (The Splash Mermaid was designed and created by the Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. Shouse was the project foreman on Short's mermaid crew.) The early 2000s saw many performers and artists of varying ages, genders, body shapes, and ethnicities uploading videos and photographs of tails and underwater performances to YouTube and personal websites. ==Professional Mermaids== Mermaid Linden, Hannah Mermaid,Mirror: See real-life mermaid Hannah Fraser swim with whales in stunning pictures, 27 October 2013 (aka Mermaid Grace), Katrin Gray (aka Mermaid Kat)Mermaid Kat Official Website and Elle Jimenez (aka Mermaid Elle)(www.themermaidelle.com) are four of the most successful mermaid performers in the world. Today, many mermaid performers work at aquariums, casinos, or tourist attractions professionally. Some freedivers wear mermaid tails to add novelty to the water sport. Although the vast majority of mers swim in their tails, a small handful of members of the mermaiding subculture do not actually swim. These mers might wear tails to raise awareness for ocean conservation issues, dry land cosplay, or as character performers at children's parties. This does not preclude them from being active in the wider community. In many countries people can now join mermaid swimming classes, where they learn how to swim in mermaid tails. The Mermaid Kat AcademyMermaid Kat Academy Australia was the world's first mermaid school that made mermaiding accessible to everyone and opened in August 2012. Shortly after that the Philippine Mermaid Swimming AcademyHot Spots Philippine Mermaid Swimming Academy and several other mermaid schools opened around the world. ==Equipment== The basic structure of the tail is that of a sleeve or tube that encompasses the legs from ankle to waist, enclosing fins or a monofin that is strapped to and extends from the wearer's feet. The stiff fin provides structure for the fluke as well as propulsion during swimming. ===Materials=== Tails can be made out of almost any material, from fabric to platinum cure silicone, and are priced accordingly, from $100 to several thousand dollars. Several tailmaking companies are currently operating, in addition to a vibrant "do it yourself" scene. Secondhand tails are frequently sold privately or through sites such as eBay. *Fabric: Due to their great elasticity and strength, lycra and spandex are the first choice in material for fabric tails. Fabric tails are recommended for beginners and children, as they are relatively inexpensive, easy to clean, and allow for growth. They hug the body closely without being too restrictive. Fabric tails come in a wide range of colors and patterns, and can be customized with paint. Other fabrics are often added to the tails in strategic locations for added flair; for instance, chiffon (fabric) is sometimes sewn onto the ends of flukes to give a greater impression of flow, or onto the hip area as decorative pectoral fins. *Neoprene: Neoprene or polychloroprene are synthetic rubbers produced by the polymerization of chloroprene.Werner Obrecht, Jean-Pierre Lambert, Michael Happ, Christiane Oppenheimer-Stix, John Dunn and Ralf Krüger "Rubber, 4. Emulsion Rubbers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability, and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such as laptop sleeves, orthopedic braces, electrical insulation, liquid and sheet applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and wetsuits. It is a popular material for tails due in part to its thickness, which creates a smooth line, rendering the tail more lifelike; it is also waterproof and fairly durable. Like fabric, neoprene can be painted and customized. It is often used as the base for sequin tails due to its strength. *Sequin tails: In this variation on fabric and neoprene tails, individual sequins are sewn onto a tail for decoration. Occasionally, sequins are sewn onto only a few areas to serve as a highlight; more commonly, they are sewn over the entire tail, and provide all of the tail's color and patterning. Sequin tails are time-intensive to create, as each sequin must be sewn on by hand, and as a result these tails can be quite expensive. Variation is nearly unlimited due to the amounts and types of sequins available on the market. *Latex tails: Molded latex is sometimes used as a tail material. It can be molded into scale shapes, and gives a more lifelike impression than fabric, particularly when poured or otherwise affixed onto a neoprene backing. Some of the earliest tails available on the market were made of the same type of latex used in latex clothing, however, these tails went out of production when the company owner died. The material has very little elasticity, which renders the tail difficult to get on and off. Many mermaids cannot use latex due to allergies, and mermaids who specialize in children's parties or other events where a tail may be touched often stay away from this material for that same reason. :During the later part of the 2000s and up through about 2012–2013, partial tin-cure latex or tin-cure silicone spread over a neoprene or neoprin base became popular, due to the increased realism of the tails and the relatively low cost of materials (tin-cure tails generally retail around US$300–600). This proved problematic, however, as tin-cure silicones and latexes are not skin-safe materials. Effects over overexposure include "skin, respiratory, kidney and liver damage. Repeated or prolonged contact with the preparation may cause removal of natural fat from the skin resulting in non- allergic contact dermatitis and absorption through the skin. Prolonged and repeated skin contact may cause irritation and possibly dermatitis. Prolonged, repeated, or high exposures may cause weakness and depression of the central nervous system." Some of these ailments have been recorded by mermaids who have tails containing tin-cure materials, although this evidence is anecdotal. Tin-cure tails also degrade with prolonged exposure to water; the silicone becomes soft and white while peeling away from the neoprene on which it rests. It is currently advised that those who are considering making or purchasing tin-cure tails do so with extreme caution and at their own risk. Tin-cure tails have historically not been allowed in aquariums featuring live fish or other sea life, due to the chemicals leaching from the tail into the water and causing potential harm to the aquarium's ecosystem. *Silicone tails: Currently, silicone rubber tails (also known as platinum-cure silicone tails and Dragonskin silicone tails, after a silicone brand name) are the most popular and most expensive tails on the market. In addition to being relatively lifelike and durable, silicone tails are skin-safe and inert in most environments once cured. Neutral buoyancy in the water allows for ease of sinking and natural-looking swimming, although they are quite heavy (25–60 lbs) out of the water. Colors and patterns are only limited by the designer's imagination, and if produced properly, paint or pigment does not chip off the tail. The material has excellent elasticity, allowing relative ease in getting in and out of the tail, and fitting snugly once on. Silicone is slip-resistant and grips the skin, which results in less tail slip or gapping during vigorous swimming. It is rare to find silicone tails for less than US$1000, even used, and their prices increase with the amount of extra detail, color, and number of fins added. Silicone tails can costs many thousands of dollars. Due to the expense and heavier weight involved, platinum-cure silicone tails are not recommended for beginners. *Urethane tails: Urethane, a type of synthetic rubber, is a relatively durable material, and with proper care can last for years without need of repair. Currently, the only tailmaker working in urethane is Thom Shouse, owner of Mermaid Rentals and member of the original SFX team that created the tail for Splash. It is thought that he uses a urethane-latex mix, although he has never released his formula to the public. *Blankets: Over the past several years mermaid tail blankets have become popular. General they are made of specially woven and shaped knitted fabrics, but can also be found in polyester fleece fabrics. They are generally open at the back so that when tucked around the legs they give the illusion that the wearer has a tail. They are not meant to get wet and are not really used for character parties or cosplay. Patterns are available so that knitters and crafters can make their own. ===Monofins=== A monofin is a type of swimfin typically used in underwater sports such as finswimming, free-diving and underwater orienteering, in recreational freediving, and even sometimes just for fun. It consists of a single surface attached to footpockets for both of the diver's feet. They have become popular with the mermaiding community due to excellent propulsion during swimming and their realistically mermaidish silhouette. Monofins can be made of glass fiber or carbon fiber. The swimmer's muscle power, swimming style, and the type of aquatic activity the monofin is used for determines the choice of size, stiffness, and materials. Monofins are carefully chosen when a tail is commissioned, taking into account the swimmer's ability, location of use, and desired look in the water. For instance, a large, stiff fiberglass monofin will serve a mermaid well in strong ocean currents, giving them speed and strength in the water. A mermaid who will be performing in a glass tank may choose a smaller, more flexible, plastic model, which imparts agility and graceful flow rather than strong propulsion. Some mermaids prefer to sand, cut, or otherwise alter their monofins into a preferred shape to suit their individual purposes; others prefer to create their monofins from scratch rather than purchase or alter an already existing model. For safety reasons, it is recommended that beginners not create their own monofins from scratch. Some materials that have been used in monofins, such as acrylic or plexiglas, have shattered under hydraulic stress and have caused severe injury and could result in drowning. Plastic polycarbonate is also not recommended, as it will crack and snap under pressure, rendering the monofin useless and dangerous. ==Humanitarian appeal== A common practice among professional mermaids is environmental and individualist advocacy. Many mermaids speak out, create internet campaigns, and work with major environmental or self-help organizations. Susan Rockefeller's 2012 short-form documentary Mission of Mermaids: A Love Letter to the Ocean employs several professional mermaids from around the world to shed light on ocean acidification, overfishing, and marine pollution. ==Safety concerns== ===Children=== The practice of mermaiding, especially by young children, has also raised safety concerns about how wearing and swimming in a tail may actually make it harder for children to swim and/or easier to drown, especially when they are not highly experienced swimmers. In 2015, a YouTube video surfaced in which a mother had to come over and rescue her daughter, who was drowning in a backyard pool after trying to do a flip while wearing a mermaid tail. Even as the video, which had gone viral, made efforts to express that mermaid tails can still be fun to play in with proper safety and supervision, various swimming pools in several countries, including Australian YMCA pools, began banning the tails around that time and in the years to come. The bans did not come without criticism. Some contended that it would be better to emphasize safety and supervision while using the tails, rather than banning them outright. A few others suggested that having mermaiders pass swim tests would also be a viable alternative to bans. ===Professionals=== Professional mermaids also encounter safety risks. In general, they must contend with having only a limited amount of oxygen to swim and stay underwater, as they traditionally eschew scuba equipment. Tank performers have found ways to overcome this issue, such as using air tubes installed in certain areas of the tank to receive a fresh burst of oxygen without having to resurface. Another way to cope with the limited oxygen involves stationing scuba divers in the tank where the mermaid performs and have them bring the mermaid fresh air whenever they request it with a gesture, although this method requires careful vigilance and attention. Failure to recognize the need for air can prove life-threatening for the performer, with at least one report of a mermaid nearly asphyxiating during a performance when divers missed her requests for air. Mermaids also incur various health risks while immersed in water. Without swim caps, mermaids fully expose their ears to water, subjecting them to ear pain and infection. The water they swim in may also contain bacteria that subjects them to waterborne illnesses and infections. Other potential minor health issues that mermaids can experience include foot blisters that occur as their tightly packed feet rub against the insides of the tail costume, muscle cramps in the legs from strenuous swimming movements in the tail costume, red eyes caused by continual exposure to chlorine in swimming pool water, along with cold and flu-like symptoms and minor respiratory problems induced from being in cold water. Mermaids who wear latex tin-cure tails are also subject to several toxic health effects that the chemicals of such material impart (see above). Mermaids who swim in the open ocean can have their safety jeopardized if they get too close to particular sea animals. For instance, a mermaid who gets up close to a whale would be at risk of being struck hard and seriously injured by even the slightest of the whale's movements. Although there are no reports of mermaids getting attacked or bitten by sharks, two mermaids have recounted colliding with one. A few others have recalled getting stung by venomous jellyfish. Despite these dangers, Hannah Mermaid herself has experience being able to fearlessly swim around great white sharks in full costume without a heavy-duty cage by maintaining high situational awareness and caution, determined to not let them challenge her dream while also expressing high respect for these predators and demonstrating how they are not eager to hunt anything like her. ==See also== *Sip 'n Dip Lounge *Weeki Wachee, Florida *Mermaid *Mermaid hall *Synchronized swimming *Freediving *The Blixunami ==References== == External links == * Professional Mermaid Nina * Professional Mermaid Linden * Professional Real- Life Mermaid Melissa * Professional Mermaid Tails * Business Week article on professional mermaids * Huffington Post Interview with a Professional Mermaid * Oprah on Mission of Mermaids * MerNetwork * A guide for children on how to become a mermaid Category:Water sports Category:Cosplay Category:Mermaids in popular culture
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Robin Leonard Trower (born 9 March 1945) is an English rock guitarist who achieved success with Procol Harum throughout 1967–1971, and then again as the bandleader of his own power trio known as the Robin Trower Band. == Biography == Robin Trower was born in Catford, London, England, and grew up in Southend- on-Sea, Essex. In 1962, he formed a band that became the Paramounts, later including Westcliff High School pupil Gary Brooker. The Paramounts disbanded in 1966 to pursue individual projects. During this time, Trower created a local three-piece band called the Jam (not to be confused with the later group with Paul Weller). Trower then joined Brooker's new band Procol Harum following the success of their debut single "A Whiter Shade of Pale" in 1967, remaining with them until 1971 and appearing on the group's first five albums. Before launching his eponymous band, he joined singer Frankie Miller, ex-Stone the Crows bassist/singer James Dewar, and former Jethro Tull drummer Clive Bunker to form the short-lived combo Jude. This outfit did not record and soon split up. Trower retained Dewar as his bassist, who took on lead vocals as well, and recruited drummer Reg Isidore (later replaced by Bill Lordan) to form the Robin Trower Band in 1973. In 1974, the group released Bridge of Sighs. This album, along with his first and third solo albums, was produced by his former Procol Harum bandmate, organist Matthew Fisher. His early power trio work was noted for Jimi Hendrix influences. Trower is an influential guitarist who has inspired other guitar legends such as Robert Fripp, who praised him for his string bending and the quality of his sounds, and took lessons from him. In the early 1980s, Trower teamed up with former Cream bassist Jack Bruce and his previous drummers Lordan and Isidore for two albums, BLT (Bruce, Lordan, Trower) and Truce (Trower, Bruce, Isidore). After those albums, he released another album with James Dewar on vocals titled Back It Up in 1983. Robin Trower was dropped from Chrysalis Records afterwards. thumb|left|upright=0.9|Trower in 1975 Trower was also a part of the Night of the Guitars II European tour in 1991, organized by Sting and The Police manager Miles Copeland. The tour featured Ronnie Montrose, Rick Derringer, Saga's Ian Crichton, Dave Sharman, Jan Akkerman and Laurie Wisefield. Thirteen albums later, Trower's album Living Out of Time (2004) featured the return of veteran bandmates Dave Bronze on bass, vocalist Davey Pattison (formerly with Ronnie Montrose's band Gamma) and Pete Thompson on drums—the same line-up as the mid-1980s albums Passion and Take What You Need. With the same bandmates, Trower gave a concert on his 60th birthday in Bonn, Germany. The concert was recorded by the German television channel WDR. It was then released on DVD and subsequently on CD throughout Europe and later the US under the title Living Out of Time: Live. Trower toured the United States and Canada in the summer and autumn of 2006. In 2007, Trower released a third recording with Jack Bruce, Seven Moons, featuring Gary Husband on drums. A 2008 world tour began in Ft. Pierce, Florida, on 16 January 2008. Joining Davey Pattison and Pete Thompson was Glenn Letsch (formerly of Gamma) playing bass. European dates began in April. The show of 29 March 2008 at the Royal Oak Music Theater in Royal Oak, Michigan, was released as a double album on V12 Records. Trower has described James Brown as his "big hero", particularly Brown's early work "where blues is crossing over into rock and roll". In 2016, he enjoyed a successful tour of the US. On 20 March 2018, Trower played a show at the Maryland Hall for the Creative Arts in Annapolis, Maryland. Ten minutes later (approximately 9:00PM EDT) after playing back-to-back songs "Day of The Eagle" and "Bridge of Sighs", he announced on his microphone that he was not feeling well (he had flu symptoms), handed his guitar to a stage crew, walked backstage and collapsed. He was transported by ambulance to the hospital for treatment. In 2019, it was announced that Trower had signed to Mascot Label Group, alongside the announcement of a new studio album Closer To The Day. Regarding the album's title, he told Guitar World, "I'm not thinking about dying — far from it. What I'm saying is, 'If I'm nearer the end than the beginning, then I've got to get going.'" The album was released on 22 March 2019, while its supporting tour was canceled as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 18 February 2022, Trower announced his latest studio album, No More Worlds To Conquer, alongside its title track. The record was released on 29 April 2022. == Equipment == During a 1971 tour with Jethro Tull, Robin Trower arrived early for a sound check and found Martin Barre's Fender Stratocaster (which Barre used for slide playing) propped up against an amplifier. Trower picked up the guitar, plugged it in, and with a shout that resounded around the auditorium he yelled, "This is it!" "I then switched to Strat" he says. "Up to then I had been playing Les Pauls." Since then Trower has been an ongoing proponent of the Fender Stratocaster. He currently uses his custom-built Strat (made by the Fender Custom Shop) which comes in black, white, and burgundy. The guitar is equipped with a 1950s reissue pick-up in the neck position, a 1960s reissue in the middle position, and a Texas Special at the bridge.Guitar Player, April 2008 Other features included a custom C-shaped maple neck featuring a large headstock with a Bullet truss-rod system, locking machine heads and a maple fingerboard with narrow-spaced abalone dot position inlays and 21 jumbo frets. The Strats he plays live are an exact model of his signature guitar, which is entirely unmodified. For his first two albums, his guitar was tuned in Standard Tuning EADGBE. Starting from the third album, he detuned the strings a semitone to an Eb Tuning (Eb Ab Db Gb Bb Eb). It is reported that during live performances, his guitar is tuned a full step down to a DGCFAD tuning. This long-established practice of detuning may have been prompted by his preference for very heavy-gauge guitar strings. Trower's three top strings (high E, B and G) measure .012", .015" and .017". By comparison, the most common choice of rock-and-roll lead players is .009", .011", .015". The width and weight of Trower's string set are similar to common acoustic guitar strings, and that weight makes vibrating and bending the strings more difficult, especially with the full tension of a standard tuning. Detuning them a half-step or more lower eases the tension and provides greater control. Trower told Guitar Player Magazine in a July 1980 interview that he recommends every young player try a thicker set of strings. "The thicker sound alone is worth it, but they also help keep you from forming bad habits." Trower uses between one and three 100-watt Marshall heads with four to six cabinets on stage. While he usually uses two JCM 800s and a JCM 900, he also links 100-watt Marshall Plexi heads. In studio sessions, Trower uses a mix of amplifiers, such as a Fender Blues Junior and Cornell Plexi Amplifiers models to acquire different tonality. He has recently been using Fulltone pedals and effects. He favors the OCD, Distortion Pro, Fat Boost, CLYDE Deluxe Wah, Deja Vibe 2, Soul-Bender, and a BOSS Chromatic Tuner. He runs his Deja Vibe into his distortion pedal to get his famous tone. He was given his own signature Fulltone Robin Trower Overdrive in late 2008. For his 2009 and 2011 US tours Trower was using his Fender Custom Shop Signature Stratocaster into a Fulltone Deja Vibe 2, Fulltone Wahfull, Fulltone Clyde Standard Wah, Fulltone Full Drive, Fulltone Robin Trower Overdrive, and Boss TU-2 Chromatic Tuner into two Marshall Vintage Modern 2466 heads. On his 2018 tour he used the same gear but through two 50 watt Marshall Plexi Reissue Heads, the 1987X. == Discography == === With Procol Harum === * 1967 Procol Harum * 1968 Shine on Brightly (Trower sings backup on "Wish Me Well") * 1969 A Salty Dog (Trower sings lead on "Crucifiction Lane") * 1970 Home * 1970 Ain't Nothin' to Get Excited About (a vintage rock'n'roll side-project by members of Procol Harum, recording as 'Liquorice John Death') * 1971 Broken Barricades (Trower sings lead on "Song for a Dreamer" and "Poor Mohammed") * 1991 The Prodigal Stranger * 1995 The Long Goodbye === With Robin Trower Band === ==== Studio albums ==== Year Album UK AUS CA US Certification Label 1973 Twice Removed from Yesterday – – – 106 Chrysalis 1974 Bridge of Sighs – 41 3 7 * US: Gold Chrysalis 1975 For Earth Below 26 47 9 5 * US: Gold Chrysalis 1976 Long Misty Days 31 63 75 24 * US: Gold Chrysalis 1977 In City Dreams 58 – 27 25 * US: Gold Chrysalis 1978 Caravan to Midnight – 87 57 37 Chrysalis 1980 Victims of the Fury 61 95 86 34 Chrysalis 1983 Back It Up – – – 191 Chrysalis 1985 Beyond the Mist – – – – Passport 1987 Passion – – – 100 GNP Crescendo 1988 Take What You Need – – – 133 Atlantic 1990 In the Line of Fire – – – – Atlantic 1994 20th Century Blues – – – – V-12 (Trower's label) 1997 Someday Blues – – – – V-12 2000 Go My Way – – – – Aezra/Orpheus 2003 Living Out of Time – – – – V-12 2005 Another Days Blues – – – – V-12 2009 What Lies Beneath – – – – V-12 2010 The Playful Heart – – – – V-12 2013 Roots and Branches – – – – V-12 2014 Something's About To Change – – – – V-12 2016 Where You Are Going To – – – – V-12 2017 Time and Emotion – – – – V-12 2019 Coming Closer to the Day – – – – Provogue 2021 United State of Mind [with Maxi Priest, Livingstone Brown] – – – – Manhaton (UK) 2022 No More Worlds to Conquer – – – – Provogue ==== Live albums ==== * 1976: Robin Trower Live! (recorded 2/3/75, Stockholm) – UK #15, US #10, AUS #73 SWE #40 CAN #52 * 1985: Beyond the Mist (recorded April 1985 at The Marquee Club, London) * 1992: BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert (recorded 1/29/75) * 1996: King Biscuit Flower Hour Presents: Robin Trower in Concert (recorded 10/18/77, New Haven, CT) * 1999: This Was Now '74–'98 (recorded 1974, Pittsburgh, PA; 1998, Seattle, WA) -2-CD set * 2006: Living Out of Time: Live (recorded 9/3/05, Bonn, Germany) [note: also available on DVD] * 2009: [email protected] (recorded 3/29/08, Royal Oak, MI) * 2011: Robin Trower at The BBC 1973–1975 (recorded 3/26/73 [John Peel Session], 9/26/73 [Bob Harris Session], 2/20/74 [Bob Harris Session], 3/5/74 [John Peel Session], 1/28/75 [John Peel Session], and 1/29/75 [BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert, omitting 2 songs but adding 2 others]) -2-CD set * 2013: State To State: Live Across America 1974–1980 (recorded 1974, Philadelphia; 1974, California; 1976, Illinois; 1977, Oklahoma; 1980, Missouri) -2CD * 2015: Rock Goes To College 1980 (recorded 2/25/80, London) ==== Compilations ==== * 1987: The Robin Trower Portfolio * 1991: Essential Robin Trower * 1991: Robin Trower: The Collection * 1994: Robin Trower Anthology * 2002: Speed Of Sound: The Best of Robin Trower * 2004: Dreaming the Blues -2-CD set * 2008: Day of The Eagle: The Best of Robin Trower * 2010: A Tale Untold: The Chrysalis Years 1973–1976 -3-CD set * 2012: Farther On Up The Road: The Chrysalis Years 1977–1983 -3-CD set * 2014: Compendium 1987–2013 -2-CD set * 2014: Original Album Series (contains Twice Removed from Yesterday, Bridge of Sighs, For Earth Below, Robin Trower Live!, Long Misty Days) -5-CD set * 2015: Original Album Series, Vol. 2 (contains In City Dreams, Caravan to Midnight, Victims of the Fury, B.L.T., Truce) -5-CD set * 2019: The Studio Albums 1973–1983 (contains all 10 Chrysalis studio albums presented in card-sleeves housed in a clamshell box) -10-CD set === With Jack Bruce === * 1981: B.L.T. – US #37 * 1982: Truce – US #109 * 1989: No Stopping Anytime (compilation of B.L.T. and Truce) * 2007: Seven Moons * 2009: Seven Moons Live (recorded 2/28/09, Nijmegen, Holland) [note: also available on DVD] re-released as Songs from the Road === With Bryan Ferry === * 1993: Taxi * 1994: Mamouna * 2007: Dylanesque == References == == External links == * * * * * Robin Trower albums to be listened on Spotify * Robin Trower songs & albums to be listened on YouTube * Robin Trower profile, NPR.org * "Funky" Paul Olsen's album cover artwork for Robin Trower, OlsenArt.com Category:1945 births Category:Procol Harum members Category:Living people Category:English rock musicians Category:20th-century British guitarists Category:21st-century British guitarists Category:Blues rock musicians Category:English rock guitarists Category:Lead guitarists Category:Musicians from Essex Category:Chrysalis Records artists Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:The Paramounts members
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Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewer system. Sewage consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality. 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Sub- types of sewage are greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away). Sewage also contains soaps and detergents. Food waste may be present from dishwashing, and food quantities may be increased where garbage disposal units are used. In regions where toilet paper is used rather than bidets, that paper is also added to the sewage. Sewage contains macro-pollutants and micro-pollutants, and may also incorporate some municipal solid waste and pollutants from industrial wastewater. Sewage usually travels from a building's plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility. Collection of sewage of several households together usually takes places in either sanitary sewers or combined sewers. The former is designed to exclude stormwater flows whereas the latter is designed to also take stormwater. The production of sewage generally corresponds to the water consumption. A range of factors influence water consumption and hence the sewage flowrates per person. These include: Water availability (the opposite of water scarcity), water supply options, climate (warmer climates may lead to greater water consumption), community size, economic level of the community, level of industrialization, metering of household consumption, water cost and water pressure. The main parameters in sewage that are measured to assess the sewage strength or quality as well as treatment options include: solids, indicators of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and indicators of fecal contamination. These can be considered to be the main macro-pollutants in sewage. Sewage contains pathogens which stem from fecal matter. The following four types of pathogens are found in sewage: pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa (in the form of cysts or oocysts) and helminths (in the form of eggs). In order to quantify the organic matter, indirect methods are commonly used: mainly the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Management of sewage includes collection and transport for release into the environment, after a treatment level that is compatible with the local requirements for discharge into water bodies, onto soil or for reuse applications. Disposal options include dilution (self-purification of water bodies, making use of their assimilative capacity if possible), marine outfalls, land disposal and sewage farms. All disposal options may run risks of causing water pollution. ==Terminology== === Sewage and wastewater === Sewage (or domestic wastewater) consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality. Sewage is a mixture of water (from the community's water supply), human excreta (feces and urine), used water from bathrooms, food preparation wastes, laundry wastewater, and other waste products of normal living. Sewage from municipalities contains wastewater from commercial activities and institutions, e.g. wastewater discharged from restaurants, laundries, hospitals, schools, prisons, offices, stores and establishments serving the local area of larger communities. Sewage can be distinguished into "untreated sewage" (also called "raw sewage") and "treated sewage" (also called "effluent" from a sewage treatment plant). The term "sewage" is nowadays often used interchangeably with "wastewater" – implying "municipal wastewater" – in many textbooks, policy documents and the literature. Spanish and Arabic versions available free online To be precise, wastewater is a broader term, because it refers to any water after it has been used in a variety of applications. Thus it may also refer to "industrial wastewater", agricultural wastewater and other flows that are not related to household activities. === Blackwater === === Greywater === == Overall appearance == The overall appearance of sewage is as follows: The temperature tends to be slightly higher than in drinking water but is more stable than the ambient temperature. The color of fresh sewage is slightly grey, whereas older sewage (also called "septic sewage") is dark grey or black. The odor of fresh sewage is "oily" and relatively unpleasant, whereas older sewage has an unpleasant foul odor due to hydrogen sulfide gas and other decomposition by-products. Sewage can have high turbidity from suspended solids. The pH value of sewage is usually near neutral, and can be in the range of 6.7–8.0. == Pollutants == Sewage consists primarily of water and usually contains less than one part of solid matter per thousand parts of water. In other words, one can say that sewage is composed of around 99.9% pure water, and the remaining 0.1% are solids, which can be in the form of either dissolved solids or suspended solids. The thousand-to-one ratio is an order of magnitude estimate rather than an exact percentage because, aside from variation caused by dilution, solids may be defined differently depending upon the mechanism used to separate those solids from the liquid fraction. Sludges of settleable solids removed by settling or suspended solids removed by filtration may contain significant amounts of entrained water, while dried solid material remaining after evaporation eliminates most of that water but includes dissolved minerals not captured by filtration or gravitational separation. The suspended and dissolved solids include organic and inorganic matter plus microorganisms. About one-third of this solid matter is suspended by turbulence, while the remainder is dissolved or colloidal. For the situation in the United States in the 1950s it was estimated that the waste contained in domestic sewage is about half organic and half inorganic. === Organic matter === The organic matter in sewage can be classified in terms of form and size: Suspended (particulate) or dissolved (soluble). Secondly, it can be classified in terms of biodegradability: either inert or biodegradable. The organic matter in sewage consists of protein compounds (about 40%), carbohydrates (about 25–50%), oils and grease (about 10%) and urea, surfactants, phenols, pesticides and others (lower quantity). In order to quantify the organic matter content, it is common to use "indirect methods" which are based on the consumption of oxygen to oxidize the organic matter: mainly the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). These indirect methods are associated with the major impact of the discharge of organic matter into water bodies: the organic matter will be food for microorganisms, whose population will grow, and lead to the consumption of oxygen, which may then affect aquatic living organisms. The mass load of organic content is calculated as the sewage flowrate multiplied with the concentration of the organic matter in the sewage. Typical values for physical–chemical characteristics of raw sewage is provided further down below. === Nutrients === Apart from organic matter, sewage also contains nutrients. The major nutrients of interest are nitrogen and phosphorus. If sewage is discharged untreated, its nitrogen and phosphorus content can lead to pollution of lakes and reservoirs via a process called eutrophication. In raw sewage, nitrogen exists in the two forms of organic nitrogen or ammonia. The ammonia stems from the urea in urine. Urea is rapidly hydrolyzed and therefore not usually found in raw sewage. Total phosphorus is mostly present in sewage in the form of phosphates.They are either inorganic (polyphosphates and orthophosphates) and their main source is from detergents and other household chemical products. The other form is organic phosphorus, where the source is organic compounds to which the organic phosphorus is bound. === Pathogens === Human feces in sewage may contain pathogens capable of transmitting diseases. The following four types of pathogens are found in sewage: * Bacteria like Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, or Vibrio cholerae; * Viruses like hepatitis A, rotavirus, coronavirus, enteroviruses; * Protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum; and * Helminths and their eggs including Ascaris (roundworm), Ancylostoma (hookworm), and Trichuris (whipworm) In most practical cases, pathogenic organisms are not directly investigated in laboratory analyses. An easier way to assess the presence of fecal contamination is by assessing the most probable numbers of fecal coliforms (called thermotolerant coliforms), especially Escherichia coli. Escherichia coli are intestinal bacteria excreted by all warm blooded animals, including human beings, and thus tracking their presence in sewage is easy, because of their substantially high concentrations (around 10 to 100 million per 100 mL). === Solid waste === The ability of a flush toilet to make things "disappear" is soon recognized by young children who may experiment with virtually anything they can carry to the toilet. Adults may be tempted to dispose of toilet paper, wet wipes, diapers, sanitary napkins, tampons, tampon applicators, condoms, and expired medications, even at the risk of causing blockages. The privacy of a toilet offers a clandestine means of removing embarrassing evidence by flushing such things as drug paraphernalia, pregnancy test kits, combined oral contraceptive pill dispensers, and the packaging for those devices. There may be reluctance to retrieve items like children's toys or toothbrushes which accidentally fall into toilets, and items of clothing may be found in sewage from prisons or other locations where occupants may be careless. Trash and garbage in streets may be carried to combined sewers by stormwater runoff. === Micro-pollutants === Sewage contains environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Trihalomethanes can also be present as a result of past disinfection. Sewage may contain microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, or polyester and polyamide fragments from synthetic clothing and bedding fabrics abraded by wear and laundering, or from plastic packaging and plastic-coated paper products disintegrated by lift station pumps. Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, and hormones may be excreted in urine or feces if not catabolized within the human body. Some residential users tend to pour unwanted liquids like used cooking oil, lubricants, adhesives, paint, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants into their sewer connections. This behavior can result in problems for the treatment plant operation and is thus discouraged. == Typical sewage composition == === Factors that determine composition === The composition of sewage varies with climate, social and economic situation and population habits. In regions where water use is low, the strength of the sewage (or pollutant concentrations) is much higher than that in the United States where water use per person is high. Household income and diet also plays a role: For example, for the case of Brazil, it has been found that the higher the household income, the higher is the BOD load per person and the lower is the BOD concentration. === Concentrations and loads === Typical values for physical–chemical characteristics of raw sewage in developing countries have been published as follows: 180 g/person/d for total solids (or 1100 mg/L when expressed as a concentration), 50 g/person/d for BOD (300 mg/L), 100 g/person/d for COD (600 mg/L), 8 g/person/d for total nitrogen (45 mg/L), 4.5 g/person/d for ammonia-N (25 mg/L) and 1.0 g/person/d for total phosphorus (7 mg/L). The typical ranges for these values are: 120–220 g/person/d for total solids (or 700–1350 mg/L when expressed as a concentration), 40–60 g/person/d for BOD (250–400 mg/L), 80–120 g/person/d for COD (450–800 mg/L), 6–10 g/person/d for total nitrogen (35–60 mg/L), 3.5–6 g/person/d for ammonia-N (20–35 mg/L) and 0.7–2.5 g/person/d for total phosphorus (4–15 mg/L). For high income countries, the "per person organic matter load" has been found to be approximately 60 gram of BOD per person per day. This is called the population equivalent (PE) and is also used as a comparison parameter to express the strength of industrial wastewater compared to sewage. Values for households in the United States have been published as follows, whereby the estimates are based on the assumption that 25% of the homes have kitchen waste-food grinders (sewage from such households contain more waste): 95 g/person/d for total suspended solids (503 mg/L concentration), 85 g/person/d for BOD (450 mg/L), 198 g/person/d for COD (1050 mg/L), 13.3 g/person/d for the sum of organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen (70.4 mg/L), 7.8 g/person/d for ammonia-N (41.2 mg/L) and 3.28 g/person/d for total phosphorus (17.3 mg/L). The concentration values given here are based on a flowrate of 190 L per person per day. A United States source published in 1972 estimated that the daily dry weight of solid wastes per capita in sewage is estimated as in feces, of dissolved solids in urine, of toilet paper, of greywater solids, of food solids (if garbage disposal units are used), and varying amounts of dissolved minerals depending upon salinity of local water supplies, volume of water use per capita, and extent of water softener use. Sewage contains urine and feces. The mass of feces varies with dietary fiber intake. An average person produces 128 grams of wet feces per day, or a median dry mass of 29 g/person/day. The median urine generation rate is about 1.42 L/person/day, as was determined by a global literature review. == Flowrates == The volume of domestic sewage produced per person (or "per capita", abbreviated as "cap") varies with the water consumption in the respective locality. A range of factors influence water consumption and hence the sewage flowrates per person. These include: Water availability (the opposite of water scarcity), water supply options, climate (warmer climates may lead to greater water consumption), community size, economic level of the community, level of industrialization, metering of household consumption, water cost and water pressure. The production of sewage generally corresponds to the water consumption. However water used for landscape irrigation will not enter the sewer system, while groundwater and stormwater may enter the sewer system in addition to sewage. There are usually two peak flowrates of sewage arriving at a treatment plant per day: One peak is at the beginning of the morning and another peak is at the beginning of the evening. With regards to water consumption, a design figure that can be regarded as "world average" is 35–90 L per person per day (data from 1992). The same publication listed the water consumption in China as 80 L per person per day, Africa as 15–35 L per person per day, Eastern Mediterranean in Europe as 40–85 L per person per day and Latin America and Caribbean as 70–190 L per person per day. Even inside a country, there may be large variations from one region to another due to the various factors that determine the water consumption as listed above. A flowrate value of 200 liters of sewage per person per day is often used as an estimate in high income countries, and is used for example in the design of sewage treatment plants. For comparison, typical sewage flowrates from urban residential sources in the United States are estimated as follows: 365 L/person/day (for one person households), 288 L/person/day (two person households), 200 L/person/day (four person households), 189 L/person/day (six person households). This means the overall range for this example would be . == Analytical methods == === General quality indicators === === Specific organisms and substances === Sewage can be monitored for both disease-causing and benign organisms with a variety of techniques. Traditional techniques involve filtering, staining, and examining samples under a microscope. Much more sensitive and specific testing can be accomplished with DNA sequencing, such as when looking for rare organisms, attempting eradication, testing specifically for drug-resistant strains, or discovering new species.Poliovirus detected from environmental samples in Israel Drug resistant bug review: NDM-1 in New Delhi’s sewage, WHO calls to action, recent outbreaks of antibiotic resistant bacteria Raw Sewage Harbors Diverse Viral Populations Sequencing DNA from an environmental sample is known as metagenomics. Sewage has also been analyzed to determine relative rates of use of prescription and illegal drugs among municipal populations. General socioeconomic demographics may be inferred as well. == Collection == Sewage is commonly collected and transported in gravity sewers, either in a sanitary sewer or in a combined sewer. The latter also conveys urban runoff (stormwater) which means the sewage gets diluted during rain events. === Sanitary sewer === === Combined sewer === == Dilution in the sewer == === Infiltration of groundwater into the sewerage system === Infiltration is groundwater entering sewer pipes through defective pipes, connections, joints or manholes. Contaminated or saline groundwater may introduce additional pollutants to the sewage. The amount of such infiltrated water depends on several parameters, such as the length of the collection network, pipeline diameters, drainage area, soil type, water table depth, topography and number of connections per unit area. Infiltration is increased by poor construction procedures, and tends to increase with the age of the sewer. The amount of infiltration varies with the depth of the sewer in comparison to the local groundwater table. Older sewer systems that are in need of rehabilitation may also exfiltrate sewage into groundwater from the leaking sewer joints and service connections. This can lead to groundwater pollution. === Stormwater === Combined sewers are designed to transport sewage and stormwater together. This means that sewage becomes diluted during rain events. There are other types of inflow that also dilute sewage, e.g. "water discharged from cellar and foundation drains, cooling-water discharges, and any direct stormwater runoff connections to the sanitary collection system". The "direct inflows" can result in peak sewage flowrates similar to combined sewers during wet weather events. === Industrial wastewater === Sewage from communities with industrial facilities may include some industrial wastewater, generated by industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods. Volumes of industrial wastewater vary widely with the type of industry. Industrial wastewater may contain very different pollutants at much higher concentrations than what is typically found in sewage. Pollutants may be toxic or non- biodegradable waste including pharmaceuticals, biocides, heavy metals, radionuclides, or thermal pollution. An industry may treat its wastewater and discharge it into the environment (or even use the treated wastewater for specific applications), or, in case it is located in the urban area, it may discharge the wastewater into the public sewerage system. In the latter case, industrial wastewater may receive pre-treatment at the factories to reduce the pollutant load. Mixing industrial wastewater with sewage does nothing to reduce the mass of pollutants to be treated, but the volume of sewage lowers the concentration of pollutants unique to industrial wastewater, and the volume of industrial wastewater lowers the concentration of pollutants unique to sewage. == Disposal and dilution == === Assimilative capacity of receiving water bodies or land === When wastewater is discharged into a water body (river, lakes, sea) or land, its relative impact will depend on the assimilative capacity of the water body or ecosystem. Water bodies have a self-purification capacity, so that the concentration of a pollutant may decrease along the distance from the discharge point. Furthermore, water bodies provide a dilution to the pollutants concentrations discharged, although it does not decrease their mass. In principle, the higher the dilution capacity (ratio of volume or flow of the receiving water and volume or flow of sewage discharged), the lower will be the concentration of pollutants in the receiving water, and probably the lower will be the negative impacts. But if the water body already arrives very polluted at the point of discharge, the dilution will be of limited value. In several cases, a community may treat partially its sewage, and still count on the assimilative capacity of the water body. However, this needs to be analyzed very carefully, taking into account the quality of the water in the receiving body before it receives the discharge of sewage, the resulting water quality after the discharge and the impact on the intended water uses after discharge. There are also specific legal requirements in each country. Different countries have different regulations regarding the specifications of the quality of the sewage being discharged and the quality to be maintained in the receiving water body.The combination of treatment and disposal must comply with existing local regulations. The assimilative capacity depends – among several factors – on the ability of the receiving water to sustain dissolved oxygen concentrations necessary to support organisms catabolizing organic waste. For example, fish may die if dissolved oxygen levels are depressed below 5 mg/L. Application of sewage to land can be considered as a form of final disposal or of treatment, or both. Land disposal alternatives require consideration of land availability, groundwater quality, and possible soil deterioration. === Other disposal methods === Sewage may be discharged to an evaporation or infiltration basin.. Groundwater recharge is used to reduce saltwater intrusion, or replenish aquifers used for agricultural irrigation. Treatment is usually required to sustain percolation capacity of infiltration basins, and more extensive treatment may be required for aquifers used as drinking water supplies. ==== Marine outfall ==== === Global situation === == Treatment == Sewage treatment is beneficial in reducing environmental pollution. Bar screens can remove large solid debris from sewage, and primary treatment can remove floating and settleable matter. Primary treated sewage usually contains less than half of the original solids content and approximately two-thirds of the BOD in the form of colloids and dissolved organic compounds. Secondary treatment can reduce the BOD of organic waste in undiluted sewage, but is less effective for dilute sewage. Water disinfection may be attempted to kill pathogens prior to disposal, and is increasingly effective after more elements of the foregoing treatment sequence have been completed. == Reuse and reclamation == An alternative to discharge into the environment is to reuse the sewage in a productive way (for agricultural, urban or industrial uses), in compliance with local regulations and requirements for each specific reuse application. Public health risks of sewage reuse in agriculture can be minimized by following a "multiple barrier approach" according to guidelines by the World Health Organization. There is also the possibility of resource recovery which could make agriculture more sustainable by using carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water and energy recovered from sewage. ===Sewage farm=== == Regulations == Management of sewage includes collection and transport for release into the environment, after a treatment level that is compatible with the local requirements for discharge into water bodies, onto soil or for reuse applications. In most countries, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met. For requirements in the United States, see Clean Water Act. Sewage management regulations are often part of broader sanitation policies of a country. These may also include the management of human excreta (from non-sewered collection systems), solid waste and stormwater. == See also == * Fecal sludge management * History of water supply and sanitation * Reuse of human excreta * Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive * Wastewater-based epidemiology ==References== ==External links== * Sanitation and Wastewater Atlas of Africa Category:Anaerobic digestion Category:Sewerage Category:Sanitation Category:Waste management Category:Water pollution
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Les Joueurs de football, also referred to as Football Players, is a 1912–13 painting by the French artist, theorist and writer Albert Gleizes. The work was exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants, Paris, March–May 1913 (no. 1293). September through December 1913 the painting was exhibited at Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon, Berlin (no. 147). The work was featured at Galeries Dalmau in Barcelona, 29 November – 12 December 1916 (no. 31), Gleizes' first one-person show.Exposició Albert Gleizes, 29 November – 12 December 1916, Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona (catalogue) The work was again exhibited at Galeries Dalmau 16 October – 6 November 1926 (no. 7).Exposició de Modernisme Pictòric Català. 1926, Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona, 16 October – 6 November 1926 (cat. no. 7). Ajuntament de Girona Stylistically Gleizes' Football Players exemplifies the principle of mobile perspective laid out in Du "Cubisme", written by himself and French painter Jean Metzinger. Guillaume Apollinaire wrote about Les Joueurs de football in an article titled "Le Salon des indépendants", published in L'Intransigeant, 18 March 1913, and again in "A travers le Salon des indépendants", published in Montjoie!, Numéro Spécial, 18 March 1913."A travers les Indépendants", Montjoie!, Numéro Spécial, Guillaume Apollinaire, , 18 March 1913 Les Joueurs de football was left by the artist at Galeries Dalmau in 1916. Titled Jugadors de Futbol, the painting was reproduced in the avant-garde Catalan magazine L'Amic de les arts, November 1926. The caption included the inscription Collection Joseph Dalmau.L'Amic de les arts, Gaseta de Sitges, Any 1, núm. 8 (nov. 1926), p. 3 It was purchased from the Dalmau family between 1953 and 1955 by Stephen Hahn and (The Sidney Janis Gallery); sold in 1955 to Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, New York. Subsequently the work was sold to the Marlborough-Gerson gallery, New York, and purchased May 1970 by the National Gallery of Art (NGA), Washington D.C.Albert Gleizes, Football Players, National Gallery of Art ==Description== thumb|Cyrile Lowe being tackled by Jacques Dedet in the 1913 France–England match. thumb|Le Plein Air, Revue illustrée de tous les sports, 24 April 1913 Les Joueurs de football is a large oil painting on canvas with dimensions 225.4 x 183 cm (88 3/4 x 72 1/16 in.) signed and dated "Albert Gleizes 1912–13", lower left. After at least one preliminary sketch,Study for Football Players (Dessin pour Les Joueurs de football) published in Montjoie! Salon des Indépendants, no. 4, March 29, 1913 Gleizes began working on this painting in 1912 and finished it before exhibiting the work at the Salon des Indépendants, March 1913.Société des artistes indépendants: catalogue de la 29ème exposition, 1913, no. 1293 Moving away from his quasi-monochromatic works of 1910 and 1911, Gleizes employs a wide array of primary colors, grays, earth tones and umbers. Unlike the preferred subject matter of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque (e.g., still lives or guitar players), Gleizes has depicted a vast scene, combining a sporting event with a semi-urban or industrial landscape in the background. As the principle subject matter of this work Gleizes chose to represent a group of six or seven rugby football players. The action and contact between the players is palpable. Two of the men are holding on to the player with the ball (blue jersey) as if a tackle is imminent. In contrast to the impending violence of the sport, Gleizes has painted flowers along with some cubic shapes toward the bottom right of the picture. On the bottom left is a man, possibly a fallen player, holding what appears to be a round shaped item in his hand. Spectators are seen toward the upper right, while to the left, in the background, Gleizes has painted a town, a bridge and bellowing clouds or smoke. The rich juxtaposition of divers elements present within the piece are tied together in a Cubist idiom by an interlocking grid of diagonal lines, facets, intersecting plains and spheres. ==Overview== Painted during an ongoing debate over the virtues of Cubism and Futurism, Les Joueurs de football is a prime example of the artists desire to reconcile the problem of representing the subject from different points of view simultaneously, and/or in successive stages of motion (both the physical displacement of an object and the movement of thought).Peter Brooke, Albert Gleizes – For and Against the Twentieth Century, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2001, pp. 29–31, , Here, according to art historian Peter Brooke, Gleizes explores the movement of subjects in motion "with the sense of movement that can be excited in the spectator using purely pictorial means". Brooke continues, "The drama can be seen very clearly expressed in Gleizes's painting Les Joueurs de football, in which a very powerful pictorial construction is undermined by the idea of aggressive movement, very rare for Gleizes, conveyed in the frozen gestures of the subject, the football players". Guillaume Apollinaire writes in Montjoie! on 18 March 1913: > With his Joueurs de football, Albert Gleizes taken an enormous step. This is > his most varied and most colored canvas. I still see in the upper section > some unpleasant and heavy smoke, but the composition is new, divers. Gleizes > embarked upon a challenging composition that he masterfully arranged. The > subject has returned to the painting and I’m not in the least proud to have > predicted the return of what constitutes very foundation of pictorial art. > This Élan vital constitutes the subject of Gleizes' canvas. L’Oiseau bleu, > the large poetic composition by Metzinger is the most important work painted > by this much discussed artist. It is difficult to express in a few lines and > without prior meditation all the invention, all the marvel [féérie] of this > well painted work. We can no longer say, now, that Cubism is obscure > [triste], gala rather, grand [noblesse], measure [mesure] and audacity. Les Joueurs de football is testament to the close association of two artists, Metzinger and Gleizes, and to their shared social, cultural and philosophical conviction that painting represented more than a fleeting glimpse of the world in which they lived, that indeed by showing multiple facets of a subject captured at successive intervals in time simultaneously, a truer more complete image would emerge.Joann Moser, Daniel Robbins, Jean Metzinger in retrospect, 1985, The University of Iowa Museum of Art (J. Paul Getty Trust, University of Washington Press) > We feared the dogmas and hermetic ideas, destructive acts disguised as new > constructions, before they appeared as we knew they would. Rejecting > nothing, we sketched out a traditional curve in French painting from Courbet > to ourselves as the latest arrivals, persuaded that the new order cannot be > created independently of the permanent order. (Albert Gleizes, 1917)Albert > Gleizes: La Peinture Moderne, in 391, No. 5, New York, June 1917Two > Philosopher-Painters, Albert Gleizes and Kasimir Malevich Gleizes' Football Players exemplifies the principle of mobile perspective and simultaneity elaborated upon in the Cubist manifesto Du "Cubisme", written with Jean Metzinger. Football Players exemplifies, too, the general freedom of the artist to interpret the subject matter without producing photograph resemblance or ‘realistic’ portrayal of an object or event. For Metzinger and Gleizes, such a portrayal was simply an arbitrary convention. In the world of experience, things are not static, but in constant motion. Objects are rarely seen from one point of view, and the act of perception is systematically accompanied by a collection of emotions and thoughts. Life is not a 'purely retinal' experience. ==Rugby football== The apparition of The Football Players (1908) in the work of Henri Rousseau signaled the emergence of sporting events as a subject for art.Gordon Hughes, Resisting Abstraction: Robert Delaunay and Vision in the Face of Modernism, University of Chicago Press, Nov 25, 2014 Jean Metzinger painted At the Cycle-Race Track (Au Vélodrome) (1911–12) Peggy Guggenheim Collection; Umberto Boccioni, Dynamism of a Cyclist (1913), Peggy Guggenheim Collection and Dynamism of a Soccer Player (1913) Museum of Modern Art. Robert Delaunay worked on a series of rugby football scenes from 1912 to 1913, and again in 1924.Kubisme en sport André Lhote, later, painted the subject several times, between 1917 and 1937.André Lhote, Rugby, 1917, Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées (RMN) In both the Gleizes painting and those of Delaunay, the identification with soccer has commonly been made, however, the ball is oval and the hands are being used; clearly identifying the subject of these works as depictions of rugby football games.Guggenheim Museum Collection Paintings, 1880–1945, Published June 1976 by Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation The first rugby competition was held in 1892 as a one-off championship game between two Paris-based teams, the Racing Club de France and Stade Français. In 1900 rugby was played at the Paris Summer Olympics. France won the gold medal of the first ever rugby event at the Olympics. Racing Club made it to the championship final on 31 March 1912. France joined an international competition in 1910, and coined the term Tournoi des Cinq Nations (Five Nations Championship); a term that would last almost the entire century.Rugbysme: le rugby et l'art moderne, Musée Fabre de Montpellier Agglomération, 8 September – 28 October 2007 On 1 January 1913, at the France-Scotland match, spectators threw themselves on the referee to express their dissatisfaction. The mounted police were forced to intervene charging. This violent incident led to the secretary of the Scottish Rugby Union to declare: "If the game can only be played under the protection of the police or the military, it is not worth playing".Jean-Pierre Bodis, Histoire mondiale du rugby, Bibliothèque historique Privat, 1987, Following this incidents, Scotland refused to face France at the 1914 tournament.The tournament, rugby- nomades.qc.ca France was implicitly excluded from further tournaments, but World War I did not permit the application of this exclusion. The related sport-themed work of Rousseau, Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Boccioni (and later Lhote), reflected the enthusiasm for sport that fascinated the French spirit at the time. Romain Rolland described the Belle Époque generation as "Passionately in love with pleasure and violent games", in his 1912/13 novel Jean-Christophe. Art historian Daniel Robbins writes: > The role of team sport, especially in the context of mass audience > participation, reflects another interest of the artists of Passy. Jacques > Nayral was occasionally a sports writer (cf. L’Action Nouvelle, February 25, > 1914) and a fan (as was Delaunay) of foot and bicycle racing. Gleizes' > Football Players dates from the same year as Delaunay’s Cardiff Team.Daniel > Robbins, 1964, Albert Gleizes 1881–1953, A Retrospective Exhibition, > published by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York, in > collaboration with Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris, Museum am Ostwall, > Dortmund, n. 40, p. 31 ==Related works== File:Metzinger cycle track.jpg|Jean Metzinger, 1911–12, At the Cycle-Race Track (Au Vélodrome), oil and sand on canvas, 130.4 x 97.1 cm, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice File:Jean Metzinger, 1912-1913, L'Oiseau bleu, (The Blue Bird) oil on canvas, 230 x 196 cm, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris..jpg|Jean Metzinger, 1912-1913, L’Oiseau bleu (The Blue Bird), oil on canvas, 230 x 196 cm, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris File:Robert Delaunay, 1913, L'Équipe de Cardiff, oil on canvas, 326 × 208 cm, Musée d'Art Moderne de la ville de Paris.jpg|Robert Delaunay, 1913, L'Équipe de Cardiff, oil on canvas, 326 × 208 cm, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris File:Robert Delaunay L'Équipe de Cardiff 1913 Eindhoven.jpg|Robert Delaunay, 1913, L'Équipe de Cardiff, oil on canvas, 195 x 132 cm Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven File:Umberto Boccioni, 1913, Dynamism of a Cyclist (Dinamismo di un ciclista), oil on canvas, 70 x 95 cm, Gianni Mattioli Collection, on long-term loan to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.jpg|Umberto Boccioni, 1913, Dynamism of a Cyclist (Dinamismo di un ciclista), oil on canvas, 70 x 95 cm, Gianni Mattioli Collection, on long-term loan to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice File:WLA moma Umberto Boccioni Dynamism of a Soccer Player 1913.jpg|Umberto Boccioni, 1913, Dynamism of a Soccer Player, oil on canvas, 193.2 x 201 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York File:Fodboldspillere. Sofus header..jpg|Harald Giersing, 1917, oil on compoboard, 149.1 × 122 cm, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum ==Inscriptions== Albert Gleizes 1912–13, lower left; center right reverse: 25 nov[e]mbre 191[?] ==Provenance== Left 1916 by the artist at the Gallery Dalmau, Barcelona; Dalmau family, Barcelona; purchased 1953/1955 by Stephen Hahn and (Janis Gallery, New York); sold 1955 to Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, New York; sold to (Marlborough-Gerson Gallery, Inc., New York); purchased May 1970 by National Gallery of Art (NGA). The details of the provenance are provided in a letter of 10 February 1970 from Daniel Robbins to J. Carter Brown, copy in NGA curatorial files. ==See also== * List of works by Albert Gleizes ==Exhibitions== * 1913, 29th Exhibition, Société des Artistes Indépendants, Paris, March–May 1913, no. 1293 * 1913, Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon, Berlin, September–December, no. 147 * 1916, Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona, 29 November – 12 December (no. 31) * 1926, Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona, 16 October – 6 November (no. 7) * 1955, New Arrivals From France, Sidney Janis Gallery, New York * 1964, Albert Gleizes 1881–1953: A Retrospective Exhibition, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Museum am Ostwall, Dortmund, 1964-1965, no. 40 (New York cat.) and no. 18 (Dortmund cat.) * 1969, 20th Century Art from the Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York, unnumbered catalogue * 1970, The Cubist Epoch, Los Angeles County Museum of Art; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1970–1971, no. 98, pl. 63 * 1978, Aspects of Twentieth-Century Art, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1978–1979, no. 14, repro * 1988, Stationen der Moderne: Die bedeutenden Kunstausstellungen des 20. Jahrhunderts in Deutschland, Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin, 1988–1989, no. 3/18, repro * 2001, Albert Gleizes: El cubismo en majestad, Museu Picasso, Barcelona; Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon, no. 37, repro. * 2002, The Avant-Garde in Danish and European Art 1909–19, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen, 2002–2003, no. 24, repro. * 2008, Le Futurisme à Paris: une avant-garde explosive, Centre Pompidou, Paris; Scuderie del Quirinale, Rome; Tate Modern, London, 2008–2009, no. 59, repro. (shown only in Paris) * 2012, Der Sturm – Zentrum der Avantgarde, Von der Heydt-Museum, Wuppertal, unnumbered catalogue, repro. * 2018–2019, Le cubisme, 17 October 2018 – 25 February 2019, Galerie 1, Centre Pompidou, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris. Kunstmuseum Basel, 31 March – 5 August 2019Le cubisme, Centre Pompidou, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris, 17 October 2018 – 25 February 2019. Kunstmuseum Basel, 31 March – 5 August 2019 ==Bibliography== * L'Amic de les arts, Gaseta de Sitges, Any 1, núm. 8, November 1926, repro. p. 3 * 1972, Apollinaire, Guillaume, Apollinaire on Art: Essays and Reviews 1902–1918. Edited by Leroy C. Breunig. Translated by Susan Suleiman. New York, 1972: 282, 285, 292, 338. * 1975, European Paintings: An Illustrated Summary Catalogue. National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1975: 154, repro. * 1975, Robbins, Daniel, The Formation and Maturity of Albert Gleizes: A Biographical and Critical Study, 1881–1920. Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, Ann Arbor, 1975: 113–114, 163–164 * 1982, Buckberrough, Sherry A., Robert Delaunay: The Discovery of Simultaneity, Ann Arbor, 1982: 167–171, no. 60 * 1985, European Paintings: An Illustrated Catalogue, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1985: 179, repro. * 1998, Varichon, Anne, Albert Gleizes, Catalogue Raisonné, 2 tomes, Paris, Somogy éditions d'art/Fondation Albert Gleizes, 1998, no. 404, repro. * 1998, Pinkus, Karen, Sport, In Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art, Edited by Helene E. Roberts, 2 vols. Chicago, 1998: 2:856 ==References== ==External links== * Fondation Albert Gleizes * Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Grand Palais, Agence photographique Category:Paintings by Albert Gleizes Category:Cubist paintings Category:1912 paintings Category:1913 paintings Category:Paintings in Washington, D.C. Category:Sports paintings Category:Collections of the National Gallery of Art Category:Rugby football culture Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon
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thumb|400px|Robert Campin and workshop, Mérode Altarpiece. Dimensions: overall (when open), 25 3/8 × 46 3/8 in.; central panel, 25 1/4 × 24 7/8 in.; each wing, 25 3/8 × 10 3/4 in. The Mérode Altarpiece (or Annunciation Triptych) is an oil on oak panel triptych, now in The Cloisters, in New York City. It is unsigned and undated, but attributed to Early Netherlandish painter Robert Campin and an assistant. The three panels represent, from left to right, the donors kneeling in prayer in a garden, the moment of the Annunciation to Mary, which is set in a contemporary, domestic setting, and Saint Joseph, a carpenter with the tools of his trade. The many elements of religious symbolism include the lily and fountain (symbolising the purity of Mary), and the Holy Spirit represented by the rays of light coming through from the central panel's left hand window. The central panel was completed after 1422, likely between 1425 and 1428, it is thought by a member of Campin's workshop. An earlier version, now in Brussels, may be Campin's original panel. The outer wing panels are later additions by a workshop member, probably on request by the donor who sought to elevate the central panel to a triptych and place himself in the pictorial space. They contain views of the city of Liège, in today's Belgium. The triptych is a founding and important work in the then emerging late Gothic, Early Netherlandish style, and has been described as a "milestone between two periods; it at once summarizes the medieval tradition and lays the foundation for the development of modern painting".Rousseau (1957), 117 ==Dating and attribution== The attribution of the New York triptych has been the subject of wide scholarly debate. It seems to have been completed the same year as the Ghent Altarpiece, in 1432, making the painter a contemporary of Jan van Eyck. It is usually accepted as belonging to a group of paintings associated with the Master of Flémalle, assumed to be Robert Campin. For a time it was attributed to Campin's apprentice Rogier van der WeydenBurroughs, 131 based on the realistic style that would become van der Weyden's hallmark. There is another version of the Annunciation panel in Brussels, slightly earlier but damaged,Campbell (1974), 643 which may represent the original version by Campin. Technical examination of the wood panels suggest that the triptych was completed by a number of hands. The wood of the central panel is different and earlier to that of the wings, while the hinging further suggest that the central panel was not intended as part of a triptych. The central panel is likely a copy of an earlier composition by Campin, while the wings were probably a later commission from the donor to attach to the main panel to form a small private devotional altarpiece. Areas of the panels have been reworked; both the female donor and bearded man on the left wing were painted over landscape, while the window behind the Virgin was originally painted in gold.Suhr, 140-44 Campbell is not convinced by the association with Flemalle group, and thus Robert Campin. He describes the Mérode as "incoherent in design", lacking Campin's usual trait of spatial continuity, as found in the Seilern Triptych. The open sky as seen through the central panel windows is incongruous in point of view with the street scene in the donor panel. Campbell highlights poor command of perspective in the donor panel, and observes that it is "unfortunate that a line of one of the mortar courses in the garden wall disappear into the donor's mouth". Campbell describes the wing panels as pedestrian, and the product of lesser hands. He gives prominence to the Brussels panel, which he cautiously attributes to the Master of Flémalle. ==Description== The triptych is relatively small, indicating that it was commissioned for private, domestic use; the central panel measures 64 × 63 cm and each wing is 65 × 27 cm. The panels share a very steep perspective, in which the viewer seems to be looking down on the figures from an elevated point of view. In other respects the perspective is underdeveloped; neither the Virgin nor Gabriel seem to rest on solid ground, while the female donor appears to hover and appears to be barely able to fit within the space she is positioned in.Rousseau (1957), 124 The panels are in good condition, with little over-paint, glossing, dirt layers, or paint losses."Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 17 March 2017 They are almost entirely in oil, and establish many of the inventions that were to make the technique so successful and adaptable over the following centuries.Rousseau (1957), 121 The serenity of the works is achieved, in part, through the dominance of pale, opaque white, red, and blue hues. The size of the panels and the at times minute attention to detail are similar to the focus of contemporary miniatures, of the kind seem in the two illuminated manuscripts in the central panel. ===Annunciation=== thumb|240px|Detail, center panel, with table, book of hours, fading candle and vase The panel is one of the earliest representations of the Annunciation to Mary in a contemporary Northern European interior, which appears to be a dining room. This is Campin's main innovation, showing a reading Madonna, with unbound hair in a familiar setting, an image that lead to many adoptions, most famously Rogier van der Weyden's Reading Magdalen.Gottlieb (1970), 65 The colors in the upper part of the central panel are dominated by the cool grays of the plaster and the brown of the timber wall,Gottlieb (1970), 76 while the lower half is mostly of warmer and deeper brownish greens and reds.Rousseau (1957), 117 Art historians suggest that the success of the panel is due to the contrast between the warm reds of the Virgin's robe and the pale blue hues of the archangel Gabriel's vestment.Rousseau (1957), 118 left|thumb|220px|Detail with the Virgin reading a book of hours The panels' perspective is unusually steep and unevenly distributed. The angle of the table in particular is illogical. Art historian Lorne Campbell describes these distortions as "disturbing".Campbell (1974), 644 It shows the moment before the traditional Annunciation scene, when Mary is still unaware of the presence of Gabriel. She is in a red gown rather than the more usual blue, and in a relaxed pose, reading from a book of hours, with her hair unbound. Unusually for a medieval depiction of the Annunciation, the dove of the Holy Spirit is not visible. Instead he is represented by the extinguished light of the candle, and the beam of light falling from the window to the left, which carries the Christ Child holding a cross.Reuterswärd (1998), 47–51 The Christ Child flies down towards Mary from the left oculus, signifying her impregnation by God the Father. He gazes directly at her and holds a cross. The folding-table contains a recently extinguished candle, and shows coiling smoke and a still glowing wick. This maybe a reference to the Holy Spirit, who, according to some late medieval writers, descended to the apostles "like a puff of wind".Reuterswärd (1998), 47 The white lily in a Tuscan earthenware jug on the table represents Mary's virginity and purity, as does the white, ocher towel. The jug contains a series of enigmatic letters in Latin and Hebraic, deciphered by some art historians as De Campyn, which they presume as the artist's signature. An open manuscript is placed on the green velvet book pouch. Unusually, the book is positioned next to the Virgin rather than the shelf. The pages seem worn and handled, indicating that it has been well read. It has been suggested that the book reflects the Carthusian Ludolf of Saxony's idea of the secluded life of the Virgin - that she earlier lived with "the Holy Scriptures as her sole companion".Châtelet, quoted in Reuterswärd (1998), 47 The right hand half of the back wall holds three windows, one of which contains a lattice screen. The beams of the ceiling are supported by a series of corbels.Rousseau (1957), 120 The sky visible through the windows is a later addition, which was painted over an earlier gold ground. The armorial shields are also later additions. ===Donors=== left|thumb|300px|Left panel, with street scene and attendant The donor and his wife are shown kneeling in prayer are in the left panel, looking through a half-open door into the Virgin's Hortus conclusus.Rousseau (1957), 117 The door presents a continuity oddity; although it can be seen opening into the Virgins room from the left panel, no such door entrance is visible in the center panel. Addressing this, the art historians Rose-Marie and Rainer Hagen suppose that the donor is "imagining that she has entered into his house. From without, he has opened the door; with his own eyes he beholds the Mother of God and petitions her for a family".Hagen; Hagen (2003), 33 The attendant dressed in a festive outfitRousseau (1957), 122 is by a later artist, perhaps it was added after the donor's marriage.Ainsworth, (2005), 51–65 The left hand space contains an unlocked entrance leading to a minutely detailed street scene.Reuterswärd (1998), 46 The panel is the more striking as the door leading into the Virgin's chamber is wide open, hugely presumptuous for even a mid-fifteenth century commission, and suggesting access to the gates of heaven.Gottlieb (1970), 78 The donors are identifiable as bourgeoisie from nearby Mechelen, and are documented in Tournai in 1427, identifiable from the coat of arms in the stained glass window of the central panel. It is assumed that this panel was a later commission to Campin's workshop, not part of the original single panel design. There has been speculation that it was completed by the young Rogier van der Weyden.Jacobs (2002), 297 The altarpiece was commissioned either by the businessman Jan Engelbrecht, or the Cologne-born merchant Peter Engelbrecht and his wife Margarete Scrynmaker.Kleiner (2013), 441"Merode Altarpiece (1435)". visual-arts-cork.com. Retrieved 1 May 2017 Engelbrecht translates from German as "angel brings", while Scrynmaker means "cabinet maker", the latter perhaps influencing the choice of Joseph in the right hand panel. ===Joseph=== Saint Joseph, a carpenter by trade, occupies the right-hand panel. He is shown at work, boring spike holes into one of the instruments of the Passion. An unusual feature is that, although Mary and Joseph did not marry until after the Annunciation, they are apparently living together and sharing the same space. Joseph is shown with the tools of his craft, visible implements include an ax, saw, rod, and a small footstool sitting before a fire of burning logs. Joseph's presence is may be intended to invoke 10 :15 from the Book of Isaiah: "Shall the ax boast itself against him that heweth there- with? or shall the saw magnify itself against him that shaketh it? as if the rod should shake itself against them that lift it up, or as if the staff should lift up itself as if was it were no wood."Minott (1969), 267 Isaiah's words were intended as incentatory and revolutionary, were followed by a treatise for the salvation of Israel, and protested against an Assyrian king he considered boorish and vainglorious. Given this, Joseph is seen by art historians as a reassuring presence, warding the devil from the center panel.Schapiro (1945), 185 Joseph is presented as a relatively old man wearing an eggplant coloured coat and blue turban, in a panel dressed by dark and warm colours, framed by shadows thrown from the window shutters. He works on a mouse trap, probably a symbol of the cross at the Crucifixion,Duchesne- Guillemin (1976), 129 in that it represents an imagined but literal capture of the Devil, said to have held a man in ransom because of the sin of Adam.Minott (1969), 268 In some scripts, Christ's naked flesh was served as bait for the devil; "He rejoiced in Christ's death, like a bailiff of death. What he rejoiced in was then his own undoing. The cross of the Lord was the devil's mousetrap; the bait by which he was caught was the Lord's death."Sermo ccLcxii, "De ascensione Domini" . Migne, Pat. Lat., xxxvII, col. 1210. See Schapiro (1945), 182-87 The background contains a cityscape, probably fictitious, showing the spires of two churches, one of which is now lost, the churches of St. Pierre (left) and Sainte Croix (right) in Liege.Duchesne- Guillemin (1976), 130-31 ==Iconography== left|thumb|340px|Detail of the center panel The iconography contains complex religious symbolism, although their extent and exact nature is debated – Meyer Schapiro pioneered the study of the symbolism of the mousetrap,Schapiro (1945), 82 and Erwin Panofsky later extended, or perhaps over-extended, the analysis of symbols to cover many more details of the furniture and fittings. Similar debates exist for many Early Netherlandish paintings, and a number of the details seen for the first time here reappear in later Annunciations by other artists. The symbolic elements in the central panel mostly relate to the Annunciation, the Mass and the sacrament of the Eucharist.Lane (1984), 42–47 Mary sits on the floor to show her humility. The scroll and book in front of Mary symbolize the Old and the New Testaments, and the roles Mary and the Christ child played in the fulfillment of prophecy. The lilies in the earthenware vase on the table represent Mary's virginity. Other symbols of her purity include the enclosed garden (Hortus conclusus), and the white towel, while the small windows to the right, and the half-closed windows at the rear, serve to emphasise the quiet, virginal life she has lived. The lion finials on the bench may have a symbolic role (referring to the Seat of Wisdom, or throne of Solomon) – this feature is often seen in other paintings, religious or secular (like Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait). The arrangements for washing at the back of the room, which are considered unusual for a domestic interior, may relate to the similar arrangements of a piscina for the officiating priest to wash his hands during Mass. The sixteen sides of the table may allude to the sixteen main Hebrew prophets; the table is usually seen as an altar, and the archangel Gabriel wears the vestments of a deacon.McNamee (1998), 151 The basin may represent both the purity of Virgin, and the cleansing of the Christian act of baptism.Gottlieb (1970), 67 In the right-hand panel, Saint Joseph, a carpenter, has constructed a mouse trap symbolizing Christ's trapping and defeat of the devil, a metaphor used three times by Saint Augustine: "The cross of the Lord was the devil's mousetrap; the bait by which he was caught was the Lord's death."Schapiro (1945), 1 The iconography of the right-hand panel has been studied in detail by Russell. He shows that the object that Joseph is working on is a scandalum or stumbling block, a spiked block that gashes the legs of a punishment victim who walks with it hanging from a cord around his waist. Joseph's joinery instruments are displayed in a consistently unnatural manner, suggesting that they have been planned to fit a specific agenda; for example the joinery instruments on the table are so placed as to represent the three crosses of Christ and the two thieves. ==Provenance== Its early history is obscure. The triptych was owned by the aristocratic Belgian Arenberg and Mérode families from 1820 to 1849 before reaching the art market, and has been in the collection of the Cloisters, New York since 1956. Until its acquisition it had been in private collection for many years and thus inaccessible to both scholars and the public. Its purchase was funded by John D. Rockefeller Jr. and was described at the time as a "major event for the history of collecting in the United States"."The Merode Altarpiece, a great and famous landmark in the history of western painting, by the Master of Flémalle, has been acquired for the Cloisters ". Metropolitan Museum of Art, 9 December 1957. Retrieved 30 March 2018 ==References== ===Notes=== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * Ainsworth, Maryan. "Intentional Alterations of Early Netherlandish Paintings". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 2005, volume 40, 51–65 * Ainsworth, Maryan. "Religious Painting from 1420 to 1500". Maryan Ainsworth, et al. (eds.), From Van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum, 1998. * Bauman, Guy. "Early Flemish Portraits 1425–1525". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Volume 43, No. 4, Spring, 1986 * Burroughs, Alan. "Campin and Van der Weyden Again". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Studies, Volume 4, No. 2, March, 1933 * Campbell, Lorne. The Fifteenth Century Netherlandish Paintings. London: National Gallery, 1998. * Campbell, Lorne. "Robert Campin, the Master of Flémalle and the Master of Mérode". Burlington Magazine, volume 116, no. 860, November 1974 * Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques. "On the Cityscape of the Mérode Altarpiece". The University of Chicago Press; Metropolitan Museum Journal, volume 11, 1976 * Davies, Martin. "Rogier van der Weyden: An Essay, with a Critical Catalogue of Paintings Assigned to Him and to Robert Campin". London: Phaidon, 1972 * Freeman, Margaret. "The Iconography of the Merode Altarpiece". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, volume 16, No. 4, December 1957 * Gottlieb, Carla. "The Symbolism of the Mérode Altarpiece". Oud Holland, volume 85, No. 2, 1970 * Hagen, Rose-Marie; Hagen, Rainer. What Great Paintings Say, Volume 2. Cologne: Taschen, 2003. * Harbison, Craig. "The Art of the Northern Renaissance". London: Laurence King Publishing, 1995. * Jacobs, Lynn. Opening Doors: The Early Netherlandish Triptych Reinterpreted. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002. * Kleiner, Fred. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Volume 2. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2013. * McNamee, Maurice. Vested Angels: Eucharistic Allusions in Early Netherlandish Paintings. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 1998. * Minott, Charles Ilsley. "The Theme of the Mérode Altarpiece". The Art Bulletin, volume 51, No. 3, 1969 * Lane, Barbara The Altar and the Altarpiece, Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting. New York: Harper & Row, 1984. * Panofsky, Erwin. Early Netherlandish Painting. London: Harper Collins, 1971. * Installé, H. "The Merode-triptych. A Mnemonic Evocation of a Merchant Family that fled from Cologne and settled down in Mechelen" (Le triptique Merode: Evocation mnémonique d'une famille de marchands colonais, réfugiée à Malines). In: Handelingen van de Koninklijke Kring voor Oudheidkunde, Letteren en Kunst van Mechelen, No. 1, 1992 * Reuterswärd, Patrik. "New light on Robert Campin". Konsthistorisk tidskrift (Journal of Art History), volume 67, No. 1, 1998 * Rousseau, Theodore. "The Merode Altarpiece". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, volume 16, No. 4, 1957 * Schapiro, Meyer. "'Muscipula Diaboli', The Symbolism of the Mérode Altarpiece". The Art Bulletin, volume 27, No. 3, 1945 * Smith, Jeffrey Chipps. The Northern Renaissance. London: Phaidon Press, 2004. * Thürlemann, Felix. "Robert Campin: A Monographic Study with Critical Catalogue". Prestel, 2012. * Van Asperen de Boer, J.R.J., et al. "Underdrawing in Paintings of the Rogier Van Der Weyden and Master of Flémalle Groups.” Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek (NKJ) / Netherlands Yearbook for History of Art, vol. 41, 1990 * Wolff, Martha; Hand, John Oliver. Early Netherlandish painting. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1987. ==External links== *Catalogue entry at The Metropolitan Category:1420s paintings Category:Paintings by Robert Campin Category:Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art Category:Christian iconography Category:Renaissance paintings Category:Triptychs Category:Paintings depicting the Annunciation Barocci Category:Books in art
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This is a list of notable Native American women of the United States. It should contain only Native women of the United States and its territories, not First Nations women or Native women of Central and South America. Native American identity is a complex and contested issue. The Bureau of Indian Affairs defines Native American as having American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry. Legally, being Native American is defined as being enrolled in a federally recognized tribe or Alaskan village. These entities establish their own membership rules, and they vary. Each must be understood independently. Ethnologically, factors such as culture, history, language, religion, and familial kinships can influence Native American identity."IV. Our Nation’s American Indian and Alaska Native Citizens." US Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved 8 July 2012. All individuals on this list should have Native American ancestry. Historical figures might predate tribal enrollment practices and may be included based on reliable sources that document ethnological tribal membership. Any contemporary individuals should either be enrolled members of federally recognized tribes, or have cited Native American ancestry and be recognized as Native American by their respective tribes. Contemporary individuals who are not enrolled in a tribe but are documented as having tribal descent are listed as being "of descent" from a tribe. ==A== * Louise Abeita (E-Yeh-Shure', Blue Corn) (born 1926), Isleta Pueblo authorBataille and Lisa 1 * Alberta Schenck Adams (1928–2009), Iñupiaq civil rights activist * Aguilar sisters, Kewa Pueblo potters * Tahnee Ahtone, Kiowa/Muscogee/Seminole curator, museum professional, beadwork artist, textile artist * Elsie Allen, Cloverdale Pomo basket weaverBataille and Lisa 6 * Paula Gunn Allen (1939–2008), Laguna Pueblo/Sioux/Lebanese poet, activist, literary critic, and novelistBataille and Lisa 9 * Tammie Allen (Walking Spirit), Jicarilla Apache, potter * Queen Alliquippa (died 1754), Seneca Nation leader * Princess Angeline (Suquamish/Duwamish, ca. 1820–1896), daughter of Chief Seattle * Queen Ann (ca. 1650–ca. 1725), chief of the Pamunkey tribe * Annie Antone, Tohono O'odham basket weaver * Annette Arkeketa, Otoe-Missouria poet, playwright * Anna Mae Pictou Aquash (1945–1976), Mi'qmaq Indians rights activistBataille and Lisa 15 * Awashonks (fl. mid- to late 17th c.), chief of the Sakonett tribeIndian Woman Chief * Annette Arkeketa, Otoe-Missouria/Muscogee writerHypatia. Project Muse. 18:2, Spring 2003 . Retrieved 1 March 2009. ==B== * Margarete Bagshaw (Santa Clara Pueblo-descent, born 1964), painter and gallerist * Natalie Ball, Klamath/Modoc, born 1980, interdisciplinary artist * Joyce Begay-Foss, Navajo textile weaver, educator, and curator * Diane E. Benson (born 1954), Tlingit author * Mary Knight Benson, Pomo basket weaver * Martha Berry, Cherokee Nation bead artist and educator * Carrie Bethel, Mono Lake Paiute basket weaver, 1898–1974 * Gloria Bird, Spokane Tribe of the Spokane Reservation poet and criticBataille and Lisa 34-35 * Mary Holiday Black (ca. 1934), Navajo basket maker and textile artist * Black Buffalo Woman (Lakota), first wife of Crazy Horse * Black Shawl (Lakota, died 1920), second wife of Crazy Horse * Kimberley M. Blaeser (born 1955), White Earth Ojibwe writerMcClinton-Temple and Velie 58 * Blue Corn (ca. 1920–1999), San Ildefonso Pueblo potter * Rita Pitka Blumenstein (1936–2021), Yup'ik traditional healer, founding member of the International Council of Thirteen Indigenous Grandmothers * Bowdash, Kootenai two-spirit warrior * Beth Brant (born 1941), Bay of Quinte Mohawk * Mary Brant, Mohawk leader * Mary Brave Bird (1953–2013), Brulé Lakota writer and activistPorter and Roemer 136 * Bras Piqué, Natchez woman who tried to warn the French of her tribe's plans to attack them * Ignatia Broker (1919–1987), Ojibwa writer * Ticasuk Brown (1904-1982), Iñupiaq educator, poet and writer * Vee F. Browne, Navajo author * Buffalo Bird Woman, Hidatsa author * Buffalo Calf Road Woman, Cheyenne cultural hero * Olivia Ward Bush-Banks (Montaukett, 1869–1944) author, poet, and journalist of African-American and Native American descent ==C== * Sophia Alice Callahan (1868-1894) Muscogee novelist and teacher * Caroline Cannon, Iñupiaq environmental activist, 2012 Goldman Environmental Prize winner, mayor of Point Hope, Alaska 1998–2001 * Gladys Cardiff (born 1942), poet and academic of Eastern Band Cherokee descent * Poldine Carlo (1920–2018), Koyukon activist and writer * Kathleen Carlo- Kendall, Koyukon artist, daughter of Poldine Carlo * Tonantzin Carmelo, Tongva/Kumeyaay-descent actress"Record breaking crowds at Autry National Center." Indian Country Today. 16 Nov 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2011. * Lorna Dee Cervantes (born 1954), Chicana/Chumash-descent * Nellie Charlie (1867–1965) Mono Lake Paiute basketweaver * Quannah Chasinghorse (born 2002), model and land protector * Marie Z. Chino, Acoma Pueblo potter * Vera Chino, Acoma Pueblo potter * Chipeta (1843/4–1924), Kiowa Apache, beadwork artist and wife of Chief Ouray * Yvonne Chouteau (1929–2016), Shawnee Tribe ballerina * Kelly Church, Gun Lake Potawatomi/Odawa/Ojibwe basket maker, birch bark biter, painter, and environmental activist * Chrystos (born 1946), Menominee-descent two-spirit poet * Mildred Cleghorn (Fort Sill Apache Tribe, 1910–1997), tribal chairperson, doll maker * Elouise Cobell (Blackfeet), executive director of the Native American Community Development Corporation * Radmilla Cody (Navajo/African American), Navajo language singer, 46th Miss Navajo NationLargo, Jim. "Offerings to the Holy People: Former Miss Navajo Radmilla Cody takes speaking tour to Berkeley." Navajo Times. 23 March 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012. * Colestah, Yakama, wife of Chief Kamiakin * Lyda Conley (Wyandot, 1874–1946), first Native American female attorney, and first Native American woman admitted to argue a case before the U.S. Supreme Court. Wyandot Nation activist and attorney * Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, Crow Creek Sioux poet and novelist * Hilda Coriz, Kewa Pueblo potter * Cuhtahlatah, 18th-century Cherokee heroine ==D== * Dahteste, Apache fighter and compatriot to Geronimo * Carrie Dann, Western Shoshone activist * Mary Dann (died 2005), Western Shoshone activist * Nora Marks Dauenhauer (Tlingit, 1927–2017), poet and ethnolinguist * Alice Brown Davis (Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, 1852–1935), Principal Chief *Jenny L. Davis, Chickasaw author, linguist, and anthropologist * Angel De Cora, Ho-Chunk artist and lecturer * Ada Deer, Menominee author, activist, and the first Native American woman to head the Bureau of Indian Affairs *Andrea Delgado-Olson, Ione Miwok, computer scientist * Ella Cara Deloria (Yankton Dakota, 1888–1971), educator, anthropologist, ethnographer, linguist, and novelist *Natalie Diaz (Mojave/Pima, born 1978), poet, language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator * Mavis Doering, Cherokee Nation (1929–2007) basket weaver * Do-Hum-Me, Sac entertainer * Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, Brulé Lakota writer and educator * Juanita Suazo Dubray, Taos Pueblo potter * Joyce Dugan (Eastern Band Cherokee), first female elected chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians ==E== *Eagle of Delight (Otoe, c. 1795–1822), emissary *Chief Earth Woman, Ojibwa warrior *Ehyophsta, Cheyenne warrior *Heid E. Erdrich (Turtle Mountain Ojibweborn 1963), writer and editor of poetry, short stories, and nonfiction, and maker of poem films. *Louise Erdrich (Turtle Mountain Ojibwe, born 1954), writer ==F== * Corine Fairbanks, Oglala Lakota author and activist *Larissa FastHorse, Sicangu Lakota playwright and choreographer * Fidelia Fielding (1827–1908), last native speaker of the Mohegan Pequot language * Cecilia Fire Thunder (Oglala Lakota, born 1946), former president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe *Te Ata Fisher (1895–1995), Chickasaw Nation storyteller and actress *Elaine Fleming, Leech Lake Ojibwe mayor of Cass Lake, Minnesota *Jennifer Foerster, Muscogee poet *L. Frank, Tongva/Ajachmen Indian artist, tribal scholar, and activist *Kalyn Free, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma lawyer and activist ==G== * Martha George (1892–1987), Suquamish tribal chairman * Glory of the Morning (born 1709), Ho-Chunk chief * Rose Gonzales (ca. 1900–1989), Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo potter * Shan Goshorn (Eastern Band Cherokee, 1957–2018)), visual artist * Katherine Gottlieb (born ca. 1952), Alutiiq health care executive and 2004 MacArthur Fellow * Janice Gould, Koyangk'auwi Maidu writer * Gouyen, Apache warrior * Dorothy Grant, Alaska-born Haida fashion designer active in Canada * Teri Greeves, Kiowa beadwork artist *Linda LeGarde Grover (Bois Forte Chippewa), novelist and short story writer * Juanita Growing Thunder Fogarty, Assiniboine/Sioux bead worker and quill worker * Margaret Gutierrez, Santa Clara Pueblo potter ==H== * Janet Campbell Hale, Coeur d'Alene-Kootenay-Cree- Irish writer * Hanging Cloud, Ojibwa warrior * Helen Hardin, Tsa-Sah-Wee-Eh (1934–1984), Santa Clara Pueblo painter * Joy Harjo, Muscogee poet, lecturer, and musician * Suzan Shown Harjo, Southern Cheyenne/Muscogee activist * LaDonna Harris, Comanche president of Americans for Indian Opportunity * Ernestine Hayes (Tlingit, born 1945), memoirist * Robbie Hedges, first elected woman chief of the Peoria tribe * Rosella Hightower, Choctaw-Shawnee Tribe, born 1920, ballerina * Joan Hill (Muscogee (Creek) Nation/Cherokee, 1930–2020), painter * Linda Hogan (Chickasaw, born 1947), poet, storyteller, academic, playwright, novelist, environmentalist and writer of short stories. * Minnie Hollow Wood, Lakota woman who fought at the Battle of Little Big Horn * Hononegah (Ho-Chunk, ca. 1814–1847), pioneer * LeAnne Howe, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma writer * Diane Humetewa, Hopi federal judge * Pamela Rae Huteson (born 1957), Haida/Tlingit, born 1957) artist, disc jockey and writer ==I== *Debora Iyall (born 1954), Cowlitz-descent singer and printmaker ==J== * Sarah James (born 1946), Gwich'in environmental activist, 2002 Goldman Environmental Prize winner * Jana (born 1980), Lumbee singer * Viola Jimulla (1878–1966), Yavapai, chief of the Prescott Yavapai tribe * Betty Mae Tiger Jumper (Florida Seminole, also known as Potackee (1923-2011), chairwoman, Florida Seminole Tribe (1967-1971), last matriarch of Snake Clan. * Marie Smith Jones (1918–2008), Eyak activist and honorary chief, last known living speaker of the Eyak language * Juana Maria (Nicoleño, died 1853), last member of her tribe ==K== * Yvonne Kauger (born 1937), Cheyenne-Arapaho Oklahoma Supreme Court justice * Geraldine Keams (born 1951), Navajo Nation actress * Adrienne Keene (born 1985), Cherokee Nation academic, writer, activist, and podcaster * Maude Kegg (1906–1996), Ojibwa bead worker and traditionalist * Louisa Keyser Dat So La Lee (ca. 1829–1925), Washoe basket weaver * Loretta Kelsey, last living speaker of Elem Pomo * Edith Kilbuck, Lenape missionary * Mary Killman, Citizen Potawatomi, Olympic synchronized swimmer, b. 1991"Get Ready to Cheer on These Native Athletes at the 2012 London Olympics." Indian Country Today. 27 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012. * Kuiliy, Pend d'Oreille warrior * Kimberly Tilsen-Brave Heart, an Oglala Lakota and Jewish businesswoman and chef from South Dakota. ==L== * Madeline La Framboise (1740–1846), Odawa fur trader * Winona LaDuke (born 1959), White Earth Ojibwe activist, environmentalist, economist, and writer * Carole LaFavor, two-spirit Ojibwa novelist and activist * Naomi Lang (born 1978), Karuk figure skater and ice dancer * Moscelyne Larkin (born 1925), Peoria/Shawnee ballerina * Sally Larsen (born 1954), Apache/Aleut photographer * Sharmagne Leland-St. John, Nespelem poet * Kelsey Leonard, (Shinnecock Indian Nation) first Native American woman to earn a degree from the University of Oxford * Edmonia Lewis (ca. 1845–1907), African/Mississauga Ojibwe sculptor * Lucy M. Lewis (1898–1992), Acoma Pueblo potter *Linda Lomahaftewa, Hopi/Choctaw painter, printmaker, and educator * Lozen, Apache warrior, spiritual leader, and compatriot to Geronimo * Merina Lujan (Pop Chalee), Taos Pueblo painter ==M== * Wilma Mankiller (Cherokee Nation, 1945–2010), first female Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation * Maria Martinez (San Ildefonso Pueblo, 1887–1980)), potter * Barbara McAlister, Cherokee Nation opera singer and artist * Mabel McKay (Pomo/Patwin, 1907–1993) basket maker, medicine woman * Doris McLemore (Wichita tribe, 1927–2016), last fluent speaker of the Wichita language * Isabel Meadows (1846–1939), Rumsen Ohlone language consultant and last speaker of the Rumsen language * Grace Medicine Flower, Santa Clara Pueblo ceramic artist * Melissa Melero-Moose (Northern Paiute/Modoc) mixed-media artist, curator * Methoataske, mother of Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (Shawnee) * Elaine Miles (born 1960), Cayuse-Nez Perce actress * Devon A. Mihesuah, Choctaw Nation writer * Deborah A. Miranda, Esselen/Chumash-French poet * Nancy Marie Mithlo (Chiricahua Apache), curator, writer and professor * Katrina Mitten, Miami Tribe of Oklahoma beadwork artist * Catherine Montour (1710–1804), Seneca leader * Mountain Wolf Woman (1884–1960), Ho-Chunk Native American Church member * Moving Robe Woman, Hunkpapa Lakota fighter in the Battle of Little Bighorn * Mary Musgrove, Muscogee Creek interpreter, trader, and political leader ==N== * Helen Naha, Hopi aka "Feather Woman" potter * Nampeyo, "Hano Nampeyo", (ca. 1859–1942) Hopi-Tewa potter * Elva Nampeyo, Hopi-Tewa potter * Fannie Nampeyo, Hopi-Tewa potter * Iris Nampeyo, Hopi-Tewa potter * Dextra Nampeyo Quotskuyva, Hopi-Tewa (daughter of Rachel) potter * Nora Naranjo Morse, Santa Clara Pueblo potter * Sally Noble (Chimariko), last speaker of the Chimariko language * Roscinda Nolasquez (Cupeño, 1892–1987), last known speaker of the Cupeño language ==O== * Hannah Ocuish (Peqquot, died 1786), executed * Dora Old Elk (born 1977), Apsáalooke/Sioux artist * Old-Lady- Grieves-The-Enemy, Pawnee warrior * Diane O'Leary, Comanche, 1939–2013, artist, nurse * One Who Walks With the Stars, Oglala Lakota warrior in the Battle of Little Bighorn ==P== * LaRue Parker (Caddo Nation, 1935–2011), chairperson * Deborah Parker (Tulalip, born 1970), activist and former vice- chair of the Tulalip Tribes * Essie Parrish (Kashaya Pomo, 1902–1979), basket weaver, author * Elise Paschen (Osage Nation), poet"The Osage Nation will host Writers Summit." Osage Nation. Retrieved 25 July 2012. * Lotsee Patterson (Comanche), librarian and professor * Tillie Paul (Tlingit, 1863–1952), educator and Presbyterian Church activist * Elizabeth Peratrovich (Tlingit, 1911–1958), civil rights activist * Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915), Omaha/Ponca/Iowa, first female Native American physician * Lori Piestewa (Hopi, 1979–2003), soldier killed in Iraq * Pine Leaf, Crow warrior * Pocahontas (Powhatan, 1595–1617), diplomat, wife of John Rolfe, rescued Captain John Smith from his execution * Freda Porter (Lumbee, born 1957), applied mathematician and environmental scientist * Pretty-Shield (Crow Nation), medicine woman and autobiographer ==Q== * Jaune Quick-To-See Smith (Salish-Kootenai/Shoshone/Métis, born 1940) artist ==R== * Rattling Blanket Woman (Miniconjou), mother of Crazy Horse * Delphine Red Shirt, Oglala writer and chair of Nongovernmental Organization Committee on the International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples at the United Nations * Jeri Redcorn, Caddo/Citizen Potawatomi (born ca. 1940), potter * Red Wing (1884–1974), Winnebago silent film actress * Luana Reyes, Confederated Colville Tribes (Sinixt) health activist and educator, 1933–2001Green, Sara Jean. "Luana Reyes, 68, a leader in agency for Indian health." Seattle Times. 10 Nov 2001. Retrieved 25 July 2012. * G. Anne Richardson, chief of the Rappahannock tribe * Toby Riddle (1848–1920), Modoc interpreter and diplomat * Luana Ross, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes sociologist and author * Wendy Rose (Hopi/Miwok, born 1948) anthropologist and writer * Running Eagle, Blackfoot war chief ==S== * Sacagawea (ca. 1787–1812), Shoshone guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, wife of Toussaint Charbonneau * Shoni Schimmel (born 1992), Umatilla basketball player * Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (1800–1842), Sault Ste. Marie Ojibwe writer * Anfesia Shapsnikoff (1901–1973), Aleut artist and educator * Joanne Shenandoah (Oneida Indian Nation, 1957–2022), singer and guitarist * Clara Sherman (Navajo, 1914–2010), weaver * Leslie Marmon Silko (born 1948), Laguna Pueblo/Keres writer * Pauline Small (1924–2005), first female leader of the Crow Nation * Cynthia Leitich Smith, Muscogee Creek Nation children's author * Lois Bougetah Smoky (1907–1981), Kiowa painter and bead artist * Molly Spotted Elk (1903–1977), Penobscot actress and dancer * Minnie Spotted-Wolf (Blackfeet), first female Native American Marine * Boeda Strand (Snohomish, 1834–1928), basket weaver * Virginia Stroud (Keetoowah Cherokee/Muscogee Creek, born 1951) painter, author, and former Miss Indian America. * Anita Louise Suazo, Santa Clara Pueblo potter * Madonna Swan (Lakota, 1928–1993), educator, memoirist * Roxanne Swentzell, Santa Clara Pueblo ceramicist and sculptor ==T== * Tacumwah (ca. 1720–ca. 1790), chief of the Miami tribe and businesswoman * Margaret Tafoya, (1904–2001) Santa Clara Pueblo potter * Maria Tallchief (1925–2013), Osage ballerina * Marjorie Tallchief, Osage ballerina * Mary TallMountain, Koyukon and Irish-Scottish poet and storyteller * Margo Tamez (born 1962), Jumano Apache/Lipan Apache activist, poet, community historian, educator * Gladys Tantaquidgeon (1899–2005), Mohegan elder, anthropologist, historian, and medicine woman * Luci Tapahonso (born 1953), Navajo poet and lecturerSmith, Noel Lyn. "Celebrated Diné poet visits with St. Michael students." Navajo Times. 17 Oct 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2012. * Leonidas Tapia (died 1977), Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo potter * Kimberly Teehee (born 1968), Cherokee Nation senior policy advisor for Native American Affairs in the White House Domestic Policy Council * Kateri Tekakwitha (1656–1680), Mohawk/Algonquian woman canonized by the Roman Catholic church * Lucy Telles, Mono Lake Paiute/Yosemite Miwok basketweaver, ca. 1885-1955 * Charlene Teters, Spokane tribe artist, writer, activist, educator, and lecturer * The Other Magpie, Crow fighter at the Battle of the Rosebud * Jennie Thlunaut (1892–1986), Tlingit artist * Lucy Thompson (1856–1932), Yurok writer * Jennie Thlunaut, Tlingit (1982–1986) Chilkat weaver * Susette LaFlesche Tibbles (1854–1903), Omaha/Iowa/Ponca lecturer, writer, and artist * Sheila Tousey (born 1960), Menominee/Stockbridge-Munsee actress * Toypurina (born 1761), Tongva medicine woman and rebel * Gail Tremblay, Onondaga/Mi'kmaq artist and poet * Catherine Troeh (1911–2007), Chinook activist, artist, elder, historian * Hulleah Tsinhnahjinnie, Muscogee Creek/Seminole/Navajo photographer * Faye Tso (1933–2004), Navajo potter * Minnie Two Shoes, Assiniboine journalist * Tyonajanegen, Oneida woman who fought in the 1777 Battle of Oriskany during the American Revolutionary War ==U== * Paula Underwood, Oneida historian * Carrie Underwood, Muscogee Creek Nation enrolled tribal member, singerLa Bella, Laura. Carrie Underwood. New York: Rosen Publishing, 2008: 15. . (retrieved through Google Books, 8 July 2010)Creek Nation Tribal Member Carrie Underwood Wins Grammy. Free Press. 14.Feb.2007 . Retrieved 8 July 2010. * Atalie Unkalunt (1895-1954), Cherokee Nation, opera and Indianist singer * Misty Upham (1982–2014), Blackfeet Nation actress ==V== * Pablita Velarde, Tse Tsan (1918–2006), Santa Clara Pueblo painter ==W== * Velma Wallis, Athabascan writer * Kay WalkingStick, Cherokee Nation painter and educator * Wanagapeth (Miami tribe, died 1908), daughter of Chief Michikinikwa * Yvonne Wanrow (born 1943), of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation * Nancy Ward (ca. 1738–1822 or 1824), Cherokee leader * Ingrid Washinawatok (1957–1999), assassinated Menominee activist * Watseka (1810–1878), Potawatomi woman for whom Watseka, Illinois, is named * Mary Jo Watson, PhD, Seminole art historian, curator, educator * Marie Watt (born 1967), Seneca artist * Annie Dodge Wauneka (1910–1997), Navajo activist and authorDonovan, Bill. "Top doc: Diné medical doctor hired to develop 10-year wellness plan." Navajo Times. 17 Nov 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2012. * Waziyatawin (born 1968), Dakota historian and author * Weetamoo (ca. 1635–1676), Wampanoag chief * Claudette White, Quechan activist and judge * Charmaine White Face, Oglala Lakota activist and writer * Emmi Whitehorse (born 1958), Navajo painter * Matika Wilbur (born 1984), Swinomish/Tulalip photographer and podcaster * Lorraine Williams, Navajo potter * Holly Wilson (Delaware Nation/Cherokee, born 1968), sculptor, installation artist * Sarah Winnemucca (ca. 1841–1891), Northern Paiute activist and writer * Woman Chief (c. 1806–1858), Crow chief and warrior * Elizabeth Woody, Warm Springs/Navajo/Wasco writerBataille and Lisa 342 ==Y== * Melanie Yazzie, Navajo printmaker and educator * Mary Youngblood, Aleut- Seminole flutist ==Z== * Ofelia Zepeda, Tohono O'odham linguist and writerBataille and Lisa 345 * Zitkala-Sa (1876–1938), Yankton Dakota writer, editor, musician, teacher and activist ==See also== * Gender roles in First Nations and Native American tribes * Native American women in the arts ==References== ;Sources * Bataille, Gretchen M. and Laurie Lisa. Native American Women: A Biographical Dictionary. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2001. . * McClinton-Temple, Jennifer and Alan Velie. Encyclopedia of American Indian Literature. New York: Facts on File, 2007. . * Porter, Joy and Kenneth M. Roemer, eds. The Cambridge Companion To Native American Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. . Native American Women Category:Native American women
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Cynthia von Buhler (;Teaching Books (retrieved December 17, 2010) born Cynthia Carrozza, 1964) is an American artist, author, playwright, performer, and producer. ==Early life== Cynthia von Buhler was born Cynthia Carrozza and raised in the Berkshires of Massachusetts, the middle child in an artistic family with six children. Of her childhood, she says "As soon as we could hold a scissor, we learned every kind of craft imaginable, and worked in three dimensions, not just two." Creative from the start, she created large-scale papier-mâché floats for her hometown Halloween parades, and won her first art award while she was still in grammar school. Growing up in the Berkshires, surrounded by world-class theater, von Buhler staged, performed and sang in plays at school and camp.ArtBite, (February 14, 2012) Her high school graduation was held at Tanglewood in Lenox, Massachusetts. Von Buhler studied art and children's books at The Art Institute of Boston.Lesley University (retrieved December 17, 2010). Cynthia von Buhler After graduating she continued her studies at Richmond, The American International University in London. ===Royalty connection=== Von Buhler claims her family is rumored to descend from the royal Italian Sforza family through an illegitimate child. This Sforza line was given the title of "Count" by the Pope to give them legitimacy. An Italian diplomat and anti-Fascist politician of this line is Count Carlo Sforza.(Arcanalogue, November 2009).Interview: Cynthia von Buhler Revisits The Shakespeare OracleCynthia von Buhler (June 2001). Royally F**ked ManifestoEntertainment Today (October 1998).Down For The Countess In a manifesto von Buhler wrote in 2001 she explains why she has a title. "My grandmother's maiden name is Sforza, and the rumor in the family is that we are related to the infamous Francesco Sforza of Milan, known for treachery, hiring Leonardo da Vinci as his plumber, beautiful mistresses, and a delicious Italian nougat candy called Torrone." A friend began referring to the gothic Victorian house as Castle von Buhler and the name stuck—the press dubbed the artist Countess Cynthia von Buhler. ==Immersive theater== Speakeasy Dollhouse by von Buhler is a true tale of New York City Prohibition-era bootlegging, mafia, infidelity, and murder. Von Buhler had been haunted by a shocking family mystery for years. Her grandparents Frank and Mary Spano owned two speakeasies in the Bronx during Prohibition: one that masqueraded as a bakery, the other a secret nightclub. Shortly after Prohibition ended, her grandfather was shot and killed on the street in Manhattan. Her grandmother was pregnant with her mother at the time, and upon hearing the news of the murder she went into labor. Von Buhler's grandfather's body was laid out in one room of their small Bronx apartment while her mother was born in the room next to it. "Nobody still living in my family knows why my grandfather was shot. Nothing was known about the killer, his motive, or a trial. My grandmother took these secrets to her grave. And so, over the past two years, I have been dusting off a complicated, historically significant story," explains von Buhler. To more thoroughly explore her grandfather's murder and events leading up to it, von Buhler created an elaborate speakeasy dollhouse set complete with handmade dolls in her art studio. The set includes a plush secret nightclub, a bakery, a pre-war apartment, a bootlegging bathroom, a morgue, and even Ellis Island. The set contains crime scene details that can be examined from every angle. Von Buhler was featured in the "Gurney For Grandpa" episode of Oddities discussing this project. Taking it one step further, the artist created an immersive theatrical experience to go along with the sets and her own investigation. Speakeasy Dollhouse stages these events in a historic Lower East Side speakeasy elaborately set up to mirror the dollhouse sets. The actors aren't visually distinguished from the audience, making the audience as key to the show as the performers. The play's tagline is "The speakeasy is my dollhouse and you are my dolls." A limited-edition graphic novel book, The Bloody Beginning, and initial performances in 2011 were paid through Kickstarter, a crowdfunding site. The play will continue into 2015 with tickets available to the general public. Of Dolls and Murder, directed by Susan Marks and narrated by John Waters, is a documentary about Francis Glessner Lee's crime scene investigation dollhouse dioramas. Marks created an Of Dolls and Murder sequel based on Speakeasy Dollhouse. Speakeasy Dollhouse became the brand name for all of Cynthia von Buhler's immersive theater productions. The original show was renamed The Bloody Beginning. ===Immersive theater productions=== *October 2017 – February 2018, The Illuminati Ball, Weylin formerly Williamsburgh Savings Bank, Brooklyn, NY *March 2016 – August 2018, The Illuminati Ball, An Immersive Excursion, A Secret Estate, NY, NY *June 2016 – August 2016, The Bloody Beginning, Weylin, Brooklyn, NY *March 2015 – November 2015, Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic, Liberty Theater, NY, NY *March 2014 – April 2014, The Brothers Booth, The Players, NY, NY *March 2011 – April 2015, The Bloody Beginning, The Back Room, NY, NY ==Graphic novels== The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini follows private investigator Minky Woodcock as she uncovers secrets surrounding the final days of the world-famous escape artist, Harry Houdini. Woodcock's investigation leads her to cross paths with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who believes Houdini is not merely a magician but has supernatural powers, and Bess Houdini, who suspects her husband is cheating on her. Von Buhler investigated the death of Houdini and based her story on true crime evidence. Evelyn Evelyn are a musical duo formed by Amanda Palmer (of The Dresden Dolls) and Jason Webley. According to the fictional backstory described by Palmer and Webley, the duo consists of conjoined twin sisters (aka "Eva" and "Lyn"), Evelyn and Evelyn Neville, who were discovered in 2007 by Palmer and Webley. The twins are actually portrayed by Palmer and Webley,[5] dressed in connected garments. Dark Horse Comics published a two book graphic novel encased in a hardcover sleeve, written by Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley and illustrated by von Buhler. The book had an afterword written by Neil Gaiman. ===Graphic novel bibliography=== *2019, The Illuminati Ball written and illustrated by von Buhler, Titan Comics, Distributed by Random House *2018, Minky Woodcock: The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini written and illustrated by von Buhler, Hard Case Crime/Titan Comics, Distributed by Random House *2012, Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes written by Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley, illustrated by Cynthia von Buhler, Dark Horse Comics, Distributed by Diamond Comic Distributors ==Children's books== In 2001 von Buhler was asked by Steven Spielberg to illustrate Martha Stewart's story for Once Upon A Fairy Tale (Viking), a book produced to benefit The Starbright Foundation for seriously ill children.Once upon a Fairy Tale: Four Favorite Stories (Viking, Oct 15, 2001)., In 2002, New York Public Library selected the "handsomely illustrated" (The New York Times)The New York Times (Oct 20, 2002). Children's Books, Bookshelf They Called Her Molly Pitcher, written by Anne Rockwell and illustrated by von Buhler, as one of One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing.New York Public Library (2002)Children's Books, 2002: One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing In 2004, von Buhler went on to illustrate Nicolaus Copernicus: The Earth is a Planet. Reviews called her "dramatic oil-on-gesso artwork" (School Library Journal)School Library Journal (2004). "handsome and effective" (Booklist). Publishers Weekly offered high praise for her work on the book: "Von Buhler's paintings exert a gravitational pull of their own."Publishers Weekly (January 2004). In 2006 von Buhler wrote and illustrated The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside with dual credits as author and illustrator. The book, based on a true story, featured painted clay characters in detailed architectural sets. Book Sense named the book as a Children's Pick for Winter/Spring 2006/2007 for its "beautiful story" and "extremely detailed sets."Book Sense Children's Picks (December 14, 2006).The Winter 2006/2007 Book Sense Children's Picks Kirkus Reviews called the illustrations "unique" and "eye-popping," providing "a glimpse of a world beyond the frame" and pronounced the book "a sheer delight." Publishers Weekly thought "readers ... may well be entranced" by the "considerable magic" of von Buhler's illustrations, while Time Out New York called the book "beautifully ornate," and "the cat's meow." The book was also chosen as Teacher's Picks: Best of 2006 by Parent & Child magazine. In 2009, von Buhler took a second turn as author and illustrator with But Who Will Bell The Cats?. The book's illustrations feature handmade architectural sets, cinematic lighting, and paper doll oil paintings of the characters in action. Kirkus Reviews stated that "young readers will pore over this one again and again," and School Library Journal agreed that "children will find a lot to discover in the details, even after repeated readings."School Library Journal (September 2009). The Nassau County Museum of Art in New York exhibited the book's elaborate miniature sets in a solo exhibition between September 20, 2009 and January 3, 2010.Jennifer Taber, Houghton Mifflin (August 2009).But Who Will Bell the Cats? Press Release During the summer of 2010 Von Buhler exhibited the miniature sets in an animatronic window display that she created for Books of Wonder in Manhattan. Time Out Kid's did a feature article on the window along with a slideshow showing von Buhler creating it.Time Out Kids (July 2010). Illustrator Cynthia von Buhler's window displays An artist brings her latest feline-centric story to life at Chelsea's Books of Wonder. Elizabeth Bird, a New York Public Librarian, posted a lengthy review of the book on her School Library Journal blog, "Is it wrong that I sometimes want to blow a four-year-old's mind? I've come to the decision that Cynthia von Buhler's But Who Will Bell the Cats? is going to be my library's secret weapon from here on in."School Library Journal (September 3, 2009).Review of the Day. Von Buhler has also illustrated dozens of young adult book covers including Queen's Own Fool by Jane Yolen,Jane Yolen and Robert Harris, Queen's Own Fool, Putnam Juvenile (November 12, 2001). , . The Road to Damietta by Scott O'Dell,Scott O'Dell, The Road to Damietta, Graphia (October 25, 2004) , and two Newbery medal winners, The Bronze Bow by Elizabeth George SpeareElizabeth George Speare, The Bronze Bow, Houghton Mifflin (September 1, 1997). . and The Perilous Guard by Elizabeth Marie Pope.Elizabeth Marie Pope, Sandpiper (October 29, 2001)., . ===Children's book bibliography=== *2009, But Who Will Bell The Cats? written and illustrated by von Buhler, Houghton Mifflin, *2006, The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside written and illustrated by von Buhler, Houghton Mifflin, *2002 (reprinted in paperback in 2006), They Called Her Molly Pitcher, written by Anne Rockwell, illustrated by von Buhler, Knopf, *2004, Nicolaus Copernicus: The Earth Is A Planet, written by Dennis Brindell Fradin, illustrated by von Buhler, Mondo Books, *2001, Once Upon A Fairytale, partially written by Martha Stewart, partially illustrated by von Buhler, 21 celebrity authors, 21 award-winning illustrators, a Steven Spielberg benefit project, Viking, *1998, Little Girl in Red Dress With Cat and Dog, written by Nicholas B.A. Nicholson, illustrated by von Buhler, Viking, ===Children's book awards and honors=== *2009-10, Cybil Award nomination, Fiction Picture Book, But Who Will Bell the Cats? *2006 Teacher's Picks: Best of 2006, Parent & Child," The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside *2006/07 Children's Pick for Winter/Spring 2006/2007, Book Sense, The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside *2002One Hundred Titles for Reading and Sharing,They Called Her Molly Pitcher, The New York Public Library *1998 Exceptional Book of the Year, Little Girl in a Red Dress with Cat and Dog, Bookman Review Syndicate. ==Fine art== thumb|Cynthia von Buhler on the cover of New York's Gallery Guide In August 2001 she held an event at Castle von Buhler dubbed "The Great Purge" where she sold off most of her possessions.The Boston Globe (August 2002). "Bras, bones, goth, all go" Von Buhler separated from Adam Buhler and moved to New York City's Meatpacking District. Farewell articles were published in The Boston Globe,The Boston Globe (July 2002).Go! Weekend The Improper BostonianThe Improper Bostonian (July 24 – August 6, 2002). Fond Farewell and The Boston Phoenix citing her as producing "some of the most sensuous, humorous, ridiculous, outlandish, and inspired art and entertainment in Boston."The Boston Globe (July 2002).Go! Weekend At this point von Buhler began utilizing unconventional media in her art: video projection, living fauna, found objects, human detritus, and electronic audio. By combining these media, often enhanced with text and electronics, von Buhler's canvasses frequently became kinetic installations. "Regardless of medium, all of von Buhler's pieces require the viewer to get involved: sometimes physically, by feeding a caged animal or inserting a coin to operate a machine. For example, "Sir Repetitious," a man's transparent insides reveal two live rats, hungry for the food and attention of onlookers – feed the rodents with the supplied seed, and you are satisfying "Sir Repetitious" on physical and metaphorical levels. Miss Ann Thrope is a life- sized painting of a woman with two doves perched inside. When the birds move in the piece, they change its equilibrium and alter its intended meaning. A velvet-curtained puppet theater sets the stage for Show and Tell, a multimedia painting that explores the use of word versus action with hidden visual and auditory messages. "Please Don't Look Up My Skirt" is a commentary on date- rape in which a Botticelli-esque girl without arms or legs tries modestly to cover herself, imploring the viewer not to violate her; those who disregard the plea see what they have become when they look up her skirt. Cynth-O-Matic offers various plastic capsules containing actual samples of the artist's body hair and fluids from a vending machine. The piece is von Buhler's critique of those who attend art openings to chat with the artist and scarf hors d'oeuvres without buying any art. For only 25 cents they can buy a piece of the artist. Von Buhler's work provides commentary on morality, vanity, politics, and the art world itself". From 2001 - 2007, von Buhler's work appeared on the covers of New York's Gallery Guide,Gallery Guide New York (October 2005). Cynthia von Buhler Communication Arts,Communication Arts (March/April 2002). Cynthia von Buhler Step by Step Graphics,[64] and NY Arts.NY Arts (January/February 2007).Cynthia von Buhler A photograph of von Buhler taken at her New York loft for The Boston Globe was enlarged and used on billboards advertising the publication.Cynthia von Buhler's website (November 2004).Step Right Up Inspired by lying politicians, von Buhler altered and old carnival machine for "Shake Hands With Uncle Sam." For 25 cents, viewers shake Uncle Sam's hand, the dial spins, and lands on audio samples of "Weapon of mass destruction," "Iran Contra," "No New Taxes," or one of seven other bipartisan audio clips. The piece was created for "The Presidency" exhibit at Exit Art in Manhattan.Exit Art (October 2 – November 21, 2004).The Presidency In 2005, von Buhler created a video for another exhibit at Exit Art, "The Studio Visit".YouTube (May 11, 2007). Studio Visit Her video was singled out by New York Times art critic Roberta Smith as one of the best.The New York Times(February 24, 2006).Art in Review She also was chosen by the art space to move her art studio to the gallery for a few months where she had to create her work in the window while people watched her through Exit Art's windows.Time Out New York (January 19, 2006).3 Questions for Cynthia von Buhler, Artist in the window Her fine art appeared on TV in Law & Order SVU as the artwork of a serial killer, and in a fight scene of the show Kidnapped.Kidnapped, NBC Episode: "Burn, Baby, Burn" In March 2006, Art & Antiques named von Buhler as "one of the top contemporary surrealists."Art & Antiques (March 2006). What's New in the Surreal World However, she has also been linked to the Lowbrow, and Fluxus movements.PR Newswire (May 12, 2009). Noted Southern California Art Dealer Brings His Passion and His Stable of Lowbrow/Pop Culture Artists to Dallas Her art has been displayed in galleries and museums around the world, and her work is in the collections of Howard Stern, Jann Wenner, The Nassau County Museum of Art, The Staten Island Museum, The University of Toronto, The Opera Company of Philadelphia, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, and hundreds of personal collections. ===Solo exhibits=== *October 2012 - January 2013, "The Countess and Her Cats", The Mark Twain House and Museum, Hartford, CT *September 20, 2009 - Jan 3, 2010, But Who Will Bell The Cats?, The Nassau County Museum of Art, Long Island, NY *April 2007 - September 2007, Show and Tell, The Staten Island Museum, Staten Island, NYC *February 2006, Cynth-O-Matic: Documented, Studio D'Ars, Milan, Italy *October 2005, Cynth-O-Matic, CVB Space, New York, NY *June–July 2005, Cynth-O-Matic, CVB Space, New York, NY *April–May 2004, Cynth-O-Matic, 301 Gallery, Montserrat College of Art, Beverly, MA *October 2004, Cynth-O-Matic, The Dollhaus Gallery, Williamsburg, Brooklyn, NY *September 2001, Inside/Out, New England School of Art and Design, Boston, MA *Spring 1999, Through the Looking-Glass, Darkly, National Boston Video Center, Boston, MA ===The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery=== The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery, also known as CvB Space, an art gallery, film location, and event space in New York City's Meatpacking district was owned and directed by von Buhler from 2003 - 2008. Stefania Carrozzini was the director of International Exhibition Projects at The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery. In February, 2007, von Buhler curated an exhibit titled Andy Warhol: In His Wake featuring Warhol's superstars, Ultra Violet, Taylor Mead, Billy Name, and Ivy Nicholson along with artists such as Anton Perich and Amy Cohen Banker who were influenced by Warhol. For this exhibit von Buhler created The Great Warhola, an interactive, fortune-telling machine. Von Buhler claims that Warhol was a fortune teller, "with reality television and YouTube everyone has the 15 minutes of fame that Warhol predicted for them". This popular exhibit was featured on television in Japan, Switzerland and Germany. CVB Space and the historic, industrial building it is housed in has been featured in Sex and the City, Law & Order SVU, and Someone Like You (starring Ashley Judd, Hugh Jackman, and Greg Kinnear) and will be appearing in No Reservations (starring Catherine Zeta- Jones). CvB Space has become CvB Spaces, a location leasing agency for film and photography shoots. Von Buhler is the president of CvB Spaces ==Illustration== In the mid-nineties, she and Adam Buhler a.k.a. Adam von Buhler bought a large purple Victorian house in the Allston neighborhood of Boston. She painted the walls in jewel tones with patterns of climbing vines. "It was a creative turning point for me. When I moved into my house, I needed art for the walls. So, I started making these paintings that were much different than the style I had been working in. That is when I decided not to make any artwork that I did not want to put on my wall."Communication Arts (March/April 2002). Cynthia von Buhler Von Buhler's three-dimensional paintings have been reproduced and featured in a diverse variety of books, magazines, and newspapers from Rolling Stone to The New Yorker.NY Arts (January/February 2007). Cynthia von Buhler Her work has appeared in more than a thousand magazines, books, publications, billboards, and CDs. In 1995 she was interviewed about her art in Mary Magdalen: An Intimate Portrait on the Lifetime Network. The expose was narrated by Penelope Ann Miller and also featured interviews with Martin Scorsese and Arch Bishop Rembert Weakland. In addition, a von Buhler portrait of Mary Magdalen which had been commissioned by The New Yorker was featured in the show's introductory graphics.The Lifetime Network (Premiered April 1995, DVD 2006).Mary Magdalen: An Intimate Portrait In 1998, she was hired by Viking Publishing to illustrate a children's book, Nicholas Nicholson's Little Girl in Red Dress With Cat and Dog.Nicholas Nicholson (1998).Little Girl in Red Dress With Cat and Dog, Viking, . This book garnered von Buhler a starred review in Publishers Weekly, which praised the "imaginative debut" and her "distinct sense of time and place." A tarot deck based upon the writings of William Shakespeare, "The Shakespeare Oracle: Let the Bard Predict Your Future," written by A. Bronwyn Llewellyn, was illustrated by von Buhler and released in 2003.(Arcanalogue, November 2009).Interview: Cynthia von Buhler Revisits The Shakespeare Oracle In 2004 von Buhler's portraits of Madonna and Jimi Hendrix accompanied essays by Britney Spears and John Mayer in the "50th Anniversary of Rock and Roll" issue of Rolling Stone. The painting of Jimi Hendrix was built with a Stratocaster guitar as the singer's spine and the piece was set on fire. Both paintings are now in the collection of Jann Wenner.NY Arts (January/February 2007).Cynthia von Buhler ===Illustration awards and honors=== *1996 Gold Medal, Society of Illustrators of Los Angeles *1995 Gold Medal, The Visual Club, New York *American Illustration, 39, 33, 25, 23, 21, 20, 18, 17, 14American Illustration/American Photography (retrieved December 17, 2010) *Society of Illustrators, 49, 46, 45, 42, 40, 38, 37 *Society of Illustrators of Los Angeles, 41, 36, 35 *Communication Arts magazine Illustration Annuals, 45, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37; Design Annual, 38 ==Music== At the same time she changed her name, von Buhler became involved in the music industry. She started a performance art band, Women of Sodom, which won a Best Music Poll Award from the Boston Phoenix in 1997(May 23, 1997). "Best Music Poll" . The Boston Phoenix and became a Boston sensation. Women of Sodom headlined clubs across the country and opened for Gwar, Voivod, God Lives Underwater and Psychotica. The band performed at New York City's Roseland Ballroom and Boston's Avalon as part of the Sextacy Ball, with My Life With The Thrill Kill Kult and Lords of Acid also on the bill. Their album, Boots, featured vocals and lyrics by von Buhler and music by Xavier Dietrich II, and was released in 1997 on Pussykitty Records. At this time von Buhler and her husband started a record label named after their house with the award-winning designer Clifford Stoltze. Entertainment Today (October 1998).Down For The Countess "In the 1990s, it was impossible to walk into an Allston club or Cambridge bar without tripping over one of Cynthia von Buhler's paintings, music projects, or a band signed to her record label. If there was ever a queen of the Boston scene, it was von Buhler."The Boston Globe (October 7, 2004)Step Right Up Castle von Buhler also released a series of art and music CD compilations titled Soon, Anon, and Nigh. The artist explains the titles this way: "Soon there will be a cure for AIDS...and then we came up with Anon and Nigh which means the same thing." In honor of von Buhler's close college friend, William Lincoln Tisdale, who had died from the disease, proceeds from these compilations were donated to various AIDS charities. The CDs won various design awards and many of the young illustrators who created the artwork flourished. Von Buhler contributed musically and artistically to the compilations and her first work (which incorporated a live dove) was honored by Society of Illustrators in New York City.Entertainment Today (October 1998).Down For The Countess Curators began approaching von Buhler, offering her exhibits in Boston and New York City. She was chosen by Boston Magazine as one of the "40 Bostonians We Love" in their June 2002 cover feature article.Boston Magazine (June 2002). 40 Bostonians We Love, Cynthia von Buhler #26 Von Buhler was frequently featured on the covers of The Boston Globe,The Boston Globe (March 30, 2000).Original Cynthia The Boston Phoenix, The Improper Bostonian,The Improper Bostonian (December 1999). Meet The Countess and many other Boston-based art and music publications. She appeared so frequently in The Boston Phoenix they named her "their unofficial mascot." She also appeared twice on MTV; as Bettie Page in an MTV music video for the band The Amazing Crowns (which was previewed on Beavis and Butthead)YouTube (May 4, 2007).Do The Devil and in a sitcom called Apt 3F. Von Buhler formed and managed her husband's band Splashdown, and helped them get signed with Capitol Records. In 2001, after Splashdown angrily left Capitol Records, von Buhler's band Countess released a rock opera record about the evils of pop stardom and the music industry. Ironically, the project was funded through a demo deal from MCA Records. Countess was nominated for a Boston Music Award. They opened for Karen Finley at Royally F***ed, a three- day event featuring visual and performance art in at The Boston Institute of Contemporary Art and the Paradise Rock Club.New York Arts (September 2001)Total Gonzo, The Countess Cynthia von Buhler Festival In 2001, the last year that von Buhler lived at Castle von Buhler, she turned the second floor into The Dietrich von Buhler Gallery "for artists who want to do things that aren't market-driven, that aren't necessarily for sale, that are cutting-edge. Art that you probably wouldn't want to put in your house but is really interesting to view, and opens your mind to new ideas.", A curator from The Whitney Museum in New York City stopped by looking for artists to be featured in their Whitney Biennial exhibit., The house became well known for von Buhler's unique parties and art exhibits. ===Discography=== *2001 Shooting Star, Countess, Castle von Buhler Records (Funded by MCA Records) *1999 Nigh, art and music compilation, AIDS benefit, producer and contributor *1997 Anon, art and music compilation, AIDS Action Committee benefit, producer and contributor *1997 Boots, Women of Sodom, PussyKitty Records/Castle von Buhler Records *1996 Soon, art and music compilation, AIDS Action Committee benefit, producer and contributor ===Awards=== *2002 Countess, Best Club Act (nomination), Boston Music Awards *1997 Women of Sodom, Most Deviant Act, Boston Phoenix Best Music PollThe Boston Phoenix (May 23, 1997). Best Music Poll ==Parties== Von Buhler is renowned for throwing lavish, circus-themed parties. These parties started in Boston and have continued in Connecticut and New York City. In 2010 von Buhler illustrated a graphic novel entitled Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes (Dark Horse),Dark Horse (April 26, 2011). , about conjoined twins. The book was a collaboration with musicians Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley, and the foreword was written by Neil Gaiman. To celebrate the completion of the artwork for the two-set book, Palmer and Gaiman's marriage engagement, and her own birthday, von Buhler's held a lavish, 'Freaks'-themed birthday party at a Manhattan penthouse loft. Von Buhler was dressed in a custom-made latex mermaid tail and greeted her guests from a claw foot bathtub filled with water.School Library Journal (October 12, 2010). "I’ve Been to a Marvelous Party" In homage to the BP Oil Spill victims von Buhler created an oil-slick mermaid installation featuring live models. The party was attended by many literary luminaries: Lemony Snicket, Neil Gaiman, Jonathan Ames, Michael Chabon, Adele Griffin and others. Scenes from the rooftop merry-go-round, von Buhler's art, and Empire Snafu Restoration Project art were used in Salman Rushdie's book trailer for Luka and the Fire of Life. A few of the party guests were also chosen as actors for the trailer.The New Yorker, November 11, 2010.Salman's Story ==References== ==External links== * Cynthia von Buhler's Official Website * Cynthia Von Buhler on the Super Hero Speak podcast from NYCC 2019 * Cynthia von Buhler's animatronic window from Books of Wonder in NYC ===Theater productions web sites=== * The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini Website * Speakeasy Dollhouse Official Website * Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic Website * The Bloody Beginning Website ===Graphic novels web sites=== * The Girl Who Handcuffed Houdini Website * Evelyn Evelyn: A Terrible Tale in Two Tomes Website ===Children's books web sites=== * But Who Will Bell The Cats? Official Website * The Cat Who Wouldn't Come Inside Official Website * Book News Blog * Book Tour Blog Category:Living people Category:American children's writers Category:American producers Category:American people of Italian descent Category:American women rock singers Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:Artists from New York City Category:Fluxus Category:American surrealist artists Category:House of Sforza Category:Lesley University Category:Writers from Pittsfield, Massachusetts Category:Sculptors from New York (state) Category:1964 births
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Roger Mortimer, 3rd Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, 1st Earl of March (25 April 1287 – 29 November 1330), was an English nobleman and powerful Marcher Lord who gained many estates in the Welsh Marches and Ireland following his advantageous marriage to the wealthy heiress Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville. Her mother was of the Royal House of Lusignan. In November 1316, he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1322 for having led the Marcher lords in a revolt against King Edward II in what became known as the Despenser War. He later escaped to France, where he was joined by Edward's queen consort Isabella, where they may have begun an affair. After he and Isabella led a successful invasion and rebellion, Edward was deposed; Mortimer allegedly arranged his murder at Berkeley Castle. For three years, Mortimer was de facto ruler of England before being himself overthrown by Edward's eldest son, Edward III. Accused of assuming royal power and other crimes, Mortimer was executed by hanging at Tyburn. ==Early life== Mortimer, grandson of Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, and Maud de Braose, was born at Wigmore Castle, Herefordshire, England, the firstborn of Marcher Lord Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, and Margaret de Fiennes. Through his mother Margaret, he was a great-grandson of John of Brienne, Emperor of Constantinople and King of Jerusalem. Roger was born on 25 April 1287, the Feast of Saint Mark, a day of bad omen. He shared this birthday with King Edward II, which would be relevant later in life. Edmund Mortimer was a second son, intended for minor orders and a clerical career, but on the sudden death of his elder brother Ralph, Edmund was recalled from Oxford University and installed as heir. According to his biographer Ian Mortimer, Mortimer was possibly sent as a boy away from home to be fostered in the household of his formidable uncle, Roger Mortimer de Chirk. It was this uncle who had carried the severed head of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Wales to King Edward I in 1282. Mortimer attended the Coronation of Edward II on 25 February 1308 and carried a table bearing the royal robes in the ceremony's procession. ==Marriage== Like many noble children of his time, Mortimer was betrothed at a young age, to Joan de Geneville (born 1286), the daughter of Sir Peter de Geneville, of Trim Castle and Ludlow. They were married on 20 September 1301 when he was aged fourteen. Their first child was born in 1302. Through his marriage, Mortimer not only acquired numerous possessions in the Welsh Marches, including the important Ludlow Castle, which became the chief stronghold of the Mortimers, but also extensive estates and influence in Ireland. However, Joan de Geneville was not an "heiress" at the time of her marriage. Her grandfather Geoffrey de Geneville, at the age of eighty in 1308, conveyed most, but not all, of his Irish lordships to Mortimer, and then retired: he finally died in 1314, with Joan succeeding as suo jure 2nd Baroness Geneville. During his lifetime Geoffrey also conveyed much of the remainder of his legacy, such as Kenlys, to his younger son Simon de Geneville, who had meanwhile become Baron of Culmullin through marriage to Joanna FitzLeon. Mortimer, therefore, succeeded to the eastern part of the Lordship of Meath, centred on Trim and its stronghold of Trim Castle. He did not succeed, however, to the Lordship of Fingal.Fingal descended firstly to Simon de Geneville (whose son Laurence predeceased him), and thence through his heiress daughter Elizabeth to her husband William de Loundres, and next through their heiress daughter, also Elizabeth, to Sir Christopher Preston, and finally to the Viscounts Gormanston. == Military adventures in Ireland and Wales == Mortimer's childhood came to an abrupt end when his father was mortally wounded in a skirmish near Builth in July 1304. Since Mortimer was underage at the death of his father, he was placed by King Edward I under the guardianship of Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall. However, on 22 May 1306, in a lavish ceremony in Westminster Abbey with two hundred and fifty-nine others, he was knighted by Edward and granted livery of his full inheritance. His adult life began in earnest in 1308, when he went to Ireland in person to enforce his authority. This brought him into conflict with the de Lacys, who turned for support to Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, King of Scots. Mortimer was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Edward II on 23 November 1316. Shortly afterwards, at the head of a large army, he drove Bruce to Carrickfergus and the de Lacys into Connaught, wreaking vengeance on their adherents whenever they were to be found. He returned to England and Wales in 1318 and was then occupied for some years with baronial disputes on the Welsh border. ==Opposition to Edward II== Mortimer became disaffected with his king and joined the growing opposition to Edward II and the Despensers. After the younger Despenser was granted lands belonging to him, he and the Marchers began conducting devastating raids against Despenser property in Wales. He supported Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, in refusing to obey the king's summons to appear before him in 1321 as long as "the younger Despencer was in the King's train." Mortimer led a march against London, his men wearing the Mortimer uniform which was green with a yellow sleeve. He was prevented from entering the capital, although his forces put it under siege. These acts of insurrection compelled the Lords Ordainers led by Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, to order the king to banish the Despensers in August. When the king led a successful expedition in October against Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere, after she had refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle, he used his victory and new popularity among the moderate lords and the people to summon the Despensers back to England. Mortimer, in company with other Marcher Lords, led a rebellion against Edward, which is known as the Despenser War. In January 1322, Mortimer attacked and burnt Bridgnorth but, being heavily outnumbered, was forced to surrender to the king at Shrewsbury. Mortimer joined Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge in March 1322 and warrants for his arrest were issued in July. A death sentence was passed upon Mortimer but this was commuted to life imprisonment and he was consigned to the Tower of London. In August 1323 Mortimer, aided by Gerald de Alspaye, the sub-lieutenant or valet of the Tower's Constable, drugged the warders during a feast, allowing Mortimer to escape. He attempted to capture Windsor and Wallingford Castles to free imprisoned Contrariants. Mortimer eventually fled to France, pursued by warrants for his capture dead or alive. corrected the traditional date of 1324 offered in one uncorroborated source. In the following year Queen Isabella, anxious to escape from her husband, obtained his consent to her going to France to use her influence with her brother, King Charles IV, in favour of peace. At the French court, the queen found Mortimer, who became her lover soon afterwards. At his instigation, she refused to return to England so long as the Despensers retained power as the king's favourites. Historians have speculated as to the date at which Mortimer and Isabella actually became lovers. as cited by ; for a countervailing view see . The modern view is that the affair began while both were still in England, and that after a disagreement, Isabella abandoned Mortimer to his fate in the Tower. His subsequent escape became one of medieval England's most colourful episodes. However, almost certainly Isabella risked everything by chancing Mortimer's companionship and emotional support when they first met again at Paris four years later (Christmas 1325). King Charles IV's protection of Isabella at the French court from Despenser's would-be assassins played a large part in developing the relationship."The Queen has come of her own free will, and may freely return when she so wishes. But if she prefers to remain in these parts, she is my sister, and I refuse to expel her." quoted in , from the "Vita Edwardi Secundi". In 1326, Mortimer moved as Prince Edward's guardian to Hainault, but only after a furious dispute with the queen, demanding she remain in France.Mortimer threatened to "slit her throat" if she returned to Edward and England. A threat he would live to regret when tried by the new King Edward III. Isabella retired to raise troops in her County of Ponthieu; Mortimer arranged the invasion fleet supplied by the Hainaulters and an army supplied by his supporters back in England, who had been sending him aid and advice since at least March 1326. ==Invasion of England and defeat of Edward II== The scandal of Isabella's relations with Mortimer compelled them both to withdraw from the French court to Flanders, where they obtained assistance for an invasion of England from Count William of Hainaut, although Isabella did not arrive from Ponthieu until the fleet was due to sail. Landing in the River Orwell on 24 September 1326, they were accompanied by Prince Edward and Henry, Earl of Lancaster. London rose in support of the queen, and Edward took flight to the west, pursued by Mortimer and Isabella. After wandering helplessly for some weeks in Wales, the king was taken prisoner on 16 November, and was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son. Though the latter was crowned as Edward III of England on 1 February 1327, the country was ruled by Mortimer and Isabella. On 21 September that same year, Edward II died in captivity. The suspicious death of Edward II has been the subject of many conspiracy theories, including that Mortimer's men killed him, but none has been proven. ==Powers won and lost== Following the removal of the Despensers, Mortimer set to work in restoring the status of his supporters, primarily in the Marches, and hundreds of pardons and restorations of property were made in the first year of the new king's reign. Rich estates and offices of profit and power were heaped on Mortimer. He was made constable of Wallingford Castle and in September 1328 he was created Earl of March. However, although in military terms he was far more competent than the Despensers, his ambition was troubling to all. His own son Geoffrey, the only one to survive into old age, mocked him as "the king of folly" deriding his ambitious extravagance of "rich clothes ot of manner resoun, both of shaping and wearing".The Brut, or The Chronicles of England edited from MS Rawlinson B 171, Bod.L, 2 vols, EETS Orig. ser.131, 136, London 1906–8. During his short time as ruler of England he took over the lordships of Denbigh, Oswestry and Clun (the first of which belonged to Despenser, the latter two had been the Earl of Arundel's). He was also granted the marcher lordship of Montgomery by the queen. During the War of Saint Sardos, the Regent and his queen spent over £60,000 bankrupting the Treasury, even after the proscriptions of Arundel and the Despensers. The Lancastrian opposition were incensed by this casual display of irresponsible government.Chronicon Henrici Knighton, ed. J.R.Lumby, vol.1, RS 92, 1889; new ed. 1337–96, H.G. Martin (Oxford, 1995), I, 447. The jealousy and anger of many nobles were aroused by Mortimer's use of power, which in many ways was tenuous. In 1328 Simon de Mepham, reportedly a Lancastrian at court, was elected Archbishop of Canterbury without controversy. However, the feuding would not stop. The day Parliament opened on 15 October Thomas of Lancaster's nemesis, Sir Robert Holland was murdered by highway robbers. Whereupon March swore on Mepham's cross that he knew nothing of it. Nonetheless, the King decreed an indictment; he would be judged at law against the standards of the Magna Carta. With Parliament adjourned on 31 October, he was able to slip away to his estates on the Marches. The two earls’ lethal enmity, and enforced absence from the King's presence, rendered their motives almost equally suspect to rowdy Londoners. The young king would have to raise an army of archers if he was to defend his throne from a northern rebellion controlled by Lancaster. In charge of the army, Lancaster blamed Mortimer and his queen for the debacle, and the highly contentious Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton with the Scots. Henry, Earl of Lancaster, one of the principals behind Edward II's deposition, tried to overthrow Mortimer, but the action was ineffective as the young king passively stood by. Then, in March 1330, Mortimer ordered the execution of Edmund, Earl of Kent, the half- brother of Edward II. After this execution Henry Lancaster prevailed upon the young king, Edward III, to assert his independence. In October 1330, a Parliament was summoned to Nottingham, just days before Edward's eighteenth birthday, and Mortimer and Isabella were seized by Edward and his companions from inside Nottingham Castle. In spite of Isabella's entreaty to her son, "Fair son, have pity on the gentle Mortimer", Mortimer was conveyed to the Tower. Accused of assuming royal power and of various other high misdemeanours, he was condemned without trial and hanged at Tyburn on 29 November 1330, his vast estates forfeited to the crown. His body hung at the gallows for two days and nights in full view of the populace. Mortimer's widow Joan received a pardon in 1336 and survived until 1356. She was buried beside Mortimer at Wigmore, but the site was later destroyed. In 2002, the actor John Challis, the owner of the remaining buildings of Wigmore Abbey, invited the BBC programme House Detectives at Large to investigate his property. During the investigation, a document was discovered in which Mortimer's widow Joan petitioned Edward III for the return of her husband's body so she could bury it at Wigmore Abbey. Mortimer's lover Isabella had buried his body at Greyfriars in Coventry following his hanging. Edward III replied, "Let his body rest in peace". The king later relented, and Mortimer's body was transferred to Wigmore Abbey, where Joan was later buried beside him. ==Children== The marriages of Mortimer's children (three sons and eight daughters) cemented Mortimer's strengths in the West. * Sir Edmund Mortimer (1302/1303 – 16 December 1331), married Elizabeth de Badlesmere; they produced Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March, who was restored to his grandfather's title. * Margaret Mortimer (1304 – 5 May 1337), married Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley * Roger Mortimer (1305 – 1328), married Joan Butler * Maud Mortimer (1307 – after 1345), married John de Charlton, Lord of Powys * Geoffrey Mortimer (1308/1309 – 1372/1376), who inherited the French seigneurie of Couhé as the assigned heir of his grandmother Joan of Lusignan, and founded a branch of the family based in France. * John Mortimer (c. 1310 – 1328) * Joan Mortimer (c. 1311/1312 – 1337/1351), married James Audley, 2nd Baron Audley * Isabel Mortimer (c. 1313 – after 1327) * Katherine Mortimer (c. 1314 – 4 August 1369), married Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick * Agnes Mortimer (c. 1317 – 25 July 1368), married Laurence Hastings, 1st Earl of Pembroke * Beatrice Mortimer (c. 1319 – 16 October 1383), who married firstly, Edward of Norfolk (died before 9 August 1334), son and heir apparent of Thomas of Brotherton, by whom she had no issue, and secondly, before 13 September 1337, Thomas de Brewes (died 9 or 16 June 1361), by whom she had three sons and three daughters. * Blanche Mortimer (c. 1321 – 1347), married Peter de Grandison, 2nd Baron Grandison ==Descendants== Through his son Sir Edmund Mortimer, he is an ancestor of the last Plantagenet monarchs of England from kings Edward IV to Richard III. By Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, the Earl of March is an ancestor to King Henry VIII of England and King James V of Scotland, and therefore to all subsequent Scottish, English and British monarchs. On the British television series Who Do You Think You Are, which traces the ancestry of famous celebrities, it was revealed that Courteney Cox is the nineteenth great-granddaughter of Roger Mortimer. ==Ancestry== ==In fiction== Mortimer appears in Christopher Marlowe's play Edward II (c. 1592), the Restoration tragedy Edward III (1690), as well as Bertolt Brecht's The Life of Edward II of England (1923). In Derek Jarman's film Edward II (1991), based on Marlowe's play, he is portrayed by Nigel Terry. Mortimer is also a character in Les Rois maudits (The Accursed Kings), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. He was portrayed by Claude Giraud in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Bruno Todeschini in the 2005 adaptation. Mortimer is also briefly mentioned in the 2001 film A Knight's Tale as a contestant in a joust. Mortimer is also a character in World Without End played by Hannes Jaenicke. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Lines: 10–31, 29–32, 29–33, 39–31, 47B-33, 71–33, 71A-32, 120–133, 176B-32, 263-231 * (MS 10,208, National Library, Dublin) * ==External links== * Wigmore Castle * BBC "House Detectives at Large" Press Release Category:1287 births Category:1330 deaths Category:British and English royal favourites Mortimer Category:English rebels Category:Escapees from the Tower of London Category:People executed under the Plantagenets Category:Male lovers of royalty Category:14th-century English people Category:Executed people from Herefordshire Category:People executed by the Kingdom of England by hanging Category:Marcher lords Roger Category:People executed at Tyburn Category:Burials in Herefordshire Category:People knighted at the Feast of the Swans Category:Leaders ousted by a coup Category:Lords Lieutenant of Ireland Category:14th-century executions by England Category:Peers created by Edward III
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Horst Hannig (13 November 1921 – 15 May 1943) was a German Luftwaffe fighter ace and posthumous recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves during World War II. The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and its higher grade Oak Leaves was awarded to recognize extreme battlefield bravery or successful military leadership. A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. Hannig is credited with 98 aerial victories claimed in over 350 combat missions. He was killed in action following combat with Royal Air Force (RAF) Supermarine Spitfire fighters on 15 May 1943. ==Early life and career== Hannig was born on 13 November 1921 in Frankenstein, present-day Ząbkowice Śląskie, at the time in Lower Silesia. He was the son of a secretary of justice (). After he graduated with his Abitur (diploma), Hannig joined the military service in the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker (officer cadet) in October 1939. Hannig had a brother Walter who received the German Cross in Gold () on 28 April 1943 as an observer with Aufklärungsgruppe (reconnaissance group) 4.(F)/14 of the Luftwaffe. Following flight training, he was posted to the 6. Staffel (6th squadron) of Jagdgeschwader 54 "Grünherz" (JG 54—54th fighter wing) in early 1941. At the time, 6. Staffel was commanded by Oberleutnant Franz Eckerle while II. Gruppe (2nd group), to which the Staffel was subordinated, was headed by Hauptmann Dietrich Hrabak. ==World War II== The German invasion of Poland had begun on 1 September 1939, and marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. In April 1941, II. Gruppe of JG 54 had fought in the invasion of Yugoslavia. Following the surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941, while stationed at an airfield at Zemun near Belgrade, the Geschwader received orders on 3 May 1941 to turn over all Bf 109-Es so they could receive the new Bf 109-F variant. Transition training was completed at Airfield Stolp-Reitz in Pomerania. Following intensive training, the Geschwader was moved to airfields in Eastern Prussia. ===Operation Barbarossa=== II. Gruppe under command of Hrabak was moved to Trakehnen on 20 June 1941. The Wehrmacht launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, on 22 June with II. Gruppe supporting Army Group North in its strategic goal towards Leningrad. On the first day of the invasion, II. Gruppe flew multiple missions in support of German bombers attacking Soviet airfields near Kowno, present-day Kaunas. That day, Hannig claimed his first aerial victory, a Tupolev SB-2 bomber. On 25 June, the Gruppe followed the German advance and relocated to an airfield at Kowno. Two days later they moved to Dünaburg, present-day Daugavpils, where Hannig claimed an Ilyushin DB-3 bomber shot down. On 28 June, the 8th Panzer Division had established a bridgehead across the Daugava. Operating from Dünaburg over the bridgehead, Hannig claimed a SB-2 bomber shot down on 30 June, three SB-3 bombers on 2 July, and another SB-2 bomber on 6 July. The following day, III. Gruppe moved to Ostrov. On 17 July, for seven aerial victories to date, he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class (). That day, the Gruppe moved to an airfield named Sarudinje located near Pleskov, present-day Pskov, southeast of Lake Peipus. Here, Hannig claimed an I-18 fighter, an early German designation for a Mikoyan- Gurevich MiG-1 fighter, on 19 July and a DB-3 bomber on 25 July. On 25 July, II. Gruppe moved to a makeshift airfield named Mal. Owsischtschi located near Lake Ozero Samro () east of Lake Peipus where they remained until 7 September. Here, the Gruppe supported German forces in the attack on Leningrad. In August, II. Gruppe flew missions to Leningrad and over the coastal area west of Leningrad. Here, Hannig claimed an Polikarpov I-16 fighter and I-18 fighter on 12 August, another I-16 fighter the following day, an SB-2 bomber on 14 August, two I-18 fighters on 18 August, another I-16 fighter the next day, and a Polikarpov I-15 fighter on 5 September. On 7 September, the Gruppe relocated to Torrossowa, an airfield closer to Leningrad. In September, Hannig was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class () and the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe () on 15 September. Flying from Torrossowa, he was credited with nine I-18 fighters shot down, two on 11 September, one on 12, 14, 16 and 19 September each, two further on 23 September. On 26 September he claimed an I-16 fighter before the Gruppe moved to Staraya Russa south of Lake Ilmen on 27 September. Here, Hannig claimed two I-18 fighters, one on 2 and 5 October each, and a SB-3 bomber on 14 October, taking his total to 30 aerial victories. In early November, the Gruppe was withdrawn from the Eastern Front for a period of rest and replenishment where they were based at airfields in Döberitz, and later at Uetersen. On 24 November, Hannig was awarded the German Cross in Gold (). ===Eastern Front=== On 20 January 1942, the Gruppe began relocating to the Eastern Front where they would be based at Siverskaya near Leningrad. Flying missions over the Volkhov, Hannig claimed his first aerial victory in 1942 over an I-18 fighter on 5 February. Operating from Siverskaya during the Battle of Lyuban, Hannig claimed five further aerial victories. On 14 February, he shot down a Polikarpov R-5 reconnaissance bomber followed by another R-5 aircraft three days later. He then claimed a Petlyakov Pe-2 bomber on 23 February. Hannig then claimed a Lend-Lease Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter on 5 March followed by an I-18 fighter on 15 March. On 20 March, II. Gruppe moved to Rjelbitzi Airfield, located north of Dno and west-southwest of Soltsy on the northern bank of the Shelon. Here, the Gruppe supported German forces fighting in the Demyansk Pocket and Kholm Pocket. In late March and April 1942, Hannig claimed further twelve aerial victories, increasing his total to 48 aerial victories claimed. Here on 7 May, Hannig claimed a Yakovlev Yak-1 fighter shot down. On 9 May 1942, Leutnant (second Lieutenant) Hannig was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () having flown over 200 operations and claiming 48 victories. He and Leutnant Hans Beißwenger received the Knight's Cross from General der Flieger Helmuth Förster at Siverskaya. Following the Knight's Cross presentation, Hannig claimed his next aerial victory on 11 May when he shot down a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 fighter in the Demyansk combat area. He then shot down two Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 fighters, one on 15 and 18 May each. In July 1942, II. Gruppe was re-equipped with the Bf 109 G-2. Hannig then claimed a Yak-1 fighter shot down near Zaluchye located approximately west of Demyansk on 7 July. On 24 July, he claimed his 54th victory, an Ilyushin Il-2 ground-attack aircraft near Lychkovo located southeast of Lake Ilmen. On 12 August, 5. Staffel was detached from II. Gruppe and sent to Oryol where they were based at an airfield named Oryol-West. On 31 August, II. Gruppe was again united at Rjelbitzi where the Gruppe came under control of Luftflotte 1 (Air Fleet 1). On the morning of 2 September, Hannig and Unteroffizier Walter Heck claimed two Yak-1 fighters shot down, one each. The a Yak-1 fighters belonged to the 21 IAP Fighter Regiment.IAP—Istrebitelny Aviatsionny Polk (Fighter Aviation Regiment—Истребительный Авиационный Полк) The pilots, Starshiy Leytenant Rubtsov survived the encounter with injuries while Serzhant Levinskiy was killed in action. On 7 October, Hauptmann Joachim Wandel, the commander of 5. Staffel was killed in action. In consequence, Hannig succeeded Wandel as Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 5. Staffel the following day. In early November, the Gruppe fought in the combat area north of Demyansk. Here, Hannig claimed his last aerial victories on the Eastern Front on 5 November. Taking his total to 90 aerial victories claimed, he was credited with destroying four LaGG-3 fighters that day. Three of which on one mission. On 28 September in aerial combat, Hannig flew his Bf 109 G-2 (Werknummer 10366—factory number) into the ground near Andronovo. Hannig was then transferred to the Western Front and command of 5. Staffel was passed on to Hauptmann Paul Steindl. ===Western Front and death=== thumb|left|upright=1.5|Focke Wulf Fw 190 A-4 of I./JG 2, flown by Leutnant Hannig, early 1943 On 27 January 1943, Hannig was appointed Staffelkapitän of 2. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" (JG 2—2nd fighter fing) based in France. He replaced Oberleutnant Christian Eickhoff who had been killed in action the day before. The Staffel was subordinated to I. Gruppe of JG 2 headed by Major Helmut-Felix Bolz. While serving with 2. Staffel of JG 2, he claimed further eight aerial victories, including one four-engine United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) heavy bomber. On 16 February, the USAAF VIII Bomber Command attacked Saint-Nazaire. I. Gruppe claimed the destruction of five Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers, including one shot down by Hannig northeast of Lannion. On 28 March, bombers of VIII Bomber Command escorted by Supermarine Spitfire fighters headed for Rouen. I. Gruppe claimed six aerial victories, including a Spitfire claimed by Hannig northwest of Fécamp. VIII Bomber Command targeted Antwerp on 4 April. Fighting this attack force, Hannig was credited with the destruction of a Spitfire shot down northeast of Cherbourg. On 13 April, he claimed two further Spitfires shot down southwest of Caen. Two days later he claimed a Hawker Typhoon fighter north-northwest of Goderville and another Spitfire on 16 April north-northwest of Saint-Valery-en-Caux. The Royal Air Force (RAF) targeted the Caen-Carpiquet Airdrome on 15 May 1943. Defending against this attack, elements of I. Gruppe intercepted the RAF fighters and claimed four aerial victories, two of which were not confirmed. Hannig was credited with the destruction of a Spitfire shot down east of Troarn, his 98th aerial victory. In this engagement JG 3 lost four aircraft with three pilots killed in action, including Hannig. He was shot down in his Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-4 (Werknummer 0734) near the airfield at Rocquancourt. His victor was Squadron Leader J. Charles leading Yellow Section of No. 611 Squadron. He had managed to bail out but his parachute failed to open. Hannig was posthumously awarded the 364th Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub) on 3 January 1944 and posthumously promoted to Oberleutnant (first Lieutenant). He was interred at the Saint-Désir-de-Lisieux German war cemetery. He was succeeded by Oberleutnant Karl Haberland as commander of 2. Staffel. ==Summary of career== ===Aerial victory claims=== According to Obermaier and Spick, Hannig was credited with 98 aerial victories, 90 on the Eastern Front and 8 on the Western Front, claimed in over 350 combat missions. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found documentation for 97 aerial victory claims. This number includes 90 on the Eastern Front and 7 on the Western Front, including one four-engined bomber. Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 54251". The Luftwaffe grid map () covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area in size. Chronicle of aerial victories Claim Date Time Type Location Claim Date Time Type Location – 6. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 54 – Operation Barbarossa — 22 June – 5 December 1941 1 22 June 1941 17:27 SB-2 16 19 August 1941 07:10 I-16 2 27 June 1941 13:50 DB-3 17 5 September 1941 15:20 I-15 3 30 June 1941 13:12 SB-2 18 11 September 1941 13:00 I-18 (MiG-1) 4 2 July 1941 20:30 SB-3 19 11 September 1941 13:15 I-18 (MiG-1) 5 2 July 1941 20:40 SB-3 20 12 September 1941 15:00 I-18 (MiG-1) 6 2 July 1941 20:42 SB-3 21 14 September 1941 17:09 I-18 (MiG-1) 7 6 July 1941 09:10 SB-2 22 16 September 1941 16:00 I-18 (MiG-1) 8 19 July 1941 06:20 I-18 (MiG-1) 23 17 September 1941 09:25 I-18 (MiG-1) 9 25 July 1941 07:57 DB-3 24 19 September 1941 07:20 I-18 (MiG-1) 10 12 August 1941 12:55 I-16 25 23 September 1941 07:35 I-18 (MiG-1) 11 12 August 1941 17:15 I-18 (MiG-1) 26 23 September 1941 10:03 I-18 (MiG-1) 12 13 August 1941 08:17 I-16 27 26 September 1941 10:50 I-16 13 14 August 1941 09:25 SB-2 28 2 October 1941 09:30 I-18 (MiG-1) 14 18 August 1941 12:15 I-18 (MiG-1) 29 5 October 1941 16:20 I-18 (MiG-1) 15 18 August 1941 12:35 I-18 (MiG-1) 30 14 October 1941 15:31 SB-3 – 5. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 54 – Eastern Front — 20 January – 30 April 1942 31 5 February 1942 15:30 I-18 (MiG-1) northwest of Orelje 40 5 April 1942 16:05 I-18 (MiG-1) 32 14 February 1942 14:50 R-5 41 15 April 1942 07:45 LaGG-3 33 17 February 1942 11:31 R-5 42 16 April 1942 07:45 Yak-1 34 23 February 1942 16:10 Pe-2 43 18 April 1942 06:35 MiG-3 35 5 March 1942 16:05 P-40 44 19 April 1942 07:40 LaGG-3 36 15 March 1942 08:50 I-18 (MiG-1) 45 20 April 1942 13:00 MiG-3 37 26 March 1942 08:30 I-18 (MiG-1) 46 20 April 1942 05:10 R-5 38 28 March 1942 14:05 I-26 (Yak-1) 47 24 April 1942 19:40 Yak-1 39 30 March 1942 09:35 R-5 48 24 April 1942 07:40 Yak-1 – 5. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 54 – Eastern Front — 1 May 1942 – 3 February 1943 49 7 May 1942 12:25 Yak-1 70 22 August 1942 18:05 LaGG-3 PQ 54251 west-northwest of Belyov 50 11 May 1942 04:40 MiG-3 71 23 August 1942 10:05 Yak-1 PQ 64262 northwest of Plavsk 51 15 May 1942 04:35 LaGG-3 72 24 August 1942 12:45 Yak-1 south of Zubtsov west-northwest of Belyov 52 18 May 1942 08:25 LaGG-3 73 25 August 1942 18:20 MiG-3 PQ 54263 south of Lubzoff 53 7 July 1942 10:00 Yak-1 Zaluchye 74 1 September 1942 10:08 MiG-3 PQ 10243 east-southeast of Shlisselburg 54 24 July 1942 11:00 Il-2 Lychkovo 75 2 September 1942 09:29 Yak-1 PQ 00582 west-southwest of Shlisselburg 55 27 July 1942 19:07 Yak-1 east of Pola train station 76 2 September 1942 18:20 Yak-1 eastern area of Leningrad 56 2 August 1942 12:35 Pe-2 southwest of Kresttsy 77 17 September 1942 16:33 Yak-1 PQ 2912 57 3 August 1942 10:00 Yak-1 northeast of Pola train station 78 28 September 1942 10:20? Yak-1 PQ 10441 south-southeast of Staraya Russa 58 9 August 1942 10:10 Yak-1 PQ 56164 southwest of Volokolamsk 79 6 October 1942 12:55 MiG-3 PQ 38714 north of Ostashkov 59 9 August 1942 15:28 Yak-1 PQ 56152 north-northeast of Gagarin 80 12 October 1942 15:50 LaGG-3 PQ 38783 southeast of Ostashkov 60 10 August 1942 15:55 Yak-1 PQ 47421 north-northwest of Staritsa 81 14 October 1942 16:26 Il-2 PQ 19333 north-northeast of Novgorod 61 10 August 1942 18:32 Yak-1 PQ 47562 north of Rzhev 82 28 October 1942 10:00 LaGG-3 PQ 18264 east-southeast of Staraya Russa 62 12 August 1942 18:50 Il-2 PQ 54473 west-northwest of Bolkhov 83 28 October 1942 10:03 LaGG-3 PQ 18264 east-southeast of Staraya Russa 63 14 August 1942 18:47 Yak-1 PQ 55882 east-southeast of Sukhinichi 84 29 October 1942 10:45 LaGG-3 PQ 28112 northwest of Demyansk 64 15 August 1942 10:45 Yak-1 PQ 54182 east-northeast of Zhizdra 85 30 October 1942 08:35 LaGG-3 PQ 18282 east-southeast of Staraya Russa 65 15 August 1942 11:00 Yak-1 PQ 54242 south-southeast of Sukhinichi 86 31 October 1942 16:40 Il-2 PQ 09871 66 21 August 1942 06:30 I-180 (Yak-7) PQ 55872 southeast of Sukhinichi 87 5 November 1942 08:00 LaGG-3 north of Pola train station 67 22 August 1942 06:03 Il-2 PQ 54462 north-northwest of Bolkhov 88 5 November 1942 08:10 LaGG-3 PQ 28112 northwest of Demyansk 68 22 August 1942 06:10 Il-2 PQ 54424 southwest of Belyov 89 5 November 1942 08:15 LaGG-3 PQ 28111 northwest of Demyansk 69 22 August 1942 14:55 Il-2 PQ 64173 vicinity of Belyov 90 5 November 1942 14:25 LaGG-3 PQ 28664 north-northwest of Ostashkov – 2. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" – Western Front — 1 January – 15 May 1943 91 16 February 1943 11:55 B-17 northeast of Lannion 95 13 April 1943 16:48 Spitfire southwest of Caen 92 28 March 1943 13:26 Spitfire northwest of Fécamp 96 15 April 1943 17:00 Typhoon north-northwest of Goderville 93 4 April 1943 10:05 Spitfire northeast of Cherbourg 97 16 April 1943 08:50 Spitfire north-northwest of Saint-Valery-en- Caux 94 13 April 1943 16:46 Spitfire southwest of Caen 98? 15 May 1943 17:06 Spitfire east of Troarn ===Awards=== * Iron Cross (1939) ** 2nd Class (17 July 1941) ** 1st Class (September 1941) * Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe on 15 September 1941 as Leutnant in a Jagdgeschwader * German Cross in Gold on 24 November 1941 as Leutnant in the II./Jagdgeschwader 54 * Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ** Knight's Cross on 9 May 1942 as Leutnant and pilot in the 6./Jagdgeschwader 54 ** 364th Oak Leaves on 3 January 1944 (posthumously) as Leutnant and Staffelführer of the 2./Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" ==Notes== == References == ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:1921 births Category:1943 deaths Category:People from Ząbkowice Śląskie Category:People from the Province of Lower Silesia Category:Luftwaffe pilots Category:German World War II flying aces Category:Recipients of the Gold German Cross Category:Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves Category:Luftwaffe personnel killed in World War II Category:Aviators killed by being shot down Category:Burials at Saint-Désir-de-Lisieux German war cemetery
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Gregory Ratoff (born Grigory Vasilyevich Ratner; , tr. ; April 20, c. 1893 – December 14, 1960)Gregory Ratoff's petition for naturalization as a U.S. citizen and the Social Security Death Index both give his date of birth as April 20, 1893; however his mother's naturalization papers give his date of birth as April 7, 1895, and his gravestone bears the date April 20, 1897. was a Russian-born American film director, actor and producer. As an actor, he was best known for his role as producer "Max Fabian" in All About Eve (1950). ==Biography== Ratoff was born in Samara, Russia, to Jewish parents. His mother was Sophie (née Markison) who claimed to have been born on September 1, 1878, but was married on June 14, 1894, when she would have been 15, to Benjamin Ratner (born 1864),Ancestry Library Edition with whom she had four children, the eldest of whom was Grigory, whose date of birth she gave as April 7, 1895 but later April 20 was cited as Gregory Ratoff's birthdate, and the year given as 1893, 1896 and 1897, variously. Sophie Ratner later adopted her son's stage surname (Ratoff) when she herself became a naturalized United States citizen. Sophie Ratoff died on August 27, 1955. Her date of birth is given as September 13, 1877 in the California Death Index (1940–1997), which would have made her a teenager when Gregory was born, as young as 15 if 1893 is the correct year of Gregory Ratoff's birth. Although his father's name was Benjamin, Gregory adopted the less Jewish-sounding patronymic of "Vasilyevich".Sophie Ratoff death info from California, Death Index, 1940-1997, ancestry.com; accessed October 21, 2015. Ratoff was pursuing a law degree at the University of St. Petersburg until his education was interrupted by service in the Czar's army in World War I. After the war, he abandoned law to join the Moscow Art Theater, where he began to make a name for himself as an actor. An eyewitness to the chaos of the Bolshevik Revolution, Ratoff fled Russia with his parents in 1922 and settled in Paris, where he wooed Evgenia Konstantinovna Leontovich (later known as actress Eugenie Leontovich), the daughter of a Czarist army officer, who, too, had escaped to Paris. They were both performing in a Paris production of the Russe Revue in 1922 when the New York impresario, Lee Shubert, founder of the Shubert Theaters, brought this show to Broadway, and the young couple along with it. They decided to stay in the United States, and the couple married on January 19, 1923. Leontovich gave Ratoff's year of birth as 1896 in her naturalization papers but did not include the month or day. A border crossing manifest, dated September 23, 1922, gives both her age and that of Gregory Ratner as 29, indicating 1893 as the year of birth of both. ==Career== Ratoff joined in the thriving Yiddish theater in New York City, producing, directing and acting for the Yiddish Players as he became something of an theatrical impresario, even performing in a Yiddish film. He graduated to Broadway later in the decade, appearing in Shubert productions as he learned English, though his mastery of the language always was heavily accented and this, in fact, became his stock-in-trade in his busy future career as a character actor. When the Depression hit Broadway, Ratoff headed to Hollywood, as part of the exodus of New York theater pros who were quickly snapped up by producers terrified of films with dialogue, the "talkies". He arrived in 1931 and caught a lucky break: in Gregory La Cava's Symphony of Six Million, producer David O. Selznick had insisted, very unusually for the time, that this Fannie Hurst story of a brilliant Jewish doctor escaping his tenement roots be cast with authentic Yiddish actors from the Lower East Side.Jeremy Arnold, "Symphony of Six Million" His role as the beloved immigrant father who dies on his son's operating table led to five more jobs in quick succession, ranging from a George Kaufman comedy to a prestigious Selznick production, What Price Hollywood? (1932) directed by George Cukor.With these early critical and box-office winners, Ratoff was in constant demand as a character actor throughout the 1930s, many in B-pictures but increasingly with young directors who later had important careers. His role as a comic showbiz caricature was also popular, especially in such pre-Code films as I'm No Angel (1933), as Mae West's character's lawyer. Due to his large frame and uncertain command of English, he was often typecast as a villain in an American setting or as a foreigner in the dozens of 1930s films that recreated a glamorous fictional Europe on the Hollywood backlot. In Frank Lloyd's Under Two Flags (1936), he was in the French Foreign Legion. In Howard Hawks' The Road to Glory (1936), he was a Russian sergeant in World War I France. In 1936, although he acted in six films, he first moved behind the camera, co-directing (with Otto Brower) Sins of Man for Twentieth Century-Fox. He followed with his first screenwriting effort, Cafe Metropole (1937), and soon directed on his own with Lancer Spy (1937), starring Peter Lorre, Dolores del Río and George Sanders. Ratoff directed five movies by 1939, all under contract for Fox, while still also acting. He directed Intermezzo: A Love Story (1939), when David O. Selznick was loaned Ratoff by Fox to direct his new Swedish protege Ingrid Bergman in her American debut. The original director, William Wyler, had walked out after a quarrel with Selznick.Selznick by Bob Thomas, p. 186 The story was a remake of the Swedish film that had made Bergman a star, a tale of doomed love between a celebrated but married violin virtuoso (Leslie Howard) and his brilliant young piano accompanist (Bergman). Bergman was none too impressed with Ratoff, reportedly because she was struggling with English herself and found Ratoff difficult to follow. Ratoff, however, saw her as "sensational", as he told Life. Leslie Howard had been talked into the part with the promise of a co-producer credit. Ratoff never reached such heights again, and he never entered the top ranks of Hollywood directors. He dropped acting and left Fox in 1941 for a Columbia directing contract. ==Later years== For the next decade, Ratoff directed comedies, musicals, crime dramas, war films, thrillers and swashbucklers—all solid but unspectacular fare in the wide range of genres then given to directors under contract. Song of Russia (1944), another love story between musical performers (Robert Taylor and Susan Peters), was set in Russia at the beginning of the Nazi invasion. Ratoff had been lent out for this MGM project because the musical romance had become one of his specialties after his work in Intermezzo. He collapsed near the end of shooting and had to be replaced by another emigre, Hungarian Laszlo Benedek. Taylor was a friendly witness for the House Un-American Activities Committee, and the film's two writers were hauled before the committee, questioned and harassed. Ratoff's directing career in Hollywood never recovered, and he returned to acting, playing his most famous role as the befuddled producer Max Fabian in All About Eve. Ratoff found his remaining opportunities outside of the U.S. The English comedy Abdulla the Great (1955), which he produced, directed, and starred in as a Middle Eastern potentate, proved a complete failure, but his low-budget film of Jo Eisinger's play Oscar Wilde (1960) won plaudits for Robert Morley in the title role, while Ralph Richardson was commended for his role as the barrister who destroys Wilde on the witness stand.Review: Oscar Wilde (film), nytimes.com; accessed October 21, 2015.Oscar Wilde (film), imdb.com; accessed October 21, 2015. He was one of the two producers (with Michael Garrison) to have purchased and developed the original rights to the James Bond franchise from Ian Fleming in 1955, which subsequently became the subject of a bitter legal dispute. Ratoff was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in February 1960, just months before his death in Switzerland. One of his last roles as an actor was in the epic film Exodus (1960), for Otto Preminger, a director with whom he had first worked in the early 1930s. ==Death== Ratoff died on December 14, 1960, in Solothurn, Switzerland from leukemia, aged 67. His body was returned to the United States for burial at Mount Hebron Cemetery, Flushing, New York. Divorced from Leontovich since 1949, he had remarried and was survived by his widow, Maria Ratoff. He was interred under a gravestone marked "Beloved Husband". His death was reported in the U.S. Reports of Deaths of American Citizens Abroad, 1835-1974 (Basel, Switzerland, December 16, 1960). ==Filmography== ===Director=== * Sins of Man (1936) * Lancer Spy (1937) * Wife, Husband and Friend (1939) * Rose of Washington Square (1939) * Hotel for Women (1939) * Intermezzo (1939) * Day-Time Wife (1939) * Barricade (1939) * I Was an Adventuress (1940) * Public Deb No. 1 (1940) * Adam Had Four Sons (1941) * The Corsican Brothers (1941) * The Men in Her Life (1941) * Two Yanks in Trinidad (1942) * Footlight Serenade (1942) * Something to Shout About (1943) * The Heat's On (1943) * Song of Russia (1944) * Irish Eyes Are Smiling (1944) * Where Do We Go from Here? (1945) * Paris Underground (1945) * Do You Love Me (1946) * Carnival in Costa Rica (1947) * Moss Rose (1947) * That Dangerous Age (1949) * Black Magic (aka Cagliostro) (1949) * My Daughter Joy (1950) * Taxi (1953) * Abdulla the Great (1955) * Oscar Wilde (1960) ===Actor=== * Dubrowsky, der Räuber Ataman (1921) (film debut) * Symphony of Six Million (1932) — Meyer Klauber * What Price Hollywood? (1932) — Julius Saxe * Skyscraper Souls (1932) — Vinmont * Once in a Lifetime (1932) — Herman Glogauer * Under-Cover Man (1932) — H.L. Martoff * Secrets of the French Police (1932) — Han Moloff * Sweepings (1933) — Abe Ullman * Professional Sweetheart (1933) — Samuel 'Sam' Ipswich * Headline Shooter (1933) — Hermie Gottlieb * I'm No Angel (1933) — Benny Pinkowitz * Broadway Through a Keyhole (1933) — Max Mefoofski * Sitting Pretty (1933) — Tannenbaum * Girl Without a Room (1933) — The General / Grand Duke Serge Alexovich * Let's Fall in Love (1933) — Max * George White's Scandals (1934) — Nicholas Mitwoch * Falling in Love (1934) — Oscar Marks * Forbidden Territory (1934) — Alexei Leshki * 18 Minutes (1935) — Nikita * Hello, Sweetheart (1935) — Joseph Lewis * Remember Last Night? (1935) — Faronea * King of Burlesque (1936) — Kolpolpeck * Here Comes Trouble (1936) — Ivan Petroff * Under Two Flags (1936) — Ivan * The Road to Glory (1936) — Russian Soldier * Sing, Baby, Sing (1936) — Nicholas K. Alexander * Under Your Spell (1936) — Petroff * Seventh Heaven (1937) — Boul the Cab Driver * Top of the Town (1937) — J.J. Stone * Café Metropole (1937) — Paul * Sally, Irene and Mary (1938) — Baron Alex Zorka * Gateway (1938) — Prince Michael Boris Alexis * The Great Profile (1940) — Boris Mefoofsky * My Daughter Joy (1950) — Marcos * All About Eve (1950) — Max Fabian * O. Henry's Full House (1952) — Behrman (segment "The Last Leaf") * The Moon Is Blue (1953) — Taxi Driver * Die Jungfrau auf dem Dach (1953) — Taxi Fahrer * The Jack Benny Program (1953) — Himself * Abdulla the Great (1955) — Abdulla * The Sun Also Rises (1957) — Count Mippipopolous * Once More, with Feeling! (1960) — Maxwell Archer * Exodus (1960) — Lakavitch * The Big Gamble (1961) — Kaltenberg (final film) ==References== ==External links== * * * * Category:1890s births Category:1960 deaths Category:Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (New York City) Category:Russian male film actors Category:Russian film directors Category:Russian film producers Category:Russian people of Jewish descent Category:Actors from Samara, Russia Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:American male film actors Category:American film directors Category:American film producers Category:Deaths from cancer in Switzerland Category:Propaganda film directors Category:Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States Category:20th- century American male actors Category:Jewish American male actors Category:20th-century American Jews
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Shareware is a type of proprietary software that is initially shared by the owner for trial use at little or no cost.Bink, Thomas (April 4, 1996). "Shareware Profitable and Popular". The Kingston Whig-Standard (Kingston, Ontario, Canada). p. 17. Often the software has limited functionality or incomplete documentation until the user sends payment to the software developer.Gnoffo Jr., Anthony (July 4, 1993). "The Shareware Computer Industry, A Growing World Of Innovation, Trust". Night-Ridder Newspapers. Rutland Daily Herald (Rutland, Vermont). p. 8D. Shareware is often offered as a download from a website or on a compact disc included with a magazine. Shareware differs from freeware, which is fully-featured software distributed at no cost to the user but without source code being made available; and free and open-source software, in which the source code is freely available for anyone to inspect and alter. There are many types of shareware and, while they may not require an initial up-front payment, many are intended to generate revenue in one way or another. Some limit use to personal non-commercial purposes only, with purchase of a license required for use in a business enterprise. The software itself may be time-limited, or it may remind the user that payment would be appreciated. == Types of shareware == === Trialware === Trialware or is a program that limits the time that it can be effectively used, commonly via a built-in time limit, number of uses, or only allowing progression up to a certain point (e.g. in video games, see Game demo). The user can try out the fully featured program until the trial period is up, and then most trialware reverts to either a reduced-functionality (freemium, nagware, or crippleware) or non-functional mode, unless the user purchases a full version.Flynn, Laurie (November 14, 1993). "Cheap, Easy Shareware Big Business". Knight-Ridder Newspapers. Sun Herald (Biloxi, Mississippi). p. C7. Trialware has become normalized for online Software as a Service (SaaS). WinRAR is a notable example of an unlimited trialware, i.e. a program that retains its full functionality even after the trial period has ended. The rationale behind trialware is to give potential users the opportunity to try out the program to judge its usefulness before purchasing a license. According to industry research firm Softletter, 66% of online companies surveyed had free-trial-to-paying-customer conversion rates of 25% or less. SaaS providers employ a wide range of strategies to nurture leads, and convert them into paying customers. === Freemium === Freemium works by offering a product or service free of charge (typically digital offerings such as software, content, games, web services or other) while charging a premium for advanced features, functionality, or related products and services. For example, a fully functional feature-limited version may be given away for free, with advanced features disabled until a license fee is paid. The word freemium combines the two aspects of the business model: "free" and "premium". It has become a popular model especially in the antivirus industry. Red Hat Linux OS works in a similar fashion, with a version for free use (Fedora Linux) and charging for their premium Enterprise version. === Adware === Adware, short for "advertising-supported software", is any software package which automatically renders advertisements in order to generate revenue for its author. Shareware is often packaged with adware to lower the shareware fees or eliminate the need to charge users a fee. The advertisements may take the form of a banner on an application window. The functions may be designed to analyze which websites the user visits and to present advertising pertinent to the types of goods or services featured there. The term is sometimes used to refer to software that displays unwanted advertisements, which typically are more intrusive and may appear as pop-ups, as is the case in most ad-oriented spyware. During the installation of the intended software, the user is presented with a requirement to agree to the terms of click through an end- user license agreement or similar licensing which governs the installation of the software. === Crippleware === Crippleware has vital features of the program, such as printing or the ability to save files, disabled or unwanted features like watermarks on screencasting and video editing software until the user buys the software. This allows users to take a close look at the features of a program without being able to use it to generate output. The distinction between freemium and crippleware is that an unlicensed freemium program has useful functionality, while crippleware demonstrates its potential but is not useful on its own. === Donationware === Donationware is a licensing model that supplies fully operational unrestricted software to the user and requests an optional donation be paid to the programmer or a third-party beneficiary (usually a non-profit). The amount of the donation may also be stipulated by the author, or it may be left to the discretion of the user, based on individual perceptions of the software's value. Since donationware comes fully operational (i.e. not crippleware) with payment optional, it is a type of freeware. In some cases, there is a delay to start the program or "nag screen" reminding the user that they haven't donated to the project. This nag feature and/or delayed start is often removed in an update once the user has donated to (paid for) the software. === Nagware === Nagware (also known as begware, annoyware or a nagscreen) is a pejorative term for shareware that persistently reminds the user to purchase a license. It usually does this by popping up a message when the user starts the program, or intermittently while the user is using the application. These messages can appear as windows obscuring part of the screen, or as message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware keeps the message up for a certain time period, forcing the user to wait to continue to use the program. Unlicensed programs that support printing may superimpose a watermark on the printed output, typically stating that the output was produced by an unlicensed copy. Some titles display a dialog box with payment information and a message that paying will remove the notice, which is usually displayed either upon startup or after an interval while the application is running. These notices are designed to annoy the user into paying. === Postcardware === Postcardware, also called just cardware, is a style of software distribution similar to shareware, distributed by the author on the condition that users send the author a postcard. A variation of cardware, Emailware, uses the same approach but requires the user to send the author an email. Postcardware, like other novelty software distribution terms, is often not strictly enforced. Cardware is similar to beerware. The concept was first used by Aaron Giles, author of JPEGView. Another well-known piece of postcardware is the roguelike game Ancient Domains of Mystery, whose author collects postcards from around the world. Orbitron is distributed as postcardware. Exifer is a popular application among digital photographers that has been postcardware. Caledos Automatic Wallpaper Changer is a "still alive" project cardware. "Empathy" is a postcardware for password-protected executables. Dual Module Player and Linux were also postcardware for a long time. An example for emailware is the video game Jump 'n Bump.Jump 'n Bump readme.txt JUMP 'N BUMP by Brainchild Design in 1998 Jump 'n Bump is e-mailware. That means you're supposed to send us an e-mail. Write for example where you're from and what you thought about this game. If you do that, you will greatly encourage us to make more games for you! Another popular postcardware company is the Laravel package developers from Spatie, which have released over 200 open-source packages to the Laravel framework, which are postcardware licensed, and all shown at their website. == History == In 1982, Andrew Fluegelman created a program for the IBM PC called PC-Talk, a telecommunications program, and used the term freeware; he described it "as an experiment in economics more than altruism". About the same time, Jim "Button" Knopf released PC-File, a database program, calling it user-supported software. Not much later, Bob Wallace produced PC-Write, a word processor, and called it shareware. Appearing in an episode of Horizon titled Psychedelic Science originally broadcast 5 April 1998, Bob Wallace said the idea for shareware came to him "to some extent as a result of my psychedelic experience".Horizon: Psychedelic science by Bill Eagles, (about 41 mins into programme) In 1983 Jerry Pournelle wrote of "an increasingly popular variant" of free software "that has no name, but works thus: 'If you like this, send me (the author) some money. I prefer cash.'" In 1984, Softalk-PC magazine had a column, The Public Library, about such software. Public domain is a misnomer for shareware, and Freeware was trademarked by Fluegelman and could not be used legally by others, and User-Supported Software was too cumbersome. So columnist Nelson Ford had a contest to come up with a better name. The most popular name submitted was Shareware, which was being used by Wallace. However, Wallace acknowledged that he got the term from an InfoWorld magazine column by that name in the 1970s, and that he considered the name to be generic, so its use became established over freeware and user-supported software. Fluegelman, Knopf, and Wallace clearly established shareware as a viable software distribution model by becoming wealthy.Article about Jim "Button" Knopf , from Dr. Dobb's Journal Prior to the popularity of the World Wide Web and widespread Internet access, shareware was often the only economical way for independent software authors to get their product onto users' desktops. Those with Internet or BBS access could download software and distribute it amongst their friends or user groups, who would then be encouraged to send the registration fee to the author, usually via postal mail. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, shareware software was widely distributed over online services, bulletin board systems and on diskettes. Contrary to commercial developers who spent millions of dollars urging users "Don't Copy That Floppy", shareware developers encouraged users to upload the software and share it on disks. Commercial shareware distributors such as Educorp and Public Domain Inc printed catalogs describing thousands of public domain and shareware programs that were available for a small charge on floppy disk. These companies later made their entire catalog available on CD-ROM. One such distributor, Public Software Library (PSL), began an order-taking service for programmers who otherwise had no means of accepting credit card orders. Meanwhile major online service provider CompuServe enabled people to pay (register) for software using their CompuServe accounts. When AOL bought out CompuServe, that part of CompuServe called SWREG (Shareware Registration) was sold to UK businessman Stephen Lee of Atlantic Coast PLC who placed the service on to the internet and enabled over 3,000 independent software developers to use SWREG as a back office to accept various payment methods including credit, debit and charge cards, Paypal and other services in multiple currencies. This worked in realtime so that a client could pay for software and instantly download it which was novel at the time. SWREG was eventually bought by Digital River, Inc. Also, services like Kagi started offering applications that authors could distribute along with their products that would present the user with an onscreen form to fill out, print, and mail along with their payment. Once telecommunications became more widespread, this service also expanded online. Toward the beginning of the Internet era, books compiling reviews of available shareware were published, sometimes targeting specific niches such as small business. These books would typically come with one or more floppy disks or CD-ROMs containing software from the book. As Internet use grew, users turned to downloading shareware programs from FTP or web sites. This spelled the end of bulletin board systems and shareware disk distributors. At first, disk space on a server was hard to come by, so networks like Info-Mac were developed, consisting of non-profit mirror sites hosting large shareware libraries accessible via the web or ftp. With the advent of the commercial web hosting industry, the authors of shareware programs started their own sites where the public could learn about their programs and download the latest versions, and even pay for the software online. This erased one of the chief distinctions of shareware, as it was now most often downloaded from a central "official" location instead of being shared samizdat-style by its users. To ensure users would get the latest bug- fixes as well as an install untainted by viruses or other malware, some authors discouraged users from giving the software to their friends, encouraging them to send a link instead. Major download sites such as VersionTracker and CNet's Download.com began to rank titles based on quality, feedback, and downloads. Popular software was sorted to the top of the list, along with products whose authors paid for preferred placement. == Registration == If features are disabled in the freely accessible version, paying may provide the user with a licence key or code they can enter into the software to disable the notices and enable full functionality. Some pirate web sites publish license codes for popular shareware, leading to a kind of arms race between the developer and the pirates where the developer disables pirated codes and the pirates attempt to find or generate new ones. Some software publishers have started accepting known pirated codes, using the opportunity to educate users on the economics of the shareware model. Some shareware relies entirely on the user's honesty and requires no password. Simply checking an "I have paid" checkbox in the application is all that is required to disable the registration notices. == Games == In the early 1990s, shareware distribution was a popular method of publishing games for smaller developers, including then-fledgling companies Apogee Software (also known as 3D Realms), Epic MegaGames (now Epic Games), Ambrosia Software and id Software. It gave consumers the chance to play the game before investing money in it, and it gave them exposure that some products would be unable to get in the retail space. With the Kroz series, Apogee introduced the "episodic" shareware model that became the most popular incentive for buying a game. While the shareware game would be a truly complete game, there would be additional "episodes" of the game that were not shareware and could only be legally obtained by paying for the shareware episode. In some cases these episodes were neatly integrated and would feel like a longer version of the game, and in other cases the later episodes would be stand-alone games. Sometimes the additional content was completely integrated with the unregistered game, such as in Ambrosia's Escape Velocity series, in which a character representing the developer's pet parrot, equipped with an undefeatable ship, would periodically harass and destroy the player after they reached a certain level representing the end of the trial period. Racks of games on single 5 1/4-inch and later 3.5-inch floppy disks were common in retail stores. However, computer shows and bulletin board systems (BBS) such as Software Creations BBS were the primary distributors of low-cost software. Free software from a BBS was the motivating force for consumers to purchase a computer equipped with a modem, so as to acquire software at no cost. The success of shareware games, including id Software hits Commander Keen and Doom, depended in part on the BBS community's willingness to redistribute them from one BBS to another across North America. The reasons for redistribution included allowing modem users who could not afford long-distance calls the opportunity to view the games. The important distinguishing feature between a shareware game and a game demo is that the shareware game is (at least in theory) a complete working software program albeit with reduced content compared to the full game, while a game demo omits significant functionality as well as content. Shareware games commonly offered both single player and multiplayer modes plus a significant fraction of the full game content such as the first of three episodes, while some even offered the entire product as shareware while unlocking additional content for registered users. By contrast a game demo may offer as little as one single-player level or consist solely of a multiplayer map, this makes them easier to prepare than a shareware game. == Industry standards and technologies == There are several widely accepted standards and technologies that are used in the development and promotion of shareware. *FILE_ID.DIZ is a descriptive text file often included in downloadable shareware distribution packages. *Portable Application Description (PAD) is used to standardize shareware application descriptions. PAD file is an XML document that describes a shareware or freeware product according to the PAD specification. *DynamicPAD extends the Portable Application Description (PAD) standard by allowing shareware vendors to provide customized PAD XML files to each download site or any other PAD- enabled resource. DynamicPAD is a set of server-side PHP scripts distributed under a GPL license and a freeware DynamicPAD builder for 32-bit Windows. The primary way to consume or submit a DynamicPAD file is through the RoboSoft application by Rudenko Software, the DynamicPAD author. DynamicPAD is available at the DynamicPAD web site. *Code signing is a technology that is used by developers to digitally sign their products. Versions of Microsoft Windows since Windows XP Service Pack 2 show a warning when the user installs unsigned software. This is typically offered as a security measure to prevent untrusted software from potentially infecting the machine with malware. However, critics see this technology as part of a tactic to delegitimize independent software development by requiring hefty upfront fees and a review process before software can be distributed. == See also == * Careware * Association of Software Professionals * Keygen == References == === Works cited === * == External links == *Independent Software Developers Forum (ISDEF) *Webcast on protecting trialware Category:Software licenses Category:Free goods and services Category:Revenue models
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thumb|Beyoncé in 2011 American singer Beyoncé rose to fame in the late 1990s as the lead singer of the R&B; girl group Destiny's Child, one of the world's best-selling girl groups of all time. During the hiatus of the girl group in 2001, Beyoncé embarked on her solo career that she pursued following the disbandment of the group in 2006. She has written and recorded material for her six studio albums, namely Dangerously in Love (2003), B'Day (2006), I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008), 4 (2011), her self-titled album, Beyoncé (2013), and her second visual album Lemonade (2016). Apart from her work in music, Beyoncé has launched a career in acting. She made her debut in the 2001 musical film Carmen: A Hip Hopera, prior to appearing in major films, including Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002), The Pink Panther (2006), Dreamgirls (2006), Cadillac Records (2008), Epic (2013) and The Lion King (2019). She has written and recorded material for the soundtrack albums of all the mentioned movies. Beyoncé has also lent her vocals to several recordings for specific charitable causes and other tracks that were used in television advertisements. Songs included in this list are from her studio albums, extended plays, soundtrack albums, live albums, mixtapes, and collaborations with other recording artists on their respective albums. Many of them were released as singles and have been successful both stateside and in international markets. Also included in this list are songs that Beyoncé recorded, but remain unreleased or were never officially released. Beyoncé started recording material for her debut solo album Dangerously in Love in 2002; she selected the producers with whom she would collaborate, held meetings with prospective producers from West Coast across the East Coast and had interviews with them. She went to Miami, Florida to begin sessions with Canadian record producer Scott Storch, her first collaborator. Beyoncé took a wider role in the production of Dangerously in Love, co-writing a majority of the songs, choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks. 15 of 43 songs recorded by Beyoncé, made it to the album. After having a month-long vacation following the filming Dreamgirls, she went to the studio to start working on her second studio album B'Day in 2006. Beyoncé began working with songwriter-producers Rich Harrison, Rodney Jerkins, Sean Garrett, Cameron Wallace, The Neptunes, Swizz Beatz, and Walter Millsap. Two female songwriters were also included in the production team, who helped structure the album: Beyoncé's cousin Angela Beyince, who had previously collaborated in Dangerously in Love, and songwriter Makeba Riddick, who made her way into the team after writing "Déjà Vu", the lead single off B'Day. While Beyoncé and the team brainstormed the lyrics, other collaborators simultaneously produce the tracks. She arranged, co-wrote and co-produced all the songs on B'Day, which was titled as a reference to her birthday, and completed in three weeks. In 2007, Beyoncé began working on her third studio album I Am... Sasha Fierce, which she said was a double album while making comparisons to a magazine. The first disc I Am... was intended to show her insecurities about love, and to give a behind-the-scenes glimpse of Beyoncé's life, stripped of her make-up and celebrity trappings. On the other hand, the second disc Sasha Fierce showcased her aggressive, sensual and care-free onstage alter ego of the same name. When Beyoncé started recording tracks for I Am... Sasha Fierce, she felt that she had to grow and mature artistically; she wanted to "be challenged". Inspired by her husband Jay-Z and Etta James, she collaborated with several producers and songwriters – including Kenneth Edmonds, Stargate, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Terius "The-Dream" Nash, Rodney Jerkins, Sean Garrett, Solange, Jim Jonsin, Rico Love and Ryan Tedder – while either co-wroting or co-producing each song on the record. In 2010, Beyoncé took a break from her career to rest and gain perspective. During the hiatus, she dedicated herself to enjoying the everyday things in life, which reignited her creativity and became a source of inspiration for her fourth studio album 4 that she described as "a labor of love". Beyoncé also drew inspiration from the work of Fela Kuti, Earth, Wind & Fire, Lionel Richie, The Jackson 5, New Edition, Florence and the Machine, Adele, and Prince. She allowed herself the artistic freedom to record songs in which the melody and lyrics came together naturally. Wanting to bring back "the emotion and live instruments and just soul missing out of the music industry", Beyoncé co- produced the entire record as she worked with Diane Warren, Diplo, Ester Dean, Switch, Tricky Stewart, The-Dream, Frank Ocean, Kanye West, Sean Garrett and Shea Taylor, among others. ==Released songs== Key Indicates single release [[File:Christopher Tricky Stewart.jpg|thumb|upright|"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was written by Beyoncé, Terius Nash, Thaddis Harrell and Christopher Stewart (pictured), who commented that the song was "the only public statement that [Beyoncé and Jay-Z had] ever made about [their] marriage".]] Song Artist(s) Writer(s) Originating albumAn asterisk beside an album title denotes the song to be available as a bonus track on certain editions of said album. Year Ref. "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" contains an interpolation of "If I Was Your Girlfriend" by Prince and a sample of "Me and My Girlfriend" by Tupac Shakur. Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Knowles Jay-Z Darryl Harper Kanye West Prince Rick Rouse Tupac Shakur Tyrone Wrice The Blueprint 2: The Gift & The Curse* 2002 "1+1" Beyoncé Beyoncé Tricky Stewart The-Dream 4 2011 "6 Inch" Beyoncé featuring The Weeknd Beyoncé The Weeknd Danny Boy Styles Ben Billions The-Dream Ahmad Balshe Boots Avey Tare Panda Bear Geologist Burt Bacharach Hal David Lemonade 2016 "7/11" Beyoncé Beyoncé Detail Bobby Johnson Beyoncé: Platinum Edition 2014 "After All Is Said and Done" Beyoncé and Marc Nelson Gordon Chambers Philip Edward Galdston The Best Man 1999 "Already" Beyoncé, Shatta Wale and Major Lazer Beyoncé Brittany Hazzard Toumani Diabaté Clément Picard Maxime Picard Thomas Pentz Charles Mensah Ronald Banful The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Alien Superstar" Beyoncé Beyoncé Honey Redmond Christopher Penny Luke Solomon Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Shawn Carter David Brown Dave Hamelin Timothy McKenzie Danielle Balbuena Rami Yacoub Leven Kali Atia Boggs Levar Coppin Saliou Diagne Michael Dean Rob Manzoli Richard Fairbrass Christopher Fairbrass John Holiday Barbara Ann Teer Kim Cooper Peter Rauhofer Renaissance 2022 "All I Could Do Was Cry" Beyoncé Berry Gordy Gwen Gordy Fuqua Billy Davis Cadillac Records 2008 "All Night" Beyoncé Beyoncé Diplo Rock City Ilsey Juber Akil King Aman Tekleab Jaramye Daniels OutKast Sleepy Brown Ricky Anthony Lemonade 2016 "All That I'm Lookin' For" Kitten K. Sera, Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland Kitten K. Sera Kelly Kidd Wolfram De Marco The Katrina CD 2005 "All Up In Your Mind" Beyoncé Beyoncé Jabbar Stevens Cherdericka Nichols Michael Tucker Alexander Cook Michael Dean Larry Griffin Jr. Jameil Aossey Renaissance 2022 "America Has a Problem" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Shawn Carter Michael Dean Andrell Rogers Tino McIntosh Kendrick Lamar Renaissance 2022 "Amor Gitano" Alejandro Fernández featuring Beyoncé Beyoncé Jaime Flores Reyli Viento a favor 2007 "At Last" "At Last" is a 1941 song written by Mack Gordon and Harry Warren for the musical film Orchestra Wives (1942). Beyoncé Harry Warren Mack Gordon Cadillac Records 2008 "Ave María" Beyoncé Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Ian Dench Makeba Riddick Stargate I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "A Woman Like Me" "A Woman Like Me" was originally recorded for the soundtrack album of The Pink Panther (2006), but was eventually not used. Beyoncé Beyoncé Charmelle Cofield Ron Lawrence 2006 "Baby Boy" Beyoncé featuring Sean Paul Beyoncé Robert Waller Scott Storch Sean Paul Jay-Z Dangerously in Love 2003 "Back to Black" Beyoncé and André 3000 Amy Winehouse Mark Ronson The Great Gatsby 2013 "Back Up" Beyoncé Beyoncé Rodney Jerkins LaShawn Daniels Delisha Thomas Fred Jerkins III Anesha Birchett Antea Birchett Angela Beyincé B'Day* 2006 "Be Alive" Beyoncé Beyoncé Darius "DIXSON" Scott King Richard 2021 "Be with You" "Be with You" contains interpolations from "I'd Rather Be with You" by Bootsy's Rubber Band and excerpts from "Strawberry Letter 23" by The Brothers Johnson. Beyoncé Angela Beyincé Beyoncé Bootsy Collins Gary Cooper George Clinton, Jr. Rich Harrison Shuggie Otis Jay-Z Eugene Record Dangerously in Love 2003 "Beautiful Liar" Beyoncé and Shakira Amanda Ghost Beyoncé Ian Dench Stargate B'Day 2007 "Before I Let Go" Beyoncé Frankie Beverly Larry Blackmon Tomi Jenkins Beyoncé Jerome Temple Homecoming: The Live Album 2019 "Bello Embustero" "Bello Embustero" is the Spanish-language re-recording of "Beautiful Liar" (B'Day (Deluxe Edition), 2007). Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Beyoncé Ian Dench Rudy Pérez Stargate IrreemplazableIrreemplazable is the first extended play (EP) by Beyoncé. Featuring Spanish, English and Spanglish re-recordings of songs from her second studio album B'Day (2006), it was marketed as a bonus disc for the deluxe edition of B'Day, before being released separately on August 28, 2007 by Columbia Records. 2007 "Best Thing I Never Had" Beyoncé Antonio Dixon Beyoncé Caleb McCampbell Babyface Symbolic One Patrick "J. Que" Smith Shea Taylor 4 2011 "Beyoncé Interlude" Beyoncé Beyoncé Dangerously in Love 2003 "Bienvenue" IAM featuring Beyoncé Akhenaton Shurik'n Deni Hines Dangerously in Love* 2003 "Bigger" Beyoncé Beyoncé Derek Dixie Stacy Barthe Rachel Keen Akil King Ricky Lawson The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Black Parade" Beyoncé Beyoncé Derek James Dixie Akil King Brittany Coney Denisia Andrews Kim Krysiuk Rickie Tice Shawn Carter The Lion King: The Gift 2020 "Blow" Beyoncé Beyoncé Pharrell Williams James Fauntleroy Timbaland J-Roc Justin Timberlake Beyoncé 2013 "Blue" Beyoncé featuring Blue Ivy Beyoncé Boots Beyoncé 2013 "Bow Down / I Been On" Beyoncé Beyoncé Hit-Boy 2013 "Break My Soul" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Christopher Stewart Shawn Carter Allen George Fred McFarlane Adam Pigott Freddie Ross Jens Isaksen Renaissance 2022 "Broken-Hearted Girl" Beyoncé Beyoncé Babyface Stargate I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Brown Eyes" Though featured on Destiny's Child's album Survivor (2001), "Brown Eyes" was performed by Beyoncé only. Beyoncé Beyoncé Walter Afanasieff Survivor 2001 "Brown Skin Girl" Beyoncé with Saint Jhn and Wizkid featuring Blue Ivy Carter Beyoncé Carlos St. John Adio Marchant Shawn Carter Stacy Barthe Anathi Mnyango Michael Uzowuru Richard Isong The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Cadillac Car" Beyoncé, Anne Warren, Anika Noni Rose, Eddie Murphy, Jennifer Hudson, Laura Bell Bundy, Rory O'Malley Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Can I" Drake featuring Beyoncé Aubrey Graham Noah Shebib Beyoncé Johnny Marr Care Package 2019 "Cards Never Lie" Beyoncé, Rah Digga and Wyclef Jean Kip Collins Sekani Williams Carmen: A Hip Hopera 2001 "Check on It" Beyoncé featuring Slim Thug Angela Beyince Beyoncé Swizz Beatz Sean Garrett Slim Thug #1's 2005 Shuman, I., Simonds, R., Trench, T. (Producers), & Levy, S. (Director). (2006). The Pink Panther. Los Angeles, CA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. "Church Girl" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Ernest Wilson Elbernita Clark Jimi Payton Dion Norman Derrick Ordogne James Brown Orville Hall Phillip Price Ralph MacDonald William Salter Renaissance 2022 "" "The Closer I Get to You", originally performed by Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway in 1978, was re-recorded by Beyoncé as a duet with Luther Vandross for her album Dangerously in Love (2003). Beyoncé and Luther Vandross James Mtume Reggie Lucas Dangerously in Love 2003 "Countdown" "Countdown" samples "Uhh Ahh" by Boyz II Men. Beyoncé Beyoncé Cainon Lamb Ester Dean Julie Frost Michael Bivins Nathan Morris Shea Taylor The-Dream Wanya Morris 4 2011 "Cozy" Beyoncé Beyoncé Honey Redmond Christopher Penny Luke Solomon Dave Giles II Nija Charles Terius Nash Michael Dean Corece Smith Curtis Jones Kim Cooper Peter Rauhofer Ts Madison Renaissance 2022 "Crazy Feelings" Missy Elliott featuring Beyoncé Missy Elliott Timbaland Da Real World 1999 "Crazy in Love" "Crazy in Love" contains samples from "Are You My Woman (Tell Me So)" by The Chi-Lites. Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z Beyoncé Eugene Record Rich Harrison Jay-Z Dangerously in Love 2003 "Creole" Beyoncé Beyoncé Makeba Riddick Rich Harrison B'Day* 2006 "Cuff It" Beyoncé Beyoncé Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Morten Ristorp Raphael Saadiq Terius Nash Mary Brockert Allen McGrier Nile Rodgers Renaissance 2022 "Daddy" Beyoncé Beyoncé Mark Batson Dangerously in Love 2003 "Daddy" Beyoncé Beyoncé Mark Batson Daddy's Little Girls 2007 "Daddy Lessons" Beyoncé Beyoncé Kevin Cossom Wynter Gordon Alex Delicata Lemonade 2016 "Dance for You" Beyoncé Beyoncé Tricky Stewart The-Dream 4 2011 "Dangerously in Love 2" Beyoncé Beyoncé Errol McCalla, Jr. Dangerously in Love 2003 "Déjà Vu" Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z Beyoncé Delisha Thomas Keli Nicole Price Makeba Riddick Rodney Jerkins Jay-Z B'Day 2006 "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" Beyoncé covered Carol Channing's 1949 song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" for Giorgio Armani's new fragrance Emporio Armani Diamonds in an ad directed by Jake Nava and titled "Can You Resist?". Beyoncé Jule Styne Leo Robin 2007 "Die with You" Beyoncé Beyoncé Kirby Lauryen Dockery 2015 "Disappear" Beyoncé Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Dave McCracken Hugo Ian Dench I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Diva" Beyoncé Beyoncé Shondrae Crawford Sean Garrett I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Don't Hurt Yourself" Beyoncé featuring Jack White Jack White Beyoncé Wynter Gordon Led Zeppelin Lemonade 2016 "Dreamgirls" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jennifer Hudson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Dreamgirls (Finale)" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jennifer Hudson, Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Dreaming" Beyoncé Antonio Dixon Beyoncé Babyface Patrick "J. Que" Smith 4* 2011 "Dreams" Boots featuring Beyoncé Boots Winter Spring Summer Fall 2014 "Drunk in Love" Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z Beyoncé Detail Jay-Z Andre Eric Proctor Rasool Díaz Brian Soko Timbaland J-Roc Beyoncé 2013 "Ego" Beyoncé Beyoncé Blac Elvis Harold Lilly I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Energy" Beyoncé and BEAM Beyoncé Tyshane Thompson Sonny Moore Almando Cresso Jordan Douglas Tizita Makuria Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Terius Nash Mary Brockert Allen McGrier Pharrell Williams Chad Hugo Adam Pigott Freddie Ross Renaissance 2022 "Fake Your Way to the Top" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Eddie Murphy and Jennifer Hudson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Family" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jamie Foxx, Jennifer Hudson and Keith Robinson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Family (End Title)" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jamie Foxx, Jennifer Hudson and Keith Robinson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Family Feud" "Family Feud" contains portions of "Ha Ya (Eternal Life)", written by Elbernita Clark, and performed by The Clark Sisters. Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Jay-Z Dion Wilson Beyoncé Elbernita Clark 4:44 2017 "Feeling Myself" Nicki Minaj featuring Beyoncé Beyoncé Nicki Minaj SZA Hit-Boy The Pinkprint 2014 "Fever" "Fever" is 1956 a song originally performed by Little Willie John. Beyoncé Eddie Cooley John Davenport The Fighting Temptations 2003 "Fever" Heat 2011 "Fighting Temptation" Beyoncé, Missy Elliott, MC Lyte and Free Gene Pistilli Jonathan Burks Karriem Mack Lana Moorer LaShaun Owens Marie Wright Missy Elliott Walter Murphy The Fighting Temptations 2002 "Find Your Way Back" Beyoncé Beyoncé Brittany Hazzard Bubele Booi Robert Magwenzi Abisagboola Oluseun Niniola Apata Osabuohien Osaretin The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "***Flawless" Beyoncé featuring Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie Beyoncé Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie Boots The-Dream Hit-Boy Rey Reel Beyoncé 2013 "Flawless (Remix)" Beyoncé featuring Nicki Minaj Beyoncé Nicki Minaj The-Dream Hit-Boy OutKast Sleepy Brown HazeBanga Rey Reel Music Beyoncé: Platinum Edition 2014 "Flaws and All" Beyoncé Beyoncé Ne-Yo Shea Taylor Solange Knowles B'Day 2006 "Flaws and All" Why Did I Get Married? 2007 "Formation" Beyoncé Khalif Brown Asheton Hogan Beyoncé Mike Will Made It Lemonade 2016 "Forward" Beyoncé featuring James Blake Beyoncé James Blake Lemonade 2016 "Freakum Dress" Beyoncé Beyoncé Makeba Riddick Rich Harrison B'Day 2006 "Freedom" Beyoncé featuring Kendrick Lamar Beyoncé Jonny Coffer Carla Marie Williams Dean McIntosh Kendrick Lamar Frank Tirado Alan Lomax John Lomax, Sr. Lemonade 2016 "Get Me Bodied" Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé Swizz Beatz Makeba Riddick Sean Garrett Solange Knowles B'Day 2006 "Gift from Virgo" "Gift from Virgo" is inspired by "Rainy Day" by Shuggie Otis. Beyoncé Beyoncé Shuggie Otis Dangerously in Love 2003 "God Bless the USA" "God Bless the USA" is a 1984 song originally performed by Lee Greenwood. Beyoncé Lee Greenwood Charity record 2008 "God Made You Beautiful" Beyoncé Beyoncé Chris Braide Sia Life Is But a Dream / Live in Atlantic City 2013 "Green Light" Beyoncé Beyoncé Pharrell Williams Sean Garrett B'Day 2006 "Grown Woman" "Grown Woman" was only released in music video form on Beyoncé (2013), not as an actual audio track . Beyoncé Beyoncé Timbaland Kelly Sheehan The-Dream Chris Godbey J-Roc Darryl Pearson Garland Mosley Beyoncé 2013 "Halo" Beyoncé Beyoncé E. Kidd Bogart Ryan Tedder I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Halo" Beyoncé featuring Chris Martin of Coldplay Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief 2010 "Hard to Say Goodbye" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Haunted" Beyoncé Beyoncé Boots Beyoncé 2013 "Have Your Way" Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland Beyoncé Fred Jerkins III LaShawn Daniels His Woman His Wife 2000 "Heated" Beyoncé Beyoncé Aubrey Graham Sean Seaton Rupert Thomas Jr. Jahaan Sweet Matthew Samuels Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Ricky Lawson Oliver Rodigan Renaissance 2022 "Heavy" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Jennifer Hudson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "He Still Loves Me" Beyoncé and Walter Williams Sr. James "Big Jim" Wright Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis The Fighting Temptations 2003 "Heaven" Beyoncé Beyoncé Boots Beyoncé 2013 "Hello" Beyoncé Beyoncé David Quiñones E. Kidd Bogart Ramon Owen I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Hey Goldmember" Beyoncé, Devin and Solange Al McKay Harry Wayne Casey Maurice White Mike Myers Paul Myers Richard Finch Austin Powers in: Goldmermber 2002 "Hip Hop Star" Beyoncé featuring Big Boi and Sleepy Brown Big Boi Beyoncé Bryce Wilson Makeda Davis Jay-Z Dangerously in Love 2003 "Hold Up" Beyoncé Diplo Ezra Koenig Beyoncé Emile Haynie J. Tillman MNEK MeLo-X Doc Pomus Mort Shuman Soulja Boy Antonio Randolph Kelvin McConnell Yeah Yeah Yeahs Lemonade 2016 "Hollywood" Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Syience Ne-Yo Jay-Z Kingdom Come 2006 "Honesty" Beyoncé Billy Joel I Am... Sasha Fierce* 2008 "Hymn for the Weekend" Coldplay featuring Beyoncé (uncredited) Coldplay A Head Full of Dreams 2015 "I Can't Take No More" Beyoncé Beyoncé Mario Winans Michael Jones Dangerously in Love 2003 "I Care" Beyoncé Beyoncé Jeff Bhasker Chad Hugo 4 2011 "I Got That" Amil featuring Beyoncé Amil Jean Claude Olivier LeShan Lewis Makeda Davis Samuel Barnes Jay-Z Tamy Smith All Money Is Legal 2000 "I Miss You" Beyoncé Beyoncé Frank Ocean Shea Taylor 4 2011 "I Want You Baby" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Eddie Murphy and Jennifer Hudson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "I Was Here" Beyoncé Diane Warren 4 2011 "I'd Rather Go Blind" "I'd Rather Go Blind" is a 1968 song originally performed by Etta James. Beyoncé Billy Foster Ellington Jordan Etta James Cadillac Records 2008 "If" Beyoncé Beyoncé Stargate Ne-Yo B'Day 2007 "If I Were a Boy" Beyoncé BC Jean Toby Gad I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "If Looks Could Kill (You Would Be Dead)" Beyoncé, Mos Def and Sam Sarpong Kip Collins Sekani Williams Carmen: A Hip Hopera 2001 "I'm Leaving" Beyoncé Speak My Mind 2005 "I'm Somebody" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "I'm That Girl" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Kelman Duran Michael Dean Tommy Wright III Andrea Summers Renaissance 2022 "Irreplaceable" Beyoncé Espionage Beyoncé Stargate Ne-Yo B'Day 2006 "Irreemplazable" "Irreemplazable" is the Spanish-language re-recording of "Irreplaceable" (B'Day (Deluxe Edition), 2007). Beyoncé Beyoncé Espionage Ne-Yo Rudy Pérez Stargate Irreemplazable 2007 "It's All Over" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jamie Foxx, Jennifer Hudson, Keith Robinson, Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Jealous" Beyoncé Beyoncé Detail Andre Eric Proctor Rasool Díaz Brian Soko Boots Beyoncé 2013 "Just Stand Up!" "Just Stand Up!" is a 2008 song performed by an all-star charity supergroup artists during the telethon "Stand Up to Cancer". Beyoncé among Artists Stand Up to Cancer Babyface L.A. Reid 2008 "Keep Giving Your Love to Me" Beyoncé Adonis Shropshire Ryan Leslie Beyoncé Mario Mendell Winans Younglord Bad Boys II 2003 "Kitty Kat" Beyoncé Beyoncé Pharrell Williams Jay-Z B'Day 2006 "" Beyoncé and Mekhi Phifer Kip Collins Sekani Williams Carmen: A Hip Hopera 2001 "Lay Up Under Me" Beyoncé Beyoncé Stargate Sean Garrett Shea Taylor 4 2011 "Lift Off" Jay-Z and Kanye West featuring Beyoncé Jay-Z Kanye West Bruno Mars Jeff Bhasker Pharrell Williams Seal Watch the Throne 2011 "Listen" Beyoncé Anne Preven Beyoncé Henry Krieger Scott Cutler Dreamgirls 2006 "Lorell Loves Jimmy / Family (Reprise)" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Lost Yo Mind" Beyoncé Beyoncé Swizz Beatz Sean Garrett B'Day* 2006 "Love a Woman" Mary J. Blige featuring Beyoncé Beyoncé Mary J. Blige Menardini Timothee Sean Garrett My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1) 2011 "Love Drought" Beyoncé Beyoncé Mike Dean Ingrid Burley Lemonade 2016 "Love in This Club, Part II" Usher featuring Beyoncé and Lil Wayne Thom Bell Lil Wayne Linda Creed Darnell Dalton Keri Hilson Young Jeezy Polow da Don Ryon Lovett Usher Keith Thomas Lamar Taylor Here I Stand 2008 "Love Love Me Baby" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Love on Top" Beyoncé Beyoncé Shea Taylor The-Dream 4 2011 "Make Me Say It Again, Girl" Ronald Isley & The Isley Brothers featuring Beyoncé Chris Jasper Ernest Isley Marvin Isley O'Kelly Isley Ronald Isley Rudolph Isley Make Me Say It Again, Girl 2022 "Me, Myself and I" Beyoncé Beyoncé Robert Waller Scott Storch Dangerously in Love 2003 "Mine" Beyoncé featuring Drake Beyoncé Noah Shebib Drake Majid Jordan Omen Beyoncé 2013 "Mood 4 Eva" "Mood 4 Eva" contains elements of "Diaraby Nene" written and performed by Oumou Sangaré; contains an interpolation of "Sweet Green Fields" written by Jimmy Seals; contains an interpolation of "(Think) About It" written by James Brown. Beyoncé, Jay-Z and Childish Gambino featuring Oumou Sangaré Beyoncé Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Donald Glover Khaled Khaled Floyd Hills Shawn Carter Anathi Mnyango Ant Clemons Michael Uzowuru Teo Halm Jeff Kleinman Jimmy Seals James Brown The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Move" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Jennifer Hudson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Move" Beyoncé, Grace Jones and Tems Beyoncé Richard Isong Ariowa Irosogie Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Temilade Openiyi Ronald Banful Renaissance 2022 "Move Your Body""Move Your Body!" is a 2011 re-written version of the 2006 song "Get Me Bodied" for the Let's Move! Flash Workout, which aims to combat child obesity by prompting youngsters to become more active. Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé Kasseem Dean Makeba Riddick Sean Garrett Solange Knowles 2011 "Mueve el Cuerpo" "Mueve el Cuerpo" is Spanish-language re-recording of "Get Me Bodied" (B'Day, 2006). Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé Kasseem Dean Makeba Riddick Sean Garrett Solange Knowles 2011 "My First Time" Beyoncé Beyoncé The Neptunes Live at Wembley 2004 "My Man" Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé Robert Waller Scott Storch Destiny Fulfilled 2004 "My Power" Beyoncé, Nija, Busiswa, Yemi Alade, Tierra Whack, Moonchild Sanelly and DJ Lag Beyoncé Busiswa Gqulu Yemi Alade Sanelisiwe Twisha Nija Charles Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Lwazi Gwala The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Naïve" Solange Knowles featuring Beyoncé and Da Brat Beyoncé HR Crump Mathew Knowles Da Brat Solo Star 2003 "Naughty Girl" "Naughty Girl" contains interpolations from "Love to Love You Baby" by Donna Summer. Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé Donna Summer Giorgio Moroder Pete Bellotte Robert Waller Scott Storch Dangerously in Love 2003 "Nile" Beyoncé and Kendrick Lamar Beyoncé Kendrick Duckworth Mark Spears Hykeem Carter Jr. Keanu Torres Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "No Angel" "No Angel" is officially stylized as " ~~Angel~~ ". Beyoncé Beyoncé Caroline Polachek James Fauntleroy Beyoncé 2013 "Nothing out There for Me" Missy Elliott featuring Beyoncé Craig Brockman Missy Elliott Nisan Stewart Under Construction 2002 "On the Run" Beyoncé J-Roc James Fauntleroy Jay-Z Timbaland 2013 "Once in a Lifetime" Beyoncé Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Ian Dench James Vernon Dring Jody Street Scott McFarnon Cadillac Records 2008 "One Night Only (Disco)" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Jennifer Hudson and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Otherside" Beyoncé Beyoncé Sydney Bennett Dave Rosser Nick Green Abisagboola Oluseun The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "Oye" "Oye" is Spanish-language re-recording of "Listen" (B'Day (Deluxe Edition), 2007). Beyoncé Anne Preven Beyoncé Henry Krieger Rudy Pérez Scott Cutler Irreemplazable 2007 "Part II (On the Run)" Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Jay-Z James Fauntleroy J-Roc Timbaland Magna Carta Holy Grail 2013 "Partition" Beyoncé Beyoncé The-Dream Justin Timberlake Timbaland J-Roc Key Wane Beyoncé 2013 "Party" "Party" samples "La Di Da Di" by Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew featuring MC Ricky D. Beyoncé featuring André 3000 André 3000 Beyoncé Consequence Doug E. Fresh Jeff Bhasker Kanye West MC Ricky D. 4 2011 "Party" Beyoncé featuring J. Cole Beyoncé Consequence Doug E. Fresh Jeff Bhasker J. Cole Kanye West MC Ricky D 2011 "Pepsi's Carmen"Beyoncé recorded "Pepsi's Carmen" for a 2003 Pepsi Commercial. Beyoncé 2003 "Perfect Duet" Ed Sheeran and Beyoncé Ed Sheeran Beyoncé 2017 "Pink + White" Frank Ocean (additional vocals by Beyoncé) Christopher Breaux Pharrell Williams Blonde 2016 "Plastic off the Sofa" Beyoncé Beyoncé Sydney Bennett Sabrina Claudio Nick Green Patrick Paige II Renaissance 2022 "Poison" Beyoncé Beyoncé Johntá Austin Stargate I Am... Sasha Fierce* 2009 "Pray" (uncredited) Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Alan Hawkshaw Deleno Matthews Levar Coppin Diddy Jay-Z American Gangster 2007 "Pray You Catch Me" Beyoncé Kevin Garrett Beyoncé James Blake Lemonade 2016 "Pretty Hurts" Beyoncé Beyoncé Ammo Sia Beyoncé 2013 "Pure/Honey" Beyoncé Beyoncé Michael Tucker Darius Scott Michael Pollack Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Terius Nash Raphael Saadiq Moi Renee Eric Snead Jerel Black Michael Cox Kevin Bellmon Richard Cowie Count Maurice Renaissance 2022 "Put It in a Love Song" Alicia Keys featuring Beyoncé Alicia Keys Swizz Beatz The Element of Freedom 2009 "Radio" Beyoncé Beyoncé D-Town Jim Jonsin Rico Love I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Rather Die Young" Beyoncé Beyoncé Jeff Bhasker Luke Steele 4 2011 "Resentment" "Resentment" samples "Think (Instrumental)" by Curtis Mayfield. Beyoncé Beyoncé Candice Nelson Curtis Mayfield Walter Millsap III B'Day 2006 "Ring Off" Beyoncé Beyoncé Mike Caren Cook Classics Geoff Early Charles Hinshaw Adam Amezaga Derek Dixie Stephen Bishop Hit-Boy Mike Dean Sidney Swift Beyoncé: Platinum Edition 2014 "Ring the Alarm" Beyoncé Beyoncé Swizz Beatz Sean Garrett B'Day 2006 "Rise Up" Beyoncé Beyoncé Sia Hit-Boy Chase N. Cashe Epic 2013 "Rocket" Beyoncé Beyoncé Miguel Timbaland J-Roc Justin Timberlake Beyoncé 2013 "Run the World (Girls)" "Run the World (Girls)" samples "Pon de Floor" by Major Lazer. Beyoncé Vybz Kartel Beyoncé Switch Afrojack Shea Taylor The-Dream Diplo 4 2011 "Runnin' (Lose It All)" Naughty Boy featuring Beyoncé and Arrow Benjamin Beyoncé Arrow Benjamin Carla Marie Williams Jonny Coffer Naughty Boy 2015 "Sandcastles" Beyoncé Beyoncé Vincent Berry II Malik Yusef Midian Mathers Lemonade 2016 "Satellites" Beyoncé Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Dave McCracken Ian Dench I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Savage (Remix)" Megan Thee Stallion featuring Beyoncé Megan Pete Beyoncé Anthony White Bobby Sessions Jr. Derrick Milano Terius Nash Jorden Thorpe Shawn Carter Brittany Hazzard Good News 2020 "Save the Hero" Beyoncé Beyoncé Ali Tamposi Jim Jonsin Rico Love I Am... Sasha Fierce* 2008 "Say Yes" Michelle Williams featuring Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland Michelle Williams Carmen Reece Al Sherrod Lambert Harmony Samuels Journey to Freedom 2014 "Scared of Lonely" Beyoncé Beyoncé Cristyle Darkchild LaShawn Daniels Rico Love Solange Knowles I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Schoolin' Life" Beyoncé Beyoncé Carlos McKinney Shea Taylor The-Dream 4 2011 "See Me Now" Kanye West featuring Beyoncé, Big Sean and Charlie Wilson Beyoncé Big Sean Charlie Wilson Kanye West My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy 2010 "Sexuality" Beyoncé Speak My Mind 2005 "Sexy Lil' Thug" "Sexy Lil' Thug" is Beyoncé's 2003 re-recording of 50 Cent's 2003 song "In da Club". Beyoncé Dr. Dre 50 Cent Mike Elizondo Speak My Mind 2005 "Signs" Beyoncé featuring Missy Elliott Craig Brockman Missy Elliott Nisan Stewart Dangerously in Love 2003 "Sing a Song" "Sing a Song" is a single released for the Wow! Wow! Wubbzy! film Wubb Idol, which starred Beyoncé as Shine, a member of The WubbGirlz. The WubbGirlz featuring Beyoncé as Shine Beyoncé Bob Boyle Brad Mossman Eddie Smith III John Powell Johnathan Wells Mike Reagan Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!: Sing-a-Song 2009 "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" Beyoncé Beyoncé Kuk Harrell The-Dream Tricky Stewart I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Smash into You" Beyoncé Beyoncé The-Dream Tricky Stewart I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 Obsessed 2009 "So Amazing" Beyoncé and Stevie Wonder Benjamin Wright Luther Vandross So Amazing: An All-Star Tribute to Luther Vandross 2005 "Sorry" Beyoncé Wynter Gordon Beyoncé Melo-X Lemonade 2016 "Sorry Not Sorry" DJ Khaled featuring Nas, Jay-Z, James Fauntleroy, and Beyoncé as Harmonies by the Hive Khaled Khaled Nasir Jones Shawn Carter James Fauntleroy II Beyoncé Knowles-Carter Kevin Cossom Khaled Khaled 2021 "Speechless" Beyoncé Andreao Heard Angela Beyince Beyoncé Sherrod Barnes Dangerously in Love 2003 "Spirit" Beyoncé Ilya Salmanzadeh Timothy Lee McKenzie Beyoncé Knowles Carter The Lion King: The Gift The Lion King: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2019 "Standing on the Sun" Beyoncé featuring Mr. Vegas Beyoncé Sia Greg Kurstin Detail Andre Eric Proctor Rasool Díaz Brian Soko Beyoncé: Platinum Edition 2014 "Star Spangled Banner" "The Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the United States of America. This recording is Beyoncé's a cappella performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII (2004). Beyoncé Francis Scott Key 2004 "Start Over" Beyoncé Beyoncé Ester Dean Shea Taylor 4 2011 "Step on Over" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose and Sharon Leal Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Steppin' to the Bad Side" Beyoncé, Anika Noni Rose, Eddie Murphy, Hinton Battle, Jamie Foxx, Jennifer Hudson and Keith Robinson Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Still in Love (Kissing You)" "Still in Love (Kissing You)" is Beyoncé's 2007 re-recording of Des'ree's 1997 song "Kissing You". Beyoncé Beyoncé Des'ree Timothy Atack B'Day 2007 "Stop That" Beyoncé and Mekhi Phifer Kip Collins Carmen: A Hip Hopera 2001 "Suga Mama" "Suga Mama" samples "Searching for Soul" by Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers. Beyoncé Beyoncé Chuck Middleton Makeba Riddick Rich Harrison B'Day 2006 "Summer Renaissance" Beyoncé Beyoncé Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Terius Nash Leven Kali Mike Dean Atia Boggs Levar Coppin Saliou Diagne Ricky Lawson Donna Summer Giorgio Moroder Peter Bellotte Renaissance 2022 "Summertime" Beyoncé featuring P. Diddy Adonis Shropshire Angela Beyince Beyoncé Mario Winans P. Diddy Stevie J Smitty The Fighting Temptations 2003 "Superpower" Beyoncé featuring Frank Ocean Beyoncé Pharrell Williams Frank Ocean Beyoncé 2013 "Sweet Dreams" Beyoncé Beyoncé Jim Jonsin Rico Love Wayne Wilkins I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Telephone" Lady Gaga featuring Beyoncé Beyoncé Lady Gaga Darkchild LaShawn Daniels Lazonate Franklin The Fame Monster 2009 "That's How You Like It" "That's How You Like It" contains resung lyrics from "I Like It" by DeBarge. Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z Brian Bridgeman Bunny DeBarge Delroy Andrews El DeBarge Jay-Z Randy DeBarge Dangerously in Love 2003 "That's Why You're Beautiful" Beyoncé Beyoncé Andrew Hey James Fauntleroy II I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Thique" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Chauncey Hollis Jr. Atia Boggs Julian Mason Jabbar Stevens Cherdericka Nichols Renaissance 2022 "Time to Come Home" Beyoncé, Angie Stone and Melba Moore James "Big Jim" Wright" Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis The Fighting Temptations 2003 "Trust in Me" Beyoncé Jean Schwartz Milton Ager Ned Wever Cadillac Records 2008 "Turnt" The-Dream featuring Beyoncé and 2 Chainz Beyoncé The-Dream 2 Chainz IV Play 2013 "Until the End of Time" Justin Timberlake and Beyoncé Justin Timberlake Danja Timbaland FutureSex/LoveSounds 2007 "Up & Up" Coldplay featuring Beyoncé, Merry Clayton, Annabelle Wallis, Noel Gallagher and Moses Martin (uncredited) Coldplay A Head Full of Dreams 2015 "Upgrade U" "Upgrade U" samples "Girls Can't Do What the Guys Do (And Still Be a Lady)" by Betty Wright. Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z Angela Beyince Beyoncé Blowfly Makeba Riddick Rich Harrison Sean Garrett Jay-Z Solange Knowles Willie Clarke B'Day 2006 "Venus vs. Mars" Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé (uncredited) Jay-Z Jerome Harmon Timbaland The Blueprint 3 2009 "Video Phone" Beyoncé Beyoncé Angela Beyince Bangladesh Sean Garrett I Am... Sasha Fierce 2008 "Virgo's Groove" Beyoncé Beyoncé Leven Kali Solomon Cole Daniel Memmi Dustin Bowie Darius Scott Jocelyn Donald Jesse Wilson Denisia Andrews Brittany Coney Renaissance 2022 "Water" Salatiel, Pharrell and Beyoncé Beyoncé Nana Afriyie Nija Charles Richard Isong The Lion King: The Gift 2019 "We Will Rock You" Beyoncé, Britney Spears and P!nk covered Queen's 1977 song "We Will Rock You" for an international commercial Pepsi campaign. The song was released on Pepsi Music 2004 CD. Beyoncé, Britney Spears and P!nk Brian May Pepsi Music 2004 CD 2002 "Welcome to Hollywood" "Welcome to Hollywood" is Beyoncé's 2007 re-recording of Jay-Z's 2006 song "Hollywood". Beyoncé Beyoncé Syience Ne-Yo Jay-Z B'Day 2007 "What's It Gonna Be" "What's It Gonna Be" contains a sample of Zapp's "Do It Roger", written by Larry Troutman and Roger Troutman. Beyoncé Beyoncé Corte Ellis LaShaun Owens Kandice Love Karrim Mack Larry Troutman Roger Troutman Dangerously in Love* 2003 "What More Can I Give" The All Stars Michael Jackson September 11 attacks Inspiration promo 2001 "When I First Saw You (Duet)" Beyoncé and Jamie Foxx Henry Krieger Tom Eyen Dreamgirls 2006 "Why Don't You Love Me" Beyoncé Beyoncé Angela Beyince Bama Boyz Solange Knowles I Am... Sasha Fierce* 2009 "Wishing on a Star" "Wishing on a Star" is 1978 a song originally performed by Rose Royce. Beyoncé Billie Rae Calvin Live at Wembley 2004 "Wishing on a Star" 2010 "Work It Out" Beyoncé Beyoncé The Neptunes Austin Powers in: Goldmember 2002 "World Wide Woman" Beyoncé Angela Beyince Beyoncé LaShawn Daniels Makeba Riddick Rodney Jerkins Sean Garrett B'Day 2007 "XO" Beyoncé Beyoncé The-Dream Ryan Tedder Beyoncé 2013 "Yes" Beyoncé Focus... Beyoncé Jay-Z Dangerously in Love 2003 "You Changed" Kelly Rowland featuring Beyoncé and Michelle Williams Kelly Rowland Courtney Harrell Harmony Samuels Talk a Good Game 2013 "Young Forever" (Live) Jay-Z featuring Beyoncé Jay-Z Alphaville Live in Brooklyn 2012 ==Unreleased songs== Song Artist(s) Writer(s) Originating album Leak Ref. "632-5792" Beyoncé "A Mile, A Way" Beyoncé Beyoncé Shawn Carter Pharrell Williams Chakeiya Richmond "And All Alone" Beyoncé Beyoncé Boots Lemonade "Bad" Beyoncé Nikita Victoria Riddick "Beat My Drum" Beyoncé Beyoncé Sean Garrett Tracey Serwell I Am... Sasha Fierce "Beauty of Love" Beyoncé Kara Dioguardi Reginald Perry "Black Culture" "Black Culture" samples "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough" by Michael Jackson. Beyoncé I Am... Sasha Fierce "Butterfly" Beyoncé Damond Nichols "Chart Topper" Beyoncé Beyoncé "Donk" Beyoncé Beyoncé Terius Nash Pharrell Williams Beyoncé "Erotic" Beyoncé Amanda Ghost Beyoncé Johntá Austin I Am... Sasha Fierce "Forever to Bleed" Beyoncé Clinton Sparks I Am... Sasha Fierce "Free Fall" Beyoncé Jerome Harmon Beyoncé Timothy Mosley Justin Timberlake James Fauntleroy Christopher Godbey Beyoncé "Hold My Beer" Beyoncé Errol McCalla Jr. Beyoncé "I'm Glad There's You" Beyoncé Jimmy Dorsey Paul Madeira Dangerously in Love "Ice Cream Truck" Beyoncé "Life" Beyoncé Ryan Tedder Beyoncé Brent Kutzle "Murder on the Dancefloor" Beyoncé Nikita Victoria Riddick "My Body" Beyoncé Alonzo Stevenson Beyoncé Crystal Johnson Tony Reyes I Am... Sasha Fierce "Never Gonna Love Again" Beyoncé Beyoncé Boots Lemonade "Owls Go" Beyoncé Cameron David Bird Cecil James Beyoncé "Roc" Beyoncé Johntá Austin Mikkel Storleer Eriksen Tor Erik Hermansen I Am... Sasha Fierce "Runway" Beyoncé Terius Nash Beyoncé "Scent of You" Beyoncé Bryce Wilson Dangerously in Love "Settle for You" Beyoncé Shawn Carter Makeda Davis Beyoncé Bryce Wilson Dangerously in Love "Vulnerable" Beyoncé Chad Hugo Beyoncé Pharrell Williams Dangerously in Love "Waiting" Beyoncé Mikkel Storleer Eriksen Shaffer Smith Tor Erik Hermansen I Am... Sasha Fierce "Wake Up" Beyoncé Beyoncé Pharrell Williams Beyoncé "What Kind of World" Beyoncé Louis Biancaniello Jim Jonsin Sam Watters Dangerously in Love "Wrapped Around Me" Beyoncé Missy Elliott Dangerously in Love ==See also== * Beyoncé discography * List of best-selling music artists * Destiny's Child discography ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Beyoncé's official website Beyonce
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The Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) is the barrier that protected the Space Shuttle Orbiter during the searing heat of atmospheric reentry. A secondary goal was to protect from the heat and cold of space while in orbit. ==Materials== thumb|Thermal protection system for orbiter 103 and subsequent orbiters thumb|400px|Endeavour in the California Science Center museum, showing tiles near door The TPS covered essentially the entire orbiter surface, and consisted of seven different materials in varying locations based on amount of required heat protection: * Reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC), used in the nose cap, the chin area between the nose cap and nose landing gear doors, the arrowhead aft of the nose landing gear door, and the wing leading edges. Used where reentry temperature exceeded . * High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI) tiles, used on the orbiter underside. Made of coated LI-900 silica ceramics. Used where reentry temperature was below 1,260 °C. * Fibrous refractory composite insulation (FRCI) tiles, used to provide improved strength, durability, resistance to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI tiles were replaced by this type. * Flexible Insulation Blankets (FIB), a quilted, flexible blanket-like surface insulation. Used where reentry temperature was below . * Low-temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (LRSI) tiles, formerly used on the upper fuselage, but were mostly replaced by FIB. Used in temperature ranges roughly similar to FIB. * Toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI) tiles, a stronger, tougher tile which came into use in 1996. Used in high and low temperature areas. * Felt reusable surface insulation (FRSI). White Nomex felt blankets on the upper payload bay doors, portions of the mid fuselage and aft fuselage sides, portions of the upper wing surface and a portion of the OMS/RCS pods. Used where temperatures stayed below . Each type of TPS had specific heat protection, impact resistance, and weight characteristics, which determined the locations where it was used and the amount used. The shuttle TPS had three key characteristics that distinguished it from the TPS used on previous spacecraft: ; Reusable: Previous spacecraft generally used ablative heat shields which burned off during reentry and so could not be reused. This insulation was robust and reliable, and the single-use nature was appropriate for a single-use vehicle. By contrast, the reusable shuttle required a reusable thermal protection system. ; Lightweight: Previous ablative heat shields were very heavy. For example, the ablative heat shield on the Apollo Command Module comprised about 15% of the vehicle weight. The winged shuttle had much more surface area than previous spacecraft, so a lightweight TPS was crucial. ; Fragile: The only known technology in the early 1970s with the required thermal and weight characteristics was also so fragile, due to the very low density, that one could easily crush a TPS tile by hand. ==Purpose== thumb|Discovery's under wing surfaces are protected by thousands of High-Temperature Reusable Insulation tiles. The orbiter's aluminium structure could not withstand temperatures over without structural failure. Aerodynamic heating during reentry would push the temperature well above this level in areas, so an effective insulator was needed. ===Reentry heating=== thumb|A closer view of the tiles under the forward fuselage and the front end of the left wing. The corner of the nose-gear door can be seen at the lower left. The dark solid black tiles are new ones which have yet to go through a reentry. (At top, the white object is the open left cargo bay door.)Reentry heating differs from the normal atmospheric heating associated with jet aircraft, and this governed TPS design and characteristics. The skin of high-speed jet aircraft can also become hot, but this is from frictional heating due to atmospheric friction, similar to warming one's hands by rubbing them together. The orbiter reentered the atmosphere as a blunt body by having a very high (40°) angle of attack, with its broad lower surface facing the direction of flight. Over 80% of the heating the orbiter experiences during reentry is caused by compression of the air ahead of the hypersonic vehicle, in accordance with the basic thermodynamic relation between pressure and temperature. A hot shock wave was created in front of the vehicle, which deflected most of the heat and prevented the orbiter's surface from directly contacting the peak heat. Therefore, reentry heating was largely convective heat transfer between the shock wave and the orbiter's skin through superheated plasma. The key to a reusable shield against this type of heating is very low-density material, similar to how a thermos bottle inhibits convective heat transfer. Some high- temperature metal alloys can withstand reentry heat; they simply get hot and re-radiate the absorbed heat. This technique, called heat sink thermal protection, was planned for the X-20 Dyna-Soar winged space vehicle. However, the amount of high-temperature metal required to protect a large vehicle like the Space Shuttle Orbiter would have been very heavy and entailed a severe penalty to the vehicle's performance. Similarly, ablative TPS would be heavy, possibly disturb vehicle aerodynamics as it burned off during reentry, and require significant maintenance to reapply after each mission. (Unfortunately, TPS tile, which was originally specified never to take debris strikes during launch, in practice also needed to be closely inspected and repaired after each landing, due to damage invariably incurred during ascent, even before new on-orbit inspection policies were established following the loss of Space Shuttle Columbia.) == Detailed description == 100px|thumb|Silica tile from Atlantis The TPS was a system of different protection types, not just silica tiles. They are in two basic categories: tile TPS and non-tile TPS. The main selection criteria used the lightest weight protection capable of handling the heat in a given area. However, in some cases a heavier type was used if additional impact resistance was needed. The FIB blankets were primarily adopted for reduced maintenance, not for thermal or weight reasons. Much of the shuttle was covered with LI-900 silica tiles, made from essentially very pure quartz sand. The insulation prevented heat transfer to the underlying orbiter aluminium skin and structure. These tiles were such poor heat conductors that one could hold one by the edges while it was still red hot. There were about 24,300 unique tiles individually fitted on the vehicle, for which the orbiter has been called "the flying brickyard". Researchers at University of Minnesota and Pennsylvania State University are performing the atomistic simulations to obtain accurate description of interactions between atomic and molecular oxygen with silica surfaces to develop better high- temperature oxidation-protection systems for leading edges on hypersonic vehicles. The tiles were not mechanically fastened to the vehicle, but glued. Since the brittle tiles could not flex with the underlying vehicle skin, they were glued to Nomex felt Strain Isolation Pads (SIPs) with room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicone adhesive, which were in turn glued to the orbiter skin. These isolated the tiles from the orbiter's structural deflections and expansions. Gluing on the 24,300 tiles required nearly two man-years of work for every flight, partly due to the fact that the glue dried quickly and new batches needed to be produced after every couple of tiles. An ad-hoc remedy that involved technicians spitting in the glue to slow down the drying process was common practice until 1988, when a tile-hazard study revealed that spit weakened the adhesive's bonding strength. ===Tile types=== ====High- temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI)==== thumb|An HRSI tile. Note the yellow markings, which denote its exact location on the orbiter. The black HRSI tiles provided protection against temperatures up to . There were 20,548 HRSI tiles which covered the landing gear doors, external tank umbilical connection doors, and the rest of the orbiter's under surfaces. They were also used in areas on the upper forward fuselage, parts of the orbital maneuvering system pods, vertical stabilizer leading edge, elevon trailing edges, and upper body flap surface. They varied in thickness from , depending upon the heat load encountered during reentry. Except for closeout areas, these tiles were normally square. The HRSI tile was composed of high purity silica fibers. Ninety percent of the volume of the tile was empty space, giving it a very low density () making it light enough for spaceflight. The uncoated tiles were bright white in appearance and looked more like a solid ceramic than the foam- like material that they were. The black coating on the tiles was Reaction Cured Glass (RCG) of which tetraboron silicide and borosilicate glass were some of several ingredients. RCG was applied to all but one side of the tile to protect the porous silica and to increase the heat sink properties. The coating was absent from a small margin of the sides adjacent to the uncoated (bottom) side. To waterproof the tile, dimethylethoxysilane was injected into the tiles by syringe. Densifying the tile with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) also helped to protect the silica and added additional waterproofing. 500px|center|Diagram of a HRSI tile. An uncoated HRSI tile held in the hand feels like a very light foam, less dense than styrofoam, and the delicate, friable material must be handled with extreme care to prevent damage. The coating feels like a thin, hard shell and encapsulates the white insulating ceramic to resolve its friability, except on the uncoated side. Even a coated tile feels very light, lighter than a same-sized block of styrofoam. As expected for silica, they are odorless and inert. HRSI was primarily designed to withstand transition from areas of extremely low temperature (the void of space, about ) to the high temperatures of re-entry (caused by interaction, mostly compression at the hypersonic shock, between the gases of the upper atmosphere & the hull of the Space Shuttle, typically around ). ====Fibrous Refractory Composite Insulation Tiles (FRCI)==== The black FRCI tiles provided improved durability, resistance to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI tiles were replaced by this type. ====Toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI)==== A stronger, tougher tile which came into use in 1996. TUFI tiles came in high temperature black versions for use in the orbiter's underside, and lower temperature white versions for use on the upper body. While more impact resistant than other tiles, white versions conducted more heat which limited their use to the orbiter's upper body flap and main engine area. Black versions had sufficient heat insulation for the orbiter underside but had greater weight. These factors restricted their use to specific areas. ====Low-temperature reusable surface insulation (LRSI)==== White in color, these covered the upper wing near the leading edge. They were also used in selected areas of the forward, mid, and aft fuselage, vertical tail, and the OMS/RCS pods. These tiles protected areas where reentry temperatures are below . The LRSI tiles were manufactured in the same manner as the HRSI tiles, except that the tiles were square and had a white RCG coating made of silica compounds with shiny aluminium oxide. The white color was by design and helped to manage heat on orbit when the orbiter was exposed to direct sunlight. These tiles were reusable for up to 100 missions with refurbishment (100 missions was also the design lifetime of each orbiter). They were carefully inspected in the Orbiter Processing Facility after each mission, and damaged or worn tiles were immediately replaced before the next mission. Fabric sheets known as gap fillers were also inserted between tiles where necessary. These allowed for a snug fit between tiles, preventing excess plasma from penetrating between them, yet allowing for thermal expansion and flexing of the underlying vehicle skin. Prior to the introduction of FIB blankets, LRSI tiles occupied all of the areas now covered by the blankets, including the upper fuselage and the whole surface of the OMS pods. This TPS configuration was only used on Columbia and Challenger. ===Non-tile TPS=== ====Flexible Insulation Blankets/Advanced Flexible Reusable Insulation (FIB/AFRSI)==== Developed after the initial delivery of Columbia and first used on the OMS pods of Challenger. This white low-density fibrous silica batting material had a quilt-like appearance, and replaced the vast majority of the LRSI tiles. They required much less maintenance than LRSI tiles yet had about the same thermal properties. After their limited use on Challenger, they were used much more extensively beginning with Discovery and replaced many of the LRSI tiles on Columbia after the loss of Challenger. ====Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC)==== The light gray material which withstood reentry temperatures up to protected the wing leading edges and nose cap. Each of the orbiters' wings had 22 RCC panels about thick. T-seals between each panel allowed for thermal expansion and lateral movement between these panels and the wing. RCC was a laminated composite material made from carbon fibres impregnated with a phenolic resin. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate was pyrolized to convert the resin to pure carbon. This was then impregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, then cured and pyrolized again to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. This process was repeated three times until the desired carbon-carbon properties were achieved. To provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC were coated with silicon carbide. The silicon-carbide coating protected the carbon-carbon from oxidation. The RCC was highly resistant to fatigue loading that was experienced during ascent and entry. It was stronger than the tiles and was also used around the socket of the forward attach point of the orbiter to the External Tank to accommodate the shock loads of the explosive bolt detonation. RCC was the only TPS material that also served as structural support for part of the orbiter's aerodynamic shape: the wing leading edges and the nose cap. All other TPS components (tiles and blankets) were mounted onto structural materials that supported them, mainly the aluminium frame and skin of the orbiter. ====Nomex Felt Reusable Surface Insulation (FRSI)==== This white, flexible fabric offered protection at up to . FRSI covered the orbiter's upper wing surfaces, upper payload bay doors, portions of the OMS/RCS pods, and aft fuselage. ====Gap fillers==== Gap fillers were placed at doors and moving surfaces to minimize heating by preventing the formation of vortices. Doors and moving surfaces created open gaps in the heat protection system that had to be protected from heat. Some of these gaps were safe, but there were some areas on the heat shield where surface pressure gradients caused a crossflow of boundary layer air in those gaps. The filler materials were made of either white AB312 fibers or black AB312 cloth covers (which contain alumina fibers). These materials were used around the leading edge of the nose cap, windshields, side hatch, wing, trailing edge of elevons, vertical stabilizer, the rudder/speed brake, body flap, and heat shield of the shuttle's main engines. On STS-114, some of this material was dislodged and determined to pose a potential safety risk. It was possible that the gap filler could cause turbulent airflow further down the fuselage, which would result in much higher heating, potentially damaging the orbiter. The cloth was removed during a spacewalk during the mission. ===Weight considerations=== While reinforced carbon–carbon had the best heat protection characteristics, it was also much heavier than the silica tiles and FIBs, so it was limited to relatively small areas. In general the goal was to use the lightest weight insulation consistent with the required thermal protection. Density of each TPS type: Material Density Density Material (kg/m³) (lb/cu ft) Reinforced carbon–carbon 1986 124 LI-2200 tiles 352 22 Fibrous refractory composite insulation tiles 192 12 LI-900 tiles (black or white) 144 9 Flexible insulation blankets 144 9 Total area and weight of each TPS type (used on Orbiter 102, pre-1996): TPS type Color Area (m2) Areal density (kg/m2) Weight (kg) Felt reusable surface insulation White 332.7 1.6 532.1 Low-temperature reusable surface insulation Off-white 254.6 3.98 1014.2 High-temperature reusable surface insulation Black 479.7 9.2 4412.6 Reinforced carbon–carbon Light gray 38.0 44.7 1697.3 Miscellaneous 918.5 Total 1105.0 8574.4 == Early TPS problems == ===Slow tile application=== thumb|Columbia in the Orbiter Processing Facility after its arrival at Kennedy Space Center on 25 March 1979, showing many missing tiles. 7,800 of 31,000 tiles were still to be attached. Tiles often fell off and caused much of the delay in the launch of STS-1, the first shuttle mission, which was originally scheduled for 1979 but did not occur until April 1981. NASA was unused to lengthy delays in its programs, and was under great pressure from the government and military to launch soon. In March 1979 it moved the incomplete Columbia, with 7,800 of the 31,000 tiles missing, from the Rockwell International plant in Palmdale, California to Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Beyond creating the appearance of progress in the program, NASA hoped that the tiling could be finished while the rest of the orbiter was prepared. This was a mistake; some of the Rockwell tilers disliked Florida and soon returned to California, and the Orbiter Processing Facility was not designed for manufacturing and was too small for its 400 workers. Each tile used cement that required 16 hours to cure. After the tile was affixed to the cement, a jack held it in place for another 16 hours. In March 1979 it took each worker 40 hours to install one tile; by using young, efficient college students during the summer the pace sped up to 1.8 tiles per worker per week. Thousands of tiles failed stress tests and had to be replaced. By fall NASA realized that the speed of tiling would determine the launch date. The tiles were so problematic that officials would have switched to any other thermal protection method, but none other existed. Because it had to be ferried without all tiles the gaps were filled with material to maintain the Shuttle's aerodynamics while in transit. ===Concern over "zipper effect"=== The tile TPS was an area of concern during shuttle development, mainly concerning adhesion reliability. Some engineers thought a failure mode could exist whereby one tile could detach, and resulting aerodynamic pressure would create a "zipper effect" stripping off other tiles. Whether during ascent or reentry, the result would be disastrous. ===Concern over debris strikes=== Another problem was ice or other debris impacting the tiles during ascent. This had never been fully and thoroughly solved, as the debris had never been eliminated, and the tiles remained susceptible to damage from it. NASA's final strategy for mitigating this problem was to aggressively inspect for, assess, and address any damage that may occur, while on orbit and before reentry, in addition to on the ground between flights. ===Early tile repair plans=== These concerns were sufficiently great that NASA did significant work developing an emergency-use tile repair kit which the STS-1 crew could use before deorbiting. By December 1979, prototypes and early procedures were completed, most of which involved equipping the astronauts with a special in-space repair kit and a jet pack called the Manned Maneuvering Unit, or MMU, developed by Martin Marietta. Another element was a maneuverable work platform which would secure an MMU-propelled spacewalking astronaut to the fragile tiles beneath the orbiter. The concept used electrically controlled adhesive cups which would lock the work platform into position on the featureless tile surface. About one year before the 1981 STS-1 launch, NASA decided the repair capability was not worth the additional risk and training, so discontinued development.Houston Chronicle, March 9, 2003 There were unresolved problems with the repair tools and techniques; also further tests indicated the tiles were unlikely to come off. The first shuttle mission did suffer several tile losses, but they were in non-critical areas, and no "zipper effect" occurred. ==Columbia accident and aftermath== On February 1, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia was destroyed on reentry due to a failure of the TPS. The investigation team found and reported that the probable cause of the accident was that during launch, a piece of foam debris punctured an RCC panel on the left wing's leading edge and allowed hot gases from the reentry to enter the wing and disintegrate the wing from within, leading to eventual loss of control and breakup of the shuttle. The Space Shuttle's thermal protection system received a number of controls and modifications after the disaster. They were applied to the three remaining shuttles, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour in preparation for subsequent mission launches into space. On 2005's STS-114 mission, in which Discovery made the first flight to follow the Columbia accident, NASA took a number of steps to verify that the TPS was undamaged. The Orbiter Boom Sensor System, a new extension to the Remote Manipulator System, was used to perform laser imaging of the TPS to inspect for damage. Prior to docking with the International Space Station, Discovery performed a Rendezvous Pitch Maneuver, simply a 360° backflip rotation, allowing all areas of the vehicle to be photographed from ISS. Two gap fillers were protruding from the orbiter's underside more than the nominally allowed distance, and the agency cautiously decided it would be best to attempt to remove the fillers or cut them flush rather than risk the increased heating they would cause. Even though each one protruded less than , it was believed that leaving them could cause heating increases of 25% upon reentry. Because the orbiter did not have any handholds on its underside (as they would cause much more trouble with reentry heating than the protruding gap fillers of concern), astronaut Stephen K. Robinson worked from the ISS's robotic arm, Canadarm2. Because the TPS tiles were quite fragile, there had been concern that anyone working under the vehicle could cause more damage to the vehicle than was already there, but NASA officials felt that leaving the gap fillers alone was a greater risk. In the event, Robinson was able to pull the gap fillers free by hand, and caused no damage to the TPS on Discovery. ==Tile donations== , with the impending Space Shuttle retirement, NASA is donating TPS tiles to schools, universities, and museums for the cost of shipping—US$23.40 each. About 7000 tiles were available on a first-come, first-served basis, but limited to one each per institution. == See also == * Space Shuttle program * Space Shuttle Columbia disaster * Columbia Accident Investigation Board == References == *"When the Space Shuttle finally flies", article written by Rick Gore. National Geographic (pp. 316–347. Vol. 159, No. 3. March 1981). http://www.datamanos2.com/columbia/natgeomar81.html *Space Shuttle Operator's Manual, by Kerry Mark Joels and Greg Kennedy (Ballantine Books, 1982). *The Voyages of Columbia: The First True Spaceship, by Richard S. Lewis (Columbia University Press, 1984). *A Space Shuttle Chronology, by John F. Guilmartin and John Mauer (NASA Johnson Space Center, 1988). *Space Shuttle: The Quest Continues, by George Forres (Ian Allan, 1989). *Information Summaries: Countdown! NASA Launch Vehicles and Facilities, (NASA PMS 018-B (KSC), October 1991). *Space Shuttle: The History of Developing the National Space Transportation System, by Dennis Jenkins (Walsworth Publishing Company, 1996). *U.S. Human Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 1961–1998. NASA – Monographs in Aerospace History No. 9, July 1998. *Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System by Gary Milgrom. February, 2013. Free iTunes ebook download. https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/space-shuttle-thermal- protection/id591095660?mt=11 == Notes == == External links == *https://web.archive.org/web/20060909094330/http://www- pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm *https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103505/http://ww3.albint.com/about/research/Pages/protectionSystems.aspx *http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/sts_sys.html *https://web.archive.org/web/20160307090308/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Shuttle_Gordon_TPS- PUBLIC_Appendix.pdf Category:Space Shuttle program Category:Thermal protection Category:Atmospheric entry
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The Republic of Artsakh and the United States do not have official diplomatic relations as the United States is among the vast majority of countries that does not recognize Artsakh as a sovereign nation and instead recognizes the region of Artsakh, or Nagorno-Karabakh, as part of Azerbaijan. Despite no formal relations, the Republic of Artsakh has a representative office in Washington, D.C. since November 1997. ==History== From 1991 to 1994 land mines that were placed in the Nagorno-Karabakh region from the first Nagorno- Karabakh War have been part of an ongoing demining operation largely funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The USAID has been working closely with the HALO Trust, a UK-based demining NGO, is the only international organization conducting demining in Nagorno Karabakh. They have destroyed 180,858 small arms ammunition, 48,572 units of "other explosive items", 12,423 cluster bombs, 8,733 anti-personnel landmines, and 2,584 anti- tank landmines between 2000 and 2016. By 2018, they had cleared 88% of the territory's minefields, with a target to clear the rest by 2020. The main cities of Stepanakert and Shusha, as well as the main north–south highway, have been cleared and are safe for travel. In April 2001, representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan, France, Russia and the United States met in Paris and in Key West, Florida to resolve the dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh. Despite rumors that the parties were close to a solution, the Azerbaijani authorities – both during Heydar Aliyev's tenure as President of Azerbaijan, and after the accession of his son Ilham Aliyev in the October 2003 elections, have firmly denied that any agreement was reached in Paris or Key West. In June 2006, talks were held at the Polish embassy in Bucharest attended by American, Russian, and French diplomats. The talks lasted over 40 minutes. Earlier, Armenian President Robert Kocharyan announced that he was ready to "continue dialogue with Azerbaijan for the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and with Turkey on establishing relations without any preconditions". According to the Armenian foreign minister, Vartan Oskanian, no progress was made at this latest meeting. Both presidents failed to reach a consensus on the issues from the earlier Rambouillet conference. He noted that the Kocharyan-Aliyev meeting was held in a normal atmosphere. "Nevertheless," he added, "the foreign ministers of the two countries are commissioned to continue talks over the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and try to find common points before the next meeting of the presidents." The major disagreement between both sides at the Bucharest conference was the status of Artsakh. Azerbaijan's preferred solution would be to give Artsakh the "highest status of autonomy adopted in the world". Armenia, on the other hand, endorsed a popular vote by the inhabitants of Artsakh to decide their future, a position that was also taken by the international mediators. On June 27, the Armenian foreign minister said both parties agreed to allow the residents of Artsakh to vote regarding the future status of the region. The Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs officially refuted that statement. According to Azeri opposition leader Isa Gambar, however, Azerbaijan did indeed agree to the referendum. Although no official agreement came from the meeting. The "Prague Process" overseen by the OSCE Minsk Group was brought into sharp relief in the summer of 2006 with a series of rare public revelations seemingly designed to jump-start the stalled negotiations. After the release in June of a paper outlining its position, which had until then been carefully guarded, U.S. State Department official Matthew Bryza told Radio Free Europe that the Minsk Group favored a referendum in Karabakh that would determine its final status. The referendum, in the view of the OSCE, should take place not in Azerbaijan as a whole, but in Artsakh only. This was a blow to Azerbaijan, and despite talk that their government might eventually seek a more sympathetic forum for future negotiations, this hasn't happened. In an annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices from 2006, released on March 6, 2007, by the United States State Department stated "Armenia continues to occupy the Azerbaijani territory of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding Azerbaijani territories. During the year incidents along the militarized line of contact separating the sides again resulted in numerous casualties on both sides". After the 2015 Nagorno-Karabakh parliamentary election the United States refused to recognize the legitimacy of the results. Jeff Rathke, the then-State Department acting spokesman stated, "The United States does not recognize Nagorno-Karabakh as an independent sovereign state, and accordingly, we will not accept the results of the elections on 3 May." Artsakh government officials regularly maintain contact with members of the United States Congress. On March 14, 2018, then-President of Artsakh Bako Sahakyan visited Washington, D.C., and met with Congressmen and Senators, including members of the foreign relations committee, discussing the settlement of the Karabakh conflict. A reception was organized celebrating the thirty anniversary of the Artsakh Movement. President Sahakyan awarded a group of Congressmen and Senators with state honors for contributing to the development of Artsakh- American relations and for supporting Artsakh. In October 2019, the Foreign Minister of Artsakh noted that the authorities of the Republic attach great importance to the relations between Artsakh and the United States at various levels. The Minister also stated his appreciation of the United States for financial aid and support for the peaceful resolution of the conflict, and hoped for further developing cooperation during a meeting with US Congress members. Three resolutions have been introduced in the United States House of Representatives, one in 2018, one in 2019, and one in 2020, affirming support for supporting visits and communication on all levels of government in the United States between officials of Artsakh and the executive and legislative branches of the United States, representatives of state and local governments, and representatives of American civil society. The resolutions also call for the full and direct participation of the Republic of Artsakh in negotiations regarding its future. However, no action has been taken on these resolutions. ==Recognition== thumb|U.S. states that recognized Artsakh highlighted in dark green as of October 2017. At the federal level of the U.S. government, there is no recognition of Artsakh, but recognition exists at the state and local levels. Ten states, ten cities, three California counties, one Nevada county, and four New Jersey boroughs have recognized Artsakh as an independent nation as of 2021. ===States=== In May 2012, the Rhode Island House of Representatives in the United States passed a resolution calling on then- President Barack Obama and the United States Congress to recognize the Republic of Artsakh. In August 2012, the Massachusetts House of Representatives passed a similar resolution. On April 10, 2013, the Maine House of Representatives and Senate passed a resolution accepting Artsakh's independence and urging President Barack Obama to also accept Artsakh's independence. But on April 30, the motion was receded. In May 2013, the Louisiana State Senate passed a resolution accepting Artsakh's independence and expressed support for the Republic of Artsakh's efforts to develop as a free and independent nation. In May 2014, the California State Assembly passed a measure recognizing Artsakh's independence with a 70–2 vote. The measure also called for President Barack Obama, and the U.S. Congress to recognize the Republic of Artsakh. In August 2014, the California State Senate, passed a unanimous measure in a 23–0 vote to recognize Artsakh's independence. On March 2, 2016, the Georgia House of Representatives passed a measure recognizing Artsakh. On March 30, 2016, Hawaii unanimously voted to recognize the Republic of Artsakh. In September 2017, the Michigan Senate passed a resolution to recognize Artsakh while encouraging the American federal government to do so along with expanding economic and cultural ties. On April 24, 2019, the Colorado Senate passed a bill recognizing Artsakh, the Armenian genocide, and the destruction of Armenia culture heritage in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic while declaring April 24 as "Colorado Day of the Remembrance of the Armenian Genocide". In May 2020, the Minnesota Senate debated on Artsakh's independence. However, this resolution has yet to pass. In June 2021, the New Jersey Senate passed a resolution recognizing Artsakh while reaffirming the state's commitment to recognizing the Armenian genocide. ===Counties and Boroughs=== ====Counties==== On April 23, 2013, Fresno County, California recognized Artsakh's independence which called upon the state legislature to follow suit. In November 2020, Clark County, Nevada recognized Artsakh. In December 2020, Orange County, California recognized Artsakh with April 24 as a day of remembrance for the victims of the Armenian genocide. ====Boroughs==== On October 15, 2020, Fort Lee, New Jersey recognized Artsakh. In November 2020, Englewood, Ridgefield, and Cliffside Park, New Jersey recognized Artsakh. ===Cities=== On September 25, 2005, Montebello, California became the sister city for Stepanakert. However, the city has never formally recognized Artsakh or its independence. On November 18, 2015, the former mayor of Montebello, Jack Hadjinian, visited Artsakh meeting with then-President Bako Sahakyan. On November 26, 2013, Highland, California recognized Artsakh, calling on President Obama and the U.S. Congress to follow suit and became a sister city with Berdzor. In January 2014, the Los Angeles city council recognized Artsakh's independence. On April 20, 2016, Honolulu recognized Artsakh. On September 21, 2016, Denver, Colorado recognized the independence of Artsakh and officially declaring September 21, 2016, as "Armenian Independence Day for the Armenian homeland of Armenia and Artsakh". In October 2020, the following cities recognized Artsakh: * Fitchburg, Massachusetts (October 19) * Fowler, California (October 21) * Glendale, California (October 27) On September 13, 2018, California State Senator, Anthony Portantino, then- Mayor of Glendale, Zareh Sinanyan, and Glendale city clerk Ardashes Kassakhian, met with the Artsakh State Minister, Grigory Martirosyan, discussing economic relations and the opening of an Artsakh street in Glendale for the following October. A plan which was backed by the Glendale City Council. The following October, a street was renamed Artsakh Avenue. In 2021, Artsakh was recognized by: * Twin Falls, Idaho on January 4. * West Hollywood, California on January 19. * Burbank, California on March 3. Burbank in the resolution ended its sister city status with Hadrut after the town was captured by Azerbaijan during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. * Oxford, Ohio on March 23. * Rancho Cordova, California on April 19. On January 28, the mayor of Racho Cordova, Garrett Gatewood, issued a proclamation recognizing Artsakh as a free and independent nation. ===Refusal of recognition=== In April 2014, the Vermont Senate rebuffed a resolution recognizing Artsakh as which would have called on President Obama and the U.S. Congress to follow suit. Azeri representatives met with senators stating that passing the resolution "would jeopardize the partnership between Azerbaijan and the United States, which share interests in oil and the war in Afghanistan." According to State Senator, Jeanette White, the State Department urged senators not to pass the resolution. ====Refusal of recognizing Artsakh as Azerbaijani territorial integrity==== The following States refused to recognize Artsakh as the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan, but haven't recognized Artsakh. * In February 2014, the South Dakota House of Representatives rejected a resolution recognizing Artsakh as the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. * In March 2014, the Wyoming House of Representatives voted against recognizing Artsakh as part of Azerbaijan in a 35 to 25 vote. In the same month, a Tennessee House of Representatives panel rejected a bill recognizing Artsakh as part of Azerbaijan. * In April 2014, the Mississippi State Senate rejected a motion to recognize Artsakh as part of Azerbaijan which would have called upon President Obama and the U.S. Congress to do the same. * In March 2016, the Kentucky Senate withdrew a resolution recognizing Artsakh as part of Azerbaijan. ====Recognition of Artsakh as Azerbaijani territorial integrity==== On January 30, 2014, the Arizona Senate and the Arizona House of Representatives passed a resolution recognizing Artsakh as the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. On February 14, 2014, the New Mexico Senate adopted a resolution recognizing Artsakh as the Azerbaijani territorial integrity. ==See also== * Foreign relations of Artsakh * Foreign relations of the United States * Political status of Nagorno-Karabakh * Armenia–United States relations * Azerbaijan–United States relations ==References== United States Category:Bilateral relations of the United States Category:Armenia–United States relations Category:Azerbaijan–United States relations
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Aloysius "Alo" Creevey is a fictional character from the third generation of the British teen drama Skins. He is portrayed by Will Merrick. He appears in the fifth and sixth series of the show. ==Characterisation== Alo lives on a farm in the outskirts of Bristol with his domineering and tyrannical mother, Catherine, hen-pecked father, Owen, and their incoherent farmhand, Dewi, who disapprove of his lifestyle. While they call him "Aloysius," he is frequently referred to by the shortened version of his name, "Alo", although Mini affectionately nicknames him "Farm boy." He is obsessed with pornography, claiming that he can "guess the nationality of any homemade porn without turning the sound up," and is in possession of some Victorian pornography. He describes his likes as "my van, my weed, my dog." He is best friends with Rich Hardbeck. Merrick stated in an interview that he had initially auditioned for the part of Rich, but that he had been "put in with the quirky-looking people." He has commented on Alo's naivety repeatedly in interviews, saying "He blocks out all the trauma of life and thinks he can be free and happy all the time and that he doesn't have to take any responsibility," and that, in his second centric episode, "he almost goes from getting everything wrong and making all the wrong decisions to possibly understanding the way things are." While initially portrayed as a frustrated, sex-obsessed virgin in the fifth series, Alo's sixth series sees him struggling with an "on-again, off-again" relationship with Mini, after she decided to take his virginity in the opening episode. The two eventually have a child together, which they name Grace, after their deceased friend. ==Synopsis== ===Series 5=== In "Franky", Alo and Rich witness Franky's dramatic entrance into Roundview College, on a motorised scooter, and immediately see her as a fellow outcast. They later approach her at lunchtime, but are promptly chased off by Mini, who hopes to make peace with Franky after a fight they had on the hockey pitch. The next day, when Nick posts embarrassing pictures of Franky on the school walls, Alo and Rich attempt to warn her, but are unsuccessful and she is humiliated. Later on, they attempt to get into Mini's birthday party, but are quickly outmatched by the security guard at the door, and ejected. Despite this, the two conspire with Grace to kidnap Franky, whom they take to a swimming pool in Alo's van (which he obtained the right to drive over the summer), where they bond as a group of their own. In "Rich", Alo becomes frustrated with Rich constantly getting in between him and girls, and attempts to persuade him to find a girlfriend. Although Rich scoffs at this idea, Alo soon tracks down a potential love interest for Rich - female metalhead who works in the library. Seeing that he needs help learning how to interact with girls, Alo seeks the help of Grace, who knows more about girls than Franky. Later, when the girl in the library turns out to be as shallow as the girls Rich despises, and he turns down Grace's request to date him, Alo remonstrates him in the van, and the two get into an argument, before Rich storms off. The two reconcile later, after Rich realises that he needs to be open-minded about the girls he would like to date. In "Liv", Alo and his friends are invited over to Liv's house by Mini, who hopes to make amends with them. After accepting their apologies, Alo withdraws a large bag of weed and declares that nobody will leave the house until it's been smoked. He and the group spend most of the episode high in Liv's house, before being kicked out by an angry Liv after a fight with Mini. In "Nick", Alo's desperation to find a girlfriend has increased, and the gang are seen attempting to think of a girl he could date. Nick suggests he date Franky, which causes discomfort amongst the group, not the least because Matty agrees, to Franky's dismay. In "Alo", Alo's domineering mother and hen-pecked father are introduced. It is demonstrated that they are often cruel to him (though his father merely does so because he is scared of his wife), forbidding him to go out and party with his friends until after he has had a tractor driving lesson. Additionally, his mother frequently tells him how disappointed she is in him. His father secretly allows him to go early, but when his mother finds out, she informs him that they are planning to pull him out of school in order to force him to buckle down on the farm. Despite the gang's efforts to persuade him to stand up to them, he is unable to do so. Later, Alo accidentally kills the family cow by dropping his spliff onto a propane canister. This prompts his mother to confiscate all of his possessions, including his van and dog and she and his father take them off to be sold, despite his pleas. Alo finally hits his breaking point, and decides to get revenge by destroying the one thing his family loves - the farm. He immediately calls his friends over for an egg and flour fight, effectively destroying the farm's entire produce. He then organises an impromptu party, which trashes the farmhouse. When his family return, they are confronted with a crowd of teenagers leaving, and are aghast to find the farm completely wrecked. A drunken Alo angrily lashes out at them, particularly his father for allowing his mother to pick on him, calling him "gormless and old." The shock is too much for his father, who suffers a heart attack. Alo's mother panics and tells him to call an ambulance. Wracked with guilt, he confesses to Mini at a party at Nick's house, and she consoles him. He is unable to get help from Rich, but is reassured by his family farmhand that his father is fine, and that they did not actually sell Alo's belongings. When Alo returns home, he receives the usual harsh response from his mother, but for once, stands up for himself. Later, Alo reconciles with his father. In "Everyone", Alo is tasked with driving the gang to a church in Somerset, where Rich and Grace intend to marry. Alo neglects to bring a map, and they get lost in the woods. To make matters worse, the van breaks down, and there is no phone signal. Grace and Rich hitch a ride with an elderly couple going to the town where they intend to marry, and Liv, Matty and Franky go off on their own, as does Mini, when she becomes frustrated with Alo's poor planning. Alo and Nick bond over drinks, and Alo rescues Nick from a rabbit snare. They eventually make it to the church, but not before Grace's father, David Blood, arrives. Nick persuades David to let them get on with it, however. ===Series 6=== In "Everyone", Alo joins the gang for a holiday in Morocco. After injuring himself by jumping into an empty swimming pool, he steals an iPhone at the party of a wealthy British drug dealer named Luke. Mini, fresh from a shower after finally finding a way to turn the water on, enters his room, and finds him attempting to download a pornography app on the phone he stole. Mini suggests he try having sex in real life, and as Alo scoffs, she suddenly kisses him passionately, and tells him that she is going to take his virginity, but makes him swear to secrecy, on pain of death. The two then have sex. Though it was meant to be a one-time event, the two form a friends-with- benefits relationship. In "Rich", Alo attempts to help Rich take his mind off the comatose Grace, whom her father has forbidden him from seeing, by forming a band with him. However, Rich is unable to take his mind off Grace, and breaks into the Bloods' home. Days later, Alo comes knocking with a bag of weed, and the two squat at the house together with a baggie of marijuana. However, Rich's temper is frayed when Mini turns up to have sex with Alo. After the two have an argument about it, Rich makes a harsh comment about Alo to his face, prompting the two to engage in a fistfight. Eventually, to raise money to get the gang to France, Alo organises a house gig for their band, which goes down well, but ultimately is unsuccessful, when Blood returns home and tearfully informs Rich that Grace had died the day before. In "Alex," Alo is punched in the face by Alex, who had rolled a dice telling him to "punch the next person to enter the room," just as Alo had entered the canteen. He is even more confused when Alex immediately apologises for it. Alo does not immediately forgive Alex for the punch, but gradually warms up to him. In "Mini", Alo is having sex with Mini in a nightclub toilet, when he accidentally shouts out that he loves her, which alarms her. When he turns up at her house to apologise, she tells him that he can either have sex with her or leave. When confronted with her mother's new boyfriend, however, she insists that he stay, and sleep on the floor. However, she neglects to tell him that she is pregnant with his baby. Later on in the episode, he becomes jealous when he sees Mini flirting with her father, Gregory's assistant, at a work function, and the two have a confrontation, leading to Alo fighting with Gregory's assistant and getting thrown out. Mini turns up at his farm to reconcile with him, but he coldly informs her that he is fed up with the way she treats him, and brushes her off. In "Alo", he pursues a relationship with Poppy Champion, a girl who flirted with him at a nightclub. The next day, the two go out to a nearby forest to have a picnic together. There, the two form a relationship, and, after she persuades him to dance with her to Martin Solveig's "Hello" in their underwear, the two proceed to have sex upstairs. However, during the act, Alo notices several childish toys and posters lining the walls and furniture, and then spots a school uniform hanging on the wardrobe. Upon recognising the crest on the jacket, he stops the sex at once and demands to know how old Poppy is. When she reveals that she is almost 14, he is horrified that he is now technically a child molester, particularly upon realising Poppy is too immature to realise the legal implications of what they were doing. He narrowly escapes Poppy's house, avoiding her argumentative parents. Later, Alo attempts to break up with Poppy, but only at her fourteenth birthday. In retaliation, Poppy goes to the police. Alo is arrested in the middle of a school exam and charged with statutory rape, and suspended from school. Rich later bails him out, but no one is sympathetic to him, mostly due to his inability to say the right thing. Alo attempts to call Poppy to negotiate with her, but is caught by her aggressive father, who angrily threatens him over the phone. He runs away from home and lives rough at a nearby playground (theorising that this would be the last place the authorities would look). Realising that Mini is the root of his troubles, he goes to confront her. Mini suggests that he had sex with Poppy because she was the same mental age as him, and orders him to leave, but he manages to get through to her, telling her that he doesn't like her as she's behaving. Alo continues to live rough and ponders running away, before being found by Dewi, his family farmhand, who gives him food and informs him that his family is worried for him. He offers him money if he does want to run away, but Alo decides to stay, grow up and resolve his issues. He goes to Poppy's home to meet with her family, and Poppy claims that she had lied to the police to get back at Alo for breaking up with her. Her parents immediately begin arguing, and Alo, seeing that this is the root of Poppy's issues, silences them, before refuting Poppy's lie and admitting that they had had sex without his knowledge about her age. He is promptly beaten up by her father and thrown out. The next day, Mini comes to his farm, planning to tell him about her pregnancy. Before she can do so, however, Alo receives a call from Poppy, who informs him that her parents have split up, and her mother had forced her father to drop the charges against him, threatening to report him for beating Alo up. The two part on good terms, but when Alo finishes the call, he finds Mini has left. In "Mini and Franky", after Mini is rushed to hospital, Alo enters her hospital room, and finally finds out that Mini is pregnant with his baby. He is devastated that he was the last to know, and breaks down in tears in the hospital waiting room, while Liv attempts to console him. Alo initially doesn't want the baby, but over time, gradually warms to the idea of being a father. At the end, Mini returns to his farm, and the two share a kiss, and finally form a relationship. However, their joy does not last, when Mini discovers blood running down her leg. In "Finale", Alo is taking care of Mini, who is in hospital. He manages to get the doctor to give her permission to go out for an end-of-year party. The next morning, Mini suddenly suffers contractions, and is rushed back to hospital, where she gives birth to a baby girl, which they are largely presumed to have named Grace, with Alo and Liv by her side. ==References== Category:Television characters introduced in 2011 Category:Skins (British TV series) characters Category:Fictional English people Category:Fictional farmers Category:Male characters in television Category:Teenage characters in television Category:Fictional teenage parents Category:British male characters in television
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AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol, also known as the Google DeepMind Challenge Match, was a five-game Go match between top Go player Lee Sedol and AlphaGo, a computer Go program developed by Google DeepMind, played in Seoul, South Korea between 9 and 15 March 2016. AlphaGo won all but the fourth game; all games were won by resignation. The match has been compared with the historic chess match between Deep Blue and Garry Kasparov in 1997. The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million. Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations. Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in the five games and an additional $20,000 for winning one game). After the match, The Korea Baduk Association awarded AlphaGo the highest Go grandmaster rank – an "honorary 9 dan". It was given in recognition of AlphaGo's "sincere efforts" to master Go. This match was chosen by Science as one of the runners-up for Breakthrough of the Year, on 22 December 2016. ==Background== ===Difficult challenge in artificial intelligence=== Go is a complex board game that requires intuition, creative and strategic thinking. It has long been considered a difficult challenge in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and is considerably more difficult to solve than chess. Many in the field of artificial intelligence consider Go to require more elements that mimic human thought than chess. Mathematician I. J. Good wrote in 1965: Prior to 2015, the best Go programs only managed to reach amateur dan level. On the small 9×9 board, the computer fared better, and some programs managed to win a fraction of their 9×9 games against professional players. Prior to AlphaGo, some researchers had claimed that computers would never defeat top humans at Go. Elon Musk, an early investor of Deepmind, said in 2016 that experts in the field thought AI was 10 years away from achieving a victory against a top professional Go player. The match AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol is comparable to the 1997 chess match when Garry Kasparov lost to IBM computer Deep Blue. Kasparov's loss to Deep Blue is considered the moment a computer became better than humans at chess. AlphaGo is significantly different from previous AI efforts. Instead of using probability algorithms hard-coded by human programmers, AlphaGo uses neural networks to estimate its probability of winning. AlphaGo accesses and analyses the entire online library of Go; including all matches, players, analytics, and literature; as well as games played by AlphaGo against itself and other players. Once setup, AlphaGo is independent of the developer team and evaluates the best pathway to solving Go (i.e. winning the game). By using neural networks and Monte Carlo tree search, AlphaGo calculates colossal numbers of likely and unlikely probabilities many moves into the future . Related research results are being applied to fields such as cognitive science, pattern recognition and machine learning. ===Match against Fan Hui=== thumb|Fan Hui vs AlphaGo – Game 5 AlphaGo defeated European champion Fan Hui, a 2 dan professional, 5–0 in October 2015, the first time an AI had beaten a human professional player at the game on a full-sized board without a handicap. Some commentators stressed the gulf between Fan and Lee, who is ranked 9 dan professional. Computer programs Zen and Crazy Stone have previously defeated human players ranked 9 dan professional with handicaps of four or five stones. Canadian AI specialist Jonathan Schaeffer, commenting after the win against Fan, compared AlphaGo with a "child prodigy" that lacked experience, and considered, "the real achievement will be when the program plays a player in the true top echelon." He then believed that Lee would win the match in March 2016. Hajin Lee, a professional Go player and the International Go Federation's secretary-general, commented that she was "very excited" at the prospect of an AI challenging Lee, and thought the two players had an equal chance of winning. In the aftermath of his match against AlphaGo, Fan Hui noted that the game had taught him to be a better player, and to see things he had not previously seen. By March 2016, Wired reported that his ranking had risen from 633 in the world to around 300. ===Preparation=== Go experts found errors in AlphaGo's play against Fan, in particular relating to a lack of awareness of the entire board. Before the game against Lee, it was unknown how much the program had improved its game since its October match. AlphaGo's original training dataset started with games of strong amateur players from internet Go servers, after which AlphaGo trained by playing against itself for tens of millions of games. ==Players== ===AlphaGo=== thumb|AlphaGo logo AlphaGo is a computer program developed by Google DeepMind to play the board game Go. AlphaGo's algorithm uses a combination of machine learning and tree search techniques, combined with extensive training, both from human and computer play. The system's neural networks were initially bootstrapped from human game-play expertise. AlphaGo was initially trained to mimic human play by attempting to match the moves of expert players from recorded historical games, using a KGS Go Server database of around 30 million moves from 160,000 games by KGS 6 to 9 dan human players. Once it had reached a certain degree of proficiency, it was trained further by being set to play large numbers of games against other instances of itself, using reinforcement learning to improve its play. The system does not use a "database" of moves to play. As one of the creators of AlphaGo explained: In the match against Lee, AlphaGo used about the same computing power as it had in the match against Fan Hui, where it used 1,202 CPUs and 176 GPUs. The Economist reported that it used 1,920 CPUs and 280 GPUs. Google has also stated that its proprietary tensor processing units were used in the match against Lee Sedol. === Lee Sedol === thumb|upright=0.7|Lee Sedol in 2012 Lee Sedol is a professional Go player of 9 dan rankLee SeDol. gobase.org. Retrieved 22 June 2010. and is one of the strongest players in the history of Go. He started his career in 1996 (promoted to professional dan rank at the age of 12), winning 18 international titles since then. He is a "national hero" in his native South Korea, known for his unconventional and creative play. Lee Sedol initially predicted he would defeat AlphaGo in a "landslide". Some weeks before the match he won the Korean Myungin title, a major championship. ==Games== The match was a five- game match with one million US dollars as the grand prize, using Chinese rules with a 7.5-point komi. For each game there was a two-hour set time limit for each player followed by three 60-second byo-yomi overtime periods. Each game started at 13:00 KST (04:00 GMT). The match was played at the Four Seasons Hotel in Seoul, South Korea in March 2016 and was video-streamed live with commentary; the English language commentary was done by Michael Redmond (9-dan professional) and Chris Garlock. Aja Huang, a DeepMind team member and amateur 6-dan Go player, placed stones on the Go board for AlphaGo, which ran through the Google Cloud Platform with its server located in the United States. ===Summary=== Game Date Black White Result Moves 1 9 March 2016 Lee Sedol Lee Sedol resigned 186 Game 1 2 10 March 2016 Lee Sedol Lee Sedol resigned 211 Game 2 3 12 March 2016 Lee Sedol Lee Sedol resigned 176 Game 3 4 13 March 2016 AlphaGo AlphaGo resigned 180 Game 4 5 15 March 2016 Lee Sedol Lee Sedol resigned 280 Game 5 Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol Result: AlphaGo 4 – 1 Lee Sedol note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. note 1: For Game Five, under the official rules, it was intended that the colour assignments would be done at random. However, during the press conference after the fourth match, Lee requested "... since I won with white, I really do hope that in the fifth match I could win with black because winning with black is much more valuable." Hassabis agreed to allow Sedol to play with black. ===Game 1=== AlphaGo (white) won the first game. Lee appeared to be in control throughout much of the match, but AlphaGo gained the advantage in the final 20 minutes and Lee resigned. Lee stated afterwards that he had made a critical error at the beginning of the match; he said that the computer's strategy in the early part of the game was "excellent" and that the AI had made one unusual move that no human Go player would have made. David Ormerod, commenting on the game at Go Game Guru, described Lee's seventh stone as "a strange move to test AlphaGo's strength in the opening", characterising the move as a mistake and AlphaGo's response as "accurate and efficient". He described AlphaGo's position as favourable in the first part of the game, considering that Lee started to come back with move 81, before making "questionable" moves at 119 and 123, followed by a "losing" move at 129. Professional Go player Cho Hanseung commented that AlphaGo's game had greatly improved from when it beat Fan Hui in October 2015. Michael Redmond described the computer's game as being more aggressive than against Fan. According to 9-dan Go grandmaster Kim Seong-ryong, Lee seemed stunned by AlphaGo's strong play on the 102nd stone. After watching AlphaGo make the game's 102nd move, Lee mulled over his options for more than 10 minutes. {{Goban | | | | | | | |98| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |48|97|54| |43|53|49| | |96| | | | |b5| | |32|31| |55| |52| |12|10|11| | |w2| | |44| |18|33| |b9| | |w8| x|b1| | | | | | | | |34|35|24|25| |29|30| | |13| |w6| | | |66|41|37|36|28|19|99| |14| | | | | | | | |80| | |38|27|26| | |16|15| | | | | | | | | |42|68|23|22| | |20|17| | | | | | | | |64|67| |45|39|40| | |21| | | | | x| | |65|63|69|61| | |46| | | x| | | | | | | | | | | |47|60| | | | | | | | |93| | | | | |62|58|59|50| | | |b7| | |92|83| | | | |77| | |51|56| | | | | | |81|82|89| | | | | | |57|70| | | | | | |88|90| | | | | | | |71|72| | | |78| | | |w4|91|84|85| | | x| |73|74| | | x| | | | | | |79|86| | | | |75|76| | |b3| | | | | | |87| | | | |95|94| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20}} First 99 moves {{Goban | | | | | | | | w| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | w| b| w| | b| b| b|67|68| w| |16| | | b| | | w| b| | b|79| w|78| w| w| b| | | w| | | w| | w| b| | b| |01| w|36| b|70| | | | | | | | w| b| w| b| | b| w| |14| b| | w| | | | w| b| b| w| w| b| b| | w|13|10|12|69 | | | | | w|52| | w| b| w| | | w| b| |21| 74| | | |86|85|51| w| w| b| w|00| | w| b|15|08| 66|50| | |64|75| w| b| | b| b| w| | | b| |11| 65|82|54| |76| b| b| b| b| | | w| | |03|02| | | | |63|77| | | | | b| w| | |07|06|04| | 19|45| b| | | | | | w| w| b| w| |49|05| b|09| 18| w| b| | | | | b| | | b| w|80|48|81| | | 17| b| w| b| | | | | | | b| w| |29|26|43|41| 20| w| w| | | | | | | | b| w| |27|23| w|42|44 58|61| w| b| w| b| | | x| | b| w| |31|30|28| | 55|56|59| | b| w| | | |25| b| w| |35| b|32| | 60|57|53| | b| | | |24| b| w|22| |33|34|37|38| | | | | | | | | |47| | | | |39| |40| |20}} Moves 100–186 ===Game 2=== AlphaGo (black) won the second game. Lee stated afterwards that "AlphaGo played a nearly perfect game", "from very beginning of the game I did not feel like there was a point that I was leading". One of the creators of AlphaGo, Demis Hassabis, said that the system was confident of victory from the midway point of the game, even though the professional commentators could not tell which player was ahead. Michael Redmond (9p) noted that AlphaGo's 19th stone (move 37) was "creative" and "unique". It was a move that no human would've ever made. Lee took an unusually long time to respond to the move. An Younggil (8p) called AlphaGo's move 37 "a rare and intriguing shoulder hit" but said Lee's counter was "exquisite". He stated that control passed between the players several times before the endgame, and especially praised AlphaGo's moves 151, 157, and 159, calling them "brilliant". AlphaGo showed anomalies and moves from a broader perspective which professional Go players described as looking like mistakes at the first sight but an intentional strategy in hindsight. As one of the creators of the system explained, AlphaGo does not attempt to maximize its points or its margin of victory, but tries to maximize its probability of winning. If AlphaGo must choose between a scenario where it will win by 20 points with 80 percent probability and another where it will win by 1 and a half points with 99 percent probability, it will choose the latter, even if it must give up points to achieve it. In particular, move 167 by AlphaGo seemed to give Lee a fighting chance and was declared to look like an obvious mistake by commentators. An Younggil stated "So when AlphaGo plays a slack looking move, we may regard it as a mistake, but perhaps it should more accurately be viewed as a declaration of victory?" {{Goban | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |97|99|80|95|13|83| | | | | | | | | |b3| x|31|94|93|91|82| x|67| | |35| |b1| |71| | | | |96|84|92| | | | | | | | |33|70| |86|81| | | | | | | | | | | |34|32|65|72 |30|85| | | | | | | | | | | | | |66| 88|87|89|61| |98| | | | | |40| | | | | | 90| |62| |73| | | | | | | | |38|36|64| | | |14| | | | | | x| | | |39|37|63| | | | |58|57| |74| | | | | | | | | | | | |60|59|52|55| |77| | | | | | | | | | | |28|44|51|53| |75| | | | | | |69| | | | 24|b9|43|49|50|54|68|76| | | | | | | |12| | 22|20|23|48|45|56|47| | |78| | | | |15|16| | 21|17|w2|26| |41|46| |29|79| |11| |b5| x|w4| | 19|18|25| |10|42| | | | | | |b7|w6|w8| | | | |27| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20}} First 99 moves {{Goban | | | | | | | | | |97|96|66|98|44| | | | | | | | | | | | | |71|45|42|43|38| | | | | b| b| w| b| b| b| | |73|70|74|33|30|32| 37| b|99| b| w| b| b| w| x| b| | | b|72| b|31| b|34 92|36|46|47| w| w| w| | | | |53| | | | b| w| | w| b| | | | |09| | | |52|51| | w| w| | w | w| b| | |35|29| |40|63|59|61|58|62| | | w| w| b| b| b|55| w|49| |65|28|60| w|57| | | | | w|17| w| | b|00|39|01|69|67|15|68|64| w| w| w| | |18| w|50| |48|41|06|08|16|12|19| b| b| b| | | | | w| b| | w|02|03| | |13| | | | | |54| | w| b|56| b| | b|04|07|11| | | | | |83|84| 88| w| w| b| b| | b|05| |10|27| | | b| |85|86| w| b| b| b| w| w| w| w|80|90|89| | | | | w| | w| w| b| w| b| w| b|77|79| w|14|91| | | b| w| | b| b| w| w| | b| w|78| b| b|23| b|25| b| x| w| | b| w| b| | w| w| | | | |22|24| b| w| w| | | | | b| | | |82|81| |75|26|21|20| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |76| | | | | | |20}} Moves 100–199 {{Goban | | | | | | | | | | b| w| w| w| w| | | | | | | | | | | | |01| b| b| w| b| w| | | | | b| b| w| b| b| b| | | b| w| w| b| w| w| b| b| b| b| w| b| b| w| x| b| | | b| w| b| b| b| w w| w| w| b| w| w| w| | | | | b| | | | b| w| | w| b| | | | | b| | | | w| b| | w| w| | w 00| w| b| | | b| b| | w| b| b| b| w| w| | | w| w| b| b| b| b| w| b| | b| w| w| w| b| | | | | w| b| w| | b| w| b| b| b| b| b| w| w| w| w| w| | | w| w| w| | w| b| w| w| w| w| b| b| b| b|09|10| | | w| b| | w| w| b| | | b| | | | | | w| | w| | w| b| | b| | b| b| | | | | | b| w| w| w| w| b| b| | b| b| | w| b| | | b| | b| w| w| b| b| b| w| w| w| w| w| w| b| | |03|02| w| | w| w| b| w| b| w| b| b| b| w| w| b| | | b| w| | b| b| w| w|06| b| w| w| b| b| b| b| b| b| x| w| | b| w| b| | w| w|08|07| | | w| w| b| w| w| | | |05| b|04| | | w| b| | b| w| | w| | | | | | | | | | | | | |11| | w| | | | | | |20}} Moves 200–211 ===Game 3=== AlphaGo (white) won the third game. After the second game, there had still been strong doubts among players whether AlphaGo was truly a strong player in the sense that a human might be. The third game was described as removing that doubt; with analysts commenting that: According to An Younggil (8p) and David Ormerod, the game showed that "AlphaGo is simply stronger than any known human Go player." AlphaGo was seen to capably navigate tricky situations known as ko that did not come up in the previous two matches. An and Ormerod consider move 148 to be particularly notable: in the middle of a complex ko fight, AlphaGo displayed sufficient "confidence" that it was winning the fight to play a large move elsewhere. Lee, playing black, opened with a High Chinese formation and generated a large area of black influence, which AlphaGo invaded at move 12. This required the program to defend a weak group, which it did successfully. An Younggil described Lee's move 31 as possibly the "losing move" and Andy Jackson of the American Go Association considered that the outcome had already been decided by move 35. AlphaGo had gained control of the game by move 48, and forced Lee onto the defensive. Lee counterattacked at moves 77/79, but AlphaGo's response was effective and its move 90 succeeded in simplifying the position. It then gained a large area of control at the bottom of the board, strengthening its position with moves from 102 to 112 described by An as "sophisticated". Lee attacked again at moves 115 and 125, but AlphaGo's responses were again effective. Lee eventually attempted a complex ko from move 131, without forcing an error from the program, and he resigned at move 176. {{Goban | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |13|19|22| |90|27| | | | |b9| | | | | 23|b3| |12|20| |26|b7| x| | | | | |b1| | | 38|18|16| | | |24|25| | | | | | | |99| | | |17|15|21| | |29| | | | | | | |w8| | 36| |33|14|50|30|28| | | | | | | | | | | 37|45|41|51|47| | | |31| | | | | | | | | 39|32|34|35| |46|66|56|68| | | | | | |88| | 62|40|11|43| |67|65| | x| | | | | | x| | | 61|44|42|53| |55| | | | | | | |87| | | | | | |54|60| | |69| | |89| | |83|78|82| | |57|48| |52| |64| | | | | | |80|77|10| | |b5|49|59| | | | |70| |98| | |84|81|79|85| | | | |58| | | | | | | | |86| | | | |71|w4| | | | | | x| | | | | |w2|92|93| 75|72|73|76|w6| | | | | | | | | |94|91|95| | |74| | | | | | | | | | | | |96|97| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20}} First 99 moves {{Goban 11| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 04|07| |10| |12| |48| | | | | | | | | | 08| | b| b| w| | w| b| | | | | b| | | | | b| b|05| w| w| | w| b| x| | | | | | b|03|01| w| w| w|06| | | w| b| | | | | | |02| b|00| | | b| b| b| | | b| | | | | | |24| w| | w| | b| w| w| w| w| | | | | | | | | | | b| b| b| b| b| | | | b| | | | |68|62|61| | b| w| w| b| | w| w| w| w| | | | | |67| w| | w| w| b| b| | b| b| | x| | | | | |17|18| | b| w| w| b| | b| | | | | | | | b|14|13|20| | | | w| w| | | b| | | b| | | b| w| w|19| | b| w| | w| | w| | | | | | | w| b| w|21| 74| b| b| b|41|42|52|40| w|30| w|16| | w| b| b| b| 73|72|57|56| w|43|37|34|29| |15| | | w| | | | 70|bT| w|58|55| |33|32| x| | | | | | w| w| b| b|wT|51| w| w|38|39|25|28|26|27| | | | w| b| b| 65|23| w|59| |44|31| |35|36|50| | | | | w| b| |76|53| |46|45|60|47| |49| | | | | | | | |20}} Moves 100–176 (122 at 113, 154 at 20x20px, 163 at 145, 164 at 151, 166 and 171 at 160, 169 at 145, 175 at 20x20px) ===Game 4=== Lee (white) won the fourth game. Lee chose to play a type of extreme strategy, known as amashi, in response to AlphaGo's apparent preference for Souba Go (attempting to win by many small gains when the opportunity arises), taking territory at the perimeter rather than the center. By doing so, his apparent aim was to force an "all or nothing" style of situation – a possible weakness for an opponent strong at negotiation types of play, and one which might make AlphaGo's capability of deciding slim advantages largely irrelevant. The first 11 moves were identical to the second game, where Lee also played white. In the early game, Lee concentrated on taking territory in the edges and corners of the board, allowing AlphaGo to gain influence in the top and centre. Lee then invaded AlphaGo's region of influence at the top with moves 40 to 48, following the amashi strategy. AlphaGo responded with a shoulder hit at move 47, subsequently sacrificing four stones elsewhere, and gaining the initiative with moves 47 to 53 and 69. Lee tested AlphaGo with moves 72 to 76 without provoking an error, and by this point in the game commentators had begun to feel Lee's play was a lost cause. However, an unexpected play at white 78, described as "a brilliant tesuji", turned the game around. The move developed a white wedge at the centre, and increased the game's complexity. Gu Li (9p) described it as a "divine move" and stated that the move had been completely unforeseen by him. AlphaGo responded poorly on move 79, at which time it estimated it had a 70% chance to win the game. Lee followed up with a strong move at white 82. AlphaGo's initial response in moves 83 to 85 was appropriate, but at move 87, its estimate of its chances to win suddenly plummeted, provoking it to make a series of very bad moves from black 87 to 101. David Ormerod characterised moves 87 to 101 as typical of Monte Carlo- based program mistakes. Lee took the lead by white 92, and An Younggil described black 105 as the final losing move. Despite good tactics during moves 131 to 141, AlphaGo proved unable to recover during the endgame and resigned. AlphaGo's resignation was triggered when it evaluated its chance of winning to be less than 20%; this is intended to match the decision of professionals who resign rather than play to the end when their position is felt to be irrecoverable. An Younggil at Go Game Guru concluded that the game was "a masterpiece for Lee Sedol and will almost certainly become a famous game in the history of Go". Lee commented after the match that he considered AlphaGo was strongest when playing white (second).Lee Sedol in Google DeepMind Challenge Match 4 post-match press conference (13 March 2016) For this reason, he requested that he play black in the fifth game, which is considered more risky. David Ormerod of Go Game Guru stated that although an analysis of AlphaGo's play around 79–87 was not yet available, he believed it was a result of a known weakness in play algorithms which use Monte Carlo tree search. In essence, the search attempts to prune sequences which are less relevant. In some cases, a play can lead to a very specific line of play which is significant, but which is overlooked when the tree is pruned, and this outcome is therefore "off the search radar". {{Goban | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |43| | | | | | |19|14|77| |45| | | |42|40|21| | | | | |b3| x|17|76| |15|44| x| | |41|61| |b1| | | | | | | |74|75| | | | |65|60|99| | | | | | | |38|39| | | | |63|58|66| | | | | |16| | |36|37| | |46| | |55|54| |95| | | | | |32|33|72| | |82|81|67|53|52| | | | | | | |30|31| | |92|71|78|59|56|51|50|48|22| | 34|18|28|29| | |73| |79|91|80|62|57|49|47|68| | |27|25| |35| | |70| |69| |64|84|86|87|89|93| | | | | | | | | | | |83|90|85|88|96| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |94| | | | |b9| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |98| |24| | | | | | | | | | |12| | | 20|97|w2|23|26| | | | x| | |11| |b5| x|w4| | | | | |10| | |13| | | | |b7|w6|w8| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20}} First 99 moves {{Goban | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |15| | | |68| |66| | | b| | | | | | | b| w| b| | b| |44|65| w| w| b| | | | | | b| | b| w|27| b| w| x|63| | b| b| | b| |49| | | |14|28| w| b|64| | | | b| w| b| | | |47 | |21| | w| b|29|26| | | b| w| w|75| |43|41|46 16| w|17|18| w| b|03| | w| | | b| w| | b|42|36|48 31|13|22| w| b| w| |30| w| b| b| b| w|73| |69|70| |32| | w| b|06| | w| b| | b| w|bS| w| w| w| | w| w| w| b|07| | b|04| b| b| w| w|bT| b| b| w|02|76 51| b| b| | b|67|24| w| | b| | w| w| w| b| b| b|01 50|53| | |11|10| | |08|09| | b| w| | w| w|00|74 | | | | |12| |23| |05| | | | w| | | | 25| b|37|19| | |54|55| | | | | | | | | | | w| | w|20|34|33| | | | | | |79| w| | | w| b| w| b| w| |56| |80| | | b| | b| x| w| | |38| | | w| | | b| | | | | b| w| w| | | | | |58|57|45| | | | | | | |35|39|40| | | |60|59| | | | | | | | | | | |71|72| |20}} Moves 100–180 (177 at 20x20px, 178 at 20x20px) ===Game 5=== AlphaGo (white) won the fifth game. The game was described as being close. Hassabis stated that the result came after the program made a "bad mistake" early in the game. Lee, playing black, opened in a similar fashion to the first game and then began to stake out territory in the right and top left corners – a similar strategy to the one he employed successfully in game 4 – while AlphaGo gained influence in the centre of the board. The game remained even until white moves 48 to 58, which AlphaGo played in the bottom right. These moves unnecessarily lost ko threats and aji, allowing Lee to take the lead. Michael Redmond (9p) speculated that perhaps AlphaGo had missed black's "tombstone squeeze" tesuji. Humans are taught to recognize the specific pattern, but it is a long sequence of moves if it has to be computed from scratch. AlphaGo then started to develop the top of the board as well as the centre, and defended successfully against an attack by Lee in moves 69 to 81 that David Ormerod characterised as over-cautious. By white 90, AlphaGo had regained equality, and then played a series of moves described by Ormerod as "unusual... but subtly impressive" which gained a small advantage. Lee tried a Hail Mary pass with moves 167 and 169 but AlphaGo's defence was successful. An Younggil noted white moves 154, 186 and 194 as being particularly strong, and the program played an impeccable endgame, maintaining its lead until Lee resigned. {{Goban | | | |98|94|96|97| |99| | | |67| | | | | | | |86|93|92|95|81| | |66|61|62|63| | | |34| | |28|71|89| |83| | |68|60|b5|65| | | 29| |w2| |72|69| |79|82| | | | |64| x|b1|15| | | | |88|73| | |84| | | | |18|13|12| | |27| | |74|70|75|77|80| | | | | |16|14| | | |33| | |87|76|78| | | | | | | | | | 39|30|31| | |85| | | | | | | | | | | | 37|35|32| | | |90| | | | | | | | | | | |36|38| | | | | | x| | | | | | x|24| | | | | | | | | | | | | |44|22| | | | | | | | | | | |91| |46|40|43|20|19|17|51| | | | | | | | | | |42|41|23|21|10| |50|58 | | | | | | | | |47|45|48| | |54|w8|25|53 | | | | | | | | | | |49|57|55|w6|b7|52| | |w4| | | | | | x| | | | |56|59|b9| | | | | | |26| | | | | | |11| |b3| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20}} First 99 moves {{Goban | | | | w| w| w| b| | b| | | | b| | | | | | | | w| b| w| b| b| | | w| b| | b| | | 86| w| | | w| b| b| | b| | | w| w| b| b| | | b| | w| | w| b| | b| w| | | | | w| x| b| b| |93| | | w| b| | | w| | | | | w| b| w|98|99 | b| | | w| w| b| b| w| | |90| | | w| w| | | | b| |46| b| w| w| | |83| | |89| | |96|95 b| w| b|45|38| b|02| | | | |81|91| |92| | | b| b| w|54|37|04| w|01| | |49|50|82| | | | | 56| w| w| |76|05|03|40|41|53|48|47|52| | x| w| | 55| | | | | | |36|39| |51|94| w| w| | |62| 67|66|72| |75|97| |42| b| | w| w| b| w| b| b| b|63 68|71|69|73| | | |44|43| | w| b| b| b| w| | w| w 77|06|70|74|22| | |24| | b| b| w| | | w| w|bS| b 87|14|13|21|20| | | | | | | b| b| b| w| b| w|60 88| | w|15|11|12| | | x| | | | | w| b| b| | |08|07|10|09| w| |00|26|30|32|33| b| | b| | | | |16|17|80|19|23|25|28|27|31|34|35| | | | | | | | | | |59|58|29|84|85| | | | | | | |20}} Moves 100–199 (118 at 107, 161 at 20x20px) {{Goban | | | | w| w| w| b| | b| |42|43| b| | | | 15|16| | | w| b| w| b| b|11| | w| b| | b| | | w| w| | | w| b| b| | b|10|14| w| w| b| b| | | b|08| w|64| w| b| | b| w|66|03| | | w|67| b| b|41 | b|61|63| w| b|45|44| w|65|26|04|59| w| b| w| w| b 09| b| | | w| w| b| b| w|27|23| w|13|60| w| w|01|00 | | b| | w| | w| w|28|22| b| |69| b|68| | w| b b| w| b| b| w| | w| |21|24|25| b| b|12| w| | |02 b| b| w| w| | w| w| b| |31| b| w| w| | | | | w| w| w| | w| b| b| w| b| b|30| b| w| | x| w|80| b|77|78| |72|18|20| w| b|58|bT| w| w| w|38|79| w|70 b| w| w|54| b| b|19| w| b|73| w| w| b| w| b| b| b| b wS| b| b| b|55|74|56| w| b|33| w| b| b| b| w|39| w| w b| w| w| w| w| | | w|32| b| b| w| |35| w| w|bS|34 b| w| | | w| | | | |48|51| b| b| b| w| b| w| w w| | w| | | w| | | x|50|49| | | w| b| b|36| | w| w| w| | w|46| w| w| w| w| b| b| | b| |37| | | w| b| w| b| b| b| w| b| b| w| b| | | | | | | | |52| | b| | b|53| b|47| | | | | | |20}} Moves 200–280 (240 at 200, 271 at 20x20px, 275 at 20x20px, 276 at 20x20px) ==Coverage== Live video of the games and associated commentary was broadcast in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and English. Korean-language coverage was made available through Baduk TV. Chinese-language coverage of game 1 with commentary by 9-dan players Gu Li and Ke Jie was provided by Tencent and LeTV respectively, reaching about 60 million viewers. Online English-language coverage presented by US 9-dan Michael Redmond and Chris Garlock, a vice-president of the American Go Association, reached an average 80 thousand viewers with a peak of 100 thousand viewers near the end of game 1. ==Responses== ===AI community=== AlphaGo's victory was a major milestone in artificial intelligence research. Go had previously been regarded as a hard problem in machine learning that was expected to be out of reach for the technology of the time. Most experts thought a Go program as powerful as AlphaGo was at least five years away; some experts thought that it would take at least another decade before computers would beat Go champions. Most observers at the beginning of the 2016 matches expected Lee to beat AlphaGo. With games such as checkers, chess, and now Go won by computer players, victories at popular board games can no longer serve as major milestones for artificial intelligence in the way that they used to. Deep Blue's Murray Campbell called AlphaGo's victory "the end of an era... board games are more or less done and it's time to move on." When compared with Deep Blue or with Watson, AlphaGo's underlying algorithms are potentially more general-purpose, and may be evidence that the scientific community is making progress toward artificial general intelligence. Some commentators believe AlphaGo's victory makes for a good opportunity for society to start discussing preparations for the possible future impact of machines with general purpose intelligence. In March 2016, AI researcher Stuart Russell stated that "AI methods are progressing much faster than expected, (which) makes the question of the long- term outcome more urgent," adding that "in order to ensure that increasingly powerful AI systems remain completely under human control... there is a lot of work to do." Some scholars, such as physicist Stephen Hawking, warn that some future self-improving AI could gain actual general intelligence, leading to an unexpected AI takeover; other scholars disagree: AI expert Jean-Gabriel Ganascia believes that "Things like 'common sense'... may never be reproducible", and says "I don't see why we would speak about fears. On the contrary, this raises hopes in many domains such as health and space exploration." Richard Sutton said "I don't think people should be scared... but I do think people should be paying attention." The DeepMind AlphaGo Team received the Inaugural IJCAI Marvin Minsky Medal for Outstanding Achievements in AI. "AlphaGo is a wonderful achievement, and a perfect example of what the Minsky Medal was initiated to recognise", said Professor Michael Wooldridge, Chair of the IJCAI Awards Committee. "What particularly impressed IJCAI was that AlphaGo achieves what it does through a brilliant combination of classic AI techniques as well as the state-of-the-art machine learning techniques that DeepMind is so closely associated with. It’s a breathtaking demonstration of contemporary AI, and we are delighted to be able to recognise it with this award". ===Go community=== Go is a popular game in South Korea, China and Japan, and this match was watched and analyzed by millions of people worldwide. Many top Go players characterized AlphaGo's unorthodox plays as seemingly-questionable moves that initially befuddled onlookers, but made sense in hindsight: "All but the very best Go players craft their style by imitating top players. AlphaGo seems to have totally original moves it creates itself." AlphaGo appeared to have unexpectedly become much stronger, even when compared with its October 2015 match against Fan Hui where a computer had beaten a Go professional for the first time ever without the advantage of a handicap. China's number one player, Ke Jie, who was at the time the top- ranked player worldwide, initially claimed that he would be able to beat AlphaGo, but declined to play against it for fear that it would "copy my style". As the matches progressed, Ke Jie went back and forth, stating that "it is highly likely that I (could) lose" after analyzing the first three matches, but regaining confidence after the fourth match."...if today's performance was its true capability, then it doesn't deserve to play against me." Toby Manning, the referee of AlphaGo's match against Fan Hui, and Hajin Lee, secretary general of the International Go Federation, both reason that in the future, Go players will get help from computers to learn what they have done wrong in games and improve their skills. Lee apologized for his losses, stating after game three that "I misjudged the capabilities of AlphaGo and felt powerless." He emphasized that the defeat was "Lee Se-dol's defeat" and "not a defeat of mankind". Lee said his eventual loss to a machine was "inevitable" but stated that "robots will never understand the beauty of the game the same way that we humans do." Lee called his game four victory a "priceless win that I (would) not exchange for anything." ===Government=== In response to the match the South Korean government announced on 17 March 2016 that it would invest $863 million (1 trillion won) in artificial-intelligence (AI) research over the next five years. ==Documentary film== An award-winning documentary film about the matches, AlphaGo, was made in 2017. On 13 March 2020, the film was made free online on the DeepMind YouTube channel. ==See also== * AlphaGo versus Ke Jie ==References== ==External links== ===Official match commentary=== Official match commentary by Michael Redmond (9-dan pro) and Chris Garlock on Google DeepMind's YouTube channel: *Game 1 (15 minute summary) *Game 2 (15 minute summary) *Game 3 (15 minute summary) *Game 4 (15 minute summary) *Game 5 (15 minute summary) ===SGF files=== * Game 1 (Go Game Guru) * Game 2 (Go Game Guru) * Game 3 (Go Game Guru) * Game 4 (Go Game Guru) * Game 5 (Go Game Guru) Category:Computer Go games Category:Sport in Seoul Category:2016 in South Korean sport Category:2016 in computing Category:2010s in Seoul Category:2016 in South Korea Category:Human versus computer matches Category:2016 in go Category:March 2016 sports events in Asia Category:AlphaGo
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Israeli settlements, also known as Israeli colonies, are civilian communities where Israeli citizens live, almost exclusively of Jewish ethnicity, built on lands occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. The international community consider Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law, though Israel disputes this. Israeli settlements currently exist in the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), claimed by the State of Palestine as its sovereign territory, and in the Golan Heights, which is internationally considered Syrian territory. East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been effectively annexed by Israel, though the international community has rejected any change of status in both territories and continues to consider each occupied territory. Although the West Bank settlements are on land administered under Israeli military rule rather than civil law, Israeli civil law is "pipelined" into the settlements, such that Israeli citizens living there are treated similarly to those living in Israel. As of January 2023, there are 144 Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including 12 in East Jerusalem. In addition, there are over 100 Israeli illegal outposts in the West Bank. In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers live in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem, with an additional 220,000 Jewish settlers residing in East Jerusalem. Additionally, over 25,000 Israeli settlers live in the Golan Heights. Israeli settlements had previously been built within the Egyptian territory of the Sinai Peninsula, and within the Palestinian territory of the Gaza Strip; however, Israel evacuated and dismantled the 18 Sinai settlements following the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace agreement and all of the 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip, along with four in the West Bank, in 2005 as part of its unilateral disengagement from Gaza. * Israel has established Jewish neighborhoods in East Jerusalem and in the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights, both of which Israel has effectively annexed, and as such Israel does not consider the developments there to be settlements. The international community regards both territories as held under Israeli occupation and the localities established there to be illegal settlements. The International Court of Justice found the settlements to be illegal in its 2004 advisory opinion on the West Bank barrier.Regarding international organizations and courts of law, see ; regarding the UN, see UN General Assembly resolution 39/146, 14 December 1984; UN Security Council Resolution 446, 22 March 1979; and International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, para 120; Regarding the European Union position, see The Syrian Golan In the West Bank, Israel continues to expand its remaining settlements as well as settling new areas,Anthony Cordesman, Jennifer Moravitz, The Israeli–Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere, Greenwood Publishing Group, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005 p. 432: 'Between 1993 and 1999, settlers established 42 "unofficial" settlements, only four of which were subsequently dismantled. More than a dozen new settlements were established between the 1998 Wye Accord [sic: it's the Wye River Memorandum, but Oslo Accords] and the outbreak of war, although former Prime Minister Netanyahu supposedly promised Clinton that he would halt expansion.'Zeev Maoz Defending the Holy Land: A Critical Analysis of Israel's Security & Foreign Policy, University of Michigan Press, 2006 p. 472: 'As can be seen from the table, in 1993 there were about 110,000 settlers in the occupied territories. In 2001 there were 195,000 (Note that the number of settlers increased by 18 percent during the Al Aqsa Intifada). This was an increase of 73 percent'Marwan Bishara, Palestine/Israel: Peace or Apartheid Zed Books, 2003 p. 133: 'The settlement expansion has continued unabated...and accelerated after the launch of the peace process.' p. 133.Baylis Thomas, The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel's Quest for Security Through Dominance Lexington Books, 3011 p. 137: "Six years after the agreement there were more Israeli settlements, less freedom of movement, and worse economic conditions." Settlement building and roads for Jewish settlers proceeded at a frenetic pace under Barak – the classic Zionist maneuver of creating of facts on the ground to preclude a Palestinian state.' p. 137. despite pressure from the international community to desist. The transfer by an occupying power of its civilian population into the territory it occupies is a war crime,Robert Cryer, Hakan Friman, Darryl Robinson, Elizabeth Wilmshurst, An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, Cambridge University Press 2010 p.308Ghislain Poissonnier, Eric David, 'Israeli Settlements in the West Bank, a War Crime?,' Revue des droits de l'homme, 2020.'Status of Settlements Under International Law,' Amnesty International pp.8,29f. although Israel disputes that this applies to the West Bank. On 20 December 2019, the International Criminal Court announced an International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine into alleged war crimes. The presence and ongoing expansion of existing settlements by Israel and the construction of settlement outposts is frequently criticized as an obstacle to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process by the Palestinians, and third parties such as the OIC,"OIC Secretary General hails EU decision on Israeli settlements" . United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine – OIC Statement to UN. Accessed 14 March 2015. the United Nations, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and the European Union have echoed those criticisms. The international community considers the settlements to be illegal under international law, and the United Nations has repeatedly upheld the view that Israel's construction of settlements constitutes a violation of the Fourth Geneva Convention.* * * The United States for decades considered the settlements to be "illegitimate", until the Trump Administration in November 2019 shifted its position, declaring "the establishment of Israeli civilian settlements in the West Bank is not per se inconsistent with international law." == Housing costs and state subventions == Settlement has an economic dimension, much of it driven by the significantly lower costs of housing for Israeli citizens living in Israeli settlements compared to the cost of housing and living in Israel proper.'The economics at the heart of Israel's illegal settlements,' Ma'an News Agency 7 January 2015. Government spending per citizen in the settlements is double that spent per Israeli citizen in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, while government spending for settlers in isolated Israeli settlements is three times the Israeli national average. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there.Jodi Rudoren, Jeremy Ashkenas,'Netanyahu and the Settlements,' The New York Times, 12 March 2015: 'the government spent about $950 supporting each West Bank resident in 2014, more than double its investment in people living in Tel Aviv or Jerusalem; in isolated settlements, it was $1,483 per capita.' == Number of settlements and inhabitants == As of January 2023, there are 144 Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including 12 in East Jerusalem. In addition, there are over 100 Israeli illegal outposts in the West Bank. In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers live in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem, with an additional 220,000 Jewish settlers residing in East Jerusalem. Additionally, over 20,000 Israeli citizens live in settlements in the Golan Heights. == Character: rural and urban == Settlements range in character from farming communities and frontier villages to urban suburbs and neighborhoods. The four largest settlements, Modi'in Illit, Ma'ale Adumim, Beitar Illit and Ariel, have achieved city status. Ariel has 18,000 residents, while the rest have around 37,000 to 55,500 each. == History == === Occupied territories === Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied a number of territories. It took over the remainder of the Palestinian Mandate territories of the West Bank including East Jerusalem, from Jordan which had controlled the territories since the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, which had held Gaza under occupation since 1949. From Egypt, it also captured the Sinai Peninsula and from Syria it captured most of the Golan Heights, which since 1981 has been administered under the Golan Heights Law. === Settlement policy === As early as September 1967, Israeli settlement policy was progressively encouraged by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan,Separate and Unequal, Chapter IV. Human Rights Watch, 19 December 2010Akiva Eldar, "A matter of a few dozen meters" . Haaretz, 1 June 2008 named after its inventor Yigal Allon. It implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley.Ian S. Lustick, For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel, chapter 3, par. Early Activities of Gush Emunim. 1988, the Council on Foreign Relations The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin was also derived from the Allon Plan.Knesset Website, Gush Emunim. Retrieved 27-02-2013 The first settlement was Kfar Etzion, in the southern West Bank,Donald Macintyre, "Secret memo shows Israel knew Six Day War was illegal". Independent, 26 May 2007. (on web.archive) although that location was outside the Allon Plan. Many settlements began as Nahal settlements. They were established as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants. According to a secret document dating to 1970, obtained by Haaretz, the settlement of Kiryat Arba was established by confiscating land by military order and falsely representing the project as being strictly for military use while in reality, Kiryat Arba was planned for settler use. The method of confiscating land by military order for establishing civilian settlements was an open secret in Israel throughout the 1970s, but publication of the information was suppressed by the military censor. In the 1970s, Israel's methods for seizing Palestinian land to establish settlements included requisitioning for ostensibly military purposes and spraying of land with poison. The Likud government of Menahem Begin, from 1977, was more supportive to settlement in other parts of the West Bank, by organizations like Gush Emunim and the Jewish Agency/World Zionist Organization, and intensified the settlement activities.Division for Palestinian Rights (DPR), Israeli settlements in Gaza and the West Bank, Part II , chapter III. "The magnitude of settlements". 1 July 1984. Part I Ian S. Lustick, For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel, chapter 3, par. "Gush Emunim and the Likud". 1988, the Council on Foreign Relations In a government statement, Likud declared that the entire historic Land of Israel is the inalienable heritage of the Jewish people and that no part of the West Bank should be handed over to foreign rule.Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 23. "Government statement on recognition of three settlements". 26 July 1977 Ariel Sharon declared in the same year (1977) that there was a plan to settle 2 million Jews in the West Bank by 2000.Robin Bidwell, Dictionary Of Modern Arab History, Routledge, 2012 p. 442 The government abrogated the prohibition from purchasing occupied land by Israelis; the "Drobles Plan", a plan for large-scale settlement in the West Bank meant to prevent a Palestinian state under the pretext of security became the framework for its policy.Division for Palestinian Rights/CEIRPP, SUPR Bulletin No. 9-10 (letters of 19 September 1979 and 18 October 1979). Original UNGA/UNSC publication of the "Drobles Plan" in pdf: Letter dated 18 October 1979 from the Chairman of the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People addressed to the Secretary- General, see ANNEX (doc.nrs. A/34/605 and S/13582 d.d. 22-10-1979).Citations from the Drobles Plan (October 1978): "Settlement throughout the entire Land of Israel is for security and by right. A strip of settlements at strategic sites enhances both internal and external security alike, as well as making concrete and realizing our right to Eretz Israel." "The disposition of the settlements must be carried out not only _around_ the settlements of the minorities, but also _in between them_." [Note: "minorities" refers to the Arab population in Israel and the Palestinian territories. The West Bank had some 98% Arabs in 1978.] " _New settlements will be established only on State-owned land_ , and not on private Arab-owned land which is duly registered. We should ensure that there is no need for the expropriation of private plots from the members of the minorities." "As is known, it is the task of the land settlement department to initiate, plan and implement the settlement enterprise according to the decisions of the Government and of the joint Government-World Zionist Organization Committee for Settlement." "This will enable us to bring about the dispersion … to the presently empty areas of J&S.;" The "Drobles Plan" from the World Zionist Organization, dated October 1978 and named "Master Plan for the Development of Settlements in Judea and Samaria, 1979–1983", was written by the Jewish Agency director and former Knesset member Matityahu Drobles. In January 1981, the government adopted a follow up- plan from Drobles, dated September 1980 and named "The current state of the settlements in Judea and Samaria", with more details about settlement strategy and policy.UNGA/UNSC, Letter dated 19 June 1981 from the Acting Chairman of the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People to the Secretary-General (A/36/341 and S/14566 d.d.19-06-1981). Citations from the Matityahu Drobles follow up-plan (September 1980): THE SETTLEMENT STRATEGY IN JUDEA AND SAMARIA "In light of the current negotiations on the future of Judea and Samaria, it will now become necessary for us to conduct a race against time. During this period, everything will be mainly determined by the facts we establish in these territories and less by any other considerations. This is therefore the best time for launching an extensive and comprehensive settlement momentum, particularly on the Judea and Samaria hilltops which are not easily passable by nature and which preside over the Jordan Valley on the cast and over the Coastal Plain on the west." "It is therefore significant to stress today, mainly by means of actions, that the autonomy does not and will not apply to the territories but only to the Arab population thereof. This should mainly find expression by establishing facts on the ground. Therefore, the state- owned lands and the uncultivated barren lands in Judea and Samaria ought to be seized right away, with the purpose of settling the areas between and around the centers occupied by the minorities so as to reduce to the minimum the danger of an additional Arab state being established in these territories. Being cut off by Jewish settlements the minority population will find it difficult to form a territorial and political continuity." "There mustn't be even the shadow of a doubt about our intention to keep the territories of Judea and Samaria for good. Otherwise, the minority population may get into a state of growing disquiet which will eventually result in recurrent efforts to establish an additional Arab state in these territories. The best and most effective way of removing every shadow of a doubt about our intention to hold on to Judea and Samaria forever is by speeding up the settlement momentum in these territories." SETTLEMENT POLICY IN JUDEA AND SAMARIA "Thus, it is necessary to establish additional settlements near every existing settlement in Judea and Samaria, so as to create settlement clusters in homogenous settlement regions ..." "Over the next 5 years it is necessary to establish 12–15 rural and urban settlements per annum in Judea and Samaria, so that in five years from now the number of settlements will grow by 60–75 and the Jewish population thereof will amount to between 120,000 and 150,000 people." Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank are implemented by the "Settlement Division" of the World Zionist Organization."Cabinet seeks to limit Barak's say on settlements". Tovah Lazaroff and Herb Keinon, Jerusalem Post, 20 June 2011 Though formally a non- governmental organization, it is funded by the Israeli government and leases lands from the Civil Administration to settle in the West Bank. It is authorized to create settlements in the West Bank on lands licensed to it by the Civil Administration. Traditionally, the Settlement Division has been under the responsibility of the Agriculture Ministry. Since the Oslo Accords, it was always housed within the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). In 2007, it was moved back to the Agriculture Ministry. In 2009, the Netanyahu Government decided to subject all settlement activities to additional approval of the Prime Minister and the Defense Minister. In 2011, Netanyahu sought to move the Settlement Division again under the direct control of (his own) PMO, and to curtail Defense Minister Ehud Barak's authority. At the presentation of the Oslo II Accord on 5 October 1995 in the Knesset, PM Yitzhak Rabin expounded the Israeli settlement policy in connection with the permanent solution to the conflict. Israel wanted "a Palestinian entity, less than a state, which will be a home to most of the Palestinian residents living in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank". It wanted to keep settlements beyond the Green Line including Ma'ale Adumim and Givat Ze'ev in East Jerusalem. Blocs of settlements should be established in the West Bank. Rabin promised not to return to the 4 June 1967 lines.Presentation of the Oslo II Accord in the Knesset by Rabin: MFA, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin: Ratification of the Israel–Palestinian Interim Agreement—The Knesset October 5, 1995. In June 1997, the Likud government of Benjamin Netanyahu presented its "Allon Plus Plan". This plan holds the retention of some 60% of the West Bank, including the "Greater Jerusalem" area with the settlements Gush Etzion and Ma'aleh Adumim, other large concentrations of settlements in the West Bank, the entire Jordan Valley, a "security area", and a network of Israeli-only bypass roads.The origins and evolution of the Palestine problem , Part V (1989–2000), chap. III, E. CEIRPP, 2014."Netanyahu Presents His 'Allon-Plus' Final Status Map". Settlement Report, Vol. 7 No. 4, July–August 1997. On In the Road map for peace of 2002, which was never implemented, the establishment of a Palestinian state was acknowledged. Outposts would be dismantled. However, many new outposts appeared instead, few were removed. Israel's settlement policy remained unchanged. Settlements in East Jerusalem and remaining West Bank were expanded. While according to official Israeli policy no new settlements were built, at least some hundred unauthorized outposts were established since 2002 with state funding in the 60% of the West Bank that was not under Palestinian administrative control and the population growth of settlers did not diminish. In 2005, all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip and four in the northern West Bank were forcibly evacuated as part of Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip, known to some in Israel as "the Expulsion". However, the disengagement was more than compensated by transfers to the West Bank. After the failure of the Roadmap, several new plans emerged to settle in major parts of the West Bank. In 2011, Haaretz revealed the Civil Administration's "Blue Line"-plan, written in January 2011, which aims to increase Israeli "state-ownership" of West Bank land ("state lands") and settlement in strategic areas like the Jordan Valley and the northern Dead Sea area.Akiva Eldar, "IDF Civil Administration pushing for land takeover in West Bank" Haaretz, 22 July 2011 In March 2012, it was revealed that the Civil Administration over the years covertly allotted 10% of the West Bank for further settlement. Provisional names for future new settlements or settlement expansions were already assigned. The plan includes many Palestinian built-up sites in the Areas A and B.Akiva Eldar, "Israel Defense Ministry plan earmarks 10 percent of West Bank for settlement expansion". Haaretz, 30 March 2012. == Geography and municipal status == Some settlements are self-contained cities with a stable population in the tens of thousands, infrastructure, and all other features of permanence. Examples are Beitar Illit (a city of close to 45,000 residents), Ma'ale Adumim, Modi'in Illit, and Ariel (almost 20,000 residents). Some are towns with a local council status with populations of 2,000–20,0000, such as Alfei Menashe, Eli, Elkana, Efrat and Kiryat Arba. There are also clusters of villages governed by a local elected committee and regional councils that are responsible for municipal services. Examples are Kfar Adumim, Neve Daniel, Kfar Tapuach and Ateret. Kibbutzim and moshavim in the territories include Argaman, Gilgal, Niran and Yitav. Jewish neighborhoods have been built on the outskirts of Arab neighborhoods, for example in Hebron. In Jerusalem, there are urban neighborhoods where Jews and Arabs live together: the Muslim Quarter, Silwan, Abu Tor, Sheikh Jarrah and Shimon HaTzadik. Under the Oslo Accords, the West Bank was divided into three separate parts designated as Area A, Area B and Area C. Leaving aside the position of East Jerusalem, all of the settlements are in Area C which comprises about 60% of the West Bank. == Types of settlement == * Cities/towns: Ariel, Betar Illit, Modi'in Illit and Ma'ale Adumim. * Urban suburbs, such as Har Gilo. * Block settlements, such as Gush Etzion and settlements in the Nablus area. * Frontier villages, such as those along the Jordan River. * Outposts, small settlements, some authorized and some unauthorized, often on hilltops. The Sasson Report, commissioned by Ariel Sharon's administration, found that several government ministries had cooperated to establish illegal outposts, spending millions of dollars on infrastructure. == Resettlement of former Jewish communities == Some settlements were established on sites where Jewish communities had existed during the British Mandate of Palestine or even since the First Aliyah or ancient times."Twenty-three Jewish settlements werde destroyed during the 1948 fighting. Arab forces ... held onto the remains ... and the land on which they had stood was incorporated into the West Bank and Gaza after the war. These were ..." A list of these settlements follows. ( (= Fischbach)) (Another list at p. 84.) * Golan Heights – Bnei Yehuda, founded in 1890, (= Gilbert) abandoned because of Arab attacks in 1920, rebuilt near the original site in 1972. * Jerusalem – Jewish presence alongside other peoples since biblical times, various surrounding communities and neighborhoods, including Kfar Shiloah, also known as Silwan—settled by Yemenite Jews in 1884, Jewish residents evacuated in 1938, a few Jewish families move into reclaimed homes in 2004. Other communities: Shimon HaTzadik, Neve Yaakov and Atarot which in post-1967 was rebuilt as an industrial zone. * Gush Etzion – four communities, established between 1927 and 1947, destroyed 1948, reestablished beginning 1967. * Hebron – Jewish presence since biblical times, forced out in the wake of the 1929 Hebron massacre, some families returned in 1931 but were evacuated by the British, a few buildings resettled since 1967. * Dead Sea, northern area – Kalia and Beit HaArava – the former was built in 1934 as a kibbutz for potash mining. The latter was built in 1943 as an agricultural community. Both were abandoned in 1948, and subsequently destroyed by Jordanian forces,Gilbert, p.45 ("The Arab Invasion of the State of Israel") and resettled after the Six-Day War. * Gaza City had a Jewish community for many centuries that was evacuated following riots in 1929.Gilbert, p.2 ("The Jews of Palestine 636 A.D. to 1880), p.3 ("1880 – 1914") and p.17 ("Riots in Palestine 1921 – 1947") After the Six-Day War, Jewish communities weren't built in Gaza City, but in Gush Katif in the southwestern part of the Gaza Strip, f.e. Kfar Darom – established in 1946, evacuated in 1948 after an Egyptian attack,Fischbach, p.87 resettled in 1970, evacuated in 2005 as part of the withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. == Demographics == At the end of 2010, 534,224 Jewish Israeli lived in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. 314,132 of them lived in the 121 authorised settlements and 102 unauthorised settlement outposts on the West Bank, 198,629 were living in East Jerusalem, and almost 20,000 lived in settlements in the Golan Heights. By 2011, the number of Jewish settlers in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem had increased to 328,423 people. In June 2014, the number of Israeli settlers in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem had increased to 382,031 people, with over 20,000 Israeli settlers in the Golan Heights. In January 2015, the Israeli Interior Ministry gave figures of 389,250 Israeli citizens living in the West Bank outside East Jerusalem. By the end of 2016, the West Bank Jewish population had risen to 420,899, excluding East Jerusalem, where there were more than 200,000 Jews. In 2019, the number of Israeli settlers in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem had risen to 441,600 individuals, and the number of Israeli settlers in the Golan Heights had risen to 25,261. In 2020, the number of Israeli settlers in the West Bank excluding East Jerusalem had reportedly risen to 451,700 individuals, with an additional 220,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem. Based on various sources,Israel Central Bureau of Statistics: Foundation for Middle East Peace : By Hook and by Crook, pp. 9–10. B'Tselem population dispersal can be estimated as follows: Settler population 1948 1972 1977 1980 1983 1993 2004 2007 2010 2014 2018 2019 2020 West Bank (excluding Jerusalem) 480 (see Gush Etzion) 1,182 3,200 -4,400Largest Jewish settlements in the West Bank . Maan, 14 November 2010 17,400 22,800 111,600 234,500 276,500 314,100 400,000 427,800 441,600 451,700 Gaza Strip 2 30 (see Kfar Darom) 700 1 – 900 4,800 7,826 0 East Jerusalem 2,300 (see Jewish Quarter, Atarot, Neve Yaakov) 8,649 – 76,095 152,800 181,587 189,708 198,629 – 218,000 – 220,000 Total 2,810 10,531 99,795 269,200 423,913 467,478 512,769 645,800 671,700 Golan Heights 0 77 – 6,800 12,600 17,265 18,692 19,797 21,000 – 25,261 – : 1 including Sinai : 2 Janet Abu-Lughod mentions 500 settlers in Gaza in 1978 (excluding Sinai), and 1,000 in 1980Israeli Settlements in Occupied Arab Lands: Conquest to Colony, p. 29. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Winter, 1982), pp. 16–54. Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Institute for Palestine Studies In addition to internal migration, in large though declining numbers, the settlements absorb annually about 1000 new immigrants from outside Israel. The American Kulanu organization works with such right-wing Israeli settler groups as Amishav and Shavei Israel to settle "lost" Jews of color in such areas where local Palestinians are being displaced.Noah Tamarkin, Genetic Afterlives:Black Jewish Indigeneity in South Africa, Duke University Press 2020 p.6: 'Nadia Abu El-Haj writes about how the American liberal multicultural Jewish organization Kulanu has partnered with right-wing Israeli groups like Amishav and Shavei Israel to settle "lost" Jews of color in the illegal settlements that have continued to displace Palestinians in recent decades. As Abu El-Haj explains, "Nonwhite Jews become the site for discussions of Jewish racism, which is viewed as an entirely internal Jewish problem. The question of Palestine, the realities of a colonial present, and its very violent forms of racism in a state structured around the distinction between Jew and non-Jew, subject and citizen, and movement and enclosure are displaced". In the 1990s, the annual settler population growth was more than three times the annual population growth in Israel.Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991–2003 , Foundation for Middle East Peace. Population growth has continued in the 2000s.Settler Population Growth East and West of the Barrier, 2000–2007 , Foundation for Middle East Peace. According to the BBC, the settlements in the West Bank have been growing at a rate of 5–6% since 2001. In 2016, there were sixty thousand American Israelis living in settlements in the West Bank. The establishment of settlements in the Palestinian territories is linked to the displacement of the Palestinian populations as evidenced by a 1979 Security Council Commission which established a link between Israeli settlements and the displacement of the local population. The commission also found that those who remained were under consistent pressure to leave to make room for further settlers who were being encouraged into the area. In conclusion the commission stated that settlement in the Palestinian territories was causing "profound and irreversible changes of a geographic and demographic nature". == Administration and local government == === West Bank === The Israeli settlements in the West Bank fall under the administrative district of Judea and Samaria Area. Since December 2007, approval by both the Israeli Prime Minister and Israeli Defense Minister of all settlement activities (including planning) in the West Bank is required. Authority for planning and construction is held by the Israel Defense Forces Civil Administration. The area consists of four cities, thirteen local councils and six regional councils. *Cities: Ariel, Betar Illit, Maale Adumim, Modi'in Illit; *Local councils: Alfei Menashe, Beit Aryeh-Ofarim, Beit El, Efrat, Elkana, Giv'at Ze'ev, Har Adar, Immanuel, Karnei Shomron, Kedumim, Kiryat Arba, Ma'ale Efraim, Oranit; *Regional councils: Gush Etzion (Ezion Bloc), Har Hebron (Mount Hebron), Matte Binyamin (Staff of Benjamin, named after the ancient Israelite tribe that dwelled in the area), Megilot (Scrolls, named after the Dead Sea scrolls, which were discovered in the area), Shomron Regional Council (Samaria), Biq'at HaYarden (Jordan valley). The Yesha Council (, Moatzat Yesha, a Hebrew acronym for Judea, Samaria and Gaza) is the umbrella organization of municipal councils in the West Bank. The actual buildings of the Israeli settlements cover only 1 percent of the West Bank, but their jurisdiction and their regional councils extend to about 42 percent of the West Bank, according to the Israeli NGO B'Tselem. Yesha Council chairman Dani Dayan disputes the figures and claims that the settlements only control 9.2 percent of the West Bank.CBS News, 2010 Jul 6, "Group: Israel Controls 42% of West Bank: Settlements Occupy Land Seized from Palestinians in Defiance of 1979 Court Ban, Israeli Human Rights Group Says" Between 2001 and 2007 more than 10,000 Israeli settlement units were built, while 91 permits were issued for Palestinian construction, and 1,663 Palestinian structures were demolished in Area C.Phoebe Greenwood, 'Palestinians prepare to lose the solar panels that provide a lifeline,' at The Guardian, 14 March 2012. West Bank Palestinians have their cases tried in Israel's military courts while Jewish Israeli settlers living in the same occupied territory are tried in civil courts.Detained, interrogated, beaten: Demand protection for Palestinian children (Amnesty USA, June 2015) "While Palestinian children and adults face Israeli military courts, Jewish Israeli settlers benefit from Israeli civil law. Israel gives Jewish settlers a different system of justice – even though they are living illegally in the very same occupied Palestinian territories." The arrangement has been described as "de facto segregation" by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (Israel) (9 March 2012) (paragraph 24) A bill to formally extend Israeli law to the Israeli settlements in the West Bank was rejected in 2012. The basic military laws governing the West Bank are influenced by what is called the "pipelining" of Israeli legislation. As a result of "enclave law", large portions of Israeli civil law are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories. On 31 August 2014, Israel announced it was appropriating 400 hectares of land in the West Bank to eventually house 1,000 Israel families. The appropriation was described as the largest in more than 30 years. According to reports on Israel Radio, the development is a response to the 2014 kidnapping and murder of Israeli teenagers. === East Jerusalem === East Jerusalem is defined in the Jerusalem Law as part of Israel and its capital, Jerusalem. As such it is administered as part of the city and its district, the Jerusalem District. Pre-1967 residents of East Jerusalem and their descendants have residency status in the city but many have refused Israeli citizenship. Thus, the Israeli government maintains an administrative distinction between Israeli citizens and non-citizens in East Jerusalem, but the Jerusalem municipality does not. === Golan Heights === The Golan Heights is administered under Israeli civil law as the Golan sub-district, a part of the Northern District. Israel makes no legal or administrative distinction between pre-1967 communities in the Golan Heights (mainly Druze) and the post-1967 settlements. === Sinai Peninsula === After the capture of the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War, settlements were established along the Gulf of Aqaba and in northeast Sinai, just below the Gaza Strip. Israel had plans to expand the settlement of Yamit into a city with a population of 200,000,The Arab–Israeli Dilemma (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East), Syracuse University Press; 3rd edition (August, 1985 though the actual population of Yamit did not exceed 3,000. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in stages beginning in 1979 as part of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty. As required by the treaty, in 1982 Israel evacuated the Israeli civilian population from the 18 Sinai settlements in Sinai. In some instances evacuations were done forcefully, such as the evacuation of Yamit. All the settlements were then dismantled. === Gaza Strip === Before Israel's unilateral disengagement plan in which the Israeli settlements were evacuated, there were 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip under the administration of the Hof Aza Regional Council. The land was allocated in such a way that each Israeli settler disposed of 400 times the land available to the Palestinian refugees, and 20 times the volume of water allowed to the peasant farmers of the Strip.Jean-Pierre Filiu, Gaza: A History, Oxford University Press, 2014 p. 196. == Legal status == The consensus viewIsrael must withdraw all settlers or face ICC, says UN report (The Guardian, 31 January 2013) "Israel (...) was in violation of article 49 of the fourth Geneva convention, which forbids the transfer of civilian populations to occupied territory (...) The UNHRC report broadly restated international consensus on the illegality of Israeli settlements" in the international community is that the existence of Israeli settlements in the West Bank including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights is in violation of international law. The Fourth Geneva Convention includes statements such as "the Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies".GC4 Part III : Status and treatment of protected persons #Section III : Occupied territories "the Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies" International Committee of the Red Cross. On 20 December 2019, International Criminal Court chief prosecutor Fatou Bensouda announced an International Criminal Court investigation in Palestine into alleged war crimes committed during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. At present, the view of the international community, as reflected in numerous UN resolutions, regards the building and existence of Israeli settlements in the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights as a violation of international law. UN Security Council Resolution 446 refers to the Fourth Geneva Convention as the applicable international legal instrument, and calls upon Israel to desist from transferring its own population into the territories or changing their demographic makeup. The reconvened Conference of the High Contracting Parties to the Geneva Conventions has declared the settlements illegal as has the primary judicial organ of the UN, the International Court of Justice. The position of successive Israeli governments is that all authorized settlements are entirely legal and consistent with international law. In practice, Israel does not accept that the Fourth Geneva Convention applies de jure, but has stated that on humanitarian issues it will govern itself de facto by its provisions, without specifying which these are.Gerson, Allan. Israel, the West Bank, and International law, Routledge, 28 September 1978, , p. 82.Roberts, Adam, "Decline of Illusions: The Status of the Israeli-Occupied Territories over 21 Years" in International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944–), Vol. 64, No. 3. (Summer, 1988), pp. 345–359., p. 350 The scholar and jurist Eugene RostowRostow, Eugene V., The New Republic 23 April 1990 The Historical Approach to the Issue of the Legality of Jewish Settlement Activity has disputed the illegality of authorized settlements. Under Israeli law, West Bank settlements must meet specific criteria to be legal.Peace Now, Hagit Ofran and Dror Etkes, "And Thou Shalt Spread ..." Construction and development of settlements beyond the official limits of jurisdiction ; pp. 3–5. June 2007 In 2009, there were approximately 100 small communities that did not meet these criteria and are referred to as illegal outposts.fmep.org . Retrieved 13 May 2007. In 2014 twelve EU countries warned businesses against involving themselves in the settlements. According to the warnings, economic activities relating to the settlements involve legal and economic risks stemming from the fact that the settlements are built on occupied land not recognized as Israel's. === Illegality arguments === The consensus of the international community – the vast majority of states, the overwhelming majority of legal experts, the International Court of Justice and the UN, is that settlements are in violation of international law.'The charge that israeli settlements violate international law is widely accepted in the international community. The UN, the ICJ, almost every state in the world, and the vast majority of legal experts all consider Israeli settlements to be illegal and, in fact, a war crime according to the Fourth Geneva Convention (specifically article 49, paragraph 6). The Israeli government and a small number of legal experts dispute this, arguing that the Geneva Convention is not applicable to the West Bank because Israel is not an occupying power there (since the territory had no legitimate sovereign and that, even if the Geneva Convention does apply, it only prohibits forcible population transfers (like the mass deportations..)'. Dov Waxman, The Israeli–Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know, Oxford University Press, 2019 p.179. * * * * * *Civilian and military presence as strategies of territorial control: The Arab-Israel conflict, David Newman, Political Geography Quarterly Volume 8, Issue 3, July 1989, Pages 215–227 After the Six-Day War, in 1967, Theodor Meron, legal counsel to the Israeli Foreign Ministry stated in a legal opinion to the Prime Minister, > "My conclusion is that civilian settlement in the administered territories > contravenes the explicit provisions of the Fourth Geneva > Convention."Gorenberg, Gershom. "The Accidental Empire". New York: Times > Books, Henry Holt and Company, 2006. p. 99. This legal opinion was sent to Prime Minister Levi Eshkol. However, it was not made public at the time. The Labor cabinet allowed settlements despite the warning. This paved the way for future settlement growth. In 2007, Meron stated that "I believe that I would have given the same opinion today." In 1978, the Legal Adviser of the Department of State of the United States reached the same conclusion."Letter of the State Department Legal Advisor, Mr. Herbert J. Hansell, Concerning the Legality of Israeli Settlements in the Occupied Territories", cited in Progress report—The human rights dimensions of population transfer including the implantation of settler prepared by Mr. Awn Shawhat Al-Khasawneh. The International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion, has since ruled that Israel is in breach of international law by establishing settlements in Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem. The Court maintains that Israel cannot rely on its right of self- defense or necessity to impose a regime that violates international law. The Court also ruled that Israel violates basic human rights by impeding liberty of movement and the inhabitants' right to work, health, education and an adequate standard of living."Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory", para 120, 134, and 142 and PAUL J. I. M. DE WAART (2005) International Court of Justice Firmly Walled in the Law of Power in the Israeli–Palestinian Peace Process. Leiden Journal of International Law, 18, pp 467–487, International intergovernmental organizations such as the Conference of the High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention,Conference of High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention: Declaration, GENEVA, 5 December 2001 major organs of the United Nations,See UN General Assembly resolution 39/146, 14 December 1984; UN Security Council Resolution 446, 22 March 1979; and International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, para 120 the European Union, and Canada, also regard the settlements as a violation of international law. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination wrote that "The status of the settlements was clearly inconsistent with Article 3 of the Convention, which, as noted in the Committee's General Recommendation XIX, prohibited all forms of racial segregation in all countries. There is a consensus among publicists that the prohibition of racial discrimination, irrespective of territories, is an imperative norm of international law."See CERD/C/SR.1250, 9 March 1998 Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch have also characterized the settlements as a violation of international law. In late January 2013 a report drafted by three justices, presided over by Christine Chanet, and issued by the United Nations Human Rights Council declared that Jewish settlements constituted a creeping annexation based on multiple violations of the Geneva Conventions and international law, and stated that if Palestine ratified the Rome Accord, Israel could be tried for "gross violations of human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law." A spokesman for Israel's Foreign Ministry declared the report 'unfortunate' and accused the UN's Human Rights Council of a "systematically one-sided and biased approach towards Israel."Nick Cumming- Bruce, 'U.N. Panel Says Israeli Settlement Policy Violates Law,' at The New York Times, 31 January 2013 According to Talia Sasson, the High Court of Justice in Israel, with a variety of different justices sitting, has repeatedly stated for more than 4 decades that Israel's presence in the West Bank is in violation of international law.Tomer Zarchin, If Israel is not occupying the West Bank it must give up land held by the IDF at Haaretz, 9 July 2012: 'For 45 years, different compositions of the High Court of Justice stated again and again that Israel's presence in the West Bank violates international law, which is clearly opposed to Levy's findings.' === Legality arguments === Four prominent jurists cited the concept of the "sovereignty vacuum" in the immediate aftermath of the Six-Day War to describe the legal status of the West Bank and Gaza:Howard Grief, The Legal Foundation and Borders of Israel Under International Law, Mazo Publishers, p. 662. cf. p. 191. Yehuda Zvi Blum in 1968,The Missing Reversioner: Reflections on the Status of Judea and Samaria, in Israel Law Review,3 1968 pp. 279–301. Elihu Lauterpacht in 1968,Jerusalem and the Holy Places, Anglo-Israel Association, London 1968. Julius Stone in 1969Julius Stone,No Peace-No War in the Middle East, Maitland Publications, Sydney 1969. and 1981,Julius Stone, Israel and Palestine:Assault on the Law of Nations, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1981. and Stephen M. Schwebel in 1970.Stephen M. Schwebel, What Weight to Conquest, in American Journal of International Law, vol.64, 1970 pp. 344–347. Eugene V. Rostow also argued in 1979 that the occupied territories' legal status was undetermined.Palestinian Self-Determination: Possible Futures for the Unallocated Territories of the Palestine Mandate, Yale Studies in World Public Order, 147 (1978–1979) vol.5 1978 pp. 147–172. *Stephen M. Schwebel made three distinctions specific to the Israeli situation to claim that the territories were seized in self-defense and that Israel has more title to them than the previous holders. *Professor Julius Stone also wrote that "Israel's presence in all these areas pending negotiation of new borders is entirely lawful, since Israel entered them lawfully in self-defense." He argued that it would be an "irony bordering on the absurd" to read Article 49(6) as meaning that the State of Israel was obliged to ensure (by force if necessary) that areas with a millennial association with Jewish life, shall be forever "judenrein".Illegal-Settlements Myth, Commentary magazine Professor Ben Saul took exception to this view, arguing that Article 49(6) can be read to include voluntary or assisted transfers, as indeed it was in the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice which had expressed this interpretation in the Israeli Wall Advisory Opinion (2003).Ben Saul, Director, Sydney Centre for International Law, Faculty of Law, The University of Sydney, Julius Stone and the Question of Palestine in International Law p. 11. Retrieved 23 December 2011 Israel maintains that a temporary use of land and buildings for various purposes is permissible under a plea of military necessity and that the settlements fulfilled security needs.Kretzmer, David The occupation of justice: the Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories, SUNY Press, 2002, , , page 83 Israel argues that its settlement policy is consistent with international law, including the Fourth Geneva Convention, while recognising that some settlements have been constructed illegally on private land. The Israeli Supreme Court has ruled that the power of the Civil Administration and the Military Commander in the occupied territories is limited by the entrenched customary rules of public international law as codified in the Hague Regulations.*Helmreich, Jeffrey. Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue, Jerusalem Issue Brief, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Vol. 2, No. 16, 19 January 2003. *Disputed territories – Forgotten facts about the West Bank and Gaza strip, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 February 2003. Retrieved 29 January 2008. In 1998 the Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs produced "The International Criminal Court Background Paper". It concludes > International law has long recognised that there are crimes of such severity > they should be considered "international crimes." Such crimes have been > established in treaties such as the Genocide Convention and the Geneva > Conventions.... The following are Israel's primary issues of concern [ie > with the rules of the ICC]: The inclusion of settlement activity as a "war > crime" is a cynical attempt to abuse the Court for political ends. The > implication that the transfer of civilian population to occupied territories > can be classified as a crime equal in gravity to attacks on civilian > population centres or mass murder is preposterous and has no basis in > international law. A UN conference was held in Rome in 1998, where Israel was one of seven countries to vote against the Rome Statute to establish the International Criminal Court. Israel was opposed to a provision that included as a war crime the transfer of civilian populations into territory the government occupies. Israel has signed the statute, but not ratified the treaty. == Land ownership == A 1996 amendment to an Israeli military order, states that land privately owned can not be part of a settlement, unless the land in question has been confiscated for military purposes. In 2006 Peace Now acquired a report, which it claims was leaked from the Israeli Government's Civil Administration, indicating that up to 40 percent of the land Israel plans to retain in the West Bank is privately owned by Palestinians. Peace Now called this a violation of Israeli law. Peace Now published a comprehensive report about settlements on private lands.Peace Now, Breaking the Law in the West Bank – One Violation Leads to Another: Israeli Settlement Building on Private Palestinian Property. October 2006 In the wake of a legal battle, Peace Now lowered the figure to 32 percent, which the Civil Administration also denied. The Washington Post reported that "The 38-page report offers what appears to be a comprehensive argument against the Israeli government's contention that it avoids building on private land, drawing on the state's own data to make the case." In February 2008, the Civil Administration stated that the land on which more than a third of West Bank settlements was built had been expropriated by the IDF for "security purposes." The unauthorized seizure of private Palestinian land was defined by the Civil Administration itself as 'theft.' According to B'Tselem, more than 42 percent of the West Bank are under control of the Israeli settlements, 21 percent of which was seized from private Palestinian owners, much of it in violation of the 1979 Israeli Supreme Court decision. In 1979, the government decided to extend settlements or build new ones only on "state lands". A secret database, drafted by a retired senior officer, Baruch Spiegel, on orders from former defense minister Shaul Mofaz, found that some settlements deemed legal by Israel were illegal outposts, and that large portions of Ofra, Elon Moreh and Beit El were built on private Palestinian land. The "Spiegel report" was revealed by Haaretz in 2009. Many settlements are largely built on private lands, without approval of the Israeli Government."Stop the deceit and whitewashing". Haaretz, 30 January 2009 Haaretz, Uri Blau, "Secret Israeli database reveals full extent of illegal settlement". 30 January 2009. The published document (in Hebrew): . Part of it was translated in english by Yesh Din: "Spiegel Database" of West Bank settlements and outposts developed by the Israeli Ministry of Defense According to Israel, the bulk of the land was vacant, was leased from the state, or bought fairly from Palestinian landowners. Invoking the Absentee Property Law to transfer, sell or lease property in East Jerusalem owned by Palestinians who live elsewhere without compensation has been criticized both inside and outside of Israel. Opponents of the settlements claim that "vacant" land belonged to Arabs who fled or collectively to an entire village, a practice that developed under Ottoman rule. B'Tselem charged that Israel is using the absence of modern legal documents for the communal land as a legal basis for expropriating it. These "abandoned lands" are sometimes laundered through a series of fraudulent sales. According to Amira Hass, one of the techniques used by Israel to expropriate Palestinian land is to place desired areas under a 'military firing zone' classification, and then issue orders for the evacuation of Palestinians from the villages in that range, while allowing contiguous Jewish settlements to remain unaffected.Amira Hass, 'A proper Zionist live fire zone,' Haaretz, 20 August 2012 == Effects on Palestinian human rights == thumb|right|upright=0.9|Parts of the West Bank allocated to the settlements, as of January 2012 (in pink and purple color). Access is prohibited or restricted to Palestinians. Amnesty International argues that Israel's settlement policy is discriminatory and a violation of Palestinian human rights.Israel/Occupied Territories: Removing unlawful Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories: Time to act Amnesty International, 2005 B'Tselem claims that Israeli travel restrictions impact on Palestinian freedom of movement and Palestinian human rights have been violated in Hebron due to the presence of the settlers within the city. According to B'Tselem, over fifty percent of West Bank land expropriated from Palestinians has been used to establish settlements and create reserves of land for their future expansion. The seized lands mainly benefit the settlements and Palestinians cannot use them. The roads built by Israel in the West Bank to serve the settlements are closed to Palestinian vehicles' and act as a barrier often between villages and the lands on which they subsist. Human Rights Watch and other human rights observer volunteer regularly file reports on "settler violence," referring to stoning and shooting incidents involving Israeli settlers. Israel's withdrawal from Gaza and Hebron have led to violent settler protests and disputes over land and resources. Meron Benvenisti described the settlement enterprise as a "commercial real estate project that conscripts Zionist rhetoric for profit." The construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier has been criticized as an infringement on Palestinian human and land rights. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimated that 10% of the West Bank would fall on the Israeli side of the barrier. In July 2012, the UN Human Rights Council decided to set up a probe into Jewish settlements. The report of the independent international fact-finding mission which investigated the "implications of the Israeli settlements on the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of the Palestinian people throughout the Occupied Palestinian Territory" was published in February 2013.Human rights situation in Palestine and other occupied Arab territories (PDF; 538 kB). Report of the independent international fact-finding mission to investigate the implications of the Israeli settlements on the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of the Palestinian people throughout the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, February 2013 In February 2020, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights published a list of 112 companies linked to activities related to Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank. == Economy == Goods produced in Israeli settlements are able to stay competitive on the global market, in part because of massive state subsidies they receive from the Israeli government. Farmers and producers are given state assistance, while companies that set up in the territories receive tax breaks and direct government subsidies. An Israeli government fund has also been established to help companies pay customs penalties. Palestinian officials estimate that settlers sell goods worth some $500 million to the Palestinian market.Q&A-Palestinians; boycott Israeli settler goods, Reuters, 27 May 2010 Israel has built 16 industrial zones, containing roughly 1000 industrial plants, in the West Bank and East Jerusalem on acreage that consumes large parts of the territory planned for a future Palestinian state. According to Jodi Rudoren these installations both entrench the occupation and provide work for Palestinians, even those opposed to it. The 16 parks are located at Shaked, Beka'ot, Baran, Karnei Shomron, Emmanuel, Barkan, Ariel, Shilo, Halamish, Ma'ale Efraim, Sha'ar Binyamin, Atarot, Mishor Adumim, Gush Etzion, Kiryat Arba and Metarim (2001).Jodi Rudoren, 'In West Bank Settlements, Israeli Jobs Are Double-Edged Sword,' New York Times, 10 February 2014. In spite of this, the West Bank settlements have failed to develop a self-sustaining local economy. About 60% of the settler workforce commutes to Israel for work. The settlements rely primarily on the labor of their residents in Israel proper rather than local manufacturing, agriculture, or research and development. Of the industrial parks in the settlements, there are only two significant ones, at Ma'ale Adumim and Barkan, with most of the workers there being Palestinian. Only a few hundred settler households cultivate agricultural land, and rely primarily on Palestinian labor in doing so. Settlement has an economic dimension, much of it driven by the significantly lower costs of housing for Israeli citizens living in Israeli settlements compared to the cost of housing and living in Israel proper. Government spending per citizen in the settlements is double that spent per Israeli citizen in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, while government spending for settlers in isolated Israeli settlements is three times the Israeli national average. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there. === Export to EU === According to Israeli government estimates, $230 million worth of settler goods including fruit, vegetables, cosmetics, textiles and toys are exported to the EU each year, accounting for approximately 2% of all Israeli exports to Europe. A 2013 report of Profundo revealed that at least 38 Dutch companies imported settlement products.Profundo, Dutch economic links with the occupation . 20 April 2013. Available on European Union law requires a distinction to be made between goods originating in Israel and those from the occupied territories. The former benefit from preferential custom treatment according to the EU-Israel Association Agreement (2000); the latter don't, having been explicitly excluded from the agreement. In practice, however, settler goods often avoid mandatory customs through being labelled as originating in Israel, while European customs authorities commonly fail to complete obligatory postal code checks of products to ensure they have not originated in the occupied territories. In 2009, the United Kingdom's Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs issued new guidelines concerning labelling of goods imported from the West Bank. The new guidelines require labelling to clarify whether West Bank products originate from settlements or from the Palestinian economy. Israel's foreign ministry said that the UK was "catering to the demands of those whose ultimate goal is the boycott of Israeli products"; but this was denied by the UK government, who said that the aim of the new regulations was to allow consumers to choose for themselves what produce they buy.] Denmark has similar legislation requiring food products from settlements in the occupied territories to be accurately labelled. In June 2022, Norway also stated that it would begin complying with EU regulation to label produce originating from Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Golan Heights as such. On 12 November 2019 the Court of Justice of the European Union in a rulinghttps://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2019-11/cp190140en.pdf covering all territory Israel captured in the 1967 war decided that labels on foodstuffs must not imply that goods produced in occupied territory came from Israel itself and must "prevent consumers from being misled as to the fact that the State of Israel is present in the territories concerned as an occupying power and not as a sovereign entity". In its ruling, the court said that failing to inform EU consumers they were potentially buying goods produced in settlements denies them access to "ethical considerations and considerations relating to the observance of international law". In January 2019 the Dail (Ireland's lower house) voted in favour, by 78 to 45, of the Control of Economic Activity (Occupied Territories) bill.https://data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/bill/2018/6/eng/initiated/b0618s.pdf This piece of legislation prohibits the purchasing of any good and/or service from the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem or West Bank settlements. As of February 2019 the bill has some stages to be completed,once codified, either a five-year jail sentence or fines of up to €250,000 ($284,000) will affect anyone who breaks this law. A petition under the European Citizens' Initiative, submitted in September 2021, was accepted on 20 February 2022. The petition seeks the adoption of legislation to ban trade with unlawful settlements. The petition requires a million signatures from across the EU and has received support from civil society groups including Human Rights Watch. === Palestinian economy and resources === A Palestinian report argued in 2011 that settlements have a detrimental effect on the Palestinian economy, equivalent to about 85% of the nominal gross domestic product of Palestine, and that the "occupation enterprise" allows the state of Israel and commercial firms to profit from Palestinian natural resources and tourist potential.] A 2013 report published by the World Bank analysed the impact that the limited access to Area C lands and resources had on the Palestinian economy. While settlements represent a single axis of control, it is the largest with 68% of the Area C lands reserved for the settlements. The report goes on to calculate that access to the lands and resources of Area C, including the territory in and around settlements, would increase the Palestinian GDP by some $3.5 billion (or 35%) per year. The Israeli Supreme Court has ruled that Israeli companies are entitled to exploit the West Bank's natural resources for economic gain, and that international law must be "adapted" to the "reality on the ground" of long-term occupation.] == Palestinian labour == Due to the availability of jobs offering twice the prevailing salary of the West Bank (), as well as high unemployment, tens of thousands of Palestinians work in Israeli settlements. According to the Manufacturers Association of Israel, some 22,000 Palestinians were employed in construction, agriculture, manufacturing and service industries.Harriet Sherwood, Palestinian boycott of Israeli settlement goods starts to bite, The Guardian, 29 June 2010 An Al-Quds University study in 2011 found that 82% of Palestinian workers said they would prefer to not work in Israeli settlements if they had alternative employment in the West Bank. Palestinians have been highly involved in the construction of settlements in the West Bank. In 2013, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics released their survey showing that the number of Palestinian workers who are employed by the Jewish settlements increased from 16,000 to 20,000 in the first quarter. The survey also found that Palestinians who work in Israel and the settlements are paid more than twice their salary compared to what they receive from Palestinian employers. In 2008, Kav LaOved charged that Palestinians who work in Israeli settlements are not granted basic protections of Israeli labor law. Instead, they are employed under Jordanian labor law, which does not require minimum wage, payment for overtime and other social rights. In 2007, the Supreme Court of Israel ruled that Israeli labor law does apply to Palestinians working in West Bank settlements and applying different rules in the same work place constituted discrimination. The ruling allowed Palestinian workers to file lawsuits in Israeli courts. In 2008, the average sum claimed by such lawsuits stood at 100,000 shekels. According to Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research, 63% of Palestinians opposed PA plans to prosecute Palestinians who work in the settlements. However, 72% of Palestinians support a boycott of the products they sell. Although the Palestinian Authority has criminalized working in the settlements, the director-general at the Palestinian Ministry of Labor, Samer Salameh, described the situation in February 2014 as being "caught between two fires". He said "We strongly discourage work in the settlements, since the entire enterprise is illegal and illegitimate...but given the high unemployment rate and the lack of alternatives, we do not enforce the law that criminalizes work in the settlements." == Violence == === Israeli settler violence === Gush Emunim Underground was a militant organization that operated in 1979–1984. The organization planned attacks on Palestinian officials and the Dome of the Rock. In 1994, Baruch Goldstein of Hebron, a member of Kach carried out the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, killing 29 Muslim worshipers and injuring 125. The attack was widely condemned by the Israeli government and Jewish community. The Palestinian leadership has accused Israel of "encouraging and enabling" settler violence in a bid to provoke Palestinian riots and violence in retaliation. Violence perpetrated by Israeli settlers against Palestinians constitutes terrorism according to the U.S. Department of State, and former IDF Head of Central Command Avi Mizrahi stated that such violence constitutes "terror." In mid-2008, a UN report recorded 222 acts of Israeli settler violence against Palestinians and IDF troops compared with 291 in 2007. This trend reportedly increased in 2009.Top IDF officer warns: Settlers' radical fringe growing Haaretz 20 October 2009 Maj-Gen Shamni said that the number had risen from a few dozen individuals to hundreds, and called it "a very grave phenomenon." In 2008–2009, the defense establishment adopted a harder line against the extremists. This group responded with a tactic dubbed "price tagging", vandalizing Palestinian property whenever police or soldiers were sent in to dismantle outposts. From January through to September 2013, 276 attacks by settlers against Palestinians were recorded.Amira Hass, 'Gambling on Blair's Palestinian casino,' at Haaretz 1 October 2013. The statistics included 527 residential demolitions and 862 Palestinians uprooted from their homes. Leading religious figures in the West Bank have harshly criticized these tactics. Rabbi Menachem Froman of Tekoa said that "Targeting Palestinians and their property is a shocking thing, ... It's an act of hurting humanity. ... This builds a wall of fire between Jews and Arabs." The Yesha Council and Hanan Porat also condemned such actions.Israel – Rabbi Harshly Condemns Violence by Jewish Hooligans Against Arabs, 2 June 2009 Other rabbis have been accused of inciting violence against non-Jews. In response to settler violence, the Israeli government said that it would increase law enforcement and cut off aid to illegal outposts."Israel Acts to Cut Off Funds to Illegal Settlements" article by Isabel Kershner in The New York Times 2 November 2008. Some settlers are thought to lash out at Palestinians because they are "easy victims." The United Nations accused Israel of failing to intervene and arrest settlers suspected of violence. In 2008, Haaretz wrote that "Israeli society has become accustomed to seeing lawbreaking settlers receive special treatment and no other group could similarly attack Israeli law enforcement agencies without being severely punished." In September 2011, settlers vandalized a mosque and an army base. They slashed tires and cut cables of 12 army vehicles and sprayed graffiti.Israeli settlers vandalize IDF base in first 'price tag' act against army, Haaretz In November 2011, the United Nations Office for Coordination of Human Affairs (OCHA) in the Palestinian territories published a report on settler violence that showed a significant rise compared to 2009 and 2010. The report covered physical violence and property damage such as uprooted olive trees, damaged tractors and slaughtered sheep. The report states that 90% of complaints filed by Palestinians have been closed without charge.United Nations, November 2011, . Retrieved 8 November 2011 According to EU reports, Israel has created an "atmosphere of impunity" for Jewish attackers, which is seen as tantamount to tacit approval by the state. In the West Bank, Jews and Palestinians live under two different legal regimes and it is difficult for Palestinians to lodge complaints, which must be filed in Hebrew in Israeli settlements. The 27 ministers of foreign affairs of the European Union published a report in May 2012 strongly denouncing policies of the State of Israel in the West Bank and denouncing "continuous settler violence and deliberate provocations against Palestinian civilians." The report by all EU ministers called "on the government of Israel to bring the perpetrators to justice and to comply with its obligations under international law." In July 2014, a day after the burial of three murdered Israeli teens, Khdeir, a 16-year-old Palestinian, was forced into a car by 3 Israeli settlers on an East Jerusalem street. His family immediately reported the fact to Israeli Police who located his charred body a few hours later at Givat Shaul in the Jerusalem Forest. Preliminary results from the autopsy suggested that he was beaten and burnt while still alive. The murder suspects explained the attack as a response to the June abduction and murder of three Israeli teens.Assaf Sharon, "Failure in Gaza", New York Review of Books, 25 September 2014, pp. 20–24. The murders contributed to a breakout of hostilities in the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. In July 2015, a similar incident occurred where Israeli settlers made an arson attack on two Palestinian houses, one of which was empty; however, the other was occupied, resulting in the burning to death of a Palestinian infant; the four other members of his family were evacuated to the hospital suffering serious injuries. These two incidents received condemnation from the United States, European Union and the IDF. The European Union criticized Israel for "failing to protect the Palestinian population". === Olive trees === While the economy of the Palestinian territories has shown signs of growth, the International Committee of the Red Cross reported that Palestinian olive farming has suffered. According to the ICRC, 10,000 olive trees were cut down or burned by settlers in 2007–2010.Israel makes life very hard for Palestinians, says ICRC (BBC, 17 February 2010) Foreign ministry spokesman Yigal Palmor said the report ignored official PA data showing that the economic situation of Palestinians had improved substantially, citing Mahmoud Abbas's comment to The Washington Post in May 2009, where he said "in the West Bank, we have a good reality, the people are living a normal life." Haaretz blamed the violence during the olive harvest on a handful of extremists. In 2010, trees belonging to both Jews and Arabs were cut down, poisoned or torched. In the first two weeks of the harvest, 500 trees owned by Palestinians and 100 trees owned by Jews had been vandalized.Current olive harvest most violent in years, defense document reveals Haaretz 19 October 2010. In October 2013, 100 trees were cut down. Violent attacks on olive trees seem to be facilitated by the apparently systematic refusal of the Israeli authorities to allow Palestinians to visit their own groves, sometimes for years, especially in cases where the groves are deemed to be too close to settlements. === Palestinian violence against settlers === Israeli civilians living in settlements have been targeted by violence from armed Palestinian groups. These groups, according to Human Rights Watch, assert that settlers are "legitimate targets" that have "forfeited their civilian status by residing in settlements that are illegal under international humanitarian law." Both Human Rights Watch and B'tselem rejected this argument on the basis that the legal status of the settlements has no effect on the civilian status of their residents. Human Rights Watch said the "prohibition against intentional attacks against civilians is absolute." B'tselem said "The settlers constitute a distinctly civilian population, which is entitled to all the protections granted civilians by international law. The Israeli security forces' use of land in the settlements or the membership of some settlers in the Israeli security forces does not affect the status of the other residents living among them, and certainly does not make them proper targets of attack." Fatal attacks on settlers have included firing of rockets and mortars and drive-by shootings, also targeting infants and children. Violent incidents include the murder of Shalhevet Pass, a ten-month-old baby shot by a Palestinian sniper in Hebron, and the murder of two teenagers by unknown perpetrators on 8 May 2001, whose bodies were hidden in a cave near Tekoa, a crime that Israeli authorities suggest may have been committed by Palestinian terrorists. In the Bat Ayin axe attack, children in Bat Ayin were attacked by a Palestinian wielding an axe and a knife. A 13-year-old boy was killed and another was seriously wounded.Teen killed in West Bank terror attack, Ynet News, 4 February 2009 Rabbi Meir Hai, a father of seven, was killed in a drive-by shooting.Father of seven shot dead in West Bank terror attack, Jerusalem Post, 25 December 2009Ethan Bronner, Israeli Military Kills 6 Palestinians, New York Times, 26 December 2009 In August 2011, five members of one family were killed in their beds. The victims were the father Ehud (Udi) Fogel, the mother Ruth Fogel, and three of their six children—Yoav, 11, Elad, 4, and Hadas, the youngest, a three-month-old infant. According to David Ha'ivri, and as reported by multiple sources, the infant was decapitated. ==== Pro-Palestinian activist violence ==== Pro-Palestinian activists who hold regular protests near the settlements have been accused of stone-throwing, physical assault and provocation.3 Palestinians, left-wing activist suspected of uprooting trees at outpost, ynetnewsArabs, Left-Wing Extremists Uproot Jewish Vineyard, arutz shevastone throwing Naalin protest, ynet In 2008, Avshalom Peled, head of the Israel Police's Hebron district, called "left-wing" activity in the city dangerous and provocative, and accused activists of antagonizing the settlers in the hope of getting a reaction. == Environmental issues == Municipal Environmental Associations of Judea and Samaria, an environmental awareness group, was established by the settlers to address sewage treatment problems and cooperate with the Palestinian Authority on environmental issues. According to a 2004 report by Friends of the Earth Middle East, settlers account for 10% of the population in the West Bank but produce 25% of the sewage output. Beit Duqqu and Qalqilyah have accused settlers of polluting their farmland and villagers claim children have become ill after swimming in a local stream. Legal action was taken against 14 settlements by the Israeli Ministry of the Environment. The Palestinian Authority has also been criticized by environmentalists for not doing more to prevent water pollution. Settlers and Palestinians share the mountain aquifer as a water source, and both generate sewage and industrial effluents that endanger the aquifer. Friends of the Earth Middle East claimed that sewage treatment was inadequate in both sectors. Sewage from Palestinian sources was estimated at 46 million cubic meters a year, and sources from settler sources at 15 million cubic meters a year. A 2004 study found that sewage was not sufficiently treated in many settlements, while sewage from Palestinian villages and cities flowed into unlined cesspits, streams and the open environment with no treatment at all.Friends of the Earth Middle East, A Seeping Time Bomb: Pollution of the Mountain Aquifer by Sewage , pp. 6–8 In a 2007 study, the Israel Nature and Parks Authority and Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, found that Palestinian towns and cities produced 56 million cubic meters of sewage per year, 94 percent discharged without adequate treatment, while Israeli sources produced 17.5 million cubic meters per year, 31.5 percent without adequate treatment.Results of Stream Monitoring in Judea and Samaria Published , Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection 23 September 2008 According to Palestinian environmentalists, the settlers operate industrial and manufacturing plants that can create pollution as many do not conform to Israeli standards. In 2005, an old quarry between Kedumim and Nablus was slated for conversion into an industrial waste dump. Pollution experts warned that the dump would threaten Palestinian water sources. == Impact on Palestinian demographics == The Consortium for Applied Research on International Migration (CARIM) has reported in their 2011 migration profile for Palestine that the reasons for individuals to leave the country are similar to those of other countries in the region and they attribute less importance to the specific political situation of the occupied Palestinian territory.Anna Di Bartolomeo, Thibaut Jaulin, Delphine Perrin "CARIM Migration Report Palestine" , CARIM – Consortium for Applied Research on International Migration, 2011, p. 5 Human Rights Watch in 2010 reported that Israeli settlement policies have had the effect of "forcing residents to leave their communities"."Israel/West Bank: Separate and Unequal." Human Rights Watch, 19 December 2010. In 2008, Condoleezza Rice suggested sending Palestinian refugees to South America, which might reduce pressure on Israel to withdraw from the settlements.Carroll, Rory. "Condoleezza Rice: send Palestinian refugees to South America." The Guardian, 24 January 2011. Sushil P. Seth speculates that Israelis seem to feel that increasing settlements will force many Palestinians to flee to other countries and that the remainder will be forced to live under Israeli terms.Seth, Sushil P. "Israel sinks the peace process." Daily Times, 24 December 2010. Speaking anonymously with regard to Israeli policies in the South Hebron Hills, a UN expert said that the Israeli crackdown on alternative energy infrastructures like solar panels is part of a deliberate strategy in Area C. > "From December 2010 to April 2011, we saw a systematic targeting of the > water infrastructure in Hebron, Bethlehem and the Jordan valley. Now, in the > last couple of months, they are targeting electricity. Two villages in the > area have had their electrical poles demolished. There is this systematic > effort by the civil administration targeting all Palestinian infrastructure > in Hebron. They are hoping that by making it miserable enough, they [the > Palestinians] will pick up and leave." Approximately 1,500 people in 16 communities are dependent on energy produced by these installations duct business are threatened with work stoppage orders from the Israeli administration on their installation of alternative power infrastructure, and demolition orders expected to follow will darken the homes of 500 people.Akiva Eldarf, 'Israel demolishes West Bank villages as Jewish outposts remains untouched', Haaretz, 21 February 2012:'Children will revert to straining their eyes as they do their homework in the light of oil lamps, and the women will go back to churning butter and cheeses with blistered hands. ... During the first six months of 2011, the UN Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs recorded 342 demolitions of Palestinian structures in the area. That is almost five times the number razed during the same period in 2010. The report noted that for Palestinian villages in Area C, the Civil Administration did not manage to plan sufficiently, but all Jewish communities in the West Bank did receive detailed plans.'Phoebe Greenwood, 'Palestinians prepare to lose the solar panels that provide a lifeline' Wednesday, 14 March 2012: 'According to UN research, as the result of these policies, 10 of 13 Palestinian communities living in Area C surveyed by the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in 2011 had already left their land as a result of Israeli policies.' == Educational institutions == Ariel University, formerly the College of Judea and Samaria, is the major Israeli institution of higher education in the West Bank. With close to 13,000 students, it is Israel's largest public college. The college was accredited in 1994 and awards bachelor's degrees in arts, sciences, technology, architecture and physical therapy.Database of Institutions , Council for Higher Education in Israel On 17 July 2012, the Council for Higher Education in Judea and Samaria voted to grant the institution full university status. Teacher training colleges include Herzog College in Alon Shvut and Orot Israel College in Elkana. Ohalo College is located in Katzrin, in the Golan Heights. Curricula at these institutions are overseen by the Council for Higher Education in Judea and Samaria (CHE-JS).Tamara Traubmann, Education council angry over decision to upgrade Ariel College status Haaretz, 10 October 2006 In March 2012, The Shomron Regional Council was awarded the Israeli Ministry of Education's first prize National Education Award in recognizing its excellence in investing substantial resources in the educational system. The Shomron Regional Council achieved the highest marks in all parameters (9.28 / 10). Gershon Mesika, the head of the regional council, declared that the award was a certificate of honour of its educators and the settlement youth who proved their quality and excellence. == Strategic significance == thumb|IDF soldiers and Israeli settlers, 2009 In 1983 an Israeli government plan entitled "Master Plan and Development Plan for Settlement in Samaria and Judea" envisaged placing a "maximally large Jewish population" in priority areas to accomplish incorporation of the West Bank in the Israeli "national system". According to Ariel Sharon, strategic settlement locations would work to preclude the formation of a Palestinian state. Palestinians argue that the policy of settlements constitutes an effort to preempt or sabotage a peace treaty that includes Palestinian sovereignty, and claim that the presence of settlements harm the ability to have a viable and contiguous state. This was also the view of the Israeli Vice Prime Minister Haim Ramon in 2008, saying "the pressure to enlarge Ofra and other settlements does not stem from a housing shortage, but rather is an attempt to undermine any chance of reaching an agreement with the Palestinians ..."Akiva Eldar, "Vice PM: Ofra settlement homes built on private Palestinian land". Haaretz, 8 April 2008 The Israel Foreign Ministry asserts that some settlements are legitimate, as they took shape when there was no operative diplomatic arrangement, and thus they did not violate any agreement.Israeli Settlements and International Law, Israel Foreign Ministry website, 4 May 2001. Retrieved 11 July 2007."Occupied Territories" to "Disputed Territories" by Dore Gold, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 16 January 2002. Retrieved 29 September 2005.Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue, Jeffrey Helmreich, Institute for Contemporary Affairs, jcpa.org. Retrieved 11 July 2007. Based on this, they assert that: * Prior to the signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, the eruption of the First Intifada, down to the signing of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994, Israeli governments on the left and right argued that the settlements were of strategic and tactical importance. The location of the settlements was primarily chosen based on the threat of an attack by the bordering hostile countries of Jordan, Syria, and Egypt and possible routes of advance into Israeli population areas. These settlements were seen as contributing to the security of Israel at a time when peace treaties had not been signed. == Dismantling of settlements == thumb|upright|IDF soldiers evacuating Yamit, 1982 An early evacuation took place in 1982 as part of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, when Israel was required to evacuate its settlers from the 18 Sinai settlements. Arab parties to the conflict had demanded the dismantlement of the settlements as a condition for peace with Israel. The evacuation was carried out with force in some instances, for example in Yamit. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers might try to return to their homes after the evacuation. Israel's unilateral disengagement plan took place in 2005. It involved the evacuation of settlements in the Gaza Strip and part of the West Bank, including all 21 settlements in Gaza and four in the West Bank, while retaining control over Gaza's borders, coastline, and airspace. Most of these settlements had existed since the early 1980s, some were over 30 years old; the total population involved was more than 10,000. There was significant opposition to the plan among parts of the Israeli public, and especially those living in the territories. George W. Bush said that a permanent peace deal would have to reflect "demographic realities" in the West Bank regarding Israel's settlements. Within the former settlements, almost all buildings were demolished by Israel, with the exception of certain government and religious structures, which were completely emptied. Under an international arrangement, productive greenhouses were left to assist the Palestinian economy but about 30% of these were destroyed within hours by Palestinian looters.Looters strip Gaza greenhouses, NBC News, Associated Press, 13 September 2005. Following the withdrawal, many of the former synagogues were torched and destroyed by Palestinians. Some believe that settlements need not necessarily be dismantled and evacuated, even if Israel withdraws from the territory where they stand, as they can remain under Palestinian rule. These ideas have been expressed both by left-wing Israelis, and by Palestinians who advocate the two-state solution, and by extreme Israeli right-wingers and settlers who object to any dismantling and claim links to the land that are stronger than the political boundaries of the state of Israel. The Israeli government has often threatened to dismantle outposts. Some have actually been dismantled, occasionally with use of force; this led to settler violence. == Palestinian statehood bid of 2011 == American refusal to declare the settlements illegal was said to be the determining factor in the 2011 attempt to declare Palestinian statehood at the United Nations, the so-called Palestine 194 initiative."PA official: U.S. Mideast peace offer convinced Palestinians to seek statehood at UN." Haaretz, 17 September 2011. Israel announced additional settlements in response to the Palestinian diplomatic initiative and Germany responded by moving to stop deliveries to Israel of submarines capable of carrying nuclear weapons."Germany Threatens To Halt Submarine Sale to Israel." Der Spiegel, 31 October 2011. Finally in 2012, several European states switched to either abstain or vote for statehood in response to continued settlement construction. Israel approved further settlements in response to the vote, which brought further worldwide condemnation. == Impact on peace process == The settlements have been a source of tension between Israel and the U.S. Jimmy Carter regarded the settlements as illegal and tactically unwise. Ronald Reagan stated that they were legal but an obstacle to negotiations.Rostow, Eugene. Bricks and stones: settling for leverage; Palestinian autonomy , The New Republic, 23 April 1990. In 1991, the U.S. delayed a subsidized loan to pressure Israel on the subject of settlement-building in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem corridor. In 2005, U.S. declared support for "the retention by Israel of major Israeli population centers as an outcome of negotiations,"'US will accept Israel settlements', BBC News Online, 25 March 2005. reflecting the statement by George W. Bush that a permanent peace treaty would have to reflect "demographic realities" in the West Bank.'UN Condemns Israeli settlements', BBC News Online, 14 April 2005. In June 2009, Barack Obama said that the United States "does not accept the legitimacy of continued Israeli settlements."'Obama Speech In Cairo: VIDEO, Full Text', The Huffington Post, 4 June 2009. Palestinians claim that Israel has undermined the Oslo accords and peace process by continuing to expand the settlements. Settlements in the Sinai Peninsula were evacuated and razed in the wake of the peace agreement with Egypt. The 27 ministers of foreign affairs of the European Union published a report in May 2012 strongly denouncing policies of the State of Israel in the West Bank and finding that Israeli settlements in the West Bank are illegal and "threaten to make a two- state solution impossible." In the framework of the Oslo I Accord of 1993 between the Israeli government and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a modus vivendi was reached whereby both parties agreed to postpone a final solution on the destination of the settlements to the permanent status negotiations (Article V.3). Israel claims that settlements thereby were not prohibited, since there is no explicit interim provision prohibiting continued settlement construction, the agreement does register an undertaking by both sides, namely that "Neither side shall initiate or take any step that will change the status of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip pending the outcome of the permanent status negotiations" (Article XXX1 (7)), which has been interpreted as, not forbidding settlements, but imposing severe restrictions on new settlement building after that date.Mélanie Jacques, Armed Conflict and Displacement: The Protection of Refugees and Displaced Persons Under International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press 2012 pp. 96–97. Melanie Jacques argued in this context that even 'agreements between Israel and the Palestinians which would allow settlements in the OPT, or simply tolerate them pending a settlement of the conflict, violate the Fourth Geneva Convention.' Final status proposals have called for retaining long-established communities along the Green Line and transferring the same amount of land in Israel to the Palestinian state. The Clinton administration proposed that Israel keep some settlements in the West Bank, especially those in large blocs near the pre-1967 borders of Israel, with the Palestinians receiving concessions of land in other parts of the country.Review of Dennis Ross book , by Ray Hanania, hanania.com, 16 August 2004. Retrieved 11 July 2007. Both Clinton and Tony Blair pointed out the need for territorial and diplomatic compromise based on the validity of some of the claims of both sides.Remarks by Pres. Clinton, 7 January 2001. (Full transcript available at: cnn transcript)Tony Blair press conference, 17 April 2004, incl. comments on compromising on settlements, UK Foreign office. Retrieved 12 July 2007. As Minister of Defense, Ehud Barak approved a plan requiring security commitments in exchange for withdrawal from the West Bank. Barak also expressed readiness to cede parts of East Jerusalem and put the holy sites in the city under a "special regime."Barak: Israel ready to cede parts of Jerusalem in peace deal, Haaretz On 14 June 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, as an answer to U.S. President Barack Obama's speech in Cairo, delivered a speech setting out his principles for a Palestinian-Israeli peace, among others, he alleged "... we have no intention of building new settlements or of expropriating additional land for existing settlements.""Full Text: Netanyahu's Proposal for Palestinian-Israeli Peace (June 2009)" A Demilitarized Palestinian State With Limited Sovereignty by Pierre Tristam, About.com Guide. In March 2010, the Netanyahu government announced plans for building 1,600 housing units in Ramat Shlomo across the Green Line in East Jerusalem during U.S. Vice President Joe Biden's visit to Israel causing a diplomatic row. On 6 September 2010, Jordanian King Abdullah II and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad said that Israel would need to withdraw from all of the lands occupied in 1967 in order to achieve peace with the Palestinians. Bradley Burston has said that a negotiated or unilateral withdraw from most of the settlements in the West Bank is gaining traction in Israel.Burston, Bradley Special Place in Hell / Breaking Israel to fix it – rightists rethink holding the West Bank Haaretz, 20 September 2010 In November 2010, the United States offered to "fight against efforts to delegitimize Israel" and provide extra arms to Israel in exchange for a continuation of the settlement freeze and a final peace agreement, but failed to come to an agreement with the Israelis on the exact terms.Ravid, Barak. "U.S.: We'll oppose delegitimization of Israel in exchange for settlement freeze." Haaretz, 13 November 2010 In December 2010, the United States criticised efforts by the Palestinian Authority to impose borders for the two states through the United Nations rather than through direct negotiations between the two sides.Barak Ravid and Shlomo Shamir "U.S. criticizes PA bid to take settlement construction to UN." Haaretz, 24 December 2010. In February 2011, it vetoed a draft resolution to condemn all Jewish settlements established in the occupied Palestinian territory since 1967 as illegal. The resolution, which was supported by all other Security Council members and co-sponsored by nearly 120 nations, would have demanded that "Israel, as the occupying power, immediately and completely ceases all settlement activities in the occupied Palestinian territory, including East Jerusalem and that it fully respect its legal obligations in this regard." The U.S. representative said that while it agreed that the settlements were illegal, the resolution would harm chances for negotiations. Israel's deputy Foreign Minister, Daniel Ayalon, said that the "UN serves as a rubber stamp for the Arab countries and, as such, the General Assembly has an automatic majority," and that the vote "proved that the United States is the only country capable of advancing the peace process and the only righteous one speaking the truth: that direct talks between Israel and the Palestinians are required." Palestinian negotiators, however, have refused to resume direct talks until Israel ceases all settlement activity. In November 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu issued a 10-month settlement freeze in the West Bank in an attempt to restart negotiations with the Palestinians. The freeze did not apply to building in Jerusalem in areas across the green line, housing already under construction and existing construction described as "essential for normal life in the settlements" such as synagogues, schools, kindergartens and public buildings. The Palestinians refused to negotiate without a complete halt to construction. In the face of pressure from the United States and most world powers supporting the demand by the Palestinian Authority that Israel desist from settlement project in 2010, Israel's ambassador to the UN Meron Reuben said Israel would only stop settlement construction after a peace agreement is concluded, and expressed concern were Arab countries to press for UN recognition of a Palestinian state before such an accord. He cited Israel's dismantlement of settlements in both the Sinai which took place after a peace agreement, and its unilateral dismantlement of settlements in the Gaza Strip. He presumed that settlements would stop being built were Palestinians to establish a state in a given area.'Israel's UN envoy says only peace can halt settlements,' AFP/Ynet, 17 October 2010. === Proposals for land swap === The Clinton Parameters, a 2000 peace proposal by then U.S. President Bill Clinton, included a plan on which the Palestinian State was to include 94–96% of the West Bank, and around 80% of the settlers were to be under Israeli sovereignty, and in exchange for that, Israel will concede some territory (so called 'Territory Exchange' or 'Land Swap') within the Green Line (1967 borders). The swap would consist of 1–3% of Israeli territory, such that the final borders of the West Bank part of the Palestinian state would include 97% of the land of the original borders.Clinton Parameters , The Jewish Peace Lobby website, full text (English) In 2010, Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas said that the Palestinians and Israel have agreed on the principle of a land swap. The issue of the ratio of land Israel would give to the Palestinians in exchange for keeping settlement blocs is an issue of dispute, with the Palestinians demanding that the ratio be 1:1, and Israel insisting that other factors be considered as well. Under any peace deal with the Palestinians, Israel intends to keep the major settlement blocs close to its borders, which contain over 80% of the settlers. Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin, Ariel Sharon, and Benjamin Netanyahu have all stated Israel's intent to keep such blocs under any peace agreement. U.S. President George W. Bush acknowledged that such areas should be annexed to Israel in a 2004 letter to Prime Minister Sharon. The European Union position is that any annexation of settlements should be done as part of mutually agreed land swaps, which would see the Palestinians controlling territory equivalent to the territory captured in 1967. The EU says that it will not recognise any changes to the 1967 borders without an agreement between the parties. Israeli Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman has proposed a plan which would see settlement blocs annexed to Israel in exchange for heavily Arab areas inside Israel as part of a population exchange. According to Mitchell G. Bard: "Ultimately, Israel may decide to unilaterally disengage from the West Bank and determine which settlements it will incorporate within the borders it delineates. Israel would prefer, however, to negotiate a peace treaty with the Palestinians that would specify which Jewish communities will remain intact within the mutually agreed border of Israel, and which will need to be evacuated. Israel will undoubtedly insist that some or all of the "consensus" blocs become part of Israel". === Proposal of dual citizenship === A number of proposals for the granting of Palestinian citizenship or residential permits to Jewish settlers in return for the removal of Israeli military installations from the West Bank have been fielded by such individuals as Arafat, Ibrahim Sarsur and Ahmed Qurei. In contrast, Mahmoud Abbas said in July 2013 that "In a final resolution, we would not see the presence of a single Israeli—civilian or soldier—on our lands." Israeli Minister Moshe Ya'alon said in April 2010 that "just as Arabs live in Israel, so, too, should Jews be able to live in Palestine." ... "If we are talking about coexistence and peace, why the [Palestinian] insistence that the territory they receive be ethnically cleansed of Jews?".Herb Keinon, 'No need to remove any settlements' Jerusalem Post, 16 April 2010 The idea has been expressed by both advocates of the two- state solution and supporters of the settlers and conservative or fundamentalist currents in Israeli Judaism that, while objecting to any withdrawal, claim stronger links to the land than to the State of Israel. == Settlement expansion == ===Pre Resolution 2334=== On 19 June 2011, Haaretz reported that the Israeli cabinet voted to revoke Defense Minister Ehud Barak's authority to veto new settlement construction in the West Bank, by transferring this authority from the Agriculture Ministry, headed by Barak ally Orit Noked, to the Prime Minister's office. In 2009, newly elected Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said: "I have no intention of building new settlements in the West Bank... But like all the governments there have been until now, I will have to meet the needs of natural growth in the population. I will not be able to choke the settlements."Netanyahu would let West Bank settlements expand. By Mark Levie. Yahoo! News. Published 26 January 2009. On 15 October 2009, he said the settlement row with the United States had been resolved. In April 2012, four illegal outposts were retroactively legalized by the Israeli government.Peace Now, 1 August 2012 The Government Secretly Approved another Outpost: Nofei Nehemia In June 2012, the Netanyahu government announced a plan to build 851 homes in five settlements: 300 units in Beit El and 551 units in other settlements.Peace Now, 11 June 2012, The Compensation Package for the Settlers: 851 Units to Undermine the Two States Solution Amid peace negotiations that showed little signs of progress, Israel issued on 3 November 2013, tenders for 1,700 new homes for Jewish settlers. The plots were offered in nine settlements in areas Israel says it intends to keep in any peace deal with the Palestinians.Israel Approves Construction of 1,700 New Settlement Homes. Reuters, 3 November 2013 On 12 November, Peace Now revealed that the Construction and Housing Ministry had issued tenders for 24,000 more settler homes in the West Bank, including 4,000 in East Jerusalem.Israel Plans 24,000 New Homes for Jewish Settlers. Reuters, 12 November 2013 2,500 units were planned in Ma'aleh Adumim, some 9,000 in the Gush Etzion Region, and circa 12,000 in the Binyamin Region, including 1,200 homes in the E1 area in addition to 3,000 homes in previously frozen E1 projects.Netanyahu instructs housing minister to 'reconsider' plans for 24,000 units beyond Green Line. Jerusalem Post, 13 November 2013 Circa 15,000 homes of the 24,000 plan would be east of the West Bank Barrier and create the first new settlement blocs for two decades, and the first blocs ever outside the Barrier, far inside the West Bank.Potential settlement plans would create first blocs outside barrier route. Tovah Lazaroff, Jerusalem Post, 14 November 2013 As stated before, the Israeli government (as of 2015) has a program of residential subsidies in which Israeli settlers receive about double that given to Israelis in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. As well, settlers in isolated areas receive three times the Israeli national average. From the beginning of 2009 to the end of 2013, the Israeli settlement population as a whole increased by a rate of over 4% per year. A New York Times article in 2015 stated that said building had been "at the heart of mounting European criticism of Israel." ===Resolution 2334 and quarterly reports=== United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 "Requests the Secretary-General to report to the Council every three months on the implementation of the provisions of the present resolution;" In the first of these reports, delivered verbally at a security council meeting on 24 March 2017, United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process, Nickolay Mladenov, noted that Resolution 2334 called on Israel to take steps to cease all settlement activity in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, that "no such steps have been taken during the reporting period" and that instead, there had been a marked increase in statements, announcements and decisions related to construction and expansion. ===Regularization and outpost method=== The 2017 Settlement Regularization in "Judea and Samaria" Law permits backdated legalization of outposts constructed on private Palestinian land. Following a petition challenging its legality, on June 9, 2020, Israel's Supreme Court struck down the law that had retroactively legalized about 4,000 settler homes built on privately owned Palestinian land. The Israeli Attorney General has stated that existing laws already allow legalization of Israeli constructions on private Palestinian land in the West Bank. The Israeli Attorney General, Avichai Mandelblit, has updated the High Court on his official approval of the use of a legal tactic permitting the de facto legalization of roughly 2,000 illegally built Israeli homes throughout the West Bank. The legal mechanism is known as "market regulation" and relies on the notion that wildcat Israeli homes built on private Palestinian land were done so in good faith. In a report of 22 July 2019, PeaceNow notes that after a gap of 6 years when there were no new outposts, establishment of new outposts recommenced in 2012, with 32 of the current 126 outposts set up to date. 2 outposts were subject to eviction, 15 were legalized and at least 35 are in process of legalization. ===Updates and related matters=== The Israeli government announced in 2019 that it has made monetary grants available for the construction of hotels in Area C of the West Bank. According to Peace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem expanded by 60% between 2017, when Donald Trump became US president, and 2019. On 9 July 2021, Michael Lynk, U.N. special rapporteur on human rights in the occupied Palestinian territory, addressing a session of the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva, said "I conclude that the Israeli settlements do amount to a war crime," and "I submit to you that this finding compels the international community...to make it clear to Israel that its illegal occupation, and its defiance of international law and international opinion, can and will no longer be cost-free." Israel, which does not recognize Lynk's mandate, boycotted the session. A new Israeli government, formed on 13 June 2021, declared a "status quo" in the settlements policy. According to Peace Now, as of 28 October this has not been the case. On October 24, 2021, tenders were published for 1,355 housing units plus another 83 in Givat HaMatos and on 27 October 2021, approval was given for 3,000 housing units including in settlements deep inside the West Bank. These developments were condemned by the U.S. as well as by the United Kingdom, Russia and 12 European countries. while UN experts, Michael Lynk, Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian Territory occupied since 1967 and Mr. Balakrishnan Rajagopal (United States of America), UN Special Rapporteur on adequate housing said that settlement expansion should be treated as a "presumptive war crime". == See also == * Israeli settlement timeline * Jewish land purchase in Palestine * List of Israeli settlements * Neo-Zionism * Palestinian Land Law * Population statistics for Israeli West Bank settlements * Proposed Israeli annexation of the West Bank * State of Judea * Development town * Unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel * Kibbutz == Notes == i. Statistics for the West Bank ("Judea and Samaria") from the Statistical Abstract of Israel 2013 No. 64. *2.16 Localities and Population, by District, Sub-District, Religion and Population Group ** Total population = 341,400 in 123 "Jewish localities" ** Jews = 334,200 in 123 "Jewish localities" ** Arabs = 0 in 0 "Non-Jewish localities" == References == * == Further reading == * Israeli Settlements interactive map and Israeli land use from The Guardian * Israeli Settlements . Bloomberg News * Israeli settlements: Where, when, and why they're built, Ilene R. Prusher, The Christian Science Monitor, 15 September 2009 * Text of the Fourth 1949 Geneva Convention from icrc.org * The legal status of Israeli settlements under IHL (International Humanitarian Law), Reuters ReliefWeb, 31 January 2004 * The Humanitarian Impact on Palestinians of Israeli Settlements and Other Infrastructure in the West Bank from UN OCHA, Palestinian territories * Israeli Communities in Yesha & Jordan Valley * The Illegal Settlements—slideshow by The First Post * ;Viewpoints and commentary * Monitoring Israeli Colonization Activities in the Palestinian Territory, The Applied Research Institute Jerusalem * Land Expropriation and Settlements from B'tselem * Israel and The Palestinian Territories, The Carter Center * Israeli Confiscation and Settlement on Palestinian Land from If Americans Knew * Settlements and Settlements and U.S. Policy, Americans for Peace Now * Bregman, Ahron, Elusive Peace: How the Holy Land Defeated America * "The Wye River Memorandum and Israeli Settlements", Geoffrey Aronson, The Jerusalem Fund, 4 August 1999 * For Israel, Land or Peace Jimmy Carter, The Carter Center, 26 November 2000 * Backgrounder: Jewish settlements and the Media from the Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America, 5 October 2001 * From "occupied territories" to "disputed territories", Dore Gold, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 16 January 2002 * Ottoman Land Registration Law as a Contributing Factor in the Israeli-Arab Conflict by Rabbi Jon-Jay Tilsen, 2003 * Diplomatic and Legal Aspects of the Settlement Issue from the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 19 January 2003 * Occupation and Settlement: The Myth and Reality, David Meir-Levi, Think-Israel.org, 24 June 2005 * "At Israeli Outpost, Showdown Looms for Settlers, Government" Gershom Gorenberg, Jewish Daily Forward, 27 January 2006 * Settlements 'violate Israeli law', BBC News, 21 November 2006 * Backgrounder: The debate about settlements from the Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America, 13 June 2007 * "Israel's Settlers Are Here to Stay" op-ed by Dani Dayan in The New York Times 25 July 2012 ==External links== * 2019 amnesty 2019 Think Twice: Can companies do business with Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territories while respecting human rights? * UNSC 2334 quarterly reports Category:1967 establishments in Israel Category:Populated places established in 1967 Category:Israeli-occupied territories
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The Golden RootBasile, Giambattista; Strange, E. F. (Ed.); Taylor, John Edward (translator). Stories from the Pentamerone. London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. 1911. pp. 260-272. or The Golden TrunkCanepa, Nancy. Giambattista Basile's The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little Ones. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2007. pp. 404-412. muse.jhu.edu/book/14344. (Italian: Lo turzo d'oro) is a literary fairy tale written by Giambattista Basile in the Pentamerone, as the fourth story of the fifth day. It is considered to be one of two rewritings of the Graeco-Roman myth of "Cupid and Psyche" by Basile, the other being "Lo Catenaccio". In spite of its origins as a literary tale, it is related to the international cycle of Animal as Bridegroom or The Search for the Lost Husband, in that a human girl marries a supernatural or enchanted husband, loses him and must search for him. Similar stories have been collected from oral tradition in Italy. == Summary == The tale focuses on Parmetella, a poor girl and youngest of three sisters: she, Pascuzza and Cice. They are daughters of a gardener, who gives them pigs to rear in hopes of getting a future dowry. Her sisters often force Parmetella to drive the pigs in another part of the meadow, where she eventually finds a fountain and a tree with golden leaves beside it. She collects some foliage and gives the to her father who sells them as she returns. She repeats the action until the tree is stripped bare of its foliage. Some time later, Parmetella notices that the golden-leaved tree has a golden root. She takes an axe to the root and finds a staircase leading underground. She descends on the hole where the tree trunk once stood and reaches a luxurious palace. She wanders through the palace and marvels at its sights, until she sees a table with food and drink. As she approaches the table, a Moorish slave appears before her and asks her to be his wife. She accepts the proposal before the slave tells her that she must promise never to light a lamp during the night, to which she consents. The next night however, Parmetella waits until her mysterious companion is asleep, and lights a candle out of curiosity. She sees a handsome man in the place of her companion. The man wakes up, curses her for not obeying his orders, saying he will have to suffer another seven years with his curse, and vanishes. Parmetella leaves the palace and meets a fairy just outside the cave. The fairy warns her that she is "going to a slaughterhouse", and gives her seven spindles, seven figs, a jar of honey, and seven pairs of iron shoes. She instructs her to keep walking, passing by a straight bridge, narrow as a strand of hair, and until she meets seven bone-eating ogresses who are spinning on a bone on the balcony of a house. Parmetella is to wait for them to lower the bone, which she must replace for a spindle smeared with honey and put a fig in place of a button; the ogresses will ask her to come out, but Parmetella is to deny them; they will continue to find objects to swear an oath to, until they mention Truone-e-lampe's ("Thunder-and-Lightning") name - that is when she may appear to them. After seven years walking in her iron shoes, she reaches a large with a balcony, the seven ogresses on it, just as the fairy predicted. Following the fairy's instructions, Parmetella gives them the honey-smeared spindle and figs, and waits until they swear on Truone-e- lampe's name not to harm her. After they make the promise, Parmetella appears to them. The ogresses mock and scold her, since they blame Parmetella for their brother Truone-e-lampe living as a blackamoor in a cave for 14 years, away from them. Despite the initial friction, the seven ogresses advise Parmetella to hide before their ogress mother arrive, and, when her guard is down, to catch her by surprise by clutching her breasts and make her swear on her son's name, Truone-e-lampe, not to harm her. Following the ogress daughter's advice, Parmetella grabs her ogress mother-in-law from behind and makes her promise on her son's name not to harm her. After being released, the ogress mother, furious, claims she will make her pay when the right opportunity appears. The ogress mother then orders Parmetella, as a first task, to separate twelve sacks of grains that have been mixed into a single heap. Her husband, Truone-e-lampe, appears again before her and summons an army of ants to use to separate the grains, helping her in the process. As a second task, the ogress demands that she fills a dozen mattresses with feathers, which she also accomplishes with her husband's advice: she spreads the mattresses on the ground and shouts that the king of the birds is dead, and all the birds appear to give her some of their feathers. The last task given to her is to go to the ogress' sister's house and fetch a box of instruments from her, to be used in the future wedding of Truone-e-lampe with another bride. Following her husband's advice, she enters the sister's house, gives food to the horse and the dog, and compliments the door hinges. She then tricks the ogress's niece who goes with her into the oven instead of her, takes the box of instruments before the witch commands the door hinges, the horse and the dog to stop her. Parmetella, however, leaves unscathed due to her previous actions. At a safe distance from the witch, curiosity takes the best of her again as she opens the box; causing musical instruments to fly out in process. Truone-e-lampe fortunately reappears before her and, with a whistle, commands the instruments back into the box.Praet, Stijn. "“Se lieie la favola”: Apuleian Play in Basile’s Lo cunto de li cunti". In: International Journal of the Classical Tradition 25: 317–318 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12138-017-0454-6 Finally, the ogress mother prepares her son's wedding: she gives a torch to each of her seven daughters, and two to Parmetella to hold, and places her near a well so that, when she falls asleep, she may fall into it. Truone-e-lampe's ugly bride passes by Parmetella and mocks her for not kissing the bridegroom after claiming she has kissed a herdsman for some chestnuts. Truone-e-lampe overhears the bride's confession and fumes silently. After the wedding party is over, in his nuptial chambers, Truone-e-lampe kills his bride.Cosquin, Emmanuel. "Contes populaires lorrains recueillis dans un village du barrois (suite)". In: Romania, tome 10 n°37-38, 1881. p. 138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/roma.1881.6138; www.persee.fr/doc/roma_0035-8029_1881_num_10_37_6138 The ogress mother later sees her son in Parmetella's arms. Infuriated, she decides to conspire with her sister to get rid of her. When she enters her sister's house, the ogress discovers that, out of grief for losing her baby, her sister has jumped into the oven to die alongside her. The ogress turns into a ram and butts its head against the wall, leaving her fate unknown. Truone-e-lampe and Parmetella ultimately make peace with their sisters-in-law and live happily.Maggi, Armando. Preserving the Spell: Basile's "The Tale of Tales" and Its Afterlife in the Fairy-Tale Tradition. The University of Chicago Press, 2015. pp. 41-43. . ==Analysis== ===Tale type=== The tale belongs to the international cycle of the Animal as Bridegroom or The Search for the Lost Husband, which corresponds, in the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index, to tale type ATU 425, "The Search for the Lost Husband", and its subtypes. Philologist classified the tale as Italian type 425, Lo sposo scomparso ("The Lost Husband").D'aronco, Gianfranco "Le fiabe di magia in Italia: memoria". In: Atti dell'Accademia di scienze lettere e arti di Udine, serie 6, v. 14 (1954/1957). pp. 92-93. Nancy Canepa indexes it as type 425A, "The Animal as Bridegroom".Canepa, Nancy. Giambattista Basile's The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little Ones. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2007. p. 404 (footnote). muse.jhu.edu/book/14344. Scholars have called attention to structural similarities between the tale and the Graeco-Roman myth of Cupid and Psyche, as related by Apuleius in the 2nd century AD. In fact, The Golden Root is considered to be one of Basile's renditions of the myth, the other being Il catenaccio ("The Padlock", former tale type AaTh 425L, "The Padlock on the Enchanted Husband").Maggi, Armando. Preserving the Spell: Basile's "The Tale of Tales" and Its Afterlife in the Fairy-Tale Tradition. The University of Chicago Press, 2015. p. 34. . Folklorist Joseph Jacobs stated that The Golden Root is the first appearance in modern times of the "Cupid and Psyche story" (invisible husband, breaking a taboo, heroine's tasks for mother-in- law).Jacobs, Joseph. European Folk and Fairy Tales. New York, London: G. P. Putnam's sons. 1916. p. 247. ===Motifs=== ==== The heroine's tasks ==== Scholars commonly noticed the resemblance between Parmetella's quest for the box of instruments and Psyche's quest for Persephone's casket, and the result of curiosity for both women.Gonzenbach, Laura. Fiabe Siciliane. Rilette da Vincenzo Consolo. A cura di Luisa Rubini. Roma: Donzelli editore, 1999. p. 492. . Catalan scholarship located the motif of the box of musical instruments in Greek, Turkish and South Italian variants.Poveda, Jaume Albero. "Rondalla «El castell d'entorn i no entorn» d'Enric Valor. Anàlisi hermenèutic i folklòrica". In: Miscel·lània Joan Veny. Volume 7. Estudis de llengua i literatura catalanes/LI. L'Abadia de Montserrat, 2005. p. 229. . In that regard, Swahn, in his study on Cupid and Psyche, remarked that the instruments as the contents of the box are "common" to Mediterranean tradition. The heroine is also helped by ants to carry grains from one place to the other. A similar event occurs in the myth of Psyche and in other fairy tales, such as The Queen Bee, by the Brothers Grimm.Deulin, Charles. Les Contes De Ma Mère L'Oye Avant Perrault. Paris: E. Dentu, 1879. p. 89. Swedish scholar remarked that, in tales of "The Search for the Lost Husband" type, the task of sorting seeds or grains occurs in Mediterranean and Near Eastern variants of type ATU 425B, "The Witch's Tasks".Swahn, Jan Öjvind. The Tale of Cupid and Psyche. Lund, C.W.K. Gleerup. 1955. p. 375. ==Variants== ===Italy=== ==== King Goldfinch ==== Swiss-German author Laura Gonzenbach collected a Sicilian tale she titled Der König Stieglitz ("King Goldfinch"). In this story, a poor shoemaker sits on a rock to lament his lack of work and suddenly a youth appears, named Cardiddu, saying that the shoemaker called out his name. The youth guides the shoemaker to his rich underground palace and lets him take some riches with him. The youth tells him that he is wants to marry the shoemaker's third and youngest daughter. The shoemaker agrees and returns home to explain the situation to his daughters. The third one marries the mysterious youth and they live a good life, but her husband orders her not to open a certain door. He explains that he was a king, banished to this underground castle by mamma draja, a witch who wants him to marry her daughter. King Cardiddu leaves for some days and his wife is visited by her sisters. They try to convince their sister to open the door, but she refuses. One night, spurred by curiosity, she lights a candle to see if her husband was asleep. One drop of wax falls on his head and she finds herself out in the forest, the castle having disappeared. King Cardiddu admonishes her and tells her to follow the trail to the witch who enchanted him, and make her swear on his name to avoid being eaten by her. She does as instructed and the witch takes her as her servant. The witch forces her to do difficult tasks, which she accomplishes with her husband's help: first, she has to sweep and not sweep the floor, while she is away. The girl sits down to weep as King Cardiddu appears to her, mocking her for listening to her sisters' words. Despite his initial harsh treatment, he tells her to sweep the whole house, gather the trash and let it roll downstairs. Next, she is to light the fire and not light it; Cardiddu tells her to place some firewood in the fireplace, set up the cauldron and place some matches nearby, without kindling them. Thirdly, she is to make and not make the bed; Cardiddu tells her to fold the bedsheets, but leave the mattresses untouched. The next day, the witch smears her clothes with oxen's blood and deliver a large pile of them for the girl to wash, whiten, sew, iron and fold them. and, on the day after, unmake the mattresses, take their wool and wash them, then iron and fold the bedsheets. On both tasks, Cardiddu advises her to go up the mountain and tell the king of the birds King Cardiddu sent her; the birds will come and help her. Finally, the witch forces her daughter-in-law to take a letter and a box to the witch's sister, also a witch. On her way, curiosity gets the better of her and she opens the box, which begins to ring. Her husband appears and silences it. She delivers the box to the witch and returns to the mamma draja, who has made the preparations for the marriage between her daughter and King Cardiddu. The woman is to hold burning candles at the foot of the bridal bed during the nuptial night, but King Cardiddu knows it is a trap, so he makes the mamma draja's daughter change places with the woman. The witch's daughter falls into the trap and the couple escape from the house by transforming into different things - a sequence that appears in tale type ATU 313, "The Magic Flight".Gonzenbach, Laura. Sicilianische Märchen. Leipzig: Engelmann, 1870. pp. 93-103. the tale was later translated into Italian language as Re Cardiddu ("King Goldfinch")."Re Cardiddu". In: Gonzenbach, Laura; Consolo, Vincenzo; Rubini, Luisa (eds). Fiabe siciliane. Donzelli Editore, 1999. pp. 81-89. . Scholar Jack Zipes translated the tale as King Cardiddu and classified it as type ATU 425A, "The Animal as Bridegroom", with an episode of type 313, "The Girl as Helper in the Hero's Flight".Zipes, Jack. Beautiful Angiola: The Lost Sicilian Folk and Fairy Tales of Laura Gonzenbach. Routledge, 2004. pp. 324-332 (translation), 358 (classification). . ==== Marvizia ==== In another Sicilian variant, collected by Giuseppe Pitrè with the title Marvizia, a prince's daughter owns a potted plant that produces a rose with good seeds to eat. A green bird comes and eats the seeds. The girl wants to own this green bird, but the prince's servants fail to catch it. Then, she dons a disguise as a pilgrim and follows the bird to various villages, under the pretense that she is going on a seven year penance. She arrives at a city whose queen misses her son. The queen soon shelters the girl. In return, the girl asks for the queen's ring, a memento of her lost son, as an attempt to reassure her. The queen agrees and the girl pilgrim continues on her journey. She arrives at the house of a mammadraga and asks for lodging. The mammadraga invites her in, calls her Marvizia (from Marva, a mallow plant) and sets her to doing strenuous tasks. First, the girl, Marvizia, has to clean all copper utensils, and confides to the mammadraga's giant servant, Ali. The green bird appears on the window sill and advises the girl. Next, to wash all the mattresses, and finally to weave clothes for the mammadraga. The next day, the mammadraga turns the green bird into a man, and sets her giant servant Ali to take Marvizia to be devoured by goats. Ali meets the green bird, who gives him a magic staff to create grass to satiate the goats. A shepherd girl gives food to mammadraga, who, after thanking her, decides to make the girl her daughter- in-law. The green bird agrees to the mammadraga's decision, but secretly, uses the Ring of Command to materialize a torch with gunpowder and pellets inside. After their marriage, with Marvizia holding the torch on the foot of the bridal bed, the green bird asks for his new wife to hold the torch. The torch explodes on the shepherdess's hands, taking the mammadraga's house with it. Marvizia, the now human green bird and the giant soon attempt to escape from the mammadraga with the Ring and the Book of Command, with the villainess hot in pursuit. The trio eventually escape and meet with the queen who gave Marvizia the ring.The Collected Sicilian Folk and Fairy Tales of Giuseppe Pitré. Vol. 1. Edited by Jack Zipes and Joseph Russo. Routledge, 2013. pp. 104-112. . Author translated the tale as Pappelröschen ("Poplar Rose"),Kaden, Woldemar. Unter den Olivenbäumen. Süditalienische Volksmärchen. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1880. pp. 89-97. and commented that this was another variant of the myth of Cupid and Psyche.Kaden, Woldemar. Unter den Olivenbäumen. Süditalienische Volksmärchen. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1880. p. 253. Ruth Manning- Sanders translated the tale as The Green Bird in her work A Book of Ogres and Trolls.Manning-Sanders, Ruth. A Book of Ogres and Trolls. Methuen Children's Books, 1972. pp. 80-90. ==== Thunder and Lightning ==== Author Heinrich Zschalig published a tale from the island of Capri with the title Blitz und Donner ("Thunder and Lightning"): a girl named Rosinella lives with her poor father. One day, she takes her pig to graze in the forest and finds a tree with golden leaves and golden branches. She takes some foliage to her father. They eventually revisits the forest on the next day before they see the tree tumbling down. After the tree falls, they see a staircase leading underground. Her father is reluctant to go down the stairs, but Rosinella soon climbs down the hole and finds a large underground palace. In one of the chambers, Rosinella meets a shadowed being and offers her services to it. The shadow agrees and lets her stay, as long as she does not enter his bedchambers neither during the day nor at night. She obeys his instructions from one year, until she enters his chambers and sees a beautiful youth asleep on the bed. The next morning, the shadowed man reproaches Rosinella, but gives her iron shoes and some figs. He explains that the figs are for his sisters, and that, if she suffers for a year, three months and three weeks, the man, named Thunder and Lightning, will marry her. Rosinella goes to the city and reaches a terrace where the three sisters are and gives them the figs. The sisters welcome her, but warn that their mother, Luisa, is a cannibal and may devour her, but the girl can gain her favour by pulling her hair and forcing her to swear on her son's name. Luisa appears and smells Rosinella's "Christian flesh". Rosinella forces Luisa not to harm her on her son's name. Luisa forces the human girl on difficult tasks: to fill two sacks with feathers and to separate a large heap of mixed seeds. Thunder and Lightning helps her: he summons all birds to give their feathers and an army of ants to separate the seeds. Next, Luisa sends Rosinella to her sister, also a cannibal, with a letter and an order to get a casket from a cabinet. On the way there, the man reappears and tells her that the task is a trap; he gives her a bag full of oatmeal and biscuits, and instructs her to give the oatmeal to the horse and the biscuits to the parrot, get the casket and escape. Rosinella gets the item and, on the way back, opens it, and a flock of birds escapes. The same man uses his magic powers to draw the birds back to the casket. Lastly, Luisa arranges her son's wedding to an ugly woman. Before the ceremony, Thunder and Lightning asks Rosinella for a kiss, but she refuses. The ugly bride confesses that she kissed a pig herder for three nuts. Thunder and Lightning scolds the ugly bride and chooses Rosinella. Luisa, his mother, tired of her defeats, jumps into a well.Zschalig, Heinrich. Die Märcheninsel. Märchen, Legenden und andere Volksdichtungen von Capri. Dresden: Verlag Deutsche Buchwerkstätten, 1925. pp. 88-94. ==== Cristina and the Monster ==== In a variant from Toscana translated by German scholar with the title Cristina und das Ungeheuer ("Cristina and the Monster"), a mother has three daughters of marriageable age; the youngest, Cristina, is the prettiest of the three, but finds no adequate suitor. One day, the mother consults a magician to learn her youngest daughter's fate. The magician answers that her fate will be the most fortunate of the three sisters, and suggests to take Cristina for a stroll in the mountains, lace her food with opium and, after the girl falls asleep, leave her there and return home which she follows soon after. Cristina eventually wakes up and finds herself in a grand palace, and a voice tells her that the palace and everything in it belongs to her. Time passes, and she wants to visit her family. The voice gives her a magic ring, and warns her not to tell her mother or her sisters about her life. Cristina's mother consults with the magician and learns her daughter is living a life of luxury in the palace of a prince named Cupido, changed into a monster by the work of a Maga (sorceress). Cristina breaks the voice's trust: she lights a candle at night and sees not a monstrous form, but a handsome youth with wings on his shoulders. A bit of wax burns his chest, he wakes up, curses Cristina and disappears. She now has to do penance, so she finds work with the Ungeheuer ("Monster"). The first task given to Cristina is for her is to clear away a mountain top; then to get an egg from its depths. She is soon instructed to go to another mountain filled with tigers and find enough hides to sew a pair of gloves. Cristina's last task is for her to go to hell and get a box from the Devil, without opening it. Cristina gets a box from the devil and stops a bit on the way; she opens the box and a dark fog comes out of it and covers the world in darkness. In this tale, the heroine's helper is an old lady: she waves her wand and the darkness goes back to the box.Schenda, Rudolf. Märchen aus der Toskana. Eugen Didierichs Verlag, 1996. pp. 145-152. . ==== Ermenegilda e Cupido ==== Pitrè collected a tale from Tuscany with the title Ermenegilda e Cupido, collected from a teller named Rosina Casina, In this tale, Ermenegilda is the youngest of three sisters. One day, she enters a palace and, after some wandering, reaches a door that says it is her room. She lives with a mysterious character that comes at night to her bed. She suspects it might be a monster, so the next time he comes, she will light a candle to see him. So she does, and sees a handsome youth. He awakes and tells her he feels betrayed, and that she must seek his mother, a sorceress. Ermenegilda meets her mother-in-law, who discovers she married her son, so she sends her on difficult tasks: to wash a bicoloured piece of cloth to all white, to separate many feathers, and to carry a letter to the sorceress's sister and get from her "i canti, i balli e soni". After getting the box, Ermenegilda opens it: little men and little women escape from it and begin to dance, sing and play, but Cupido brings them back to the box. Finally, the sorceress forces Ermenegilda to carry ten candles, one on each finger, to her son's wedding to another woman.Pitrè, Giuseppe; Salomone-Marino, Salvatore. Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari. Volume Secondo. Palermo: Luigi Pedone Lauriel. 1883. pp. 157-165. ==== Other tales ==== summarized a tale from Abruzzo named Lu fatte de Ggijje- me’-bbèlle. In this tale, a woman has a son and a step-daughter. Disliking her step-daughter, the woman forces the girl on impossible tasks. The woman's son, named Ggijje-me’-bbèlle, offers his help to the girl, his step-sister, in exchange for a kiss. One day, the woman sends her step-daughter to get the scàttele de le sunarjielle, and Ggijje-me’-bbèlle advises the girl on how to reach it. Eventually, the woman marries her son to another bride, and forces the step-daughter to hold ten candles on her fingers during the wedding night. The girl bears the burning, and Ggijje-me’-bbèlle wishes to help her. Ggijje- me’-bbèlle's bride mocks the girl's suffering and confesses that she kissed the hands of the milkman for some figs and a glass of milk. Ggijje-me’-bbèlle kills the bride and eventually marries his step-sister.Finamore, Gennaro. Tradizioni popolari abruzzesi. Vol. II (Parte Secunda). Italy, Lanciano: Tipografia di R. Carabba. 1885. pp. 94–95. ==See also== * The King of Love * Prince Wolf (Danish fairy tale) * Tulisa, the Wood-Cutter's Daughter (Indian fairy tale) * The Horse-Devil and the Witch * Graciosa and Percinet (French literary tale) * Habrmani * Khastakhumar and Bibinagar * Yasmin and the Serpent Prince *Amewakahiko soshi == References == == Further reading == * Maggi, Armando. 'Orpheus, the King of the Birds, Moves to Sicily with Cupid and Psyche: Laura Gonzenbach’s “King Cardiddu”'. In: Preserving the Spell: Basile's "The Tale of Tales" and Its Afterlife in the Fairy-Tale Tradition. Chicago, IL, 2015; online edn, Chicago Scholarship Online, 21 Jan. 2016. . Accessed 22 Feb. 2023. ==External links== * The Golden Root at Wikisource. Category:Italian fairy tales Category:ATU 400-459 Category:Witchcraft in fairy tales de:Der goldene Stamm
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This is a list of points scoring systems used to determine the outcome of the seasonal motorsports championships. Points are usually awarded after the placement in the individual races. In addition, there may be bonus points for fastest training laps, fastest race laps, leading laps or other individual criteria. In some racing series, for example the IndyCar Series, the driver who starts the race on pole position receives additional points or there are points for qualification trainings or qualification races. There are two basic systems. Either all drivers who finish the race or enter the final standings receive points. Or only a certain number of top placements get points and the higher ranks are not counted for the championship, except as a tiebreaker. For historical reasons, the points systems have prevailed in Australian and American Touring car racing as well as in Endurance racing, where all drivers get points, while in Formula racing (Grand Prix) usually only the top positions are valid for the championship points. == Race points only to Top ranks == * Points given to some of the top ranks in race result. There can be zero point results in race. In small support series with a small number of starters, all drivers can still get points if they are scored in the finish. === Points up to Top 8 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th AutoGP 2011 Points 18 13 10 8 6 4 2 1 F2 2017 Points 15 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 F3 BRA 2014 Points 15 12 9 7 5 3 2 1 FP CH 2012 Points 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 WSC 1966 (II) Points 12 9 7 5 4 3 - - ATCC 1976 Points 12 8 6 4 2 1 - - AUDC 1959 Points 12 7 5 3 2 1 - - FIM 1949 Points 10 8 7 6 5 - - - FIA 2003 Points 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 WSC 1966 (I) Points 10 7 5 4 3 2 - - F3 JAP 2009 Points 10 7 5 3 2 1 - - FIA 1991 Points 10 6 4 3 2 1 - - FIA 1961 Points 9 6 4 3 2 1 - - FIA 1960 Points 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - FIA 1950 Points 8 6 4 3 2 - - - AUDC 1957 Points 8 5 3 2 1 - - - F3 EU 2006 Points 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - FIA 2022 (24%) Points 6 4 3 2 1 - - - ASCC 1972 Points 4 3 2 1 - - - - === Points up to Top 12 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th AAA 1947 (Basic) Points 100 80 70 60 50 40 30 25 20 15 10 5 F5000 1975 Points 36 24 16 12 8 5 4 3 2 1 - - FR 2004 Points 30 24 20 16 12 10 8 6 4 2 - - WTCR 2018 Points 30 23 19 16 13 10 7 4 2 1 - - F3 North EU Points 25 20 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 FIA 2010 Points 25 18 15 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 - - Super GT 2006 Points 25 18 13 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - ASTC 1995 Points 24 18 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - STCC 2005 Points 20 17 14 11 9 7 5 3 2 1 - - CART 1984 Points 20 16 14 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 FF AUS 1993 Points 20 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 - - SCB 2017 Points 20 16 13 11 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 IMSA 2003 Points 20 16 13 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - SCCA 1969 Points 20 15 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - PBWC Points 20 15 12 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 - - Super Formula 2020 Points 20 15 11 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - FFF 2010 Points 20 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - FIA 2022 (50-74%) Points 19 14 12 9 8 6 5 3 2 1 - - MRC 2017 Points 15 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FIM 1969 Points 15 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - FM 2014 Points 15 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - F3 EU 2009 Points 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - - F3 ITA 2009 Points 13 11 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - F3 ESP 2007 Points 13 11 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - FIA 2022 (25-49%) Points 13 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - F3 ESP 2004 Points 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - AUDC 2010 Points 12 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - FF AUS 1971 Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - ISMA 2015 Points 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 - - === Points up to Top 15 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th ATCC 2007 (III) Points 72 60 51 45 39 36 33 30 27 24 18 15 12 9 6 ATCC 2007 (II) Points 36 30 25 22 20 18 16 15 13 12 9 8 6 5 3 BM 2017 Points 35 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 11 9 8 6 4 3 2 TCR 2015 Points 35 25 20 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 TC2000 2011 (III) Points 34 29 25 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 ATCC 1997 Points 30 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 F Alfa 2012 Points 30 25 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 F BMW 2008 Points 30 24 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 FR Asia 2002 Points 30 24 20 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 - TC2000 2011 (II) Points 30 24 20 17 16 15 14 13 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 FA 1975 Points 30 24 19 15 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 TC2000 2011 (I) Points 26 21 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FR Alps 2002 Points 25 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 BM 2011 Points 25 20 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FIM 1993 Points 25 20 16 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ATCC 2007 (I) Points 24 20 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 Euro V8 Points 24 19 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 BM 2014 Points 23 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 F3 ESP 2001 Points 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FIM 1988 Points 20 17 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 F3 FRA 2001 Points 20 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - ATCC 1978 Points 20 16 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - F5000 1979 Points 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 === Points up to Top 20 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th F5000 1969 Points 500 350 250 200 150 100 90 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 V8 TCS 2012 (II) Points 60 53 47 41 35 30 26 23 20 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 ADAC 2007 Points 45 40 37 34 32 30 28 26 24 20 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 ATCC 1998 Points 40 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 ADAC 2017 Points 40 36 32 29 26 23 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 V8 TCS 2012 (I) Points 40 35 31 27 23 20 17 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 WTCC 1993 Points 40 30 24 20 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 F4 GB 2014 Points 35 29 24 21 19 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ADAC 1986 Points 35 27 21 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FR UK 2000 Points 32 28 25 22 20 18 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 NZ V8 2002 Points 32 27 23 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CCWS 2004 Points 31 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FR TR 2007 Points 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 SCCA 1990 Points 30 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FF GB 2009 Points 30 27 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 - - - - SCB 2017 Points 30 26 22 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 SCB 2016 Points 30 25 22 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 F3 GB 2013 Points 30 25 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FR NEC 2006 Points 30 24 20 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 SCCA 2017 Points 25 23 21 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ATCC 1983 (I) Points 25 23 20 17 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - F3 GB 2014 Points 25 22 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Boss GP 2010 Points 25 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - IMSA 1997 Points 25 21 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - DTC 1999 Points 25 20 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - SCB 2013 Points 24 20 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FPA 2006 Points 24 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - SCB 2012 Points 22 20 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 US F1000 2007 Points 22 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 NPS 1981 Points 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 F3 GER 1988 Points 20 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - SCB 2015 Points 20 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - === Points up to Top 25 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th SCS 1999 Points 50 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 SLF 2008 Points 50 45 40 36 32 29 26 23 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - VdVC 2017 Points 35 32 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 ATCC 1983 (II) Points 30 27 24 21 19 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - V8Star 2001 Points 26 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 == Race points to all ranks == * The allocation of points is based on the maximum number of cars participating in the championship or maximum number of starting spots for the races. Usually, all drivers entering the races receive championship points at the end of race. If more cars are allowed to qualifying for individual races than were originally intended, zero point scores can also occur here. In rare cases, surplus cars still receive points for the championship. For example, in 1997, the points scoring system of the Indy Racing League was briefly expanded to 35 positions for this one season, since exceptionally 35 drivers could start in the 1997 Indy 500. === Points up to Top 35 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd 34th 35th V8 SCS 2005 Points 192 186 180 174 168 162 156 150 144 138 132 126 120 114 108 102 96 90 84 78 72 66 60 54 48 42 36 30 24 18 12 6 - - - V8 SCS 2009 Points 150 138 129 120 111 102 96 90 84 78 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 - ISMA 2016 Points 100 88 81 74 67 62 57 52 47 42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - V8 SCS 2002 (II) Points 100 80 64 52 44 40 36 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - V8 SCS 2002 (I) Points 80 64 51 42 35 32 29 26 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - NZ V8 2004 Points 75 67 60 54 49 45 42 39 36 33 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - V8 SCS 2008 Points 50 45 41 38 35 32 30 28 26 24 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - IndyCar 2004 Points 50 40 35 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 - - IndyCar 2013 Points 50 40 35 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 - - IndyCar 1998 Points 50 40 35 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 - - ProMazda 2007 Points 44 40 37 34 32 30 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 HKTCC 2005 Points 40 35 32 30 28 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - IndyCar 1997 Points 35 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 IMSA 2014 Points 35 32 30 28 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - V8Star 2002 Points 32 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - === Points up to Top 60 ranks === Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd 34th 35th 36th 37th 38th 39th 40th 41st 42nd 43rd 44th 45th 46th 47th 48th 49th 50th 51st 52nd 53rd 54th 55th 56th 57th 58th 59th ARCA 2009 Points 200 195 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 - - - - - - - - - USAC 1978 Points 200 160 140 120 100 80 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 2007 Points 185 170 165 160 155 150 146 142 138 134 130 127 124 121 118 115 112 109 106 103 100 97 94 81 88 85 82 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 4 1 - - - - - NASCAR 2004 Points 180 170 165 160 155 150 146 142 138 134 130 127 124 121 118 115 112 109 106 103 100 97 94 81 88 85 82 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 4 1 - - - - - NASCAR 1975 Points 175 170 165 160 155 150 146 142 138 134 130 127 124 121 118 115 112 109 106 103 100 97 94 81 88 85 82 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 4 1 - - - - - SCCA 2012 Points 140 110 95 85 80 76 72 68 64 60 57 54 51 48 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 1973 Points 125 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 - - - - - - - - - SCCA 2010 Points 110 100 92 85 80 76 72 68 64 60 57 54 51 48 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SCCA 2016 Points 110 98 90 84 80 76 72 68 64 60 57 54 51 48 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 1972 Points 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 1971 Points 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - Le Mans 24h 2019 Points 50 36 30 24 20 16 12 8 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 2011 Points 46 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 2016 Points 43 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NASCAR 2017 Points 40 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Le Mans 24h 2018 Points 38 27 23 18 15 12 9 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sebring 1000k 2018 Points 32 23 19 15 13 10 8 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LeMans Cup 2017 Points 25 18 15 12 10 8 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - FIA WEC 2012 Points 25 18 15 12 10 8 6 3 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LeMans Cup 2017 (Double Header) Points 15 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - == Points for qualifying == * Points given to ranks in qualifying result or qualifying races. Introduced Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd V8 SCS 2009 Points 50 46 43 40 37 34 32 30 28 26 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Indy 500 2016 Points 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Indy 500 2014 Points 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Indy 500 2010 Points 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Superpole 2019 Points 12 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IndyCar 2013 (Iowa) Points 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Indy 500 2018 Points 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - F1 2022 (Sprint) Points 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - TC 2000 2011 Points 5 4 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IndyCar 1998 F1 2021 (Sprint) Points 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - == Bonus points == * Additional points given to fastest practice laps, fastest racing laps or led laps or other criteria. == Points multiplicator == In addition to the base points, there were and are racing series with points multipliers. Until the 1982 season, AAA, USAC and CART used a multiplier system based on the mileage of the races. The base points were only available for races up to 150 miles in length. Double points were awarded for races of 150 to 250 miles, triple points for races of 250 to 350 miles, quadruple points for races of 350 to 450 miles and five times for races over 450 miles, e.g. the Indy 500. In addition to the prize money, important races on large race tracks should be made more attractive and lead to larger driver fields. In the 1996 season there was a multiplier for the number of races that a driver contested. This was to prevent drivers who only competed in one or two of the three races of the season from winning the championship. If a driver drove all three races of the first IRL season, his points were multiplied by 3. The two co-champions of the season received 246 points instead of the 82 earned base points as a final result based on IRL points scoring system of 1996. In NASCAR, the points were decided in the first two decades according to the importance of the race and the price money. So there were multipliers for certain prize money amounts. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, like the IndyCar, there was a multiplier based on the length of the races, before a uniform points system was used from 1975 onwards. In endurance racing, instead of fixed multiplicators, different points scoring systems are used for races of different lengths. Usually the point systems differ only in the addition of fixed point values to all placements. == Championship decision == The final result of the championship is usually determined by the sum of the championship points won. If the points are the same, there will be tiebreaker in the form of the number of the highest positions in the individual races, e.g. number of victories, number of second places etc. An inverted system was used in Europe before World War II. The driver with the fewest points won the championship there. The winner got 1 "penalty point", the second-placed driver 2, the third-placed driver 3, all other drivers got 4. Drivers who did not finish the race received additional "penalty points", based on the percentage distance they run. In some racing series, especially in NASCAR, there is a playoff system. After a cutoff race determined at the beginning of the season, the points score is used to qualify for the playoff after that race. In the subsequent races, other selection procedures are used to decide the championship, for example a knockout phase in which only a certain number of drivers, determined by points scoring and number of victories, reach the next round. In the last race, only the direct placement against the other competing drivers decides the outcome of the championship. == See also == * List of FIM World Championship points scoring systems * List of Formula One points scoring systems == External links == * Formula E Rules and Regulations * NTT INDYCAR SERIES Championship Points * How NASCAR driver points are awarded per race * Super Formula overhauls points system for 2020 * WTCR FORMAT EXPLAINED: A QUICK REMINDER Category:Motorsport-related lists
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thumb|right|upright=2|Visualizing Thomas's definition of humanitarian logistics Although logistics has been mostly utilized in commercial supply chains, it is also an important tool in disaster relief operations. Humanitarian logistics is a branch of logistics which specializes in organizing the delivery and warehousing of supplies during natural disasters or complex emergencies to the affected area and people. However, this definition focuses only on the physical flow of goods to final destinations, and in reality, humanitarian logistics is far more complicated and includes forecasting and optimizing resources, managing inventory, and exchanging information. Thus, a good broader definition of humanitarian logistics is the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost- effective flow and storage of goods and materials, as well as related information, from the point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose of alleviating the suffering of vulnerable people. This figure presents numerous important aspects in humanitarian logistics, including transport, inventory management, infrastructure, and communications. == The role of humanitarian logistics in disaster relief efforts == Humanitarian logistics plays an integral role in disaster relief for several reasons. First, humanitarian logistics contributes immensely to mitigating the negative impact of natural disasters in terms of loss of life and economic costs. These losses occur in four different ways: * Losses of buildings, highways and other infrastructure; * Losses in output and reductions in employment and tax receipts; * Losses due to the increase in the price of consumable and construction materials; and * Losses of millions of lives because of the scarcity of food and accidents. Second, humanitarian logistics is considered the repository of data that can be analyzed to provide post-event learning. Logistics data reflects all aspects, from the effectiveness of suppliers and transportation providers, to the cost and timeliness of response, to the appropriateness of donated goods and the management of information. Thus, it is critical to the performance of both current and future operations and programs. Organizing emergency response plans will help preparation and consequently mobilization in times of disasters. == The process of humanitarian logistics == thumb|right|upright=2|The process of humanitarian logistics As can be seen in the above Figure, the process is complicated with the involvement of various actors in different locations. To be more specific, the process connects various actors, including, donors, local/international aid organizations, local governments, and beneficiaries. There are three fundamental flows in this process: the flow of material, the flow of money, and the flow of information. * The flow of material: the flow of products from donors to beneficiaries, including food, blankets, medicines, and water, and the reverse flow of returned products after disasters. * The flow of information: includes demand forecasts, order transmissions, and order status reports, to ensure preparedness and communications. * The flow of money: includes checks, cash, and payment documents such as Letters of credit, invoice, and commercial contracts. == Storage == Developing logistics warehousing to store all essential goods plays a crucial role in disaster response planning. Warehouses should be designed by taking precautions for contamination or waste of materials and organized in order to facilitate deliveries to the desired area at the desired time and quantities. In addition, responsible authorities aim at maximizing responsiveness and minimizing distribution times, total costs, and the number of distribution centers. The entire storage process is of key importance for preserving emergency supplies until they can be delivered to recipients. === Types of warehouse === Humanitarian Warehouses can be categorized into four main types, depending on their functions and locations. * General Delivery Warehouses: where products are stored for a long time (e.g., months or quarters) or until they are sent to secondary warehouses or distributed in the field. General delivery warehouses are more common in the capital of beneficiary or donor countries or at strategic points of a given region (based on forecasts). alt=|center|thumb|upright=1.5|A general delivery warehouse of UNHCR * Slow Rotation Warehouses: where non-urgent or reserve stockpiles are kept, including goods that are not in frequent demand such as spare parts, equipment, and tools. * Quick Rotation Warehouses: where emergency supplies quickly move in and out, on a daily or at most weekly basis. Such warehouses are situated near the heart of affected zones and hold items that require prompt distribution among the affected population, including food, blankets, and hygiene items. center|thumb|upright=1.5|A slow rotation warehouse of WFP * Temporary Collection Sites: where incoming supplies are stored until a more appropriate space can be found. Temporary collection sites include yards, offices, meeting rooms, and garages of disaster relief organizations. alt=|center|thumb|upright=1.5|A temporary collection site Humanitarian Warehouses can also be classified as perishables warehouses or 3PL warehouses. However, it is common in humanitarian logistics to have four types of warehouses as mentioned above. Depending on the magnitude of disasters and the urgency, a certain type of warehouses is needed. For example, for unexpected disasters, temporary warehouses are more common than others. In contrast, for planned disasters, general delivery warehouses are needed to store products in beneficiary countries. === Choices of warehouses === When selecting an appropriate site to store goods, two considerations are important: * Type of supplies: Pharmaceutical products and foods require a well-ventilated, cool, dry place. Some of these products may even need temperature control. Other items, such as clothing or equipment, have more flexible requirements. * Size and access to warehouses: the size of the storage site is significantly important. One must take into account not just its current capacity but also the potential for expansion of the storage area. Accessibility is another key issue, particularly for large vehicles. == Inventory management == A logistical technique which can improve responsiveness is inventory pre- positioning. This technique is used for estimating item quantities required according to specific safety stock levels and order frequency, or for searching optimal locations for warehouses using facility location. Logistics is one of the major tools of disaster preparedness, among surveillance, rehearsal, warning, and hazard analysis. There are four primary types of inventory planning: * Single-period inventory model/News-vendor model * Base- stock model * Periodic review model * Dynamic lot-size model Each model has different advantages and disadvantages; therefore, it is important for inventory planners to consider all aspects, including total holding costs, service level, and demand variability, to have an efficient strategy. == Transport == Transport plays a key role in mobilizing supplies to help emergency humanitarian assistance reach affected regions. In humanitarian logistics, it is important to determine the feasibility of various forms of transport on the basis of the level of urgency, total costs, and geographical characteristics of affected zones. === Characteristics of different means of transport === Characteristics of different means of transport Types of transport Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Air (Airplanes) Used when supplies are needed urgently, or when there is no other way to reach the affected area. * Quick and reliable. * Can reach far-away areas. * Makes it possible to come closer to the area of operations. * Costly. * Depending on the size of the plane, cargo capacity may be small. * Susceptible to meteorological conditions. * Requires plenty of space and safe conditions for landing and takeoff. * Requires special fuels, such as Jet A1, which although common are not always available in the area of operations. Air (Helicopters) More versatile than planes * Has limited cargo space. * Costly. Land (motor vehicles) Depends mainly on the physical and safety conditions of the access routes to the delivery points. * Highly flexible. * Inexpensive and readily available (it is easier to find cars and trucks than any other vehicle). * Given its availability, cargo capacity increases. * Routes might be in bad shape, impassable, or simply not exist. * Land travel may be dangerous in certain areas, due to the threat of landslides, floods, earthquake damage, armed conflict, or bandits. Land (rail) Depends on the existence and route of the railroad and its condition * Large load capacity. * Operating costs are generally quite low. * Frequently awkward to load and offload supplies in railroad yards or stations. * Need to use other transport to take the supplies to the warehouse or operations center. Maritime Used mostly for transporting supplies from abroad. Requires access to a harbor or pier. * Large load capacity. * Economical. * Slow. * Need to use other transport to take the supplies to the warehouse or operations center. River Useful for supplying riverside and nearby communities with moderate amounts of emergency aid, or for moving people and supplies in the event of a flood. * Low cost of operations. * Access to areas hard to reach by other forms of transport. * Small load capacity, depending on the size of the vessel. * Use depends on the size and other characteristics of the river or other waterway. Intermodal A combination of at least two means of transport, with the most common being truck/rail. * Faster delivery than rail. * Flexibility. * The exchange of information among transport companies. Human and animal Used for small loads, generally in remote areas or places (horses or camels). * Low operational costs. * Access to difficult areas. * Limited load capacity. * Slow. === Considerations of different means of transport === When planning the type and capacity of transport, five major considerations are crucial: * The nature of supplies to be transported: Different categories of products requires different handling methods as well as temperature control. For example, hazardous materials must be stored separately from pharmaceutical products and food. * The weight and volume of the load: Both are critical factors that determine the capacity of vehicles and the type of transport. * The destination: distance, form of access to the delivery point (by air, water, or land). This factor should be taken into consideration because mobilizing the goods from the ports to the final destinations is often constrained by poor local infrastructure and unexpected events such as floods, landslides, and storms. * The urgency of the delivery: In most emergency situations, needed goods, particularly food and fuels, are sent by air to destinations although this option is expensive. In humanitarian logistics, the priority is to save more lives. * Alternative means, methods, and routes: Depending on one option represents a risk, especially there are some force majeure. The below table provides a simple formula to help planners forecast transport demand during a disaster. There are three main components: the number of trips for a vehicle, the volume, and the total number of vehicles. A simple formula for estimating the number of vehicles Calculation procedure Formula Number of possible trips per vehicle \frac{Period}{Duration/ roundtrip} Number of loads \frac{Tons}{Capacity/vehicle} Number of vehicles \frac{Loads}{Trips/Vehicles} === Types of transport contracts === There are three primary types of transport contracts. Each type has distinct advantages and disadvantages. The comparisons of three main transport contract types Types Advantages Disadvantages By the ton or ton/km * Clients pay for the transport of the goods regardless of the time the trip takes or whether the truck is full or not. * Carriers might include other clients' loads in the same shipment, which may compromise the safety of supplies. * Drivers might use a less direct route to add kilometers to bills, which increases both time and costs. Per vehicle per journey * Clients have the exclusive use of vehicle(s). * Carriers might not fill each vehicle to its maximum capacity in order to multiply the number of trips. * The size of vehicles might not be suitable with the size of loads, which leads to more vehicles and hence higher costs. Per vehicle per day * Clients have the exclusive use of vehicle. It is usually the best option for short trips. * In the event that the truck needs protracted repairs, the daily fee might still be applicable unless stipulated otherwise in the contract. == New technologies in humanitarian logistics == Technology is a key factor to achieve better results in disaster logistics. Setting up a communication mechanism in geographies that are remote and devoid of internet or phone networks, implementing up-to-date information or tracking systems & using humanitarian logistics software which can provide real-time supply chain information, organizations can enhance decision making, increase the quickness of the relief operations and achieve better coordination of the relief effort. Biometrics for identifying persons or unauthorized substances, wireless telecommunications, media technology for promoting donations, and medical technologies are some more aspects of technology applied in humanitarian operations. There are four main developments in this field: bar codes, AMS laser cards, radio frequency tags & satellite based internet services. === AMS Cards === Automated manifest system (AMS) cards have been used by the United States government to store substantial amounts of information about shipments. The cards have become more popular in humanitarian logistics as they are able to provide various aspects related to: * Stock number; * Requisition number; * Shipment date; * Quantity; * Consignee. The AMS cards are attached to both pallets and containers and inserted to a processing unit which can give all details about a delivery. The use of those cards is beneficial to both shippers and beneficiaries in humanitarian logistics management because beneficiaries can plan resources, especially food and medicines, or find alternatives. Therefore, this application can make the process more flexible and efficient. In addition, AMS cards are cheap, reusable, and resistant to extreme weather. === Radio Frequency Identification Tags and Labels === The tags are useful in identifying information about delivery routes. They are attached to different types of vehicles, including pallets, trucks, vans, and large containers, to position the location of shipments en route. In addition, they can read information when the vehicles pass through points along the route. After that, the information is stored on a label. Together with the AMS cards, they can provide an effective solution to humanitarian logistics to increase its transparency and responsiveness. === Bar Codes === One major concern in humanitarian logistics management is the reliability of product sources because the most popularly-procured item is food. In the past, there were cases regarding food unsafety caused by the unclear origins of products. Recently, bar codes have been a feasible solution to address this problem in humanitarian logistics. Bar code labels make it possible to represent alphanumeric characters (letters and numbers) by means of bars and blanks of varying widths that can be read automatically by optical scanners. This system recognizes and processes these symbols, compares their patterns with those already stored in computer memory, and interpret the information. This standardized coding system means that there can be a one-on-one, unique, non- ambiguous relationship between the pattern and that to which it refers. At present, bar codes are mostly used in: * Product packages; * Identification cards; * Catalog or price lists; * Product labels; * Forms, receipts, and invoices. === Satellite based internet services === Communication, especially in the remote disaster zones is often difficult due to absence or damage to the mobile communication networks. During the war in Ukraine in 2022, Starlink (Satellite internet) services opened a new possibility to restore this vital service capability. == Environmental impact of humanitarian logistics == While the primary goal of humanitarian logistics is saving lives, their environmental impact has been a source of concern. Adverse environmental impact can emanate from all the operations throughout the humanitarian supply chain including procurement, transportation, warehousing, delivery, and material waste. Compared to commercial supply chains, addressing environmental issues is more challenging in humanitarian logistics due to volatile context and absence of basic infrastructure such as recycling facilities. However, several humanitarian organizations such as International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC) have recently started to incorporate sustainability in their long term strategy. Use of digital technologies have shown to provide humanitarian organizations with more visibility across their supply chain and thus lead to more environmentally sustainable supply chains. ==References== ==Further reading== * * * Margaret O'Leary, 2004. Measuring disaster preparedness: a practical guide to indicator, iUniverse, * Kevin Cahill, 2005, Technology for humanitarian action, Fordham Univ Press, * * * Martin Christopher and Peter Tatham, 2011, Humanitarian Logistics: Meeting the Challenge of Preparing for and Responding to Disasters, Kogan Page, , * Karen Spens and Gyöngyi Kovacs, 2010, Back to basics - is logistics again about cutting costs?, http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~phelo/ICIL_2010_Proceedings_Rio.pdf * * ==External links== * Humanitarian Logistics Research at MIT Center for Transportation & Logistics * The Center for Health & Humanitarian Systems at Georgia Tech (formerly Health & Humanitarian Logistics) * The Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Research Institute (HUMLOG) at HANKEN School of Economics (Helsinki, Finland) * Humanitarian Logistics in Emergencies training at RedR Australia Category:Freight transport
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Saulkrasti (; ) (literally Sun shores in Latvian) is a town in Latvia on the east coast of the Gulf of Riga and the capital of the Saulkrasti municipality. Made up of a number of historic fishing settlements, the town stretches for some 17 km from the Inčupe river in the south to the village of Skulte in the north. The town itself spans across and includes an additional of fields and forests. The center of Saulkrasti is situated about 40 km from Sigulda, 45 km from Riga, 47 km from Limbaži, and 58 km from Salacgrīva. The territory of the Saulkrasti municipality is crossed by the European route E67, known locally as Via Baltica or the A1 road. There are six train stations in Saulkrasti and its suburbs - Inčupe, Pabaži, Saulkrasti, Ķīšupe, Zvejniekciems, and Skulte, the latter being the final stop on the Zemitāni-Skulte Railway line. The coat of arms of Saulkrasti represents the four rivers (white stripes) of Inčupe, Pēterupe, Ķīšupe, and Aģe, and the five villages (green stripes) – Bādciems, Katrīnbāde or Pabaži, Pēterupe, Neibāde, and Zvejniekciems that make up the town. The top parts represent the sea and the sun. A part of the historic Livonian Metsepole land and later known as Neibāde or Neubad, Saulkrasti received its present name in 1933 when the five adjoining villages were merged into one common municipal structure. It received town rights in 1991. Saulkrasti is the home of the annual Saulkrasti Jazz Festival. == Geography == Saulkrasti is located in Saulkrasti municipality, on the south-east side of Gulf of Riga, north-east of Riga. It lies along a long and wide coastal forest zone from the south of Lilaste River and lake to Zvejniekciems including. The territory is made up of four distinct populated places — Pabaži (Inčupe River), Pēterupe (city centre, Pēterupe river), Neibāde (Ķīšupe River), and Zvejniekciems (Aģe River). The territory is adjacent to Carnikava, Ādaži, Sēja, and Limbaži municipalities and the closest populated places to Saulkrasti are Carnikava, Ādaži, Sigulda, and Limbaži. The direct town's borders mostly include a stretch between the railway and the sea from Inčupe to Ķīšupe rivers. The territory is , from which are town's territory and rural territory. As of 2008 are occupied by forest and are used for agriculture. There are 5,830 separate owned land territories with 1,583 real estates. == History == The earliest data about the territory are stone axes found around Inčupe and Pēterupe, which show that the territory was populated from at least the newer ice age. The first written mention of populated places in the Saulkrasti territory are documented in the Livonian Chronicle of Henry. The territory overlapped with Livonian Metsopole and Kubesele populated place, and some today's names are inherited from the Livonian language, for example, Līlaste, Age, Pabaži. Metsepole significant centres included Skulte, Liepupe, and Limbaži villages. A significant road crossed the territory towards Soontagana territory in Estonia. After the 13th century Baltic Crusades, Saulkrasti lands became part of newly formed Krimulda parish. Before the formation of Saulkrasti, the territory was a part of Bīriņi parish. The current Saulkrasti territory gradually formed by merger of several populated places on Inčupe, Pēterupe, and Ķīšupe river banks. In 1823 the Neibāde territory formed next to Ķīšupe River and was mostly Vidzeme's noblemen recreation and swimming spot that became quite popular after World War I. In 1898 Katrīnbāde swimming spot formed as Pabaži Manor estate was divided into summerhouse territories. In 1920 construction plans were conceived for Neibāde and Pēterupe towns. === Pēterupe === After World War I and coastland town reforms during the 1920–30s, unions, cooperatives, and various associations were established across Latvia. After World War I the fishermen village Pēterupe gathered the vicinage's economic life, including markets and association life. In 1919 Pētērupe Fishing Association () was established to represent interests of the fishermen, and purchase land and fishing tools. In 1923 the association moved into Bīriņi Manor Pub (), illegally sold by Neibāde resort manager Paul Moltrecht. The pub was renovated, renamed Enkurs (), and became the local fishermen social gathering place with regular shows, concerts, and lectures. The association had plans to build a port on the mouth of Pēterupe River, however construction never started. The association was closed on May 1, 1938, by Fishermen's Central Union (), whereby many fishermen joined Skulte's Zvejniekciems cooperative. === Neibāde === Neibāde at the time was a quiet summer resort location preferred by Rigans for its quiet region between Pabaži and Skulte. The major local activity was at the local pub Āķu krogs () that housed public services, such as, a shop, a conference room, hairdressers, and a library. During the 1920s the pub exerted particular cultural influence and was supported by the State Cultural Fund () on numerous occasions. That year Pēterupe Cooperative Consumer Association () was founded to provide their members with discount groceries and manufacturing goods; the Āķu Pub rented office space to the cooperation. The cooperative organized many cultural events, such as, a drama club, a choir, and lectures. In 1927 a separate location was allocated for construction of a new headquarters building, however it was never finished due to ineffective governing and the cooperative almost going bankrupt. The cooperative prominently sold merchandise on debt to workers, especially fisherman, and soon exhausted its resources and in 1932 held a public auction. After the May 15, 1934 coup d'état by Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis the cooperative was suspended, forbidden, and on April 9, 1935 — disbanded. That year Neibāde was renamed Saulkrasti. After World War II Saulkrasti and Inčupe workers village territory stretched along a wide maritime territory north of Inčupe. Saulkrasti as a town was established in 1945. The town's executive committee led by Mārtiņs Lasmanis settled in Baron Alexis von Pistohlkors' previous cottage. During this time former guesthouses, restaurants, pubs, larger cottages, as well as a rectory were nationalized. The territory remained quiet in the 1930–50s and was given worker town rights in 1950. === Skulte Port === At the start of the 20th century there had been several ports in Courland, but none in Vidzeme. Various ports were being built across Latvia and In 1911 the Ministry of trade and industry () began researching Neibāde and Pēterupe beaches for a suitable port location. Neibāde at the time was a busy cultural and commercial location and Skule village was the largest fishing centre in Vidzeme with 100 fishermen and 40 motorboats, who in 1932 they joined Sea Fish () cooperative. The mouth of Aģe, which had served as a port before and was then used for boat towing, was selected as the most suitable and cheapest location for port construction. After years of inactivity, On May 21, 1937, president Kārlis Ulaminis decided to build the port. The construction started in autumn 1937 with building of south mole and afterwards north mole. On September 30, 1938, port coastline plans were conceived. Along the port construction, nearby fish smoke-house was built. The port was opened on October 7, 1939. === Saulkraste region === In 1950 the Saulkraste region was formed by joining 19 local counties and 42 kolkhozes under the Latvian SSR decree "On the formation of countrysides in Latvian SSR" (). Many of the kolkhozes were merged and renamed after Party functionaries. Sulkrasti town became the centre of the region that coordinated a wide territory led by M. Slosmanis. Party and Komsomol Committees, and the Saulkrastu Stars () newspaper editorial were formed in the Stirnu pub (), now the hospital building. Finance, culture, and education departments and municipal administration were located in the Saulkrasti Town Hall, together with the Saulkrastu Stars typography. The region's paperwork was now handled locally instead of through Riga. Saulkrasti village was the center of Saulkrasti Region until January 1957. The only public transport to Riga was the often full intercity bus, as railway lines had been detonated by Germans at the end of World War II. On July 3, 1952, a railroad line to Saulkrasti was restored and electrified in 1958. During this time new establishments and workforce increased demand for shops, catering, and other public services. Saulkraste region Consumer Society opened and began a trade organization within the region. In 1950 the town market was opened at the planned location of Pēterupe Cooperative Consumer Association's headquarters. However, public services developed slowly and had poor customer service. Later in 1952 there were several canteens, teahouses, two shops and a meat product shop. In 1952 a regional hospital was opened. On July 16, 1950, Saulkraste Region held its first Song Festival. Saulkrastes Stars reports it as a colourful and solemn with many participants. On July 8, 1951, the state's first Fisherman Day () was held with thousands of participants. In autumn 1950 a high school and night school opened, and next year a renovated kindergarten. In 1953 a new high school project was approved and construction began autumn 1954 until the school opened September 1, 1956. The construction was one of the biggest region's buildings costing 2 million roubles. thumb|Town hall of Saulkrasti The culture saw a decrease in 1952, choir and dance collectives disbanded and Culture House management was being constantly changed. Zvejnieks also saw cultural decline with finances missing for musical equipment. The wall newspaper Zvejnieks now had irregular publishings. However, soon a traveling cinema and library opened at the end of 1952 and 1953 respectively. Several dance and singing collectives were organized in Zvejnieks in 1954. On July 18 Saulkrasti Song Day () was organized with visitors from many regions. On July 5, 1955, Saulkrasti Song Festival () was held with 600 singers and dancers and over 7,000 spectators. At the end of July 1956, the first Latvia SSR's young tourist rally takes place with participants and visitors from many USSR republics. The region, village, and local newspaper carried "Saulkraste" name for almost two years from 1950 to middle of 1952 until Saulkrasti name was restored in 1952. In 1957 a new territorial reform in Latvia disbanded the Saulkrasti region. === Rise of fishing industry === Vidzemes beaches had long been housing fishing industry. In 1945–1946 fishermen started joining into unions and in 1946–1948 into artels. There were 16 artels in Latvia, and 5 in Vidzeme — the largest being 9. maijs (), Zvejnieks (), and Brīvais vilnis (). Fishing kolkhozes received funds for tool production and installation. Press reported artel Zvejnieks having twice exceeded their initial plan by skillful use of new equipment and increase of their fishing fleet. The first year following region's establishment, fishermen already towed a successful catch. A lot of Saulkraste attention was directed at kolkhoz construction — allocating long-term loans, supplying building materials, and educating construction specialists. In 1950 region's kolkhoz construction was funded by 328,000 roubles. Kolkhozes competed socially in timber processing, land cultivation, grain sowing and harvesting, milking, and fish hauling. The long Aģe river creek houses the Skulte fishing port (), where artel's ships and motorboats anchored. Next to the port was located Vidzeme's second largest Skulte fish canning factory () office. Fish salting workshop, freezer, fish smokery and cannery were one of the most modern in Vidzeme. The factory served all local fisherman. Big catches prompted expansion and construction of new of Skultes fish processing workshops (Skultes zivju apstrādāšanas cehi), and factory expanded yearly. New equipment, semi-automated lines, and freezers were being built; work organization was being revamped. If the factory only made fish products before 1956, canned fish now became its primary produce. Production was exported to many countries, such as, Great Britain, France, Australia, Mexico, etc. During this time fishermen life significantly improved, new electrified houses were built in 1955–56 on the banks of Aģe. One of that time's state's biggest and modern Culture Houses () opened on November 8, 1956, in Zvejniekciems on Aģe's left side and cost 2.5 million rubles. Soon Culture House opens a drama club and library. == Population == As of beginning of 2008, there are 6,089 Saulkrasti residents, 2,771 of which live in rural areas. 57% (3,487) residents are of working age and 26% (1,611) beyond working age. 82% of the population are Latvians and 11% are Russians, the remaining Belarusian, Polish, Lithuanian and Estonian nationalities make up 7% of the population. == Economy == === Tourism === thumb|right|Beach in Saulkrasti Saulkrasti attracts local and foreign tourists during the summer period. In 2011, most visitors were from Russia, Germany, Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland. In addition, 2011 has seen increase in bicycle touring through the city. === Skulte fishing port === The port is currently being funded from European Fisheries and European Regional Development Funds for over 5 million lats for construction of two new piers and a warehouse complex. With the completion of these constructions, the port will have completed reconstruction started in 1997. Currently one of the pier has been completed and work is under way to finish the warehouses by 2010/11. == Education == Saulkrasti high school () was attended by 360 pupils in 2008/2009 and employed 38 teachers in 2007/8. Zvejniekciems high school () was attended by 395 pupils in 2008/2009 and employed 27 teachers. Vidzeme Music and Art school () was established in 1968 as Zvejniekciems Children Art school (). The school started its Art department in 1995 and was renamed to its current name in 1997. The school had 288 student in 2008. Students participated in several competitions and some of their work has been shown in international exhibitions. Pre-school educational establishment "Brownie" () had 160 children and employed 22 teachers in 2008. ==International relations== ===Twin towns — Sister cities=== Saulkrasti is twinned with: * Gnesta Municipality, Sweden. ==See also== * List of cities in Latvia == References == === Citations === === Notes === === Bibliography === * ==See also== *List of cities in Latvia == External links == * Saulkrasti Jazz Festival website * Category:Towns in Latvia Category:Populated coastal places in Latvia Category:Gulf of Riga Category:Populated places established in 1991 Category:1991 establishments in Latvia Category:Saulkrasti Municipality
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The Ryanverse is a term for the political drama media franchise created by author Tom Clancy centering on the character of Jack Ryan and the fictional universe featuring Jack and other characters, such as John Clark and Domingo Chavez. ==Novels== The first book written to feature Jack Ryan was The Hunt for Red October. ===By publication date=== Books in the order in which they were written: # The Hunt for Red October (1984) # Patriot Games (1987) # The Cardinal of the Kremlin (1988) # Clear and Present Danger (1989) # The Sum of All Fears (1991) # Without Remorse (1993) # Debt of Honor (1994) # Executive Orders (1996) # Rainbow Six (1998) # The Bear and the Dragon (2000) # Red Rabbit (2002) # The Teeth of the Tiger (2003) # Dead or Alive (2010, with Grant Blackwood) # Against All Enemies (2011, with Peter Telep) # Locked On (2011, with Mark Greaney) # Threat Vector (2012, with Mark Greaney) # Command Authority (2013, with Mark Greaney) * Search and Destroy (Cancelled, with Peter Telep) ====Post-Clancy Ryanverse novels==== # Support and Defend (2014, by Mark Greaney) # Full Force and Effect (2014, by Mark Greaney) # Under Fire (2015, by Grant Blackwood) # Commander in Chief (2015, by Mark Greaney) # Duty and Honor (2016, by Grant Blackwood) # True Faith and Allegiance (2016, by Mark Greaney) # Point of Contact (2017, by Mike Maden) # Power and Empire (2017, by Marc Cameron) # Line of Sight (2018, by Mike Maden) # Oath of Office (2018, by Marc Cameron) # Enemy Contact (2019, by Mike Maden) # Code of Honor (2019, by Marc Cameron) # Firing Point (2020, by Mike Maden) # Shadow of the Dragon (2020, by Marc Cameron) # Target Acquired (2021, by Don Bentley) # Chain of Command (2021, by Marc Cameron) # Zero Hour (2022, by Don Bentley) # Red Winter (2022, by Marc Cameron) # Flash Point (2023, by Don Bentley) # Weapons Grade (forthcoming 2023, by Don Bentley) # Command and Control (forthcoming 2023, by Marc Cameron) ===Chronology=== In the order in which they occur in the storyline (and rough estimates of when they occur): # Without Remorse – Begins in late 1969 in the aftermath of Hurricane Camille and continues the following spring in 1970. Epilogue is titled "February 12, 1973". # Patriot Games – Begins in 1981 and continues through summer 1982 based on a reference to Ryan's age, which is 31 at the beginning of the novel. Roughly fits with a reference to the Princess of Wales's first child being a boy and a few months old, since Prince William was born in 1982. Discrepancies include the reference to a van having a likely year of manufacture of 1984 and a reference to crime data of 1985. The subsequent events of Red Rabbit would seem to push its date back to 1981, rather than 1982. # Red Rabbit – Presumably starts in the spring of 1982 as Jack Ryan Jr.'s age in the novel is given as 5 months, although the main action explicitly starts on August 15. Discrepancies between 1982 in the Ryanverse and in actual events, aside from the date of the attempt on the Pope's life, include the actual death of Mikhail Suslov in January 1982, frequent references to Transformers which did not appear until 1984, the fact that the Baltimore Orioles played against the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series in 1983, the Baltimore Colts relocation to Indianapolis not occurring until 1984, and a reference to Coke Classic which did not debut until the summer of 1985. # The Hunt for Red October – 1984. However, the calendar used is for 1982 and Ryan is spending his first Christmas in London, having arrived in the previous novel. # Red Winter – 1985 # The Cardinal of the Kremlin – 1986. The first chapter is set in January and states that Ryan is 35 years old. It also has references to the other books set earlier. For example, the Foleys have been in Moscow for almost four years. # Clear and Present Danger – 1988. The book refers to Jack's age as under 40. Troops are sent into Colombia to fight against the Medellín Cartel and reduce drug shipments to America. # The Sum of All Fears – 1990–1991. The book occurs after the Persian Gulf War and before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It is implied that both events occur at the same time in the Ryan universe as in actual event in 1991. In the earlier chapters, it states that it had almost been two Novembers since President Fowler had been elected, making the beginning set in 1990. The video game Rainbow Six puts the atomic detonation in Denver as having occurred in 1989. (The film adaption is set after the break-up of the Soviet Union.) # Debt of Honor – 1995–1996. The end of the novel occurs eleven months before the 1997 presidential inauguration. Of interest, but not crucial to the plot of this or further books is that North and South Korea were said to be unified at some point between The Sum of All Fears and this book. # Executive Orders – 1997-1998 # Rainbow Six – 1999-2001. The novel is stated to take place over a year and a half after the Ebola attack from the previous novel. The 2000 Summer Olympics is also the site of an attempted bioweapon attack with a modified strain of the Ebola virus. The epilogue of the novel is stated to take place six months later. #The Bear and the Dragon – 2002. It is explicitly mentioned multiple times that the ending of Debt of Honor occurred fifteen months before the start of this book, putting the timing somewhere between 1997-1998. However, this seems to be an oversight by the author. Rainbow exists and is discussed as well, denoting that Rainbow Six is this book's predecessor both chronologically and by publication date. # The Teeth of the Tiger – 2006, based on the age of Jack Ryan Jr. The U.S. is now engaged in a global war on terrorism, in response to the September 11 attacks, which occurred in the Ryan universe as they did in the real world. It is mentioned that the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq occurred in the Ryan universe continuity, and that the Jerusalem Treaty signed in The Sum of All Fears was not entirely successful as some Israelis and Palestinians continue fighting each other. # Dead or Alive – 2007, based on Jack Ryan's announcement that he would run against Ed Kealty for President "in the coming year". The Umayyad Revolutionary Council (the Ryan universe version of Al-Qaeda) and its leader "The Emir" (based on Osama bin Laden) plan a string of major attacks on the U.S. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continue, as in our timeline, and President Kealty is in the process of withdrawing U.S. troops from Iraq. A character decoding encrypted messages explicitly refers to the date as May 2010, but this must be seen as a contradiction in the Jack Ryan continuity as Ed Kealty is a one term president (2005–2008). # Against All Enemies – 2008. However, the novel uses the 2010 calendar. # Locked On – 2008, based on Jack Ryan Sr.'s campaign for re-election. Jack Ryan Sr. is running for president against incumbent Ed Kealty, who wants to serve a second term (2009-2012). The election happening in this book requires the events take place in 2008. # Threat Vector – 2009, explicitly stated as six months after the previous novel. Ryan Sr. has been sworn in as president of the United States after having been elected the previous year. # Command Authority – 2010, explicitly states that Ryan Sr. is in the second year of his second presidential term. It is implied the novel takes place about five months after the events of Threat Vector in the springtime. Based on the timelines of previous books, the 'Thirty years earlier' chapters must still take place in 1983 (and are therefore actually 27 years earlier). # Support and Defend – 2010. The Campus is on operational stand down following the events of Command Authority. Dom Caruso is stated as being 32 years old. Brian's death is mentioned as taking place over two years earlier. Ethan Ross had worked at the White House for three years under two administrations. # Full Force and Effect – 2010, based on the ages of John Clark (66) and Ding Chavez (47). It is implied that the Vietnam operation takes place several months after the events of Command Authority and approximately one week after the end of Support and Defend. It is mentioned that Clark's torture in Locked On took place two years ago. Choi tells Ri, and it is also mentioned in a conversation between Ryan Sr. and Arnie Van Damm, that Ryan has two years of his presidential term left. # Under Fire – 2010. The novel is written as though it takes place in late winter: it was sleeting in Washington and fake snow spray was used in Edinburgh. It is stated that the Forth Road Bridge tolls were reintroduced in February and that the seaside tourist season is three months away. However, the timelines of the next two novels set this sometime in late summer or early autumn. # Commander in Chief – October 2010. It is explicitly stated that the novel takes place in October and the events of Full Force and Effect are implied throughout the book as taking place several months ago. This is contradicted by mentioning that the events of Command Authority took place 'a year earlier', Jack Ryan Jr. had worked for The Campus for five years, and John Clark's age is 67. It is also noted that Jack Ryan Jr. had known Ysabel for one month. The continued mention of October and the approaching winter verifies Under Fire and this novel are set at the end of 2010 - Duty and Honor also confirms that this is the case. Further contradicted as the book explicitly stays "It was Europe in 2016" # Duty and Honor – Spring 2011, based on the mention of the Lyon attacks taking place in January, at the same time Jack Ryan Jr. was on probation from The Campus. It is also noted this novel takes place several months after the events of Commander in Chief, therefore confirming that Commander in Chief and Under Fire actually took place in the last quarter of 2010. # True Faith and Allegiance – May to June 2011. It is stated the beginning of the novel takes place 7 months after the events of Commander in Chief. John Clark is still aged 67. Adara and Dom have been dating for a year. It is also mentioned that it is 'well over a year' since the events of Command Authority, the events of Threat Vector took place 'a couple of years back', and the events of Full Force and Effect took happened 'last year'. In a conversation, Ryan Jr tells his father that in two years he will no longer be president. Contradictions are Alex Dalca's age and stated year of birth. Also Gerry Hendley says that Laird was killed in 2017. Later on in the novel, Sally Ryan is implied to be in her early to mid thirties, which ties in with the 2011 date. # Point of Contact – 2012. It is explicitly stated that the events of True Faith and Allegiance took place last year and the events of Full Force and Effect happened two years ago. Jack Jr.'s age is implied to be under 30, which is a slight contradiction. # Power and Empire (?) # Line of Sight (?) # Oath of Office (?) # Enemy Contact (?) # Code of Honor (?) # Firing Point – 2020. President Ryan explicitly states that it has been nineteen years since the start of the War in Afghanistan during a meeting with his cabinet. # Shadow of the Dragon (?) # Target Acquired (?) # Chain of Command (?) # Zero Hour (?) # Flash Point (?) # Weapons Grade (?) # Command and Control (?) ==Characters== ===Main=== The key characters in the Ryanverse include: * Jack Ryan: the son of a Baltimore police detective and a nurse, Ryan is a former U.S. Marine and stockbroker who becomes a history teacher at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. Ryan later joins the Central Intelligence Agency as analyst and occasional field officer, eventually leaving it as Deputy Director. He later served as National Security Advisor and Vice President before suddenly becoming President of the United States following a terrorist attack on the United States Capitol. Ryan went on to serve two non-consecutive terms and mostly dealt with international crises in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. * John Clark: a former Navy SEAL and Chief Petty Officer as John Terrence Kelly, he became an operations officer for the CIA after faking his death and adopting the Clark identity, and at one point served as Ryan’s driver and bodyguard. During Ryan's first term as president, Clark served as director of a multinational counter-terrorism unit code-named Rainbow, which is composed of elite soldiers from countries part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. After retiring from CIA and Rainbow, he then worked for The Campus, an off-the-books intelligence organization created by President Ryan, later acquiring a higher position as director of operations. Clark has been described by his creator as "Ryan’s dark side" and "more inclined to take physical action than Jack is." * Domingo "Ding" Chavez: born and raised in Los Angeles, Chavez enlisted in the United States Army to escape street life. While on a covert operation against a drug cartel in Colombia, he meets Clark, who becomes his mentor. He is then recruited into the CIA as an operations officer, and is usually paired with his eventual father-in-law on several covert missions. When Clark becomes head of Rainbow, Chavez is assigned as leader of one of the counterterror organization's two assault teams. After retiring from the CIA and Rainbow, Chavez joins The Campus as an operations officer, later acquiring a senior status. * Daniel E. "Dan" Murray: a veteran FBI agent, Murray is assigned to a partnership with MI5 in England where he meets Ryan in Patriot Games. Murray becomes one of Ryan’s greatest allies, helping him throughout several novels. * Vice Admiral James Greer: Deputy Director of the CIA and Ryan's mentor. Greer is known for his sense of humor and kindness. Greer often gives Ryan advice and aids him to his best ability. Greer dies of pancreatic cancer in Clear and Present Danger. Some of the key characters have been portrayed in the following movies and television series: ===Cast=== Character Films Television First film series Second film series Third film series Spin-off series Television series The Hunt for Red October Patriot Games Clear and Present Danger The Sum of All Fears Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit Without Remorse Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Jack Ryan Alec Baldwin Harrison Ford Ben Affleck Chris Pine John Krasinski Catherine Ryan (née Muller) Gates McFadden Anne Archer Bridget Moynahan Keira Knightley Abbie Cornish James Greer James Earl Jones Wendell Pierce Sally Ryan Louise Borras Thora Birch John Clark Willem Dafoe Liev Schreiber Michael B. Jordan Robert "Bob" Ritter Henry Czerny Jamie Bell Olson / Rob Behringer Colm Feore Viktor Cherevin / Rykov Kenneth Branagh Brett Gelman Matice Garth/Jeff John Hoogenakker Mike November Michael Kelly Marko Ramius Sean Connery Bart Mancuso Scott Glenn Vasily Borodin Sam Neill Andrei Lysenko Joss Ackland Kevin O'Donnell Patrick Bergin Sean Miller Sean Bean William Holmes James Fox Robby Jackson Samuel L. Jackson Félix Cortez Joaquim de Almeida Ernesto Escobedo Miguel Sandoval Bennett Donald Moffat Domingo Chavez Raymond Cruz William Cabot Morgan Freeman J. Robert Fowler James Cromwell Anatoly Grushkov Michael Byrne Thomas Harper Kevin Costner Dixon Lewis David Paymer Karen Greer Jodie Turner-Smith Rowdy Luke Mitchell Thunder Jack Kesy Pastor West Colman Domingo Hatchet Jacob Scipio Keith Webb Cam Gigandet Dallas Todd Lasance Mousa bin Suleiman Ali Suliman Hanin Ali Dina Shihabi Harriet "Harry" Baumann Noomi Rapace Nicolás Reyes Jordi Molla Miguel Ubarri Francisco Denis Gloria Bonalde Cristina Umaña Marcus Bishop Jovan Adepo Elizabeth Wright Betty Gabriel Luka Goncharov James Cosmo Petr Kovac Peter Guinness Alena Kovac Nina Hoss Alexei Petrov Alexej Manvelov ===Presidents=== A total of six presidents are depicted in the Ryanverse, although only five are named: * The unnamed man referred to as "the President" or later by his Secret Service codename "Wrangler", is first introduced in The Hunt for Red October; he remains in office through The Cardinal of the Kremlin, and Clear and Present Danger. At the end of the last novel, he runs for reelection and is defeated. * J. Robert Fowler, former governor of Ohio, who defeats the incumbent at the end of Clear and Present Danger and is in office during The Sum of All Fears. After his failure to handle the Denver crisis nearly results in nuclear war, he resigns from office at the end of the novel. * Roger Durling, Fowler's vice-president, former governor of California and a Vietnam veteran with service in the 82nd Airborne Division. Durling replaces Fowler when the latter resigns, and is the President in Debt of Honor. He nearly completes Fowler's term as president and is planning a reelection campaign when he is killed along with most of the government when a Japanese jetliner is crashed into the Capitol Building. * John Patrick Ryan is confirmed as Durling's new vice president at the end of Debt of Honor, and is sworn in as president when Durling is murdered on the same day. His claim to the presidency is contested by Durling's former vice president Ed Kealty in Executive Orders, but the courts eventually rule in Ryan's favor. He is mentioned during Rainbow Six, although he never appears and is depicted as president in The Bear and the Dragon. Ryan chooses not to run for re-election between the events of The Bear and The Dragon and The Teeth of The Tiger. * Robert Jefferson "Robby" Jackson succeeds Ryan as President of the United States after Ryan retires (as described in The Teeth of the Tiger), with Ryan believing he could leave the country in Robby's capable hands. After serving out the remainder of Ryan's term, Robby campaigned for his own re-election. While travelling in Mississippi, however, Jackson was assassinated by Duane Farmer, a 67-year-old member of the Ku Klux Klan. * Edward Jonathan Kealty: Durling's former vice-president, replaced by Jack Ryan after a sex scandal. When incumbent president Robby Jackson is assassinated while campaigning, Kealty is elected president in his own right, a position he holds in The Teeth of the Tiger, Dead or Alive, and Locked On. * John Patrick Ryan: begins his campaign for re-election during the events of Dead or Alive, defeats Kealty by a narrow margin in Locked On and assumes office prior to the events of Threat Vector. He is depicted as president in all subsequent Ryanverse novels. Various books contain references to the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush as if they had happened. ===The Campus=== Beginning with The Teeth of the Tiger, Ryanverse novels feature off-the-books intelligence organization The Campus while featuring Jack Ryan Sr. as more of a background character. They follow his son Jack Ryan Jr. and fellow colleagues on several counter-terrorism missions. Hendley Associates, a private trading and arbitrage company, serves as a legitimate cover for the organization, or the "white side". They fund The Campus's intelligence operations by stock market trades influenced by captured intelligence data, thus removing federal oversight and allowing free rein in the Campus's operations. ====Characters==== * Gerald Paul "Gerry" Hendley Jr.: founder & CEO. A former Democratic senator from South Carolina, Hendley was tasked by then-President Ryan to lead The Campus and its cover Hendley Associates. * Jerry Rounds: chief of strategic planning / director of intelligence * Rick Bell: chief of analysis * Sam Granger: director of operations. Later killed by the Chinese in Threat Vector. * John Clark: director of operations. He was employed by The Campus after retiring from the CIA and Rainbow in Dead or Alive, and after a brief retirement replaces Granger as operations head in Command Authority. * Gavin Biery: director of information technology * Lisanne Robertson: director of transportation. Introduced in Power and Empire. * Domingo "Ding" Chavez: senior operations officer. Along with Clark, he was recruited by The Campus after retiring from the CIA and Rainbow. Ding helps train new agents for the Campus as well and participates in field operations. * Dominic "Enzo" Caruso: operations officer and former FBI special agent * Brian "Aldo" Caruso: operations officer and former Marine Major. Later dies in an operation in Libya in Dead or Alive. * Jack Ryan Jr.: intelligence analyst and operations officer. Originally an analyst, he becomes more involved in field operations from Dead or Alive onwards, much to the concern of his father. * Sam Driscoll: operations officer and former Army Ranger. He was recruited by Clark after the Kealty administration dropped murder charges against him for killing sleeping Middle Eastern terrorists in a cave in Pakistan during the hunt for the Emir in Dead or Alive. Later dies in an operation in Mexico City in Full Force and Effect. * Adara Sherman: operations officer in True Faith and Allegiance and former director of transportation. She currently has a relationship with Caruso. * Bartosz "Barry" Jankowski (call sign "Midas"): operations officer and former Delta Force operator. Recruited by Clark in True Faith and Allegiance. * Tony Wills: intelligence analyst who originally trained Jack Ryan Jr. on the intelligence side of The Campus * Helen Reid: pilot of Hendley Associates's Gulfstream G550 * Chester "Country" Hicks: co-pilot of Hendley Associates's Gulfstream G550 ==In other media== ===Films=== First film series * The Hunt for Red October (1990): directed by John McTiernan, and starring Sean Connery, Alec Baldwin, Scott Glenn, James Earl Jones, and Sam Neill. The film was a commercial success and was nominated for a number of accolades, including winning the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing, and received nominations for Best Sound Mixing and Best Film Editing. * Patriot Games (1992): directed by Phillip Noyce, and starring Harrison Ford, Sean Bean, Patrick Bergin, James Earl Jones, and Samuel L. Jackson. The film was a commercial success and generally received positive reviews from critics, although some critics who had read the book felt it diverged too much from its source. * Clear and Present Danger (1994): directed by Phillip Noyce, and starring Harrison Ford, Willem Dafoe, Donald Moffat, James Earl Jones, and Raymond Cruz. The film was a commercial success and received positive reviews from critics, it was also nominated the Academy Awards for Best Sound Mixing and Best Sound Editing. Second film series * The Sum of All Fears (2002): directed by Phil Alden Robinson, and starring Ben Affleck, Morgan Freeman, James Cromwell, Bridget Moynahan, and Liev Schreiber. The film was a commercial success and received mixed reviews from critics, some criticizing Affleck's performance, others praising Freeman's characterization.Lana K. Wilson-Combs, "wHEW! Freeman won't give up acting anytime soon", The Argus (May 31, 2002). Third film series *Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit (2014): directed by Kenneth Branagh, and starring Chris Pine, Kevin Costner, Kenneth Branagh, Keira Knightley, and Len Kudrjawizki. The film was a commercial success and received average reviews, with praise for Branagh's direction, and the performances of the cast, citing both Pine and Branagh for special mention for their performances. Spin-off series *Without Remorse (2021): directed by Stefano Sollima, and starring Michael B. Jordan, Jamie Bell, Jodie Turner-Smith, and Luke Mitchell. Originally to be theatrically released by Paramount Pictures, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Amazon Studios acquired the rights and released it on Amazon Prime Video on April 30, 2021. ===Television=== It was announced by Deadline that Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland would be working with Michael Bay and his production company Platinum Dunes and Paramount Television on a Jack Ryan TV series for Amazon. On April 29, 2016, Deadline announced that John Krasinski will star as Jack Ryan in the series. On August 16, 2016, Amazon Studios announced they had given a series order for a 10-episode first season of Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan. On November 4, 2016, Abbie Cornish was cast as Cathy Muller in the series. On January 6, 2017, it was reported that Morten Tyldum would direct the pilot. In February 2017, it was announced that The Americans director Daniel Sackheim would direct multiple episodes and produce the series. The series, said to be inspired by the Harrison Ford Jack Ryan films, premiered on August 31, 2018. Four months earlier, on April 24, 2018, Amazon had renewed the series for season two, which is set in South America, and it was renewed for a third season on February 13, 2019. In May 2022, before the release of the third season, it was confirmed the series would be renewed for a fourth and final season. ===Video games=== Many video games based on the Ryanverse have been made, some based on the novels, some on the films, some on the spin-offs. * The Hunt for Red October (1987): based on the book The Hunt for Red October. It was released for the Atari ST, Amiga, Apple II, ZX Spectrum, MSX, Commodore 64 and IBM PC. The player must navigate the Red October towards U.S. waters while avoiding the Soviet Navy. The game is a combination of submarine simulator and strategy game. * The Hunt for Red October (1990): based on the movie The Hunt for Red October. It was released for the Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, and ZX Spectrum. The game features five action sequences including jumping from a helicopter and navigating submarines through deep channels and avoiding from many obstacles. * The Sum of All Fears (2002): based on the movie The Sum of All Fears. It was released for Microsoft Windows, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, and the GameCube. It is a tactical first-person shooter where various mission must be completed including saving hostages in a Charleston, West Virginia television station, and shutting down the operations of a West Virginian militia. ====Rainbow Six games==== In addition Tom Clancy created a multi- media franchise about a fictional international counter-terrorist unit called "Rainbow". The franchise began with Clancy's novel Rainbow Six, which was adapted into a series of tactical first-person shooter video games. ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * * * ==References== ==External links== Category:Canons (fiction) Category:Mass media franchises introduced in 1984 Category:Novels by Tom Clancy Category:Novel series Category:Tom Clancy
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The Vocal Group Hall of Fame & Museum Company Inc. was an American-based hall of fame that honored vocal groups throughout the United States. James E. Winner Jr. was the financial and managing partner of the For-profit corporation known as "The Vocal Group Hall of Fame & Museum Company Inc." Winner and Anthony F. Butala were the corporate officers/stockholders of The Museum Company. They set up an office located at Winner's business address on State Street in Sharon, Pennsylvania. Control of the hall of fame has changed over the years. It went into hiatus and was closed in 2008. ==History== ===Founding=== The Vocal Group Hall of Fame was conceived by Butala. He came up with the idea of the museum/hall of fame. Winner, a successful local businessman and entrepreneur, agreed to fund and operate the project. Butala is also the founding member of the famous 50s & '60s singing group The Lettermen. He is the only living original member of The Lettermen and still performs with the group. "The Vocal Group Hall of Fame & Museum Company Inc." opened in 1998 followed by The Vocal Group Hall of Fame 501 (c)3 Non-Profit Foundation. The foundation was formed and operated by attorneys and accountants employed by Winner. The foundation was created to care for, protect and display the Inductees' memorabilia and to enjoy the benefits of a non-profit foundation. The foundation began collecting donations of memorabilia from the inductees and began seeking grants from the city of Sharon and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. It also solicited donations from a hopeful supportive public. Shortly after the foundation was created, Winner renovated the Museum building. He later opened the Museum and set up headquarters at the newly renovated museum building that he owned across the street from his offices in Sharon. ===2001=== Inductions were scheduled and promoted for September 11, 2001 (9/11). The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Inductions and were to be produced behind the museum building in a parking lot. The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Museum Company Inc. had begun the 2001 Inductions preparation, production, and promotion when the 9/11 terror attack crisis left artists/inductees unable to travel to Inductions. All airplane had been grounded, causing the 2001 inductions to be postponed to October 4, 2001. In the time between 9/11 and October 4, 2001, a few members of the Vocal Group Hall of Fame museum staff went to a concert at the nearby Cleveland Indians minor league baseball stadium in Ohio to see Cool & the Gang, Village People and Disco Explosion. They liked the production and show management. The group made an offer to the concert producer. Bob Crosby. Cosby got his start in the entertainment business at Dick Clark Productions in 1976. He has almost a was contracted to produce the 2001 Vocal Group Hall of Fame Production. Crosby accepted the offer and successfully staged the concert. He recorded video and audio of the 2001 Inductions and marketed and packaged the first DVD of inductions. Prior quarters and annual projections showed low attendance to the museum and unsatisfying ticket sales to both the museum and Inductions. This caused tensions between Winner and Butala. Batula was not very helpful because he was on tour most of the time with The Lettermen. This issue led to the resolution of all matters by dissolving the interest and partnership in the For-profit Vocal Group Hall of Fame and Museum Company Inc. Butala wanted his dream to continue. He suggested to Winner to have Crosby take over the Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation and rent the museum building from Winner. Butala and Winner closed the Vocal Group Museum Company Inc. and Crosby took over operations of The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation as President and CEO. Soon after Crosby took over the operation and administration of the foundation, Winner's attorneys and accountants, the board of directors of the foundation, resigned. Within a couple of months of Crosby's appointment as President and CEO of the foundation, he did not expect the rental price, $1 a year rent plus utilities and maintenance of the building, to change. However, the rent had increased to $12,000 per month. Other bills and debts not agreed to became the foundation's responsibility instead of The Museum Company's responsibility. Winner demanded that all museum renovation bills become foundation bill. This ended any chance for the foundation to survive with debt said to be over $1million. A final settlement was accepted after lawsuits were filed. There was no longer any financial obligation due to Winner by the foundation. As differences grew, it became clear to the Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation that the Foundation could no longer afford to rent or occupy Winners museum building. The Foundation was not able to provide for the museum and the foundation's past bills. It was left with no alternative other than to not renew the offered lease and find a new location. ===2002=== On June 14, 2002, The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation purchased the 1750-seat 1922 Columbia Theatre, an early Warner Brothers theater in Sharon. They moved all the foundation's memorability to storage and ended the lease in Winners building. The Foundation office relocated to the Columbia Theatre. The For- profit Vocal Group Hall of Fame Museum Company Inc. was closed. ==Inductions== The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation typically inducts sixteen Vocal Groups annually and has been delayed lacking the funding. Artists are inducted within categories. Each category has an original group member, evolved group member or a family member as an inductee representative. These categories include 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and duos. The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation releases a public ballot that allowed anyone to vote for both the nominees and the inductees. ==Categories== While only vocal groups having three-part harmony are eligible, other categories such as duos and Lead solo vocalists with a harmony group may be inducted if they have a legitimate backup harmony group with backing harmony singers. An example of this would be Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. ==Closure== The Vocal Group Hall of Fame public operations, including the theater and museum, have been closed and on hiatus since 2008 due to the lack of financial support. It continue its mission to establish and operate a museum attraction where the inductees meet and perform in support of the foundation. ==Columbia Theatre== On June 14, 2001, the Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation purchased the 1750-seat Columbia Theatre in Sharon "with the promise of grant funding to follow". The Commonwealth did have a multi-million dollar grant if the foundation could meet the match. Over twenty years after it was first created, the Foundation has not opened the attraction or receive adequate funding. Much is still needed to renovate, open and operated the foundation's attraction and become capable of raising funds on its own through benefit concerts at The Columbia Theatre. Meanwhile, the restoration of the theatre has stalled due to the lack of funding. A part of a new roof was installed and the plastering of the dome was completed to make a watertight shell. The Mercer County Correctional Facility and volunteers removed more than 100 tons of debris to help make the theater ready for renovation. In November 2004, the museum moved out of Winner's 3-story building and relocated to the Columbia Theatre. All of the Foundations memorabilia was moved to temperature-controlled storage waiting for its new home for display. The new location at Columbia Theatre was meant to serve both as The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation's central office and as the location for the annual induction ceremony. It was also intended to host benefit concerts to support the foundation and theatre. The museum was to move to a three-story restaurant building purchased by the foundation. The building was located adjacent to the theater. It would have the restaurant portion becoming a vocal group-themed museum, nightclub piano bar and bar and grill. ==Truth in Music Bill== The Truth in Music bill was created to protect artists from identity theft. Jon Bauman, chairmen of The Truth In Music Committee has worked with the VGHF. Along with Frank Maffei, bauman has had help from Joe Terry of Danny & The Juniors, Maxine Pinkney of Bill Pinkney, The Original Drifters, Veta & Carl Gardner of The Coasters, Herb Reed and Sonny Turner of The Platters and others. Bauman and Mary Wilson, with Bob Crosby at the foundation office, was able to assist other artists in an effort to protect the artist from fraudulent abuse. Wilson championed the Truth in Music bill for many years throughout the United States. With the help of The Recording Academy, she got Hawaii added to the list of states with the Truth In Music Bill as the 35th state to pass the bill also known as the Truth in Advertising Act. She was one of the best supporters of The Vocal Group Hall of Fame Foundation as Chair of the Artist Advisory Board and continued her support up until her death. The Truth In Music Bill has since been adopted by most U.S. states. It also helps ensure that people who perform in a group using a group's name must actually perform on one of the group's albums or has legal rights to use the name. The main beneficiaries are the surviving members of the Platters, The Coasters, The Drifters and the Marvelettes. These iconic groups had been victimized by Larry Marshak and other promoters of impostor groups. ==Hiatus== The VGHF has been on hiatus since 2008. The operating organization's plans to open in Los Angeles. The plans were once again delayed during the Covid-19 pandemic ==Inductees== ===1998–2002=== ;1998 *The Ames Brothers *The Andrews Sisters *The Beach Boys *The Boswell Sisters *Crosby, Stills & Nash *Clyde McPhatter & The (Original) Drifters *The Five Blind Boys of Mississippi *The Golden Gate Quartet *The Manhattan Transfer *The Mills Brothers *The Platters *The Ravens *Sonny Til & The Orioles *The Supremes ;1999 *The Coasters *The Delta Rhythm Boys *The Four Seasons *The Four Tops *Hank Ballard & The Midnighters *The Ink Spots *The Jackson Five *Little Anthony & The Imperials *The Modernaires *The Moonglows *Peter, Paul and Mary *The Revelers *The Spinners *The Temptations ;2000 *The Bangles *Ben E. King and The Drifters *Dion and The Belmonts *Dixie Hummingbirds *The Flamingos *Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers *The Kingston Trio *The Mamas & The Papas *The Skylarks *The Soul Stirrers *Three Dog Night ;2001 *Bee Gees *The Chordettes *Eagles *The Four Aces *The Four Freshmen *Gladys Knight and The Pips *The Lennon Sisters *The Lettermen *The McGuire Sisters *Michigan Jake *The Oak Ridge Boys *The Pied Pipers *Smokey Robinson and The Miracles *The Vogues *The Weavers ;2002 *ABBA *The Chantels *The Clovers *The 5th Dimension *The Five Keys *The Four Knights *The Harptones *Jay and The Americans *The Marcels *The Shirelles *The Skyliners *The Swan Silvertones ===2003–2007=== ;2003 *The Association *The Charioteers *The Commodores *Danny & The Juniors *Earth, Wind & Fire *The Five Satins *The Four Lads *The Impressions *The Isley Brothers *Martha & The Vandellas *The Merry Macs *Peerless Quartet *The Whispers ;2004 *Alabama *American Quartet *The Beatles *The Cadillacs *The Crests *The Dells *The Diamonds *The Doobie Brothers *The Everly Brothers *The Four Tunes *The Jordanaires *The Marvelettes *The O'Jays *The Penguins *The Ronettes *The Stylistics *The Tokens ;2005 *The Angels *The Brooklyn Bridge *The Chi-Lites *The Chiffons *The Crystals *The Del-Vikings *The Hilltoppers *The Mel-Tones *The Neville Brothers *The Pointer Sisters *The Rascals *The Righteous Brothers *Sons of the Pioneers *The Spaniels *The Tymes ;2006 *America *Billy Ward & The Dominoes *Bread *The Byrds *Deep River Boys *The Duprees *The Fleetwoods *Haydn Quartet *The Hi-Lo's *The Hollies *Journey *The Lovin' Spoonful *The Moody Blues *Queen *The Shangri-Las *Simon & Garfunkel ;2007 *The Capris (1960s) *The Chords (1950s) *The Dixie Cups (1960s) *The Five Red Caps (1940s) *The Four Preps (1950s) *Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs; The Gladiolas (1950s) *Harold Melvin & The Blue Notes (1970s) *The Hoboken Four (Pioneer Award) *The Jive Five (1960s) *Kool & The Gang (1970s) *The Monkees (1960s) *Ruby & The Romantics (1960s) *Sam & Dave (Duo Award) *Sly & The Family Stone (1960s) *Tony Orlando and Dawn (1970s) *The Traveling Wilburys (1980s) ==See also== * List of music museums * List of vocal groups ==References== Category:Music halls of fame Category:Halls of fame in Pennsylvania Category:Awards established in 1998 Category:Museums in Mercer County, Pennsylvania Category:Music museums in Pennsylvania Category:1998 establishments in the United States Category:Vocal ensembles Category:Sharon, Pennsylvania
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Kamloops Airport , also known as Fulton Field or John "Moose" Fulton Airfield, is a regional airport located west northwest of Kamloops, British Columbia, a city in the Thompson region of Canada. It is owned by the Kamloops Airport Authority Society, while operated by Kamloops Airport Limited, serving the North Okanagan, Nicola and Shuswap areas. Initial examination for the airport's construction began in June 1931, when the city leased from fruit- growing company BC Fruitlands. Along with an air show presentation, the airport publicly opened on August 5, 1939. It has and runways aligned 04/22 and 09/27, and served approximately 263,290 passengers in 2011. The airfield maintains a restaurant, The Bread Garden, as well as a medical facility, accommodation areas and administrative buildings; food and snacks are also offered. Its terminal, runway and navigation aids were expanded and upgraded by 2009. It has seen one accident throughout its history. The airport has daily scheduled flights to four destinations in Canada operated by Air Canada Express, Central Mountain Air and WestJet. The terminal handled 312,895 passengers in 2014, an increase of 7.2% over the 290,394 passengers in 2013. == History == Initial examination for constructing an airport in Kamloops began in June 1931, when the city leased from fruit-growing company BC Fruitlands. The airport's development started in 1936 and the gravel runway was completed in 1938. That same year, Kamloops acquired another , as well as land for airport use. The Department of Transport, now known as Transport Canada, granted money for airport development in 1939, with the airfield's runway finishing in that year. On April 13, 1939, an Aeronca aircraft made the first official landing on the runway. The airport was publicly opened on August 5, 1939, along with an air show presented at the structure itself with over 30 aircraft. – via Google News Archive Later that month, it was classified as a port of entry by the Canadian government. During World War II, additional activity occurred at the airport. In April 1942, Vancouver-based Gilbert Flight School transferred its service to Kamloops, as civil flights provided in British Columbia's Lower Mainland were canceled. In addition, the airport was used by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) as an alternate route for the no longer existent Air Transport Command (ATC) for flights to the Soviet Union. During the war Kamloops gained access to for further airport expansion, as well as the addition of taxi and apron services. However, after World War II, part of the airport's land were sold to Canada's Department of Agriculture, with the size reducing to . In May 1944, the Governor General of Canada at that time, Earl of Athlone, entitled the structure Fulton Field, in honor of John Fulton, a Wing Commander server born in Kamloops. This was confirmed by George H. Greer, the secretary of the Kamloops Board of Trade at the time. Throughout its history, a number of airlines have served it. Canadian Pacific Air Lines provided daily flights in 1950 connecting to the communities of Quesnel, Prince George, Williams Lake and Vancouver. By 1951, the airport founded and became headquarters of Central British Columbia Airways, which was later known as Pacific Western Airlines, but is no longer existent. However, the following year, its headquarters was transferred to Richmond's Vancouver International Airport. The federal Department of Transport regained rights to the airport in 1961, beginning an expansion program. The airfield saw its runways expand in 1963 and 1964. In 1966, Canadian Pacific Air Lines was serving the airport with a Vancouver – Kamloops – Prince George – Fort. St. John – Grande Prairie – Edmonton round trip flight operated with a Douglas DC-6B propliner six days a week and also a Kamloops – Williams Lake – Quesnel – Prince George round trip flown with a Douglas DC-3 six days a week as well with both of these services not operating on Sundays.http://www.timetableimages.com , April 24, 1966 Canadian Pacific Airlines system timetable The first air traffic controllers started working at Kamloops Airport in 1967. That year the airport served approximately 29,200 passengers. There had previously been proposals for relocating the airport due to low public visibility during the fall and winter seasons of a specific year. The move was never carried out because another location could not be found. Instead the airport was expanded by 1969. This saw its administrative buildings, offices, baggage area and coffee shop being improved, costing $85,000. Also by 1969, jet service had arrived at Kamloops as Pacific Western Airlines had begun nonstop Boeing 737-200 jetliner flights to Vancouver and Calgary with additional nonstop service to Vancouver being operated by the air carrier with Convair 640 turboprop aircraft which the airline called the "Javelin Jet-Prop".http://www.timetableimages.com , Sept. 28, 1969 Pacific Western Airlines system timetable= There was a flood threat close to the airport in 1972, while in the following year, the airfield's runways were extended. Obtaining 149,027 passengers by 1974, more considered the airport reliable, as it was improved with the addition of more general services. By 1975, Pacific Western Airlines was operating all flights into the airport with Boeing 727-200 and Boeing 737-200 jetliners with nonstop service to Vancouver, B.C. (YVR) and Calgary, AB (YYC) as well as direct, no change of plane service to other destinations in western Canada.http://www.departedflights.com , April 15, 1975 Official Airline Guide (OAG), Vancouver-Kamloops & Calgary-Kamloops flight schedules Kamloops Airport's telecommunication equipment was provided at a separate building in 1977, with 235,600 passengers garnered from it that same year. The airport saw the start of its runways and terminals expansion in 1982 and 1984, – via Google News Archive while the following year this was completed. In 1985, Pacific Western was operating all flights from the airport with Boeing 737-200 jetliners with nonstop service to Vancouver, Calgary, Cranbrook, Kelowna and Williams Lake. In addition, the airline was flying direct, no change of plane jet service to Edmonton Municipal Airport (YXD), Prince George, Saskatoon, Penticton and Quesnel with Pacific Western also offering connecting 737 service to Toronto, Winnipeg and Regina via Calgary and as well as connecting 737 service to Victoria and Seattle via Vancouver.http://www.departedflights.com , April 28, 1985 Pacific Western Airlines system timetable According to the April 28, 1985 Pacific Western system timetable, the airline was operating up to seven departures a day with 737 jets from the airport at this time. During 1986 and 1987, the former terminal building was changed to serve as an operation structure. Besides Pacific Western, Air BC and Time Air served the airport with scheduled passenger flights during the 1980s; all three airlines no longer exist. In 1988, the number of passengers dropped to 137,579. The runway has been used by a wide variety of jet and propeller aircraft over the years from Airbus 320, Boeing 727-200, Boeing 737-200, Boeing 737-400, Boeing 737-600, Boeing 737-700 and British Aerospace BAe 146-200 jetliners to Aeroncas, Aero Commander 500s, Cessna 150s and Grumman TBF Avengers since historical dates.McGrath (1992) – via Google News Archive A number of different aerial fire fighting airtanker aircraft have also used the airport including the Convair 580, Grumman S-2 Tracker and Lockheed L-188 Electra.http://www.airliners.net , photos of aircraft at Kamloops Airport On May 20, 2001, a U.S. Air Force C-32, which is a military version of the Boeing 757-200 and is used for U.S. government VIP flights, was present at the airport.http://www.airliners.net , photo of USAF C-32A aircraft at Kamloops Airport In 1995, the airport no longer had jet service to either Vancouver or Calgary with these services being operated instead with turboprop aircraft flown by Air BC operating as Air Canada Connector or by Time Air operating as Canadian Airlines Partner via respective code sharing agreements.http://www.departedflights.com , April 2, 1995 Official Airline Guide (OAG), Vancouver-Kamloops & Calgary-Kamloops flight schedules According to the April 2, 1995 edition of the Official Airline Guide (OAG), both airlines were flying de Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8 turboprops into the airport at this time with Air BC operating British Aerospace BAe Jetstream 31 commuter propjets as well. However, by 2009, the airport terminal, runway and navigation aids were upgraded with about $25 million, which was funded by the British Columbia government, who gave $4 million, the Canadian government, who gave $6.6 million and the airport itself for the remaining money and announced in 2007; $13 million was used to upgrade the runway, $3 million was used to expand the navigation aid, while $4 million was used for terminal improvements. The city's intention was to expand and upgrade the airport in order for the economy and tourism to expand. City mayor Peter Milobar and members of the Kamloops Indian Band praised its expansion. Its catchment area has a population of approximately 138,000 residents. Kelowna International Airport, an international airport operated in nearby city of Kelowna, has had a small impact on this airport, since they both share the same catchment area. About 13 percent of the local residents in 2007 choose the Kelowna International Airport over the Kamloops Airport to fly to regional destinations, specifically due to its significant growth. Despite this, some Kelowna residents choose the Kamloops Airport over their local airport. On May 17, 2020, a Canadair CT-114 Tutor plane from the Snowbirds, Canada's military flight demonstration squadron, crashed in Kamloops shortly after takeoff, injuring the pilot and killing a passenger. The largest aircraft to visit Kamloops was an RCAF Airbus CC-150 Polaris bringing in the investigators for the aforementioned crash. ==419 (City of Kamloops) Squadron== John Fulton is an alumnus of the class of 1929 at Kamloops Secondary High School. While growing up in Kamloops, he became enamored of flying. For a short while he tried banking, but he had a longing for something more. After only a year he abandoned banking and went down to the Boeing School of Aeronautics in Oakland, California. He was attracted to the military way of life and in 1934 travelled to England to join the Royal Air Force. In 1935 he received his commission as a Pilot Officer with a bomber transport squadron. He was deployed to Egypt and stayed there for just over two years. With the start of hostilities of World War II, he came back to England and flew with a bomber squadron. As the pace of operations intensified Fulton flew over twenty missions in three months. In September 1940 he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross; in January 1942 he received the Air Force Cross; and in August of the same year he also received the Distinguished Service Order. When the RCAF decided to organize its own 419 Squadron, the first senior officers were Canadians on loan from the RAF. Fulton was the first Commanding Officer. He enjoyed great popularity among the officers and men of the squadron. Indeed, his Squadron often referred to themselves as "Moosemen" after Fulton's nickname. On the night of August 2, 1942, the Squadron went to Hamburg. On the way home, Fulton's aircraft was set upon by enemy fighters. A single message was transmitted by the aircraft – "Wounded … fighters … five hundred feet." The aircraft was lost over the sea. The high esteem in which the men of No.419 Squadron held their missing leader was demonstrated by the adoption of his nickname as their own thus immortalizing the first commanding officer of "Moose" Squadron for all time. No. 419 was the only Canadian squadron to be named after a person. Today 419 Tactical Fighter (Training) Squadron conducts the NATO Flying Training Canada program for Canada, Denmark, Italy, Singapore and the Royal Air Force at 4 Wing in Cold Lake, Alberta. This program prepares future fighter pilots for training on CF-18 class aircraft. Members of the Squadron continue to refer to themselves as "Moosemen." On May 29, 1964, the Kamloops Airport was "Dedicated in Honour of Wing Commander John Fulton, D.S.O., D.F.C., A.F.C., and the men of the air service from Kamloops and District" by Major General Earl of Athlone K.G. Governor General of Canada. The airport now bears the additional title "Fulton Field." == Facilities == The airport is located on 3035 Airport Road in the Brocklehurst neighbourhood of north Kamloops, west northwest of city centre and Selkirk Mountains, situated off Tranquille Road on the Fraser Plateau. It is located north of the Canada–United States border and opposite the Kamloops Golf & Country Club and Kamloops Lake attractions, which is a lake and country club situated in the city. Paid parking, taxis, car rentals and bus service are available. Car rentals are provided by Budget Rent a Car, Enterprise Rent-A-Car and National Car Rental, which have offices located at the airport. There are 389 parking stalls, but 150 more spaces are expected. Due to its location, the airport is commonly used to gain access to Sun Peaks, British Columbia, and Sun Peaks Resort. Food and snacks are available at this airport's terminal, as well as a medical facility, accommodation areas and administrative buildings. – via Google News Archive There is also a Canada Revenue Agency and Nav Canada offices. Its terminal, which is , has been considered for further expansion, with the North Shore Business Improvement Association helping this expansion. The city's intention was to expand and upgrade the airport in order for the economy and tourism to expand. City mayor Peter Milobar and members of the Kamloops Indian Band praised its expansion. The airport's aircraft obtain their fuel from Shell Canada, which is located on site and serves as an aviation dealer for the Kamloops Airport. The airfield has and asphalt runways aligned 04/22 and 09/27, which are appraised every five years. Formerly known as the Kamloops Aero Club, the Kamloops Flying Club operates at the airport, which is a club where children receive a flight in an airplane with the pilot and learn about the airplanes themselves. In addition, the flight school Canadian Flight Centre is based on site; the branch based in Boundary Bay, Delta opened a location in Kamloops in May 2012 and uses Cessna aircraft for its lessons. Canadian Helicopters operates a training facility for the Kamloops Airport Other related facilities include Astaris Canada, CC Helicopters, Highland Helicopters and WestAir Aviation. Formerly, Flight Discovery operated as a flight school at the airport, but the owner was deemed a fraud artist. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) operates an A-Star helicopter at the airport, while the BC Forest Service occasionally uses the airfield with their helicopters. It maintains an aircraft maintenance centre, while aircraft parts are sold by Inland Communications, Mountainaire Services, Progressive Air Services, Pro Aero Engines, Spring Aviation and Westcan Aircraft Sales & Salvage. Meanwhile, packages can be delivered through FedEx at the Kamloops Airport, while custom and security services are provided by Canada Border Services Agency and Garda Security Screening. There is a radio navigation aid provided at the Kamloops Airport which is used by pilots on aircraft coming from other nearby airports to determine their location. The navigation system is owned by Nav Canada, which operate an air traffic control system at it. The Airside Business Park and Fulton Industrial Park are the airport's development areas. thumb|left|The airport's parking lot, which is used to gain access to its terminal that was expanded by 2009|alt=A local parking lot with a number of automobiles using the service; there is also a building of an airport, which contains its terminal. The local and upcoming weather of Kamloops is observed at this airport's weather station, referred to as the Kamloops Airport Weather Station. Nav Canada has noted that most of the aircraft winds near the Kamloops Airport blow east and west. It has been classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency. An aircraft at this airport may handle no more than 30 passengers. Skydiving can be performed at the airport through Skydive Kamloops. Passengers may also board a courtesy shuttle to other nearby municipalities, such as Blue River, British Columbia. It has a number of employees available, with Fred Legace serving as airport manager and a number of maintenance workers serving the airport; Ed Ratuski also manages it. The Kamloops Airport has been owned by a number of companies since its opening. It was initially owned by the RCAF, but later there was a proposal led the RCAF to transfer airport ownership to Kamloops itself, hence why the name was changed to the Kamloops Airport, although it is commonly referred to as Fulton Field or Fulton Airport. – via Google News Archive During the 1990s, Transport Canada, the owner at that time, began a program to transfer ownership of selected regional airports and the ownership of the Kamloops Airport was transferred to the then-new Kamloops Airport Authority Society by August 1997 which is a department of the Kamloops City Council and was composed of its members; it was deemed a commercial operation. Kamloops Airport Authority Society have a contract with the Vancouver Airport Authority, which allow them to manage and operate the airport. It is operated by Kamloops Airport Limited. == Airlines and destinations == As of 2012, Kamloops Airport offers scheduled flights to the Calgary International Airport and Vancouver International Airport, which are provided by Air Canada Express and operated by Jazz Air. In addition, Central Mountain Air flights are offered to the Prince George Airport, along with WestJet flights, which were added in November 2009, to the Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport; the latter has been serviced since January 2010. All of these flights are provided daily. Kamloops Airport has provided flights to several destinations by charter airlines as well, including the Denver International Airport, San Diego International Airport, San Jose International Airport and Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. In 2010, the airport garnered 36,094 aircraft movements, while in 2012, it served approximately 275,424 passengers, representing a 4.4 percent increase from the 2011 number of about 263,290 passengers. The majority of this increase occurred in December 2012, which the Canadian Flight Centre contributed to. ===Passenger=== ===Cargo=== ==Statistics== == See also == * Kamloops Water Aerodrome == References == === Footnotes === === Bibliography === # == External links == * * Kamloops Airport at the Canadian Owners and Pilots Association * Category:1939 establishments in British Columbia Category:Airports established in 1939 Category:Certified airports in British Columbia Category:Buildings and structures in Kamloops Category:Transport in Kamloops Category:Thompson-Nicola Regional District
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thumb|right|upright=1.35|December 19, 1912: The original "Star Spangled Banner" is donated to the Smithsonian The following events occurred in December 1912: ==Sunday, December 1, 1912== * Mohandas Gandhi began the practice of wearing traditional clothing from India, after meeting with his mentor in the Indian independence movement, Gopal Krishna Gokhale in South Africa. To that point, Gandhi had been a lawyer in Pretoria during his adult life, and had worn traditional Western clothing.Jad Adams, Gandhi: The True Man Behind Modern India (Open Road Media, 2011) * Hiram Bingham completed his first Peruvian expedition, during which he had discovered the Inca ruins at Machu Picchu, and departed Peru with 100 cases of artifacts and 700 photographs.Helen Delpar, Looking South: The Evolution of Latin Americanist Scholarship in the United States, 1850–1975 (University of Alabama Press, 2007) pp. 64-65"Record of Current Events", The American Monthly Review of Reviews (February 1913), pp. 163-167 * Benito Mussolini, as a member of the Italian Socialist Party, assumed the direction of the party's newspaper Avanti!. XXIII Legislatura del Regno d'Italia dal 24 marzo 1909 al 29 settembre 1913, Camera dei deputati, Portale storico (retrieved 28 May 2016) *Born:Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designer of the original World Trade Center; in Seattle (d. 1986) ==Monday, December 2, 1912== * General Uehara Yūsaku resigned as Japan's Minister of War after the rest of the cabinet refused to agree to increasing the army by an additional two divisions. Uyehera's departure preceded the resignation of the entire ministry.The Britannica Year-Book 1913: A Survey of the World's Progress Since the Completion in 1910 of the Encyclopædia Britannica] (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1913) pp. xli - xliii"Japanese Cabinet Crisis", New York Times, December 3, 1912 * The Archbishop Adolfo Alejandro Nouel was made President of the Republic of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic). * German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg told the Reichstag in a speech that Germany would go to war if Austria-Hungary was attacked by any other nation as a matter of defending Germany's future and security.Hew Strachan, The Outbreak of the First World War (Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 65 * Two rail lines opened in South Africa: a line of in length between Schoombee to Hofmeyr in Eastern Cape, and a line of in length between Ottery to Diep River in Cape Town.Statement Showing, in Chronological Order, the Date of Opening and the Mileage of Each Section of Railway, Statement No. 19, p. 187, ref. no. 200954-13 ==Tuesday, December 3, 1912== * At Çatalca, the government of Turkey signed an armistice with Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, but Greece did not participate."Greeks Refuse the Armistice; Others Sign It", New York Times, December 4, 1912 The ceasefire took effect at 7:00 pm local time, temporarily halting the fighting.Edward J. Erickson, Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003) p. 137 Part of the ceasefire was to hold a peace conference in London, but the discussions failed and hostilities would resume on February 3, 1913.John A. S. Grenville, The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts, Volume 1 (Taylor & Francis, 2001) pp. 49-50 * U.S, President William Howard Taft delivered his State of the Union Address to the United States Congress, focusing on expanding army and naval forces, including servicemen to man the proposed naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. * The impeachment trial of U.S. District Judge Robert W. Archbald began in the United States Senate. * Fifteen people were killed in a train wreck near Dresden, Ohio."Eight Die, 7 Hurt, in Rear-End Crash", New York Times, December 4, 1912 *Died: Alice Bunker Stockham, American physician, 79, fifth American woman to practice medicine (b. 1833) ==Wednesday, December 4, 1912== * The Marquis Saionji Kinmochi resigned as Prime Minister of Japan, and the other cabinet followed suit, after the ministers were unable to find a replacement for War Minister Uehara Yūsaku."Japanese Cabinet Out", New York Times, December 5, 1912 * Italy's Chamber of Deputies approved the peace treaty with Turkey 335-24."Italian Treaty Approved", New York Times, December 5, 1912 * American boxer Jack Johnson shocked much of America by marrying "outside his race" to white American Lucille Cameron. The two would divorce in 1924.Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (Oxford University Press, 2009) p. 165 * Cliff Sterrett's cartoon Polly and Her Pals made its debut in the New York Journal. * Born: Gregory "Pappy" Boyington, American Marine air force officer, commander of the "Black Sheep Squadron" in World War II; in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho (d. 1988) * Died: Archibald Gracie, 53, American writer and Titanic survivor, author of The Truth about the Titanic, died from health damage sustained while awaiting rescue in a lifeboat (b. 1858) ==Thursday, December 5, 1912== * The Triple Alliance agreement was renewed in Vienna between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.Hew Strachan, The Outbreak of the First World War (Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 65; "Triple Alliance Renewed", New York Times, December 8, 1912 * Persian religious leader ʻAbdu'l-Bahá completed the trip to the United States and Canada that had started with his arrival in New York City on April 11. Having introduced the Baháʼí Faith to North America, he departed from New York City on the steamer Celtic, bound for Liverpool.Janet Khan, Prophet's Daughter: The Life and Legacy of Bahiyyih Khanum, Outstanding Heroine of the Baha'i Faith (Baha'i Publishing Trust, 2005) p. 81; "Abdul Baha Sails Away", New York Times, December 6, 1912 * The United States Department of Justice dropped further antitrust proceedings against the American Sugar Refining Company. * Born: ** Keisuke Kinoshita, Japanese film director, known for films including Twenty-Four Eyes and Immortal Love, recipient of the Order of the Rising Sun; in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan (d. 1998) ** Kate Simon (pen name for Kaila Grobsmith), Polish-born American writer, known for her autobiographical writings such as Etchings in an Hourglass and travel writing including Renaissance Tapestry; in Warsaw (d. 1990) ** Sonny Boy Williamson (stage name for Aleck Miller), American blues musician, known for blues hits including "Don't Start Me Talkin'", "Checkin' Up on My Baby", and "Bring It On Home"; in Tutwiler, Mississippi (d. 1965) * Died: James Scott Mason, 39, British Governor of the North Borneo protectorate, was killed after falling from a horse (b. 1853) ==Friday, December 6, 1912== thumb|right|upright|December 6, 1912: Authentic bust of Egypt's Queen Nefertiti discovered after 32 centuries * In excavations at Tell al-Amarna in Egypt, the Nefertiti Bust was unearthed, intact, after a burial of 32 centuries. The team, led by a team led by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, discovered the limestone statue of the head and shoulders of the wife of the Pharaoh Akhenaten (who reigned 1353 BC to 1336 BC), while sifting through the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. Borchardt concluded that the statue had once set upon a wooden shelf, next to a similar bust of Akhenaten, until termite damage caused both objects to topple; and while the pharaoh's statue was shattered, Nefertiti's bust survived because it had happened to land, upside down, on its flat top.Joann Fletcher, The Search for Nefertiti: The True Story of an Amazing Discovery (HarperCollins, 2004) p. 60 * Count Terauchi Masatake, the Governor-General of Korea, was asked by the Emperor to form a new government as Prime Minister of Japan."Terauchi Japan's Premier", New York Times, December 7, 1912 * Vladimir, the Metropolitan of Moscow, was appointed President of the Russian Orthodox Synod and Metropolitan of Saint Petersburg as well. ==Saturday, December 7, 1912== * German-American banker Paul Warburg presented the blueprint, for what would become the Federal Reserve, for presentation to U.S. Congress and to U.S. President-elect Woodrow Wilson. The original plan, with twenty reserve banks under control of a central board, would be altered to 12 federal reserve banks after Warburg modified the Federal Reserve Act to accommodate the wishes of Congressman Carter Glass.Ron Chernow, The Warburgs: The Twentieth-Century Odyssey of a Remarkable Jewish Family (Random House Digital, 2012) * Hassan Riaz Pasha, the Turkish Governor of Scutari, refused to accept his nation's armistice and continued fighting the First Balkan War. * Born: Lewis S. Feuer, American philosopher, noted for his switch from Marxism to neoconservatism, author of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy; in New York City (d. 2002) * Died: George Darwin, 67, English astronomer and mathematician, recipient of the Royal Medal and Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, son of Charles Darwin (b. 1845) ==Sunday, December 8, 1912== * Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany convened a "War Council" at Potsdam, with his military leaders (General Helmuth von Moltke, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, and Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller) after receiving the news that the United Kingdom would join with France and Russia in the event of a European war. The outcome was to postpone plans for war with the Russian Empire until the near future, but to prepare the German public for an inevitable "racial war, the war of Slavdom against Germandom" in 1914 or 1915.Roderick R. McLean, Royalty and Diplomacy in Europe, 1890-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2007) p. 66 According to Major General Karl von Wenninger, who was present at the meeting, "Moltke wanted to launch an immediate attack" on France and the United Kingdom because it was the most favorable opportunity for winning, while Tirpitz persuaded a reluctant Kaiser that an attack should wait a year until construction of the U-boat pens at Heligoland and the widening of the Kiel Canal could be completed.John C. G. Röhl, Wilhelm II: Into the Abyss of War and Exile, 1900–1941 (Cambridge University Press, 2014) p. 910 * Turkish cavalry and artillery withdrew from Tripoli, which had been ceded to Italy. * The upper level of the Our Lady of Mount Carmel's Church opened in The Bronx, New York City.Remigius Lafort, S.T.D., Censor, The Catholic Church in the United States of America: Undertaken to Celebrate the Golden Jubilee of His Holiness, Pope Pius X. Volume 3: The Province of Baltimore and the Province of New York, Section 1: Comprising the Archdiocese of New York and the Diocese of Brooklyn, Buffalo and Ogdensburg Together with some Supplementary Articles on Religious Communities of Women.. (New York City: The Catholic Editing Company, 1914), p.390. *Born: Jean Garrigue (pen name for Gertrude Louise Garrigus), American poet, noted contributor of Five Young American Poets; in Evansville, Indiana (d. 1972) ==Monday, December 9, 1912== * The Greek submarine Delfin made the first torpedo attack in modern warfare, after sighting the Turkish cruiser Medjidieh and five escort ships. Lt. Commander Paparrigopoulos ordered the firing of the underwater missile from a distance of 500 meters, but the torpedo "did not run properly and sank"."Greece: DELFIN class submarines", in Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906-1921 (Volume 2), by Randal Gray and Przemyslaw Budzbon (Naval Institute Press, 1985) p. 387 * General Moritz von Auffenberg resigned as the War Minister of Austria, and was succeeded the next day by Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf."Ignore Armistice; Fighting Resumed", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 10, 1912, p. 1 * Prince Louis of Battenberg, who would later anglicize his name to Louis Mountbatten, was appointed as the new British First Sea Lord.Spencer Tucker, European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (Taylor & Francis, 1999) p. 495 * Governor General of Canada Prince Arthur opened the new building for the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. *Born: ** Thomas P. "Tip" O'Neill, American politician, Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives 1977 to 1987; in Cambridge, Massachusetts (d. 1994) ** George Balabushka, Russian-born American designer, known for his high-end cue stick design for billiards (d. 1975) ** Denis Glover, New Zealand poet and publisher, co-founder of Caxton Press; in Dunedin (d. 1980) ==Tuesday, December 10, 1912== * Austria-Hungary issued a general mobilization to all of its military men and reservists all over the world in anticipation of war."Austria Mobilizes Army of Kingdom", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 11, 1912, p. 1 * The Turkish infantry departed Tripoli, completing its surrender of the Libyan territory to Italy. * Born: ** Philip Hart, American politician, U.S. Senator from Michigan from 1959 to 1976; in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania (d. 1976) ** Tetsuji Takechi, Japanese theatrical and film director, noted for his modern interpretations of traditional Japanese theatre and adaptations for television and erotic films Women... Oh, Women! and Daydream; in Osaka (d. 1988) ==Wednesday, December 11, 1912== * Roland Garros of France set a new altitude record of 18,670 feet at Tunis. * Born: Carlo Ponti, Italian film producer, known for films including La Strada, Doctor Zhivago, and Blowup, husband to Sophia Loren; in Magenta, Lombardy (d. 2007) ==Thursday, December 12, 1912== * U.S. Representative Charles Calvin Bowman of Pennsylvania was unseated by a 153-118 vote of his fellow House Congressmen, who concluded that he had used corrupt practices to be elected in 1910. Bowman still had almost three months left in his term, which would expire March 4. Bowman's Democratic opponent, George R. McLean, was also denied a seat by a 181-88 margin, because the majority concluded that he was guilty of the same practices as Bowman."Bowman Is Ousted from House Seat", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 13, 1912, p. 1 * Eduard Müller was elected President of the Swiss Confederation. * Off of the coast of Port Arthur, Texas, a sudden storm in the Gulf of Mexico killed all 10 of the crew of Standard Oil's Barge Number 87, and two British freighters, the Impoco and Hainaut, with another 36 people on board."Perished in Storm— Oil Barge Tears from Tow and Turns Turtle Off Port Arthur — Gale Sweeps Gulf of Mexico and the Death List May Reach Fifty", Los Angeles Times, December 16, 1912, p. 1 * Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, passed away at the age of 91. Luitpold had been the de facto ruler of Bavaria since 1886 because of the mental illness of his nephew, King Ludwig II. Luitpold's son, Prince Ludwig of the House of Wittelsbach, succeeded to the regency and would later become King Ludwig III. * The Apostolic Vicariate of Kivu was established by the White Fathers Catholic mission around Lake Kivu in what is now present-day Burundi and Rwanda. It eventually became the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gitega in 1959. * Born: Henry Armstrong, American boxer, 19-time World Welterweight champion; in Columbus, Mississippi (d. 1988) * Died: Susan Tolman Mills, 87, American academic, co-founder of Mills College, the first women's college west of the U.S. Rocky Mountains (b. 1826) ==Friday, December 13, 1912== * By executive order, outgoing U.S. President William Howard Taft established National Petroleum Reserve No. 2 (NPR-2), at the Buena Vista Hills in Kern County, California, south of Reserve No. 1."Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves", in Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry, Marius Vassiliou (Scarecrow Press, 2009) p. 332 * Antitrust proceedings were filed in the United States against the "candy trust". * Born: Luiz Gonzaga, Brazilian musician, promoter of baião music; in Exu, Pernambuco(d. 1989) * Died: Yūjirō Motora, 54, Japanese psychologist, noted for his research in experimental psychology with G. Stanley Hall at Johns Hopkins University, died of an infection from erysipelas. (b. 1858) ==Saturday, December 14, 1912== * General Louis Botha resigned as Prime Minister of South Africa."Botha Resigns as Premier", New York Times, December 15, 1912 * The United States Senate voted to approve the construction of a $2,000,000 memorial to Abraham Lincoln at West Potomac Park in Washington, D.C. * Lieutenant Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis died in Antarctica, after falling into a crevasse whilst on an expedition with explorer Douglas Mawson. Ninnis had been guiding six dogs who were pulling the sledge carrying much of the party's supplies, including most of their food, their tent, and spare clothing, when the ice gave way. Looking into the pit, Mawson and Dr. Xavier Mertz saw a dog about 150 feet below, and an even deeper abyss beyond, but nothing else. Mawson and Mertz were left with a ten-day supply of food and still had 315 miles to cover at the time of the accident. * South Africa beat Wales 3-0 in a rugby union test match in Cardiff during their European tour.South Africa tour, 1912-13|Match results on ESPN Scrum * Born: Alfred Lennon, English sailor and musician, father to John Lennon; in Liverpool (d. 1976) ==Sunday, December 15, 1912== * Whitelaw Reid, the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, died suddenly "after an illness which began hardly more than a fortnight ago and the serious nature of which had become apparent hardly more than a few hours before his death.""Whitelaw Reid Dies in London— American Ambassador to Great Britain Succumbs at His Post After Illness of Less Than a Week", New York Tribune, December 16, 1912, p. 1"Whitelaw Reid Has Journeyed into the Beyond", Atlanta Constitution, December 16, 1912, p1 Reid was mourned in both nations, as the United Kingdom's King George and U.S. President William Howard Taft issued statements."Pays Toll to Charon— Whitelaw Reid Joins Honored Dead", Los Angeles Times, December 16, 1912, p1 * American aviator Tony Jannus set a mark for "the longest hydro- aeroplane flight on record", landing in New Orleans at 8:30 in the evening hours after he and his passenger had taken off from Omaha, Nebraska, on a journey of . Jannus fared better than other aviators that day, as the wreckage of Horace Kearny's hydro-aeroplane flyer was found in the Pacific Ocean, 30 hours after he and his newspaper reporter passenger had gone missing during an attempt to fly from Los Angeles to San Francisco."They Tried To Fly and Are Corpses; Tony Janus Flies and Still Lives"; Atlanta Constitution, December 16, 1912, p. 1 * Newspaper readers across the United States were hoaxed by an Associated Press story with the dateline "Keokuk, Ia., Dec. 14" that began "A human hand protruding from tons of cement, the frames of which were removed several days ago, was found today in one of the concrete pillars of the government dam across the Mississippi, and explains the disappearance several weeks ago of one of the laborers. The man's body is imbedded (sic) in the solid concrete and is likely to stay there, as to blast it out would destroy not only the body but a great part of one of the largest blocks of cement composing the dam.""Imbedded in Concrete— Hand Protruding From Mass Explains Disappearance of Workman on Dam at Keokuk, Ia.", Boston Globe, December 15, 1912, p. 1"See Human Hand Protruding From Tons of Cement", Buffalo Sunday News, December 15, 1912, p. 25"Man's Body Found Embedded in Dam", Des Moines Register, December 15, 1912, p. 1 The "news" was a surprise to the residents of Keokuk, Iowa; the paper there would write two days later that the AP "sent out a weird story of horror said to have occurred on the great dam here," and commented "The press association put a Keokuk date line on the thing deliberately and with full knowledge that it did not emanate from Keokuk, Ia." after picking up the fake news from a St. Louis newspaper and changing the details."The Champion Faker", Daily Gate City (Keokuk, Iowa), December 17, 1912, p. 4 * The German silent film drama Das Mirakel was released by Continental-Kunstfilm in New York City. The film has been the subject of many copyright litigations as it adapted the 1911 play The Miracle without the permission of playwright Karl Vollmöller.Film-Kurier, 2 March 1921 (in German) * Born: Bernice "Ray" Eames, American designer, co-creator with her husband Charles Eames of the Eames House and the Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond exhibit at the California Museum of Science and Technology (b. d 1988) * Died: Thomas Charles Scanlen, 78, South African politician, third Prime Minister of Britain's Cape Colony in South Africa, from 1881 to 1884 (b. 1834) ==Monday, December 16, 1912== * The Balkan Peace Conference was opened at St. James's Palace in London by Secretary of Foreign Affairs Edward Grey.Deniz Bolukbasi, Turkey and Greece: The Aegean Disputes (Routledge, 2004) p. 26 On the same day, the navies of Greece and Turkey fought a battle at the entrance of the Bosporus strait. The Turkish fleet, with 4 battleships, 9 destroyers and 6 torpedo boats opened fire on a Greek battleship squadron which arrived from the island of Imbros. The Greek fleet retaliated ten minutes later, sending the Turkish ships in retreat, and the battle ended at 10:30 am, forty minutes after it began. The Greeks sustained 8 casualties and no major damage, while the Turks lost 58 killed and wounded.Zisis Fotakis, Greek Naval Strategy and Policy 1910-1919 (Routledge, 2005) p. 50 * Shinano Railway extended the Ōito Line in the Nagano Prefecture, Japan, with station Itoigawa serving the line. * A narrow gauge rail line of in length opened between Bergrivier to Vredenburg, Western Cape, South Africa. ==Tuesday, December 17, 1912== * The Franco-Spanish treaty of Morocco was approved by the Spanish Chamber of Deputies, 216-22. * Kamoun the self-described Sultan of Dar-al-Kuti in what is now the Central African Republic, was defeated by the French Army after nearly two years of defying France and its control of Ouanda DjalléPierre Kalck, Historical Dictionary Of The Central African Republic (Scarecrow Press, 2005) p. 110 * Born: Edward Short, British politician, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party 1972 to 1976, Secretary of State for Education and Science for the Harold Wilson administration 1968-1970; in Warcop, Cumbria (d. 2012) * Died: "Common", 24, English racehorse who won the English Triple Crown in 1891 (b. 1888) ==Wednesday, December 18, 1912== thumb|right|upright|December 18, 1912: Fake prehistoric "missing link" Eoanthropus dawsoni presented to British scientists * A mine explosion at Achenbach, near Dortmund, Germany, killed 25 people and injured 15."German Miners Killed", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 19, 1912, p. 1 * The United States House of Representatives passed the Burnett immigration bill, barring any immigrants who were over 16 and illiterate, 178-52. Although the bill would pass the United States Senate as well, U.S. President William Howard Taft would veto it and the House would fail to override it. * Piltdown Man, thought to be the fossilized skull of a hitherto unknown form of early human, was presented to the Geological Society of London. Dr. A.S. Woodard told a reporter, "That this skull, representing a hitherto unknown species, is the missing link, I have no doubt.""Man Had Reason Before He Spoke",New York Times, December 20, 1912"Darwin Theory Is Proved True", New York Times, December 22, 1912 In 1953, the Piltdown Man would be revealed to be a hoax. * Roland Garros became the first person to fly an airplane across the Mediterranean Sea, traveling 160 miles from Tunis to Sicily. * The India National Missionary Conference convened in Calcutta, where it established a committee to propose literature reflecting Christian principles that could be shared and accepted in India. * Born: Benjamin O. Davis Jr., American air force officer, first African-American to become (in 1998) a four-star general in the United States Air Force; in Washington, D.C. (d. 2002). His father, then First Lt. Benjamin O. Davis Sr., would become (in 1940) the first African-American general in the United States Army. * Died: ** Will Carleton, 67, American poet known for poetry collections including A Thousand Thoughts with Index of Subjects (b. 1845) ** J. Cheever Goodwin, 60, American playwright, known for his musical comedies including Evangeline, The Merry Monarch, and Panjandrum (b. 1850) ==Thursday, December 19, 1912== * The United States warned rebel leaders in the Republic of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) not to take action against the new government, or it would intervene. * U.S. President William Howard Taft, in his final three months in office, asked Congress to give seats, though not votes, to members of the presidential cabinet. Congress then adjourned without taking up the idea, and Taft departed for a visit to Panama.Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (W. W. Norton & Company, 1969) p. 754 * Japanese Army Captains Yoshitoshi Tokugawa and Kumazo Hino became the first military pilots in Japan, with Hino flying a German Grade monoplane for 1,200 meters and Tokugawa flying for four minutes in a French Farman biplane.Akira Yoshimura, Zero Fighter (Greenwood Publishing, 1996) p. 7 * William H. Van Schaick, who had been the captain of the steamboat General Slocum when a fire on the ship killed over 1,000 passengers in 1904, was paroled from New York's Sing Sing prison after serving three and one half years. He would be pardoned on Christmas Day by U.S. President William Howard Taft.Fran Capo, Myths and Mysteries of New York: True Stories of the Unsolved and Unexplained (Globe Pequot, 2011) p. 169 * The Federal University of Paraná was established in Curitiba, Brazil. * "The flag that inspired the American national anthem", flown over Fort McHenry in 1814 during the Battle of Baltimore, was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. Francis Scott Key had written about the flag of 15 stars and 15 stripes in his poem ""Defence of Fort M'Henry", and the melody of "To Anacreon in Heaven" was adapted to turn the poem into "The Star- Spangled Banner". The descendants of the commander of Fort McHenry, Major George Armistead, had loaned the flag to the Institution in 1907, before making a gift of it.Our Flag (Government Printing Office, 2007) p. 44 * Died: Thomas Brennan, 59, Irish activist, co-founder of the Irish National Land League (b. 1853) ==Friday, December 20, 1912== * Greek forces captured Korytsa in the Ottoman-held territory of what is now present-day Albania.The Balkan Wars 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War p. 83 * Twenty-two of the 27 people on the British steamer Florence were killed off of the coast of Cape Race, Newfoundland."Twenty Two Die in Steamer Wreck", New York Times, December 23, 1912 * General Louis Botha returned as Prime Minister of South Africa and formed a new cabinet. * J. H. Logue, a Chicago diamond merchant, was brutally murdered in his office in midday. Logue was gagged, stabbed 17 times, shot in his right shoulder, had his skull crushed, had part of his right thumb severed, and had his mouth burned with acid. The killing was believed to have been revenge for Logue's prosecution of diamond thieves in 1905 and 1906."Diamond Merchant Slain in Chicago", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 21, 1912, p1 Five men and four women were arrested the next day in connection with the killing."Nine Persons Held in Logue Murder", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 22, 1912, p. 1 * A rail line of in length opened between Melk to Motkop, Western Cape, South Africa. ==Saturday, December 21, 1912== * Norway, Sweden and Denmark jointly proclaimed their neutrality, refusing to favor either side in a European war.Natalino Ronzitti, The Law of Naval Warfare: A Collection of Agreements and Documents With Commentaries (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988) p. 839 * Prince Katsura Tarō was appointed as the new Prime Minister of Japan.Klaus Schlichtmann, Japan in the World: Shidehara Kijūrō, Pacifism, and the Abolition of War (Lexington Books, 2009) p. 224 * Moroccan rebels attacked French Army forces at Dar-el-Kadi, near Mogador, Morocco. * U.S. President William Howard Taft departed the United States on board the new battleship USS Arkansas for a visit to the Panama Canal. * The first full-color film, The Miracle, premiered at the Royal Opera House in London. Produced by Joseph Menchen and directed by Michel-Antoine Carré, each film panel was hand-painted to achieve the full-color effect. The film became a major hit and was showcased around Europe in 1913. ==Sunday, December 22, 1912== * A group of 80 actors and actresses in New York City's theaters gathered to form a labor union, the American Federation of Actors, which in 1913 would incorporate as the Actors' Equity Association."Actors' Equity", in The Routledge Guide to Broadway, Ken Bloom, ed. (CRC Press, 2006) p. 3; Estelle May Stewart, Handbook of American Trade-Unions (Government Printing Office, 1929) p. 197 * Born: Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the United States from 1963 to 1969; as Claudia Alta Taylor, in Karnack, Texas (d. 2007) ==Monday, December 23, 1912== * The Viceroy of India, Lord Hardinge, was wounded in an assassination attempt, when a bomb was thrown at him as he was arriving in Delhi. Hardinge's attendant was killed in the explosion."Assassin Attacks Viceroy of India", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 24, 1912, p. 1 Hardinge was being brought to the capital on an elephant as part of the arrival ceremony, when a bomb was thrown at him from a housetop. Debris struck his right shoulder. Hardinge's attendant, Jamadar Mahabir Singh was killed, and 20 people were injured. Four people (Amir Ali, Avadh Behari, Bal Mukund, and Basanta Kumar Biswas (who threw the bomb) were later executed for the attack, but the mastermind behind the plot, Rash Behari Bose, escaped to Japan where he would live the rest of his life, dying in 1945.P. N. Chopra, A Comprehensive History of India (Volume 3) (Sterling Publishers, 2003) p. 207 * The completion of heightening of the Aswan Dam was celebrated in a ceremony attended by Lord Kitchener and the Khedive of Egypt.Trevor Turpin, Dam (Reaktion Books, 2008) p. 87 * Twenty-two people were killed when two British steamers collided in the Gulf of Mexico. * Ohannes Bey Kouyoumjian, an Armenian Catholic, was appointed as the Turkish Governor of Lebanon. * Born: Anna J. Harrison, American chemist, first woman to serve as President of the American Chemical Society; in Benton City, Missouri (d. 1998) * Died: ** Édouard Detaille, 64, French artist, known for military paintings including The Defense of Champigny (b. 1848) ** Otto Schoetensack, 62, German anthropologist, oversaw the discovery of homo heidelbergensis (b. 1850) ** Lotten von Kræmer, 86, Swedish writer and activist, founder of the literary society of Samfundet De Nio and co-founder of the National Association for Women's Suffrage (b. 1828) ==Tuesday, December 24, 1912== * An assassination attempt was made against Prince Yamagata Aritomo, the former Prime Minister of Japan. * Merck filed patent applications in Germany for synthesis of the entactogenic drug MDMA (Ecstasy), developed by Anton Köllisch. * Lithuanian sculptor William Zorach married American painter Marguerite Thompson in New York City. The couple also became major collaborators in promoting modenist art in the United States, starting with Armory Show the following year. * Sunnyvale, California, was incorporated as a town in Santa Clara County. The future Silicon Valley home of technology companies, including Yahoo!, originally had 1,200 people, and would have over 140,000 a century later.Ben Koning, Images of America: Sunnyvale (Arcadia Publishing, 2011) p. 88 * Died: Lottie Moon, 72, American missionary who led the Southern Baptist mission to China (b. 1840) ==Wednesday, December 25, 1912== * The Turkoman Revolt began. * Fifteen minutes after U.S. President William Howard Taft was driven down a street during his visit to Panama, a dynamite blast wrecked the street in Colón. No group claimed responsibility, but one report noted that "it is generally believed that the act was committed with a view to taking the life of the president and that the plot only failed because of some miscalculation in the arrangements.""Street Dynamited as Taft Passes", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 26, 1912, p. 1 * The first pro- independence organization in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), the Indische Partij, was founded by Ernest Douwes Dekker, an "Indo" with "a Dutch father and a German-Javanese mother", and Indonesian physicians Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soewardi Soerjaningrat.John Nery, Revolutionary Spirit: Jose Rizal in Southeast Asia (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011) p. 114 * After a vote of censure by the Peruvian Senate, Elías Malpartida resigned as Prime Minister of Peru. * Margaret Hatch, 40, a nationally known vaudeville actress, suffered a heart attack on stage while performing at a theater in Stamford, Connecticut, and died minutes later."Vaudeville Actress Dies", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 26, 1912, p. 1 * Born: Natalino Otto (stage name for Natale Codognotto), Italian singer credited for developing swing music; in Cogoleto (d. 1969) ==Thursday, December 26, 1912== * Mexican revolutionary leader Pancho Villa was able to escape from the military prison of Santiago Tlatelolco, with the help of a sympathetic employee, and fled to the United States, where he hid in El Paso, Texas.John Reed, Insurgent Mexico (International Publishers, 1914) p. 15 * The Danish steamer Volmer encountered a gale in the English Channel, where waves killed 13 of the 15 crew after they escaped in lifeboats. The ship's captain and a sailor were the only survivors."Steamer Sunk, 13 Drowned", New York Times, December 27, 1912 * Raymond Poincaré declared his intention to run for President of France. * U.S. Senator-elect William Howard Thompson of Kansas suffered severe burns while "playing Santa for a houseful of children" in Garden City, Kansas."Senatorial Santa Singed", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 27, 1912, p. 1 * The New Theatre opened in Manchester, later renamed Opera House in 1920. * The St. James Theatre opened in Wellington.McGill, D. 1998. Full Circle: The History of the St. James Theatre. Phantom House Books. . * Born: Arsenio Lacson, Filipino politician, Mayor of Manila 1952 to 1962, in Talisay, Negros Occidental (d. 1962) ==Friday, December 27, 1912== * George Washington Donaghey, outgoing Governor of Arkansas, "accomplished through executive action what forty years of protests and duplicitous legislation had failed to do"Matthew J. Mancini, One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866-1928 (University of South Carolina Press, 1996) p. 130 toward ending the practice of convict leasing in his state. Although Donaghey had not been able to persuade the state legislature to ban the system of the state prisons selling the use of inmates to private companies as unpaid workers, he had lobbied for the early parole of prisoners who had committed minor offenses, and in a single day, pardoned 360 other convicts of their crimes, freeing them prison and from slave labor. The legislature ended the practice the next year.Timothy Paul Donovan and Willard B. Gatewood, The Governors of Arkansas: Essays in Political Biography (University of Arkansas Press, 1995) p. 137 * Former French Prime Minister Alexandre Ribot began his run for office as President of France. * Born: Conroy Maddox, British painter, member of the Birmingham Surrealists; in Ledbury, Herefordshire (d. 2005) ==Saturday, December 28, 1912== * Rudolf Steiner founded the Anthroposophical Society in Cologne, breaking away from the Theosophical Society.Sergei O. Prokofieff, Eternal Individuality: Towards a Karmic Biography of Novalis (Temple Lodge Publishing, 1992) pp. 141-142 * Japanese Government Railways extended the Echigo Line in the Niigata Prefecture, Japan, with stations Myōhōji and Jizodo serving the line. JR East Station information ==Sunday, December 29, 1912== * Alexander Alexandrovich Makarov resigned as Russia's Minister of the Internal Affairs. * Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah was ordained at St. Paul's Cathedral in Calcutta at the first Anglican bishop in India. * A fire destroyed the oldest house in Rhode Island.Newport By Rob Lewis (Arcadia Publishing, 1996) * Died: Philip H. Cooper, 68, American naval officer, Rear Admiral of the United States Navy and former Commander of the Asiatic Fleet (b. 1844) ==Monday, December 30, 1912== * The First Balkan War ended temporarily as the Balkan League nations —Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia — signed an armistice with Turkey. * Future U.S. presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson, 12 years old at the time, accidentally shot and killed a family friend, 16-year-old Ruth Merwin, during a party at his home in Bloomington, Illinois."KILLED IN STEVENSON HOME: Girl Shot Accidentally by Former Vice President's Grandson", New York Times, December 31, 1912 * German Foreign Minister Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter, 50, died suddenly while visiting his sister during the Christmas holiday in Stuttgart."High German Official Dies during Vacation", Milwaukee Sentinel, December 30, 1912, p. 1 * The town of Carnation, Washington (now a suburb of Seattle) was incorporated as the town of "Tolt, Washington" (for Tolthue, the Snoqualmie Indian name for the area). It would change its name to Carnation, not for the flower, but in honor with of the Carnation Evaporated Milk Company in 1917, then back to Tolt in 1928 but, because the train depot and the post office did not change their names, the town would become "Carnation" again in 1951."Carnation/Tolt — Thumbnail History", by Alan J. Stein, HistoryLink.org * Born: **Peggy Glanville-Hicks, Australian composer; in Melbourne (d. 1990) **Pasha Angelina, Russian machinist, credited as one of the first educated skilled worker in the Soviet Union, three-time recipient of the Order of Lenin; in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (d. 1959 ==Tuesday, December 31, 1912== * China defaulted on its payment under the Boxer Indemnity Agreement, arising from damages to the eight powers during the Boxer Rebellion. * Álvaro de Figueroa became the new Prime Minister of Spain. * Former Venezuelan President Cipriano Castro was detained at Ellis Island pending a ruling as to whether he was an undesirable alien. * The Royal Navy had 16 aircraft in service - eight biplane landplanes, five monoplane landplanes, and three "hydro-aeroplanes."Thetford, Owen, British Naval Aircraft Since 1912, Sixth Edition, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1991, , p. 10. * The first luxury hotel to bear the name Ritz-Carlton in North America opened with a New Year's Eve gala in Montreal. * The final edition of the German language newspaper Deutsche Zeitung was published in Valdivia, Chile. ==References== ==External links== 1912 *1912-12 *1912-12
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Bhaktamara Stotra is a famous Jain Sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Acharya Manatunga (7th century CE). The name Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two Sanskrit names, "Bhakta" (Devotee) and "Amar" (Immortal). thumb|Illustrative of Rishabhanatha, Folio Bhaktamara Stotra The prayer praises Rishabhanatha (adinath), the first Tirthankara of Jainism in this time cycle. There are 48 verses in total. The last verse gives the name of the author Manatunga. Bhaktamar verses have been recited as a stotra (prayer), and sung as a stavan (hymn), somewhat interchangeably. Other Jain prayers have taken after these (such as the Kalyānamandira stotra, devoted to the twenty- third tirthankara, and the Svayambhu stotra, to all twenty-four); additional verses here praise the omniscience of Adinatha,The A to Z of Jainism, Svayambhu Stotra: Adoration of the Twenty-four Tirthankara, while devotionals are considered a source for lay understandings of Jain doctrine. ==Legend== According to legends, Manatunga Āchārya was chained and imprisoned by the local King Bhoj. Manatunga Āchārya composed this stotra (hymn) in the prison. With the completion of each verse, a chain broke, or a door opened. Manatunga was free when all the verses were finished. ==History== Bhakamara Stotra was composed by Manatunga in 6th century CE. Legends associate Manatunga with a ruler named Bhoja. However Manatunga probably lived a few centuries before Raja Bhoja of Dhara. He is identified by some scholars as Kshapanaka, one of the Navaratnas in the court of legendary Vikramaditya. An unidentified Sanskrit poet Matanga, composer of "Brahaddeshi" on music theory, may also have been the same person. Bhaktamara stotra was composed sometime in the Gupta or the post-Gupta period, making Manatunga approximately contemporary with other navaratnas like Kalidasa and Varahamihira. Several spots near Bhopal and Dhar are traditionally associated with Manatunga. ==Verses== Bhaktamara Stotra is believed to be at least a thousand years old, though many believe it to be still older. Bhaktamara Stotra has been passed down from generation to generation. It is an ageless panegyric. The importance and effectiveness is believed to have increased with the passage of time. Bhaktamara Stotra is recited by many with religious regularity. The original Stotra is in Sanskrit. The Bhaktamar Stotra had 52 stanzas earlier but because of their power they were removed and now there are 48 stanzas at present. Every stanza has four parts. Every part has 14 letters. The complete panegyric is formed by 2688 letters. It is said that some specific stanzas are miraculously effective for fulfilment of different purposes. 1.भक्तामर - प्रणत - मौलि - मणि -प्रभाणा- मुद्योतकं दलित - पाप - तमो - वितानम्। सम्यक् -प्रणम्य जिन - पाद - युगं युगादा- वालम्बनं भव - जले पततां जनानाम् Bhaktamar pranat maulimaniprabhanam muddyotakam dalita pap tamovitanam.Samyak pranamya jin pad yugam yugada- valambanam bhavajale patataam jananam. Having duly bowed down at the feet of Bhagwan Adinath, the first Tirthankar, the divine glow of his nails increases luster of jewels of their crowns. Mere touch of his feet frees the beings from sins. He who submits himself at these feet is saved from taking birth again and again. I offer my respectful salutations at the feet of Bhagavan Adinath, the propagator of religion at the beginning of this era. 2.य: संस्तुत: सकल - वाङ् मय - तत्त्व-बोधा- दुद्भूत-बुद्धि - पटुभि: सुर - लोक - नाथै:। स्तोत्रैर्जगत्- त्रितय - चित्त - हरैरुदारै:, स्तोष्ये किलाहमपि तं प्रथमं जिनेन्द्रम् Yah samstutah sakala vaangmaya tatva bodhaat dudbhuta buddhi patubhih suraloka naathaih. Stotrair jagattri taya chitta harairudaaraih stoshye kilahamapi tam prathamam jinendram. The Lords of the Gods, with profound wisdom, have eulogized Bhagavan Adinath with Hymns bringing joy to the audience of three realms (heaven, earth and hell). I shall offer my obeisance in my endeavour to eulogize that first Tirthankar. 3.बुद्ध्या विनापि विबुधार्चित - पाद - पीठ! स्तोतुं समुद्यत - मतिर्विगत - त्रपोऽहम्। बालं विहाय जल-संस्थित-मिन्दु-बिम्ब- मन्य: क इच्छति जन: सहसा ग्रहीतुम् Buddhya vinaapi vibudharchita padapitha stotum samudyata matirvigata trapoaham. Balam vihaya jala samsthitam indu bimbam manyah ka ichchhati janah sahasa grahitum. Shameless I am, O God, as a foolish child takes up an inconceivable task of grabbing the disc of the moon reflected in water, out of impertinence alone, I am trying to eulogize a great soul like you. 4.वक्तुं गुणान्गुण -समुद्र ! शशाङ्क-कान्तान्, कस्ते क्षम: सुर - गुरु-प्रतिमोऽपि बुद्ध्या । कल्पान्त -काल - पवनोद्धत- नक्र- चक्रं , को वा तरीतुमलमम्बुनिधिं भुजाभ्याम् Vaktum gunan gunasamudra shashankakantan kaste kshamah suraguru pratimoapi buddhya. Kalpanta kala pavanoddhata nakra chakram ko va taritum alam ambunidhim bhujabhyam. O Lord, you are the ocean of virtues. Can even Brihaspati, the teacher of gods, with the help of his infinite wisdom, narrate your virtues spotless as the moonbeams? (certainly not.) Is it possible for a man to swim across the ocean full of alligators, lashed by gales of deluge? (certainly not). 5.सोऽहं तथापि तव भक्ति - वशान्मुनीश! कर्तुं स्तवं विगत - शक्ति - रपि प्रवृत्त:। प्रीत्यात्म - वीर्य - मविचार्य मृगी मृगेन्द्रम् नाभ्येति किं निज-शिशो: परिपालनार्थम् Soaham tathapitava bhakti vashanmunisha kartum stavam vigatashaktirapi pravrittah.Prityatma viryam avicharya mrigi mrigendram nabhyeti kim nijashishoh paripalanartham. O Great God ! I am incapable of narrating your innumerable virtues. Still, urged by my devotion for you, I intend eulogise you. It is well known that to protect her fawn, even a deer puts his feet down and faces a lion, forgetting its own frailness. (Similarly, devotion is forcing me to eulogise you without assessing my own capacity). 6.अल्प- श्रुतं श्रुतवतां परिहास-धाम, त्वद्-भक्तिरेव मुखरी-कुरुते बलान्माम् । यत्कोकिल: किल मधौ मधुरं विरौति, तच्चाम्र -चारु -कलिका-निकरैक -हेतु: Alpashrutam shrutavatam parihasadham tvadbhakti-reva mukhari kurute balanmam. Yat kokilah kila madhau madhuram virauti tachchamra charu kalika nikaraika-hetuh. O Almighty! I am so unlettered that I am subject to ridicule by the wise. Yet, my devotion for you forces me to sing hymns in your praise, just as the cuckoo is compelled to produce its melodious coo when the mango trees blossom. 7.त्वत्संस्तवेन भव - सन्तति-सन्निबद्धं, पापं क्षणात्क्षयमुपैति शरीरभाजाम् । आक्रान्त - लोक - मलि -नील-मशेष-माशु, सूर्यांशु- भिन्न-मिव शार्वर- मन्धकारम् Tvat sanstavena bhavasantati sannibaddham papam kshanat kshayamupaiti sharirabhajam. Akranta lokamalinilamasheshamashu suryamshu bhinnamiva sharvara mandhakaram Just as the shining sun rays dispel the darkness spread across the universe, the sins accumulated by men through cycles of birth, are wiped out by the eulogies offered to you. 8.मत्वेति नाथ! तव संस्तवनं मयेद, - मारभ्यते तनु- धियापि तव प्रभावात् । चेतो हरिष्यति सतां नलिनी-दलेषु, मुक्ता-फल - द्युति-मुपैति ननूद-बिन्दु: Matveti nath ! tava samstavanam mayedamam arabhyate tanudhiyapi tava prabhavat. Cheto harishyati satam nalinidaleshu muktaphala dyutim upaiti nanudabinduh I begin this eulogy with the belief that, though composed by an ignorant like me, it will certainly please noble people due to your magnanimity. Indeed, dew drops on lotus-petals lustre like pearls presenting a pleasant sight. 9.आस्तां तव स्तवन- मस्त-समस्त-दोषं, त्वत्सङ्कथाऽपि जगतां दुरितानि हन्ति । दूरे सहस्रकिरण: कुरुते प्रभैव, पद्माकरेषु जलजानि विकासभाञ्जि Astam tava stavanam astasamasta dosham tvat samkathapi jagatam duritanihanti Dure sahasrakiranah kurute prabhaiva padmakareshu jalajani vikasha bhanji. The mere utterance of the great Lord's name with devotion, destroys the sins of the living beings and purifies them just like the brilliant sun, which is millions of miles away; still, at the break of day, its soft glow makes the drooping lotus buds bloom. 10.नात्यद्-भुतं भुवन - भूषण ! भूत-नाथ! भूतैर्गुणैर्भुवि भवन्त - मभिष्टुवन्त:। तुल्या भवन्ति भवतो ननु तेन किं वा भूत्याश्रितं य इह नात्मसमं करोति Natyadbhutam bhuvana bhushana ! bhutanatha bhutairgunairbhuvi bhavantam abhishtuvantah. Tulya bhavanti bhavato nanu tena kim va bhutyashritam ya iha natmasamam karoti O Lord of beings ! O Ornament of the universe! It is no wonder that he who is engaged in praising your infinite virtues (imbibing the virtues in his conduct) attains your exhilarated position.It should not be surprising if a benevolent master makes his subjects his equals. In fact, what is the purpose of serving a master who does not allow his subjects to prosper to an elevated position like his ? 11.दृष्ट्वा भवन्त मनिमेष - विलोकनीयं, नान्यत्र - तोष- मुपयाति जनस्य चक्षु:। पीत्वा पय: शशिकर - द्युति - दुग्ध-सिन्धो:, क्षारं जलं जलनिधेरसितुं क इच्छेत्? Drishtava bhavantam animesha vilokaniyam nanyatra toshamupayati janasya chakshuh.Pitva payah shashikaradyuti dugdha sindhohksharam jalam jalnidhe rasitum ka ichchhet? O Great one ! Your divine grandeur is enchanting. Having once looked at your divine form, nothing else enthrals the eye. Obviously, who would like to drink the salty sea water after drinking fresh water of the divine milk-ocean, pure and comforting like the moonlight? 12.यै: शान्त-राग-रुचिभि: परमाणुभिस्-त्वं, निर्मापितस्- त्रि-भुवनैक - ललाम-भूत ! तावन्त एव खलु तेऽप्यणव: पृथिव्यां, यत्ते समान- मपरं न हि रूप-मस्ति Yaih shantaragaruchibhih paramanubhistavam nirmapitastribhuvanaika lalamabhuta Tavanta eva khalu teapyanavah prithivyam yatte samanam aparam na hi rupam asti. O Supreme Ornament of the three worlds! As many indeed were the atoms filled with lustre of non-attachment, became extinct after constituting your body, therefore I do not witness such out of the world magnificence other than yours. 13.वक्त्रं क्व ते सुर-नरोरग-नेत्र-हारि, नि:शेष- निर्जित - जगत्त्रितयोपमानम् । बिम्बं कलङ्क - मलिनं क्व निशाकरस्य, यद्वासरे भवति पाण्डुपलाश-कल्पम् Vaktram kva te sura naroraga netra hari nihshesha nirjita jagat tritayopamanam. Bimbam kalanka malinam kva nishakarasya Yad vasare bhavati pandu palasha kalpam Comparison of your lustrous face with the moon does not appear befitting. How can your scintillating face, that pleases the eyes of gods, angels, humans and other beings alike, be compared with the spotted moon that is dull and pale, during the day, as the Palasa leaves. Indeed, your face has surpassed all the standards of comparison. 14.सम्पूर्ण- मण्डल-शशाङ्क - कला-कलाप- शुभ्रा गुणास् - त्रि-भुवनं तव लङ्घयन्ति। ये संश्रितास् - त्रि-जगदीश्वरनाथ-मेकं, कस्तान् निवारयति सञ्चरतो यथेष्टम् Sampurna mandala shashanka kala kalapa shubhra gunastribhuvanam tava langhayanti Ye sanshritastrijagadishvara! nathamekam kastan nivarayati sancharato yatheshtam O Master of the three worlds! Your innumerable virtues are radiating throughout the universe-even beyond the three worlds, surpassing the glow of the full moon; the hymns in praise of your virtues can be heard everywhere throughout the universe. Indeed, who can contain the movement of devotees of the only supreme Godhead like you? 15.चित्रं - किमत्र यदि ते त्रिदशाङ्ग-नाभिर्- नीतं मनागपि मनो न विकार - मार्गम् । कल्पान्त - काल - मरुता चलिताचलेन, किं मन्दराद्रिशिखरं चलितं कदाचित् Chitram kimatra yadi te tridashanganabhir nitam managapi mano na vikara margam. Kalpanta kala maruta chalitachalena kim mandaradri shikhiram chalitamkadachit Celestial nymphs have tried their best to allure you through lewd gestures, but it is not surprising that your serenity has not been disturbed. Of course, is the great Mandara mountain shaken by the tremendous gale of the doomsday, that moves common hillocks? 16.निर्धूम - वर्ति - रपवर्जित - तैल-पूर:, कृत्स्नं जगत्त्रय - मिदं प्रकटीकरोषि। गम्यो न जातु मरुतां चलिताचलानां, दीपोऽपरस्त्वमसि नाथ ! जगत्प्रकाश: Nnirdhumavartipavarjita taila purah kritsnam jagat trayamidam prakati karoshi. Gamyo na jatu marutam chalitachalanam dipoaparastvamasi natha ! jagatprakashah You are O Master, an irradiating divine lamp that needs neither a wick nor oil, and is smokeless, yet enlightens three realms. Even the greatest of storm that does not effect it. 17.नास्तं कदाचिदुपयासि न राहुगम्य:, स्पष्टीकरोषि सहसा युगपज्- जगन्ति। नाम्भोधरोदर - निरुद्ध - महा- प्रभाव:, सूर्यातिशायि-महिमासि मुनीन्द्र! लोके Nastam kadachidupayasi na rahugamyah spashtikaroshi sahasa yugapajjaganti. Nnambhodharodara niruddha maha prabhavah suryatishayimahimasi munindra! loke O Great one ! Your glory is greater than that of the sun. The sun rises every day but sets as well. The sun suffers eclipse, is obstructed by the clouds, but you are no such sun. Your infinite virtues and passionlessness cannot be eclipsed. The sun slowly shines over different parts of the world, but the glory of your omniscience reaches every part of the world, all at once. 18.नित्योदयं दलित - मोह - महान्धकारं, गम्यं न राहु - वदनस्य न वारिदानाम्। विभ्राजते तव मुखाब्ज - मनल्पकान्ति, विद्योतयज्-जगदपूर्व-शशाङ्क-बिम्बम् Nityodayam dalitamoha mahandhakaram gamyam na rahuvadanasya na varidanam. Vibhrajate tava mukhabjamanalpakanti vidyotayajjagadapurvashashanka bimbam. O Master! Your beautiful face transcends the moon. The moon shines only at night but your face is always beaming. The moon light dispels darkness only to a some level, your face dispels the delusion of ignorance and desire. The moon is eclipsed as well as obscured by clouds, but there is nothing that can shadow your face. 19.किं शर्वरीषु शशिनाह्नि विवस्वता वा, युष्मन्मुखेन्दु- दलितेषु तम:सु नाथ! निष्पन्न-शालि-वन-शालिनी जीव-लोके, कार्यं कियज्जल- धरै-र्जल-भार-नमै्र: Kim sharvarishu shashinanhi vivasvata va yushman mukhendu daliteshu tamassu natha! Nishpanna shalivana shalini jivaloke karyam kiyajjaladharairjalabhara namraih. O God ! Your aura dispels the perpetual darkness. The sun beams during the day and the moon during the night, but your ever radiant face sweeps away the darkness of the universe. Once the crop is ripe what is the need of the cloud full of rain. 20.ज्ञानं यथा त्वयि विभाति कृतावकाशं, नैवं तथा हरि -हरादिषु नायकेषु। तेजो स्फूरन मणिषु याति यथा महत्त्वं, नैवं तु काच -शकले किरणाकुलेऽपि Jyanam yatha tvayi vibhati kritavakasham naivam tatha Hari Haradishu nayakeshu. Tejo sfuran manishu yati yatha mahattvam naivam tu kachashakale kiranakuleapi. O Supreme God! The infinite and eternal knowledge that you have, is not possessed by any other deity in this world. Indeed,the splendour and shine of priceless jewels can not be seen in the glass pieces shining in the light. 21.मन्ये वरं हरि- हरादय एव दृष्टा, दृष्टेषु येषु हृदयं त्वयि तोषमेति। किं वीक्षितेन भवता भुवि येन नान्य:, कश्चिन्मनो हरति नाथ ! भवान्तरेऽपि Manye varam Hari Haradaya eva drishta drishteshu yeshu hridayam tvayitoshameti. Kim vikshitena bhavata bhuviyena nanyah kashchinmano harati natha ! bhavantareapi. O Ultimate Lord ! It is good that I have seen other deities before seeing you.The dissatisfaction even after seeing them has been removed by the glance of your detached and serene expression. That I have seen the supreme I can not be satisfied with anything less. 22.स्त्रीणां शतानि शतशो जनयन्ति पुत्रान्, नान्या सुतं त्वदुपमं जननी प्रसूता। सर्वा दिशो दधति भानि सहस्र-रश्मिं, प्राच्येव दिग्जनयति स्फुरदंशु-जालम् Strinam shatani shatasho janayanti putran nanya sutam tvadupamam janani prasuta. Sarva disho dadhati bhani sahasrarashmim prachyeva digjanayati sphuradamshujalam. O the great one! Infinite stars and planets can be seen in all directions but the sun rises only in the East. Similarly numerous women give birth to sons but a remarkable son like you was born only to one mother; you are very special. 23.त्वामामनन्ति मुनय: परमं पुमांस- मादित्य-वर्ण-ममलं तमस: पुरस्तात्। त्वामेव सम्य - गुपलभ्य जयन्ति मृत्युं, नान्य: शिव: शिवपदस्य मुनीन्द्र! पन्था: Tvamamanati munayah paramam pumamsham adityavaranam amalam tamasah purastat. Tvameva samyagupalabhya jayanti mrityum nanya shivah shivapadasya munindra ! panthah. O monk of monks ! All monks believe you to be the supreme being beyond the darkness, splendid as the sun. You are free from attachment and disinclination and beyond the gloom of ignorance. One obtains immortality by discerning, understanding, and following the path of purity you have shown. There is no path leading to salvation other than the one you have shown. 24.त्वा-मव्ययं विभु-मचिन्त्य-मसंख्य-माद्यं, ब्रह्माणमीश्वर - मनन्त - मनङ्ग - केतुम्। योगीश्वरं विदित - योग-मनेक-मेकं, ज्ञान-स्वरूप-ममलं प्रवदन्ति सन्त: Tvamavayam vibhumachintya masankhyamadyam Brahmanamishvaramanantamanangaketum. Yogishvaram viditayogamanekamekam jnanasvarupamanmalam pravadanti santah. O God ! After having seen you in different perspectives, monks hail you as: Indestructible and all composite, All pervading, Unfathomable, Infinite in virtues, Progenitor (of philosophy), Perpetually blissful,Majestic, having shed all the karmas, eternal, Serene with respect to sensuality, Omniscient in form, and free from all vices. 25.बुद्धस्त्वमेव विबुधार्चित-बुद्धि-बोधात्, त्वं शङ्करोऽसि भुवन-त्रय- शङ्करत्वात् । धातासि धीर! शिव-मार्ग विधेर्विधानाद्, व्यक्तं त्वमेव भगवन् पुरुषोत्तमोऽसि Buddhastvameva vibudharchita buddhibodthat tvam Shankaroasi bhuvanatraya shankaratvat. Dhatasi dhira!shivamarga vidhervidhanat vyaktam tvameva Bhagavan!purushottamoasi. O Supreme God ! The wise have hailed your omniscience, so you are the Buddha. You are the ultimate patron of all the beings, so you are Shankar. You are the developer of the codes of conduct( faith,Right knowledge and Right conduct)leading to Nirvana, so you are Brahma. You are manifest in thoughts of all the devotees, so you are Vishnu. Hence you are the Supreme God. 26.तुभ्यं नमस् - त्रिभुवनार्ति - हराय नाथ! तुभ्यं नम: क्षिति-तलामल -भूषणाय। तुभ्यं नमस् - त्रिजगत: परमेश्वराय, तुभ्यं नमो जिन! भवोदधि-शोषणाय Tubhyam namastribhuvanartiharaya natha Tubhyam namah kshititalamala bhushanaya. Tubhyam namastrijagatah parameshvaraya Tubhyam namo jina! bhavodadhi shoshanaya. O Salvager from all the miseries ! I bow to thee. O Master of this world ! I bow to you. O Lord supreme of the three worlds ! I bow to you. O eradicator of the unending cycle of rebirths ! I bow to you. 27.को विस्मयोऽत्र यदि नाम गुणै-रशेषैस्- त्वं संश्रितो निरवकाशतया मुनीश ! दोषै - रुपात्त - विविधाश्रय-जात-गर्वै:, स्वप्नान्तरेऽपि न कदाचिदपीक्षितोऽसि Ko vismayoatra yadi nama gunairasheshaih tvam samshrito niravakashataya munisha. Doshairupatta vividhashraya jatagarvaih svapnantareapi na kadachidapikshitosi. O Supreme ! It is not surprising that all the virtues have been packed into you, leaving no place for vices. The vices have appeared in other beings. Elated by the false pride, they drift away and do not draw closer to you even in their dream. 28.उच्चै - रशोक- तरु - संश्रितमुन्मयूख - माभाति रूपममलं भवतो नितान्तम्। स्पष्टोल्लसत्-किरण- मस्त-तमो-वितानं, बिम्बं रवेरिव पयोधर-पाश्र्ववर्ति Uchchairashokatarusamshrita munmayukham abhati rupamamalam bhavato nitantam. Spashtollasat kiranamasta tamo vitanam bimbam raveriva payodhara parshvavarti. O Jina ! Sitting under the Ashoka tree, the aura of your sparkling body gleaming, you look as divinely splendid as the halo of the sun in dense clouds, penetrating the darkness with its rays. 29.सिंहासने मणि-मयूख-शिखा-विचित्रे, विभ्राजते तव वपु: कनकावदातम्। बिम्बं वियद्-विलस - दंशुलता-वितानं तुङ्गोदयाद्रि-शिरसीव सहस्र-रश्मे: Simhasane mani mayukha shikha vichitre vibhrajate tava vapuh kanakavadatam. Bimbam viyadvilasadamshulata vitanam tungodayadri shirasiva sahasrarashmeh. O Jina ! Seated on the throne with kaleidoscopic hue of gems, your splendid golden body looks magnificent and attractive like the rising sun on the peak of the eastern mountain, emitting golden rays under blue sky. 30.कुन्दावदात - चल - चामर-चारु-शोभं, विभ्राजते तव वपु: कलधौत -कान्तम्। उद्यच्छशाङ्क- शुचिनिर्झर - वारि -धार- मुच्चैस्तटं सुरगिरेरिव शातकौम्भम् Kundavadata chalachamara charushobhama vibharajate tava vapuh kaladhautakantam. udyachchashanaka shuchi nirjhara varidharam uchchaistaam suragireriva shatakaumbham. O Tirthankara ! The snow white fans of loose fibres (giant whisks) swinging on both sides of your golden body appear like streams of water,pure and glittering as the rising moon,flowing down the sides of the peakof the golden mountain,Sumeru. 31.छत्रत्रयं - तव - विभाति शशाङ्ककान्त, मुच्चैः स्थितं स्थगित भानुकर - प्रतापम् । मुक्ताफल - प्रकरजाल - विवृद्धशोभं, प्रख्यापयत्त्रिजगतः परमेश्वरत्वम् Chhatratrayam tava vibhati shashanka kantam uchchaih sthitam sthagita bhanukara pratapam. Muktaphala prakarajala vivraddhashobham prakhyapayat trijagatah parameshvaratvam O The Greatest One ! A three tier canopy adorns the space over your head. It has the soft white radiance of the moon and is decorated with jewels. This canopy has filtered the scorching sun rays. Indeed, this canopy symbolizes your dominance over the three worlds. 32.गम्भीर - तार - रव-पूरित-दिग्विभागस्- त्रैलोक्य - लोक -शुभ - सङ्गम -भूति-दक्ष:। सद्धर्म -राज - जय - घोषण - घोषक: सन्, खे दुन्दुभि-ध्र्वनति ते यशस: प्रवादी Gambhira tara rava purita digvibhagah trailokya loka shubha sangama bhuti dakshah. Saddharmaraja jaya ghoshana ghoshakah san khe dundubhirdhvanati te yashasah pravadi. The vibrant drum beats fill the space in all directions as if awarding your serene presence and calling all the beings of the universe to join the devout path shown by you. All space is resonating with this proclamation of the victory of the true religion. 33.मन्दार - सुन्दर - नमेरु - सुपारिजात- सन्तानकादि - कुसुमोत्कर - वृष्टि-रुद्घा। गन्धोद - बिन्दु- शुभ - मन्द - मरुत्प्रपाता, दिव्या दिव: पतति ते वचसां ततिर्वा Mandara sundara nameru suparijata santanakadi kusumaotkra vrushti ruddha. Gandhoda bindu shubha manda marutprapata divya divah patati te vachasam tatriva O Jina ! The divine sprinkle of the Mandar Parbat, Sundar,Nameru,Parijata drift towards you with the mild breeze. This alluring scene presents impression as if the devout words spoken by you have changed into flowers and are drifting toward the earthlings. 34.शुम्भत्-प्रभा- वलय-भूरि-विभा-विभोस्ते, लोक - त्रये - द्युतिमतां द्युति-माक्षिपन्ती। प्रोद्यद्- दिवाकर-निरन्तर - भूरि -संख्या, दीप्त्या जयत्यपि निशामपि सोमसौम्याम् Shumbhat prava valaya bhuri vibha vibhoste lokatraya dyutimatam dyutimakshipanti. Prodyad divakara nirantara bhuri samkhya diptya jayatyapi nishamapi somasaumyam. O Lord ! The resplendent orb around you is more magnificent than any other luminous object in the universe. It quells the darkness of the night and is brighter than many suns put together; yet it is as cool and serene as the bright full moon. 35.स्वर्गापवर्ग - गम - मार्ग - विमार्गणेष्ट:, सद्धर्म- तत्त्व - कथनैक - पटुस्-त्रिलोक्या:। दिव्य-ध्वनि-र्भवति ते विशदार्थ-सर्व- भाषास्वभाव-परिणाम-गुणै: प्रयोज्य: Svargapavarga gama marga virmarganeshtah saddharmatatva kathanaika patustrilokyah. Divyadhvanirbhvati te vishadartha sarva bhasha svabhava parinama gunaih prayojyah. Your divine voice is a guide that illuminates the path leading to heaven and liberation; it is fully capable of expounding the essentials of true religion for the benefit of all the beings of the three worlds; it is endowed with miraculous attribute that makes it comprehensible and understood by every listener in his own language. 36.उन्निद्र - हेम - नव - पङ्कज - पुञ्ज-कान्ती, पर्युल्-लसन्-नख- मयूख-शिखाभिरामौ। पादौ पदानि तव यत्र जिनेन्द्र ! धत्त:, पद्मानि तत्र विबुधा: परिकल्पयन्ति Unnidra hema nava pankaja punjakanti paryullasannakha mayukha shikhabhiramau. Padau padani tava yatra Jinendra dhattah padmani tatra vibudhah parikalpayanti. O Tirthankara ! Your feet are radiant like fresh golden lotuses. Their nails have an attractive glow. Wherever you put your feet the lords create golden lotuses. 37.इत्थं यथा तव विभूति- रभूज् - जिनेन्द्र्र ! धर्मोपदेशन - विधौ न तथा परस्य। यादृक् - प्र्रभा दिनकृत: प्रहतान्धकारा, तादृक्-कुतो ग्रहगणस्य विकासिनोऽपि Ittham yatha tava vibhutirabhujjinendra ! dharmopdeshanavidhau na tatha parasya. Yadrik prabha dinakritah prahatandhakara tadrik kuto grahaganasya vikashinoapi O great one ! The height of grandiloquence, clarity and erudition evident in your words is not seen anywhere else. Indeed,the darkness dispelling glare of the sun can never be seen in the stars and planets. 38.श्च्यो-तन्-मदाविल-विलोल-कपोल-मूल, मत्त- भ्रमद्- भ्रमर - नाद - विवृद्ध-कोपम्। ऐरावताभमिभ - मुद्धत - मापतन्तं दृष्ट्वा भयं भवति नो भवदाश्रितानाम् Schyotanmadavilavilolakapolamula mattabhramad bhramara nada vivriddhakopam. Airavatabhamibhamuddhatam apatantam dristva bhayam bhavati no bhavadashritanam. O Tirthanakara! The devotees who have surrendered to you are not scared even of a wild elephant being incessantly annoyed by humming bees. They are always and everywhere fearless as the silence of their deep meditation placates even the most brutal of the beings. 39.भिन्नेभ - कुम्भ- गल - दुज्ज्वल-शोणिताक्त, मुक्ता - फल- प्रकरभूषित - भूमि - भाग:। बद्ध - क्रम: क्रम-गतं हरिणाधिपोऽपि, नाक्रामति क्रम-युगाचल-संश्रितं ते Bhinnebha - kumbha - galadujjavala - shonitakta, muktaphala prakara - bhushita bhumibhagah baddhakramah kramagatam harinadhipoapi, nakramati kramayugachalasanshritam te A lion who has torn apart elephant's head with blood flowing under, scattering blood stained pearls on the ground, ready to pounce with growling sound, If your devotee falls in his grasp, and has firm faith in you, even the lion will not touch the devotee. 40.कल्पान्त - काल - पवनोद्धत - वह्नि -कल्पं, दावानलं ज्वलित-मुज्ज्वल - मुत्स्फुलिङ्गम्। विश्वं जिघत्सुमिव सम्मुख - मापतन्तं, त्वन्नाम-कीर्तन-जलं शमयत्यशेषम् Kalpantakala - pavanoddhata - vahnikalpam, davanalam jvalitamujjavalamutsphulingam vishvam jighatsumiva sammukhamapatantam, tvannamakirtanajalam shamayatyashesham O Lord! Even the all forest inferno, as if kindled by the judgement day storm and having resplendent sparking flames,is extinguished in no time by the satiate stream of your name. (Your devotee is not afraid of fire.) 41.रक्तेक्षणं समद - कोकिल - कण्ठ-नीलम्, क्रोधोद्धतं फणिन - मुत्फण - मापतन्तम्। आक्रामति क्रम - युगेण निरस्त - शङ्कस्- त्वन्नाम- नागदमनी हृदि यस्य पुंस: Raktekshanam samadakokila - kanthanilam, krodhoddhatam phaninamutphanamapatantam akramati kramayugena nirastashankas tvannama nagadamani hridi yasya punsah O Greatest of the greatest! A devotee who has absorbed the antibody of your devout name crosses fearlessly over an extremely venomous snake that has red eyes, black body, unpleasant appearance and raised hood. (Your devotee are not frightened of snakes.) 42.वल्गत् - तुरङ्ग - गज - गर्जित - भीमनाद- माजौ बलं बलवता - मपि - भूपतीनाम्। उद्यद् - दिवाकर - मयूख - शिखापविद्धं त्वत्कीर्तनात्तम इवाशु भिदामुपैति: Valgatturanga gajagarjita - bhimanada-majau balam balavatamapi bhupatinam ! udyaddivakara mayukha - shikhapaviddham,tvat -kirtanat tama ivashu bhidamupaiti O Victor of all vices ! As darkness withdraws with the rising of the sun, the armies of daunting kings, creating thunderous uproar of neighing horses and trumpeting elephants, recede when your name is chanted. (Your devotee not frightened of enemies.) 43.कुन्ताग्र-भिन्न - गज - शोणित - वारिवाह, वेगावतार - तरणातुर - योध - भीमे। युद्धे जयं विजित - दुर्जय - जेय - पक्षास्- त्वत्पाद-पङ्कज-वनाश्रयिणो लभन्ते: Kuntagrabhinnagaja - shonitavarivahavegavatara - taranaturayodha - bhime yuddhe jayam vijitadurjayajeyapakshas -tvatpada pankajavanashrayino labhante O conqueror of passion ! In the battlefield, where bravest of all warriors are eager to trudge over the streams of blood coming out of the bodies of elephants pierced by sharp weapons, the devotee having sought protection in your resplendent feet embraces victory. (Your devotee is always victorious at the end.) 44.अम्भोनिधौ क्षुभित - भीषण - नक्र - चक्र- पाठीन - पीठ-भय-दोल्वण - वाडवाग्नौ। रङ्गत्तरङ्ग -शिखर- स्थित- यान - पात्रास्- त्रासं विहाय भवत: स्मरणाद्-व्रजन्ति : Ambhaunidhau kshubhitabhishananakrachakra-pathina pithabhayadolbanavadavagnau rangattaranga - shikharasthita - yanapatras -trasam vihaya bhavatahsmaranad vrajanti O Jina ! A vessel caught in giant waves and surrounded by alligators, giant oceanic creatures, and dangerous fire, the devotee by chanting your name surmount such terrors and crosses the ocean. (Your devotees are not afraid of water.) 45.उद्भूत - भीषण - जलोदर - भार- भुग्ना:, शोच्यां दशा-मुपगताश्-च्युत-जीविताशा:। त्वत्पाद-पङ्कज-रजो - मृत - दिग्ध - देहा:, मर्त्या भवन्ति मकर-ध्वज-तुल्यरूपा: Udbhutabhishanajalodara - bharabhugnah shochyam dashamupagatashchyutajivitashah tvatpadapankaja- rajoamritadigdhadeha, martya bhavanti makaradhvajatulyarupah O the all knowledgeable one ! An extremely sick person, deformed due to dropsy and maladies incurable, having lost all hopes of recovery and survival, when he rubs the nectar-like dust taken from your feet, fully recovers and takes form like cupid sweet. 46.आपाद - कण्ठमुरु - शृङ्खल - वेष्टिताङ्गा, गाढं-बृहन्-निगड-कोटि निघृष्ट - जङ्घा:। त्वन्-नाम-मन्त्र- मनिशं मनुजा: स्मरन्त:, सद्य: स्वयं विगत-बन्ध-भया भवन्ति: Apada - kanthamurushrrinkhala - veshtitanga, gadham brihannigadakotinighrishtajanghah tvannamamantramanisham manujah smarantah, sadyah svayam vigata-bandhabhaya bhavanti O Liberated one ! Persons thrown in prison, chained from head to toe, whose thighs have been injured by the chain, gets unshackled and freed from enslavement just by chanting your name. 47.मत्त-द्विपेन्द्र- मृग- राज - दवानलाहि- संग्राम-वारिधि-महोदर - बन्ध -नोत्थम्। तस्याशु नाश - मुपयाति भयं भियेव, यस्तावकं स्तव-मिमं मतिमानधीते: Mattadvipendra - mrigaraja - davanalahi sangrama - varidhi - mahodara-bandhanottham tasyashu nashamupayati bhayam bhiyeva, yastavakam stavamimam matimanadhite O Tirhankara ! The one who recites this panegyric with devotion is never afraid of wild elephants, predatory lions, forest inferno, poisonous pythons, tempestuous sea, serious maladies, and slavery. In fact, fear itself is frightened of him. 48.स्तोत्रस्रजं तव जिनेन्द्र! गुणैर्निबद्धाम्, भक्त्या मया विविधवर्णविचित्रपुष्पाम्। धत्ते जनो य इह कण्ठगतामजस्रं, तं मानतुङ्गमवशा समुपैति लक्ष्मी: Stotrastrajam tava jinendra ! gunairnibaddham, bhaktya maya vividhavarnavichitrapushpam dhatte jano ya iha kanthagatamajasram, tam manatungamavasha samupaiti lakshmi O the greatest Lord ! With great devotion, I have made up this string of your virtues. I have decorated it with charming and kaleidoscopic flowers. The devotee who always wears it in the neck (memorises and chants) attracts the goddess Lakshmi. ==Art== Bhaktamara stotra is widely illustrated in paintings. At the Sanghiji temple at Sanganer, there is a panel illustrating each verse. The verses of Bhaktamar are thought to possess magical properties (tantra). A mystical diagram, yantra, is associated with each verse. "Sadhak Shivaanand Saraswati" (Udayraj Gadnis) has painted a number of yantras associated with Bhaktamar stotra. There is a temple at Bharuch with a section dedicated to the Bhaktamar and its author Manatunga.Shri Bharuch Teerth The Bhaktamara Stotra is composed in the meter "Vasantatilka". All the fourteen syllables of this meter are equally divided between short and long syllables i.e. seven laghu and seven gurus and this belongs to sakvari group of meters. It is believed that such an equal division into short and long syllables will help an aspirant attain the state of equanimity quickly, the meter itself serving as a catalyst (mantra).Bhaktamar Stotra: The Song of Salvation, ==Translations== Bhaktamara Stotra was translated into Braj Bhasha by Hemraj Pande in the style of translation of Kalyanamandir stotra's by Banarsidas. ==References== ===Citations=== === Sources === * * * Category:Jain mantras Category:Devotion songs Category:Jain texts
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The article covers the Hurricane Katrina effects by region, within the United States and Canada. The effects of Hurricane Katrina, in late August 2005, were catastrophic and widespread. It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in U.S. history, leaving at least 1,836 people dead, and a further 135 missing. The storm was large and had an effect on several different areas of North America. Deaths by state Alabama 2 Florida 14 Georgia 2 Kentucky 1 Louisiana 986–1,577* Mississippi 238 Ohio 2 Total 1,245–1,836 Missing 135 *Includes out- of-state evacuees counted by Louisiana *Includes out-of-state evacuees counted by Louisiana __TOC__ ==Florida== More than 1 million customers were left without electricity, and damage in Florida was estimated at between $1 and $2 billion (with most of the damage coming from flooding and overturned trees).USA Today. August 30, 2005. Two traffic fatalities related to Katrina were also reported on the Florida Panhandle in Walton County, and moderate to locally heavy damage was reported in the western part of the Panhandle (on the outer edge of Katrina), which had already been hit hard by Hurricane Ivan in September 2004 and Hurricane Dennis in July 2005.Staff Writer. "Fatal Accident on I-10 ." WTVY. Accessed on April 18, 2006. ==Louisiana== Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Louisiana at 6:45 AM local time on August 29, 2005, as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of , near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana and a 22-foot storm surge. The eye of the storm passed 27 miles east of downtown New Orleans at 8:30 AM. The primary areas that were affected were southeastern Louisiana, including the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, the parishes of St. Tammany (Slidell), Jefferson (Gretna), Terrebonne (Houma), Plaquemines (Buras), Lafourche (Thibodaux), and St. Bernard (Chalmette). According to officials nearly one million people were temporarily without electricity in Louisiana for several weeks. On September 1, 2005, 800,000 homes were without electricity. Numerous roadways were flooded or damaged and many evacuations conducted by boat and helicopter. Approximately 46,000 National Guard were dispatched to the area as part of the disaster relief effort. The United States Navy also announced that four amphibious ships would be sent from Norfolk, Virginia within a few days to assist the relief efforts. The US Coast Guard rescued 1,259 survivors off rooftops by Wednesday morning August 31, less than two days after landfall, and more than 1,000 the next day. In less than two weeks 12,535 flood victims were saved by helicopter. In all, the Coast Guard made 33,544 rescues by helicopter and boats. By July 1, 2006, when new population estimates were calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the state of Louisiana declined by 219,563, or 4.87%.Christie, Les. "Growth states: Arizona overtakes Nevada: Texas adds most people overall; Louisiana population declines nearly 5%." CNN. December 22, 2006. Retrieved on December 22, 2006. Just as matters were beginning to improve in 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf in April 2010 caused massive amounts of oil to come ashore in the wetlands and marshes in Plaquemines Parish and other areas of coastal Louisiana near New Orleans that had been most heavily damaged by Katrina, and the spill will likely reach other states that were also affected by the storm (the hurricane had caused or exacerbated oil spills on a smaller scale when it hit). ===New Orleans=== Mayor Ray Nagin did not order a mandatory evacuation of the city until August 28, 2005.Staff Writer. "New Orleans braces for monster hurricane." CNN. August 29, 2005. Approximately one million people had fled the city and its surrounding suburbs by the evening of August 28, while about 100,000 people remained in the city, with about 10,000 taking shelter at the Louisiana Superdome which had been prepared to accommodate only 800. Eventually, 30,000 arrived at the Superdome before they were evacuated. thumb|right|300px By August 31, eighty percent (80%) of the city of New Orleans was flooded by Hurricane Katrina, with some parts of the city under , of water. Over 50 breaches in region's levee system were catalogued, five of which resulted in massive flooding of New Orleans. The 17th Street Canal levee was just south of the Hammond Highway Bridge. Levees adjacent to London Avenue breached in two locations: one near Robert E. Lee Boulevard and one between Filmore Avenue and Mirabeau Avenue. Two breaches also occurred in the Industrial Canal adjacent to Surekote Road. Levee repair efforts were undertaken, involving reinforcing the levees with sandbags deployed by U.S. Army Chinook and Black Hawk helicopters. The 17th Street Canal levee repair was completed by September 5, 2005, and subsequently, the three canals were repaired all the way to Lake Pontchartrain. The Army Corps of Engineers added flood gates to the three canals. thumb|right|300px Many evacuees were trapped in flooded houses and rooftops waiting to be rescued. The Superdome sustained significant damage and much of the dome's waterproof membrane had essentially been peeled off. On August 30, Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered the complete evacuation of the remaining people that sought shelter in the Superdome.Rourke, Matt. "New Orleans outlook bleak; 100 dead in Miss." USA Today. August 30, 2005. Blanco instructed the Adjutant General of the Louisiana National Guard, Major General Bennett C. Landreneau to contact Honoré of Northern Command (Honoré arrived on Wednesday, August 31, as the commander of the newly established Joint Task Force Katrina to supervise federal military operations) to arrange for active duty military support of response operations in Louisiana. Additionally, General Landreneau instructed Louisiana National Guard officials at the Superdome to cease planning for the evacuation as Honoré would be "taking charge" of the evacuation project. The evacuees were then transported to the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. The only route out of the city was west on the Crescent City Connection as the I-10 (twin span) bridge traveling east towards Slidell, Louisiana had collapsed. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway was also carrying emergency traffic only. ===St. Tammany Parish=== Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish. The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9:45 AM CST, August 29, 2005.Richard D. Knabb, Jamie R. Rhome, and Daniel P. Brown, National Hurricane Center, "Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Katrina", 23–30 August 2005; retrieved September 11, 2009 The communities of Slidell, Avery Estates, Lakeshore Estates, Oak Harbor, Eden Isles and North Shore Beach were inundated by the storm surge that extended over six miles inland. The storm surge impacted all 57 miles of St. Tammany Parish's coastline, including Lacombe, Mandeville and Madisonville. The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass is estimated 16 feet, not including wave action declining to 7 feet at Madisonville. The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east, backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass. The Twin Spans of I-10 between Slidell and New Orleans East were virtually destroyed, and much of I-10 in New Orleans East was under water. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and the Highway 11 bridge, connecting the north and south shores of Lake Pontchartrain, were open only to emergency traffic. Initial search and rescue operations were conducted south of Highway 190 from Lacombe east to the state line.St. Tammany Parish Emergency Operations Center Parish Status Update, Tuesday, August 30, 2005 9:00 AM; retrieved September 11, 2009 Fire District No. 1 and the St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's office evacuated over 3,000 people from flooded homes and rescued about 300 people in imminent danger."State of the Parish" Speech, October 27, 2005, St. Tammany Parish President Kevin Davis; retrieved September 11, 2009 Radio communications among first responders functioned throughout the rescue period but the 9-1-1 system was not operational for ten days. St. Tammany Parish Emergency Operations Center Parish Status Update, Thursday, September 8, 2005 5:00 PM; Retrieved September 11, 2009 Utility services were not available anywhere in the parish. Generator power was available for hospitals and a special needs shelter. Hospitals were running at capacity on generator power. The hurricane-force winds toppled trees and telephone poles parish-wide, blocking all transportation routes. Land debris cleanup continued into 2007 with over 6.6 million cubic yards collected."State of the Parish" Speech, October 27, 2005, St. Tammany Parish President Kevin Davis; retrieved September 11, 2009 Debris cleaning in waterways continued at least through 2009. Hurricane Katrina damaged 48,792 housing units in St. Tammany Parish from flood waters, high winds, or both."Current Housing Unit Damage Estimates, Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma", February 12, 2006, Analysis by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Policy Development and Research ===Jefferson Parish=== The breach on the east side of the 17th Street Canal levee did not cause severe flooding within Jefferson Parish, but some lower-lying areas did receive significant water damage, especially on the East Bank. The Sheriff of Jefferson Parish reported that he expected his district to remain uninhabitable for at least one week and that residents should not return to the area. Incidents of looting were reported throughout affected areas of Louisiana, most notably in New Orleans. Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered all roadways into the state closed. By one week after the storm, residents were allowed to return to their homes to retrieve essentials, provided that they could present identification proving that they lived in the parish. They were only allowed in to retrieve essential items, and were then required to leave the parish for another month. ===Terrebonne Parish=== In Terrebonne Parish, signs, trees, roofs and utility poles suffered the brunt of Hurricane Katrina's fury when the storm roared across Terrebonne and Lafourche. Most of Terrebonne Parish and Lafourche Parish were covered with water during the storm surge, yet Houma was spared to the extent that the Coast Guard used their airport for the initial rescue launch site. "" ===Plaquemines Parish=== Hurricane Katrina made a direct landfall in the "lower" (southern/down river) portion of Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, the eye passed directly over the town of Empire, Louisiana. There was extensive flooding the majority of the Parish, and the southern part was temporarily "reclaimed" by the Mississippi River. All of the East Bank of the Parish was flooded, as was the downriver portion of the West Bank. Belle Chase mostly escaped with only moderate wind damage. The Belle Chasse Tunnel was flooded as well. On August 29, the President of Plaquemines Parish, Benny Rousselle, issued a statement to all residents not to return to the parish until further notice. There were no public services available and all roads were closed and impassable. He requested that only employees in Drainage, Heavy Equipment, Public Right-of-Way Maintenance and Solid Waste departments return to the parish if possible. Areas gradually opened up in late 2005. ===St. Bernard Parish=== St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, which lies to the East of New Orleans and thus was closer to the path of the storm and the more exposed to the storm surge from the Gulf of Mexico, was completely flooded via water surging into Lake Borgne. A large portion of the flooding was apparently the result of levee failures along the Mississippi River – Gulf Outlet Canal, a canal. The levees were sized to hold back up to , of water; they held back the initial surge, but then they were breached in several areas by the , surge. The Parish's two shelters at Chalmette High School and St. Bernard High School suffered considerable damage with flooding. Chalmette High lost much of its roof, and St. Bernard High had many broken windows. There were estimates of 300-plus evacuees at both sites. By August 29, about 150 people were sighted on rooftops in areas that were under approximately 8–10 feet or more of water. Among those on the roofs were WDSU reporter Heath Allen and a St. Bernard resident on a government complex rooftop. Residents reported that even oil platform service boats were utilized to rescue survivors. Several tragic deaths were reported at St. Rita's Nursing Home in the parish, as 35 people died due to drowning. The owners of the nursing home were arrested and charged with negligent homicide for not having evacuated in advance of the storm. However, the owners were subsequently found not guilty. ===Washington Parish=== Washington Parish, Louisiana is located north of New Orleans. The parish received significant damage due to wind damage and local flooding. The Parish is home to many pine forests in which many of the pine trees snapped or were completely uprooted. The eye of Katrina could be seen from the eastern part of the parish, in Bogalusa as Bogalusa was only fifteen miles away from the center of the eye. Much of Bogalusa was without power for weeks. Many major roads were covered by trees and were not cleared for many days. Schools did not reopen until October. As gasoline was in short supply even for emergency workers, the parish banned gas sales to the public for several days, arousing the ire of many locals. ==Mississippi== thumb|280px|right| Mississippi (all counties disaster areas): 49 lower with full assistance, green have only public assistance Category A/B. Hurricane Katrina's devastating impact on the state of Mississippi caused a complete re-evaluation of hurricane command centers, safety, and offshore gambling. Because landfall was during daylight, many people survived by swimming to higher buildings and trees within sight. Afterward, all Mississippi counties were declared disaster areas (see map). The Gulf Coast of Mississippi suffered massive damage from the impact of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, leaving 238 people dead, 67 missing, and an estimated $125 billion in damages.Staff Writer. "." Sun Herald. December 14, 2005.' Since Katrina made its third and final landfall on the Louisiana/Mississippi state line, the storm's powerful northeastern quadrant hammered areas of Mississippi, as well as Alabama, causing extensive wind and flood damage. According to MSNBC, a storm surge came ashore wiping out 90% of the buildings along the Biloxi-Gulfport coastline. The bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was also damaged by the storm. The three counties most affected by the storm were the coastal counties, Hancock County, Harrison County, and Jackson County. Emergency command centers in the 3 coastal counties were partially disabled, prompting a re-evaluation of general hurricane emergency-center design nationwide: in Hancock county, the emergency-command headquarters were swamped by a 32-foot (11-m) storm tide flooding into the building, which had been considered flood-proof at above sea level. Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) officials also recorded deaths in Hinds, Warren, and Leake counties. About 800,000 people throughout the state experienced power outages, which is almost a third of the population. United States Navy officials announced that two Arleigh Burke- class guided missile destroyers that were under construction at Litton-Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula had been damaged by the storm, as well as the amphibious assault ship . ===Hancock County=== Hancock County was the scene of the final landfall of the eye of Hurricane Katrina, and its communities and infrastructure suffered some of the most intense damage inflicted by that storm. Devastation occurred in many communities, including Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pearlington, and Clermont Harbor. Katrina practically obliterated Waveland, and state officials said that it took a harder hit from the wind and water than any other town along the coast. The storm dragged away almost every structure within one half mile of the beach, leaving driveways and walkways that went to nowhere.Burdeau, Cain. "Waveland practically wiped off map by force of Katrina ." WWL-TV. August 31, 2005. The death toll was estimated at 50. In Bay St. Louis, Katrina destroyed many buildings, including the first floor and dormitories of Saint Stanislaus College and the Bay St. Louis Public Library. ===Harrison County=== thumb|270px|right| Hurricane Katrina pushed houses inland on the Mississippi coast, such as at Biloxi. Harrison County was hit particularly hard by the hurricane, as well as the storm surge. Its two coastal cities, Biloxi and Gulfport suffered severe damage and many casualties were reported. By September 1, 126 people were already confirmed dead.Korosec, Thomas. "126 dead; gas, hot meals in short supply." Houston Chronicle. September 1, 2005. Widespread damage was reported in the city of Biloxi and several of the city's attractions were destroyed. Many restaurants have been destroyed and several casino barges were pulled out of the water and onto land. Residents that recalled Hurricane Camille observed that Katrina was, "much worse", with a storm surge reportedly reaching further inland. Katrina's wind estimates were lighter than Camille's, and the central air pressure was slightly higher, but Camille was also a much smaller storm, so the greater impact of Katrina's surge may be due to the size. The Biloxi-Ocean Springs Bridge was totally destroyed, and US 90 had heavy debris and severe damage to the roadbed. Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi was also damaged extensively. In Pass Christian, the destruction was almost complete. ===Jackson County=== Jackson County, Mississippi had a coastal storm tide of at least , with Hurricane Katrina coming ashore during the morning high tide. Reports stated that 90% of Pascagoula was flooded by the storm surge, and the storm was so intense that 3 US Navy ships were damaged. Moss Point and Escatawpa were also affected. Although the severe hurricane-force winds were recorded mainly east of downtown New Orleans, extending into Alabama, heavy rainfall led to inland flooding, including counties in western Mississippi. Also, the eastern outer bands of Hurricane Katrina spawned 62 tornadoes to the northeast (none in Louisiana), with 11 tornadoes in Mississippi, and 2 tornadoes in Georgia. For those reasons, all counties in Mississippi were affected in some tangible way, and hence, all Mississippi counties were designated as disaster areas for Federal assistance, with 49 lower counties eligible for full individual and public assistance. ==Alabama== Hurricane Katrina was the fifth recent storm to hit Alabama, and Alabama suffered widespread, moderate-to-heavy damage caused by hurricane-force winds, flooding by a storm tide of 14–18 feet, and tornadoes. "Tropical Cyclone Report, Hurricane Katrina" (post-analysis), National Hurricane Center, revised August 10, 2006, web PDF file: Massive damage occurred along coastal areas, pushing small ships and oil rigs ashore, flooding fishing areas with dozens of shrimp boats, destroying marinas plus hundreds of boardwalks, and swamping beachfront homes or hotels, with widespread tree damage and roofs or shingles torn off. Afterward, 22 counties in Alabama were declared disaster areas for Federal assistance (see map above, "Federal Disaster Areas"), spanning a 400-mile (640-km) region. Mobile Bay spilled into downtown Mobile, Alabama to the depth of . A flotel (floating habitat used by oil platform crews) broke loose of its moorings and slammed into the Cochrane–Africatown USA Bridge; the bridge damage was later found not to be critical but in the meantime its traffic was reduced from four lanes to two. There was cause for concern because the bridge, in conjunction with underwater tunnels, is a part of the I-10 Hazardous Materials route across the Mobile River. The Battleship Parkway crossing Mobile Bay was also closed before the storm and was completely submerged during the hurricane. Many coastal homes south of the Point Clear area were severely damaged, flooded, or swept away. Damage was quite heavy in coastal Alabama (comparable to Hurricane Ivan in 2004), including significant structural damage to many buildings. Bayou La Batre, a fishing town, sustained significant damage to its infrastructure and fishing fleet. It was the focal point of public attention given to Alabama in the aftermath of the storm. On Sunday, September 4, 2005, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited a community center in Bayou La Batre and surveyed storm damage with Alabama Governor Bob Riley. "Rice: Race Not An Issue In Efforts," Staff writer, CBS News, September 4, 2005, Retrieved on August 29, 2006. Some damage was reported in inland Alabama, as well, particularly related to fallen trees. An oil platform became grounded near Dauphin Island. More than 584,000 people were left without power in Alabama immediately after the storm. Tornadoes were also reported near Brewton. Towns on the Eastern Shore began regaining electric power on August 30, and power was restored to sections of Mobile beginning on the fifth day after the storm, September 3, 2005. An (inland) tropical storm wind warning was issued in every county in Alabama along and west of I-65. http://www.srh.noaa.gov/data/warn_archive/BMX/HLS/0828_185402.txt http://www.srh.noaa.gov/data/warn_archive/BMX/HLS/0829_092400.txt ==Georgia== Western Georgia was hit with the outer bands of Hurricane Katrina, resulting in heavy rains, damaging winds and several reports of tornadoes in Polk, Heard, and Carroll counties. In Polk County, three homes were damaged by a tornado. A fatal tornado in Carroll County resulted in the death of one person in a vehicle collision and caused damage to as many as 30 homes, and one additional fatality was reported. Severe weather was also reported in northeastern Georgia, including tornadoes in White and Hall counties. In White County, a tornado struck the tourist town of Helen, ripping the top floor from an Econolodge hotel and damaging businesses at a nearby outlet mall. Thirty people were displaced by the storm, but no injuries were reported. In Hall County, several homes were reported damaged by a possible tornado in Lula. A tornado in a feeder band moved through Decatur County to the west of Bainbridge in southwestern Georgia during the evening of August 29. On August 31, the price of gasoline shot up dramatically in and around the Atlanta metropolitan area, reaching as high as $6 per gallon. This was mainly due to consumer panic about lack of gasoline caused by Hurricane Katrina, which disrupted oil production in the Gulf of Mexico. ==Other U.S. states and Canadian provinces== ===Arkansas=== Arkansas avoided damage from Katrina, as the storm passed mainly to the east. The state established KARE (Katrina Assistance Relief Effort), a toll free telephone number and website for evacuees seeking assistance, and provided deep discounts on spaces at its state parks, waived pet restrictions, and allowed evacuees to stay even if other travelers had confirmed reservations (bumped travelers were offered either space at another state park or a gift certificate for future use). The governor instructed state agencies to take care of human needs first and worry about paperwork later. ===Kentucky=== Western Kentucky was already suffering flooding from storms that had passed through the area during the weekend prior to Katrina's arrival. Part of Christian County High School, located just outside Hopkinsville, collapsed during the weekend. Significant flooding was reported in the Hopkinsville area, and many homes were flooded. One person was killed in flood waters during Katrina that had already been high from the previous storm. Governor Ernie Fletcher, declared Christian, Todd, and Trigg counties disaster areas due to flooding, and declared a statewide state of emergency. ===New England=== Over of rain fell across parts of New England, especially in the northern part of the region. Gusty winds also caused many trees to fall across the region. ===New York=== Western New York received up to of rain. High winds from the storm left about 4,500 people in Buffalo without power. ===North Carolina=== North Carolina avoided damage from the storm, but gas prices rose in response to interrupted supply lines. Local hospitals received some regional evacuees. ===Ohio=== In Ohio, some flooding and power outages were reported (including about 2,500 outages in the easternmost part of the state alone), and several areas were evacuated throughout the state. One hospital in Dennison had to be evacuated as it lost power and its generator failed, but it was restored later in the day. Two deaths were blamed on the storm in Ohio, both indirect deaths from an automobile accident caused by Katrina's rains in Huron County north of the village of Monroeville. A F-0 force tornado hit Warren County on August 30, causing minor damage in Morrow and Salem Township. Three houses were damaged, but no injuries were reported. ===Ontario=== On August 30 heavy rain and tropical storm force wind gusts were reported in Southern Ontario as Katrina passed over the area before dissipating into a remnant low pressure system. Port Colborne and Brockville appeared to receive the most rain, both with over . Other regions in the province reported of rain, except near the New York border where up to was reported. There were also some spotty reports of flooding and damage due to fallen trees. ===Pennsylvania=== In Pennsylvania, at least two tornadoes spawned from Katrina's outer bands and touched down in the south-central part of the state south of Harrisburg. Numerous trees were blown down and several roofs were damaged. ===Quebec=== On August 31, the storm system previously known as Katrina was partially absorbed by a front and continued to produce heavy rainfall along the St. Lawrence River Valley. Several villages in the northeastern part of Quebec were isolated due to multiple washouts. Sections of roads were destroyed, effectively cutting these villages off via land travel. Affected areas were supplied by boats normally supplying the Magdalen Islands. The system crossed over uninhabited areas of Labrador before completely dissipating. ===Tennessee=== At the storm's peak, at least 80,000 customers were without power, primarily in the Memphis and Nashville areas. Some damage was reported, primarily due to fallen trees. However, there were no deaths or injuries reported in Tennessee as a result of Katrina. Tennessee was used as a staging area for Gulf Coast evacuees, particularly in and around Memphis. ===Texas=== Texas avoided any direct damage from Hurricane Katrina, but the state took in an estimated 220,000 people who sought refuge from Louisiana. On August 31, the Harris County, Texas Department of Homeland Security and Emergency Management and the State of Louisiana came to an agreement to allow at least 25,000 evacuees from New Orleans, especially those who were sheltered in the Louisiana Superdome, to move to the Astrodome until they could return home. The evacuation began on September 1. President George W. Bush announced on September 4 that additional evacuees would be airlifted to other states. The Reliant Astrodome in Houston took on some of the 25,000 who had initially sought shelter in the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, but quickly reached capacity and by September 2, was unable to accept additional hurricane evacuees from the disaster. The Astrodome was reopened a few hours later, after it was announced that all events scheduled through December 2005 would be cancelled so as to open the building to an additional 11,000 evacuees. City officials then opened two additional buildings adjacent to the Dome, the Arena, and the center, as well as the George R. Brown Convention Center in downtown Houston to house additional evacuees. When the Houston shelters began to reach capacity on September 2, Governor Rick Perry activated an emergency plan that made space for an additional 25,000 each in San Antonio and the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex, as well as smaller shelters in communities across Texas. Beginning with a convoy of 50 buses (2,700 people) that arrived at Reunion Arena in Dallas at 3:00 AM CST on September 3, a wave of over 120,000 additional evacuees began pouring into Texas at a rate such that, as of September 5, it was estimated there were roughly 139,000 evacuees in official shelters around the state. This, added to the estimated 90,000 that were already in hotels and homes, overwhelmed local resources. Dallas quickly sought help from nearby cities to help accommodate more evacuees. A staging area at the unused Big Town Mall in Mesquite was opened, but was also quickly overloaded. Fort Worth and Arlington accepted some evacuees, and towns from as far away as Bonham and even Tulsa, Oklahoma offered to help. By the afternoon of September 5, with a total estimated number of over 230,000 evacuees in Texas, Governor Perry ordered that buses begin being diverted to other shelters outside the state resulting in 20,000 being sent to Oklahoma and 30,000 being sent to Arkansas. By September 6, Texas had an estimated 250,000 evacuees and Governor Perry was forced to declare a state of emergency in Texas and issued an impassioned plea to other states to begin taking the 40,000-50,000 evacuees that were still in need of shelter. Many communities in Texas opened up many of their services to evacuees from Louisiana, offering speedier enrollment for children in local school districts, speedy access to the Texas food stamp program, as well as access to health services for those being treated for diseases like tuberculosis and HIV. Texas state parks were opened free of charge to evacuees. More than 300 students from Tulane University, including the school's football team, were displaced to Southern Methodist University in Dallas. The New Orleans Saints NFL football team, who were displaced from their home facility at the Superdome, moved temporarily to San Antonio. The Saints' 2005 home games were split between the Alamodome in San Antonio and Louisiana State University's Tiger Stadium in Baton Rouge. On December 30, 2005, the team and the league announced that the club would play a split schedule again in 2006. ===Virginia=== In Virginia, a tornado related to Katrina's outer bands touched down in Marshall, damaging at least 13 homes. In addition, electricity was lost by about 4,000 customers. No deaths or injuries were reported.Potter, Dena. "Katrina Damages Homes In Fauquier County." WUSA (TV). August 31, 2005. ===West Virginia=== Significant flooding was reported in several communities in West Virginia, including Sissonville, forcing some evacuations. ==See also== * Effect of Hurricane Katrina on Mississippi * Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans * Hurricane Rita - caused evacuation panic near Houston; re-flooded HAWII. ==References== ==External links== *NOAA Aerial Survey Photos of the Affected Areas *Regions
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Gymnastics World Championships refers to a number of different world championships for each of the disciplines in competitive gymnastics. The International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) organizes World Championships for six disciplines: acrobatic gymnastics, aerobic gymnastics, artistic gymnastics, parkour, rhythmic gymnastics, as well as trampoline and tumbling. The International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (IFAGG) organizes World Championships for the sport of aesthetic group gymnastics. ==List of championships== Number Discipline Competition First held Current frequency Most gold medals Organizer : FIG 1 Artistic gymnastics Artistic Gymnastics World Championships 1903 Except when the Summer Olympics are held 2 Rhythmic gymnastics Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships 1963 Except when the Summer Olympics are held 3 Trampoline and Tumbling gymnastics Trampoline and Tumbling Gymnastics World Championships 1964 Except when the Summer Olympics are held 4 Acrobatic gymnastics Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships 1974 5 Aerobic gymnastics Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships 1995 6 Parkour Parkour World Championships 2022 Organizer : IFAGG 7 Aesthetic group gymnastics World Aesthetic Group Gymnastics Championships 2000 ==FIG== ===Artistic Gymnastics World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (male/female) First in the Medal Table 1903 1 Antwerp 6 / 0 1905 2 Bordeaux 5 / 0 1907 3 Prague 5 / 0 1909 4 Luxembourg 5 / 0 1911 5 Turin 6 / 0 1913 6 Paris 6 / 0 1922 7 Ljubljana 6 / 0 1926 8 Lyon 6 / 0 1930 9 Luxembourg 7 / 0 1934 10 Budapest 8 / 2 1938 11 Prague 8 / 6 1950 12 Basel 8 / 6 1954 13 Rome 8 / 6 1958 14 Moscow 8 / 6 1962 15 Prague 8 / 6 1966 16 Dortmund 8 / 6 1970 17 Ljubljana 8 / 6 1974 18 Varna 8 / 6 1978 19 Strasbourg 8 / 6 1979 20 Fort Worth 8 / 6 1981 21 Moscow 8 / 6 1983 22 Budapest 8 / 6 1985 23 Montreal 8 / 6 1987 24 Rotterdam 8 / 6 1989 25 Stuttgart 8 / 6 1991 26 Indianapolis 8 / 6 1992 27 Paris 6 / 4 1993 28 Birmingham 7 / 5 1994 29 Brisbane 7 / 5 1994 30 Dortmund 1 / 1 1995 31 Sabae 8 / 6 1996 32 San Juan 6 / 4 1997 33 Lausanne 8 / 6 1999 34 Tianjin 8 / 6 2001 35 Ghent 8 / 6 2002 36 Debrecen 6 / 4 2003 37 Anaheim 8 / 6 2005 38 Melbourne 7 / 5 2006 39 Aarhus 8 / 6 2007 40 Stuttgart 8 / 6 2009 41 London 7 / 5 2010 42 Rotterdam 8 / 6 2011 43 Tokyo 8 / 6 2013 44 Antwerp 7 / 5 2014 45 Nanning 8 / 6 2015 46 Glasgow 8 / 6 2017 47 Montreal 7 / 5 2018 48 Doha 8 / 6 2019 49 Stuttgart 8 / 6 2021 50 Kitakyushu 7 / 5 2022 51 Liverpool 8 / 6 2023 52 Antwerp 8 / 6 Future event 2025 53 colspan="2" 7 / 5 Future event 2026 54 Rotterdam 8 / 6 Future event ===Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (female) First in the Medal Table 1963 1 Budapest 3 1965 2 Prague 3 1967 3 Copenhagen 5 1969 4 Varna 6 1971 5 Havana 6 1973 6 Rotterdam 6 1975 7 Madrid 6 1977 8 Basel 6 1979 9 London 6 1981 10 Munich 6 1983 11 Strasbourg 6 1985 12 Valladolid 6 1987 13 Varna 8 1989 14 Sarajevo 9 1991 15 Athens 9 1992 16 Brussels 8 1993 17 Alicante 7 1994 18 Paris 8 1995 19 Vienna 9 1996 20 Budapest 7 1997 21 Berlin 6 1998 22 Sevilla 3 1999 23 Osaka 9 2001 24 Madrid 6 2002 25 New Orleans 3 2003 26 Budapest 9 2005 27 Baku 9 2007 28 Patras 9 2009 29 Mie 9 2010 30 Moscow 9 2011 31 Montpellier 9 2013 32 Kyiv 8 2014 33 İzmir 9 2015 34 Stuttgart 9 2017 35 Pesaro 8 2018 36 Sofia 9 2019 37 Baku 9 2021 38 Kitakyushu 9 2022 39 Sofia 9 2023 40 Valencia 9 Future event ===Trampoline and Tumbling Gymnastics World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (male/female/mixed) First in the Medal Table 1964 1 London 1 / 1 / 0 1965 2 London 2 / 2 / 1 1966 3 Lafayette 3 / 3 / 0 1967 4 London 2 / 2 / 0 1968 5 Amersfoort 2 / 2 / 0 1970 6 Bern 2 / 2 / 0 1972 7 Stuttgart 2 / 2 / 0 1974 8 Johannesburg 2 / 2 / 0 1976 9 Tulsa 4 / 4 / 0 1978 10 Newcastle 4 / 4 / 0 1980 11 Brig 4 / 4 / 0 1982 12 Bozeman 7 / 7 / 0 1984 13 Osaka 7 / 7 / 0 1986 14 Paris 7 / 7 / 0 1988 15 Birmingham 7 / 7 / 0 1990 16 Essen 7 / 7 / 0 1992 17 Auckland 7 / 7 / 0 1994 18 Porto 7 / 7 / 0 1996 19 Vancouver 7 / 7 / 0 1998 20 Sydney 7 / 7 / 0 1999 21 Sun City 7 / 7 / 0 2001 22 Odense 7 / 7 / 0 2003 23 Hannover 7 / 7 / 0 2005 24 Eindhoven 7 / 7 / 0 2007 25 Quebec 7 / 7 / 0 2009 26 Saint Petersburg 7 / 7 / 0 2010 27 Metz 4 / 4 / 0 2011 28 Birmingham 7 / 7 / 0 2013 29 Sofia 7 / 7 / 0 2014 30 Daytona Beach 4 / 4 / 0 2015 31 Odense 7 / 7 / 0 2017 32 Sofia 7 / 7 / 0 2018 33 Saint Petersburg 4 / 4 / 1 2019 34 Tokyo 7 / 7 / 1 2021 35 Baku 7 / 7 / 1 2022 36 Sofia 7 / 7 / 1 2023 37 Birmingham 7 / 7 / 1 Future event ===Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (male/female/mixed) First in the Medal Table 1974 1 Moscow 9 / 9 / 3 1976 2 Saarbrücken 12 / 12 / 3 1978 3 Sofia 9 / 9 / 3 1980 4 Poznań 9 / 9 / 3 1982 5 London 9 / 9 / 3 1984 6 Sofia 9 / 9 / 3 1986 7 Rennes 9 / 9 / 3 1988 8 Antwerp 9 / 9 / 3 1990 9 Augsburg 9 / 9 / 3 1992 10 Rennes 9 / 9 / 3 1994 11 Beijing 9 / 9 / 3 1995 12 Wrocław 9 / 9 / 3 1996 13 Riesa 9 / 9 / 3 1997 14 Manchester 9 / 9 / 3 1998 15 Minsk 9 / 9 / 3 1999 16 Ghent 6 / 6 / 3 2000 17 Wrocław 6 / 6 / 3 2002 18 Riesa 2 / 2 / 1 2004 19 Lievin 2 / 2 / 1 2006 20 Coimbra 2 / 2 / 1 2008 21 Glasgow 2 / 2 / 1 2010 22 Wrocław 2 / 2 / 1 2012 23 Lake Buena Vista 2 / 2 / 1 2014 24 Levallois-Perret 2 / 2 / 1 2016 25 Putian 2 / 2 / 2 2018 26 Antwerp 2 / 2 / 2 2021 27 Geneva 2 / 2 / 2 2022 28 Baku 6 / 6 / 4 2024 29 Holon 6 / 6 / 4 Future event ===Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (male/female/mixed) First in the Medal Table 1995 1 Paris 1 / 1 / 2 1996 2 The Hague 1 / 1 / 2 1997 3 Perth 1 / 1 / 2 1998 4 Catania 1 / 1 / 2 1999 5 Hanover 1 / 1 / 2 2000 6 Riesa 1 / 1 / 2 2002 7 Klaipėda 1 / 1 / 3 2004 8 Sofia 1 / 1 / 3 2006 9 Nanjing 1 / 1 / 3 2008 10 Ulm 1 / 1 / 3 2010 11 Rodez 1 / 1 / 4 2012 12 Sofia 1 / 1 / 6 2014 13 Cancun 1 / 1 / 6 2016 14 Incheon 1 / 1 / 6 2018 15 Guimarães 1 / 1 / 6 2021 16 Baku 1 / 1 / 6 2022 17 Guimarães 1 / 1 / 6 2024 18 Pesaro 1 / 1 / 6 ===Parkour World Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (male/female) First in the Medal Table 2022 1 Tokyo 2 / 2 ==IFAGG== ===World Aesthetic Group Gymnastics Championships=== Year Edition Host city Country Events (female) First in the Medal Table 2000 1 Helsinki 1 2001 2 Tallinn 1 2002 3 Prague 1 2003 4 Graz 1 2004 5 Sofia 1 2005 6 Copenhagen 1 2006 7 Tampere 1 2007 8 Salou 1 2008 9 Toronto 1 2009 10 Moscow 1 2010 11 Varna 1 2011 12 Tartu 1 2012 13 Cartagena 1 2013 14 Lahti 1 2014 15 Moscow 1 2015 16 Tórshavn 1 2016 17 Brno 1 2017 18 Helsinki 1 2018 19 Budapest 1 2019 20 Cartagena 1 2021 21 Helsinki 1 2022 22 Graz 1 2023 23 Astana 1 Future event ==All-time medal table (FIG disciplines)== Acrobatic Aerobic Artistic Parkour Rhythmic Trampoline Combined Rk. Nation Total 1 2 76 68 73 12 12 10 90 57 46 0 1 0 0 1 2 55 31 10 233 170 141 544 3 5 10 24 0 0 0 62 52 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 72 71 54 139 133 121 393 4 57 80 79 3 6 1 5 6 13 0 0 0 69 59 53 1 2 2 135 153 148 436 5 0 0 0 6 2 0 52 58 71 0 1 0 2 5 6 12 10 11 72 76 88 236 6 0 0 0 18 20 21 48 45 42 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 66 65 64 195 7 23 33 43 1 2 1 7 12 18 1 0 0 25 28 38 7 12 12 64 87 112 263 8 (1950–1990) 6 0 2 0 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 17 16 13 17 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 8 1 1 3 20 0 33 0 36 0 57 73 109 239 9 3 5 3 5 14 10 25 30 26 0 0 1 0 0 2 20 27 31 53 76 73 202 10 (1964–1965) (1965) (1982) 15 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 37 2 0 1 32 3 1 0 49 71 78 198 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 34 0 8 29 0 10 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 42 39 129 12 3 11 23 0 0 0 14 7 11 0 0 0 10 28 41 11 21 20 38 67 95 200 13 0 0 0 3 5 7 15 12 29 0 1 1 16 21 12 0 0 0 34 39 49 122 14 0 0 0 12 3 2 3 3 2 0 1 0 7 11 21 1 2 4 23 20 29 72 15 15 48 69 0 0 0 5 2 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 12 21 55 90 166 Acrobatic Aerobic Artistic Parkour Rhythmic Trampoline Combined Rk. Nation Total 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 16 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 5 21 20 20 61 17 0 1 0 1 2 2 2 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 17 21 19 24 27 70 18 0 0 0 9 4 4 7 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 18 11 12 41 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 27 34 17 34 40 91 20 (1909–1913) (1922–1938) (1950–1992) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 4 0 1 10 1 0 1 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 13 14 44 21 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 12 13 16 16 14 46 22 0 0 0 10 6 6 6 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 16 8 10 34 23 0 1 6 4 9 7 11 15 8 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 15 25 22 62 24 9 9 5 0 0 0 2 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 11 16 15 42 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 2 2 1 0 0 3 1 2 0 0 0 11 3 4 18 26 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 5 1 10 5 3 18 27 0 2 1 0 0 0 8 3 3 0 0 0 1 2 4 0 0 0 9 7 8 24 28 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 7 2 6 15 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 8 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 3 6 10 7 23 30 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 17 3 9 17 29 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 4 1 8 32 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 5 33 1 5 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 4 11 34 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 3 10 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 6 Acrobatic Aerobic Artistic Parkour Rhythmic Trampoline Combined Rk. Nation Total 36 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 5 8 37 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 6 38 1 4 4 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 9 7 0 0 0 1 15 14 30 39 0 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 8 0 1 0 1 4 13 18 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 4 7 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 4 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 5 43 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 4 44 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 3 4 7 47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 5 48 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 50 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 4 51 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 53 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 54 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 – Unattached athlete(1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 ;Notes : (1) At the 1993 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, Valery Belenky earned a bronze medal competing as an unattached (UNA) athlete. Later, official documents from the International Gymnastics Federation credit his medal as a medal for Germany. ==See also== * Gymnastics at the Summer Olympics * Gymnastics at the Youth Olympic Games * Gymnastics at the World Games * Junior World Gymnastics Championships * Major achievements in gymnastics by nation ==References== ==External links== * Sports Acrobatics Category:Gymnastics competitions Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1903
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The model of masculinity under fascist Italy was an idealized version of masculinity prescribed by dictator Benito Mussolini during his reign as fascist dictator of Italy from 1925—1943. This model of masculinity, grounded in anti-modernism and traditional gender roles, was intended to help create a New Italian citizen in a budding New Italy. The model represents a mix between purported Roman ideal, comprising both mental and physical qualities. As such, it was later superimposed onto the political persona portrayed by Mussolini himself as he rallied to gather popular support for his fascist state. ==Earlier movements and influences== Following the birth of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, the state was still culturally fragmented.Gori, Gigliola. (1999). "Model of masculinity: Mussolini, the 'new Italian' of the Fascist era". International Journal of the History of Sport, 4, 27–61 Following World War I, there was an uprising of civil religion in Italy as a "state of collective euphoria" roused the nation. In addition, a process of nationalization of the masses was in desperate need within a country that lacked a national identity. In 1909, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founded the Futurist Movement, which advocated values such as instinct, strength, courage, sport, war, youth, dynamism and speed as exemplified by modern machines. Amid the introduction of this revolutionary, non-conformist ideology, it did not agree with the political philosophies of fascism, which was also just beginning to bud at that time. Futurism was thereby abandoned after 1920, and political regions became increasingly fervent as Mussolini came into power shortly thereafter. Mussolini, after having been elected to power in 1922, created a myth of himself, craftily adapting the image of the of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche to the Italian , which was grounded in the following credo: absolutely hegemony over life and death and good and evil. Mussolini underlined how Nietzsche had advocated an imminent return to the ideal, stating that "a new kind of 'free spirit' will come, strengthened by the war ... spirits equipped with a kind of sublime perversity ... new, free spirits, who will triumph over God and over Nothing!" Accordingly, war was regarded as the training ground of virility: a place to cultivate, embrace, and exercise masculinity to its fullest extent in the name of serving for one's nation with others as a collective entity.Bellassai, Sandro. (2005). "The masculine mystique: anti-modernism and virility in fascist Italy". Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 3, 314–335 Novelist Mario Carli provides a first-hand account of what was expected of Italian soldiers in this era: The wartime climate provided an opportune environment for Mussolini to reinforce the values which he extolled as central to his purported hegemonic masculinity. In addition, the wartime front provided a public stage for effective public actions. Mussolini openly boasted about conducting his efforts to introduce himself as a New Italian for the New Italy that was to come. ==Mussolini's exalted virility: a fascist anti-modernism== Fascist anti- modernism is a political ideology that consists of these salient elements: ruralism, anti-urbanism, anti-intellectualism, anti-bourgeoisie, anti- feminism, and pro-natalism. The fascist regime imparted a carefully controlled, diversely dispersed propaganda which was in the name of delivering the New Italian, or the New Italy. Public media was monitored: newspapers, magazines, as well as lowbrow popular romances and biographies, were rigorously controlled by the regime because they were broadly diffused throughout society, and the implications of the public of Mussolini could be positive or negative depending on the content of such mass media. Also, overt suggestions were made as to the proper conducts of an ideal Roman citizen: exaltation of the virile, dominant, and nationalistic masculine identity. The term 'virility' represents a key feature of the fascist vision of the world. The imparting of this hegemonic masculinity had the purpose of allowing fascist leaders to maintain their status quo, aside from the management of their public image. It is for this reason that all forms of 'modern' masculinity were seen as a direct threat to the stability of the fascist state, and thus were actively rendered obsolete. As an ideology that prefers traditional ways, fascism emphasized a hierarchical relationship between male and female relations, one that was grounded in a patriarchal view of gender dynamics. Arguments were made by the fascist government that the involvement of female workers in traditionally all-male workplaces would disrupt the power hierarchy that supported society. In addition, arguments were put forth that a mother working in the workplace would be transferring all her maternal responsibilities to that of the husband, which may become exasperated with the aspect of familial caretaking all together, further endangering the integrity and sustenance of the family unit. As per issues involving masculinity, fascist rhetoric advocated for misogynistic, homophobic, and virilistic values in their campaign during the 1920s and made direct references as to the accepted and unaccepted gender codes, as explained in this passage: ===Ruralism=== The rural man was exalted to be among the ideal hegemonic forms of masculinity by the fascist government because it did not pose a direct threat to the integrity of the fascist government. It was traditional, and it was anti-modern. Ardegno Soffici describes such hegemonic masculinity as apparent in rural Italy: As the antithesis of the bourgeoisie, such a figure was iconic of the suggestions put forth by the fascist government as the way to be when it came down to cultivating masculinity. It is important to keep in mind that fascist ruralism aimed explicitly at the restoration of a traditional, pre-modern and rigidly hierarchical moral order. In other words, the fascist regime used the depiction of ruralism as a gateway through the regime attempted to revert modernism to traditionalism thinking styles, which were far from modernism, deeply rooted in traditionalism. In this respect, village youth that sought to leave the village and relocate to larger cities were portrayed as individuals putting the fate of the nation at risk through their behavior: Modernism, one phenomenon which includes the relocation of youth from villages to more developed urban cities, is seen in negative light by the fascist government because it is creating a sub-type of Italian masculinity that is more adept in living within metropolitan areas, taking on less responsibilities suggested by the regime (as indicative of hegemonic masculinity). In other words, the Italian youth are no longer working in the farmlands cultivating the soil, but are instead, "de-masculinizing" themselves in the light of the fascist government and rendering the entire Italian country less fertile. Metaphorically, this means that they are cultivating less of their hegemonic masculinity that they should be embracing, and physically, they are contributing less to the state because those that move into the city usually have less children and marry less frequently, the regime argued. In addition, the safe environment of the metropolis prevents the New Italian (male) from enjoying his contact with nature, and has prevented him from contemplating deeply about the moral challenges, none of which are brought upon to him as a result of the artificial, "materialistic" metropolitan atmosphere that is void of dangers and adversities. ===Anti- intellectualism=== Intellectuals were seen as a threat by the Fascist regime because they advocated for a masculinity which was associated with the bourgeoisie. More importantly, the values upheld by the intellectual class were in direct opposition to the values advocated by the fascist government, which were the exaltation of action, impulsivity, and youth. Youth was amongst the many ambiguous terms employed by the fascist government to manipulate the public's perception of hegemonic masculinity. It was ambiguous in that the term was often used to refer to the promising potentialities of current, present-day youth, as well as the youthful Roman soldiers, gleaming with their sharp mind and shining armor, eons ago. This narrative passage provides the stance on intellectualism very clearly: As such as the intellectualism as defined by the fascists, as a pathology of masculinity. ===Anti-feminism=== During this era, there was a salient, overarching belief grounded in science that females were biologically inferior to men. It is for this reason that a prevalence of feminine elements in a person corresponded to an actual regression of the human being on the evolutionary scale. It is for this reason that the active pursuit of vehement exercising and modern sports activities was strongly suggested as a measure to increase masculinity and combat any signs of femininity in one's lifestyle. In other words, it was through the indoctrination of the belief that weak males were inferior like females that Mussolini raised the importance of sport and exercise, which he managed to list as one of the essential quotas for qualifying as an acceptable male in the New Italy. Unsurprisingly, the effort by Mussolini to exalt the inferiority of females in relation to men created an imbalance in the public sphere. Women were forced and coerced to stay and remain in the domestic sphere, and the public generated an environment where this was deemed a convention: countless novels, moralizing works and articles of all sorts of publication aimed to exalt the woman as wife and mother and extinguish any spark of the terrible modernist conflagration.Paolo Ardali, "La politica demografica di Mussolini", Casa Ed. Mussolinia, Mantua, 1929, cited in Meldini (1976:162)" In this way, in the name of maintaining status quo, women were rendered into means of achieving and maintaining male supremacy: a representation of the 'new woman' in pathological terms was advanced in order to trace a line between orthodoxy and deviance, but the description of a monstrous figure devoid of feminity, rather than presenting a solution to the problem, often achieved the effect of amplifying the very sense of alarm that the problem itself provoked". Females were forced to remain as figures of antiquity, stationary, serving as an unchanging foundation onto which males stood on to maintain their supremacy. The theme of rejecting feminism has been prevailing throughout Italy's history, dating back to the days of peasant farmers and feudal lords. ===Anti-bourgeois=== The fascist regime regarded the bourgeois as an obstacle of modernism because of its purported par excellence. The bourgeois and the bourgeois spirit were exploited, with the latter being used to manipulate the public. For example, Benito Mussolini, in a 1938 speech, voiced the clear distinction between capitalism and bourgeoisie, in which case he described the bourgeoisie as a moral category, a state of mind. In the final years of the regime, interests of Catholic circles and that of Benito Mussolini merged. During this period, one priest who founded the journal Frontespizio, Giuseppe De Luca, declared that: The bourgeois was perceived as unmanly, effeminate, and infantile in the following quote: The economic freedom and mobility as exemplified by the bourgeois posed a direct threat to the integrity of the fascist regime. If and when the bourgeois gain power, there is the potential loss of control and unity as maintained by the state, so this is seen as threatening by Mussolini and his followers. To become bourgeois was still a fault pertaining to the masculine mystique: not by change, shortly after, the bourgeois was scornfully defined as someone who was "spiritually castrated". ==Mussolini as the hegemonic male== It was at the beginning of the century that the code of the Superman was embraced in Italy, with the purpose of infusing new life into what ought to be pursued as the New Man (or New Italian), or the masculine ideal, in addition to that of the New Italy, which for Benito Mussolini, signified a fascist government where he was the dictator in full control. He mandated that the New Man be brutal, barbarous, and abandon his romanticism. His conception of the New Futurist Man, building on previous futurist concepts, entailed: disdain of death and books, in love with virility, violence, and war; a people particularly endowed with "creative genius, elasticity in improvisation, strength, ability and physical resistance, impetus, violence, fury in the fight".Italian Pride, De Maria, Futurist Invention, p.503 It is evident through such descriptions of what a Roman male ought to be, that Mussolini is keenly tying in together political propaganda and proscribed, normative gender constructs. For example, a special emphasis on uniformity was given to the Fascist socialization of the Italian people to minimize the chance of a possible revolt against his regime, and the effective mobilization of the Italian army in time of war. Mussolini presented himself as the perfect prototype of the New Italian, being the "living and working model of ethical and political individuality' to which the Italians had to aspire.R. Cantalupo, The Managerial Class (Milan, 1928), pp. 74–75. ===Institutionalization=== Institutional measures were put in place to accelerate the process of acculturation of individuals into the political ideology purported by Mussolini: schools, physical education programs, and mandatory military service to the state. In other words, measures were devised by the fascist state to maximize the infiltration of the fascist ideology with regards to normative masculine ways of life. The shape of the New Italian via fascisticization took on the form of physically, mentally, and spiritually connecting oneself with the past. Mussolini purported the eighteenth-century belief that a well-structured mind requires the cultivation of a well- structured body. He believed that the virility of male bodies was essential to reconstruct in a modern context the ancient and warlike 'Italian descent' as the National, then European and finally International model. The New Italian was encouraged to assume the Fascist style, which included canons of male beauty as advocated by the regime. He had to personify , on behalf of the Roman spirit and in the service of the cause. It is evident that, drawing on his beliefs of traditionalism, he is attempting to refine his conception of the ancient Roman empire to the fullest, illustrating the ancient virtues in present-day military discipline of mind, body, and soul. (ONMI) was founded in 1925 and specialized in the physical and moral improvement of the Italian race, accepting children up to three years old as well as mothers who provided assistance to staff. Young students from 8 to 14 years of age were then enlisted in the (ONB), founded a year after the ONMI, which sought to engrain the fundamentals of fascism on a deeper level, into the conscious: students were organized in groups with names evoking the Roman spirit, the country and war. Students that did not pursue advanced studies were mandated to enlist in the (MVSN), and from 1930, the (FGC). As organizations devoted to develop military character in preparation for conscription, they served the needs of the fascist government in the interest of maintaining a united government with an army ready when the safety of the nation was at stake. In addition to the aforementioned institutions, universities such as the (GUF) and were all devoted to the furthering of the fascist regime, and the subsequent spreading of a military character, the spreading of the New Italian. It is evident that through these institutions, the Fascist regime insinuated itself into the Italian social fabric, endeavouring to fascisticize the world of school, work, and free time. Fascism is, in other words, permeating into all sectors of society. Mussolini illustrated his perception of masculinity, as well as its connection to sports, with the famous statues, commissioned and supplied under his incentives by the sixty Italian provinces.Sideris A., "The Athletic Body: Image and Power", Imeros 5.1, 2005, pp. 300–302. Marinetti described that: "Male children must, according to us, be training far differently from female children, because their early games are clearly masculine ones—that is without affective morbidity, womanish sensibility—but lively, bellicose, muscular and violently dynamic. The successful transmission of such virtues may have resulted in the prevalence of bullying in some present-day intuitions, as discussed in one article titled "The Role of Masculinity in Children's Bullying" (2006)Gini, G., Pozzoli, T. (2006). The Role of Masculinity in Children's Bullying. Sex Roles, 54, 585-588. which concludes that for a small population of children in an Italian elementary school, bullying is a method with which males exert their masculine prowess over another. Some scholarship suggests that, being an imperfect or partial totalitarianism,Shorten, Richard. (2012). Modernism and Totalitarianism. New York: Palgrave, p. 254 fascism could only implement this model of masculinity to a limited degree.Champagne, John. (2012). Aesthetic Modernism and Masculinity in Fascist Italy. New York: Routledge. Pointing to a variety of factors—the advent of Taylorism in Italy, the catholicity of the regime's patronage strategies, its support among industrialists, and the contradictions of modern masculinity itself—such scholarship highlights representations of masculinity that offered a counter to this bellicose model. These include, for example, the paintings of homosexual artists such as Corrado Cagli, Filippo de Pisis and Guglielmo Janni, the poetry of Sandro Penna, and composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco's 1936 setting of several of Walt Whitman's Calamus poems. ==Footnotes== Category:Italian Fascism Category:Gender roles by society Category:Masculinity
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According to Dr. Naseeb Shaheen, Shakespeare, in writing his plays, "seldom borrows biblical references from his sources, even when those sources contain many references." Roy Battenhouse notes that the Shakespearean tragedy "frequently echoes Bible language or paradigm, even when the play's setting is pagan." Similarly, Peter Milward notes that despite their secular appearance, Shakespeare's plays "conceal an undercurrent of religious meaning which belongs to their deepest essence." Further, Milward maintains that although Shakespeare "may have felt obliged by the circumstances of the Elizabethan stage to avoid Biblical or other religious subjects for his plays," such obligation "did not prevent him from making full use of the Bible in dramatizing his secular sources and thus infusing into them a Biblical meaning." Milward continues that, in writing his plays (in particular, the tragedies), Shakespeare "shows the universal relevance of the Bible both to the reality of human life 'in this harsh world' and to its ideal in the heart of God." Steven Marx suggests "a thorough familiarity with the Scriptures" is a prerequisite to understanding the Biblical references in the plays, and that the plays' references to the Bible "illuminate fresh and surprising meanings in the biblical text."Marx, Steven (2000). Shakespeare and the Bible, Oxford University Press, p. 13 Marx further notes that "it is possible that Shakespeare sometimes regarded his own role of playwright and performer as godlike, his own book as potent and capacious as 'The Book'."Marx, Steven (2000). Shakespeare and the Bible, Oxford University Press, pp. 12–13 It is important to note, as a recent study points out “The diversity of versions reflected in Shakespeare’s writing indicates that ‘Shakespeare’s Bible’ cannot be taken for granted as unitary, since it consists of a network of different translations” DeCook, Travis and Alan Galey, eds. Shakespeare, the Bible, and the Form of the Book. New York: Routledge (2011) p. 9. == Specific examples == * In 2 Henry VI, Shakespeare suggests his own biblical verses. Per Shaheen: ** “The many biblical references that occur throughout the play are Shakespeare’s own. Shakespeare’s use of Scripture in the play can be seen in the way he drew the character of the king. [Edward] Hall depicts Henry as "a man of a meke spirite, and of a simple witte, preferryng peace before warre, reste before businesse, honestie before profite, and quietnesse before laboure…. There could be none, more chaste, more meke, more holy, nor a better creature…. He gaped not for honor, nor thirsted for riches, but studied onely for the health of his soule: the savyng wherof, he estemed to bee the greatest wisedome” [Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and Yorke, first published in 1548] (3.105). But Hall makes no biblical references when depicting Henry as a meek, pious ruler, void of ambition. Shakespeare, however, gives the entire play a religious cast, and puts many biblical references and religious expressions in the mouths of his characters.” ** "Some of these religious utterances strongly suggest Scripture, but do not seem to be biblical references." Shaheen notes for example the lines "O Lord, that lends me life, Lend me a heart replete with thankfulness!" (1.1.19–20) and "God's goodness hath been great to thee. Let never day nor night unhallowed pass, But still remember what the Lord hath done." (2.1.82–84) contain "strong overtones of Scripture, but no actual references seem to be involved. The play contains many similar passages that are difficult to deal with, passages that are best classified as religious sentiments rather than actual biblical references."Shaheen, Naseeb (1999, 2011). Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, p. 301. * In 3 Henry VI, Shakespeare took a biblical theme from a prior source and expanded its usage of biblical references. Per Shaheen: ** “[Edward] Hall's theme [per his Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and Yorke, first published in 1548] was moral. He sought to demonstrate God's providence towards England, and repeatedly points out that those who commit evil will sooner or later be punished. Yet his account contains very few biblical references. Inspired by Hall's theme of divine retribution, Shakespeare adds biblical references that reflect that theme (1.4.168 "My blood upon your heads!"; 2.2.129 "Their blood upon thy head."; 2.6.55 "Measure for measure must be answered.").” ** "An example of how Shakespeare added biblical references to what he found in his sources can be seen in the passage in Hall relating the death of Warwick's brother. Hall simply says: “He [Lord Fitzwater] was slayne, and with hym the Bastard of Salisbury, brother to the erle of Warwycke, a valeaunt yong gentelman." (3.181). In 2.3.14–23 Shakespeare expands that statement into a passage that contains at least three biblical references:” *** 2.3.15: Thy brother’s blood the thirsty earth hath drunk. (Genesis 4.10–11) *** 2.3.17: And in the very pangs of death he cried. (Compare 2 Samuel 22.5) *** 2.3.22: [Possible biblical reference] "gave up the ghost" (Genesis 49.33; Compare also Genesis 35.18; Matthew 27.50; Acts 5.10) *** 2.3.23: Then let the earth be drunken with our blood! (Per Shaheen, "A common biblical expression." Compare Judith 6.4; Isaiah 49.26; Revelation 17.6. Compare also Deuteronomy 32.42; Jeremiah 46.10; Ezekiel 39.19)Shaheen, Naseeb (1999, 2011). Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, pp. 324, 328–9. * In Henry V, Shakespeare adds biblical themes to his prior sources. Per Shaheen: “[T]here is nothing in any of Shakespeare's sources that is parallel to Henry's discussion on the responsibility for war and the fate of the soldiers who die therein (4.1.124-91), or to Henry's musings on kingship (4.1.230-84), which contain a large number of biblical and liturgical references. These passages with their references are original with Shakespeare."Shaheen, Naseeb (1999, 2011). Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, p. 449. * Per Shaheen, “Shakespeare’s use of the book of Revelation in Antony and Cleopatra is outstanding…. Since only three chapters of Revelation were read during Morning and Evening Prayer in the Church of England (…[reference to chapters and church days]…), Shakespeare must have privately read much of Revelation shortly before of during the composition of the play." He further states, "The references to Exodus in act 3 scene 13 are also noteworthy."Shaheen, Naseeb (1999, 2011). Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, p. 644. * Per Shaheen, Timon of Athens "provides rare insights into his manner of composition and has several biblical references that are of considerable interest." He further states, "As is Shakespeare's custom throughout his plays, his use of Scripture in Timon is primarily intended to serve dramatic ends rather than to have theological significance."Shaheen, Naseeb (1999, 2011). Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, pp. 670, 671. * In Macbeth, Act IV, Scene iii, Macduff offers his assistance to Malcolm, saying, “Thy royal father / Was a most sainted king; the queen that bore thee, / Oftener upon her knees than on her feet / Died every day she lived.” The last part is a direct allusion to 1 Corinthians 15, verse 31: "I affirm, by the boasting in you which I have in Christ Jesus our Lord, I die daily." All of the foregoing examples as provided by Shaheen suggest that Shakespeare was well-acquainted with the Bible and its various themes via individual verses spread throughout its various chapters enough so that he could easily expand upon any said theme with his own continuation of such verses. == Versions of the Bible used by Shakespeare == === Geneva Bible === R. A. L. Burnet states: “[A]s Professor E. P. Dickie has pointed out to me, words found in the margin [of the Geneva Bible] will not have circulated very readily nor become proverbial sayings. Shakespeare would not have heard these words either in church or in conversation; he could only have read them."Burnet, R. A. L. (April 1979). "Shakespeare and the Marginalia of the Geneva Bible," Notes and Queries 26(2), p. 113. === Bishop's Bible === === Tomson's New Testament === === Rheims New Testament === Although Naseeb Shaheen's important study calls attention to three references to the Rheims translation of the New Testament, it overlooks a number of other allusions or correspondences. For example, Matthew 3.2 is translated in the Tyndale, Geneva, Great and Bishops’ translations as “Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand,” but in the Rheims translation it is “Do penance: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” This significant difference in translation, of importance for the Catholic sacrament of penance and the theological notion of satisfaction for sins, occurs numerous times in the Rheims New Testament and nineteen times in Shakespeare's plays. There are some seventy other possible references, according to David Beauregard Beauregard, David. "Shakespeare and the Rheims New Testament (1582): Old Claims and New Evidence" Renascence XLVII.2 (2015), 107-26. == References == == Sources for the Bible in Shakespeare == * Abend, Murray. "Some Biblical Influences in Shakespeare's Plays" Notes and Queries CXCV (23 Dec 1950): 554–8. * Ackermann, Carl. The Bible in Shakespeare Columbus, Ohio: The Lutheran Book Concern, n.d. * Anders, Henry R. D. “Chapter 6: The Bible and the Prayer Book” Shakespeare’s Books: A Dissertation on Shakespeare’s Reading and the Immediate Sources of His Works Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1904. * Batson, Beatrice ed. Shakespeare’s Christianity: The Protestant and Catholic Poetics of Julius Caesar, Macbeth and Hamlet Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2006. * Batson, Beatrice ed. Word and Rite: The Bible and Ceremony in Selected Shakespearean Works Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010. * Battenhouse, Roy ed. Shakespeare’s Christian Dimension: An Anthology of Commentary Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. * Beauregard, David. "Shakespeare and the Rheims New Testament (1582): Old Claims and New Evidence" Renascence XLVII.2 (2015), 107-26. * Bullock, Charles. Shakespeare’s Debt to the Bible London: Hand and Heart Publishing Offices, 1879. * Burgess, William. The Bible in Shakespeare: A Study of the Relation of the Works of William Shakespeare to the Bible New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1903. * Burnet, R. A. L. “A Further Echo of Gilby’s ‘Commentary on Micah’ in Macbeth” Notes and Queries 29(2) (Apr 1982): 123–4. * Burnet, R. A. L. “Macbeth’s ‘I Have Lived Long Enough’: A Gilby Echo?” Notes and Queries 27(2) (Apr 1980): 181. * Burnet, R. A. L. “Shakespeare and the First Seven Chapters of the Genevan Job” Notes and Queries 29(2) (Apr 1982): 127–8. * Burnet, R. A. L. “Shakespeare and the Marginalia of the Geneva Bible” Notes and Queries 26(2) (Apr 1979): 113–4. * Burnet, R. A. L. “Some Echoes of the Genevan Bible in Shakespeare and Milton” Notes and Queries 27(2) (Apr 1980): 179–81. * Burnet, R. A. L. “Two Further Echoes of the Genevan Margin in Shakespeare and Milton” Notes and Queries 28(2) (Apr 1981): 129. * Carter, Thomas. Shakespeare and Holy Scripture: With the Version He Used London: Hodder and Stroughton, 1905. * Coleman, Hamilton. Shakespeare and the Bible New York: Vantage Press Inc., 1955. * Colton, Garden Quincy; ed. and enhanced by Giovanni A. Orlando. Shakespeare and the Bible Future Technologies, Inc., 2011–2012. * DeCook, Travis and Alan Galey ed. Shakespeare, the Bible, and the Form of the Book: Contested Scriptures New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2012. * Eaton, T[homas] R[ay]. Shakespeare and the Bible London: James Blackwood, 1858. * Ellis, Charles. Shakespeare and the Bible: Sonnets with their Scriptural Harmonies n.p., 1896. * Fisch, Harold. The Biblical Presence in Shakespeare, Milton and Blake: A Comparative Study Oxford University Press, 1999. * Frye, Roland Mushat. Shakespeare and Christian Doctrine Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963. * Groves, Beatrice. “Shakespeare’s Sonnets and the Genevan Marginalia” Essays in Criticism 57(2) (Apr 2007): 114–28. * Groves, Beatrice. Texts and Traditions: Religion in Shakespeare 1592–1604 Oxford University Press, 2007. * Groves, Beatrice. “‘The Wittiest Partition’: Bottom, Paul, and Comedic Resurrection” Notes and Queries 54(3) (Sep 2007): 277–82. * Hall, Grace R. W. The Tempest as Mystery Play: Uncovering Religious Sources of Shakespeare’s Most Spiritual Work Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1999. * Hamlin, Hannibal. The Bible in Shakespeare Oxford University Press, 2013. * Hankins, John Erskine. Shakespeare’s Derived Imagery University of Kansas Press, 1953; reprinted 1967; 2nd Octagon printing New York: Octagon Books, 1977. * Hassel, Chris R. Jr. Shakespeare’s Religious Language: A Dictionary New York: Continuum, 2005. * Henley, William Ernest. English Lyrics: Chaucer to Poe, 1340–1809 n.p., 1897; 2nd ed. London, 1905. [Shakespeare is given 11 pages for 22 lyrics] * Huntington, Frederic D. Religious and Moral Sentences culled from the Works of Shakespeare, compared with Sacred Passages drawn from Holy Writ n.p., 1859. * Jaeger, Ronald W. "A Biblical Allusion in Shakespeare's Sonnet 154" Notes and Queries 19(4) (Apr 1972): 125. * Malcolm, W. H. Shakspere and Holy Writ London: Marcus Ward & Co., Limited, n.d. * Marx, Steven. Shakespeare and the Bible Oxford University Press, 2000. * Milward, Peter. Biblical Influences in Shakespeare's Great Tragedies Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1987. * Milward, Peter. Biblical Themes in Shakespeare: Centring on King Lear Tokyo, Japan: The Renaissance Institute, 1975. * Milward, Peter. Shakespeare’s Religious Background Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1973. * Moore, Peter R. “A Biblical Echo in Romeo and Juliet” Notes and Queries 51(3) (Sep 2004): 278–9. * Nicholson, B[rinsley]. "Shakespeare and the Bible" Notes and Queries s3-IX(212) (20 Jan 1866): 55–6. * Nicholson, Brinsley. "Shakespeare and the Bible" Notes and Queries s4-I(16) (18 Apr 1868): 368–70. * Noble, Richmond. Shakespeare's Biblical Knowledge and Use of the Book of Common Prayer as Exemplified in the Plays of the First Folio Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1935; reprinted Octagon Books, 1970. * Pearce, Joseph. Through Shakespeare's Eyes: Seeing the Catholic Presence in the Plays San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2010. * Rees, James. Shakespeare and the Bible Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger, 1876. * Seiss, J. A. “The influence of the Bible on literature” The Evangelical Review 27, Jul 1853, 1–17. [parallels in Portia's speech on ‘the quality of mercy’] * Selkirk, James Brown. Bible Truths with Shakspearean Parallels: Being Selections from Scripture, Moral, Doctrinal, and Preceptial, with Passages Illustrative of the Text, from the Writings of Shakspeare London: Whittaker and Co., 1862. * Shaheen, Naseeb. Biblical References in Shakespeare's History Plays, Newark: University of Delaware Press, (1989), . * Shaheen, Naseeb. Biblical References in Shakespeare’s Plays Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1999, . "This volume provides a survey of the English Bibles of Shakespeare's day, notes their similarities and differences, and indicates which version the playwright knew best. The biblical references in each of Shakespeare's plays are then analyzed, as are his references to the Prayer Book and the homilies. The question of what constitutes a valid biblical reference is also discussed." * Shaheen, Naseeb. Biblical References in Shakespeare’s Plays Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2011, . * Shaheen, Naseeb. Biblical References in Shakespeare's Tragedies, Newark: University of Delaware Press, (1987) . * Shaheen, Naseeb. "Henry V and Its Quartos" Shakespeare Newsletter (Fall 2007) 57 (2): 43–48. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “A Note on Troilus and Cressida, II.iii.1–37” Notes and Queries 44(4) (Dec 1997): 503–5. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “Ruth 3:15 – The ‘He’ and ‘She’ Bibles” Notes and Queries 56(4) (Dec 2009): 621–4. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “Shakespeare and the Authorized Version” Notes and Queries 45(3) (Sep 1998): 343–5. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “Shakespeare and the Bishops’ Bible” Notes and Queries 47(1) (Mar 2000): 94–7. * Shaheen, Naseeb. "Shakespeare and the Rheims New Testament" American Notes & Queries (Jan/Feb 1984) 22 (5/6): 70. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “Shakespeare and the Tomson New Testament” Notes and Queries 42(3) (Sep 1995): 290–1. * Shaheen, Naseeb. "Shakespeare's Knowledge of the Bible – How Acquired" Shakespeare Studies Vol. 20, (1988): 201. * Shaheen, Naseeb. "Shakespeare's Knowledge of Italian" Shakespeare Survey (1994) 47: 161. "Studies the Italian narrative sources of William Shakespeare's plays. Shakespeare's acquaintance with John Florio's language manuals; Adherence of Shakespeare's plays to his Italian sources; Evidence in `The Merchant of Venice.'" * Shaheen, Naseeb. "Shakespeare's Sonnet 146" English Language Notes (Jun 2004) 41 (4): 15–19. * Shaheen, Naseeb. "The Taverner Bible, Jugge's Edition of Tyndale, and Shakespeare" English Language Notes (Dec 2000) 38 (2): 24. * Shaheen, Naseeb. “‘Trifles Light as Air’: A Note on Othello, III.iii.313” Notes and Queries 27(2) (Apr 1980): 169–70. * Shaheen, Naseeb. "A Young Scholar from Rheims" English Language Notes (Mar 1993) 30 (3): 7. * Sherbo, Arthur. “More on the Bible in Shakespeare” Notes and Queries 56(2) (Jun 2009): 270–4. * Sim, James H. Dramatic Uses of Biblical Allusions in Marlowe and Shakespeare, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1966. * Slater, Ann Pasternak. “Variations Within a Source: from Isaiah xxix to ‘The Tempest’” Shakespeare Survey: An Annual Survey of Shakespearian Study and Production 25, Cambridge University Press, 1972, 125–35. * Stritmatter, Roger. "The Heavenly Treasure of Sonnets 48 and 52" Notes and Queries 46(2) (Jun 1999): 226–8. * Stritmatter, Roger. "The Influence of a Genevan Note from Romans 7:19 on Shakespeare's Sonnet 151" Notes and Queries 44(4) (Dec 1997): 514–6. * Stritmatter, Roger A. The Marginalia of Edward de Vere's Geneva Bible: Providential Discovery, Literary Reasoning, and Historical Consequence Feb 2001. * Stritmatter, Roger. “A New Biblical Source for Shakespeare’s Concept of ‘All Seeing Heaven’” Notes and Queries 46(2) (Jun 1999): 207–9. * Stritmatter, Roger. "‘Old’ and ‘New’ Law in The Merchant of Venice: A Note on the Source of Shylock's Morality in Deuteronomy 15" Notes and Queries 47 (1) (2000): 70-72. * Stritmatter, Roger. “By Providence Divine: Shakespeare’s Awareness of Some Geneva Marginal Notes of I Samuel” Notes and Queries 47(1) (Mar 2000): 97–100. * Stritmatter, Roger. "The Biblical Source of Harry of Cornwall's Theological Doctrine" Notes and Queries 48 (3) (2001): 280-282. * Stritmatter, Roger. “Shakespeare’s Ecclesiasticus 28.2–5: A Biblical Source for Ariel’s Doctrine of Mercy” Notes and Queries 56(1) (Mar 2009): 67–70. * Stritmatter, Roger. "Revelations 14:13 and Hamlet I.v.91–108: ‘Write, Blessed are the Dead!’" Notes and Queries 60 (3) (2013): 415-418. * Stritmatter, Roger. "‘My Name Be Buried Where My Body Is’: The Influence of Ecclesiasticus 41 on Sonnets 71–74" Notes and Queries 62 (4) (2015): 583-586. * Swinburne, Charles Alfred. Sacred & Shakesperian Affinities: Being Analogies Between the Writings of the Psalmists and of Shakespeare 1890, reprinted New York: Haskell House Publishers Ltd., 1971. * Timmins, J. F. The Poet-Priest: Shakespearian Sermons Compiled for the Use of Students and Public Readers 1884. * Waugaman, Richard M. “Psalm Echoes in Shakespeare’s 1 Henry VI, Richard II, and Edward III” Notes and Queries 57(3) (Jun 2010): 359–64. * Waugaman, Richard M. “The Sternhold and Hopkins Whole Book of Psalms is a Major Source for the Works of Shakespeare” Notes and Queries 56(4) (Dec 2009): 595–604. * Wordsworth, Charles. Shakespeare's Knowledge and Use of the Bible London 1864, 4th ed. revised London: Eden, Remington & Co. Publishers, 1892. Zinman,Ira, ed. (2009).Shakespeare's Sonnets and the Bible. foreword by HRH Charles Prince of Wales. Bloomington. World Wisdom. Category:William Shakespeare Category:Christian Bible
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King George V School (KGV, pronounced "K-G-Five") is a coeducational international secondary independent school of the English Schools Foundation (ESF), located in Ho Man Tin, Hong Kong. The school has more than 3,000 students and is one of the oldest schools in Hong Kong. Students take IGCSEs/GCSEs followed by the International Baccalaureate Diploma or the British BTEC programme. There is a Learning Enhancement Centre (LEC) for students with learning difficulties. The campus has an area of . The school is one of three ESF secondary schools in Kowloon and the New Territories, the others being Sha Tin College and Renaissance College. ==History== === Pre-WWII period === KGV is the oldest of all schools in the English Schools Foundation. It first opened in 1894 on Nathan Road, and originally catered for the children of British people living in Kowloon. At the time, the school occupied just one small building. It was destroyed in a typhoon in 1896, and Kowloon College opened in its place in 1902. A major opening ceremony took place and was attended by many of Hong Kong's elite, including Major General Gascoigne, the Apostolic Vicar of the territory's diocese Louis Piazzoli, and the Colonial Secretary J.H. Stewart Lockhart. The school was built using donations from Hong Kong businessman Sir Robert Hotung.Sally Rodwell. 1991. A Visitor's guide to Historic Hong Kong. The school was subsequently renamed the Kowloon British School, then the Central British School, and later King George V School. By 1930, the number of students in the school had grown to 300. Wooden huts were built at the back of the school to create extra classrooms. The playground was only . The then-headmaster, Mr. Nightingale, asked for a new and bigger school site, which was acquired, and the site plan was designed by teacher Thomas Richmond Rowell. Classes at the new site began on 14 September 1936. The first headmaster of the new school was the Reverend Upsdell. The present school is still on the same site. The foundation stone for the new building was laid by Sir William Peel, the then governor of Hong Kong, and the building was subsequently named the Peel Block in his honour. === WWII period === In 1937, the Japanese army invaded China and many European women and children were evacuated from Shanghai to Hong Kong. They needed a place to stay in the summer and the school was used as a refugee camp. As World War II developed past 1939, the government started to worry about the safety of the children and in August 1940 the government ordered the evacuation of European women and children from Hong Kong. Thereafter, the school site was used by British forces as a hospital. When Hong Kong surrendered in the Battle of Hong Kong, the school site was taken over by the Japanese and used as a hospital for prisoners of war. It is rumoured that the Pavilion was once used as a torture chamber under the Japanese occupation and that ghosts of tortured victims inhabit the clock tower and room P14, which is currently used as a Media Room. Dead bodies were also said to be buried under the school field, although, when this was extensively excavated in preparation for the construction of an artificial playing surface in 2002/3, no such evidence was found. When classes at KGV resumed after WWII, the back of the stage still had the Japanese military's Rising Sun Flag painted on its back wall. When the news was received that Japan had surrendered, the Japanese general commanding the school left holding his sword high. As soon as he left, the school raised the British Union flag, probably the first to be raised in Hong Kong following the Japanese surrender. === Post-WWII period === The school re-opened in the summer of 1946 and in 1947 children of all nationalities were able to join the school. Since it was no longer exclusive for British pupils only, the school's name was changed on the school's speech day of 1948 to 'King George V School,' as George V was king when the foundation stone of the Peel Block was laid. In 1979, principal Angela Smith decided that KGV should join the English Schools Foundation, and the transfer was complete by 1981. KGV is currently the oldest functional school in the ESF.The History of KGV === Additional Information === thumb|Image of the exact Spitfire aircraft that was located on KGV grounds during the 1950s, pictured here in the Cenotaph in Central in 1965 In 2006, KGV was the first school in Asia to perform the musical, Les Misérables: School Edition. In 2009, musician Mika visited King George V School. He viewed the artwork based on his music (created by Advanced Diploma students) and helped finish a mural on the B-block wall, painting "I am not what you think I am / I am made of gold." He followed by performing Grace Kelly for the students. A truncated body of a Spitfire fighter-aircraft was present in the lower south east corner classroom of KGV School up until the late fifties. There was also a cut-away R.R. Merlin engine on display with it. It was eventually stored in the basement of the "sports" pavilion, until the Air Commodore had it removed, restored and one year later it was placed at the Cenotaph in Central for remembrance day painted in the colours of the air commodore's fighter plane during the war. The story of the Spitfire aircraft at KGV was once a major "legend" that no one had too much detail about, although this story is now largely forgotten by the current student body. == Students and the House System == thumb|250px|right|A group of senior students at KGV There are more than 1,800 students of some 28 different nationalities enrolled in the school. Students are accepted from many ESF feeder primary schools in the English Schools Foundation including Kowloon Junior School, Beacon Hill School, and Clearwater Bay School. The students are placed randomly in either of the four houses, unless the students have lineage in the school. If the student has or had family members enrolled in KGV, they are automatically placed in the same house as those family members. The house system is the basis for school competitions (excluding inter-school events). Houses are named after prominent former faculty members. The houses, and their associated colours, are as follows: *Crozier (green) – named after Douglas James Smyth Crozier, a KGV teacher who fought to defend Hong Kong in WWII, and whom went on to serve as the Director of Education of Hong Kong, served on the Executive Council of Hong Kong, and was an official member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong; during the 50's and 60's. *Nightingale (yellow) – the headmaster who first asked for a new school building, which is now the current school site. *Rowell (blue) – a teacher who designed part of the current site of the school. *Upsdell (red) – the first headmaster to serve in the school building located at the current school site.History of houses in KGV Form groups are formed vertically and horizontally. Year 7 has their own set of tutor groups, and then groups of around fifteen in the year group bands 8-9, 10-11, 12-13. ==Curriculum== The curriculum adopted by KGV, as an international school, is significantly different from the system commonly practiced in Hong Kong. === Middle School Curriculum === The Middle School Curriculum is designed for Years 7 to 9. All subjects (Art, Drama, English, History, Information Technology, Mathematics, Music, Physical Education, Religious Studies, Geography, Science, and Design Technology) are compulsory, and students must learn Mandarin and a European language (French, German or Spanish). In Year 9, students can choose to drop either language they are studying for Global Perspectives, or take double Chinese if the European language is dropped. A coherent skills based curriculum is being introduced in 2014. In Year 7, students are not put into academically levelled sets apart from Maths and Chinese classes because it is considered as a "transition" year, offering a wide variety of "inquiry" opportunities, transitioning from the "PYP" inquiry format learning to KGV's Middle School Curriculum. MYP Subject Group Subjects taught at KGV Arts Visual Arts, Drama, Music, Media Design Design Technology and ICT Individual and Societies Geography, History and Philosophy & Religious Studies Language Acquisitions Chinese, French, Spanish and German Language and Literature English and Chinese and World Language and Literature Maths Maths Sciences Science Physical and Health Development PE and Liberal and Personal Studies === IGCSE === In Years 10 and 11, all students follow a course leading to iGCSE (International General Certificate of Secondary Education) examinations in their chosen subjects. Some subjects are compulsory, but there is a choice to suit the aptitude and interest of students. All students are required to study the core subjects of English, Mathematics, Science (split into Biology, Chemistry and Physics as Single Award, Double Award and Triple Science), PE, and PSHE (Personal, Social and Health Education). Students must choose four further subjects by choosing one of the subjects from each of the boxes. Students cannot choose more than one Design & Technology subject, choose more than one European language, or study both Business and Economics. Box 1 (languages) First Language: Chinese (Mandarin), Japanese, Korean Second Language: Chinese (Mandarin) Foreign Language: Chinese (Mandarin), French, German, Spanish Self-taught mother tongue Box 2 (individuals and societies) Business Studies, Computer Science, Economics, Geography, History, ICT, Psychology, Religious Studies Box 3 (creative) Art, Music, Sports Science, Drama, Media (A BTEC course as of 2017), Computer Science, DT Electronics, DT Resistant Materials, DT Graphics, DT Food, DT Textiles Box 4 (open option) Another subject from Boxes 1, 2 or 3. The boxes are designed to be balanced and to ensure that students can build on their strengths whilst keeping their options open for the future. iGCSE Grade Allocution at KGV for the 2020 Exam Series Grade Percentage A* 27.7 A 27.8 B 28.9 C 12.9 D 2.3 E 0.4 F 0 9 29.8 8 22.3 7 17.4 6 12.6 5 9.1 4 6.6 3 2.0 2 0.3 1 0 === IB Diploma === Starting from September 2007, KGV replaced the existing British A-Level Program with the International Baccalaureate diploma, offering the Diploma Programme. All students have to complete the core syllabus, consisting of an Extended Essay, Theory of Knowledge and Creativity, Activity, Service,Secondary Curriculum as well as six subjects, wherein subjects in First Language, Second Language, Individuals and Societies, Science and Mathematics are required. Artistic or creative subjects are also offered, though these are optional. === BTEC === From September 2011 the school replaced the A-Level Programme (which was an option for students who did not want to take IB) with the BTEC International Diploma, a vocational course. ==Sports== KGV is known for its sports from athletics to volleyball; games often take place within the school campus as the school is one of the few in Hong Kong equipped with an on-site AstroTurf playing field. In 2008 and 2009, KGV were back-to-back winners of the Bauhinia Bowl, marking it as the best co-educational sporting school in Hong Kong for that academic year.List of Champion Schools, HKSSF , Retrieved 8 February 2014 Overall, KGV holds the record for the most Bauhinia Bowls won by a co-educational school in Hong Kong, with its 21 wins placing it two clear of Island School's nineteen wins. 25 male and 20 female alumni from KGV have been prior winners of the Bauhinia Bowl sportsboy/sportsgirl of the year award. KGV's many sporting trophies are displayed in a trophy cabinet outside the assembly hall and records of individual and team accomplishments are preserved in a section of the school library. ===Rugby=== Rugby has been a traditional sport at KGV for a very long time. In the 2007–2008 term, the A-grade rugby team won the 15s, 10s and 7s tournament; this had not been achieved before in the history of the school. This team includes many Hong Kong rugby representatives and the 2010 Larry Abel award winner; Aiden Bradley. A single word, "MANA" (meaning 'pride'), is shouted out at every practice and match to build up confidence in team members. The school has recently embraced female rugby. The women's team includes many Hong Kong Bauhinia U16 rugby representatives, as well as players for the Hong Kong U18 Development and U18 Nationals for XVs and VIIs. In 2013 the women's team won the cup against the Hong Kong Standard Charter Select team in the first Bill Williams 7s tournament with a women's section. ===Cricket=== Cricket has been a popular sport with KGV students for many years, with strong Junior and Senior teams. The KGV Junior Boys won the Hong Kong Schools league in May 2018. ===Football=== Football has been a traditional sport at KGV for a long time. The school often takes part in the Jing Ying Inter-School Football Tournament which is regarded as the elite football tournament within Hong Kong with the best school teams participating. The B-grade boys KGV team won the HKSSF championship in the 2018–2019 season. ===Girls' Lacrosse=== Girls' Lacrosse was introduced in 2011. In May 2012, the KGV Girls' Lacrosse Team joined the Hong Kong Lacrosse League, which was between two adult teams and HKIS. ===Basketball=== The season of 2011–2012, KGV A-grade boys' basketball team had won the HKSSF Division 3 basketball championship, it was first time for KGV basketball to win a championship. ===Netball=== The netball team at KGV has been one of the school's best performing athletic teams. The teams are divided according to A, B, C grade depending on the player's age. ===Swimming=== The girls and boys swimming teams compete separately in the annual Hong Kong Schools Sports Foundation (HKSSF) interschool competition, with the girls team achieving a promotion to the Division 1 competition in 2018 and the boys team continuing to perform strongly in Division 2. KGV has produced many swimmers who have won podium places in their events at the HKSSF swimming competitions. Additionally, KGV swimmers regularly represent the English Schools Foundation at the annual Wheelock Swim for Millions charity race organised by the community chest. 2015 marked KGV's best showing in the competition with the boys opens team winning the school relay and the overall competition while the staff team came third in the corporate relay. ==Facilities== ===Buildings=== ====Peel Block==== thumb|250px|right|KGV Peel Block – during Karnival 2004 Completed in 1937, this block is named after Sir William Peel, the Governor of Hong Kong from 1930 to 1935. His name can be found on the foundation stone at the north-east corner of the building, it was personally laid there by the governor himself. This is the first block built on the present school site. It is protected under Hong Kong law because of its age and historical significance. The building's plan view is shaped like the letter E and has two storeys. The Peel Block is the administrative centre of KGV, it currently houses the School Hall, a gym, an archive room, equipment storage rooms, the Middle School Office, a reprographics room, the Learning Resource Centre, SSC rooms, the school's PTSA shop, the staff room and offices on the ground floor, and only one media classroom. Since the KGV site was used as a hospital and a dungeon by the Japanese in World War II, there are many rumours about this block. Many have said that the former computer room is haunted and was a torture chamber during the Japanese Occupation, while others say that footsteps can be heard on the Peel Block's roof (or along the upper floor) at night. These rumours entertain the students in the school and make KGV a very unique place for both students and teachers. The Hall, located in the centre of this block, has hardwood flooring in the centre and marble flooring on the side walkways and up halfway along the wall. At the front of the hall is the stage, and to the rear, there is a second balcony level. The hall is outfitted with advanced sound and lighting equipment, and used for events ranging from weekly Assembly to Speech Day (a award ceremony for Year 9s and above) to music and dance competitions. Before the 2013 construction of the Science Block and the Performing Arts Block, the building mainly housed science classrooms. ====Hall==== thumb|250px|right|KGV School Hall – Speech Day 2001 The Hall, located in the centre of the Peel Block, has hardwood flooring in the centre and marble flooring on the side walkways and up halfway along the wall. It is used for events ranging from assemblies, Speech Day, to music and dance competitions. The large hall is two stories tall, and includes a terraced balcony at the rear, for additional seating. Traditionally, manned theatrical (projection) lighting was staged at either end of the balcony's front rail/wall, often with a central "spotlight", for theatrical and/or orchestral recital performance evenings; video cameras on tripods were also set up here during the 80s and 90s, for filming many of KGVs traditional and other events. ====Annex Block (AN)==== Completed: 1982 Relocated: 2011 Demolished: 2013 The Annex Block housed two classrooms on the ground floor and two on the second floor. These classrooms were used exclusively for teaching Chinese and Spanish. However, this building has now been demolished and in its place stands the new science block. A second Annex block was situated next to the field on the current cricket field. That block was also demolished in late 2013 as rooms dedicated for modern languages are now available in the New Block; the space is used as basketball courts and cricket fields. ====New Block (DT & Language Block)==== Situated on the south side of the campus, the New Block, completed in 1964, is three stories tall and is currently home to classrooms used for Language Subjects and DT, a computer help centre, and the nurse's office. The block is incorrectly referred to as the language block by most KGV students and staff. ====Activities Centre==== Completed in 1983, the Activities Centre formerly consisted of two drama studios, a drama office, and PE changing rooms. The Activities Centre now houses one of three art studios on campus and three PE rooms. ====Link Block==== Built in 1984, this five- storey building links the New Block, the Peel Block and the Activities Centre, with covered walkways on connecting floors. This building houses DT, mathematics, English classrooms, art studios, pastoral offices, and computer labs. ====Jockey Club Sarah Roe Centre==== The Jockey Club Sarah Roe Centre (JCSRC) was built in 1986 with funds donated from the then Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club and named after Mrs. Sarah Roe, an occupational therapist, who was a founder of the Child Development Centre at the Matilda Hospital. The first floor of the building used to house the Parents, Teachers, and Students' Association (PTSA) store. The Jockey Club Sarah Roe School, originally on the ground floor, was later relocated into the Senior Student Centre. Currently, the Garden Rooms are being used as a Learning Enhancement Centre, and the second floor as six classrooms that are used mainly for language oral exams and separate exam supervision; two of them are occupied by the student support team. ====Sarah Roe School / Senior Student Centre / Vertical Extension / IS Block==== Completed in 1996, the original building was erected on the footprint of KGV's two tennis courts, which were re-homed atop the building's roof. The Hong Kong Jockey Club Sarah Roe School (JCSRS) is housed on the KGV site, and occupies the ground, as well as most of the first floor of the building. This facility educates students with special needs across the English Schools Foundation, and is the only such unit in the entire foundation. KGV occupies the remaining floors. The remaining two floors are fully occupied by KGV and provide classroom spaces for humanities subjects, as well as staff offices. Previously, the first storey was used by KGV, and it housed BTEC Art Rooms, while the second storey of the building formally housed the Senior Student Centre. In 2001, a vertical extension to the building was completed. This added a third floor to the building, providing ten more classrooms as well as one of the four new computer labs on campus at the time. Now called the IS block for the second to third stories, it holds one multi- purpose room and classrooms for Individual Societies ====B-block==== Completed: 1999 Demolished: 2014 These six ground-floor classrooms were meant as "temporary" classrooms, but as KGV grew, these classrooms became necessary and thus became a permanent fixture. Modern Languages were predominantly taught in these six rooms which occupy the "piazza" area encased inside the square formed by the Peel, New, and Link blocks. In 2014, rooms dedicated for modern languages opened in the New Block, meaning that there was no longer a specified use for the B-block. Thus, the B-block was being used for temporary Humanities classrooms, due to the Vertical Extension renovation. B-block classrooms were demolished in October 2014, making way for the expansion and renovation of the piazza area. ====Science Block==== Built in 2013, the Science Block is a five-story building with a roof garden. This building mainly houses science laboratories, but other facilities are also found on the block, such as media classrooms. The Guilford Lecture Theatre covers the ground level of the building. There is a link between the second floor Science Block that allows students to access the third floor of the New Block. There were also two balconies on the second and fourth floors, where students can look over the field. In Summer 2019, these two balconies were turned into Classrooms, where they were called Breakout rooms, with numbers BR4 on fourth floor and BR2 on the second floor respectively. They are used as media and multipurpose rooms. Other non-science related rooms located there is ME1/ME2 which are both media rooms. ====Performing Arts Block==== Built in 2013, the Performing Arts Block is a five-story building built on the former canteen area and PTSA store, behind the Peel Block and beside the Swimming Pool. The building hosts a canteen, the Music Department, drama studios and changing rooms. Similar to the Science Block, the Performing Arts Centre also features a rooftop centre, the rooftop garden includes a small amphitheater for any performing uses. ====Pavilion==== Built in 1940, this block occupies the south-west corner of the school field. Originally equipped with two changing rooms with showers (through the rest of the 20th century), they were converted into two classrooms (X1 and X2), leaving the storage and maintenance sheds on the ground floor. The classrooms have now been converted back into changing rooms. Although there is no conclusive evidence, it is believed by some students and teachers that the Pavilion was used as a torture chamber during World War II when the Japanese occupied the school, and traditional belief was that it was haunted. ===Other facilities=== thumb|250px|right|KGV School Field ==== School Field ==== KGV's artificially turfed field is ESF's multipurpose sports facility. It has markings for various sports, such as rugby, football (soccer), hockey, and also has a long & triple jump track running the perimeter of the field. The field itself is 100 metres long, and is flanked on its school side by a 100-metre-long sprint track and seating facilities for students. Prior to the AstroTurfing, there was opposition to the use of artificial turf. However, huge amounts of money spent on maintaining the natural grass on the field's base of hard clay was uneconomic and impractical, and the field would become a large dust bowl after a month or two of use and students would often get injured playing on the field. The field was reopened on 29 April 2014 after a HK$34 million renovation. On the opening day, 575 students broke the Guinness World Record of 'Most Participants in a Beep Test', previously held by a college in Australia. This is the second world record broken by the school, the other being 'Most People Planking Simultaneously' with 1,549 students on 16 December 2011. In 2014, the field was rebuilt and to celebrate, the school went for the world record of Most People Participating in the Multi-Stage Fitness Test. A then-record of 575 beep test participants out of the 587 participants who started successfully completed the required number of intervals. This record was ratified by the Guinness World Records until it was broken by AFC Harrogate in 2017. ====Swimming Pool==== Built-in 1979 the school's swimming pool is located behind the Peel Block. It is a 22-metre swimming pool with six lanes, normally in operation from April to November. As well as for sports, it used to play host to a variety of activities such as D-Day emulations by the history department and re-enactments of the Red Sea Crossing by the Religious Studies department; however these have now been cancelled. Also, Swim Heats in the school are normally held there. In 2016 some of the swim heats for the Swimming Gala were held in the pool a few days after the main event due to a thunderstorm on the main day. ====Tennis Courts==== The two tennis courts are located on the roof of the SSC (Senior School Centre). They are sometimes used during PE lessons and during events involving Tennis. The KGV Tennis team practices there. However changes to the PE curriculum has meant that the two tennis courts are virtually unused. ===Future site development=== There were plans to amalgamate King George V School, Jockey Club Sarah Roe School and Kowloon Junior School to allow the three schools to grow further and work more closely given the close proximity of the three schools. This project was known as the Kowloon Learning Campus (KLC). This caused over 100 parents to sign a petition against the KLC in 2015. The then-KGV Principal Dr. Edward Wickins was appointed as the executive principal of the KLC who often informed the students of KGV of the progress of the KLC. However, in 2017 the ESF Board announced that the same goals the KLC would work to achieve would have also worked with three separate schools. Hence, the project was scrapped, and Dr. Edward Wickins retired after twelve years at KGV that same year. == Notable alumni == :See also :Category:Alumni of King George V School, Hong Kong *Loletta Chu – the winner of 1977 Miss Hong Kong Pageant. *Anders Nelsson – singer, songwriter, music producer, and director of music company. *Kim Gordon – American musician, songwriter, and visual artist. *Michael Hutchence – lead singer of Australian band INXS. *Martin Booth – author of over 70 books and poems, including Industry of Souls, Music on the Bamboo Radio, and Gweilo: Memoirs of a Hong Kong childhood. *Dermot Reeve – England cricketer, known as an unorthodox all-rounder. *Tim Bredbury – Professional Footballer. Former clubs include Liverpool, Seiko, South China A.A., Sydney Olympic, Selangor and the Hong Kong National Team. *Kemal Bokhary – former Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal *David Millar – professional cyclist on the Garmin- Chipotle Team & Tour de France Stage Winner *Jason Tobin – British-Chinese actor known for his role as Virgil Hu in Justin Lin's Better Luck Tomorrow. *Victor Fung, GBS – Chairman of the Airport Authority Hong Kong, Li & Fung Group, the Hong Kong-Japan Business Co-operation Committee and Co-Chair of the Evian Group. *Aarif Lee, Toby Leung, Charles Ying, and Shiga Lin – Cantopop singers and actors from Hong Kong. *Rowan Varty – Hong Kong rugby player. *Jaimes McKee – Hong Kong football player. *Brigadier Mike Stone – former chief information officer of the British Ministry of Defence *Perry So - former assistant and associate conductor of the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra ==References== ==External links== * King George V School Category:Secondary schools in Ho Man Tin Category:Secondary schools in Hong Kong Category:English Schools Foundation schools Category:Educational institutions established in 1946 Category:International Baccalaureate schools in Hong Kong Category:Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong Category:Streamline Moderne architecture in Hong Kong Category:1946 establishments in Hong Kong Category:Schools in Hong Kong
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Teraina (written also Teeraina, also known as Washington Island – these two names are constitutionalPOK (2007)) is a coral atoll in the central Pacific Ocean and part of the Northern Line Islands which belong to Kiribati. Obsolete names of Teraina are New Marquesas, Prospect Island, and New York Island. The island is located approximately 4.71° North latitude and 160.76° West longitude. Teraina differs from most other atolls in the world in that it has a large freshwater lake (Washington Lake), an open lens, concealed within its luxuriant coconut palm forest; this is the only permanent freshwater lake in the whole of Kiribati.Teeb'aki in Scott (1993) Measuring about NW-SE and SW- NE, it has a land area of about ; its circumference is about . The island is generally low-lying, with a maximum elevation ASL of about , while most of the island rises some high; trees in the dense inland forest grow to several times this height however. At the western end of the island is the capital, Tangkore (or Tengkore). There are (as at the 2020 Census) about 1,893 inhabitants, making it the least-populated of the permanently inhabited Northern Line Islands. However, population density (177 per km2) is three times as high as on Tabuaeran and vastly more than on the much larger (300-plus km2) Kiritimati with its about 15 people/km2. There are two dirt roads around the island's perimeter – an outer (Beach Road) and an inner one (Ring Road). Transport inland is done by boat on artificial canals, rather uniquely for a Pacific island. A navigation light tower and two radio masts stand near Tangkore.Resture (2004) What cannot be produced locally is shipped in about twice a year; there is also some minor inter-island traffic by ship or boat. The old landing was at the western tip, but this was dangerous due to being exposed to surf breaking on the reef flats; it has been more recently replaced by a new and more easily accessible landing south of Tangkore, where the canal system feeds into the ocean. A rough airstrip of some length exists near Kaaitara. It may become temporarily unusable after heavy rains. ==History== Permanent early human occupation of Teraina is disputed. Although there were no occupants on the island at the time of European discovery, a number of human made sites have been identified on the island including dry stacked stone architecture. Additionally, ethnographic data from the Cook Islands and the Tuamotu Islands points to Polynesian knowledge of the island. Perhaps the most compelling discovery on Teraina is the recovery of an intact voyaging canoe. Although archaeological sites are known to exist on the island, the general lack of fresh water makes long-term human habitation unlikely though more work is needed in establishing the timeline of human use. Teraina was sighted on 12 June 1798 by the American whaling captain Edmund Fanning of Betsy; he named the island for George Washington but did not attempt to land. The first exploration of the island arrived later with captain Adam Johann von Krusenstern, on a Russian expedition (called then New Marquesas). The island was subsequently claimed under the Guano Islands Act of 1856 for the United States under the name "Prospect Island".Bryan (1942) Guano was never mined or exported to any notable extent, however; the humid climate prevents the formation of substantial deposits. It was occupied by Captain John English and people from Manihiki in about 1860. Later William Greig who began planting the island with coconut trees. Eventually the sons of Greig owned the plantation with Father Emmanuel Rougier until he sold his interest to the Fanning Island Limited, and started a coconut plantation on Christmas Island. Fanning Island was annexed by the British by Commander Nichols of on May 29, 1889. It became a part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony in 1916. The name of the island was changed to Teraina in 1979 when Kiribati gained independence. The major export of Teraina is copra, the dried meat of the coconut. The Burns Philip Copra Company operated plantations on the island after the Second World War. At various times, contract laborers were brought from Manihiki, Tahiti, and the Gilbert Islands to work the coconut plantations. More recently, settlement from Gilbert group has been encouraged during the re-settlement schemes of 1989–1995. Washington Island Post Office opened on 1 February 1921, closed around 1923, reopened in 1924, closed in 1948 and reopened again around August 1979. ==Political geography== thumb|300px|Men's meeting house presided over by island chief, November 1968 The population of Teraina lives in nine villages. It is increasing; from 416 in 1978, it had risen to 936 in 1990 and had exceeded 1,000 by 2000. The population of Teraina in the 2010 census was 1,690. Compared to the 2005 population of 1,155 and the 2000 population of 1,087, the population is growing very rapidly. The population of Teraina grew by 535 people between 2005 and 2010, an annual population growth of 7.9%. All villages are listed in the following table, with the preliminary census results of 2005, counterclockwise around the perimeter of the atoll, starting in the northeast with Abaiang and ending in the southeast with Onauea. Tangkore is near the westernmost point of Teraina: No. Village Population (Census 2010) 1 Abaiang 146 2 Kauamwemwe 198 3 Uteute 141 4 Kaaitara 0 5 Tangkore 410 6 Matanibike 91 7 Arabata 353 8 Mwakeitari 177 9 Onauea 174 Teraina 1690 Map of the Island, showing location of towns Teraina has an unusual age structure; nearly half the population (44%) is aged under 15 and one in five people (19%) are children under five years. There are more males than females in almost all age groups except the elderly. ==Physical geography== thumb|left|240px|Teraina in April 2006, SSW on top. Note flooded bogland in west (right) part of island. As regards its physical characteristics, this is one of the most interesting islands in the Pacific. It is a raised coral atoll, but it has not filled up with sand and soil, yet still retains a significant remnant of the former lagoon. The lake, however, is only just barely perceptibly brackish, as its only significant source is the plentiful rain. The lake is only a few feet (around 1–2 meters) deep for the most part, though the supposed maximum depth is nearly . Being only about away from the equator, Teeraina is inside the ITCZ; its climate is thus extremely humid, making it one of the "wet" Pacific islands.Streets (1877), Resture (2004) The western inland is made up by peat bog, which is still flooded after heavy rains,Streets (1877) and constitutes infilled former lakebed. It is not clear in what way the western lake or lakes – there are now 2 main areas of bogland, which may correspond to former lake basins – were connected to the remaining waterbody. One bog is immediately adjacent to the lake's western end, the other is halfway between that and the island's northwest tip. Canals have been cut into the bogs, for punting, rowing and motor boats transporting people and produce. There is some removal of peat and sediments to stem the lake's ongoing infilling; in addition it seems that in recent times, the lake's level is slowly rising again so that the eastern bog's area has receded somewhat. The peat reaches thicknesses of about , much of which is located above sea level. It is also not precisely known where the last connection of the inland waters to the ocean were, and when they closed. The southeast end is more likely however, as the island is in the Equatorial Counter Current which runs west to east, and drifting coral and other reef- builder larvae as well as flotsam would therefore predominantly land at the island's western side. Thus, it is to be expected that land build up faster there. This also agrees with the eastern location of the remaining lake. In any case, the canal network now opens to the sea south of Tangkore, and there is a direct connection from the lake to the ocean at Teraina's eastern tip.http://faculty.washington.edu/jsachs/lab/www/Research/Kiribati_Expedition_2005/Xmas130.jpg ==Ecology== Ecologically, Teraina is also highly interesting, for several reasons. First, as is readily apparent from its peculiar geographical and geological features, it possesses a combination of ecosystems that is quite unique in the entire world. Second, it holds the world's largest population of a rare bird species though it is over from that bird's original home. Furthermore, it was until fairly recently home to some enigmatic dabbling ducks which are now extinct. Last, the island's biodiversity seems to prove quite conclusively that, probably by about 1200 AD or so, the island was temporarily inhabited by a significant number of humans. At present, there is no formal protection for the islands' ecosystems or species, but it has been suggested to legally protect key habitat, namely the boglands. Though it is globally endangered, the Rimatara lorikeet (Vini kuhlii) does not appear to be in need of formal protection;BLI (2007) it actually benefits from human land use change and the feral cats. The former provides the birds with more habitat, while the cats have so far managed to keep Teraina completely free of black rats (Rattus rattus) which due to their tree-climbing habits would seriously jeopardize the species' existence, should they become established in numbers. Given the negative experience e.g. from Rennell Island, maintenance of a vigorous tilapia fishery would seem to be advisable. These fish certainly represent a valuable source of protein on Teraina, and in fact were originally introduced for that purpose. ===Flora=== Over 30 species of flowering plants are known from the island, but most seem to be not originally native. Cocos nucifera, the coconut palm, is the most conspicuous tree on Teraina. It is found planted, but also constitutes one of the dominant forest trees. The palms occur in wet forest around the bogs, mixed with Pandanus (screwpine), and an undergrowth dominated by the ferns Asplenium pacificum and Phymatosorus scolopendria. In more elevated places near the beach, Pisonia (catchbird tree) atoll forest is found, though Teraina has not that much of this ubiquitous Pacific ecosystem for its size. The most conspicuous plants of the boglands are the arum Cyrtosperma merkusii and the giant bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus). Among the local crops, sugar-apple (Annona squamosa), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), papaya (Carica papaya), bananas (Musa cultivars, including Fe'i bananashttp://faculty.washington.edu/jsachs/lab/www/Research/Kiribati_Expedition_2005/Xmas134.jpg ) and apple guava (Psidium guajava) are the most significant, apart from the coconuts. Frangipani (Plumeria) and hibiscus are popular as ornamental plants. ===Birds=== Though numerous seabirds nest on Teraina, for many such species the limited habitat makes it a less important rookery than other, similar- sized raised atolls. About 10 species of seabirds breed here, most significantly tree-nesters like the little white tern (Gygis microrhyncha) and the red-footed booby (Sula sula). The eastern reef egret (Egretta sacra), widespread throughout the region, can also be found on Teraina. Among migratory birds, the ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres), sanderling (Calidris alba), bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva), and grey-tailed (Tringa brevipes) and wandering tattlers (T. incana) use Teraina as stopover location or winter quarters on a regular basis. Other shorebirds, gulls, and occasionally ducks of North American and East Asian species may occur as vagrants. In historic times, two species of landbirds and one subspecies of duck have been recorded. The latter, Coues's gadwall (Anas strepera couesi), was the only distinct subspecies of the widespread gadwall. It is surrounded by considerable mystery, mainly as regards the origin of the population, the age and therefore validity of the subspecies (it is sometimes disputed to be significantly distinct), and the causes and date of its disappearance. Only two specimens are known – a couple that is not fully mature, and therefore only limited information can be gleaned from it. What is certain is that there was a duck population of some size in the mid-1870s, while in 1900 all were gone. The bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis) is Kiribati's endemic reed-warbler. This small greyish passerine is well-known, due to its bold and inquisitive habits, and its song, a series of alternating higher and lower squeaks after which it is named. The Rimitara lorikeet (Vini kuhlii) is present with about 1,000 birds. It is a tiny parrot with brilliant plumage and an endearing and highly social behavior, owing to which they were known to late 19th century settlers as "love-birds". This species was originally native to the Austral and Cook Islands in SE Polynesia, a long distance to the south. They were treasured by the natives of the Society Islands and were an item of high value in inter-island trade; these birds were kept as pets, and in addition their feathers were used in crafts and art.Tregear (1891) In any case, there is considerable evidence from Ancient Hawaiʻi that Polynesian seafarers travelled between southeastern Polynesia and Hawaiʻi with some regularity, perhaps as early as 400 AD, but certainly by about 1200 AD. Since it is almost inconceivable – given the prevailing winds, ocean currents, known trade routes, and the difficulty with which these birds can be kept alive during voyages – that Vini kuhlii was transported from the Austral or Cook Islands to the Gilbert Islands and from there to Teraina, the presence of the birds there is best explained by them having been introduced by SE Polynesian travelers. Today, the species is extinct on many islands on which it formerly occurred, while the Teraina population, considered crucially important for its survival, contains some 60% of the remaining global wild population. Ironically, the reason for the Rimitara lorikeet thriving on Teraina is the replacement of native forest with coconut plantations; these birds feed mainly on the nectar of coconut palm flowers and nest in old coconut shells or husks. As it thus seems clear that there was prehistoric human activity of some degree on Teraina, it is also likely that birds became extinct consequently, like on all such Outer Pacific islands for which research has been conducted. David Steadman in his comprehensive review lists several such hypothetical taxa for Kiribati as a whole. For Teraina specifically, considering the habitat and what birds still exist, one or more rails (Gallirallus and/or PorzanaAnd perhaps one of the more aquatic Porphyrio swamphens as well. This is not explicitly mentioned by Steadman but plausible, given the unique lake habitat and the former presence of Porphyrio paepae on Hiva Oa.), an imperial-pigeon (Ducula),Such a bird would probably be related to the Pacific (D. pacifica)/Micronesian imperial-pigeon (D. oceanica) group occurring to the west of the Line Islands, or less likely to the Polynesian (D. aurorae)/Marquesan imperial-pigeons (D. galeata) occurring to the south. and maybe a Todiramphus kingfisherSuch a bird would probably have belonged to the sacred kingfisher (T. sanctus) group; that species today occurs as a vagrant in Micronesia, and related forms are resident in SE Polynesia. or an Aplonis starlingThis would probably have been related to the Micronesian starling (A. opaca) and the recently-extinct Pohnpei starling (A. pelzelni) or somewhat less probably to the extinct Huahine (A. diluvialis) and bay starlings (A. ulietensis) of the Society Islands. make the most likely candidates for birds gone extinct prehistorically. It must be considered, however, that given the lack of fieldwork it is not quite clear what effect changing sea levels would have had on Teraina. If the sea level were only half a meter (c. 2 ft) higher it is certainly possible that the forest and freshwater lake would be replaced by shrubland or dunes and a brackish lagoon. That notwithstanding, it is well possible that a Polynesian sandpiper related to or identical with the Christmas sandpiper from Kiritimati once lived on Teraina.Steadman (2006) ===Other fauna=== As with most outer Pacific islands, there are no native land mammals. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) are present on Teraina, apparently since prehistoric times. They may have arrived with flotsam after storms further west, or accidentally or deliberately (as food) been introduced by prehistoric seafarers. Their present-day impact on the bird population is minor, but if rails were once present on Teraina, the rats had probably some role in these birds' disappearance, and maybe in that of any other birds gone extinct in prehistoric times too. If a Polynesian sandpiper once bred on Teraina, it is almost certainly those rats that are responsible for these birds' disappearance; only a single taxon of Prosobonia remains today, precariously holding its own on atolls that are devoid of any rat species. Feral dogs, cats and pigs occur in varying numbers on Teraina; the cats especially are responsible for some decline in the number of ground-nesting seabirds. On the other hand, as noted above, the cats have thus far kept the rat population at bay. Lacustrine species reported from Teraina include fish. and some unspecified "shrimp", i.e. (in all probability) a member of the Crustacea. Teraina's freshwater fish include the marbled eel (Anguilla marmorata), a Caranx freshwater trevally, and Oreochromis tilapias and the milkfish (Chanos chanos). The latter two, and perhaps also the trevally, were introduced in recent times. The eels were already established by 1877; like many Anguillidae they are catadromous and able to migrate some distance on dry land. Thus it may be presumed that the lake is continuously being restocked from the Pacific, though apparently no actual field data exists on the habits of the eels of Teraina. As on many Indopacific islands rich in coconut (Cocos nucifera) trees, the coconut crab (Birgus latro) is often encountered on Teraina. A few green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest on the beaches. It is not a very important nesting site however and the clutches have a rather low probability of success, as Teraina is one of the Kiribati islands where turtle egg collecting is permitted. == See also == * Laysan Island – an eroded "dry" volcanic island, with a hypersaline lake * Lisianski Island – an eroded "dry" volcanic island with completely infilled lagoon * Rennell Island in Melanesia – in some respects like a much larger version of Teeraina * List of Guano Island claims == Footnotes == == References == * (2007): Rimitara Lorikeet Species Factsheet. Retrieved 2008-FEB-24. * (1942): American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain (2nd ed.). Tongg Publishing Company, Honolulu, Hawaii. * (2006): 2005 Census of Population and Housing (provisional results). * (2007): Constitution of Kiribati. Version of 2007-SEP-10. Retrieved 2007-OCT-10. * (2004): Washington Island – Line Islands. Version of 2004-FEB-08. Retrieved 2008-MAR-24. * (1993): Republic of Kiribati. In: A Directory of Wetlands in Oceania: 185-186.International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, UK and Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. * (2006): Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. * (1877): Some Account of the Natural History of the Fanning Group of Islands. Am. Nat. 11(2): 65–72. First page image * (1891): Kaka. In: Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dictionary: 118. Lyon and Blair, Wellington. Online version 2005-FEB-16. * (2012): Teeraina. Ministry of Internal & Social Affairs, Republic of Kiribati. Category:Pacific islands claimed under the Guano Islands Act Category:Line Islands Category:Atolls of Kiribati Category:Gilbert and Ellice Islands Category:Line Islands (Kiribati)
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This is a list of moth species of the family Geometridae that are found in India. It also acts as an index to the species articles and forms part of the full List of moths of India. This list is based on a 2016 publication by Gunathilagaraj KandasamyKandasamy, Gunathilagaraj (2016). "Checklist of Indian Geometridae". Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. that included 1938 names (including synonyms) in 383 genera. *Abaciscus intractabilis (Walker, 1864) *Abaciscus tristis Butler, 1889 *Abraxaphantes perampla (Swinhoe, 1890) *Abraxas abrasata Warren, 1898 *Abraxas adusta Hampson, 1891 *Abraxas alpestris Warren, 1893 *Abraxas capitata Warren, 1894 *Abraxas disrupta Warren, 1894 *Abraxas ditritaria Walker, 1862 *Abraxas elaioides Wehrli, 1931 *Abraxas etridoides Hampson, 1895 *Abraxas fasciaria Guerin-Meneville, 1843 *Abraxas fuscescens Butler, 1886 *Abraxas germana Swinhoe, 1891 *Abraxas illuminata Warren, 1894 *Abraxas intermedia Warren, 1888 *Abraxas irrorata Moore, 1867 *Abraxas irrula Hampson, 1891 *Abraxas kanoi Inoue, 1970 *Abraxas labraria Guenée, 1858 *Abraxas latizonata Hampson, 1907 *Abraxas leopardina (Kollar, 1844) *Abraxas leucostola Hampson, 1893 *Abraxas luteolaria (Swinhoe, 1889) *Abraxas martaria Guenée, 1858 *Abraxas metamorpha Warren, 1893 *Abraxas nigrivena Warren, 1893 *Abraxas notata Warren, 1894 *Abraxas ostrina Swinhoe, 1889 *Abraxas paucinotata Warren, 1894 *Abraxas picaria (Moore, 1867) *Abraxas poliaria Swinhoe, 1889 *Abraxas poliostrota Hampson, 1907 *Abraxas prosthetocneca Prout, 1925 *Abraxas punctifera Walker, 1864 *Abraxas pusilla Butler, 1880 *Abraxas sordida Hampson, 1893 *Abraxas sylvata Scopoli, 1763 *Abraxas symmetrica Warren, 1894 *Abraxas todara Swinhoe, 1889 *Abraxas triseriaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1855 *Abraxas triseriata Warren, 1893 *Abraxas virginalis Butler, 1886 *Abraxesis melaleucaria Hampson, 1902 *Acacis viretata Hübner, *Acacis viretata himalayica Prout, 1958 *Acolutha bicristipennis Prout, 1931 *Acolutha flavipictaria Prout, 1922 *Acolutha pictaria (Moore, 1888) *Acolutha pulchella (Hampson, 1895) *Actenochroma muscicoloraria Walker, 1862 *Agaraeus discolor Warren, 1893 *Agathia angustilimes Prout, 1926 *Agathia arcuata Moore, 1867 *Agathia beata Butler, 1880 *Agathia carissima prasina Swinhoe, 1893 *Agathia codina Swinhoe, 1892 *Agathia conviridaria (Hübner, 1823) *Agathia diversiformis Warren, 1894 *Agathia gemma Swinhoe, 1892 *Agathia gigantea Butler, 1880 *Agathia hemithearia Guenée, 1857 *Agathia hilarata Guenée, 1858 *Agathia incudaria antitheta Prout *Agathia laetata Fabricius, 1794 *Agathia laetata andamanensis Prout, 1932 *Agathia laetata isogyna Prout, 1916 *Agathia laqueifera Prout, 1912 *Agathia lycaenaria (Kollar, 1844) *Agathia lycaenaria impar Prout, 1916 *Agathia magnifica Moore, 1879 *Agathia quinaria Moore, 1867 *Agathia visenda Butler, 1880 *Agathia visenda gaudens Prout, 1932 *Aglossochloris radiata (Walker, 1863) *Agnibesa pictaria (Moore, 1867) *Agnibesa plumbeolineata (Hampson, 1895) *Agnibesa recurvilineta Moore, 1888 *Agnibesa venusta Warren, 1897 *Alcis admissaria (Guenée, 1858) *Alcis albifera (Moore, 1887) *Alcis atrostipata (Walker, 1862) *Alcis decussata (Moore, 1867) *Alcis granitaria (Moore, 1888) *Alcis holophaearia (Hampson, 1907) *Alcis imbecilis (Moore, 1888) *Alcis iterata Butler, 1886 *Alcis jubata (Thunberg, 1788) *Alcis latifasciata Warren, 1893) *Alcis megaspilaria (Moore, 1867) *Alcis nigralbata Warren, 1893 *Alcis nigridorsaria (Guenée, 1858) *Alcis nilgirica (Hampson, 1895) *Alcis orbifer Warren, 1896 *Alcis perspicuata (Moore, 1867) *Alcis pleniferata (Walker, 1862) *Alcis semiclarata (Walker, 1862) *Alcis stictineura (Hampson, 1907) *Alcis sublimis (Butler, 1889) *Alcis subnitida Warren, 1893 *Alcis subolivacea (Hampson, 1907) *Alcis subrufaria Warren, 1893 *Alcis tenera Warren, 1893 *Alcis trikotaria (Felder, 1874) *Alcis variegata (Moore, 1888) *Alcis variegata nebulosa (Swinhoe, 1891) *Alcis venustularia (Walker, 1866) *Alcis vialis (Moore, 1888) *Alex palparia (Walker, 1861) *Allaxitheca purpurascens (Moore, 1887) *Amblychia angeronaria Guenée, 1858 *Amnesicoma albiseriata Warren, 1893) *Amnesicoma bicolor Moore, 1888 *Amorphozancle discata Warren, 1893 *Anisodes absconditaria Walker, 1862 *Anisodes absconditaria assamica Prout, 1938 *Anisodes apogona Prout, 1938 *Anisodes arenosaria Moore, 1887 *Anisodes argentosa Prout, 1920 *Anisodes argyromma Warren, 1896 *Anisodes clandestina Prout, 1918 *Anisodes contrariata (Walker, 1861) *Anisodes decretarioides Holloway *Anisodes denticulata Hampson, 1895 *Anisodes discofera Swinhoe, 1894 *Anisodes dotilla Swinhoe, 1894 *Anisodes flavirubra Warren, 1896 *Anisodes flavispila Warren, 1896) *Anisodes frenaria Guenée, 1858 *Anisodes frenaria pulverulenta (Swinhoe, 1892) *Anisodes griseata belgaumensis Prout, 1938 *Anisodes heydena Swinhoe, 1894 *Anisodes illepidaria Guenée, 1858 *Anisodes insitiva Prout, 1920 *Anisodes intermixtaria Swinhoe, 1892 *Anisodes interpulsata Walker, 1861 *Anisodes intortaria Guenée, 1858 *Anisodes jocosa Warren, 1896 *Anisodes maximaria Guenée, 1858 *Anisodes monetaria Guenée, 1858 *Anisodes nebulosata Walker, 1862 *Anisodes obliviaria Walker, 1861 *Anisodes obrinaria (Guenée, 1858) *Anisodes obstataria Walker, 1861 *Anisodes pallida Moore, 1889 *Anisodes perscripta Warren, 1896) *Anisodes posticamplum (Swinhoe, 1892) *Anisodes sarawackaria lichenaria Swinhoe, 1892 *Anisodes subdolaria Swinhoe, 1885 *Anisodes thermosaria Walker, 1862 *Anisodes variospila Warren, 1901) *Anisozyga gavissima (Walker, 1861) *Anisozyga textilis (Butler, 1880) *Anonychia diversilinea Warren, 1897 *Anonychia lativitta (Moore, 1888) *Anonychia rostrifera Warren, 1888) *Anonychia strebla Prout, 1926 *Anthyperythra caladsaota Hampson, 1902 *Anthyperythra hermearia Swinhoe, 1891 *Antimimistis attenuata (Moore, 1887) *Antimimistis subteracta Prout, 1925 *Antitrygodes agrata vicina (Thierry-Mieg, 1907) *Antitrygodes cuneilinea (Walker, 1862) *Antitrygodes divisaria (Walker, 1861) *Antitrygodes ircina (Thierry-Mieg, 1907) *Anydrelia dharmasalae (Butler, 1883) *Apeira viridescens Warren, 1894) *Apithecia viridata (Moore, 1868) *Aplocera curvilineata (Walker, 1863) *Aplocera plagiata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Aplochlora vivilaca Walker, 1861 *Apophyga sericea Warren, 1893) *Aporandria specularia (Guenée, 1857) *Apostegania crina (Swinhoe, 1892) *Archiplutodes prasina (Swinhoe, 1892) *Arichanna albovittata Moore, 1887 *Arichanna biquadrata Warren, 1893 *Arichanna commixta Warren, 1893 *Arichanna consocia Butler, 1880 *Arichanna conspersa Butler, 1880 *Arichanna diversicolor Warren, 1888) *Arichanna flavinigra Hampson, 1907 *Arichanna furcifera Moore, 1888 *Arichanna hamiltonia (Swinhoe, 1895) *Arichanna interplagata (Guenée, 1858) *Arichanna jaguarinaria (Oberthür, 1881) *Arichanna lapsariata (Walker, 1862) *Arichanna luciguttata Warren, 1893) *Arichanna maculata (Moore, 1867) *Arichanna marginata Warren, 1893 *Arichanna plagifera Walker, 1866 *Arichanna rubrifusa Hampson, 1907 *Arichanna rubrivena Warren, 1893 *Arichanna sparsa (Butler, 1890) *Arichanna subaenescens Warren, 1893 *Arichanna subalbida Warren, 1893 *Arichanna tenebraria (Moore, 1867) *Arichanna tramesata Moore, 1867 *Arichanna transectata (Walker, 1862) *Arichanna transfasciata Warren, 1893 *Arichanna violacea Warren, 1893) *Ascotis selenaria (Schiffermüller, 1775) *Asthena albosignata (Moore, 1888) *Asthena livida Warren, 1896) *Atopophysa indistincta (Butler, 1889) *Auzeodes chalybeata (Walker, 1866) *Berta acte (Swinhoe, 1892) *Berta albiplaga Warren, 1893 *Berta angustimedia Prout, 1918 *Berta annulifera Warren, 1896 *Berta anteplaga Prout, 1916 *Berta chrysolineata Walker, 1863 *Berta copiosa Prout, 1917 *Biston cognataria Guenée, 1858 *Biston falcata Warren, 1893) *Biston porphyria (Butler, 1889) *Biston regalis Moore, 1888 *Biston sinuata Hampson, 1895 *Bithiodes obliquata (Moore, 1888) *Blepharoctenucha virescens (Butler, 1880) *Boarmia adamata Felder, 1874 *Boarmia albibasis Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia arcearia Hampson, 1902 *Boarmia biserrata Hampson, 1902 *Boarmia bisinuata Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia carinenta (Cramer, 1777) *Boarmia cervina Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia ceylonaria Nietner, 1861 *Boarmia cineracea Moore, 1888 *Boarmia cyclophora Hampson, 1902 *Boarmia diffusaria Albers, 1849 *Boarmia fimbriata Moore, 1867 *Boarmia flavimedia Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia glaucocincta Hampson, 1907 *Boarmia glaucodisca Swinhoe, 1894 *Boarmia hibernaria (Swinhoe, 1885) *Boarmia infixaria Walker, 1860 *Boarmia latifascia Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia leucocyma Hampson, 1907 *Boarmia leucodontata Hampson, 1896 *Boarmia leucozona (Hampson, 1895) *Boarmia melanosticta Hampson, 1895 *Boarmia nepalensis Hampson, 1902 *Boarmia nigralbata Warren, 1893 *Boarmia pallida Hampson, 1891 *Boarmia plumalis Butler, 1886 *Boarmia polystrota Hampson, 1907 *Boarmia procursaria Walker, 1860 *Boarmia reparata Walker, 1860 *Boarmia rubrifusa Warren, 1893 *Boarmia semialba (Moore, 1887) *Boarmia separata Walker, 1860 *Boarmia separata intectaria (Walker, 1862) *Boarmia serratilinea Warren, 1896) *Boarmia suasaria Guenée, 1857 *Boarmia subtochracea Hampson, 1902 *Borbacha pardaria Guenée, 1857 *Brabira artemidora (Oberthür, 1884) *Brabira artemidora pallida Moore, 1888 *Brabira atkinsonii Moore, 1888 *Brabira operosa Prout, 1958 *Buzura bengaliaria (Guenée, 1858) *Buzura recursaria (Walker, 1860) *Buzura suppressaria (Guenée, 1858) *Buzura varianaria Swinhoe, 1889 *Bylazora infumata (Felder, 1874) *Bylazora licheniferata Walker, 1862 *Bylazora pilicostata (Walker, 1862) *Cacochloris uvidula (Swinhoe, 1885) *Calicha retrahens Moore, 1888 *Callabraxas amanda Butler, 1880 *Callerinnys combusta Warren, 1893 *Callerinnys fuscomarginata Warren, 1893 *Callerinnys obliquilinea Moore, 1888 *Calletaera subexpressa (Walker, 1861) *Calletaera subexpressa angulata Warren, 1896 *Calluga cissocosma (Turner, 1904) *Calluga costalis (Moore, 1887) *Calluga lophoceras Prout, 1931 *Callygris compositata (Guenée, 1857) *Campaea biseriata (Moore, 1888) *Camptolophia marmorata Warren, 1896 *Capasa abstractaria (Walker, 1862) *Capasa festivaria (Fabricius, 1794) *Capasa flavifusata (Moore, 1887) *Capasa hyadaria (Guenée, 1858) *Capasa iris (Butler, 1880) *Capasa lycoraria (Guenée, 1858) *Capasa muscicolor Warren, 1893) *Capasa pachiaria (Walker, 1860) *Capasa pulchraria (Rothschild, 1894) *Capasa pyrrhularia (Guenée, 1857) *Capasa quadraria Warren, 1893) *Capasa rufescens (Butler, 1886) *Capasa sternaria (Guenée, 1857) *Capasa venusa (Swinhoe, 1894) *Carbia nexilinea Warren, 1898) *Carige cruciplaga (Walker, 1861) *Carige lunulineata Moore, 1888 *Carige rachiaria Swinhoe, 1891 *Cassephyra cyanosticta (Hampson, 1907) *Cassephyra lamprosticta Hampson, 1895 *Cassyma deletaria (Moore, 1888) *Cassyma indistincta (Moore, 1887) *Cassyma pallidula Warren, 1896) *Cataclysme conturbata (Walker, 1863) *Cataclysme obliquilineata Hampson, 1895 *Cataclysme polygramma Hampson, 1907 *Catoria olivescens Moore, 1888 *Catoria sublavaria Guenée, 1857 *Celerena andamana Felder, 1875 *Celerena divisa Walker, 1862 *Centronaxa orthostigialis Warren, 1893) *Ceruncina translineata Walker, 1863 *Chaetolopha incurvata (Moore, 1888) *Chalyboclydon flexilinea Warren, 1898 *Chalyboclydon marginata Warren, 1893 *Chartographa trigoniplaga (Hampson, 1895) *Chiannia khasiana (Moore, 1888) *Chloeres albifimbria Warren, 1896) *Chloeres dyakaria (Walker, 1861) *Chloeres quantula (Swinhoe, 1885) *Chlorissa aquamarina (Hampson, 1895) *Chlorissa discessa (Walker, 1861) *Chlorissa distinctaria (Walker, 1866) *Chlorissa distinctaria laeta (Prout, 1917) *Chlorissa gelida (Butler, 1889) *Chlorissa gelida exsoluta Prout *Chlorissa nigropunctata Warren, 1893) *Chlorissa punctifimbria Warren, 1896) *Chlorissa rubripicta Warren, 1893) *Chlorochaeta albicatena (Warren, 1896) *Chlorochaeta albimarginata Warren, 1893 *Chlorochaeta biplaga (Walker, 1861) *Chlorochaeta cassidara (Guenée, 1857) *Chlorochaeta chalybeata Moore, 1867 *Chlorochaeta delineata Warren, 1893) *Chlorochaeta inductaria (Guenée, 1857) *Chlorochaeta integranota (Hampson, 1893) *Chlorochaeta pictipennis (Butler, 1880) *Chlorochaeta quadrinotata (Butler, 1889) *Chlorochaeta quadrinotata fuscidorsata (Prout, 1912) *Chlorochaeta signifera Warren, 1893) *Chlorochaeta subhyalina Warren, 1899) *Chlorochaeta tenera Warren, 1896) *Chloroclystis actephilae Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis acygonia Swinhoe, 1895 *Chloroclystis admixtaria (Walker, 1862) *Chloroclystis atroviridis Warren, 1893) *Chloroclystis breyniae Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis chlorophilata Walker, 1863 *Chloroclystis consobrina Warren, 1901) *Chloroclystis conversa Warren, 1897) *Chloroclystis curviscapulis Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis decolorata Warren, 1900) *Chloroclystis emarginaria (Hampson, 1893) *Chloroclystis filicata (Swinhoe, 1892) *Chloroclystis griseorufa (Hampson, 1898) *Chloroclystis immixtaria (Walker, 1862) *Chloroclystis inaequata (Warren, 1896) *Chloroclystis inexplicata Walker, 1866 *Chloroclystis infrazebrina (Hampson, 1895) *Chloroclystis intentata (Walker, 1866) *Chloroclystis lanaris Warren, 1896) *Chloroclystis laticostata Walker, 1862 *Chloroclystis modesta Warren, 1893 *Chloroclystis naga Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis olivata Warren, 1901) *Chloroclystis palpata (Walker, 1852) *Chloroclystis palpata diechusa Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis papillosa Warren, 1896) *Chloroclystis patinata (Warren, 1897) *Chloroclystis plicata Hampson, 1912 *Chloroclystis polygraphata Hampson, 1912 *Chloroclystis recensitaria (Walker, 1862) *Chloroclystis rectaria Hampson, 1903 *Chloroclystis rubrinotata Warren, 1893) *Chloroclystis rubroviridis Warren, 1896) *Chloroclystis sinuosa Swinhoe, 1895 *Chloroclystis sinuosa nigrilineata Hampson, 1896 *Chloroclystis spissidentata Warren, 1893) *Chloroclystis subcostalis Hampson, 1893 *Chloroclystis subusta Warren, 1895) *Chloroclystis taraxichroma Prout, 1958 *Chloroclystis trichophora Hampson, 1895 *Chloroclystis vata lucinda (Butler, 1879) *Chloroclystis xanthocomes (Prout, 1926) *Chlorodontopera chalybeata (Moore, 1872) *Chlorodontopera discospilata (Moore, 1867) *Chloromachia albisparsa (Walker, 1861) *Chloromachia aureofulva Warren, 1897 *Chloromachia divapala (Walker, 1861) *Chloromianta ferruginata Warren, 1896 *Chloromma mimica Warren, 1896 *Chloroparda palliplagiata (Walker, 1863) *Chloropteryx opalaria Guenée, 1857 *Chlororithra fea (Butler, 1889) *Chlorozancla falcatus (Hampson, 1895) *Chorodna adumbrata Moore, 1887 *Chorodna erebusaria Walker, 1860 *Chorodna metaphaeria (Walker, 1862) *Chorodna pallidularia Moore, 1867 *Chorodna praetextata (Felder, 1874) *Chorodna testaceata Moore, 1867 *Chorodna vulpinaria Moore, 1867 *Chrioloba andrewesi Prout, 1958 *Chrioloba bifasciata (Hampson, 1891) *Chrioloba bifasciata dentifascia Warren, 1904 *Chrioloba cinerea (Butler, 1880) *Chrioloba cinerea plumbeola Prout, 1936 *Chrioloba etaina Swinhoe, 1900 *Chrioloba indicaria (Guerin-Meneville, 1843) *Chrioloba ochraceistriga Prout, 1958 *Chrioloba olivaria Swinhoe, 1897 *Chrioloba olivescens Hampson, 1902 *Chrioloba subusta Warren, 1893) *Chrioloba trinotata Warren, 1893) *Chrysocraspeda abhadraca (Walker, 1861) *Chrysocraspeda conspicuaria Swinhoe, 1905 *Chrysocraspeda fulviplaga Swinhoe, 1905 *Chrysocraspeda gibbosa Warren, 1896 *Chrysocraspeda iole (Swinhoe, 1892) *Chrysocraspeda mitigata (Walker, 1861) *Chrysocraspeda olearia Guenée, 1857 *Chrysocraspeda perpicta Warren, 1896 *Chrysocraspeda plumbeofusa Swinhoe, 1894 *Chrysocraspeda sanguinea Warren, 1896 *Chrysocraspeda subangulata Warren, 1896 *Cidaria antauges Prout, 1935 *Cidaria basharica Bang-Haas, 1927 *Cidaria cingala (Moore, 1887) *Cidaria deletaria Hampson, 1902 *Cidaria fulvata Forster, 1771 *Cidaria ochripennis Prout, 1914 *Cleora acaciaria Boisduval, 1834 *Cleora alienaria (Walker, 1860) *Cleora alienaria gelidaria (Walker, 1863) *Cleora contiguata (Moore, 1867) *Cleora cornaria (Guenée, 1858) *Cleora cucullata (D. S. Fletcher, 1953) *Cleora falculata (D. S. Fletcher, 1953) *Cleora fraterna (Moore, 1888) *Cleora impletaria (Walker, 1862) *Cleora injectaria Walker, 1860 *Cleora inoffensa (Swinhoe, 1902) *Cleora inoffensa cinereomarginata D. S. Fletcher, 1953 *Cleora onycha (D. S. Fletcher, 1953) *Cleora processaria (Walker, 1860) *Cleora propulsaria (Walker, 1860) *Cleora subnigrata Warren, 1901) *Cleora taprobana (D. S. Fletcher, 1953) *Cleora tenebrata (D. S. Fletcher, 1953) *Cleora undaria (Fabricius, 1794) *Cleora vatia Prout, 1927 *Coenotephria brevifasciata Warren, 1888) *Coenotephria championi Prout, 1926 *Coenotephria flavistrigata Warren, 1888) *Coenotephria homophana (Hampson, 1895) *Coenotephria homophoeta Prout, 1926 *Collix ghosha Walker, 1862 *Collix griseipalpis Wileman, 1916 *Collix hypospilata Guenée, 1858 *Collix leuciota Prout, 1924 *Collix rufipalpis (Hampson, 1907) *Collix stellata Warren, 1894 *Colostygia albigirata (Kollar, 1844) *Colostygia ustipennis (Hampson, 1895) *Comostola chlorargyra (Walker, 1861) *Comostola dispansa (Walker, 1861) *Comostola hypotyphla Prout, 1917 *Comostola inops Prout, 1912 *Comostola laesaria (Walker, 1861) *Comostola maculata (Moore, 1867) *Comostola mundata Warren, 1896 *Comostola ovifera Warren, 1893) *Comostola subtiliaria (Bremer, 1864) *Comostola subtiliaria demeritaria Prout, 1917 *Comostola virago Prout, 1926 *Conolophia helicola (Swinhoe, 1894) *Conolophia nigripuncta (Hampson, 1891) *Corymica arnearia Walker, 1860 *Corymica deducta Walker, 1866 *Corymica exiguinota Hampson, 1891 *Corymica immaculata Warren, 1897 *Corymica pryeri Butler, 1878 *Corymica spatiosa Prout, 1925 *Corymica specularia Moore, 1867 *Corymica vesicularia Walker, 1866 *Cosmorhoe argentilineata (Moore, 1867) *Cosmorhoe chalybearia (Moore, 1867) *Cosmorhoe maia Prout, 1940 *Cosmorhoe neelys (Prout, 1940) *Cosmorhoe siderifera (Moore, 1888) *Craspediopsis bimaculata Warren, 1895 *Craspediopsis inaequata Warren, 1896 *Craspediopsis pallivittata (Moore, 1867) *Craspediopsis persimilis (Moore, 1888) *Cryptoloba aerata (Moore, 1867) *Cryptoloba mesta Prout, 1958 *Cryptoloba minor Warren, 1893 *Cryptoloba peperitis Prout, 1958 *Ctenognophos eolaria (Guenée, 1858) *Ctenognophos methoria Prout, 1926 *Ctenognophos niguzaria Walker, 1860 *Ctenognophos obtectaria (Walker, 1866) *Ctenognophos paerlita Butler, 1886 *Ctenognophos ventraria Guenée, 1858 *Culcula panterinaria Bremer & Grey, 1855 *Curbia martiata (Guenée, 1858) *Cusiala boarmoides (Moore, 1887) *Cusiala raptaria (Walker, 1860) *Cusuma flavifusa Hampson, 1893 *Cusuma vilis (Walker, 1854) *Cyclothea disjuncta (Walker, 1861) *Cystidia indrasana Moore, 1865 *Dalima apicata (Moore, 1867) *Dalima calamina (Butler, 1880) *Dalima gigantea Swinhoe, 1897 *Dalima intricata Warren, 1893 *Dalima latitans Warren, 1893) *Dalima lucens Warren, 1893 *Dalima nubilata Hampson, 1895 *Dalima patularia (Walker, 1860) *Dalima schistacearia Moore, 1867 *Dalima truncataria Moore, 1867 *Dalima vulpinaria (Moore, 1887) *Debos iratus Swinhoe, 1885 *Derambila costata Warren, 1896 *Derambila fragilis Butler, 1880 *Derambila gertraudae Sommerer, 1995 *Derambila infelix (Swinhoe, 1885) *Derambila lumenaria (Geyer, 1837) *Derambila saponaria (Guenée, 1858) *Derambila satelliata (Walker, 1866) *Derambila satelliata dentifera (Moore, 1888) *Dilophodes amplificata Bastelberger, 1905 *Dilophodes elegans (Butler, 1878) *Dilophodes elegans khasiana (Swinhoe, 1892) *Dindica olivacea Inoue, 1990 *Dindica para (Swinhoe, 1891) *Dindica polyphaenaria Guenée, 1857 *Dindica subrosea Warren, 1893) *Diplurodes coremiaria (Hampson, 1896) *Discalma normata (Walker, 1861) *Dischidesia cinerea (Butler, 1889) *Discoglypha aureifloris Warren, 1896 *Discoglypha hampsoni (Swinhoe, 1892) *Discoglypha inflammata Warren, 1896 *Discoglypha locupletata Prout, 1917 *Discoglypha punctimargo (Hampson, 1895) *Discoglypha sanguinata Warren, 1896) *Discoglypha variostigma Warren, 1896 *Dithecodes idaea (Swinhoe, 1892) *Docirava aequilineata Walker, 1863 *Docirava fulgurata (Guenée, 1858) *Docirava postochrea (Hampson, 1893) *Docirava pudicata (Guenée, 1858) *Dooabia lunifera (Moore, 1888) *Dooabia viridata (Moore, 1867) *Doratoptera nicevillei Hampson, 1895 *Dryochlora ophthalmicata (Moore, 1867) *Dysphania alloides Prout, 1916 *Dysphania andamana (Moore, 1887) *Dysphania aurilimbata (Moore, 1878) *Dysphania bellona (Walker, 1854) *Dysphania flavidiscalis Warren, 1895 *Dysphania jessica (Swinhoe, 1908) *Dysphania malayanus (Guérin-Meneville, 1843) *Dysphania malayanus recessa (Walker, 1861) *Dysphania militaris (Linnaeus, 1758) *Dysphania minervaria (Guenée, 1857) *Dysphania nelera (Swinhoe, 1891) *Dysphania palmyra (Stoll, 1790) *Dysphania percota (Swinhoe, 1891) *Dysphania porphyroides Prout, 1917 *Dysphania prunicolor (Moore, 1879) *Dysphania subrepleta (Walker, 1854) *Dysphania subrepleta excubifor Moore, 1878 *Dysstroma albiangulata Warren, 1893) *Dysstroma calamistrata (Moore, 1867) *Dysstroma cinereata (Moore, 1867) *Dysstroma dentifera Warren, 1896 *Dysstroma flavifusa (Heydemann, 1929) *Dysstroma fulvipennis (Hampson, 1902) *Dysstroma planifasciata Prout, 1914 *Dysstroma sikkimensis (Heydemann, 1932) *Dysstroma subapicaria Moore, 1862 *Dysstroma tenebricosa Heydemann, 1929 *Dysstroma truncata (Hufnagel, 1767) *Ecliptopera delecta (Butler, 1880) *Ecliptopera dentifera (Moore, 1888) *Ecliptopera dissecta (Moore, 1887) *Ecliptopera fulvidorsata (Swinhoe, 1894) *Ecliptopera fulvotincta (Hampson, 1895) *Ecliptopera furva (Swinhoe, 1891) *Ecliptopera leucoglyphica Warren, 1898) *Ecliptopera lucrosa Prout, 1940 *Ecliptopera macarthuri Prout, 1938 *Ecliptopera mixtilineata (Hampson, 1895) *Ecliptopera muscicolor (Moore, 1888) *Ecliptopera oblongata (Guenée, 1858) *Ecliptopera obscurata (Moore, 1867) *Ecliptopera rectilinea Warren, 1894 *Ecliptopera relata (Butler, 1880) *Ecliptopera silaceata (Schiffermüller, 1775) *Ecliptopera subapicalis (Hampson, 1891) *Ecliptopera subfalcata Warren, 1893) *Ecliptopera substituta (Walker, 1866) *Ecliptopera triangulifera (Moore, 1888) *Ecliptopera zophera Prout, 1931 *Ectropis bhurmitra (Walker, 1860) *Ectropis breta (Swinhoe, 1889) *Ectropis conifera (Moore, 1887) *Ectropis crepuscularia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) *Ectropis dentilineata (Moore, 1867) *Ectropis dentilineata pulverosa Warren, 1896) *Ectropis deodarae Prout, 1926 *Ectropis enormis Warren, 1893 *Ectropis indistincta (Hampson, 1891) *Ectropis irrorata (Moore, 1887) *Ectropis marmorata (Moore, 1867) *Ectropis ochrifasciata (Moore, 1880) *Ectropis repleta Prout, 1926 *Ectropis squamosa Warren, 1896) *Eilicrinia cordiaria (Hübner, 1790) *Eilicrinia flava (Moore, 1888) *Electrophaes aliena (Butler, 1880) *Electrophaes aliena mesodonta Prout, 1940 *Electrophaes aspretifera Prout, 1938 *Electrophaes chrysophaes Prout, 1923 *Electrophaes cryopetra Prout, 1940 *Electrophaes fulgidaria (Leech, 1897) *Electrophaes intertexta Warren, 1893) *Electrophaes nigrifulvaria (Hampson, 1902) *Electrophaes niveonotata (Warren, 1901) *Electrophaes niveopicta Warren, 1893) *Electrophaes zaphenges Prout, 1940 *Ellipostoma straminea Warren, 1893) *Elphos hymenaria Guenée, 1858 *Elphos nimia Prout, 1925 *Elphos pardicelata Walker, 1862 *Enantiodes consanguinea Prout, 1926 *Enantiodes stellifera Warren, 1896 *Entephria poliotaria (Hampson, 1902) *Entephria punctatissima Warren, 1893) *Entomopteryx amputata Guenée, 1858 *Eois dissimilaris (Moore, 1887) *Eois grataria (Walker, 1861) *Eois ingrataria Warren, 1898) *Eois lunulosa (Moore, 1887) *Eois memorata (Walker, 1861) *Eois phaneroscia Prout, 1922 *Eois plicata (Moore, 1888) *Epicosymbia albivertex (Swinhoe, 1892) *Epicosymbia albivertex ancillaria Warren, 1895) *Epipristis minimaria Guenée, 1857 *Epipristis nelearia Guenée, 1857 *Episteira nigrifrons Warren, 1907) *Episothalma ocellata (Swinhoe, 1893) *Episothalma robustaria (Guenée, 1857) *Erastria canente (Cramer, 1779) *Erastria khasiana (Swinhoe, 1899) *Erastria phoenix (Swinhoe, 1898) *Erastria swinhoei (Butler, 1880) *Erebomorpha fulguraria Walker, 1860 *Erebomorpha fulgurita Walker, 1860 *Eretmopus discissa (Walker, 1861) *Eretmopus marinaria (Guenée, 1857) *Erythrolophus fascicorpus Swinhoe, 1892 *Erythrolophus prasonarius Swinhoe, ? *Eucrostes dispartata Walker, 1861 *Eumelea algidaria Walker, 1866 *Eumelea biflavata Warren, 1896 *Eumelea biflavata assamensis Prout, 1929 *Eumelea ludovicata Guenée, 1858 *Eumelea ludovicata biclarata Prout, 1931 *Eumelea rosalia Stoll, 1781 *Eumelea vulpenaria Stoll, 1782 *Eumelea vulpenaria feliciata Guenée, 1858 *Eumelea vulpenaria florinata Guenée, 1858 *Euphyia cinnamifusa Prout, 1939 *Euphyia contortilinea Warren, 1896 *Euphyia mediovittaria (Moore, 1867) *Euphyia ochreata (Moore, 1888) *Euphyia scortea (Swinhoe, 1891) *Euphyia stellata Warren, 1893) *Euphyia subangulata (Kollar, 1844) *Euphyia submarginata Warren, 1909) *Euphyia variegata (Moore, 1867) *Euphyia viridis Warren, 1893) *Eupithecia acolpodes Prout, 1938 *Eupithecia acutangula Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia albibaltea Prout, 1958 *Eupithecia albifurva Hampson, 1907 *Eupithecia albigutta Prout, 1958 *Eupithecia albispumata Warren, 1892 *Eupithecia anasticta Prout, 1926 *Eupithecia asema Hampson, 1859 *Eupithecia atrisignis Butler, 1889 *Eupithecia biviridata Warren, 1896) *Eupithecia chlorophora Swinhoe, 1895 *Eupithecia circumacta Prout, 1958 *Eupithecia conjunctiva Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia costalis (Walker, 1863) *Eupithecia costipicta Warren, 1893 *Eupithecia eupitheciata (Walker, 1863) *Eupithecia fletcheri Prout, 1926 *Eupithecia fulvipennis Butler, 1889 *Eupithecia garuda Galsworthy & Mironov,2005 *Eupithecia hemileuca Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia hypognampta Prout, 1938 *Eupithecia incurvaria Hampson, 1903 *Eupithecia interrubrescens Hampson, 1902) *Eupithecia invicta Vojnits, 1981 *Eupithecia irambata Warren, 1893 *Eupithecia lariciata mesodeicta Prout, 1938 *Eupithecia latimedia Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia leucospila (Swinhoe, 1906) *Eupithecia leucotaxis Prout, 1926 *Eupithecia lineosa Moore, 1888 *Eupithecia lineosa gulmargensis Prout, 1938 *Eupithecia lucigera Butler, 1889 *Eupithecia melanolopha Swinhoe, 1895 *Eupithecia nigrilinea Warren, 1896) *Eupithecia nigrinotata Swinhoe, 1895 *Eupithecia ochracea Warren, 1888) *Eupithecia quadripunctata Warren, 1888 *Eupithecia rajata Guenée, 1858 *Eupithecia raniata Prout, 1958 *Eupithecia rigida Swinhoe, 1892 *Eupithecia robiginascens Prout, 1926 *Eupithecia rubridorsata Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia subrubescens Warren, 1888) *Eupithecia subtacincta Hampson, 1895 *Eupithecia tricrossa Prout, 1926 *Eupithecia ustata Moore, 1888 *Eupithecidia variegata Hampson, 1891 *Euryobeidia languidata (Walker, 1915) *Eurytaphria bisinuata Hampson, 1895 *Eurytaphria pachyceras Hampson, 1876 *Eurytaphria pallidula Warren, 1896 *Eurytaphria puratilineata (Hampson, 1895) *Eurytaphria undilineata Warren, 1897 *Eurytaphria viridulata Warren, 1897 *Eurytaphria xanthoperata Hampson, 1896 *Eustroma aurantiaria Moore, 1867 *Eustroma aurigena (Butler, 1880) *Eustroma chalcoptera (Hampson, 1895) *Eustroma elista Prout, 1940 *Eustroma hampsoni Prout, 1958 *Eustroma inextricata (Walker, 1866) *Eustroma lativittaria (Moore, 1867) *Eustroma melancholica venipicta Warren, 1893 *Eutoea contigaria Walker, 1861 *Evecliptopera decurrens Moore, 1888 *Eutoea heteroneurata (Guenée, 1858) *Fascellina chromataria Walker, 1860 *Fascellina dacoda Swinhoe, 1893 *Fascellina hypochryseis Swinhoe, 1894 *Fascellina inornata Warren, 1893 *Fascellina plagiata (Walker, 1866) *Fascellina porphyreofusa Hampson, 1895 *Fascellina punctata Warrren, 1898 *Fascellina rectimarginata Warren, 1894 *Fascellina subsignata Warrren, 1893 *Fascellina vinosa Warren, 1892) *Gandaritis flavata Moore, 1867 *Garaeus absona Swinhoe, 1889 *Garaeus albipunctatus Hampson, 1895 *Garaeus apicata (Moore, 1867) *Garaeus argillacea Butler, 1889 *Garaeus colorata Warren, 1893 *Garaeus cruentatus Butler, 1886 *Garaeus flavipicta Hampson, 1912 *Garaeus fulvata Walker, 1861 *Garaeus muscorarius Hampson, 1897 *Garaeus signata Butler, 1896 *Garaeus specularis Moore, 1867 *Gasterocome pannosaria (Moore, 1867) *Gelasma acutissima (Walker, 1861) *Gelasma acutissima goniaria (Felder, 1875) *Gelasma adaptaria Prout, 1933 *Gelasma auspicata Prout, 1917 *Gelasma convallata (Warren, 1896) *Gelasma dissimulata (Walker, 1861) *Gelasma dissimulata nigrifrons Hampson, 1896 *Gelasma fuscifimbria Prout, 1911 *Gelasma glaucaria Walker, 1866 *Gelasma griseoviridis Warren, 1893 *Gelasma hemitheoides Prout, 1916 *Gelasma immacularia (Fabricius, 1794) *Gelasma inaptaria (Walker, 1863) *Gelasma insignipecten Prout, 1928 *Gelasma mutatilinea Prout, 1916 *Gelasma thetydaria (Guenée, 1857) *Gelasma veninotata Warren, 1894) *Genusa bigutta (Walker, 1855) *Geometra flavifrontaria (Guenée, 1858) *Geometra smaragdus (Butler, 1880) *Glossotrophia jacta (Swinhoe, 1884) *Gnamptoloma aventiaria (Guenée, 1858) *Gnamptopteryx perficita (Walker, 1858) *Gnophos accipitraria Guenée, 1858 *Gnophos aereus Butler, 1886 *Gnophos albidior (Hampson, 1895) *Gnophos albistellaria Warren, 1893) *Gnophos orphninaria Hampson, 1902 *Gnophos rufitinctaria Hampson, 1902 *Gnophos tephrosiaria Moore, 1887 *Gnophos vitreata (Hampson, 1895) *Gnophosema isometra Warren, 1888) *Gonanticlea anticleata (Moore, 1888) *Gonanticlea aversa Swinhoe, 1892 *Gonanticlea occlusata (Felder, 1875) *Gonanticlea occlusata laetifica Prout, 1931 *Goniopterobola zalska (Swinhoe, 1894) *Gonodontis aethocrypta Prout, 1926 *Gonodontis clelia Cramer, 1780 *Gymnoscelis albicaudata Warren, 1897 *Gymnoscelis confusata (Walker, 1866) *Gymnoscelis conjurata Prout, 1958 *Gymnoscelis deleta Hampson, 1891 *Gymnoscelis derogata (Walker, 1866) *Gymnoscelis distatica Prout, 1958 *Gymnoscelis ectochloros Hampson, 1891 *Gymnoscelis fasciata Hampson, 1895 *Gymnoscelis imparatalis (Walker, 1865) *Gymnoscelis inexpressa Prout, 1923 *Gymnoscelis latipennis Prout, 1958 *Gymnoscelis polyclealis (Walker, 1859) *Gymnoscelis polyodonta Swinhoe, 1895 *Gymnoscelis roseifascia Hampson, 1895 *Gymnoscelis semialbida (Walker, 1866) *Gymnoscelis tibialis (Moore, 1887) *Gymnoscelis tristrigosa (Butler, 1880) *Gymnoscelis tristrigosa nasuta Prout, 1958 *Hastina caeruleolineata Moore, 1888 *Hastina gemmifera (Moore, 1867) *Hastina pluristrigata (Moore, 1867) *Helicopage hirundinalis Warren, 1896 *Hemistola antigone Prout, 1917 *Hemistola detracta (Walker, 1861) *Hemistola efformata Warren, 1893) *Hemistola fuscimargo Prout, 1935 *Hemistola loxiaria Guenée, 1857 *Hemistola malachitaria (Prout, 1917) *Hemistola rectlinea Warren, 1896 *Hemistola rubricosta Prout, 1916 *Hemistola rubrimargo Warren, 1893) *Hemistola subcaerulea Prout, 1934 *Hemithea aestivaria (Hübner, 1789) *Hemithea antigrapha Prout, 1917 *Hemithea costipunctata (Moore, 1867) *Hemithea insularia (Guenée, 1858) *Hemithea insularia profecta Prout, 1933 *Hemithea marina (Butler, 1878) *Hemithea melalopha Prout, 1931 *Hemithea tritonaria (Walker, 1863) *Hemithea wuka Pagenstecher, 1886 *Herochroma baba (Swinhoe, 1932) *Herochroma cristata Warren, 1894 *Herochroma elaearia Hampson, 1932 *Herochroma farinosa Warren, 1893) *Herochroma flavitincta Warren, 1897) *Herochroma liliana (Swinhoe, 1892) *Herochroma ochreipicta Swinhoe, 1905 *Herochroma orientalis (Holloway, 1982) *Herochroma subopalina Warren, 1894) *Herochroma subtepens (Walker, 1860) *Herochroma usneata (Felder, 1875) *Herochroma viridaria Moore, 1867 *Heterabraxas fulvosparsa Hampson, 1895 *Heterabraxas pardaria (Moore, 1867) *Heterabraxas spontaneata (Walker, 1862) *Heterobapta plumellata Wiltshire, 1943 *Heterocallia basharica (Wehrli, 1932) *Heterocallia hepaticata (Swinhoe, 1894) *Heterocallia temeraria (Swinhoe, 1891) *Heterolocha cinerea Warren, 1896) *Heterolocha citrina Prout, 1916 *Heterolocha decoloraria Hampson, 1902 *Heterolocha disistaria (Walker, 1862) *Heterolocha falconaria Walker, 1866 *Heterolocha hypoleuca Hampson, 1907 *Heterolocha lonicerae Prout, 1926 *Heterolocha obliquaria Hampson, 1902 *Heterolocha patalata (Felder, 1874) *Heterolocha phoenicotaeniata Kollar, 1844 *Heterophleps acineta Prout, 1926 *Heterophleps bicommata Warren, 1893) *Heterophleps longiramus (Hampson, 1898) *Heterophleps ocyptaria (Swinhoe, 1893) *Heterophleps quadripuncta Warren, 1898 *Heterostegane aurantiaca Warren, 1894 *Heterostegane bilineata (Butler, 1883) *Heterostegane lala Swinhoe, 1892 *Heterostegane latifasciata (Moore, 1887) *Heterostegane maculifascia Hampson, 1891 *Heterostegane rectifascia Hampson, 1892 *Heterostegane subfasciata Warren, 1899 *Heterostegane subtessellata (Walker, 1862) *Heterostegane tritocampsis (Prout, 1934) *Heterostegane urbica (Swinhoe, 1895) *Heterostegania lunulosa (Moore, 1888) *Hirasa contubernalis Moore, 1888 *Hirasa licheneus (Oberthür, 1886) *Hirasa muscosaria Walker, 1866 *Hirasa scripturaria (Walker, 1866) *Horisme flavofasciata (Moore, 1888) *Horisme hyperythra (Hampson, 1895) *Horisme leprosa (Hampson, 1891) *Horisme nigrovittata Warren, 1888) *Horisme olivata Warren, 1901) *Horisme plurilineata (Moore, 1888) *Horisme rufipicta (Hampson, 1895) *Horisme suffusa Hampson, 1895 *Hyalinetta circumflexa (Kollar, 1848) *Hybridoneura abnormis Warren, 1898 *Hybridoneura metachlora (Hampson, 1907) *Hydatocapnia marginata Warren, 1893) *Hydrelia bicolorata Moore, 1867 *Hydrelia cingulata Hampson, 1896 *Hydrelia crocearia Hampson, 1896 *Hydrelia ferruginaria (Moore, 1867) *Hydrelia flavilinea Warren, 1893) *Hydrelia lineata Warren, 1893) *Hydrelia marginipunctata Warren, 1893 *Hydrelia ornata (Moore, 1867) *Hydrelia rhodoptera Hampson, 1895 *Hydrelia rufigrisea Warren, 1893) *Hydrelia rufinota Hampson, 1896 *Hydrelia sanguiflua Hampson, 1896 *Hydrelia sericea (Butler, 1880) *Hydrelia subobliquaria (Moore, 1867) *Hydrelia undulosata Moore, 1888 *Hypenorhynchus erectilineata (Moore, 1888) *Hypephyra subangulata Warren, 1896 *Hypephyra terrosa Butler, 1889 *Hyperythra lutea Stoll, 1781 *Hyperythra susceptaria Walker, 1866 *Hyperythra swinhoei Butler, 1880 *Hypochroma hypochrosis (Guenée, 1858) *Hypocometa auxostira (Prout, 1925) *Hypocometa clauda Warren, 1896 *Hypocometa decussata (Moore, 1867) *Hypomecis lioptilaria (Swinhoe, 1901) *Hypomecis oblivia (Prout, 1925) *Hypomecis polysticta (Hampson, 1902) *Hypomecis ratotaria (Swinhoe, 1894) *Hypomecis tetragonata (Walker, 1862) *Hypomecis transcissa (Walker, 1860) *Hyposidra albifera (Moore, 1879) *Hyposidra aquilaria Walker, 1862 *Hyposidra infixaria (Walker, 1860) *Hyposidra murina (Swinhoe, 1891) *Hyposidra picaria (Walker, 1866) *Hyposidra polia Hampson, 1896 *Hyposidra talaca Walker, 1860 *Hyposidra violescens Hampson, 1895 *Hypulia continua Walker, 1861 *Hysterura cervinaria (Moore, 1868) *Hysterura multifaria (Swinhoe, 1889) *Hysterura protagma Prout, 1940 *Idaea actiosaria (Walker, 1861) *Idaea acuminata (Moore, 1888) *Idaea aequisinuata Warren, 1898) *Idaea amplipennis (Butler, 1889) *Idaea andamanica Prout, 1938 *Idaea bilinea (Swinhoe, 1885) *Idaea carpheraria (Hampson, 1907) *Idaea castelli (Prout, 1926) *Idaea charidotes (Prout, 1922) *Idaea chotaria (Swinhoe, 1886) *Idaea chrysocilia (Hampson, 1891) *Idaea conioptera (Hampson, 1903) *Idaea costiguttata Warren, 1896) *Idaea craspedota (Prout, 1934) *Idaea decidua Warren, 1900) *Idaea delibata (Prout, 1926) *Idaea delicatula Warren, 1901) *Idaea dilutaria Hübner, 1798 *Idaea falcipennis Warren, 1893 *Idaea flavisinuata Warren, 1896) *Idaea gemmaria (Hampson, 1896) *Idaea grisescens Warren, 1896) *Idaea humeraria (Walker, 1862) *Idaea improvisa (Prout, 1938) *Idaea inaudax (Prout, 1926) *Idaea indecorata Warren, 1900) *Idaea indeprensa (Prout, 1925) *Idaea indeterminata Warren, 1901) *Idaea informis Warren, 1897) *Idaea infortunata (Prout, 1938) *Idaea insuavis Butler, 1889 *Idaea lacteipennis (Butler, 1889) *Idaea leucozona (Hampson, 1893) *Idaea leucozona luteata Warren, 1896) *Idaea lineata (Hampson, 1893) *Idaea macrospila (Prout, 1926) *Idaea maculata Warren, 1896) *Idaea marcidaria (Walker, 1861) *Idaea marmorata (Hampson, 1903) *Idaea mesodela (Prout, 1926) *Idaea methaemaria (Hampson, 1903) *Idaea micra (Hampson, 1893) *Idaea obliquilinea Warren, 1896) *Idaea onchnophora (Prout, 1939) *Idaea opsitelea monodia (Prout, 1938) *Idaea palniensis (Prout, 1920) *Idaea perpulverea (Hampson, 1903) *Idaea persimilis Warren, 1896) *Idaea phoenicoptera (Hampson, 1896) *Idaea profanaria (Walker, 1866) *Idaea protensa (Butler, 1889) *Idaea ptyonopoda (Hampson, 1895) *Idaea pulchrifascia (Hampson, 1903) *Idaea purpurea (Hampson, 1891) *Idaea rubellata Warren, 1896) *Idaea rubridentata Warren, 1896) *Idaea ruptifascia Warren, 1896) *Idaea sabulosa (Prout, 1913) *Idaea semilinea Warren, 1896) *Idaea semisericea Warren, 1897) *Idaea testacea (Swinhoe, 1885) *Idaea thricophora (Hampson, 1895) *Idaea triangularis (Hampson, 1895) *Idaea vacillata (Walker, 1862) *Idaea violacea (Hampson, 1891) *Idiochlora caudularia (Guenée, 1857) *Idiochlora contracta Warren, 1896 *Idiochlora planata (Prout, 1917) *Idiochlora planata dorsinigrata (Prout, 1917) *Idiochlora pudentifimbria (Prout, 1912) *Idiochlora xanthochlora (Swinhoe, 1894) *Iotaphora iridicolor (Butler, 1880) *Iridoplecta ferrifera (Moore, 1888) *Isoloba bifasciata Warren, 1893 *Jodis albipncta Warren, 1898 *Jodis argutaria (Walker, 1866) *Jodis coeruleata Warren, 1896 *Jodis delicatula Warren, 1896 *Jodis inumbrata Warren, 1896 *Jodis iridescens Warren, 1896 *Jodis irregularis Warren, 1894) *Jodis nanda (Walker, 1861) *Jodis pallescens (Hampson, 1891) *Jodis rhabdota Prout, 1917 *Jodis subtractata (Walker, 1863) *Jodis undularia Hampson, 1891 *Jodis xynia Prout, 1917 *Krananda diversa Warren, 1894 *Krananda oliveomarginata Swinhoe, 1894 *Krananda semihyalina Moore, 1867 *Laciniodes denigrata Warren, 1896 *Laciniodes plurilinearia (Moore, 1867) *Leptodontopera basipuncta (Moore, 1867) *Leptodontopera rufitinctaria Hampson, 1902 *Leptomiza calcearia Walker, 1860 *Leptomiza dentilineata (Moore, 1887) *Leptostegna asiatica Warren, 1893) *Leptostegna tenerata (Christoph, 1881) *Ligdia adustata Schiffermüller, 1775 *Ligdia coctata Guenée, 1858 *Lipomelia subusta Warren, 1893 *Lissoblemma lunuliferata (Walker, 1862) *Lobogonia ambusta Warren, 1893 *Lobogonia olivata Warren, 1896 *Lobogonodes multistriata (Butler, 1889) *Lobogonodes multistriata tensa Prout, 1940 *Lomographa alba Moore, 1887 *Lomographa foedata Warren, 1894) *Lomographa griseola Warren, 1893) *Lomographa inamata (Walker, 1861) *Lomographa longipennis Warren, 1897) *Lomographa margarita (Moore, 1867) *Lomographa platyleucata (Walker, 1866) *Lophobates ochricostata (Hampson, 1898) *Lophomachia albiradiata Warren, 1893) *Lophomachia discipennata (Walker, 1861) *Lophomachia picturata (Hampson, 1903) *Lophomachia semialba (Walker, 1861) *Loxaspilates atrisquamata Hampson, 1907 *Loxaspilates dispar Warren, 1893 *Loxaspilates hastigera Butler, 1889 *Loxaspilates obliquaria Moore, 1867 *Loxaspilates triumbrata Warren, 1895) *Loxofidonia bareconia (Swinhoe, 1894) *Loxofidonia buda (Swinhoe, 1895) *Loxofidonia cingala Moore, 1887 *Loxofidonia obfuscata Warren, 1893) *Loxorhombia idea (Swinhoe, 1890) *Luxiaria acutaria (Snellen, 1877) *Luxiaria amasa (Butler, 1878) *Luxiaria despicata Prout, 1929 *Luxiaria emphatica Prout, 1925 *Luxiaria hyaphanes Hampson, 1891 *Luxiaria mitorrhaphes Prout, 1925 *Luxiaria phyllosaria Walker, 1860 *Luxiaria postvittata Walker, 1861 *Luxiaria submonstrata (Walker, 1861) *Luxiaria subrasata (Walker, 1861) *Luxiaria tephrosaria (Moore, 1867) *Luxiaria turpisaria Walker, 1861 *Lycaugidia albatus Swinhoe, 1885 *Macaria quadraria (Moore, 1887) *Maidana tetragonata Walker, 1862 *Mariaba convoluta (Walker, 1866) *Maxates coelataria (Walker, 1861) *Maxates coelataria trychera Prout, 1933 *Maxates macariata (Walker, 1863) *Medasina albidaria Walker, 1866 *Medasina albidentata (Moore, 1867) *Medasina basistrigaria (Moore, 1867) *Medasina cervina Warren, 1893) *Medasina combustaria (Walker, 1866) *Medasina contaminata (Moore, 1887) *Medasina creataria Guenée, 1858 *Medasina dissimilis Moore, 1887 *Medasina firmilinea Prout, 1926 *Medasina fratercula (Moore, 1887) *Medasina gleba (Swinhoe, 1885) *Medasina interruptaria Moore, 1887 *Medasina junctilinea Hampson, 1907 *Medasina lampasaria Hampson, 1895 *Medasina leledaria Swinhoe, 1905 *Medasina livida Warren, 1893) *Medasina mauraria (Guenée, 1858) *Medasina mucidaria (Walker, 1866) *Medasina nigrovittata Moore, 1867 *Medasina objectaria (Walker, 1866) *Medasina obliterata (Moore, 1867) *Medasina plumosa Hampson, 1895 *Medasina pulverulenta Hampson, 1895 *Medasina quadrinotata Warren, 1893 *Medasina reticulata Hampson, 1895 *Medasina scotosiaria Warren, 1893 *Medasina sikkima (Moore, 1887) *Medasina similis Moore, 1888 *Medasina strixaria Guenée, 1858 *Medasina tephrosiaria Warren, 1896) *Medasina vagans (Moore, 1887) *Melanthia catenaria (Moore, 1867) *Melanthia dentistrigata Warren, 1893) *Melanthia exquisita Warren, 1893) *Menophra bicornuta Inoue, 1990 *Menophra codra (Swinhoe, 1891) *Menophra costistrigata Warren, 1896) *Menophra cuprearia (Moore, 1867) *Menophra decorata (Moore, 1867) *Menophra humeraria (Moore, 1867) *Menophra jugorum (Felder, 1874) *Menophra lignata Warren, 1894 *Menophra melagrapharia (Hampson, 1907) *Menophra nigrifasciata Hampson, 1891 *Menophra perserrata (Walker, 1862) *Menophra retractaria (Moore, 1867) *Menophra serpentinaria Warren, 1896) *Menophra subplagiata (Walker, 1860) *Menophra subterminalis (Prout, 1925) *Menophra torridaria Moore, 1888 *Menophra trilineata Warren, 1896 *Mesoleuca costipannaria (Moore, 1867) *Metabraxas coryneta (Swinhoe, 1894) *Metabraxas fasciata (Swinhoe, 1894) *Metabraxas regularis Warren, 1893) *Metabraxas tincta (Hampson, 1895) *Metallaxis semipurpurascens Hampson, 1896 *Metallaxis semiustus (Swinhoe, 1894) *Metallolophia ocellata Warren, 1897) *Metallolophia opalina Warren, 1893) *Metamenophra canidorsata (Walker, 1866) *Metamenophra delineata (Walker, 1860) *Metamenophra inouei (Sato, 1987) *Metamenophra subpilosa Warren, 1894) *Micrabraxas cupriscotia (Hampson, 1902) *Micrabraxas incolorata Warren, 1893 *Micrabraxas melanodonta (Hampson, 1907) *Micrabraxas punctigera (Butler, 1889) *Micrabraxas tenuis Warren, 1897) *Microcalicha minima Warren, 1896) *Microloxia herbaria indecretata (Walker, 1863) *Microloxia leprosa (Hampson, 1893) *Micronissa delphinaria Swinhoe, 1893 *Micrulia medioplaga (Swinhoe, 1902) *Micrulia tenuilinea Warren, 1896 *Milionia basalis Walker, 1854 *Milionia glauca (Stoll, 1782) *Milionia luculenta Swinhoe, 1889 *Milionia pulchrinervis Felder, 1868 *Mimochroa albifrons (Moore, 1888) *Mimochroa angulifascia (Moore, 1888) *Mimochroa gynopteridia (Butler, 1880) *Mimochroa hypoxantha (Kollar, 1828) *Mixocera parvulata (Walker, 1863) *Mixochlora vittata (Moore, 1867) *Mixolophia ochrolauta Warren, 1894 *Monocerotesa radiata Warren, 1897) *Monocerotesa strigata Warren, 1893) *Myrioblephara duplexa Moore, 1888 *Myrioblephara idaeoides (Moore, 1888) *Myrioblephara idaeoides albipunctata Warren, 1893 *Myrioblephara rubrifusca Warren, 1893 *Myrioblephara simplaria (Swinhoe, 1894) *Myrioblephara xanthozonea (Hampson, 1907) *Myrteta fuscolineata Swinhoe, 1894 *Myrteta luteifrons (Swinhoe) *Myrteta obliqua (Hampson, 1893) *Myrteta ocernaria (Swinhoe, 1893) *Myrteta planaria Walker, 1861 *Myrteta sericea (Butler, 1881) *Myrteta simpliciata (Moore, 1867) *Myrteta subpunctata Warren, 1893) *Myrteta subvitrea Hampson, 1895 *Myrteta unipuncta Warren, 1893) *Nadagara comprensata Walker, 1862 *Nadagara inordinata Walker, 1862 *Nadagara orbipuncta Prout, 1925 *Nadagara vigaia Walker, 1862 *Naxa obliterata Warren, 1893) *Naxa seriaria (Motschulsky, 1866) *Naxa textilis Walker, 1856 *Naxa textilis parvipuncta Prout, 1916 *Naxidia irrorata (Moore, 1888) *Naxidia punctata Butler, 1886 *Neohipparchus maculata Warren, 1897) *Neohipparchus vallata (Butler, 1878) *Neohipparchus variegata (Butler, 1889) *Neotephria avinoffi Prout, 1939 *Neotephria ramalaria Felder, 1875 *Nothocasis knyvetti (Prout, 1958) *Nothocasis sikkima (Moore, 1888) *Nothomiza achromaria (Guenée, 1858) *Nothomiza binotata Warren, 1897) *Nothomiza cinerascens (Moore, 1888) *Nothomiza costalis (Moore, 1867) *Nothomiza costinotata Warren, 1893) *Nothomiza dentisignata (Moore, 1867) *Nothomiza nana Warren, 1897 *Nothomiza peralba (Swinhoe, 1894) *Nothomiza viridis Warren, 1893 *Nycterosea obstipata (Fabricius, 1794) *Obeidia diversicolor Warren, 190 *Obeidia fumosa Warren, 1893 *Obeidia lucifera Swinhoe, 1893 *Obeidia millepunctata Warren, 1893 *Obeidia tigrata (Guenée, 1857) *Ocoelophora agana Prout, 1926 *Ocoelophora maculifera Warren, 1896 *Ocoelophora ochreifusca (Hampson, 1896) *Odontopera angularia (Moore, 1867) *Odontopera bilinearia (Swinhoe, 1889) *Odontopera bivittaria (Moore, 1867) *Odontopera cervinaria (Moore, 1867) *Odontopera fuscilinea (Hampson, 1907) *Odontopera heydena (Swinhoe, 1894) *Odontopera justa (Prout, 1928) *Odontopera kametaria (Felder, 1873) *Odontopera lentiginosaria (Moore, 1867) *Odontopera obliquaria (Moore, 1867) *Odontopera similaria (Moore, 1888) *Oenospila flavifusata (Walker, 1861) *Oenospila strix (Butler, 1889) *Omphacodes directa (Walker, 1861) *Onagrodes obscurata Warren, 1896 *Onellaba botydata Walker, 1862 *Ophthalmitis caritaria (Walker, 1860) *Ophthalmitis herbidaria (Guenée, 1858) *Ophthalmitis irrorataria (Bremer & Grey, 1853) *Ophthalmitis lectularia Swinhoe, 1891 *Ophthalmitis pertusaria Felder, 1874 *Ophthalmitis sinensium Oberthür, 1913 *Ophthalmitis striatifera Hampson, 1902 *Ophthalmitis cordularia (Swinhoe, 1893) *Ophthalmitis diurnaria Guenée, 1858 *Opisthograptis crataegata Linnaeus, 1761 *Opisthograptis irrorata (Hampson, 1895) *Opisthograptis moelleri Warren, 1893 *Opisthograptis sulphurea (Butler, 1880) *Opisthograptis tridentifera Moore, 1888 *Opisthotia tumidilinea (Moore, 1888) *Organopoda annulifera (Butler, 1889) *Organopoda annulifera signifera Prout, 1938 *Organopoda carnearia (Walker, 1861) *Organopoda carnearia himalaica Prout, 1938 *Ornithospila avicularia (Guenée, 1857) *Ornithospila esmeralda (Hampson, 1895) *Ornithospila lineata (Moore, 1872) *Orthoserica rufigrisea Warren, 1896 *Osteosema alboviridis (Moore, 1872) *Osteosema pastor Butler, 1880 *Osteosema sanguilineata (Moore, 1867) *Ourapteryx clara Butler, 1880 *Ourapteryx ebuleata (Guenée, 1858) *Ourapteryx excellens (Butler, 1889) *Ourapteryx margaritata (Moore, 1868) *Ourapteryx marginata (Hampson, 1895) *Ourapteryx multistrigaria Walker, 1866 *Ourapteryx peermaadiata Thierry-Mieg, 1903 *Ourapteryx picticaudata (Walker, 1860) *Ourapteryx pluristrigata Warren, 1888) *Ourapteryx podaliriata (Guenée, 1858) *Ourapteryx primularis (Butler, 1886) *Ourapteryx sciticaudaria (Walker, 1862) *Ourapteryx triangularia Moore, 1867 *Oxymacaria ceylonica Hampson, 1902 *Oxymacaria palliata Hampson, 1891 *Oxymacaria pectinata Hampson, 1902 *Ozola extersaria (Walker, 1861) *Ozola falcipennis (Moore, 1888) *Ozola impedita biangulifera (Moore, 1888) *Ozola macariata (Walker, 1863) *Ozola microniaria Walker, 1862 *Ozola minor (Moore, 1888) *Ozola picaria (Swinhoe, 1892) *Ozola sinuicosta Prout, 1910 *Ozola sinuicosta grisescens Prout, 1910 *Palaeaspilates ocularia (Fabricius, 1775) *Palaeaspilates rufaria Warren, 1896) *Palaeomystis falcataria (Moore, 1867) *Palpoctenidia phoenicosoma (Swinhoe, 1895) *Pamphlebia rubrolimbraria (Guenée, 1857) *Panulia ajaia (Walker, 1859) *Panulia lapidata Warren, 1893) *Panulia vulsipennis (Prout, 1934) *Paradarisa chloauges (Prout, 1927) *Paradarisa comparataria (Walker, 1866) *Paradarisa heledaria (Swinhoe, 1893) *Paralcis conspicuata (Moore, 1888) *Paralcis rufaria Warren, 1896 *Paralcis subochrea Warren, 1896 *Paralcis thricophora (Hampson, 1895) *Paramaxates polygrapharia (Walker, 1860) *Paramaxates posterecta Holloway, 1976 *Paramaxates vagata (Walker, ) *Parasynegia atomaria Warren, 1896 *Parasynegia complicata Warren, 1893 *Parasynegia diffusaria (Moore, 1868) *Parasynegia lidderdalii (Butler, 1880) *Parasynegia macularia Warren, 1894 *Parasynegia nigriclavata Warren, 1897 *Parasynegia pluristriata (Walter, 1863) *Parasynegia rufinervis Warren, 1896 *Parasynegia submissa Warren, 1894 *Parasynegia suffusa Warren, 1893 *Parasynegia vitticostata (Walker, 1862) *Parazoma ferax Prout, 1926 *Parazoma hypobasis Prout, 1931 *Parazoma semifusca Warren, 1896 *Pareclipsis gracilis (Butler, 1879) *Pareclipsis umbrata Warren, 1893 *Parectropis conspurcata (Walker, 1866) *Pareumelea eugeniata (Guenée, 1858) *Pareumelea fimbriata (Stoll, 1782) *Pareustroma fissisignis (Butler, 1880) *Peetula exanthemata Moore, 1888 *Peetula stramineata Warren, 1888) *Pentheochlora uniformis (Hampson, 1895) *Peratophyga hyalinata Kollar, 1844 *Peratophyga xanthyala (Hampson, 1896) *Percnia belluaria Guenée, 1858 *Percnia confusa Warren, 1894 *Percnia ductaria (Walker, 1862) *Percnia felinaria Guenée, 1858 *Percnia foraria (Guenée, 1858) *Percnia giraffata (Guenée, 1858) *Percnia interfusa Warren, 1893 *Percnia maculata (Moore, 1867) *Perizoma affinis (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma albidivisa Warren, 1893 *Perizoma albofasciata (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma antisticta Prout, 1938 *Perizoma antisticta methemon Prout, 1939 *Perizoma apicistrigata Warren, 1893 *Perizoma bicolor Warren, 1893 *Perizoma cerva (Hampson, 1902) *Perizoma conjuncta Warren, 1893 *Perizoma constricta Warren, 1901 *Perizoma decorata (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma fasciata Warren, 1893 *Perizoma fulvimacula (Hampson, 1896) *Perizoma herrichiata (Snellen, 1874) *Perizoma interrupta Warren, 1893 *Perizoma lacernigera (Butler, 1889) *Perizoma lacteiguttata Warren, 1893 *Perizoma maculata (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma minuta (Butler, 1889) *Perizoma minuta latifasciata Warren, 1893 *Perizoma mordax Prout, 1939 *Perizoma olivacea Warren, 1893) *Perizoma plumbeata (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma rectifasciata Hampson, 1902 *Perizoma schistacea (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma seriata (Moore, 1888) *Perizoma tenuifascia Warren, 1896 *Perizoma triplagiata Warren, 1896 *Perizoma variabilis Warren, 1893 *Perizoma variabilis condignata Prout, 1938 *Petelia albopunctata (Swinhoe, 1891) *Petelia capitata (Walker, 1867) *Petelia fasciata (Moore, 1868) *Petelia immaculata Hampson, 1893 *Petelia medardaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1856 *Petelia vexillaria (Swinhoe, 1885) *Pholodes fuliginea (Hampson, 1895) *Pholodes nigrescens Warren, 1893) *Pholodes squamosa Warren, 1896) *Photoscotosia albapex Hampson, 1895 *Photoscotosia amplicata (Walker, 1862) *Photoscotosia annubilata Prout, 1940 *Photoscotosia atromarginata Warren, 1893 *Photoscotosia dejuncta Prout, 1937 *Photoscotosia fulguritis Warren, 1893 *Photoscotosia metachryseis Hampson, 1896 *Photoscotosia miniosata (Walker, 1862) *Photoscotosia multilinea Warren, 1893 *Photoscotosia nubilata Moore, 1888 *Photoscotosia obliquisignata Moore, 1867 *Photoscotosia undulosa (Alphéraky, 1888) *Phthonandria atrilineata Butler, 1881 *Phthonandria atrilineata indica Inoue, 1990 *Phthonandria conjunctiva Warren, 1896 *Phthonoloba fasciata (Moore, 1888) *Physetobasis annulata Hampson, 1891 *Physetobasis dentifascia Hampson, 1895 *Physetobasis griseipennis Moore, 1888 *Piercia divergens (Butler, 1889) *Piercia imbrata (Guenée, 1858) *Pingasa alba Swinhoe, 1891 *Pingasa chlora (Stoll, 1752) *Pingasa chlora crenaria (Guenée, 1858) *Pingasa dispensata (Walker, 1862) *Pingasa elutriata Prout, 1916 *Pingasa lariaria (Walker, 1860) *Pingasa multispurcata Prout, 1913 *Pingasa pseudoterpinaria (Guenée, 1858) *Pingasa pseudoterpinaria gracilis Prout, 1916 *Pingasa pseudoterpinaria tephrosiaria Guenée, 1858 *Pingasa rubicunda Warren, 1894 *Pingasa rufofasciata Moore, 1888 *Pingasa ruginaria Guenée, 1857 *Pingasa ruginaria andamanica Prout, 1916 *Pingasa subviridis Warren, 1896 *Pingasa venusta Warren, 1894 *Plagodis inusitaria (Moore, 1867) *Plagodis reticulata Warren, 1893 *Platycerota olivatia Hampson, 1902 *Platycerota spilotelaria (Walker, 1862) *Plutodes costatus (Butler, 1886) *Plutodes cyclaria Guenée, 1858 *Plutodes discigera Butler, 1880 *Plutodes exiguifascia Hampson, 1895 *Plutodes exquisita Butler, 1880 *Plutodes flavescens Butler, 1880 *Plutodes lamisca Swinhoe, 1894 *Plutodes nilgirica Hampson, 1895 *Plutodes philornia Prout, 1926 *Plutodes subcaudata Butler, 1880 *Plutodes transmutata Walker, 1861 *Pogonopygia nigralbata Warren, 1894 *Polynesia curtitibia Prout, 1912 *Polynesia sunandava Walker, 1861 *Polynesia truncapex Swinhoe, 1892 *Polystroma adumbrata (Kollar, 1844) *Pomasia denticlathrata Warren, 1893 *Pomasia parerga Prout, 1941 *Pomasia psylaria Guenée, 1858 *Pomasia pulchrilinea Walker, 1866 *Pomasia punctaria Hampson, 1912 *Pomasia reticulata Hampson, 1895 *Pomasia sparsata Hampson, 1902 *Praegnophosema drypepes Prout, 1935 *Prasinocyma floresaria (Walker, 1866) *Prasinocyma perpulverata Prout, 1916 *Prionodonta amethystina Warren, 1893 *Pristostegania trilineata (Moore, 1867) *Probithia exclusa Walker, 1860 *Problepsis albidior Warren, 1899 *Problepsis apollinaria Guenée, 1858 *Problepsis apollinaria candidior Prout, 1917 *Problepsis conjunctiva Warren, 1893 *Problepsis crassinotata Prout, 1917 *Problepsis deliaria (Guenée, 1858) *Problepsis delphiaria (Guenée, 1858) *Problepsis longipannis Prout, 1917 *Problepsis ocellata cinerea Butler, 1886 *Problepsis vulgaris Butler, 1889 *Prochasma dentilinea Warren, 1893) *Prochasma mimica Warren, 1897 *Prometopidia conisaria Hampson, 1902 *Proomphe lobata Warren, 1896 *Prorhinia pallidaria Moore, 1881 *Prorhinia pingasoides (Warrren, 1893) *Protonebula combusta (Swinhoe, 1894) *Protonebula cupreata (Moore, 1867) *Pseudalcis renaria (Guenée, 1858) *Pseudeuchlora kafebera (Swinhoe, 1894) *Pseudiodis albidentula (Hampson, 1907) *Pseudiodis unifascia Hampson, 1891 *Pseudomimetis picta Warren, 1901) *Pseudomiza argentilinea (Moore, 1867) *Pseudomiza castanearia (Moore, 1867) *Pseudomiza cruentaria (Moore, 1867) *Pseudomiza flava Moore, 1888 *Pseudomiza leucogonia (Hampson, 1895) *Pseudomiza ochrilinea Warren, 1896) *Pseudomiza viridispurca Prout, 1927 *Pseudopanthera himaleyica (Kollar, 1848) *Pseudosterrha paulula (Swinhoe, 1886) *Psyra anglifera Walker, 1866 *Psyra cuneata Walker, 1860 *Psyra debilis Warren, 1888 *Psyra similaria (Moore, 1888) *Psyra spurcataria (Walker, 1862) *Psyra trilineata (Moore, 1888) *Ptochophyle marginata Warren, 1897) *Ptocophyle flavipuncta (Prout, 1938) *Ptocophyle permutans (Hampson, 1891) *Ptocophyle togata (Fabricius, 1798) *Ptocophyle tristicula (Swinhoe, 1885) *Ptocophyle volutaria (Swinhoe, 1886) *Pyrrhorachis caerulea Warren, 1893) *Pyrrhorachis cornuta Warren, 1896 *Pyrrhorachis cosmetocraspeda Prout, 1918 *Pyrrhorachis pyrrhogona (Walker, 1866) *Pyrrhorachis pyrrhogona turgescens Prout, 1917 *Racotis boarmiaria Guenée, 1858 *Racotis discistigmaria (Hampson, 1902) *Racotis inconclusa Walker, 1860 *Racotis sordida Warren, 1896 *Rheumaptera abraxidia (Hampson, 1895) *Rheumaptera anestia (Prout, 1941) *Rheumaptera hypolopha (Hampson, 1895) *Rheumaptera scotaria Hampson, 1907 *Rheumaptera titubata (Prout, 1941) *Rheumaptera tremodes (Prout, 1940) *Rhodometra sacraria (Linnaeus, 1767) *Rhodostrophia anomala Warren, 1895 *Rhodostrophia bicolor Warren, 1895 *Rhodostrophia cinerascens (Moore, 1888) *Rhodostrophia cinerascens borealis (Swinhoe, 1889) *Rhodostrophia dissoluta Prout, 1938 *Rhodostrophia glaucofusa (Hampson, 1907) *Rhodostrophia haematozona Hampson, 1895 *Rhodostrophia herbicolens (Butler, 1883) *Rhodostrophia inaffectata Prout, 1938 *Rhodostrophia inconspicua (Butler, 1886) *Rhodostrophia meonaria (Guenée, 1857) *Rhodostrophia muricolor Warren, 1897 *Rhodostrophia olivacea Warren, 1895 *Rhodostrophia pelloniaria (Guenée, 1858) *Rhodostrophia pelloniaria khasiana (Moore, 1888) *Rhodostrophia peregrina (Kollar, 1844) *Rhodostrophia poliaria Hampson, 1903 *Rhodostrophia poliaria excellens Prout, 1938 *Rhodostrophia pulverearia Hampson, 1903 *Rhodostrophia similata (Moore, 1888) *Rhodostrophia stigmatica (Butler, 1889) *Rhodostrophia subrufa Warren, 1897 *Rhodostrophia tristrigalis Butler, 1889 *Rhodostrophia vinacearia Moore, 1867 *Rhomborista devexata (Walker, 1861) *Rhomborista semipurpurea Warren, 1897 *Rhynchobapta cervinaria Moore, 1888 *Rhynchobapta eburnivena Warren, 1896) *Rhynchobapta flaviceps Butler, 1881 *Rhynchobapta irrorata Hampson, 1902 *Rhynchobapta punctilinearia (Leech, 1891) *Ruttelerona cessaria (Walker, 1860) *Ruttelerona harmonica Hampson, 1895 *Sabaria costimaculata (Moore, 1867) *Sabaria euchroes Prout, 1917 *Sabaria incitata (Walker, 1862) *Sabaria intexta (Swinhoe, 1891) *Sabaria lithosiaria (Walker, 1862) *Sabaria obliquilineata Warren, 1893) *Sabaria pallida (Moore, 1877) *Sabaria rondelaria (Fabricius, 1775) *Sabaria serpentinaria (Walker, 1866) *Sarcinodes aequilinearia (Walker, 1860) *Sarcinodes carnearia Guenée, 1857 *Sarcinodes debitaria (Walker, 1863) *Sarcinodes lilacina Moore, 1888 *Sarcinodes restitutaria (Walker, 1862) *Sarcinodes susana (Swinhoe, 1891) *Sauris abnormis (Moore, 1888) *Sauris bicolor Warren, 1896) *Sauris cinerosa Warren, 1894 *Sauris eupitheciata (Snellen, 1881) *Sauris hirudinata Guenée, 1858 *Sauris ignobilis Butler, 1880 *Sauris improspera Prout, 1931 *Sauris inscissa Prout, 1958 *Sauris interruptata (Moore, 1888) *Sauris lineosa (Moore, 1888) *Sauris nigrifusalis Warren, 1896 *Sauris nigripalpata Walker, 1862 *Sauris perfasciata Hampson, 1895 *Sauris proboscidaria Walker, 1862 *Scardamia metallaria Guenée, 1858 *Scardamia rectilinea Warren, 1896 *Scardamia seminigra Prout, 1925 *Schistophyle falcifera Warren, 1896 *Sciadia tenebraria (Esper, 1806) *Scionomia lignicolor Warren, 1893) *Scopula acharis Prout, 1938 *Scopula achrosta Prout, 1935 *Scopula actuaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula addictaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula adeptaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula albiflava Warren, 1896) *Scopula albomaculata (Moore, 1888) *Scopula anaitisaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula annexata Prout, 1938 *Scopula annularia (Swinhoe, 1890) *Scopula asparta Prout, 1938 *Scopula aspilataria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula atriceps (Hampson, 1895) *Scopula atridiscata Warren, 1897) *Scopula attentata nicobarica Prout, 1938 *Scopula bispurcata Warren, 1898) *Scopula butyrosa Warren, 1893) *Scopula caesaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula campbelli Prout, 1920 *Scopula celebraria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula cleoraria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula coangulata Prout, 1920 *Scopula complanata Warren, 1896) *Scopula consimilata Warren, 1896) *Scopula costata (Moore, 1887) *Scopula decorata eurhythma Prout, 1935 *Scopula deliciosaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula dimoera Prout, 1922 *Scopula emissaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula erubescens Warren, 1895) *Scopula eulomata (Snellen, 1877) *Scopula extimaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula ferrilineata (Moore, 1888) *Scopula ferruginea (Hampson, 1893) *Scopula fibulata (Guenée, 1858) *Scopula flavifurfurata Prout, 1920 *Scopula fluidaria (Swinhoe, 1886) *Scopula furfurata Warren, 1897) *Scopula humilis Prout, 1913 *Scopula hyphenophora Warren, 1896) *Scopula idearia (Swinhoe, 1886) *Scopula inangulata Warren, 1896) *Scopula incanata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Scopula inflexibilis Prout, 1931 *Scopula insolata (Butler, 1889) *Scopula intensata (Moore, 1887) *Scopula intensata ochriata Prout, 1938 *Scopula kashmirensis (Moore, 1888) *Scopula kashmirensis gooraisensis Prout, 1935 *Scopula kashmirensis quettensis Prout, 1935 *Scopula linearis (Hampson, 1891) *Scopula mecysma (Swinhoe, 1894) *Scopula melanstigma Prout, 1938 *Scopula modesta (Moore, 1887) *Scopula monosema Prout, 1923 *Scopula moorei (Cotes & Swinhoe, 1888) *Scopula moorei metarsia Prout, 1938 *Scopula nesciaria (Walker, 1861) *Scopula nigridentata Warren, 1896 *Scopula nitidissima Prout, 1920 *Scopula ocheracea (Hampson, 1891) *Scopula ochricrinita Prout, 1920 *Scopula opicata (Fabricius, 1798) *Scopula pallida Warren, 1888) *Scopula patularia (Walker, 1866) *Scopula pedilata (Felder, 1875) *Scopula polystigmaria Hampson, 1903 *Scopula prosthiostigma Prout, 1938 *Scopula pulchellata (Fabricius, 1794) *Scopula pulverosa (Prout, 1934) *Scopula quinquestriata Warren, 1896) *Scopula remotata (Guenée, 1858) *Scopula rufistigma Warren, 1895) *Scopula scialophia Prout, 1919 *Scopula sordida Warren, 1895) *Scopula stigmata (Moore, 1888) *Scopula subcarnea Warren, 1934) *Scopula sublutescens Prout, 1920 *Scopula subpartita Prout, 1919 *Scopula subtracta Prout, 1935 *Scopula tenuimedia Prout, 1938 *Scopula undulataria Moore, 1888 *Scopula unilineata Warren, 1896) *Scopula violacea Warren, 1897) *Scopula walkeri (Butler, 1883) *Scotopteryx arthuri (Prout, 1939) *Scotopteryx duplicata Warren, 1853) *Scotopteryx fissiferata (Walker, 1862) *Scotopteryx junctata (Staudinger, 1882) *Scotopteryx leucocypta (Hampson, 1902) *Scotopteryx nasifera Warren, 1888) *Scotopteryx roseicilia (Hampson, 1895) *Scotopteryx roseifascia (Hampson, 1895) *Semiothisa acutaria (Walker, 1869) *Semiothisa apataria (Swinhoe, 1893) *Semiothisa atmala (Swinhoe, 1894) *Semiothisa avitusaria (Walker, 1860) *Semiothisa azataria (Swinhoe, 1893) *Semiothisa effusata (Guenée, 1857) *Semiothisa eleonora (Stoll, 1780) *Semiothisa elvirata (Guenée, 1858) *Semiothisa emersaria (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa emersaria albidulata Warren, 1898 *Semiothisa fasciata (Stoll, 1780) *Semiothisa fidoniata (Guenée, 1858) *Semiothisa frugaliata (Guenée, 1858) *Semiothisa fumipennis (Hampson, 1895) *Semiothisa honoria (Hampson, 1912) *Semiothisa inchoata (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa maculosata Warren, 1896 *Semiothisa myandaria (Walker, 1863) *Semiothisa nora (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa octolinearia (Swinhoe, 1894) *Semiothisa oliva (Swinhoe, 1894) *Semiothisa ozararia (Walker, 1860) *Semiothisa penumbrata Warren, 1896 *Semiothisa perfumata (Bastelberger, 1907) *Semiothisa perfusaria (Walker, 1866) *Semiothisa pervolgata (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa placida (Moore, 1888) *Semiothisa pluviata (Fabricius, 1795) *Semiothisa posticaria (Walker, 1869) *Semiothisa psammodes (Bastelberger, 1907) *Semiothisa quadraria (Moore, 1887) *Semiothisa ruptifascia Warren, 1896 ) *Semiothisa streniataria (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa subalbataria (Swinhoe, 1889) *Semiothisa subcaudaria (Walker, 1861) *Semiothisa sufflata (Guenée, 1858) *Semiothisa triangulata (Hampson, 1891) *Semiothisa trillinearia (Moore, 1888) *Semiothisa variolinea Warren, 1896 ) *Semiothisa xanthonora (Walker, 1861) *Sirinopteryx quadripunctata Moore, 1867 *Sirinopteryx rufilineata Warren, 1893 *Sirinopteryx rufivinctata Walker, 1862 *Sirinopteryx undulifera Warren, 1893 *Somatina anthophilata Guenée, 1857 *Somatina omicraria Fabricius, 1798 *Somatina plynusaria (Walker, 1862) *Somatina postlineata Warren, 1899 *Somatina purpurascens (Moore, 1887) *Somatina rosacea Swinhoe, 1894 *Spaniocentra isiopania Prout, 1917 *Spaniocentra lyra (Swinhoe, 1892) *Spaniocentra pannosa (Moore, 1887) *Sphagnodela lucida Warren, 1893 *Spilopera anomala Warren, 1893 *Spilopera divaricata Moore, 1888 *Stamnodes elwesi Alphéraky, 1895 *Stamnodes pauperaria pamphilata (Felder, 1875) *Stenorumia ablunata (Guenée, 1858) *Stenorumia duplicilinea Hampson, 1895 *Stenorumia longipennis Warren, 1893) *Swannia marmorea Prout, 1926 *Symmacra genuflexus (Hampson, 1895) *Symmacra regularis Warren, 1896 *Symmacra solidaria (Guenée, 1858) *Symmacra solidaria validaria (Walker, 1866) *Symmimetis cristata Warren, 1897 *Synegia camptogrammaria (Guenée, 1858) *Synegia conflagrata Hampson, 1912 *Synegia erythra (Hampson, 1891) *Synegia eumeleata Walker, 1861 *Synegia imitaria (Walker, 1861) *Synegia maculosata Warren, 1896) *Synegia medionubis Prout, 1925 *Synegiodes diffusifascia Swinhoe, 1892 *Synegiodes histrionaria Swinhoe, 1892 *Synegiodes hyriaria (Walker, 1866) *Synegiodes obliquifascia Prout, 1918 *Synegiodes sanguinaria (Moore, 1867) *Sysstema albipicta Warren, 1893) *Sysstema longiplaga Prout, 1923 *Sysstema semicirculata (Moore, 1867) *Syzeuxis heteromeces Prout, 1926 *Syzeuxis magnidica Prout, 1926 *Syzeuxis nigrinotata Warren, 1896) *Syzeuxis seminanis Prout, 1926 *Syzeuxis tessellifimbria Prout, 1926 *Syzeuxis trinotaria (Moore, 1867) *Tanaoctenia haliaria (Walker, 1861) *Tanaorrhinus kina Swinhoe, 1893 *Tanaorrhinus kina embrithes Prout, 1934 *Tanaorrhinus rafflesii (Moore, 1859) *Tanaorrhinus reciprocata Walker, 1861 *Tanaorrhinus viridiluteata (Walker, 1861) *Tasta micaceata Walker, 1862 *Tasta reflexa Swinhoe, 1902 *Tasta sectinota Hampson, 1895 *Tephrina catalaunaria (Guenée, 1858) *Tephrina disputaria Guenée, 1858 *Tephrina fumosa Hampson, 1891 *Tephrina perviaria (Lederer, 1855) *Terpna apicalis (Moore, 1888) *Terpna costistrigaria (Moore, 1867) *Terpna crocina (Butler, 1880) *Terpna differens Warren, 1909 *Terpna dorcada (Swinhoe, 1893) *Terpna erionoma (Swinhoe, 1893) *Terpna funebrosa Warren, 1896 *Terpna haemataria Herrich-Schäffer, 1854 *Terpna leopardinata (Moore, 1867) *Terpna luteipes (Felder, 1875) *Terpna luteipes ruficosta Hampson, 1891 *Terpna moelleri Warren, 1893) *Terpna ornataria (Moore, 1888) *Terpna pictaria (Moore, 1888) *Terpna subornata Warren, 1894) *Terpna varicoloraria Moore, 1867 *Terpna vigens (Butler, 1880) *Thalassodes aptifimbria Prout, 1916 *Thalassodes aucta Prout, 1912 *Thalassodes chloropis Meyrick, 1886 *Thalassodes curiosa Swinhoe, 1902 *Thalassodes dissepta Walker, 1861 *Thalassodes dissita Walker, 1861 *Thalassodes dissitoides Holloway, 1996 *Thalassodes falsaria Prout, 1912 *Thalassodes hypocrites Prout, 1912 *Thalassodes immissaria Walker, 1861 *Thalassodes leucospilota Moore, 1887 *Thalassodes opalina Butler, 1880 *Thalassodes quadraria Guenée, 1857 *Thalassodes veraria Guenée, 1857 *Thalera aeruginata Warren, 1893) *Thera comis (Butler, 1879) *Thera comitabilis Prout, 1923 *Thera dentifasciata (Hampson, 1895) *Thera etes Prout, 1926 *Thera exangulata Warren, 1909) *Thera undulata Warren, 1880) *Thinopteryx citrina Warren, 1894 *Thinopteryx crocoptera (Kollar, 1844) *Thinopteryx nebulosa Butler, 1883 *Thinopteryx praetoraria Felder, 1873 *Timandra amataria griseata (Petersen, 1902) *Timandra convectaria Warren, 1861 *Timandra correspondens (Hampson, 1895) *Timandra nelsoni Prout, 1918 *Timandra obsoleta Warren, 1897 *Timandra responsaria Moore, 1888 *Timandra ruptilinea Warren, 1897 *Timandromorpha discolor Warren, 1896) *Traminda mundissima (Walker, 1861) *Trichoplites cuprearia (Moore, 1867) *Trichoplites cuprearia etesias Prout, 1939 *Trichoplites lateritiata (Moore, 1888) *Trichopterigia decorata Moore, 1888 *Trichopterigia macularia (Moore, 1867) *Trichopterigia micradelpha Prout, 1958 *Trichopterigia nigrisculpta Warren, 1897) *Trichopterigia nigronotata Warren, 1893) *Trichopterigia pilcheri Prout, 1958 *Trichopterigia pulcherrima (Swinhoe, 1893) *Trichopterigia rivularis Warren, 1893 *Trichopterigia rufinotata (Butler, 1889) *Trichopterigia sanguinipunctata Warren, 1893) *Trichopterigia sphenorrhyma Prout, 1926 *Trichopterigia teligera Prout, 1958 *Trichopterigia ustimargo Warren, 1896 *Triphosa acutipennis Warren, 1896 *Triphosa albiplaga (Oberthür, 1887) *Triphosa confusaria tarachodes Prout, 1941 *Triphosa corrasata Warren, 1897 *Triphosa dubiosata (Walker, 1862) *Triphosa empodia Prout, 1941 *Triphosa expansa (Moore, 1888) *Triphosa mnestira Prout, 1938 *Triphosa nigralbata Warren, 1888) *Triphosa oenozona Prout, 1923 *Triphosa pallescens Warren, 1896 *Triphosa rubrodotata (Walker, 1862) *Triphosa tremulata (Guenée, 1858) *Triphosa venimaculata (Moore, 1867) *Tyloptera bella (Butler, 1878) *Tyloptera bella taracta Prout, 1958 *Uliocnemis biplagiata (Moore, 1887) *Uliocnemis partita (Walker, 1861) *Venusia albinea (Prout, 1938) *Venusia brevipectinata Prout, 1938 *Venusia lilacina Warren, 1893) *Venusia lilacina rala Prout, 1938 *Venusia obliquisigna (Moore, 1888) *Venusia ochrota Hampson, 1903 *Venusia pallidaria Hampson, 1903 *Venusia phasma (Butler, 1879) *Venusia purpuraria (Hampson, 1895) *Venusia sikkimensis (Elwes, 1893) *Viidaleppia consimilis Warren, 1888) *Vindusara metachromata Walker, 1862 *Vindusara moorei (Thierry-Mieg, 1899) *Xandrames albofasciata Moore, 1867 *Xandrames dholaria (Moore, 1868) *Xandrames latiferaria (Walker, 1860) *Xanthorhoe castanea Warren, 1901 *Xanthorhoe curcumata Moore, 1939 *Xanthorhoe curcumoides (Prout, 1923) *Xanthorhoe designata Hufnagel, 1767 *Xanthorhoe fumipennis (Hampson, 1891) *Xanthorhoe griseiviridis (Hampson, 1896) *Xanthorhoe hampsoni Prout, 1925 *Xanthorhoe magnificata (Walker, 1862) *Xanthorhoe mecoterma Prout, 1938 *Xanthorhoe molata (Felder, 1875) *Xanthorhoe saturata (Guenée, 1857) *Xanthorhoe sordidata (Moore, 1885) *Xanthorhoe trusa Prout, 1939 *Xenographia adustata (Moore, 1887) *Xenographia lignataria Warren, 1893 *Xenographia manifesta Warren, 1897 *Xenographia semifusca Hampson, 1895 *Xenortholitha latifusata (Walker, 1862) *Xenortholitha propinguata (Kollar, 1844) *Xenortholitha propinguata epigrypa Prout, 1939 *Xenozancla versicolor Warren, 1893 *Xerodes ypsaria Guenée, 1858 *Xeropteryx columbicola (Walker, 1860) *Zamarada eogenaria (Snellen, 1883) *Zamarada eogenaria cosmiaria Swinhoe, 1893 *Zamarada excisa Hampson, 1891 *Zamarada minimaria Swinhoe, 1895 *Zamarada symmetra D. S. Fletcher, 1974 *Zamarada translucida Moore, 1887 *Zanclopera falcata Warren, 1894 *Zeheba lucidata Walker, 1866 *Ziridava rubridisca (Hampson, 1891) *Ziridava rufinigra Swinhoe, 1895 *Ziridava xylinaria (Walker, 1863) *Ziridava xylinaria khasiensis Prout, 1958 *Zygophyxia conscensa Swinhoe, 1885 *Zygophyxia relictata (Walker, 1866) *Zythos avellanea (Prout, 1932) *Zythos turbata (Walker, 1862) ==References== ==Related pages== *Geometridae *List of moths of India *x M
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Ryszard Wasko (Waśko) (born February 21, 1947, in Nysa) is a Polish artist, who has worked in multimedia, including photography, film, video, installation, painting, and drawing. He is also known as a curator and organizer of art events. He lives and works in Berlin. ==Early life== ===Workshop of the Film Form (1970-1977)=== He was born in Nysa. As a child he took painting-classes planning to become a painter and wanting to study at the Art Academy in Kraków. But instead of making his childhood dream come true, he made up his mind and went to Łódź, where he studied cinematography at the Film School between 1970 and 1975. During that time he became a member of Workshop of the Film Form, one of the most important artistic groups in Poland in the 70s. Workshop was an avant-garde collective of painters, filmmakers, critics, poets, philosophers and scientists, working with experimental film and multimedia. Later on Ryszard Wasko became a lecturer in the departments of experimental media and photography at the Film School in Lodz. ===First accomplishments=== In the 70s he took part in the XII São Paulo Art Biennial, documenta 6, the Third International Festival of Independent Avant-garde Film in London, the Sydney Biennale, the XI Biennale de Paris, the V Biennale of Spatial Forms among others. He also created the Archives of Contemporary Thought (1979), a forum for symposia and art events. ===Early works=== After dealing with experimental film and photography, Wasko started to develop his painting skills again. "Wasko discovered himself as an artist and learned how to cope with everyday life with a greater vision of the world than simply the provincial circumstances of life. "Robert C. Morgan, Ryszard Wasko: Bedtime Stories, The Brooklyn Rail, January, New York 2004 He left the Workshop of the Film Form and came to prominence as a conceptual artist. "After studying film- making at the Academy in Lodz in the late sixties, Wasko went on to become one of Poland's leading conceptualists, working as a pioneer in the media of video and photography. Much of this work focused on dense mathematical structures involving sequences of time and reality." His artistic output should be actually seen as a connection of two main fields: photography&film; and painting. "(...) the character of Ryszard Wasko's work in general, as well as the character of his individual works, is often defined by inter-generic, inter-media relations. Those works set in motion a whole net of intertextual relations on the level of general structural and ontological determinants, and on the level of different types of perception and rules of interpretation. In other words, in order to grasp a work which belongs to a certain artistic genre in its specificity, one should refer to its non-specific features which are characteristic for another kind of art."Ryszard Kluszczyński, Trans-media Art. On the Art of Ryszard Wasko in: Ryszard Wasko, Galeria FF, Lodz 1995 (catalogue) ==Construction in Process (1981)== "It is impossible (...) to separate his activities as an artist (as a maker of installations, as a creator of paintings and works on paper) from his other endeavors as a curator, organizer, teacher, writer, agitator (...)."Gregory Volk, Meal for the Rich and the Poor in: Ryszard Wasko. Selected works 1986-2000, The International Artists' Museum, Many H. Gallery, Tel Aviv (catalogue) In 1981 in Lodz, Wasko initiated and organized Construction in Process, a series of exhibitions featuring works of art created on site. "(...) it was an important, and in fact crucial, event in the Polish arts scene of that era." Artists who were invited to participate in Construction in Process invite in turn, another group of participants, giving the project a dynamic, open character. " The event became a symbolic alternative to larger institutional art events, including high-powered state and corporate-sponsored biennials and market-driven art fairs." The participating artists were Richard Serra, Sol LeWitt, Brian O'Doherty, Dennis Oppenheim, Lawrence Weiner, Richard Nonas and others. After the first event in 1981 The Solidarity Collection (which includes works by the artists created for that event) came into existence. "Wasko continued to produce international events into the nineties, including two additional projects in Lodz (1990 and 1993), one in Israel (1995), one in Australia (1997), and another,(...) in the small town of Bydgogosz in north central Poland (2000)." 2006, 25 years after the opening of the first exhibition, Wasko established the Construction in Process-Museum (also in Lodz). Unfortunately, a waterdamage forced him to close it down (2008) and to devolve the collection to the Muzeum Sztuki in Lodz. ==Exile (1983-1993)== ===Artistic career abroad=== After Martial Law was brought on in Poland, Wasko decided to leave for Germany(1983). He received there a DAAD scholarship in Berlin among other residencies. In the 80s he improved as a painter. Besides numerous one-man-shows Wasko took part in several international exhitbitions e.g. at Centre Georges Pompidou, Kunsthalle Hamburg and the Venice Biennale (1991, 1999, 2001, 2007). At the same time he lectured extensively in Europe, including at Saint Martin's School of Art, Hochschule der Künste in Berlin and Freie Kunstakademie in Essen. The Pollock-Krasner Foundation has awarded Ryszard Wasko three times (1988,1993,1998). ===The International Artists' Museum=== Wasko went to Poland in 1989 and founded The International Artists' Museum in Lodz. It had developed into a worldwide network of locally run art centers, linking artists and intellectuals from diverse backgrounds, locations, and disciplines. It was " (...) an on-going alternative space that shows the work of international artists." The Museum has organized and sponsored over 60 major international events, exhibitions, meetings, panels, concerts, readings, and projects focusing on art, culture, borders, community, and identity. Due to political changes in the city government the building of the International Artist's Museum at Tylna Street 14 has been sold to a private Bank (1998). The artistic community was not able to gather the vast sum of money the city of Lodz wanted for the property. The beautiful sculpture garden has been destroyed by the new owners. Only the work of Sol LeWitt is still standing at its original place."His paradoxical brand of conceptual humanism has always been toward developing a better world and more spiritually-oriented environment for artists in which they can produce work outside of marketing restrictions, and thus communicate ideas that will benefit common people." Unfortunately, his ideas were never understood by the authorities. ===Growing up and experimentalizing=== "For many years, austere, yet gorgeous, works on paper have been a big part of Wasko's oeuvre." The drawings brought him to artpieces on canvas. In that time Wasko acted mainly as a painter. He started working with different materials lik soot, was, fat, zinc, fire, and others. "(...) the most important modification was the use of different materials than before. (...) Wasko turned to the simplest, 'poor' means of natural origin."Grzegorz Sztabiński, The Berlin Period in Ryszard Wasko's Career, in Ryszard Wasko, Lodz – Berlin; works 1971-1996, Museum of History of the City of Lodz, Lodz 2008 (catalogue) ==Łódź (1993-2008)== === Curator, director, teacher === Between 1990 and 1992 Wasko became Program Director at the P.S.1 Museum and Institute of Contemporary Art (today called P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center) in New York City and in 1997 he was chosen President of the International Artists Forum (IKG). At the same time he still handled the International Artist's Museum in Lodz. That town became Wasko's new home for over 15 years. The Valand School of Fine Arts in Göteborg invited him to give lectures as a Professor for two semesters (2004–2005). His artwork has been shown mostly in Europe (e.g. Tate Modern Gallery) and the United States (e.g. The Museum of Modern Art in New York). ===Lodz Biennale=== In 2004 Wasko amplified a new idea: the Łódź Biennale, to be the first international Biennale in Eastern Europe. === Exploring new territories === Being successful as a director and curator he managed also to work creatively as an artist. In the 90s he worked mostly with primary painting materials like soot. He explored also the field of performance (Meal for the Rich & Poor, 1993) and installation (Child Territories, 1996). Around 2000 Wasko made his turn back to film and photography, but one should not think, he is an artist, who jumps from media to media, from material to material. His is an intermedial artist: "Wasko's works are not limited to any of the artistic genres he uses because they easily cross the borders between them: And his individual realizations, even if they remain - due to the materials used and some general genre manifestations - within a certain kind of art, they still cannot be explained by referring to the characteristics of that branch of art which is realized in them. On the contrary, quite often the fundamental principles which make up the structure of the artefacts come from a different branch of art than the one in which the works were actually created and where we would be inclined to place them." ==Back in Berlin (2008)== In 2007, together with his wife Maria Wasko, he decided to move back to Berlin. They live there since 2008. Recent solo exhibitions include a retrospection at the Museum of History of the City of Lodz (Ryszard Wasko, Lodz – Berlin, works 1971–1996) in 2008 and at the Haus am Lützowplatz in Berlin (Contemporary Portrait, Checkpoint Charlie Hypothetical) in 2009: "Ryszard Wasko zeigt in seiner gleichnamigen Malereiausstellung Bilder von Personen, die ihre Identität verbergen. Farbenfroh in Warhol'scher Plakativität verschwinden hier auch die letzten Details. Doch sind es Armeen oder vervielfältigte Individuen? Die Persönlichkeit wie das Anliegen bleiben bei Wasko auf der Strecke und der Hintergrund verschwimmt zu einem psychedelischen Farbenmeer."Im Westen nichts Neues? w: Tageszeitung, Berlin, 24.06.2009 "The entire trajectory of Ryszard Wasko's career has comprised a substantial, in many ways risk-taking and innovative, extension and enlargement of the role of the artist. (...) He is, in fact, one of those figures who consistently shakes things up and pushes the borders of the possible, certainly with a sense of mission, but also with humor and verve. " ==Gallery== File:Chair I, 1971, photography, 104,5x137,5cm.jpg|Chair I (1971) photography File:Chair II, 1971, photography, 104,5x137,5cm.jpg|Chair II (1971) photography File:Four-dimensional photography II, 1972, photographic composition, 216x47cm.jpg|Four-dimensional photography II (1972) photography File:Stills from 'Negation', 1973.jpg|Negation (1973) stills from the film File:Wasko, stills from 'Event on pane', Remont Gallery, Warsaw, 1975.jpg|Event on pane (1975) happening at Remont Gallery, Warsaw, Poland File:Wasko, Discontinous Sculpture, 1985, acrylic on wood, 2,5x5,5m.jpg|Discontinuous Sculpture (1985) acrylic on wood File:Wasko, Hypothetical Checkpoint Charlie, 1987-88, acrylic on photo and white board, 40x60 each.jpg|Hypothetical Checkpoint Charlie (1988) acrylic on photo and board File:Wasko, Man in the Night (to Barnett Newman), 1988, soot and gold leaf on canvas, 120x160cm.jpg|Man in the Night (1988) painting (soot, gold leaf, oil on canvas) dedicated to Barnett Newman File:Small Rose Garden, 1993, oil and pencil on canvas, 120x170cm.jpg|Small Rose Garden (1993) painting (oil and pencil on canvas) File:Wasko, Red Rock at Dawn, soot pigment canvas, 1994.jpg|Red Rock at Dawn (1994) painting (soot and pigment on canvas) File:7 Paths of Roses, 1995, sand painting, Negev Desert Israel, 50x100m.jpg|7 Paths of Roses (1995) sand painting Negev Desert, Israel work for Construction in Process V File:Small Rose Garden, 1997, 4000 plastic roses, International Artists Museum Lodz.jpg|Small Rose Garden (1997) installation with 4000 plastic roses at the Zacheta Gallery in Warsaw, Poland File:Small Rose Garden, 1997, plastic roses on steel plate, 50x70cm.jpg|Small Rose Garden (1997) plastic roses and pitch on steel plate File:Monidło dla Polski na XXI wiek, 2000, photography, 100x70cm.jpg|Monidło dla Polski na XXI wiek (2000) digital photography on canvas Flower Power series File:Wasko, I am telling you a secret, 2004, digital photography, 78x114cm.jpg|I am telling you a secret (2004) digital photography series File:Wasko, I am telling you a secret, 2004, photography, 78x114cm.jpg|I am telling you a secret (2004) digital photography series File:Wasko, Marcel, albo sen z papugą, 2004, installation.jpg|Marcel, or dream with parrot (2004) installation Łódź Biennale File:Wasko, TV Stories (series), 2006, oil on canvas, 140x192cm.jpg|TV Stories (2006) oil on canvas series File:Wasko, TV Stories (series), 2007, oil on canvas, 140x192cm.jpg|TV Stories (2006) oil on canvas series ==References== ==Further reading== * Ryszard Wasko, Lodz – Berlin; works 1971-1996, Museum of History of the City of Lodz, Lodz 2008 (catalogue) * 1,2,3…Avant-Gardes Film / Art between experiment and archive, edited by Ł. Ronduda, F. Zeyfang, CSW Zamek Ujazdowski, Warsaw 2007 * G. Dietmar: Concrete Art in Europe after 1945, Ostfildern 2003 * Żywa Galeria. Łódzki Progresywny Ruch Artystyczny 1969-81, edited by J. Robakowski, ŁDK - Galeria FF, Lodz 2000 * A. L. Rees: A History of Experimental Film and Video, Bury St Edmunds 1999 * Ryszard Wasko, Galeria FF, Lodz 1995 (catalogue) * Emmett Williams: My life in flux – and vice versa, Stuttgart 1994 * History of The Artists' Museum, edited by Muzeum Artystów - International Artists' Museum, Lodz 1998 * Ohne die Rose tun wir's nicht für Joseph Beuys, edited by K. Staeck, Heidelberg 1986 * Ryszard Wasko: discontinuity, edited by R. Block, I. Lindemann, Berlin 1986 (catalogue) * Construction in Process, Thousand Secretaries Press, New York 1982 (catalogue) * Elementary Works by Wasko, Folkwang Museum, Essen 1981 (catalogue) == External links == * * Ryszard Wasko, Lodz – Berlin; works 1971-1996 Retrospection at the Museum of History of the City of Lodz * Ryszard Wasko: Bedtime Stories article by Robert C. Morgan * Ryszard Wasko. Retrospection 1970-1990 critical text by Ryszard Kluszczyński * Constructing the Process: Ryszard Wasko Looks Back interview for Art in America * Construction in Process history of the exhibition-series * Lodz Biennale 2004 * Ryszard Wasko at the Galerie m Bochum Category:20th-century Polish painters Category:20th-century Polish male artists Category:21st-century Polish painters Category:21st-century Polish male artists Category:Polish contemporary artists Category:Polish installation artists Category:Polish conceptual artists Category:Polish contemporary painters Category:Photographers from Łódź Category:Polish experimental filmmakers Category:Living people Category:Recipients of the Silver Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis Category:1947 births Category:People from Nysa, Poland Category:Photographers from Berlin Category:Polish male painters
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Axel Laurent Angel Lambert Witsel (born 12 January 1989) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder or centre-back for La Liga club Atlético Madrid. Witsel broke into Belgium's first team as a right-winger, and can also play attacking midfielder, though his natural position is as a central midfielder. He began his career at hometown club Standard Liège, making 183 appearances and scoring 42 goals while winning five domestic trophies. He was awarded the Belgian Golden Shoe in 2008. After a season in Portugal with Benfica, he signed for Zenit Saint Petersburg for a €40 million fee in 2012. Witsel won four honours during his time in Russia, before leaving for Tianjin Quanjian in January 2017. He returned to Europe with Borussia Dortmund in August 2018. With the Bundesliga side, Witsel won the 2019 DFL-Supercup and the 2020–21 DFB-Pokal. Witsel made his senior international debut in 2008 and earned his 100th cap for Belgium on 15 November 2018. He represented the country at the FIFA World Cup in 2014, 2018 and 2022, and the UEFA European Championship in 2016 and 2020, helping them to third place in the 2018 tournament. ==Club career== ===Standard Liège=== On 17 September 2006, a 17-year-old Witsel made his debut with Standard Liège during a competitive game against FC Brussels when he replaced Steven Defour in the 89th minute. Eleven days later, he made his European debut as a substitute. During the 2007–08 season, at 18 years of age, he was a key member in the squad of Standard Liège, winners of the Belgian League title that year. During this year, he formed a very young midfield together with other Belgian talents Defour and Marouane Fellaini. In the following season, he scored the winning goal from the penalty spot in a two-legged playoff to decide the championship. On 30 August 2009, Witsel sparked controversy when he broke Marcin Wasilewski's leg by stamping on his ankle during the match between Anderlecht and Standard. Following the tackle, Witsel protested the red card, claiming that it was an accident without intent, before being sent off the pitch. He soon apologised, but was the subject of criticism from several media outlets and numerous death threats from angry Anderlecht and Poland fans. The initial ban until 23 November by the Belgian Football Association, was later reduced on appeal to eight matches. ===Benfica=== Witsel signed for Portuguese club Benfica on a five-year deal on 13 July 2011, including a €40 million buyout clause. Witsel scored twice in the 3–1 win against FC Twente, in the Champions League play-off second leg, on 24 August 2011, sending Benfica to the group stages with a 5–3 aggregate victory. He scored the opening goal in a 4–1 thrashing of Vitória de Guimarães in the Taça da Liga on 9 January 2012. He then assisted Nolito in a 4–1 league defeat of Vitória de Setúbal. Witsel scored his fourth goal against Santa Clara on 18 January in a Taça da Liga match. Benfica reached the final on 14 April against Gil Vicente and Witsel was awarded the Man of the Match award as Benfica claimed their fourth Taça da Liga title with a 2–1 victory. ===Zenit Saint Petersburg=== On 3 September 2012, Witsel signed for Zenit Saint Petersburg for €40 million, after signing a five-year contract. Witsel made his debut in the Russian Premier League on 14 September, replacing Konstantin Zyryanov in the 70th minute as Zenit fell 2–0 to Terek Grozny. He scored his first two goals for the club on 30 November when Zenit brushed aside Spartak Moscow 4–2 at the Luzhniki Stadium. Witsel scored Zenit's winner against Terek Grozny on 30 March 2013, an eighth-minute strike, as his side cruised to a 3–0 league victory. In Zenit's first match of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage on 16 September 2014, Witsel scored Zenit's second goal in a 2–0 away victory over former club Benfica. After finishing third in their Champions League group, Zenit were parachuted into the Europa League knockout phase; in the first leg of their Round of 16 clash against Torino on 12 March 2015, Witsel scored on a rebound as Zenit defeated the Italian club 2–0. On 26 April, Witsel scored the game's only goal in the seventeenth minute as Zenit defeated Arsenal Tula in a league match at the Petrovsky Stadium. On Sunday 17 May, Witsel played the full 90 minutes as Zenit drew 1–1 with FC Ufa, earning the point they needed to secure the Premier League crown, the club's fourth overall and Witsel's first with Zenit. In the 2015 Russian Super Cup on 12 July 2015, Witsel converted his penalty shot in a 4–2 penalty shoot-out victory over FC Lokomotiv Moscow after the match had finished 1–1. ===Tianjin Quanjian=== On 3 January 2017, Zenit officially announced that Witsel has moved to Chinese club Tianjin Quanjian. On 4 March 2017, Witsel made his debut for Quanjian in a 2–0 loss to Guangzhou R&F.; A week later he scored the club's first ever goal in the Chinese Super League during a 1–1 draw with Shanghai Greenland Shenhua. ===Borussia Dortmund=== On 6 August 2018, Witsel signed for Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund and agreed a four-year contract which would last until 30 June 2022. On 21 August, he scored an equalizing goal in the stoppage time to make it 1–1 after coming on as a substitute on his debut for the club against SpVgg Greuther Fürth in the DFB-Pokal first round match and later his side went on to win the match in the extra time with a 2-1 victory. Witsel scored his first Bundesliga goal on his league debut for the club with an overhead kick in a 4–1 victory over RB Leipzig on 26 August. === Atletico Madrid === On 7 July 2022, Atlético Madrid officially announced that Witsel had signed for the club on a one year contract via a free transfer after his contract with Borussia Dortmund expired. Under manager Diego Simeone, Witsel began to play as a defender in the middle of a back three in the 5–3–2 formation. ==International career== Prior to making his international debut for the senior side, Witsel played for the under-21 side in 2007, earning nine caps as well as helping his side reach the semi-finals of the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. On 26 March 2008, Witsel made his senior international debut for Belgium during a friendly game against Morocco. The match resulted in a 1–4 loss, but Witsel scored his first goal. Witsel's first goal in a competitive international match came a day short of three years after the Morocco goal, in the sixth minute against Austria in Group A of the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying process, and his second would come in the second half. However, Belgian hopes of qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 were dashed on 11 October 2011, by defeat to Germany coupled with Turkey's victory over Azerbaijan. On 13 May 2014, Witsel was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He started in midfield in the team's first game of the tournament, a 2–1 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte. Witsel also featured in the Belgian squad at UEFA Euro 2016, announced on 31 May 2016. He scored his first tournament goal during the Championships, in a Group E match against the Republic of Ireland. He scored twice in 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification, both in wide victories over Gibraltar. Manager Roberto Martínez named him in the squad for the final tournament in Russia. Witsel was part of the Belgian squad for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, where the team performed badly, failing to make it out of the group stage. On 17 March 2023, new Belgian coach Domenico Tedesco dropped Witsel from the squad for European Championship qualifying games, citing the player's lack of playing time. On 12 May 2023, Witsel announced his retirement from the national team on Instagram, having made 130 appearances for Belgium. ==Personal life== Witsel has three children. He is of Martiniquais descent through his father. He was a boyhood Arsenal fan. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National cup League cup Continental Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Standard Liège 2006–07 Belgian Pro League 16 2 — — 1 0 — 17 2 2007–08 Belgian Pro League 33 7 — — 3 1 — 36 8 2008–09 Belgian Pro League 35 8 — — 10 1 1 0 46 9 2009–10 Belgian Pro League 27 6 1 1 — 12 3 1 1 41 11 2010–11 Belgian Pro League 37 10 6 2 — — — 43 12 Total 148 33 7 3 — 26 5 2 1 183 42 Benfica 2011–12 Primeira Liga 29 1 1 0 4 2 14 2 — 49 5 Benfica 2012–13 Primeira Liga 3 0 0 0 0 0 — — — — 3 0 Benfica Total Total 32 1 1 0 4 2 14 2 — 52 5 Zenit Saint Petersburg 2012–13 Russian Premier League 19 4 3 0 — 9 1 — 31 5 2013–14 Russian Premier League 30 4 1 0 — 11 0 1 0 43 4 2014–15 Russian Premier League 28 4 1 0 — 13 2 — 42 6 2015–16 Russian Premier League 29 3 4 2 — 7 1 1 0 41 6 2016–17 Russian Premier League 16 1 1 0 — 6 0 0 0 23 1 Total 122 16 10 2 — 46 4 2 0 180 22 Tianjin Quanjian 2017 Chinese Super League 27 4 2 0 — — — 29 4 2018 Chinese Super League 9 1 1 1 — 8 0 — 18 2 Total 36 5 3 1 — 8 0 — 47 6 Borussia Dortmund 2018–19 Bundesliga 33 4 3 1 — 7 1 — 43 6 2019–20 Bundesliga 28 4 3 0 — 7 0 1 0 39 4 2020–21 Bundesliga 15 0 2 0 — 5 1 0 0 22 1 2021–22 Bundesliga 29 2 3 0 — 8 0 1 0 41 2 Total 105 10 11 1 — 27 2 2 0 145 13 Atlético Madrid 2022–23 La Liga 33 0 4 0 — 6 0 — 43 0 Career total 475 65 36 7 4 2 127 13 6 1 649 88 thumb|upright|Witsel warming up on international duty, 2017 ===International=== Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals Belgium 2008 7 1 2009 3 1 2010 5 0 2011 11 3 2012 9 0 2013 10 0 2014 11 1 2015 9 0 2016 15 2 2017 7 1 2018 13 0 2019 5 0 2020 5 1 2021 10 1 2022 10 1 Total 130 12 :Belgium score listed first, score column indicates score after each Witsel goal. International goals by date, venue, cap, opponent, score, result and competition No. Date Venue Cap Opponent Score Result Competition Ref. 1 26 March 2008 King Baudouin Stadium, Brussels, Belgium 1 1–2 1–4 Friendly 2 17 November 2009 Stade Louis Dugauguez, Sedan, France 10 1–0 2–0 Friendly 3 9 February 2011 Jules Ottenstadion, Ghent, Belgium 16 1–0 1–1 Friendly 4 25 March 2011 Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna, Austria 17 rowspan=2 5 25 March 2011 Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna, Austria 17 2–0 6 4 September 2014 Stade Maurice Dufrasne, Liège, Belgium 52 2–0 2–0 Friendly 7 18 June 2016 Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France 69 2–0 3–0 UEFA Euro 2016 8 10 October 2016 Estádio Algarve, Faro/Loulé, Portugal 76 2–0 6–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 9 31 August 2017 Stade Maurice Dufrasne, Liège, Belgium 81 3–0 9–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 10 8 September 2020 King Baudouin Stadium, Brussels, Belgium 107 1–1 5–1 2020–21 UEFA Nations League A 11 2 September 2021 Lilleküla Stadium, Tallinn, Estonia 115 4–1 5–2 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification 12 8 June 2022 King Baudouin Stadium, Brussels, Belgium 122 1–1 6–1 2022–23 UEFA Nations League A ==Honours== Standard Liège * Belgian Pro League: 2007–08, 2008–09 * Belgian Cup: 2010–11 * Belgian Supercup: 2008, 2009 Benfica * Taça da Liga: 2011–12 Zenit * Russian Football Premier League: 2014–15 * Russian Cup: 2015–16 * Russian Super Cup: 2015 Borussia Dortmund * DFB-Pokal: 2020–21 * DFL-Supercup: 2019 Belgium *FIFA World Cup third place: 2018 Individual * Belgian Young Footballer of the Year: 2007–08 * Belgian Golden Shoe: 2008 * O Jogo Team of the Year: 2012 ==See also== *List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps ==References== ==External links== * *Profile at the Atlético Madrid website * *Axel Witsel goals highlights * * * * * Category:1989 births Category:Living people Category:Belgian people of Martiniquais descent Category:Footballers from Liège Category:Black Belgian sportspeople Category:Belgian footballers Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Standard Liège players Category:S.L. Benfica footballers Category:FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players Category:Tianjin Tianhai F.C. players Category:Atlético Madrid footballers Category:Borussia Dortmund players Category:Belgian Pro League players Category:Primeira Liga players Category:Russian Premier League players Category:Chinese Super League players Category:Bundesliga players Category:La Liga players Category:Belgium men's youth international footballers Category:Belgium men's under-21 international footballers Category:Belgium men's international footballers Category:2014 FIFA World Cup players Category:UEFA Euro 2016 players Category:2018 FIFA World Cup players Category:UEFA Euro 2020 players Category:2022 FIFA World Cup players Category:FIFA Men's Century Club Category:Belgian expatriate footballers Category:Belgian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal Category:Belgian expatriate sportspeople in Russia Category:Belgian expatriate sportspeople in China Category:Belgian expatriate sportspeople in Germany Category:Expatriate footballers in Portugal Category:Expatriate footballers in Russia Category:Expatriate footballers in China Category:Expatriate footballers in Germany
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